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THE TWO AMERICAS

GENERAL RAFAEL REYES

THE TWO AMERICAS

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"OLD GRAHAME

WITH THIRTY-ONE ILLUSTRATIONS FROM PHOTOGRAPHS

NEW YORK

FREDERICK A. STOKES COMPANY MCMXIV

THE TWO AMERICAS

BY

GENERAL RAFAEL REYES

EX-PRESIDENT OF THE REPUBLIC OP COLOMBIA

TRANSLATED FROM THE SPANISH, WITH ADDED NOTES BY

LEOPOLD GRAHAME

WITH THIRTY-ONE ILLUSTRATIONS FROM PHOTOGRAPHS

NEW YORK

FREDERICK A. STOKES COMPANY MCMXIV

84116

Copyright, 1914, by FREDERICK A. STOKES COMPANY

All rigkti retened, including that oj translation into foreign language*, including the Scandinavian

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February, 1014

PUBLISHEES' NOTICE

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T\ Many of the illustrations in this book are from originals kindly furnished by the Pan-American Union, for which courtesy the author and publishers extend their grateful acknowledgments.

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TRANSLATOR'S NOTE

WITH a view to enhance the practical objects of this book and to fulfil more adequately the requirements of the English-reading public, it has been thought desirable — with the acquiescence of the author — to make some departures from the order and form of the Spanish manuscript; but, whilst these and other changes rendered necessary by the widely varying modes of expression of the two languages may obscure the high literary value of the original work, scrupulous care has been exer- cised in the effort to present a faithful and accurate interpretation of the author 's views and statements. Due largely to the wish to do full justice to the phenomenal progress of the greater countries to the south, the sketches and descriptions of some of the Republics of lesser importance are necessarily brief and fragmentary ; but they have been so designed as to furnish a comprehensive view of their main fea- tures and their future possibilities. Tihis, it is hoped, will satisfy the minds of those seeking in- formation as to the position and prospects of many of the lands of promise in the "Continent of the Future." LEOPOLD GBAHAME.

New York December, 1913.

Vll

CONTENTS

PAGE

PUBLISHER'S NOTE v

TRANSLATOR'S NOTE vii

INTRODUCTION xix-xxxii

CHAPTER I MY VISIT TO EUROPE 1

The Iberian Peninsula — Similarity of characteristics and physical conditions — National dignity and hospitality — A true Christian democracy in Spain — The influence of the Church — Establishment in Madrid of the Ibero-American Union to promote closer relations with the Latin-American republics — A trip through Portugal — The Portuguese Con- quistadores.

CHAPTER II IN PARIS 11

My reception by the Franco-American Committee and the diplomatic representatives of the Latin countries — An ad- dress of welcome by M. Francois Carnot — Co-operation of the Franco-American Committee with the Ibero-American Union of Madrid in the development of racial objects and ideals — Conference at the Hotel Majestic attended by dis- tinguished leaders of the Latin race — Notable addresses by M. Carnot and the Spanish ambassador to France — A closer union of all the Latin nations based on principles of jus- tice— The force exercised by the Latins of Europe and America as a stimulant to the progress of the world.

CHAPTER III IN THE UNITED STATES 21

The dominant features of national character — The American edifice built up on the elevated civic virtues of Washington,

ix

x CONTENTS

PAGE

Franklin, and other pioneers of independence — The love of immigrants for the land of their adoption the same in the United States as in Argentine, Chile, and Brazil, where the private and public virtues of the founders of those nations constitute the basic formation of character — The genuine American sentiment is to resist the rule of Mammon, not- withstanding the modern growth of imperialism and dollar diplomacy — Latin-American countries need the sympathy and help of the United States for their progressive development — The error of many of the Latin republics in adopting the laws and institutions of the United States before preparing their people to properly use and understand them — Periods of revolution and disorder gradually ending — Functions given in my honor by the Pan-American Society of the United States and other public bodies engaged in the effort to extend the objects of Pan-Americanism— -Speeches by no- table authorities — The propaganda in favor of American union — The Pan-American Union and the Pan-American So- ciety of the United States — The Pan-American Congresses in Latin-America — The ardent labors of Senator Elihu Boot, of the Hon. John Barrett, of Secretary Bryan, Col. Eoosevelt, and others — The Clark University Conference on Latin-America — The doctrines of President Monroe, Presi- dent Roque Saenz Pefia, and Senator Lodge — The baneful effects of imperialism — Interviews with American notabili- ties— The Explorers' Club, of New York, and my early ex- plorations.

CHAPTER IV My EARLY EXPLORATIONS 40

The primitive conditions of nature — The savage native In- dians— The immense territories and waters spreading from the central mass of the Andes to the Atlantic, unknown dur- ing the colonial period — My first visit to those regions with my brothers, Henry and Nestor — Traversing the rivers of Peru, Ecuador, Brazil, Bolivia, Paraguay and Argentina. Explorations continued for several years at our personal ex- pense without government aid — My brothers perish while engaged in the arduous enterprise, Henry as a victim of yel- low fever, and Nestor at the hands of the Putumayo canni- bals, who devoured him — Crossing the cordillera of the Andes on foot to a height of 12,000 feet above sea level to the region of perpetual snows — Opening up roads through un- known forests, inhabited by vipers and wild beasts, cutting down with the machete the brambles, briars, and creepers, which obstructed our passage — Making friends and guides of the cannibal tribes — After great hardships we ultimately discover a river navigable for steamships, between Colombia

CONTENTS xi

PAGE

and the main waters of the Amazon — My arrival at Eio de Janeiro, and reception by Dom Pedro II, who showed keen interest in the discovery of the new waterway — Later ex- plorations— Establishment of steam navigation and an over- land route between Pasto and different points of the Andes — The subsequent extension of these channels of com- munication with the proposed Inter-Continental Eailway and the Panama Canal will ultimately lead to the linking up of the entire continent.

CHAPTER V THE PANAMA CANAL 62

The first measures to construct a canal to join the waters of the Atlantic with those of the Pacific — Many conces- sions granted, but no construction work commenced until the end of 1887 — The treaty of 1846 with New Granada — The later negotiations with Great Britain in regard to the Clayton-Bulwer (1850) and Hay-Pauncefote (1901) treaties — The acquisition by the United States of the concession and rights of the French Company obtained by the latter from the Government of Colombia — The Hay-Herran treaty (1903) and its rejection by the Colombian Senate — The rev- olution in Panama, the declaration of its independence and its subsequent recognition by the United States — My efforts to suppress the revolution with the aid of the military forces placed under my command impeded by American warships whose officers prevented the embarkation of Colombian troops for the seat of the rebellion — My later visit to Wash- ington as the special envoy of my government to secure a modification of the Hay-Herran treaty — Failure of the mis- sion— The diplomatic negociations — American authorities cited to show justice of Colombia's action — The pending claims and what they embody — The advantages of the canal and of a settlement with Colombia.

CHAPTER VI

FROM NEW YORK TO BRAZIL 78

By the Voltaire from New York to Eio de Janeiro — The change from the cold, gray haziness of winter to the warmer climes and sunny scenes to the south of the equator — The study of the passengers — Different types of Americans — Eussian nihilists and anarchists from Southern Europe — Our approach to the mouth of the Amazon, the "Sea Eiver, " which is navigable over a distance of 13,000 miles.

xii CONTENTS

CHAPTER VII

PAGE

IN BRAZIL 84

Its extension and geographical limits — Physical division and population — Discovery and conquest — History and changes of rule — The two empires — Dom Pedro II, personal recollections — Brazil's modern progress — The Development of its re- sources and stability of government — National culture and ideals Geological formation.

CHAPTER VIII IN BAHIA AND Rio DE JANEIRO 106

Transformation of the city — Brazilians the enemies of tree culture — Rich soil — The cultivation of tobacco, cacao and other tropical products — Bahia the third city of importance in Brazil — Population and classification of industries — Nota- ble buildings — The journey from Bahia to Rio de Janeiro — Arrival at the Federal Capital — The magnificence of the sur- rounding scenery — The spacious parks and avenues, the ma- jestic palms and the palatial and artistic buildings — Area and population — The Marquis of San Vicente — The aboli- tion of slavery and how it was accomplished — My visits to the President and the Minister of Foreign Affairs — From Rio to Montevideo by land — The difficulties of the trip.

CHAPTER IX THE CITY AND STATE OF SAO PAULO 122

Travelling through several States I reach the City of Sao • Paulo — Reception by state officials — One of the most beauti- ful cities of the western hemisphere — The picturesque gar- dens, public squares, well-paved streets and handsome monu- ments— State education highly advanced — The increasing growth of industrial life — The State contains many manu- facturing establishments, although the cultivation of coffee constitutes the main industry — The great ' ' red ' ' lands — The treatment of the laborers by the coffee planters — The pro- duction of coffee and value of the plants — Other industries and land values — Railways in the State — Natives of Sao Paulo, the "Yankees of Brazil" — The State possesses many indigenous plants, which could be profitably exploited for the production of essential oils and extracts — Great oppor- tunities offered by natural resources — Sao Paulo the birth- place of many of Brazil's leading statesmen, writers and scientists — Brazilian literature, art and science.

CONTENTS xiii

CHAPTER X

PAGE

THROUGH BRAZIL BY LAND TO THE RIVER PLATE . . . 138

The pastoral and agricultural industries of Brazil — Favora- ble climatic conditions — Flora and fauna — The wild animals of the forests — An exciting adventure with a herd of fight- ing boars — The State of Parana — Inter-tropical vegetation — The Panama pines — Cultivation of cotton — The capital of the State — The foreign colonies — A new generation of patri- otic Brazilians — How the new population lives — Division of the land — Pine wood and mate production — New cities in course of formation — The assimilation of the new comers — Extension of railways — The pioneers of the iron horse — Wages of laborers — Cultivation of the banana industry — Unpopulated fertile lands awaiting the hand of the agricul- turist— The knowledge of foreign languages — ignorance of conditions in Brazil impedes large extension of commerce with the United States.

CHAPTER XI THE ORIENTAL REPUBLIC OF URUGUAY 166

The rich meadow lands of the Banda Oriental — The evolu- tion of political conditions in Uruguay — The national con- stitution exercises a progressive spirit on the country — The codification of the laws — Favorable comments of foreign au- thorities— Preparing for colonization — Healthy conditions re- flected in the low rate of mortality — The origin and devel- opment of the stock-raising industry — Wool production and European speculators — Montevideo a beautiful city — The character of the people — Mistaken patriotism hitherto a drawback to progress — Baneful effects of past revolutions on national production — Industrial and commercial advance — Means of communication rapidly extending — Colonization in- creasing— Uruguay's policy towards her neighbours — Port improvements — Education and justice — A land of the future.

CHAPTER XII THE REPUBLIC OF CHILE 183

The barrier of the Andes — The transandine railway another link in the joining up of the Atlantic with the Pacific — Physical conditions — Volcanic outbreaks — Crossing the An- des— The imposing scenery — The Christ of the Andes — The rich and fertile lands in the valley of Aconcagua — The Chilean huaso at home — Topography and climate — The ni-

xiv CONTENTS

PAGE

trate industry — Development of national resources — The cities of the republic — Political organization and public life — Ethnological conditions and their effects on the people — The Araucanian Indians, the only unconquered race of In- dians on the American continent — Their final entry into Chilean citizenship — Hospitality a national practice — A visit to Almahufi — The national dance, la cueca, more graceful and attractive than any other known to the Spanish-speaking peoples — Mineral wealth of Chile — Advantages to be derived from the opening of the Panama Canal — Cultivation of fruits and flowers — Chile the garden of the temperate zone in South America — Nationalization of railways — Population — Proportion of foreigners to inborn citizens particularly small — Education making rapid strides.

CHAPTER XIII THE ARGENTINE REPUBLIC 207

Wealth of the soil — Phenomenal progress in every branch of national life — Geographical division — The Patagonian region — Geological formation — Theories of scientists as to the dis- appearance of mammals — Climatic conditions — Discovery and conquest of Argentina — History — Foundation of the Colonies — Ultimate independence.

CHAPTER XIV IN CAMP AND CITY 222

Eacial characteristics — Immigrants an element of force — The Argentine estancia — Agricultural and pastoral produc- tion— Life on the ranches — Land values constantly rising — The City of Buenos Aires — Its elegance and culture bear favorable comparison with those of any European city — Fabulous prices paid for pedigree stock — Enormous and rapid growth of the city — Extension of electric tramways, lighting and docks based on plans of American engineers — Other cities of the Eepublic.

CHAPTER XV

ARGENTINE CONDITIONS, PROGRESS AND CULTURE . . 235

Religious and political liberty — Liberality of the constitu- tion— Tolerance and freedom the watchwords of national legislation — Population heterogeneous, Spanish and Italian predominating — Few Americans — Germans numerically stronger than British — British capital invested in Eepublic reaches $2,000,000,000 — Every British subject resident in

CONTENTS xv

PAGE

country represents $66,000 — German trade rapidly increasing — The protection of foreign interests — National honesty — Nearly one hundred million dollars remitted annually to Great Britain by way of dividends and interest on invest- ments— Advanced legislation — Argentine diplomats and ju- rists— Buenos Aires an attractive city for foreign diplomats.

CHAPTER XVI ARGENTINE COMMERCE AND FINANCE 248

Imports and exports — Value of Argentine market to the United States — Many articles manufactured in U. S. are im- ported from Europe at higher prices owing to absence of more direct contact between manufacturer and importer — Eailway extension — Currency laws — Conversion of gold and currency established on permanent basis with no possibility of fluctuations — Gold reserves, maintained by law, already exceed $264,000,000 — Proposed change of monetary unit — National bonds and foreign markets — Reciprocal tariffs may lead to increased commercial relations with the United States.

CHAPTER XVII

THE REPUBLIC OF PERU 256

Productive capacity of Peru — Lima, the historic and pic- turesque capital — Called by its founder, Pizarro, the "City of the Kings" and, later, "a. precious shrine of colonial gallantries and splendours" — Dignity and aristocratic quali- ties of its inhabitants — Educational establishments — Princi- pal products, minerals and nitrates — Railways spreading out even in the direction of the Amazonic territories — Connec- tions now being made between Lima, La Paz and Panama Canal — The Peruvian Corporation — Mixture of the races — Peru's foreign trade largely in the hands of Great Britain — British institutions and names prominent in Peru — Litera- ture and culture.

CHAPTER XVIII THE REPUBLIC OP BOLIVIA 266

Wide contrasts in all national conditions — Topography, cli- mate, products and inhabitants constitute mass of conflicting elements — The mysterious lakes and the legendary Titicaca — The fruitful warm lands and the eternally snow-capped

xvi CONTENTS

PAGE

mountains — Principal cities — La Paz, the capital, the highest in the world — Kailways penetrate the mountains — The In- dians and their domestic customs — Industrial activity ex- tending.

CHAPTER XIX THE REPUBLIC OF ECUADOR 272

Early history — Ecuador the first country in Spanish Amer- ica to demand independence — Kepublic making steady pro- gress, but rapid advance impeded by lack of financial re- sources and foreign credit — Territory rich in minerals — Other Industries restricted by absence of adequate railway com- munication— Panama hats a principal product — Quito, the capital of the Eepublic, distinguished by its beautiful build- ings and patrician society — Ecuador, despite the adoption of the metric system, still uses the old Spanish weights and measures — Patriotism of the people — Opening of Panama Canal will confer important material advantages on coun- try.

CHAPTER XX THE REPUBLIC OF COLOMBIA 277

Possesses a coast extending from ocean to ocean, embracing vast areas of productive soil — Revolutionary period ended — Eepublic now on forward march — Mineral and vegetable products — The ports of the Republic — Tropical vegetation — Life in the valleys and on the rivers Cities and popula- tion— Flourishing industrial centers — Gold production — In- terview with Mr. Thomas A. Edison — Bogota, a delightful city where warm and unaffected hospitality is extended to the stranger — The women of Colombia and their influence on the national character — Cardinal Farley's views as ex- pressed to the author — My accession to the presidency of the Republic — My first administrative acts — Reorganization of the army — Educational advance — Great future of the country will be assisted by opening of Panama Canal and exten- sion of railways — Analysis of moral conditions of the people — Population and racial characteristics — Completion of canal will bring an influx of immigration — Peace and prosperity now the national motto — Last will and testament of Bolivar, the Liberator.

CHAPTER XXI CONCLUSION . . 302

ILLUSTRATIONS

GENERAL R. REYES Frontispiece

FACING PAGE

BUILDINGS AND GROUNDS OF THE PAN-AMERICAN UNION,

WASHINGTON, D. C 26

DR. BELISARIO PORRAS, THE PRESIDENT OF PANAMA . . 27 FIRST VIEW OF CANAL SINCE THE BLOWING UP OF GAMBOA

DIKE 64

FIRST VESSEL PASSES THROUGH GATUN LOCKS OF PANAMA

CANAL 65

MARSHAL HERMES DA FONSECA, PRESIDENT OF BRAZIL . . 84

SALTO DE PIRACICABA, BRAZIL 85

BlBLIOTHECA NATIONAL, RlO DE JANEIRO, BRAZIL . . . 106

AVENIDA Rio BRANCO, Rio DE JANEIRO, BRAZIL . . . 107

A FULL GROWN COFFEE PLANT 116

LOADING COFFEE AT SANTOS, BRAZIL 117

MAKING COFFEE BAGS IN THE FACTORY OF SANTA ANNA,

STATE OF SAO PAULO 130

NORMAL SCHOOL IN THE CAPITAL OF SAO PAULO . . . 131

SR. DON Jos£ BATTLE Y ORDONEZ, PRESIDENT OF URUGUAY 166

"PLAZA DE LA LIBERTAD," MONTEVIDEO, URUGUAY . . . 167

RAM6N BARROS Luco, PRESIDENT OF CHILE .... 184

R. REYES AND Two "HUASOS," CHILE 185

MERCURIC BUILDING, VALPARAISO, CHILE .... 204

NEW PALACE OF FINE ARTS, SANTIAGO, CHILE . . . 205 DR. ROQUE SAENZ PENA, PRESIDENT OF THE ARGENTINE

REPUBLIC 218

xvii

xviii ILLUSTRATIONS

PACING PAGE

PLAZA HOTEL, BUENOS AIRES, ARGENTINA .... 219

DOCKS AND ELEVATORS, BUENOS AIRES, ARGENTINA . . 234

BATHING CATTLE, BUENOS AIRES, ARGENTINA . . . 235

THRESHING WHEAT, ARGENTINA ...... 254

LIMA, PERU 255

CATHEDRAL, LIMA, PERU 264

GOVERNMENT PALACE, BOLIVIA 265

"PLAZA," LA PAZ, BOLIVIA 274

BOLIVAR PARK AND STATUE OP GENERAL SIMON BOLIVAR,

GUAYAQUIL, ECUADOR 275

MILITARY PARADE IN THE PLAZA, QUITO, ECUADOR . . 284

BOLIVAR PARK, BOGOTA, COLOMBIA 285

INTRODUCTION

rriHE numerous additions which have lately been *- made to Pan- American literature and the un- questionable authority of some of the distinguished writers in that field have rendered available to the student of Latin-American conditions much hith- erto inaccessible information relating to the coun- tries in the southern portion of the American con- tinent.

In the preparation of this book I have studiously avoided the attempt to furnish a complete history of the various States, or, to deal, in detail, with matters which should more appropriately come within the scope of technical publications. This work represents a record of my recent travels through the Latin countries;, an epitome of the observations and deductions made during the many years in which I have enjoyed special facilities for closely following, step by step, the development of the American Republics and the convulsions of their ardent and vexed democracies; the fulfilment of a long-cherished desire to survey personally those Republics, in order to gather, at first hand, interest- ing data concerning their progress, their prospects,

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xx THE TWO AMERICAS

and their possibilities ; and the opportunity to raise a sincere voice of encouragement for an entente cordiale among them all, from the standpoint that these nations of common origin should strengthen their mutual relations and, in fraternal embrace, hasten the advent of that glorious future to which they are so manifestly entitled by their resources and their traditions. Yet, it is not alone by peaceful development within their borders, or by a wider recognition of the ties of sisterhood among them- selves, that their legitimate aspirations will be fully realized. It is essential to the welfare of the entire continent that the same friendly intercourse and cordial relations should be established with the United States, so that all the countries of the west- ern hemisphere may labor, side by side, to their collective and individual advantage and for the glorification of America as a whole.

The doubts and suspicions prevailing in the south as to the policy and intentions of the United States toward the other Republics must disappear to make way for a true union of the two Americas; and it may be permitted to me, as one who has played a prominent part in the effort to secure the blessings of peace in some of the southern Re- publics, to point out what I regard as the primary causes of these doubts and suspicions and to indi- cate the course of action and the methods whereby they may be removed.

INTRODUCTION xxi

When I commenced my tour through the Two Americas, it was my intention to visit all the coun- tries forming the great South American Continent, including the States of Central America, from the Rio Grande to the Straits of Magellan, as well as those constituting the Archipelago of the Antilles. Owing to circumstances beyond my control, added to a breakdown in health, I was unable to fulfil the mission I had voluntarily undertaken, although I visited a sufficient number of those promising lands to establish the identity of the basic conditions which govern the whole of Latin America.

Some of these countries, particularly in Central America, notwithstanding their comparatively cir- cumscribed areas, possess great potential wealth, enlightened citizens, and most of the favorable con- ditions of the sister-Republics. During the greater part of their history they have been victims of the internal political dissensions and fratricidal wars which have weakened the forces of so many Latin- American nations ; but, to-day, there is justification for the view that they are emerging from the troub- lous conditions induced by these incessant revolu- tions and that their differences are being adjusted by more peaceful measures, creditable alike to their honor and to their patriotism. These nations are beginning to learn that their material prosperity rests on the establishment of confidence abroad, where respect for authority and orderly govern-

xxii THE TWO AMERICAS

ment is as much regarded as a consideration in the investment of capital in foreign countries as is the value of the security offered by the undevel- oped national wealth.

Unhappily, there is one country of Latin America still afflicted by the horrors of civil war; but that country, like the others of Central and South America, has many sons, distinguished by their ele- vated sentiments and breadth of view, who will eventually succeed in definitely closing the era of internecine strife and in subordinating the interests of party to the higher interests of State. Mean- while the thought must weigh that, if any Republic on this continent obstinately continues in the oppo- site course, neither the indomitable bravery of its people, the extent of its territory, nor the inexhaust- ible wealth of its resources will prevail to save it from succumbing to the influences of the unwritten law of modern intervention. There are many fac- tors operating as a bar to friendly relations and mutual confidence between the Latin Republics and the United States ; but, while the fundamental cause of much of the unfriendly feeling now unfortunately existing in the greater part of Latin America may be traced back to the protracted disturbances in the political conditions of some of the smaller Repub- lics, the United States is very largely responsible for the uneasiness and apprehensions which appear

INTRODUCTION xxiii

to inspire all the Latin countries in their dealings with the great Republic of the North.

One reason for the present situation is the pop- ular misconception in the United States of the real significance and objects of the Monroe Doctrine, which in many quarters is looked upon as a kind of international police regulation to be administered by the authorities at Washington for the better preservation of law and order in the somewhat ex- tensive ' ' municipal area ' ' of Latin America. It does not appear to be sufficiently known, or understood, that President Monroe's famous declaration, in 1823, was designed as a measure of protection for, and not as an instrument of attack upon, the integ- rity of the then recently established Spanish Re- publics ; and that, from its initial adoption down to its latter day reaffirmation, it was intended and has been declared to be governed by the sole purpose of linking together the sisterhood of the American Republics and of guarding the weaker States against the undue aggression of any of the countries of the other hemisphere. This interpretation of the much abused Doctrine has been distorted by a not uncer- tain wave of misrepresentation, strengthened by a section of the press, into a widespread belief that the United States derives from its provisions the right to intervene in the internal affairs of, and to exercise a species of suzerainty over, some of the Latin Republics, when it is considered desirable or

xxiv THE TWO AMERICAS

necessary to do so. It is by that belief, to which color has been given on frequent occasions by mis- taken official action, that the doubts and fears enter- tained in Latin-America in regard to the United States have been engendered. That pernicious propaganda has likewise tended to obscure the fact that every one of those Republics, which, in their early political development, struggled so valiantly to free themselves from the yoke of oppression and the misgovernment to which in their colonial serf- dom they had for so long been subjected, is a dis- tinct unit among the American nations with an in- contestable right to complete independence and sovereignty.

Another element which has served to accentuate the distrust of the Latin people of the American con- tinent in their international relations with the United States is the still largely existing lack of knowledge of actual conditions. The term " South America," as applied, with a delightful disregard of geographical accuracy, to all the Republics of America outside the United States, is usually asso- ciated by a not inconsiderable number of American citizens with a race of people possessed of terri- tories enveloping great natural wealth, but, of a grade of civilization on a footing, more or less, with the Filipinos or, perhaps, the Hawaiians.

It seems to be overlooked that the people of Latin America are the descendants of a race imbued with

INTRODUCTION xxv

that beautiful spirit which inspires all great achieve- ments; that their intellectual qualities, their blood, and their energies, make them ideal nation builders, embodying all the higher elements of progress. It seems also to be overlooked that the moral and material advance of some of those Republics has placed them in the forefront of great nations ; and, that what has happened in those cases will be re- peated in the course of time by the now less ad- vanced nations which have already furnished abund- ant proofs of their virility and progressive spirit. Personal intercourse and knowledge enable me to appreciate the sterling qualities which underlie the occasional mistaken patriotism and ambitious ideals of some of these people in whose soil are planted the germs of future greatness; and with the blessings of peace they must ultimately triumph and reap the rich harvest of good that awaits them.

Another dangerous weapon in this campaign of ignorance and slander is the ill-concealed attempt to convert the ''bogey" of the "big stick" into a reality. It is true that the existence of that instru- ment is implied rather than expressed, but, in many directions it is metaphorically flourished with result- ant harm to the United States as well as to many of the other Republics. The effects of the aggres- sive spirit which dictates that implication of supe- rior force may be seen in every phase of interna- tional life. In one case it is the banker, who, with

xxvi THE TWO AMERICAS

a natural desire for the protection of his invest- ment, unwittingly leads his Government to attach conditions to a contemplated loan, suggestive, to the sensitive Latin mind, of an encroachment upon the independence of the borrowing State. In an- other, it is the commercial traveller who approaches the Latin- American buyer in the belief that the latter is conscious of his inferiority and that he must yield, not to the blandishments, but to the political equip- ment of the would-be representative of "Uncle Sam," disporting the end of the "big stick" beneath the tails of his coat.

There are also other and very serious causes of the alienation of the confidence of the south in the good faith of the north, not least of which is the matter of the Panama Canal, in relation to the dismemberment of Colombian territory,, which I have dealt with, at some length, elsewhere in these pages. Personally, I have never failed to seize an occasion for the expression of my admiration of the high qualities and undoubted sense of justice of the great majority of the people of the United States. I believe, to the fullest extent, in the sin- cerity of their avowed desire for the fulfilment of the aspirations and for the welfare of all the Latin Republics ; but it must be remembered that in South America — not the America which cries "America for the North Americans," but in the America that heralds the sentiment of "America for humanity"

INTRODUCTION xxvii

— there are people who, guided by their civic spirit and their traditions, do not and will not submit to being treated as nations incapable of self-govern- ment, or as unfit, without guardians, to manage their own affairs.

In my opinion, the opening of the Panama Canal will solve many of the difficulties which have arisen through the present lack of intercourse between the people of North and South America, but even that beneficial change of conditions will not serve, by itself, to eradicate the evils of the past. That important event will doubtless produce a great in- flow of immigration to the rich territories which will thus be opened up to myriads of human beings who will leave the congested countries of Europe to seek a new home and a more bountiful living in those lands of promise. But, there must be a more general acceptance of the fact that the relations of the United States with the Latin Kepublics are those of a friendly, powerful neighbor, with no other objects than the advantages to be gained from the ties of sisterhood and an extension of commerce. There must be saner propaganda as to the inalien- able national independence of even the smallest of the Latin States. There must be no " big-stick"; and no such use of the Monroe Doctrine as to make it an instrument of terror to the smaller Republics and a subject for ridicule in the more progressive countries of the south. The great Republics of

xxviii THE TWO AMERICAS

South America appreciate and sympathize with the benevolent designs and objects of that doctrine which has been supplemented by a doctrine of their own, to protect the weaker States against the employment of armed force by foreign nations for the collection of contractual debts; but they resent the demonstration of the domination and tutelage which imply that they need the protection of the United States against foreign aggression.

These nations, which owe their birth to heroes of the type of San Martin and Bolivar, have perpetu- ated their traditions by the creation of great figures in the domains of jurisprudence, philosophy, litera- ture and art. They have no other territorial ambi- tions than the preservation and cultivation of the areas within their properly defined limits. They have attained a position in the council of nations which gives them the right to a voice in defense of the interests of their weaker sisters ; and, while they have always refrained from the exercise of that voice, in an official or active form, it is not improba- ble, unless conditions are improved, that alliances may be made to give effect to popular sympathies and sentiments.

Although widely separated by distance and by the absence of community of interests, the ties of blood and of common descent cause an attack upon the independence of any one of these nations to be viewed as an attack upon them all. In foreign trade

INTRODUCTION xxix

they desire to increase their relations with the United States, notwithstanding the fact that they are indebted for a large share of their great prosperity to European capital and immigration. Under equal conditions they are even disposed to encourage fa- vors to American commerce ; but it is essential that the people of the United States should understand that such favors are dictated exclusively by motives of friendship and by a desire for the establishment of American union in its best sense. The future greatness of America lies in the union of all its component parts and that desirable object will only secure accomplishment when the futility of imperial- ism is realized by the north ; and when the necessity for the settlement of boundary and other differences in the field of justice alone is recognized by the south. I desire, however, not to be misunderstood. When I speak of imperialism I do so in the sense that marked my recent addresses in the United States. I refer, as is natural and logical, not to the great majority of American citizens, but only to a small number who have lately advanced such views.

During the greater part of my life I have labored actively in the interests of the Latin race, of unity in the expression of the high ideals which Spain bequeathed to her sons in America, and of Pan- American union. In 1911 I renewed my efforts by giving public utterance to the views here set forth,

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in many countries of the old and new world. I demonstrated there, as I have in these pages, the astounding and diverse advantages which the com- pletion of the Panama Canal will not only confer upon Latin America, but upon humanity at large; and I have persistently declared that those advan- tages to all the countries of America will increase in a degree corresponding to the growth of inter- national friendship. I also pointed out the solemn duty, incumbent upon all Latins, lovers of our sacred traditions, to unify our aims and tendencies and by the establishment of peace to render unassailable the supremacy of the Latin element in our continent on the same broad and humanitarian lines as have been followed by the Anglo-Saxon race in its con- quest of the north. These are the main objects of this little work, which, it is my earnest hope, may, in some measure, enable the various Eepublics to become better acquainted with each other, to unite and to work in common accord as daughters of one mother, resisting encroachment upon their natural rights and putting forth every effort for their com- bined progress.

In these preliminary observations it is, perhaps, necessary to explain the insertion of chapters on the Latin countries of Europe in a book purporting to treat exclusively of the "Two Americas." The relation, however, of both Spain and France to the subject under review is to be found in the active

INTRODUCTION xxxi

movement now proceeding in those countries for unity of thought and action among all the people of Latin origin. There is Spain with a long roll of illustrious men who honor the glorious records of her history, men of great worth and of preeminent virtues, who will follow the route set by their con- quistador ancestors ; and France, whose name recalls magnificent epics and revives innumerable glories, which, with the symbol of her immortal device, "Liberty, Equality, Fraternity, " will help to con- solidate the liberty of the Latin people, to estab- lish equality by equitable treatment of the grave questions now to the fore, and to promote fraternal sentiments among the children of the great family. In the description of the different countries dealt with, but scant attention has been paid to chrono- logical order or completeness of detail. My aim has been so to treat each country as to explain, as comprehensively as possible, its physical features, the history and characteristics of its people, the nature of its industries and other points of interest to the commercial and industrial world and to all those who are interested in the development of the great continent of the future. If I have not suc- ceeded in adequately fulfilling that intention, my failure must be attributed to faults of the head rather than of the heart, it being my most fervent desire to contribute, to the best of my ability, to

xxxii THE TWO AMERICAS

the dawn of an era of peace and contentment in every corner of the vast American Continent.

Finally I dedicate this modest effort to my own country, Colombia, in the hope that, by making better known the extent of her resources, the justice of her laws, and the enterprise of her people, immigration and foreign capital will be attracted to her shores. Colombia is a new land of promise, possessing all the natural and moral forces of the sister-Republics. She hides vast treasures in her soil and has borne many illustrious sons whose fame has spread far beyond her borders. My long years of service to my country have filled me with the hope and the confident belief that, after having passed through the fire of so many fratricidal wars, now definitely ended; after having valiantly suffered, in silence, unceasing troubles and unhealed wounds, yet marching, with firm and steady step, on the road of progress, there will soon wave in Colombia's serene sky, radiant with the light of pure ideals, the banner of peace and prosperity.

RAFAEL REYES

November, 1913.

THE TWO AMERICAS

THE TWO AMERICAS

CHAPTER I

MY VISIT TO EUEOPE

The Iberian Peninsula

¥ N the preceding introduction I referred to the movement now taking place in some of the Latin countries of Europe, with the object of pre- serving the ideals and interests of our race. More than a year ago, I commenced the tour which forms the subject of this work by a visit to Madrid and other Spanish cities, where I found, among the people, strikingly similar characteristics to those presented by the nations of Latin-America. In passing over the Spanish frontier I was able to appreciate the warmth and generosity of the people and to observe that Ibero-Americans visiting the country were made to feel that they were members of a family who had returned after a long absence. Hearing the sonorous and beautiful Castilian lan- guage, seeing the same types as those to which we are accustomed in Latin-America, and receiving courteous replies to inquiries, I have heard them

1

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exclaim, with enthusiasm, "We are in our own country! We are in our own house!" This affec- tionate welcome of Latin- Americans is in evidence throughout Spain, from the cottage of the shepherd to the palaces of the nobles and even of the King. Where one feels this most is in the cultured city of Madrid. The stranger who asks his way in the street receives a polite reply and is frequently ac- companied to his destination with an acknowledg- ment of his thanks by the customary Spanish bless- ing. Nor is it alone to the descendants of the an- cient families, whose forefathers dominated the world, that this hospitality is extended. It is offered to every stranger in the land, through all the grades of class.

I was particularly struck by two incidents which occurred during my visit to Spain and I record them here by way of illustrating the instinctive dignity and high-mindedness of the Spanish char- acter, which are reflected throughout Ibero- America. Accompanied by my son, Rafael, on a very wet and cold day in the month of November, I arrived, by automobile, at the small town of Cuellar, where the house in which Don Pedro the Cruel once lived is located. We had travelled a long distance without taking food and observing a gentleman walking toward us we stopped and asked him where we could obtain some refreshment. He replied, "In this place there is no inn for a gentleman of your quality,

IBERIAN PENINSULA 3

but, as no stranger is permitted to pass through our village without receiving its hospitality, I take pleasure in offering you my house." I gladly ac- cepted the invitation and, following him, entered an antiquated and humble hostelry, which, in all its surroundings, recalled memories of Cervantes. Ascending a narrow and almost perpendicular wooden staircase, we were ushered into a large apartment divided by a chintz curtain of many colors, which apparently served to convert the room, ac- cording to necessity, into parlor, dining and sleep- ing quarters. The proprietor of the house, Don Leocadio Suarez, who was Alcalde (Mayor) of Cuellar, called his wife to whom he presented us, saying, ' ' These gentlemen have not lunched. Please prepare the best we can give them as soon as pos- sible." We were later served with an excellent and abundant meal, afterwards departing in the com- pany of Don Leocadio, who recounted to us his life 's history and explained how, by scrupulous economy, he had been able to educate his son for the pro- fession of engineer at the Escorial School, to whom he begged I would pay a visit on my return to Madrid, which I consented to do. I was at some trouble to ask my hospitable host, without wounding his dignity, how I could pay him for the lunch. Finally I said, "Don Leocadio, I wish to ask you a favor. Tell me, please, what I am indebted to you for the excellent meal you provided for us ? " " Sir, ' '

4 THE TWO AMERICAS

he replied, "I am the debtor in this case and not you, since you have permitted me to extend my humble hospitality." I thanked him and left with his promise that he would lunch with me at the Eitz in Madrid upon his next visit to the Capital.

Continuing our ride until late in the afternoon, through the cold rain and piercing wind, we arrived at the extreme end of the high road, where we saw a man violently waving his arms as a signal to us to stop. We did so, when the man quietly ap- proached our automobile. He was evidently of the laboring class and his tattered garments were cov- ered by a shabby and much-worn cloak. He saluted us with much dignity, saying, "You will understand that it is very disagreeable for me to detain you in this weather and at this hour, but, unfortunately, since yesterday morning at eight o'clock, when I partook of only a small quantity of food, I have been unable to obtain anything more to eat. I am a laboring man, but I have no work as the autumn crops are not yet ready for harvesting. You, who must be a rich man, can you not give me a few centimos wherewith to purchase some food?" I was much touched by the man's obviously honest statement and said, "You are perfectly right to stop us and ask for help. Men must help each other and in your case I am glad to be of service, as to-morrow I might find myself in the same un- happy position as that in which you are to-day."

IBERIAN PENINSULA 5

I then placed a dollar in his hand which he promptly returned to me, adding, "I did not ask you for so much. Please keep the dollar and give me a few centimes which will suffice for all my needs." This noble instinct appealed to me so forcibly that I could not resist shaking his hand and begging him to accept the dollar with the request that he would divide what he did not require with his companions in distress. He then accepted the money, and, with tears in his eyes, saluted us and uttered the words, "May God preserve you.'*

Notwithstanding its monarchical form of govern- ment, there is, in Spain, a true Christian democracy with an entire absence of the spirit of feudalism, which, even in the middle ages, was less pronounced there than in other countries of Europe, probably for the reason that the nobles were at that period frequently engaged with the plebeians in defending the national soil against its invaders, the Pho3ni- cians, the Eomans, the Barbs from the north, the Moors, and, in earlier days, the French. This nation- wide democracy is accompanied by the individual dignity of all classes. It is to be seen in the rela- tions of the people throughout the social scale. It is to be found in the body politic in which, even among the most extreme and impassioned partisans, cordial social relations are maintained; and it is even more in evidence at moments of grave national crises or when foreign notabilities are paying offi-

6 THE TWO AMERICAS

cial visits to the country. This trait may also be observed in the courtesy which surrounds all the great debates in the Cortes, where there are rarely, if ever, scenes or scandals such as are frequently witnessed in other Parliaments. The vocabulary itself illustrates how this admirable inborn senti- ment elevates and dignifies in the maintenance of equality while it does not belittle or lower the humbler classes. The noble and wealthy Spaniard treats his dependents, his tenants and his servants with almost paternal care and affection; and it is these patriarchal customs which produce respect for the higher classes, not only in the Iberian Penin- sula, but in all the Ibero- American countries. It is not alone in these characteristics that the identity of racial conditions among the great majority of Latin nations is established. Travelling through Spain one constantly meets the same physical types as are to be found in all the Latin countries of America, even after many generations. They bear the same names, exhibit the same conditions and have the same habits of thought. What wonder then that there should be a desire to strengthen the bonds of unity and to maintain the worthy ideals of all the descendants of the heroes who discovered and conquered the new world, armed only with the sword, the Cross, and the indomitable courage of their race? In the new countries Spanish dominion has dis-

IBERIAN PENINSULA 7

appeared but the soul of the Iberian is ever pres- ent, and there is an unfading memory of the influ- ence exercised by the Catholic Church, in Spain, over the destinies of a great part of the new world. When the great Genoese navigator, Christopher Columbus, appeared before the ecclesiastical author- ities at Salamanca to expound his geographical theory, such was the omniscience of those learned friars that, in dissenting from the plans of Colum- bus, they said, "We do not believe that you will succeed in reaching the oriental coasts of India, al- though we have faith in your idea of discovery of the Atlantic, where there must be a vast extent of land, interposed by Divine Providence, between Europe and the limits you are seeking; but it does not appear possible to us that the Atlantic and Pacific waters form the same ocean under differ- ent names." In short, those wise ecclesiasts had an intuitive knowledge, even greater than that of Co- lumbus, as to the extent of the two continents, which, to pay honor to the memory of Amerigo Vespucci, who solved the problem, were ultimately called America. It was the Church, in the time of the Catholic Kings, which really reigned, with an intellectual and moral energy more exuberant than the virgin forests of America, throughout the golden century of Spain. Its great leaders regarded the Spanish character as superior to that of the Spar- tan— robust, virile, noble, generous and brave. They

8 THE TWO AMERICAS

gave impetus to the chivalrous sentiments of that potent race of heroes, of scholars, of saints and warriors whose records are almost legendary; and they gave encouragement to the adventurous nobles and plebeians of stout heart and of iron will, who, in poor wooden barks, journeyed forth to double the earth and encircle the globe, thus opening, across the Atlantic, new skies and new territories, where the rivers are seas and the land another world illuminated by heavenly bodies never dreamed of by Galileo. It was these great Catholics who inspired the discovery of a new world and dedicated it to God as an altar and a throne. It was a friar, Las Casas, who inspired the paternal laws of India in order that the Spaniards, by the transfusion of their blood, of their life, and of their faith, might implant a civilization entirely distinct from that followed by other conquering nations, who, in their acts of con- quest, enslaved and destroyed races. It is due to the influence of the Church that the Latin-American women of to-day are the heroic and careful guar- dians of all those virtues which model and form the home and reflect upon their sons, their husbands, their brothers and their fathers.

There has been established in Madrid, under the auspices of the Spanish Government and the vari- ous Chambers of Commerce throughout the country, the Ibero-American Union, in which all the Latin nations will participate and contribute a proper-

IBERIAN PENINSULA 9

tionate share of the cost of maintenance, as is done with the Pan-American Union at Washington. The objects of this proposed institution are to foment the commercial and friendly relations of the Pe- ninsula with Ibero- America, and to promote travel from and to the southern Republics, so that the people of the new world may become better ac- quainted with the vast treasures of art, history and of natural beauty possessed by the Latin countries of Europe ; and that the people of the old world may see the progress of the Latin countries of America and their splendid cities which are equal to any of the great European Capitals. At the present time this movement is flowing freely and sponta- neously from the frontiers of those nations and is reechoed in their mountains and valleys and across the ocean until it reaches the Peninsula where the same feelings prevail toward the people of the Latin Republics.

The same spirit is to be found in Portugal, whose energetic sons, worthy compatriots of Vasco da Gama, Albuquerque, Alva Cabral, Magellanes and others, possess the same noble characteristics as distinguish the Brazilians, who, in the most remote Amazonian forests, have bravely struggled, not only with primitive nature, but also with the savage inhabitants of those regions. From the end of the fifteenth century and later, the Portuguese conquis- tadores helped to establish western civilization in

10 THE TWO AMERICAS

the plains of Tolosa and Lepanto and implanted their high qualities in Asia, in Africa and in Europe. When I inaugurated the first steamship service on the River Putumayo, I was accompanied by a dis- tinguished Portuguese, Captain Francisco Antonio Visau, who assisted me to extend the geographical map of that river.

In Portugal I also saw men and women of fair complexion, tall, strong, of the Germanic type, de- scendants of the Vandals and Visigoths ; and many of dark complexion, with spare frames and nervous temperaments, descendants of the Arabs and the Moors. In studying the characteristics of these people, which are in many respects identical with those of the Spaniards and the people of Spanish- America, I recognized the truth and the justice of Mr. Theodore Roosevelt's declaration that the Iberian people "had been humane conquerors and colonizers who had given their blood, their language, their religion, and their energies, to the twenty nations of Latin- America, while the Saxons had de- stroyed the red Indians of the northern part of the continent.*'

CHAPTER H

MY VISIT TO EUROPE (CONTINUED)

In Paris

/~\N my arrival in Paris I was accorded a cor- ^-^ dial reception by the diplomatic representa- tives of Latin-America, the Ambassador of Spain, the Franco-American Committee, whose President is Mr. Gabriel Hanotaux, and various other Ibero- American notabilities, to whom I communicated the objects of my then proposed tour. The Franco- American Committee conferred upon me the priv- ilege of honorary membership and at one of its Con- ferences to which I was specially invited, the Presi- dent of the Latin Section, M. Francois Carnot, son of the late President of the French Republic, welcomed me and the purposes of my mission in most flatter- ing terms; whilst it afforded me the deepest satis- faction to hear from its President that the Franco- American Committee had decided to associate itself with the Ibero- American Union of Madrid and with other institutions having kindred objects in Latin- America, in order to unite the forces organized in favor of the interests of the Latin race, of civiliza- tion and justice, and of the well-being of humanity.

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Shortly after this Conference I organized a func- tion at the Hotel Majestic, Paris, where there assem- bled a number of prominent men of Latin- America and Latin-Europe, to express their approval of my efforts to promote closer relations among all the people of our race ; and, in order to demonstrate the strength of that movement, in circles embracing the leaders of thought in the Latin countries of both continents, I feel that no excuse is necessary for the reproduction here of a report of the proceedings at that gathering, which I have taken from the columns of the Revista Mundial:

-

"At the Hotel Majestic, in Paris, General B. Reyes, ex-President of the Republic of Colombia, a stout defender of the interests of Latin- Americans, who has devoted a great part of his life to the fields of exploration and diplomacy, invited a select group of Latin-Americans to a luncheon for the purpose of stimulating the work of sustaining the predomi- nance of the Latin element in the southern countries of the American Continent. The salon in which this assemblage of the Latin- American family gathered was decorated with taste and beauty appropriate to the Capital of the Arts. Flowers of all colors, roses, chrysanthemums, smilax and orchids, were in pleasing contrast to the whiteness of the linen, while the luxuriant fruits and the flags of all the American Republics mixed their colors in fraternal

INPARIS 13

embrace. There were many distinguished members of the Latin race among the guests, as may be seen from the following list: M. Paul Doumer, former President of the French Chamber of Deputies; M. Francois Carnot, President of the Latin Section of the Franco-American Committee; Senor Perez Caballero, the Spanish Ambassador; Ruben Dario; the ex-Presidents of Mexico and Peru, Generals Diaz and Pardo; Gomez Carrillo, the well-known author and chronicler ; and many other distinguished guests, including Prince Eoland Bonaparte, Gabriel Hanotaux, Puga Borme, Rodriguez Larreta, Manini Rios, Alfredo and Armando Guido, Limatour Monez, etc., etc. There were three tables, presided over, respectively, by General Reyes, M. Doumer, and M. Carnot. General Reyes had, on his right, General Porfirio Diaz ; and on his left, the Minister of Chile. On the right of M. Doumer was the Ambassador of Spain and the Minister of Costa Rica on his left; and on the right and left of M. Carnot sat the ex- President of Peru and Senor Carlos Concha. At the conclusion of the luncheon General Reyes delivered the following address :

11 'M. Carnot, President of the Latin Section of the Franco-American Committee, and Gentlemen:

" 'Having already been received by the Franco- American Committee, so ably presided over by M. Hanotaux, whose absence to-day I deeply regret,

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I take great pleasure in welcoming many of you who were present on that occasion and the many other eminent men of Europe and Ibero-America who have honored me by accepting my invitation to this function.

" 'In treating of the Latin Eepublics I desire to repeat what I said at my reception by the Franco- American Committee, namely, that I consider the future of humanity of the twentieth century to be in Latin America. It is possible to-day to say that we have entered with a firm step upon the posses- sion of that future to repeat in the South what occurred during the last century in the North; and to prove the correctness of Humboldt's prognosti- cations made a hundred years ago.

" 'At the time that Stanley, tracing the footsteps of Livingstone, was exploring Equatorial Africa, I and my brothers, who forfeited their lives during our Amazonic explorations, were likewise exploring the interior of South America from the Pacific to the Atlantic. In the virgin forests and deserts which we then traversed there have risen up, at many points, centers of industrial activity, counting, in some cases, tens and hundreds of thousands of inhabitants ; and in the rivers, of the magnitude of seas, at that time crossed by the canoes of the sav- ages, there is an immense stream of steam naviga- tion. To justify my suggestion of these rivers being like seas I need only mention that many of

IN PARIS 15

the trans-Atlantic liners ascend the Amazon River for five thousand kilometers into the interior of the continent, where, from Para to Iquitos and in the affluents of that great river, they can connect with the Orinoco and the Eiver Plate, thus rendering it possible to traverse by large and modern steamships 20,000 kilometers of waterways, and, by connection with railways already constructed and under con- struction, ultimately to have direct communication with all the countries of South America. What, in my time, were small towns are to-day populous and flourishing cities with populations far exceeding the million mark, such as Buenos Aires and Eio de Janeiro. Their commerce, which then was counted by tens of millions of francs, may be reckoned, at the present time, by thousands of millions; and lands, rural and urban, then of insignificant value, have not only enormously increased in price, but have become a source of highly profitable invest- ment for European capital. In the intervening period the population of Latin- America has multi- plied fourfold, embracing vigorous specimens of our race who will preserve and extend our elevated ideals.

" 'We who are the descendants of this second gen- eration of Iberians are regarded in the Peninsula as of the people themselves and, if any favor is shown, it takes the form of giving us the place of honor. All the Latin Republics, forming twenty independent

16 THE TWO AMERICAS

nations, are striving to secure harmony of thought in our portion of the continent and we are struggling with the Saxon race, which predominates in the northern part of the continent, in the effort to estab- lish justice and right. To this end the Latin coun- tries of America need the hearty cooperation of their brothers in Europe, the prospect of which is rendered so hopeful by the presence here to-day of so many leading lights of Latin-Europe. To extend still further these objects the international and commercial legislation of the southern continent must be so guided and changed to meet the exigen- cies of the hour as to secure the utmost freedom and protection for the immigrants, the capital, and the industries of foreign countries without the difficulties and impediments which have arisen in earlier days. The smaller countries regard with satisfaction and pride the marvellous growth of Ar- gentina, Brazil and Chile; and they are exerting every effort to enjoy similar progress under the shadow of peace, justice and right.'

' ' Speeches embodying similar sentiments were de- livered by several gentlemen present, the following notable address having been made by Senor Perez Caballero, the Spanish Ambassador :

" 'Gentlemen: After the eloquent words which have been uttered by General Eeyes, the ex-Presi-

INPARIS 17

dent of the Republic of Colombia, it is in- cumbent upon me — and I accept the task with pleasure — as Spanish Ambassador, to express my sincere appreciation of his kindly refer- ences to my country and its people. I do this, Gentlemen, with the deepest gratitude and from the depths of my heart I ask you to join me in drinking to a triple toast to the honor of France, the Ibero-American countries, and to my own be- loved Spain.

" 'In a recent discussion in the Spanish Parliament on the Spanish-French treaty regarding Morocco, many disparaging references were made to the col- onizing qualities of the Spanish people, but the best answer I have yet heard to those unjust suggestions is embodied in the declarations of General Reyes in the brilliant speech delivered by him to-day. When a country has given to hitherto unknown dis- tant regions the spirit of its race, its religion and its language, and, after a hundred years of inde- pendent existence, the new nationality retains for the mother-country the affection revealed by Gen- eral Reyes in his description of the Ibero-American people, it demonstrates the purity of character that springs from the mother-land and constitutes proof of the colonizing qualities of her sons.

" 'Two years ago I had the honor to accompany to Buenos Aires the illustrious Princess Isabella, when I was privileged to participate in the centenr

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nial celebration of Argentine independence. The Argentine Republic was the first to separate herself from the mother-country, but, representing Spain, I shared the nation's delight in the triumph of her children and experienced exceptional pleasure in crossing the seas to commemorate the magic awak- ening of the Ibero-American continent. On that solemn occasion I raised my voice to salute those new and already vigorous nations. Grow, I said, free nations, sovereign and independent, in Spanish America. Advance without discord or discourage- ment in the infinite path of progress; imbibe and arouse into action our words; make our personal- ities greater in history and maintain with vigor the authority and the power of the Latin race to which, in common, we pertain. I would remind you that if your great and deserved prosperity is due to the tenacity of your inhabitants, to your free political institutions and to your wise legislation, as well as to the fertility of your soil and to the wealth of its contents, you cannot and surely will not forget that a great part of your progress is due to the powerful immigration from across the Atlantic and especially from the Latin countries. The French, Italians and Spanish intermingled with the South Americans have produced and will continue to produce verita- ble miracles in those countries where nature shows such prodigality. " 'It is little short of marvellous that without the

INPARIS 19

spirit of exclusiveness, which would be absurd, and still less with hatred, which would be infamous, the Latins of our race have made us proud. It is cer- tain that the progress already made is the result of concord among all the races, but this does not exclude the closer ties of the affinities such as the sacred love for the fatherland which fortifies, rather than excludes, the affection and the tender love for the family. It is very natural that the Latins have impelled our admiration of the immense scenario of Spanish-America, and when we see it grow in power and prosperity day by day we ex- perience a real pleasure. It is also only natural that the Ibero-American countries look to incom- parable France to aid them in their progressive growth, that great France which is the elder sister, the first, the mother of modern Latinity.

" 'General Eeyes has pointed to the necessity for the Latin countries to have the support of their sisters in Europe. I am in complete accord with that view. It is a fundamental truth and so far as it relates to Spain and France I congratulate my- self on being able to say that never has the union been closer or more based on the principles of jus- tice. The necessity for close friendship between the older countries striving to implant civilization of a modern type in places unaccustomed to western thought and ideas, has been shown more than ever by the friendship of France and Spain in Morocco j

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and this union of the two Latin races in the exten- sion of their civilizing forces in the north of Africa will doubtless reverberate throughout Latin-Amer- ica. The Latins of Europe united with those of America exercise a powerful force and their decisive influence will serve as a stimulant to the progress of the entire human race.

11 'Gentlemen, I raise my glass in honor of our illustrious host, General Reyes, and as this reunion is largely dedicated to the objects of the Franco- American Committee, allow me also to drink pros- perity to Spain's neighboring sister, France, and to her distant daughter, America.' "

CHAPTER III

IN THE UNITED STATES

T SAVING Cherbourg on the steamship Kaiser ••^ Wilhelm II I arrived in New York, where my proposed tour of Latin- America and its objects had already created considerable interest.

Despite the great flow and heterogeneous charac- ter of the immigration to the United States during the last sixty or seventy years, it is easy to observe that the dominant features of the national charac- ter are the qualities of the Saxons and the Teutons — dignity, justice, labor, and the strenuous desire for progress. It is, in fact, the elevated civic virtues of such men as Washington, Franklin, and others, that formed the foundation upon which the great American edifice has been built up. In these con- ditions there will also be found the explanation of the great love of the land of their adoption, which makes good citizens, not only of the children of immigrants, but of the immigrants themselves, as is also the case in Argentina, Chile, Brazil, and other new countries, where the private and public virtues of the founders of those nations constitute the basic formation of character.

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I have known the United States since 1872 and have visited it many times while in the service of my country. I dealt officially with its Government, in Panama in 1885, and in Washington in 1903, to sustain the rights of Colombia in relation to Pan- ama. I educated my sons in the United States and after ten years which elapsed since my former visit I found changes and progress which profoundly impressed me. I noticed with particular satisfaction that the genuine American sentiment of to-day is to combat the supremacy of the powerful dollar and to maintain the predominance of just ideals. I was likewise able to appreciate that in the United States public opinion is supreme, and, although it may occasionally be diverted into a wrong direction, it will ultimately find truth and justice. Of the forces, of the vigor and life that move and palpitate with so much activity, the currents which resist the rule of Mammon form the great base of the American structure.

Modern history has furnished no vaster, more varied or more complex field for the study of sociol- ogy, of industry, and of all that concerns human progress, than the United States. Founded by English colonists of intellectual force and high moral character who sought its shores to obtain religious and political liberty, by fearless Dutch navigators, the founders of New Amsterdam, be- longing to the first families of Holland, like that

IN THE UNITED STATES 23

of Van Cortland, who have preserved through cen- turies their distinguishing qualities and character- istics, and by Irish Catholics who brought to the virgin soil of America healthy and advanced ideas, there is little occasion for surprise in the fact that freedom and independence are the guiding princi- ples of the American people.

Unfortunately, as a consequence of the great ex- pansion which has taken place in the financial and commercial relations of the United States with the Latin-American Eepublics, during latter years, these excellent principles have been supplanted by the enthronement, in certain influential quarters, of what has become known as "dollar diplomacy"; and although this new and sordid method of regu- lating international relations does not find favor with the great mass of enlightened American citi- zens, who have a due regard for the national honor, it is necessary to arrest its growth in the interest of the entire continent. It is by the exercise of a patriotic spirit, by the possession of vast natural wealth, and by the liberty-loving character of its people that the United States has attained its great position among the nations of the world and has developed its huge resources, represented by its hundred millions of inhabitants, its three million square miles of territory, its three hundred thou- sand miles of railroads, and its wonderful indus- trial and commercial advance. For the fulfilment of

24 THE TWO AMERICAS

their worthy aspirations, based on solid pretensions, and for an adequate development of their national resources the people of Latin-America, therefore, desire the sympathy and cooperation of those of the United States.

Many of these Latin nations committed an error in establishing, for their government, the institu- tions and laws of the United States before prepar- ing or educating their people to understand and use them for their own benefit. The sorrowful experi- ences of many of the Latin Republics lead to the re- flection that the laws and constitution of every na- tion should be in keeping with its education, its customs, and its necessities, history having shown that the application of advanced laws and institu- tions to youthful nations still struggling for their emancipation is calculated to produce negative re- sults, to convert liberty into license, and to make democracy a tyranny of the ignorant. Happily, this dearly acquired knowledge has led some of these countries to see where their true interests lie, and many of them, as a result, are now in the enjoyment of advanced systems of government equal to those of the most progressive countries of the world. It may therefore be assumed that these sad lessons, already bearing fruit, will at no distant date finally close the period of civil wars and fraternal struggles of all the Latin-American people and so assure their complete independence and future prosperity.

IN THE UNITED STATES 25

As stated in the opening lines of this chapter, I was able during my stay in the United States to judge the real trend of representative American opinion in regard to the southern Eepublics, by the increasing interest of many public bodies and indi- vidual leaders of thought, in the enterprise I had entered upon on my own initiative and at my own expense. It was to me a source of great pleasure to hear the many expressions of encouragement for American unity in the speeches delivered by promi- nent American citizens at the numerous functions at which I was entertained, and, to emphasize the au- thoritative sanction of my mission, I would make special reference to a luncheon given to me, in New York, by the Pan-American Society of the United States. A number of influential citizens attended the gathering and several interesting addresses were delivered, but the most important of all, from the point of view of interpreting educated American opinion on the position of the Latin- American Ke- publics, was the speech made by Mr. Frederic Brown, the Treasurer and Secretary of the Society, who said :

"The United States would appear to have so few friends among the most prominent men of Latin- America that our satisfaction is enhanced by this opportunity of giving a welcome to General Reyes on the eve of his departure on a mission of the

26 THE TWO AMERICAS

highest importance for the cause of true Pan- Americanism.

''I heard General Reyes speak for the first time some years ago when I was in Mexico, where he has left behind him a grateful memory of his friend- ship for the Americans. There are seated at this table men who have lived and labored in Colombia, when he was its President, and they are likewise able to say that all the words and deeds of General Reyes showed a sincere friendship for this country. The Hon. John Barrett, Director-General of the Pan-American Union, who formerly occupied the po- sition of American Minister to Colombia, considers General Reyes as one of the best friends of the United States in Latin-America. It is therefore exceptionally fortunate that in furtherance of the objects of this Society we have the opportunity of wishing General Reyes the fullest success for his visit to Hispano-America, whither he proceeds on a labor of love without ulterior motives or ambitions.

"We in the United States are true friends of Latin- America and we desire to aid the forces and influence of General Reyes in convincing our friends of the South that we are animated by the most sin- cere desire to assist in the aggrandizement of a race which embodies the highest type of civilization. We cannot oppose the legitimate object of the Latin- Americans to perpetuate their inheritance and to establish a Latin civilization. A race that has pro-

fuotograpU by Paul Xbompaon

DR. BELISAR1O POKRAS, THE PRESIDENT OF PANAMA

IN THE UNITED STATES 27

duced writers like Dario, financiers like Limantour, philosophers like Hostos, and international lawyers like Drago ; a race which owes its independent exist- ence to heroes like San Martin and Bolivar — a bril- liant combination of the qualities of Washington and Napoleon — one may be sure will always find its proper destination. I desire that General Eeyes may be enabled to assure the people of Latin- Amer- ica of the existence of the profound and durable friendship which is entertained throughout the United States toward them."

A few days later a banquet was given in my honor by the Pan-American Association, of which, with Cardinal Farley, I was made an Honorary Vice- President. Among the speakers on that occasion was Dr. Phanor Eder, a distinguished lawyer and the author of a recent book on Colombia which will doubtless become a standard work of reference. After some personal references Dr. Eder spoke as follows :

"We have assembled here in the name of Pan- Americanism to wish success to General Eeyes in the important mission he has undertaken. The meaning of the expression, Pan- Americanism, is va- riously interpreted according to point of view. In certain parts of Latin-America it is thought that Pan-Americanism from the North American view-

28 THE TWO AMERICAS

point signifies 'America for the North Americans.' We, as members of the Pan-American Association, know that such an interpretation is incorrect. Still, considerable vagueness surrounds the term Pan- Americanism. Of the Gods of the ancient Greek and Eoman mythology I have always been able to form definite ideas as to Jupiter, Neptune, Minerva, Venus and others, but I must confess, and I have no doubt that many of you are like me in that respect, that I have never been able to define with precision who was the great God Pan, when he existed, or where and why. In the same manner, Pan- Ameri- canism seems to be clouded with similar obscurity to the personality of the God Pan. But of all the ideas and ideals of Pan- Americanism the most real and the most practical seems to me to be that which General Eeyes is demonstrating in the fulfilment of his present mission. So, as he was the first to enable the countries of South America to be joined by steam navigation through her natural waterways, will he be a pioneer in the great movement to its spiritual and moral awakening. The object of his mission, as I understand it, is to bind the countries of Latin-America with closer bonds of friendship, to spread the propaganda of self-respect and to raise the ideals of Latin- American civilization in such a manner that, united with the great and powerful Anglo-Saxon civilization of North America, the goal

IN THE UNITED STATES 29

of " America for humanity" may be speedily reached. ' '

The term " Pan- Americanism, " so admirably in- terpreted by Dr. Eder, is no new theory or doctrine. It is merely the embodiment of the fraternal ties of international life. Although of different origin, the people of the two Americas have labored in their respective fields for the development of human hap- piness. Their interests and advancement are of mutual advantage, and it is only necessary to respect each other to inspire the respect of others and to create a united America which shall dominate the world in the arts of peace and in all those civilizing influences which make for universal good. When Pan- Americanism is sufficiently developed and un- derstood to be the ultimate expression of good will and of friendly relations among all the nations of America, designed to destroy the selfish purpose of imperialism, it will secure millions of new adherents who will enforce its principles and bring to prac- tical realization the objects and desires of true Americans in every part of the continent. The achievement of that object will fail of accomplish- ment so long as the prevailing misunderstandings and doubts exist; but that it is within measurable distance of being reached is demonstrated by the unselfish efforts now being made in that direction by

30 THE TWO AMERICAS

men of light and leading both in the Latin Republics and in the United States.

The creation of the Pan-American Union and of its offshoot, the Pan- American Society of the United States, has been abundantly justified by the wide appreciation and universal recognition of the value of their achievements in the practical spread of the good doctrine. The Pan-American Congresses, which have from time to time assembled in the lead- ing capitals of the Continent, have contributed to a better understanding amongst the various nations; but, whilst the excellent results derived from their deliberations in regard to matters pertaining to in- * ternational questions have been shown in many di- rections, the character of the discussions and the technical nature of the subjects treated, necessarily operated to prevent their publication, in detail, in the ordinary channels of public information. It is therefore with profound satisfaction that I place on record the occurrence during the past year of an event which will be of signal importance in the dis- semination of useful knowledge concerning the Latin-American countries and their relations with the United States.

I refer to the Conference on Latin- America re- cently organized by the Clark University of Worces- ter, Massachusetts, under the direction of Dr. George H. Blakeslee, Professor of History at that seat of learning; and I do not hesitate to say that

IN THE UNITED STATES 31

no gathering of a similar kind has ever excelled, either in the quality of the speakers or in the value of the knowledge imparted, the Clark University Conference on Latin- America. Those who took part in the proceedings included some of the most emi- nent authorities in the United States, embracing diplomats of high rank of both divisions of the Con- tinent ; Professors of History and International Law of Harvard, Yale, Princeton, Johns Hopkins and other universities ; noted authors of works relating to Latin- America ; prominent journalists of North and South America; and leading men representing vast financial and industrial interests. Needless to say, that the discussions of the many subjects of importance embodied in the programme were of the most illuminating character; and to such an extent was this recognized that hardly a newspaper in the United States failed to report, or to refer favorably to the Conference. That function marks a red-letter day in the propagation of Pan-Americanism, not only by arousing increased public and press interest in matters which affect the future of the whole Con- tinent, but by creating a precedent which, as time goes on, will be established by other leading educa- tional institutions in every part of America. The Clark University, which initiated these Conferences in 1911, though possessing a smaller endowment than most of the great American Universities, is by no means inferior in intellectual equipment to the

32 THE TWO AMERICAS

highest amongst them ; and to its distinguished Presi- dent, Dr. G. Stanley Hall, who was a Harvard Pro- fessor as far back as forty years ago; and to Dr. George H. Blakeslee, who so ably organized and con- ducted the Conference, and whose academic suc- cesses at the Universities of Harvard, Oxford, Ber- lin and Leipzig abundantly testify to his great eru- dition, a deep debt of gratitude is due for the emi- nent services thus rendered to the cause of inter- American union and friendship.

In dealing with the present situation of Pan- Americanism and those who have contributed to its steady advance, it would be manifestly unjust to omit reference to that great man, Senator Elihu Boot, who has done so much to strengthen the friendly relations of the Latin countries with the United States. As Secretary of State, he tem- porarily separated himself from his urgent official duties to undertake an arduous journey through the Latin Republics of America, in order to remove the misconceptions and doubts which at that time were rife in the sister Republics ; and that his memorable trip was crowned with triumph is demonstrated by the fact that his name is venerated throughout South America, and that the friendship of the larger countries of that portion of the Continent for the United States has never before been so firmly established as at the present time. Nor is it alone in his public capacity that Senator Root has

IN THE UNITED STATES 33

earned the respect and admiration of all who are interested in the development of Pan-American Union. In his private character, amidst the most pressing calls on his time, he has counselled and as- sisted in every direction to aid the cause he has so much at heart ; and there are few of the many Latin- American students in the United States who are not indebted to him for friendly advice and help given at a time when every moment was of great value.

Another distinguished figure in the movement to cement the friendly relations of all the American nations, is the Hon. John Barrett, the Director-Gen- eral of the Pan-American Union at Washington. That gentleman, who is known as the ' ' Latin- Ameri- can Ambassador to the United States," occupies — with his able and distinguished coadjutor, Senor Francisco J. Yanes, Assistant-Director of the Pan- American Union — the unique position of represent- ing the whole of the twenty-one Republics of America; and it is largely due to his enthusiasm, ability and phenomenal activity that the institution which he so skillfully directs, has attained its present proportions and importance and constitutes so val- uable an adjunct to the State Department and to the governments of all of the American Republics. A more recent recruit to the ranks of ardent support- ers of the cause of Pan- Americanism is the present Secretary of State, Mr. William Jennings Bryan, who has not only made a personal tour of the prin-

34 THE TWO AMERICAS

cipal countries of South America, for the purpose of acquainting himself with actual conditions, but has availed himself of every suitable occasion to give expression to his sympathetic and friendly feelings toward the Latin countries and people ; and that he will carry his views into practice when the oppor- tunity arises, is a matter beyond doubt in the minds of those who have followed his many activities in private and public life.

All these eminent public men are aware of the great services rendered to humanity by both races of Americans. If the discovery and conquest of the distant regions in the new world are due to the cour- age and enterprise of their original Spanish explor- ers, it is to the credit of the North Americans that those portions of the continent which for ages were ravaged by yellow fever and malaria have been ren- dered healthy and habitable; and, if in the United States there are altars to the golden calf, there are also altars dedicated to justice, charity, and respect for the rights of others. If in Latin America there has been attained a degree of civilization which has elicited the admiration of the world, there are also in the United States, that asylum of the disinherited, vast numbers of generous men possessing the ele- vated ideals of the founders of that great Republic ; and many of those, together with America's great captains of industry, are using their intelligence,

IN THE UNITED STATES 35

their energy and their fortunes in promoting the advance of education, science, industry and art.

President Monroe proclaimed the doctrine of ' 'America for the Americans," which surely implied that that eminent statesman included the Ibero- Americans as well as those of the north. The de- votees of modern imperialism in the United States appear to reject this view by their belief that the term "Americans" signifies only those born under the Stars and Stripes; and that they are the abso- lute owners of the two Americas, although, as I have already said, that spirit of mischievous exaggeration is, happily, confined to very narrow limits. At one of The Hague Conferences the present President of the Argentine Eepublic, Dr. Roque Saenz Peiia, who was one of his country's delegates, suggested the substitution of "America for Humanity," in place of the formula enunciated by President Monroe, doubtless for the reason that a convenient misinter- pretation of the term "Americans" might lead to difficulties and ultimately to intervention in the in- ternal affairs of some of the smaller Republics. In- stances of this kind may be seen in the case of Central America during the epoch of the filibusters ; in Chile at the time of the scandal with American sailors; in Santo Domingo; and at the present day in Nicaragua, where United States troops are in control in the capital, Managua, under the pretext that they are there for the protection of American

36 THE TWO AMERICAS

citizens. Therefore as imperialism is always of the same character, whether applied to civilized people or to savages, whether it be exercised by a Rameses II over Egyptians, by an Alexander over Greeks, by a Napoleon over the French, or by jingoes of the United States over Latin-Americans, it is a neces- sity that the weaker nations should resist its en- croachment upon their domestic affairs. The doc- trine of Saenz Pena, just and humane in its concep- tion, has been cultivated and carried into practice in Brazil, Argentina and Chile, where all the foreign elements have become assimilated with the national character and the generous qualities of the people. In those countries, as in time will occur in all the other Latin Republics, the earlier foreign immi- grants have produced a race which has acquired the highest ideals and the fervent patriotism of the de- scendants of the Spanish conquistadores ; and the confirmation of this statement may be found in the recent declarations of Ferri and Clemenceau as a result of their visits to the Argentine Republic. Seeking Italians and French in the sons of their compatriots who had emigrated to that country, they found ardent Argentines of great physical and intel- lectual strength inspired by a genuine love of coun- try, which qualities are characteristic of nearly all Ibero- Americans of mixed blood. It is in this sense that I understand and accept the doctrine of Saenz Pena, in order that it may benefit the people of those

IN THE UNITED STATES 37

countries in which the great future of the world lies.

There is also in the United States a pendant to the Monroe Doctrine which might be described as the Lodge Doctrine, its existence having arisen out of a resolution submitted to and approved by the United States Senate, by the distinguished Senator from the State of Massachusetts. That resolution declared, in effect, that the United States would regard as an act of hostility any concession given to non-American Governments in the ports of any country whence the security of the Panama Canal might be threatened. The people of Latin- America see in this doctrine the possibility of its being inter- preted by imperialists into an attack upon their most sacred right — their sovereignty ; and it is with this view operating in their minds that efforts are being directed to establish union among them and to effect the complete abandonment of revolutionary movements in order that their strength and their independence may be as manifest beyond, as within, their borders.

I was privileged while in New York to have con- versations with many eminent men, including Car- dinal Farley, Mr. Archer Huntington, Mr. Andrew Carnegie, Mr. Thomas A. Edison, and other nota- bilities, all of whom expressed their earnest sympa- thy with my labors ; but of the many tributes paid

84116

38 THE TWO AMERICAS

to me in the United States,* that which I regard most highly was a banquet given to me by the Ex- plorers' Club of New York, with Admiral Peary presiding. At that function I was also invited to lecture upon my early explorations in the Amazon regions and the changes which have been wrought in the heart of South America in the thirty years since I first entered upon the perilous adventure. Seated at the table, which was adorned by many plants and beautiful flowers, suggesting a tropical scene, there were notable explorers, historians, geographers and others who figure prominently in different branches of human study ; and by all of them I was accorded an extremely cordial reception; but my principal pleasure was derived from the fact that these many distinguished American citizens should be so deeply interested in the development of that remote and vast territory which, in my younger days, I had penetrated in the face of almost insur- mountable obstacles in the cause of American civi- lization and progress.

From early childhood, when I commenced the study of geography, I was always attracted by the mystery of the immense forests of the Amazon, and I ultimately formed the idea of exploring them with the object of opening up new and fertile lands for

* While in New York I was also entertained by the American Bankers' Association, the Foreign Newspaper Association and other important bodies.

IN THE UNITED STATES 39

commerce and for the territorial extension of my country. In my first voyage of discovery I was ac- companied only by the savages of those regions, but I was later joined by my brothers, Enrique and Nestor, and our explorations continued for many years until my brother Nestor was devoured by the cannibals of Putumayo and my brother Enrique died a victim of yellow fever.

The relation of these matters to the later develop- ments of South America is sufficiently established to give general interest to the subject of the lecture which I delivered in response to the courteous invi- tation of the Explorers' Club. I therefore make no apology for its insertion in a somewhat abridged form, in these pages.

CHAPTER IV

MY EARLY EXPLORATIONS

AS is well known, it was at the Island of San Salvador (Cat Island), not far from the coast of South America, where Columbus first touched with his companions. During the years following the discovery the conquerors penetrated from the coast of the Atlantic to the interior of Venezuela and Ecuador. Nunez de Balboa, crossing the Isthmus of Panama, discovered the Pacific, and, following his footsteps, the two Pizarros, Almagro, Valdivia and Balalcazar conquered Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia and Chile, while Magellan discovered the Straits which bear his name, and Solis and Cabral discovered the Bio de la Plata and Brazil.

Those daring conquerors, men of iron as they were, opened pathways with the machete through the impenetrable tropical forests, peopled by the aborigines, with whom they had to combat, forests full of vipers and poisonous insects; but, besides facing these elements of dangerous opposition, they were the victims of fever, malaria, and other infec- tious diseases. The conditions of primitive nature, the combats with the native Indians, lack of provi-

40

EARLY EXPLORATIONS 41

sions, and an absolute ignorance of the countries which they were penetrating furnished the reasons why the conquest did not advance beyond those points at which there existed centres of human populations, occupied, in the territories which are to-day Venezuela and Colombia, by the Carib In- dians, Chibchas and Quichoas in Ecuador, Peru and Bolivia; in a part of Chile by the Incas and the Almoras ; in the greater part of Chile by the invin- cible Araucanos; and in the Rio de la Plata by the Guaranis and the Guayas.

During the colonial period, after South America had become independent of the mother country and was divided into different republics, up to a few years ago, the immense region of the continent which extends from the central mass of the Andes to the Atlantic, and which in its make-up has an extent comparable to that of the ocean between America and Europe — that is to say, from four to five thousand miles — was completely unknown at many points. One of these regions, and one of the largest in extent, is situated between Colombia and Brazil. Through it run the great rivers known as the Putumayo and Caqueta, both affluents of the Amazon.

From my very childhood I felt myself attracted by the mystery of those immense forests. I used to cherish plans for exploring them, and of open- ing across them a communication with the Atlantic,

42 THE TWO AMERICAS

thus giving new channels for commerce and for the glory of my fatherland.

My first exploration was made accompanied only by the savages of those territories. My two broth- ers, Henry and Nestor, were with me when I made the next explorations. My brother Henry explored for several years the River Napo and the Eiver Pastaya of Ecuador, also the different rivers of Peru, known respectively as the Huallago, Ucayali, Yurua and the Yavari, as well as the two rivers of Brazil and Bolivia known as the Purus and the Madera, and finally the Tocantins and the Upper and Lower Parana of Brazil, Paraguay and the Ar- gentine Eepublic. These explorations lasted over a period of several years and were made at our own personal expense, without government aid. During our travels my two brothers lost their lives; the younger one, Nestor, was devoured by the Putu- mayo cannibals; Henry perished as a victim of yellow fever.

We started from the City of Pasto, situated on the summit of the Andes, under the equinoctial line. The immense region which extends from that city for more than 4,000 miles to the Atlantic was then completely unknown. We traversed on foot the great mass of the Cordillera of the Andes, rising more than 12,000 feet above the sea level up to the region of perpetual snow. Where this ceases there are immense plains, called parames, upon which

EARLY EXPLORATIONS 43

neither trees nor flowers grow and where animal life completely disappears. We wandered for a whole month in these cold solitudes, guided only by the compass. The plains are covered with a fog as dense as that of the high latitudes of the north in winter. There were days in which we had to remain on the same spot in semi-darkness without being able to advance a single step, the thermometer falling to 10 degrees, Centigrade,* below zero, a temperature made unbearable by the lack of proper shelter and shoes. We used a kind of shoe called ' ' alpargata, ' ' made of henequen (hemp), which only covered half of the foot. Leather shoes cannot be used as these plains are covered with a thick layer of mud, in which the traveler, while walking, sinks to the knee. After marching for a month through this frigid desert in which, due to the intense cold, two other members of the expedition perished, we reached the limits of the solitary pampas, which appeared like the product of nature in progress of formation. We were at the eastern watershed of the Andes. An ocean of light and verdure appeared before our eyes, in marked contrast to the shadows and soli- tudes which we had just traversed. We had before us the abrupt declivity of the Cordillera, which descended in some parts almost vertically, then by

* Centigrade may be converted into Fahrenheit by the simple formula of multiplying the number of degrees by 9, dividing the product by 5, and adding 32.

44 THE TWO AMERICAS

slightly inclined slopes, and beyond, in perfect levels, for many miles down to the ocean. Over the granite walls of the Andes the water rushed in majestic cataracts, flowing afterwards in torrents through valleys of the Cordillera. Upon reaching the plain these streams are converted into broad and beautiful rivers, and, like great ribbons of silver on an emerald field, are lost in the distant horizon. In the forests the luxurious tropical flora were seen in all their beauty. The trees appeared peopled with birds of all colors. In a word, it was life which we had before us, and chaos we had left behind.

To penetrate these unknown forests we opened roads with a machete through brambles, briars and creepers which obstructed our passage. Arriving at the vertical slopes of the Cordillera, in places which were otherwise impassable, we had to descend by the aid of rope.

For fifteen days we continued our march through these virgin forests, inhabited by vipers and wild beasts, which fortunately did not cause us any harm. We crossed the torrents over bridges of trees which we threw across them, or forded them on foot; in crossing one of these mountain torrents we lost two of our carriers, and the expedition was thereby reduced to only six men. After great fa- tigue, and already exposed to a temperature of 30 degrees centigrade, we arrived at a river navigable by canoes, on the shores of which lives the tribe of

EARLY EXPLORATIONS 45

the Mocoas. These Indians, although savages, are hospitable and not cannibals. We remained with this tribe one month, during which we procured from them a canoe to continue our expedition to the Amazon Eiver, and six Indians, who were familiar with only six hundred miles of down stream. They informed us that they had never gone beyond that distance because those who previously dared to proceed further were devoured by the cannibal tribes which inhabit the other half of the river down to the Amazon.

We launched our canoe, following the course of this unknown river, and gave it the name by which it was known by the savages, "Putumayo," mean- ing, in the Siona dialect, clear water. After two days of navigation we arrived at a point which we named La Sofia, after my wife. Here, the river is six feet deep at all times, and is now the terminus of steamboat navigation.

It took us a month from La Sofia to reach the last point known by the savages of Mocoa, a distance of 600 miles. Through all this territory the river is navigable for steamers of five feet draught. Its shores are covered with dense forests, in which the rubber or "jeve," cocoa, sarsaparllla, vegetable ivory or "tagua," ipecacuanha, and many other medicinal plants and a variety of green woods abound. We visited the nomadic tribes, the mem- bers of which treated us with kindness and even

46 THE TWO AMERICAS

generosity, making us presents of smoked provi- sions, the product of hunting and fishing.

These tribes are the Cocaenntis, Montepas, To- halia, and the Inquisilla, all finely built men who constantly migrate in search of game and fish. They have but few straw huts. They cultivate small plan- tations of bananas and yucco in the clearings made in the woods, felling the trees with stone axes and then burning the roots. They go almost naked and each tribe preserves the most absolute autonomy with respect to the others. The dialect they speak is a mixture of Siona and Quipehua. They have no other religion than the worship of evil spirits, with which their priests, or Payes, pretend to be in com- munication, for which purpose they intoxicate them- selves with the juice of a narcotic plant called by them Yoco. It is always necessary to be on good terms with the Payes, who exercise a dominating influence over their companions. The number of individuals of which these tribes are composed, ac- cording to the information we gathered, is about 20,000.

We then entered the region of cannibal Indians. The first we encountered were the powerful and warlike Miranas. Our companions, the Indians of Mocoa, notified us categorically that from that place on they would go no further and that we would have to procure a canoe and oarsmen from that tribe, because they were going to return. We landed, and,

EARLY EXPLORATIONS 47

with an interpreter, went to the first settlement. Here we found the powerful Chief "Chua" or 1 ' tiger, ' ' a handsome young man of fine and athletic frame, some thirty years of age. He received us as friends and gave us his hand, which, as is implied by the same token among civilized people, is an unequivocal sign of friendship among these sav- ages. He then invited us to enter his hut. I was the first white man whom these savages had seen, and for that reason I was the object of their child- like curiosity. They were celebrating a feast of the full moon and offered us their dishes of human flesh, of Indians called Multotes, enemies of the Miranas, who had been made prisoners.

Through the interpreter we asked Chua — who from that date on was our friend and always re- mained faithful, carrying his affection so far as to take my name, calling himself thenceforth Rafael Chua — to give us canoes, provisions and some In- dians to continue our trip toward the Amazon River. The generous Indian promised to give us all we might need. We then took leave of our companions, the Mocoas, and became the guests of the Miranas, remaining among them fifteen days, during which time we accompanied them on their hunting and fishing expeditions. After this Chua gave us a large canoe and ten robust young men as a crew to con- tinue our trip to the Amazon.

On a beautiful morning we took leave of our

48 THE TWO AMERICAS

friend Chua and put out in our canoe on the waters of the Putumayo, which here has a width of more than 900 yards and is ten feet deep. There were still 600 miles ahead of us before reaching the Amazon River. For the whole of this distance the river is navigable, at all times, to steamers of a draft of* nine feet. The forests which cover its shores abound in the same vegetation as those we had just traversed. We visited and made friends with the cannibal tribes of the Huitotes, Benecio, Oro jones, Carijones, Garepanara and Capulla. All these received and treated us with kindness and generosity. Indeed, during the ten years in which we made explorations on the Putumayo, on the Amazon Kiver and its other tributaries we were never threatened or attacked by the savages, which unfortunately was not the case with my younger brother Nestor, who was devoured by the cannibals of Putumayo and thus paid with his life in the flower of youth for his love of work and for the cause of knowledge and progress in America.

We spent two months in descending the lower part of the river, being detained by making explora- tions ashore and remaining several days visiting the different tribes. These tribes speak the Siona language, and the number of individuals of which they are composed, according to the information ob- tained, is over 60,000. These tribes live in continual warfare with one another so as to take prisoners

EARLY EXPLORATIONS 49

for their festivals and to sell them to merchants who used to ascend the Putumayo some 200 miles from the Amazon, and who, in exchange, gave them alcohol, tobacco, strings of glass beads, mirrors, and other trifles. During the time which I passed in that region with my brothers we put an end to this barbarous trade, imprisoning the traders in human flesh and delivering them afterwards to the Bra- zilian authorities, who dealt out to them well-mer- ited punishment.

The most disagreeable experience of this, our first, exploration was not the heat of 45 degrees C. which we had to endure in an open canoe, nor the fatigue of rowing all day, nor the poor and scanty food, nor the dangers which we incurred in the midst of cannibals, but it was in the nights which we had to pass on the immense river banks, on burning sands, parched by the sun during the daytime, in which we had to dig a sort of grave to bury ourselves, leaving only the nose uncovered, as the Indians were in the habit of doing, in order to protect ourselves against the bites of mosquitoes, which abound in such number that the atmosphere is literally thick with them. To such an extent do these insects fill and obscure the air that, on clap- ping the hands together, there remained between them a solid mass of mosquitoes.

With the first dawn of the morning these pests

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disappeared, and we emerged from our graves, that had served as improvised dormitories and in which we had lain naked, covered only with a mixture of sand and moisture, which hardened on our skins with the cold of the morning. We would then jump into the river to free ourselves of this heavy and dis- gusting covering and put on the scant and tattered clothes which yet remained to us. We journeyed during all the hours of daylight, and only stopped for the purpose of hunting and fishing to supply our needs. At night we prepared the food which we had procured during the day.

Such was our life during the months which we spent on the Putumayo, and which seemed to us an eternity. We suffered the same fatiguing labors as our savage companions, not only in the manage- ment of our little and fragile canoe, but also in hunting, fishing, and in the expeditions that we made on foot; and it is our conviction that it was this fact that gained us the affection and respect of the savages, who recognize no other superiority than that of strength.

At last, after great hardships, after crossing the Cordillera and going either on foot or in a canoe over the 1,400 miles of the Putumayo, we arrived at the Amazon River. Our efforts had been crowned with complete success. We had attained the object which induced us to undertake this expedition, which was nothing less than to discover a river

EARLY EXPLORATIONS 51

navigable for steamers which could afford means of communication between Colombia and the Amazon.

The point where the Putumayo, or lea, as the Brazilians call it, united with the Amazon River is called San Antonio, and is some 1,800 miles distant from the ocean. We then arrived at a place which might be called civilized in comparison with the regions through which we had just passed. A small steamer arrived there monthly, plying between Para and Iquitos. We took passage in it for the former city, where we arrived six months after our depar- ture from Pasto in Colombia.

I published a short account of our trip, which caused a great sensation and was reproduced in all the daily papers of Brazil. It was the first time that a traveler had crossed the American Continent from the Pacific coast of Colombia in order to reach Para. In the latter city, hospitable as are all Brazilian cities, we were the objects of many mani- festations of affection and esteem on the part of the authorities and prominent citizens.

From Para we went to Bio de Janeiro, touching on our way the cities of San Luis de Maranhao, Ceara, Bio Grande del Norte, Pernambuco and Bahia. The voice of the press had preceded us, giving information of our expedition, and in all these cities, as well as in Bio de Janeiro, we were received with enthusiasm. On the day of our ar-

52 THE TWO AMERICAS

rival at Bio de Janeiro we received a note from the Governor of the palace welcoming us in the name of the Emperor, Dom Pedro II, and informing us that the latter would receive us the following day at 4 o'clock in the afternoon in his palace of San Cris- tobal.

We arrived at the palace at the appointed hour. The burning sun, rain, hunger and all the fatigue we had suffered during six months while crossing the continent had reduced my body to a skeleton and covered it with a kind of parchment. Thus when I made my appearance in the reception hall before the arrival of the Emperor and in which were all the grandees of the Empire in their gala uniforms I noticed that I was looked upon as an intruder. Nobody knew who I was and I remained isolated from all. A few moments afterward the Master of Ceremonies called my name, and, conducting me through the assembly which then saluted me with deference, he showed me into the sanctum of the Emperor, by whom I was received, not only cor- dially, but with great affection.

Dom Pedro II was of majestic and commanding stature, of frank and honest countenance and fair like a German. In his great blue eyes could be discerned the kindness and nobility of his soul; he was possessed of a highly cultivated intellect and was a savant in the highest sense of the word. He spoke several languages fluently and we carried on

EARLY EXPLORATIONS 53

our conversation in French. He had a passion for geography and for the exploration of the immense territories of his Empire. For an hour we discussed the map which I had made of my expedition and in which he showed great interest. He accompanied me to the reception hall where he presented and recommended me to all those who were present.

I remained two months in Bio de Janeiro during which I was the recipient of all kinds of polite manifestations from that society whose hospitable character is proverbial. The Government of Brazil generously offered to supply us with ships and money to enable us to continue our explorations which, however, I did not accept, as I had neither asked nor accepted them from my own country, all our explorations having been made with funds be- longing to my brothers and myself.

From Bio de Janeiro we returned to Para, where we bought the steamer Tundama, named after our native province in Colombia, and which we manned and provisioned for the purpose of making the voyage of the Putumayo to La Sofia. In our steamer we ascended the Amazon Biver without difficulty to San Antonio. There we entered the waters of the Putumayo. I can say that it was one of the hap- piest days of my life when I saw for the first time the Colombian flag float from the stern of our vessel. This vessel was to extend the conquest of civiliza- tion and progress for our country and improve the

54 THE TWO AMERICAS

horrible condition of thousands of savages who at the mere contact with civilized man felt as if struck by the electric spark of that same civilization, for they not only treated us hospitably but very gen- erously.

We spent two months navigating the 1,200 miles of this river to La Sofia and there we had to procure fuel for the steamer.

While passing through the territory of the savage tribes that months before had seen us destitute of all resources and had assisted us to continue the expedition, we were able to reward them generously, permitting them to admire the objects and curiosi- ties of civilization until then unknown to them. To our friend Chua, the chief of the powerful tribe of the Miranas, we made a present of arms, which, needless to say, he never used against us ; and imple- ments of agriculture, seeds, and clothes for his numerous wives. We finished our voyage at La Sofia, where the swift current of the river prevents a further advance of steamers. From that port, a hundred miles distant, the immense Cordillera of the Andes rises majestically, appearing on the horizon like a gigantic world of bronze crowned with snow, about which, toward the South in Ecuador, the vol- canoes of Pichincha, Cotopaxi, Chimborazo, and others throw forth fire and smoke. Beyond those elevated summits was our home calling us back with all those allurements of affection which are irre-

EARLY EXPLORATIONS 55

sistible to the soul. In order to reach the much-de- sired goal we had again to cross on foot the dense woods and icy plains through which we had plowed our first way. Later we united the Putumayo Eiver with the City of Pasto by a bridle road, over which an important trade is carried on to-day.

What I have said of the Putumayo Eiver is also applicable to all the other rivers and forests ex- plored by myself and brothers. The Indians are now partly civilized and the conditions of life have improved. An export business of some tens of millions of dollars annually is now maintained in rubber, cocoa, medicinal plants, etc., and this trade fills with its products the holds of hundreds of river steamers.

Explorations of the same laborious character as that which I have just described I subsequently undertook during the course of several years with my brothers Henry and Nestor, on the Rivers Ca- quoit, Napo, Ucayali, Yabari, Yurua, and others. My brother Henry died of malignant fever while exploring the Yabari River and the Peruvians erected a sumptuous mausoleum to his memory in the cemetery at Iquitos. Nestor, my younger brother, was lost while exploring the forests of Putumayo, where he was devoured by cannibals. We were able to recover only his bones. These I placed with the remains of my brother Henry and

56 THE TWO AMERICAS

carried them to Bogota, the capital of Colombia, where they now lie at rest in the cathedral.

Thus I explored, in company with my brothers Henry and Nestor, the Amazon River and the greater part of its affluents. Thus we discovered some unknown rivers. We established steam navi- gation in others and we brought into communica- tion, by means of an overland route, the river navi- gation with the towns on the Andes (from the river Putumayo to Pasto). In many of the rivers which at that time were unexplored, to-day there are hun- dreds of steamers carrying industry and civilization to the virgin forests where cannibals formerly wan- dered. The exportation which is to-day made pos- sible by these rivers, of rubber alone, which grows wild in the forest, is worth several million dollars yearly. In the forests there grows, in abundance, wild cocoa, which is exported in considerable quan- tity, besides all kinds of fine woods and medicinal plants. Game of all kinds is found and in the waters Prof. Agassiz classified more than 500 spe- cies of fish. The area of the territory that these rivers irrigate is more than 4,000,000 square miles, which are still virgin soil, though rich fields for agriculture and human industry.

I wish to call attention to a most important fact and that is that the proposed Inter-Continental Bail- way line, which will cross South America, could easily, by means of some branches, be connected with

EARLY EXPLORATIONS 57

the immense system of river communications formed by the Amazon and its tributaries that run through a territory of virgin soil, and in which all kinds of mineral and agricultural resources are abundant. These rivers run through the territory of all the South American countries in such manner that they can, or do, communicate with each other by means of river navigation or short connecting railway tracks.

As an example of the great facilities which these communications would afford, let us suppose the Inter-Continental Eailway completed and that a traveler were to start from New York. He would traverse the United States, Mexico, Guatemala, Sal- vador, Honduras, Nicaragua, Costa Rica, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia and Argentina. At Buenos Aires he could embark on the Eio de la Plata or Parana, ascending the same after traversing Para- guay, in order to seek the communication with the Tocatins Eiver, across the Sierra Esclavona. He would embark on the Tocatins, descend by it to the Amazon, then he would go to the Madera or Purus, and thence to Bolivia. He would then continue to the Yabari, Yurua, Huallaga or Morona, and by them he would proceed to Peru. By the Tigre, the Pastasa, or Hape, he would visit Ecuador. By the Caqueta or Putumayo he would visit Colombia. By the Eio Negro, which communicates with the Orinoco, he would visit Venezuela, and traveling by

58 THE TWO AMERICAS

the Meta to Cabuyaro at a distance of 60 miles from Bogota and returning to the Amazon by the same route, he would arrive at the City of Iquitos and there take the steamer to New York.

When my brothers and myself made these ex- plorations at the time of Stanley's African discov- eries the Amazon and some of its great affluents were hardly navigated by even small steamers. Other branches of the Amazon were navigated only by canoes, and the rivers Putumayo and Caqueta were almost unknown. The civilized population living in those countries was very sparse and even the principal cities contained hardly over 1,000 in- habitants— many of them but a few hundred. No important commerce existed, and yellow fever and malaria claimed one out of every ten persons bold enough to penetrate those regions. Places which were formerly villages and small hamlets are to-day cities of tens of thousands of inhabitants with all modern improvements, and by means of sanitation they will become cities such as Panama, Colon and Havana are to-day. Among those cities are Iquitos, with more than 20,000 inhabitants, at a distance of 3,000 miles from the ocean ; and Manaos, which has the position of St. Louis, Missouri, as being near the mouths of the Eivers Madera, the Purus and the Bio Negro, it will soon have from 80,000 to 100,000 inhabitants.

These two cities can be called maritime ports, for

EARLY EXPLORATIONS 59

they are connected with the ports of Europe and North America by regular lines of steamships. The City of Para, which at the period first referred to had a population of only 30,000 inhabitants, to-day has over 100,000. The steamships which were then counted by dozens are to-day counted by hundreds. The railway lines are beginning to unite cities situ- ated in the Cordilleras of the Andes with the navi- gable rivers, as is the case with the railway of Mamaro, just finished, and which unites the River Madera to the Madre de Dios in Bolivia. The rail- ways of Peru are advancing to a point where they are joining with the navigable part of the Rivers Tambo and TJcayalo. At a near date communica- tion between the Rivers Tocantins and Parana is bound to be made by means of a railway across the Sierra Esclavona, not a matter of great length. This will finally unite the basins of the Amazon and the River Plate, and navigation by steamships to an extent of 15,000 miles, which the Amazon has helped increase thereby by more than 3,000 miles, will be opened. When, by means of the Casiquiare Arm which unites the basin of the Amazon with that of the Orinoco, these two systems of navigation be- come joined, it will be increased by 2,000 miles more, which will give a total of 20,000 miles of river navi- gation by steamships of trans- Atlantic capacity.

If you compare the development which the ter- ritories explored by Stanley in Africa have had in

60 THE TWO AMERICAS

the same space of time, comparing also the natural riches and climate of both continents and consider- ing that Asia can hardly nourish and shelter its growing population any more than can Europe, what I said in my lecture at Madrid last September and what I repeated in Paris would seem to be true, namely, that ' ' the hope of humanity in the twentieth century lies in South America."

Justice impels me to declare that credit for the greatest and most fruitful conquest of these modern times is due to the United States of America — that is to say, the conquest of the tropical regions by means of sanitation. Where formerly yellow fever, malaria, and other infectious diseases reigned su- preme, retarding colonization and impeding prog- ress, to-day on account of this advance in sanita- tion, Panama, Cuba and Porto Kico are as healthful as New York, Buenos Aires or Paris. It is neces- sary that knowledge of these modern means of sanitation should be spread all over the world in order that mankind may be benefited equally. Ex- plorers have opened up tropical regions, but modern methods of sanitation are necessary to make them habitable and so, useful to humanity.

The Panama Canal, the most stupendous work yet accomplished by the human race, will give so great an impulse to civilization in the tropical re- gions and in the countries known in South America as the "A, B, C" — Argentina, Brazil and Chile —

EARLY EXPLORATIONS 61

that it will not be very long before they will all be, not only rivals of the United States, but rivals also of Europe. In the constant progress of the human race immigration has been from east to west. From the heart of Asia it passed to Syria, from there to Egypt, from Egypt to Greece, from Greece to Eome — that is to say, to Europe — whence it continues its march toward North and South America.

In 1915 when, in San Francisco, the Panama Exposition will be officially opened to celebrate the opening of the Canal, the questions at issue between my fatherland, Colombia, and the United States, I feel sure, will have been settled in a manner credi- table to the honor and dignity of the two countries, likewise in harmony with the eternal principles of justice, as is demanded to-day by the enlightened public opinion of the people of the United States.

CHAPTER V

THE PANAMA CANAL

rilHE construction of such a work as that of the •*• Panama Canal has been projected ever since the discovery of America and from the time when the heroic Balboa traversed the Isthmus and the surrounding mountains, struggling with the warlike savages until he advanced, fully armed, into the waters of the Pacific and took possession of them in the name of Spain.

In 1534 the Emperor Charles V issued a decree ordering the local judges and other officials to have prepared designs and charts of the lands and moun- tains of the district, and to furnish, with all dili- gence, an estimate of the cost of the work and the approximate time it would take to complete, prompt attention being requested on the ground that the matter was "of paramount importance." Later in the same century further efforts were made in Spain for the construction of the Canal by that country. On various occasions during the succeeding cen- turies spasmodic attempts were made in different quarters to revive the movement, but, owing to polit-

62

THE PANAMA CANAL 63

ical disturbances in Europe and to other causes, no serious measures for carrying out the scheme were adopted until after the establishment of the Spanish-American Republics. Following that im- portant event many concessions were granted, both by Colombia and Nicaragua, for the construction of a canal to join the waters of the Atlantic and the Pacific, but with the exception of the concession of 1878, granted by Colombia, and that of 1887 by Nicaragua, no construction work was executed under any of them.

The first practical step in the direction of the construction of the Canal took place in 1846, when the United States entered into a treaty with Colom- bia (then New Granada), and it is from that date that I propose to trace the history of the negotia- tions which led to the construction of the Canal, and to the grave attack upon the sovereignty of Colom- bia which has caused the world to stand aghast at the methods of American diplomacy. The Treaty ] with Colombia gave to the United States the right to cross the Isthmus by means of communication therein established, the United States, in exchange for this privilege, guaranteeing to Colombia her sovereignty over the territory of the Isthmus of Panama; and it was in respect of the violation of that Treaty by the United States that I was ap- pointed by my Government, in 1903, as Chief of the Mission sent to Washington to present an offi-

64 THE TWO AMERICAS

cial protest and to negotiate, if possible, for an adjustment of the difficulty.

In 1850, Great Britain, realizing the immense importance of such a connection between the two oceans, both for herself and for Canada, made a treaty with the United States known as the Clayton- \ Bulwer Treaty, whereby the contracting parties agreed to construct and operate the Canal jointly and not to open it without mutual consent. In 1881 the Government of Colombia gave to Mr. Napoleon Bonaparte Wyse a concession for the construction of the Canal which was to be of an international character. Mr. Wyse transferred this concession to a company formed by De Lesseps under the title of "The Universal Company of the International Canal of Panama," and in a period of eight years that company expended $350,000,000 upon the work of construction.

With the growing necessity, increased by the war with Spain, for the United States to have closer and easier communication between its coasts on the Pacific and those of the Atlantic, which then and now involves the doubling of Cape Horn and 13,000 miles of navigation, public opinion demanded the construction of the Canal, and President McKinley appointed a Commission to report upon the best route for a canal "under the control, direction and ownership of the United States." Two years after

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Copyright by Underwood & Underwood, £4. Y.

FIRST VESSEL PASSES THROUGH GATUN LOCKS OF PANAMA CANAL

THE PANAMA CANAL 65

its appointment the Commission presented an exag- gerated report, favoring the route of Nicaragua, doubtless for the reason that the French Company, which held the concession for the construction of a Panama Canal, made demands of an exorbitant na- ture in the terms of the payment to be made for the concession and the work already done. The French Company was aware that the Commission only valued the purchasable rights at $40,000,000; and, being afraid that in the event of their insisting upon a larger payment the Nicaragua route might be chosen, the French Company agreed to sell its rights for the sum fixed by the Commission, where- upon that body submitted a supplementary report in favor of the Panama route.

In 1901 the United States Government succeeded in persuading Great Britain to substitute for the Clayton-Bulwer Treaty another, known as the Hay- Pauncefote Treaty, which, under certain conditions, gave to the United States absolute and exclusive control over the construction and operation of the Panama Canal. The United States was thus at that time in possession of the French Company's rights and in the enjoyment of the privilege to con- struct the Canal as and how it wished, subject to terms being agreed with Colombia for the cession of the territory of the Isthmus and the granting of the corresponding rights. For the latter purpose a

66 THE TWO AMERICAS

convention was entered into with Colombia in 1903 and a treaty, known as the Hay-Herran Treaty, was signed for ratification by the Congresses of both countries. Under that treaty $10,000,000 was to be paid to Colombia in consideration of the territory and rights ceded to the United States, and to this was to be added a subsequent payment of $250,000 per annum to commence nine years after confirma- tion of the treaty. For reasons explained in this chapter, the ratification of the treaty was refused by the Colombian Senate with the result that the Gov- ernment of the United States, taking advantage of the revolution in Panama, accelerated the forma- tion of the new Republic, with which it made a treaty in the identical terms of that existing with Colombia for the cession of the territorial and other rights involved. The proofs of these latter state- ments I furnished in the note I addressed to the United States Government in December, 1903, in my capacity as head of the Colombian Mission to Washington.

If the causes of the differences between the two Governments had been of lesser importance Colom- bia would have readily made concessions to the United States in order to maintain the friendly rela- tions with that country which had for so long been uninterrupted. Inasmuch, however, as the approval of the Hay-Herran Treaty not only affected valua-

THE PANAMA CANAL 67

ble and precious interests but equally the sovereign- ty and independence of Colombia, my Government immediately directed the attention of the State De- partment to Paragraph 5 of Article 35 of the Treaty of 1846, then still in existence. That Paragraph embodies the following provision :*

If, unfortunately, any of the Articles contained in this treaty shall in any other manner be violated, it is ex- pressly stipulated that neither of the contracting parties shall commit or authorize acts of reprisal, nor declare war against the other by reason of injuries or damages sustained, until the party which considers itself offended shall have previously presented to the other, with satis- factory proofs, details of the alleged injuries or damages sustained, in respect to which justice and satisfaction shall have been demanded and denied in violation of legal obligations and international law.

The formal exposition of the case as provided by the Article quoted was duly submitted to the State Department at Washington, together with a ref- erence to the Hay-Herran Treaty of 1903, which distinctly stipulated that:

When this Convention has been signed by the contract- ing parties it shall be ratified in conformity with the laws of the respective Governments.

This provision was essential to the celebration of the contract, as in terms of the Colombian Laws

* This paragraph is a translation of the Spanish original.

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and Constitution no treaty entered into by the Gov- ernment can become effective until it has been ap- proved by Congress. Thus it is clear that in ac- cordance with the Law of Nations, which renders void any pact made by an incompetent authority, and according to the Colombian Constitution, not to mention the existence of the same constitutional principle in the United States which calls for a con- firmation by the Senate of all treaties made by the Government, the Hay-Herran Treaty could under no circumstances have become effective without the requirements here quoted. Yet in spite of this very clear provision the United States Government re- sented the rejection of the Treaty by the Colombian Senate and indirectly produced the Eevolution of Panama and the unlawful dismemberment of Co- lombian territory.

Although at the time no reasons were assigned by the Colombian Senate for declining to confirm the Treaty it was well known to the American Minister at Bogota and naturally to the State Department at Washington that the reason for the action of the Colombian Senate was that the Constitution of that country expressly prohibits the cession of sovereign rights. It was, moreover, felt that the construction of public works on so extensive a scale and the permanent occupation of Colombian territory would occasion frequent collisions by the existence in Pan-

THE PANAMA CANAL 69

ama of two Public Authorities, one national and the other foreign.

The subsequent action of the United States ren- dered it impossible for the Colombian Government and Senate to carry out their repeatedly expressed desire to modify the terms of the Treaty so that it might be made acceptable to all parties, the Amer- ican Minister having informed my Government in so many words that the United States would de- cline to accept any modification whatsoever in the terms of the treaty. This statement was accompli-"] nied by the threat that unless the treaty was given the force of law the United States Congress would, at its following session, ''adopt measures which every friend of Colombia would regret. "

Shortly afterwards, and before the revolt which proclaimed the independence of Panama, agents of the authors of the rebellion were holding confer- ences, according to the statements of leading Amer- ican newspapers, with persons clothed with an official character by the Government of the United States, while it had been proved beyond doubt that a New York bank furnished a sum of $300,000 for the carrying out of the plot. Two days before the movement was commenced the Secretary of the Navy Department at Washington ordered American cruisers to the Atlantic and Pacific sides of the Isthmus to prevent the entry of Colombian troops into the territory of Panama.

70 THE TWO AMERICAS

A few days later, when my Government placed me in command of a military force to reestablish order in the Isthmus, these cruisers prevented our landing, and being then unaware of the causes of the attitude so taken up by the United States I directed a note to the commanding officer, Admiral Coghlan, requesting to be informed on the subject. The reply to that note by Admiral Coghlan simply stated that "his peremptory orders were to prevent the disem- barkation of Colombian troops with hostile intent within the limits of the State of Panama."

The Republic of Colombia, with a population of five million inhabitants, was at that time divided into nine departments of which Panama was the least populous, having only about 250,000 inhab- itants, while some of the others contained upwards of a million. At that time the Colombian army con- sisted of 10,000 men under arms, a force more than sufficient to have suffocated the rebellion in Panama if the Government of the United States had not pre- vented the embarkation at Puerto, Colombia,* of the roops under my command, and at Buenaventura, in the Pacific, of others under the command of various general officers.

To conclude this narrative of the circumstances in which Colombia was deprived of her sovereignty and her territory it is only necessary to add that,

* It should be understood that there is no route by land for troops to proceed from the interior of Colombia to Panama.

THE PANAMA CANAL 71

having prevented the Colombian Government from using the forces at its disposal for the suppression of the revolution, the United States Government with unusual haste, within two days of the declara- tion of its independence, recognized the Republic of Panama as a sovereign and independent State and fourteen days later entered into a treaty with that Republic guaranteeing its independence and providing for the construction of the Canal in that territory.

Even to those unaccustomed to the methods adopted by the nations of the world in the recogni- tion of newly formed States the action of the United States in relation to the Republic of Panama can leave no doubt in the minds of intelligent persons that it was a wide departure from conventional cus- tom. I will not trouble the reader with a recital of authorities on the subject. It will be sufficient for my purpose to quote the doctrine propounded by Mr. Seward, Secretary of State, in 1861 :

"We (the United States Government) freely ad- mit that a nation may and even must recognize a new State which has absolutely and unquestionably effected its independence and permanently estab- lished its sovereignty, and that a recognition under such circumstances does not afford just cause for offense on the part of the Government of the country from which that State has been separated. On the

72 THE TWO AMERICAS

other hand we insist that a nation which recog- nizes a revolutionary State with the object of assist- ing to create its sovereignty and independence gives legitimate and grave offense to the nation whose integrity has been thus invaded and makes itself responsible for just and ample satisfaction. Recog- nizing the independence of a new State and so favor- ing its admission to the family of nations is the highest possible exercise of sovereign power, be- cause in every case it affects the welfare of two countries and, frequently, the peace of the world. In the European system this power is rarely exer- cised without previous consultation with other na- tions. That system has not yet been extended to our continent, where there is even more necessity for prudence in such cases in dealing with American States than in treating with European countries. "

/ Nothing can be added, it seems to me, to this

noble and humanitarian doctrine propounded by the great man who unhappily, for the sake of his own country and of Colombia, no longer exists. If Co- lombia had not been in possession of the forces necessary to compel Panama to maintain national unity, it might have been reasonable for the United States, in a friendly manner, to have approached the de facto Government established at Panama, for the purpose of arriving at a satisfactory arrange- ment, but in view of the facts that the rebellion was

THE PANAMA CANAL 73

produced by the seduction of the troops, who, no matter how brave, had no one to fight, no entrench- ments to assault, no fortress to reduce, their services having been limited to conducting to prison the con- stituted Authorities, the best friends of the United States would hardly be likely to commend its action in this very serious matter.

Conserving our national integrity through a period of future peace, Colombia may have restored to her the elements of strength which have been sacrificed in unfortunate internal struggles and may aspire to occupy, by the physical and moral capacity of its people, a distinguished position in the Amer- ican continent. But if the act of the United States in preventing the National Government from sup- pressing revolutionary movements within its own territories is to constitute a precedent, similar out- breaks may be repeated in the future and the re- sponsibility for them will rest entirely upon the United States. Colombia has never recognized the principle of secession, chiefly because obligations and contracts entered into with foreign nations and indi- viduals are based upon the possessions of the State at the time such treaties or contracts are made. If the people of Panama, animated by the noble senti- ments which inspire men of action to secure more rapid progress, had declared their independence after victories gained against the governing or mis- governing authorities ; if they had organized a gov-

74 THE TWO AMERICAS

•v

eminent, dictated laws, and had proved to the world their fitness for self-government, without doubt they would have been entitled to recognition as an inde- pendent State by all other nations. But in the absence of all these conditions and in the attitude of the Government of the United States in its nego- tiations with Colombia it is evident that recogni- tion would have been denied to Panama if it had not possessed the best route for the Isthmian Canal.

Governments follow each other with changes of policy demanded by the circumstances of the hour, but the national sentiment of consideration of the rights of others and the sense of justice of the people never change. Jealous of the national honor, the great bulk of American citizens have never sanc- tioned the official methods adopted in 1903 to secure possession of the Isthmus, nor will they close their ears to the universal demand for reparation to that country for the violation of her sovereign rights by an American Government. That unprecedented act has largely alienated the confidence of the south in the good faith of the north, but I firmly believe that Mr. Wilson's administration, in the fulfilment of its undoubtedly sincere profession of those high principles which create respect for the countries which enforce them, will remove that blot from the national escutcheon.

The claims of Colombia in this matter do not

THE PANAMA CANAL 75

merely embody monetary compensation for the ma- terial losses involved in the dismemberment of her territory. They include as a paramount considera- tion a recognition of the moral wrong inflicted upon her and, by reflection, upon all the other Latin countries by an attack on her territorial integrity, solemnly guaranteed at an earlier period by binding treaty obligations of the United States.

Colombia, of all the countries of America, will probably derive proportionately the greatest advan- tages from the operation of the Canal, although the entire continent will be largely benefited by the striking changes it will produce in market condi- tions. It is certain, however, with the advantages of distance in favor of New York and of all the ports of the two Americas, with the lakes of the interior and the immense waterways of South America navigable for a distance of 18,000 miles, that surprising results will occur in the progress of the two divisions of the continent. The agricul- tural countries will obtain their fertilizing nitrates from Chile with greater rapidity and at less cost; the steel industry of the United States will receive impetus in the greater facilities which the route of the Panama Canal will give to it, as against England and Germany, both in South America and in the Orient ; while there will also be a great development of the silk industry in the United States by the

76 THE TWO AMERICAS

shortening of the distance to Japan, which produces the raw material. On the other hand, the old world possesses equal interest in the Canal, as, apart from the commercial advantages that will follow in the direction of international commerce, the changes in health conditions in that part of the American trop- ics which its construction has necessitated will help to dispose of one of the greatest dangers and dif- ficulties now confronting the congested countries of Europe.

I remember, during the Centennial Celebrations of 1876, accompanying the late Emperor of Brazil on a visit to the Philadelphia Exposition, where I read on a large map:

"1776. 3,000,000 of English colonists in 13 colonies.

"1876. 40,000,000 of free men dominat- ing from ocean to ocean. "

Why should there not be written over the portals of the San Francisco Exposition in 1915 :

100,000,000 of free men who have constructed and opened the Panama Canal, who have rendered the trop- ical regions healthy and who have done justice to Colom- bia in her claims respecting Panama.

THE PANAMA CANAL 77

With that inscription justified by performance the American flag would float over the two oceans to the glory of its nationality and to the satisfaction of Latin-America where the question of the Panama Canal is of absorbing interest and importance.

CHAPTER VI

FROM NEW YORK TO BRAZIL

T MADE the trip from New York to Brazil in the -* steamship Voltaire which is owned by the Eng- lish Company, Lamport & Holt, Ltd., and is one of the units of the splendid fleet which that Com- pany employs in a regular passenger service be- tween North and South America. The Voltaire, which carries sixty first-class passengers, has a capacity of about twelve knots and makes the jour- ney from New York to Bio de Janeiro in eighteen days. During the voyage I enjoyed the solitude and the beauty of the sea which recalled to me the thoughts of being far from restless humanity, such as those which passed through my mind when I was penetrating the Amazon forests, the silent mountain peaks of the Andes, or the limitless des- erts through which the great Nile flows. I had a comfortable stateroom on the upper deck which en- abled me better to observe that as the boat directed her bow toward the south, where there are the light, the warmth, and the beautiful vegetation of the tropics, we were leaving behind us in the north the cold gray haziness of winter that impresses a seal

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NEW YORK TO BRAZIL 79

of sadness on the land, the trees and the flowers. Our course was first between North America and Europe and later between South America and Africa, and as we approached the equator the color of the water changed with the form of the clouds, which in the tropics seemed to reflect the imposing magnitude of the Cordillera of the Andes. There also the brilliancy of the stars is more intense and diaphanous and their pure light reminded me of the starry and serene nights of Egypt, Syria and Pales- tine, which rekindle the memory of so many vener- able spirits and divine histories. Shining in these heavens I recognized some beloved constellations whose trail I so frequently followed during the long nights passed in the forests where I slept in ham- mocks suspended from the trees. Every night I swept the horizon with anxiety, looking for the ap- proach of the constellation best known to the in- habitants of the southern hemisphere, the Southern Cross. It emerged in all its brilliancy and serenity at the same time as the Polar Star that had accom- panied us on the trip from the northern hemisphere disappeared below the dark horizon which we left behind us. I contemplated the Southern Cross with the same enthusiasm and affection as I viewed the first peaks of my country's mountains, forming sil- houettes to the pure blue sky, after a long absence from them. On the waters there were floating stretches of sea-weed resembling green lawns parted

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from the land, and in some parts of the tropical seas these are so large and abundant that the original explorers called them fields.

I promenaded the ship to study the character of the passengers. During the first three or four days of an ocean voyage the majority of passengers, and especially those who suffer from sea-sickness, do not desire social intercourse. They are silent and peevish while their glances are at times even ag- gressive. The ego, "I," perverse and malevolent, is so much in control that not even the ordinary courtesies are exchanged ; but little by little the ego, ' ' I, " is gradually changing into a good and generous person who gives one the time of day and his opin- ions on the weather until those who, during the first days of the voyage, were disagreeable, or at least indifferent, melt into a more natural condition of desire for friendly relations with their fellow- trav- elers. A ship like the Voltaire may be likened to a human museum carrying people of different nation- alities, of diverse races, languages and classes of society, passing many days in the journey from one continent to the other, in a weak vessel between two abysses, that above and that below. Among the first-class passengers there were many American citizens who were proceeding in search of markets for the products of their colossal factories of steel, textiles, wooden and iron wares, and the products of their agriculture. Some of these were accompanied

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by their wives and presented many phases of North American character. There were some who made themselves obnoxious by their vulgarity and offen- sive manners, and there were other American citi- zens more typical of the great majority of North Americans, well educated, considerate, and possess- ing a sympathetic view of the rights and of the inhabitants of the Latin countries, but the manners and opinions of these refined people were evidently so distasteful to the brutal class to which I have referred, that they were completely ignored by their inferior compatriots.

Amongst the third-class passengers there were many Russian emigrants, mujiks of various ages, who had abandoned the cold fields of their country, where the prolonged reign of feudalism had con- verted them into serfs, to seek in America a new life and a new fatherland. In their number there were also some fanatical nihilists proceeding to the Argentine Republic where they would doubtless en- deavor to sow the seeds of anarchy, such as were carried into practice a short time ago by an eight- een-year-old-boy of this class who assassinated Col- onel Falcon, the Chief of Police of Buenos Aires, al- though as a result of that tragedy the most stringent measures are adopted, not only in Buenos Aires but in all the South American ports, to deport known anarchists. Many, however, of the Russians on board the Voltaire were simple peasants desiring

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only to find a country where their labors in tilling the soil would give them a new home, life and lib- erty. Others in the third-class cabins included a number of Greek, Italian and Spanish emigrants with their families, and on several occasions I went below to talk with them and to study their char- acteristics. In those from the north, I noticed the reserve and egoism which the colder climates and the lack of the necessities of life imposed on their inhabitants; while in those from the south there was obvious evidence of the qualities of expansion, ingenuity and affection.

We approached the equinoctial line where the Southern Cross and the other constellations shone with the greatest intensity and we saw that we were navigating toward the mouth of the Amazon, the Sea River, the American Mediterranean, which has an outlet of 240 miles from Tijoca Point to the North Cape. Its current is so strong that during the rainy season it throws back the waters of the sea and its own water may be drunk in its pure state at a distance of more than 120 miles from land. Near the mouth of the river is the island of Marajo, or Joanes, which is 240 miles in length and 60 miles wide. At one time there was such an abund- ance of cattle on this island that the animals were killed only for the exportation of the hides, while the flesh was abandoned to the elements and ultimately caused an epidemic which wiped out the whole of

NEW YORK TO BRAZIL 83

the remaining stock. The extension of the Amazon to its sources is nearly 4,500 miles and it can be navi- gated by ocean steamers for nearly 3,000 miles up to Iquitos; whilst including also its tributaries, the Orinoco and the River Plate with its affluents, ves- sels of shallow draught like those that navigate the Khine and the Hudson can travel an aggregate dis- tance of more than 13,000 miles. It is therefore no exaggeration to describe the Amazon as the Ocean Eiver. On the night that we were about to enter its deep waters I was brought back to the days of my youth when, with my two brothers, I explored the greater part of its tributaries. With retrospec- tive glances and with the eyes of the soul I recalled those pleasurable days when we lived in an intimate union with nature and with our friends, the poor savages who inhabited those regions; and all the sorrows and joys of our many experiences in those parts were reenacted in my mind through the spon- taneous and magic impulse of an ideal. To-day the voyage from New York to the mouth of the Amazon can be made in 12 to 14 days.

CHAPTER VH

IN BRAZIL

rpHE immense and rich Brazilian territory which •^ occupies the most eastern part of South Amer- ica is situated in Lat. 5° 10' North to 33° 46' 10" South, and between 8° 21' 24" Eastern Longitude to 32° Western Longitude of the Meridian of Bio de Janeiro. The extension of its coasts from the Orange Cape to the Barra Chuy is approximately 7,900 kilometres. From north to south it is nearly 4,300 kilometres, counting from the beginning of the Cotinco River in the Roruima Mountains to the mouth of the Chuy, and it is, more or less, 4,360 kilometres from the Stony Point in Pernambuco to the starting of the Jaquirana River which forms the Yavari. Its area is calculated to be 8,650,959 square kilometres.

The boundaries of Brazil are : On the north, the Guianas (French, Dutch and British) and the Re- publics of Venezuela and Colombia; on the north- east, east and southeast, the Atlantic Ocean; on the south, the Republic of Uruguay; on the south- west, the Argentine Republic; on the west the Re-

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MARSHAL HERMES DA FONSECA, PRESIDENT OF BRAZIL

IN BRAZIL 85

publics of Paraguay, Bolivia and Peru, and on the northeast, the Republic of Colombia.

The States with their capitals and areas are as follows : SQUARE

STATES CAPITAL, KILOMETRES

Alagoas Maceio 28,680

Amazonas Manaos 1,850,000

Bahia Salvador 575,876

Ceara Fortaleza 157,720

Federal District Eio de Janeiro . . . 1,116

Espiritu Santo Victoria 42,439

Goyaz Goyaz 644,194

Maranhao San Luis 303,045

Matto Grosso Cuyaba 1,668,995

Minaes Garaes Bello Horizante . . 632,747

Para Belem 1,280,000

Parahyba Parahyba 56,981

Parana Curytyba 184,910

Pernambuco Recife 93,942

Piauhy Therezina 207,578

<Rio Grande del Norte. Natal 45,913

Rio Grande del Sur. . . Porto Alegre 287,828

Rio de Janeiro Nicteroy 45,685

Santa Catharina Florianopolis 99,018

Sao Paulo Sao Paulo 260,042

Sergipe Aracaju 23,250

Territory of Acre, Alto Acre, Alto Purus

and Alto Yurua 191,000

Total 8,650,959

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The population is estimated at about 24,000,000 inhabitants, the country being divided into twenty States, a Federal District, and the Territory of Acre.

The discovery of Brazil may be said to have been effected by chance. In March, 1500, a squadron commanded by Pedro Alvarez Cabral, Governor of Barra, and Senhor de Belmonte, left Lisbon on a searching expedition with the object of founding a Portuguese colony in the Indies. The sealed orders which were to be opened in a defined lati- tude, advised them to keep near to the coasts of Africa in order to avoid the calms of the Gulf of Guinea, and complying with these instructions they were involuntarily carried by the equatorial cur- rent, at that time unknown, directly to the new con- tinent. On April 21st they sighted land, the Ser- rania de los Aymores, which they called the Pas- choal Mountain. On the following day the look- out, Alfonso Lopez, discovered a port which they named Security Port, close to a river (the Bel- monte), 16° South Latitude. On April 24th the en- tire squadron entered the port and on May 1st the chaplain, Father Enrique de Coimbra, celebrated the first mass in Brazil, where, with due solemnity, Cabral took possession of the land in the name of the King of Portugal. To this region he gave the name of Vera Cruz, which was subsequently changed to Santa Cruz, probably on account of the

IN BRAZIL 87

constellation of the Southern Cross. Later, the name of " Brazil" was adopted on the suggestion of the merchants who had begun to export large quantities of the red wood, then known as Ibiri- pitanga, which was the principal product of the territory.

In 1499 a Spaniard, Vincente Yanes Pinson, a companion of Columbus, discovered the Cape of Our Lady of Consolation, to-day called Saint Augustin. Meanwhile the squadron under the command of Cabral continued its voyage toward the Indies, after having sent to Portugal Commander Gaspar Lemus to communicate to the King the news of the fortu- nate discovery. At the height of the Cape of Good Hope Cabral ran into a terrible storm which cost him many of his boats, and among those who were lost was an old sailor named Bartolome Diaz, dis- coverer of the Cape which was then baptised as the "Cape of the Storm." Cabral did not pursue his efforts to establish a colony in the Indies but instead he loaded up his boats with the riches of the country and on his return, in 1501, he encountered in the Altantic the first fleet the King of Portugal, Dom Manuel, had sent to Vera Cruz. A Portuguese sailor, Diego Alvarez Correa, who was thought to have belonged to the expedition of Alvarez Cabral, remained in what is to-day called Bahia, where he was found on the beach by the Tupinambas, canni- bal Indians, who wished to destroy him, but the

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Portuguese fired his gun in the air and the fire and noise produced so much fear among the Indians that they thought him a demi-god and gave him the name of Caramuroo, or Son of Fire. He then be- came friendly with the tribe and marrying a woman from the family of the Chief, lived for many years amongst them and assisted Tomas de Souza in founding the city of San Salvador, now known as Bahia. At about the same time, in the district in which is now situated the city of Sao Paulo, Juan Bamalho gained the confidence of the Chief of the Goyanases Indians and having married his daughter lived in Piratinanga, where, by his influence, he con- tributed largely to the conquest of that region. The Chief of those Indians was called Tiberica, a name which still exists and is carried with pride by a family from whom have sprung some of the most distinguished men of Sao Paulo, a fact which af- fords further evidence of the assertion that the mixture of Iberians with a high type of aboriginal race, as occurred in Chile, Peru, Ecuador, Colombia, etc., produces a stout and intelligent race, whilst the Saxons who go to those countries extinguish the higher qualities of the indigenous element.

To the same extent as the Portuguese explored the coasts of Brazil, the Spanish explorers, headed by Juan Diaz de Solis, explored the River Plate, then called by the natives, Paraguay. In the year following the discovery of America by Columbus

IN BRAZIL 89

Pope Alexander VI issued his famous edict giving 1 to the Crown of Castile and of Leon all the islands and lands discovered in those waters on the west and to the south of a meridian line crossing the Arctic and Antarctic Poles, 100 leagues to the west of Cape Verde and the Azores. In this Papal Bull Portugal was not mentioned though it was assumed that her rights would be reserved over the terri- tory her sons had discovered, or would discover, to the east of the line of limitation. The Portuguese were not satisfied and in the following year, by a treaty with Spain, this line was moved 370 leagues westward, the treaty further providing that in any further discoveries those to the east would belong to Portugal, and the western part of the continent, discovered by Columbus on the third voyage in 1498, to Spain. Due to this treaty Brazil became a possession of Portugal, although during the eclipse of that country after the death of Dom Sebas- tian it fell under the dominion of the Crown of Spain.

When the news of the great discoveries arrived at Lisbon the King, Dom Manuel, sent two expeditions to explore the shores of the new land. The first sailed in 1501, under the orders of Gonzalo Coelho, and the other in 1503, under the command of Cris- tovan Jacques, both having as pilots the celebrated navigator, Amerigo Vespucci. For many years these lands were neglected and abandoned until Dom

90

Joao III, son and successor of Dom Manuel, in 1526 sent Cristovan Jacques with a squadron of six ships for the purpose of protecting the recently acquired territory. Jacques established the trading-post of Itamaraca which later fell into the hands of the French but was subsequently regained by the Por- tuguese.

In 1530 Martin Alfonso da Sousa sailed from Lisbon with a squadron of five ships with a view to the colonization of Brazil and to prevent France or any other nation from taking possession of the lands. Da Sousa captured three French boats off the coast of San Agostinho, and, proceeding south- ward, covered the whole of the coast to the River Plate. On his return he founded the village of San Vicente and in the interior that of Piratininga, which was the beginning of the city of Sao Paulo.

Of the twelve Captainries into which Dom Joao III divided Brazil, in 1534, historical records fur- nish only the following ten: San Vicente', Han Amaro, Parahyba del Sur, Espiritu Santo, Porto Seguro, Liheos, Bahia de Todos los Santos, Per- nambuco, Ceara and Maranhao. The greater num- ber, however, of the expeditions sent to colonize these sections did not produce satisfactory results owing to the violent hostility, continued over a num- ber of years, of the savages. The parts that pros- pered most during this period were those of San Vicente and Pernambuco. With a view to con-

IN BRAZIL 91

solidate the strength of the colonizing forces, to dominate the savages and to destroy the ambitions of other European nations, Dom Joao III, in 1549, created a Governor-General of Brazil and named Tomas da Sousa as the first incumbent of the posi- tion. On February 2, 1549, da Sousa sailed from Lisbon with six ships which carried a number of families, about 600 soldiers and the first six Jesuits to go to South America. Assisted by the Tupinam- ba Indians, da Sousa founded the city of San Salva- dor which rapidly extended. He then visited the southern sections, inspected the fortifications and regulated the administration of justice, while the Jesuits, under the wise guidance of Father Manuel de Nobrega, established excellent schools to educate and convert the Indians and to instruct the Por- tuguese colonists in the practice of Christian virtues.

Tomas da Sousa was succeeded as Governor-Gen- eral in 1553 by Duarte da Costa, who had in his retinue a party of six Jesuits, amongst whom was Jose de Anchieta, who later on became known as the Angelic Apostle and the Taumaturgo of Brazil; and in 1554 this priest founded the College of Sao Paulo in the valley of Piratininga and the influence of that institution was soon afterwards felt through- out the entire section in which it was situated.

Seeing that the progress of the colony was mak- ing great strides the Government at Lisbon resolved,

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in 1572, to divide Brazil into two distinct general governments, with a seat in the city of San Salvador in the north, and in the city of Bio de Janeiro in the south.

In 1580 Brazil, with all the other Portuguese Colonies, fell under the domination of Spain. Brazil had already made considerable advance. The city of San Salvador had nearly 10,000 inhabitants and Pernambuco presented a flourishing appearance. In the San Vicente section the capital made very little headway, but, per contra the city of Sao Paulo and Santos, its principal port, were forging rapidly ahead. Eio de Janeiro, owing to its advantageous situation and splendid bay, even at that time gave promise of a brilliant future, while the savage tribes established along the coast from Pernambuco to San Vicente had been conquered or suppressed or had gone into the interior of the forests.

During the reign of Philip II Spain entered into a war with Holland, and Brazil was invaded by the Dutch, who, during a period of about ten years, occupied Bahia, Recife and Olinda, the section of Pernambuco, Eio Grande del Norte and Parahyba. In 1640 Portugal released herself from the Spanish yoke and placed a member of the House of Braganza on the throne in the person of Dom Joao IV. Brazil was at that time governed by Dom Jorge de Mas- carnhas, Marquis of Montalvo, its first Viceroy. The fight against Dutch domination in Brazil con-

IN BRAZIL 93

tinued until 1654, when the Dutch were forced to capitulate. Seven years later, on the 16th of August, 1661, Holland signed the peace pact with Portugal. In 1680 the Portuguese Government de- cided to extend the meridianal boundaries of Brazil up to the 70°, to the shores of the River Plate, and founded at that point the colony of Sacramento. In 1763 the capital of Brazil was shifted from San Salvador to Rio de Janeiro, and by the treaty of San Idelfonso, signed between Spain and Portugal in 1777, Brazil ceded to the former the- colony of Sacramento.

During the government of the Count of Arcos, who was the seventh and last of the Viceroys of Brazil, owing to the French invasion of Portugal, the Royal Family of Braganza left Lisbon in 1807 for Rio de Janeiro. A part of the squadron, carry- ing the Prince Regent, who for fifteen years had ruled in place of Queen Dona Maria I, who became mentally deranged, arrived at Bahia and after the issue of a decree opening the ports of Brazil to all friendly nations the Prince Regent sailed for Rio de Janeiro where he established the seat of the Portu- guese Monarchy.

In 1815 Brazil was elevated to the rank of a kingdom, united with that of Portugal and the Algarves, and on the death of the demented queen, which occurred during the following year, the Prince Regent ascended the throne with the name of

94 THE TWO AMERICAS

Dom Joao VI. In 1817 the Portuguese troops, under the command of General Lecor, took posses- sion of the entire territory of the oriental country (Uruguay) which in 1821 was formally annexed to Brazil as the Province of Cisplatine. Four years later Dom Joao VI proclaimed his son, Dom Pedro, as Regent of the Kingdom of Brazil and returned to Portugal. Shortly afterwards the Court of Lis- bon desired to reduce Brazil to its original colonial condition, and, separating all the Provincial Gov- ernments from Eio de Janeiro, caused them to be placed under the direct control of Portugal. At the same time the principal courts and public insti- tutions of Rio de Janeiro were abolished and the Prince Regent was ordered to return to Portugal immediately. As a result, however, of representa- tions from the Governments of the Provinces of Sao Paulo and Minas Geraes and of a petition from the people of Rio de Janeiro, Dom Pedro issued a mani- festo in which he declared that : " So long as meas- ures are adopted having for their object the welfare of all and the happiness of the Nation tell the people that I will not absent myself. ' ' Following this dec- laration the Portuguese garrison at Rio de Janeiro, consisting of about 2,000 men, seized the Fort of Castello but owing to the attacks of a strong force of Brazilian troops the Portuguese forces were obliged to surrender the fort and retreating to Nicheroy they embarked for Europe. Meanwhile Dom Pedro

IN BRAZIL 95

had formed a Cabinet of lawyers from the Prov- inces, and on his return from a visit to the Province of Minas Geraes he accepted for himself and for his successors the title of "Perpetual Defender of Brazil" and convoked a Constitutional Assembly. With the subsequent knowledge that the Court at Lisbon was about to despatch a strong military force to Brazil he issued a manifesto exhorting the Bra- zilians to unite with a view to securing their com- plete independence. During the same month he left for Sao Paulo, where there were grave political disturbances, and having been advised of the in- tention of the Lisbon Court to take strong measures against him he raised the patriotic cry of "Inde- pendence or Death," which was reechoed through- out the country and led to Brazil becoming an inde- pendent nation. On his return to Bio de Janeiro Dom Pedro was proclaimed Constitutional Emperor of Brazil and two months later his coronation took place. Ultimately, in 1825, after three years of continuous fighting for the expulsion of the Portu- guese troops from the Provinces, Portugal solemnly acknowledged the independence of Brazil.

In April of the same year a revolution took place in the Province of Cisplatine which the Argentine Government had attempted to incorporate in its territory, and this attitude of the Argentine Govern- ment resulted in a declaration of war. The war continued for three years and after several naval

96 THE TWO AMERICAS

engagements, on August 27, 1828, a Treaty of Peace was entered into whereby the eastern part of the Province was proclaimed as an independent State which is known to-day as the Oriental Republic of Uruguay.

On the death of Dom Joao VI, in March, 1826, Dom Pedro I was acclaimed King of Portugal. The Emperor of Brazil ceded the crown of that kingdom to his daughter, then recently born, Dona Maria da Gloria, and named as his Regent, his brother, Dom Miguel, who shortly afterwards, with the support of the nobility and clergy, was declared King of Portugal, but this caused the outbreak of a civil war in which, in 1834, Dom Miguel was de- throned.

Owing to serious revolutions in Rio de Janeiro during the early part of Dom Pedro's reign as Emperor of Brazil, that monarch abdicated in April, 1831, in favor of his son, Dom Pedro, who at that time was only five years of age, and, having placed his children, who remained in Brazil, under the guardianship of Jose Bonifacio de Andrade y Silva, left for Europe in the English frigate Volage on the 13th of the same month. In the following June a Regency was established but was subsequently dis- solved owing to frequent disturbances and the in- subordination of the troops. Other Regencies fol- lowed until July, 1840, when the General Assembly

IN BRAZIL 97

proclaimed the majority of Dom Pedro II who was immediately afterwards crowned as Emperor.

Notable happenings marked the pages of the his- tory of Brazil during the reign of Dom Pedro II. Amongst these may be mentioned the War of 1851-2 against Manuel Rosas, the Dictator of Buenos Aires, who ultimately fled to Europe ; the English Question of 1862; the campaign against Uruguay caused by the repeated attacks on the Brazilian residents in that country; and the war which Brazil carried on against the tyrant Lopez, President of the Republic of Paraguay. This campaign which continued over a period of about five years constitutes one of the most glorious pages of Brazilian history, affording as it does abundant testimony to the bravery of her soldiers and to the heroism and patriotism of her sons. During more than forty years Dom Pedro's reign was distinguished by the contentment and prosperity of the nation until, on November 15, 1889, a part of the garrison of Rio de Janeiro re- volted under the direction of Marshal Deodoro da Fonseca and attacked the naval barracks at the Camp of Santa Ana, where they found the Ministry, presided over by the Viscount Ouro Preto. The uprising was successful and the Republic was pro- claimed with Marshal da Fonseca at the head of the Provisional Government. Subsequently the Fed- eral Republic was decreed as the form of govern- ment and the banishment of the Imperial family

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was ordered to be carried out within twenty-four hours.

Before the expiration of that brief interval Dom Pedro sailed with his family for Lisbon, giving pub- lic expression to his sincere wishes for the future happiness and prosperity of Brazil and refusing all the pecuniary assistance offered him by the Provi- sional Government. The memory of that illustrious man, simple, patriotic and learned, is cherished by me with the utmost veneration, and my heart is filled with anguish and my eyes with tears when I recall the spectacle of his departure. He was surrounded on the deck of the ship by his saddened family, and, gazing in the direction of the shore, offered a prayer for the continued welfare of the country to which he had devoted his life's energies and love. Time, however, has assuaged the bitterness of feeling en- gendered by the events of the hour and the virtues and qualities of Dom Pedro have since been recog- nised by the Brazilian Government which erected a beautiful bronze statue at Petropolis in memory of the departed monarch.

It is a very human and natural proof, though often bitter and sad, that nations in search of new courses, guided in many cases by sincerity and faith and in others as victims of lamentable errors, are apt to sacrifice those who initiated the very changes so impatiently awaited — changes which in some cases lead to prosperity and progress and in others

IN BRAZIL 99

to retrogression or stagnation in prevailing condi- tions. Yet, in the instance of Brazil it must be admitted that the new seed has fructified and that the country has made greater advance since the establishment of the Federal Republic than during the whole period of its previous history.

During the first three or four years of the repub- lican regime Brazil suffered from constant agita- tion and repeated attempts at subversive move- ments; but on the advent, in November, 1894, of Dr. Barros as President, tranquility and order were restored throughout the country and have since been maintained to the great advantage of the people. President Barros solved many diplomatic conflicts under the guidance of that illustrious dip- lomat, Baron Eio Branco, not least important of which were the questions of the Island of Trinidad and those of Amapa and Missoes which guaranteed to the Brazilians the possession of an immense new and rich territory. In November, 1898, Dr. Barros was succeeded by Dr. Manuel Ferraz de Campos Sales whose brilliant administration led to a definite reestablishment of financial conditions, and in turn his administration was followed by that of Dr. Rod- riguez Alves, who directed the policy of one of the most fruitful governments of the Republican period. It is not necessary to comment in detail upon the achievements of Dr. Rodriguez Alves and his cabi- net. It is sufficient to look at the geographical map

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of Brazil with its extended boundaries, secured without even a threat of war. It was during the term of that government that the Ministry of For- eign Affairs, then in the hands of Bio Branco, en- tered into the famous treaty of Petropolis, signed in November, 1903, with Bolivia, whereby Brazil ac- quired ownership of the vast territory of Acre, at the same time establishing a modus vivendi with Peru, which made claims to that territory and to a large part of the State of Amazonas. Other acts of the Alves administration included the conclusion of treaties referring to boundary limits with Ecuador and Dutch Guiana; the participation of Brazil in the International Peace Conference at The Hague; and the reunion in Rio de Janeiro of the Third International American Conference and others which have combined to set a seal upon the diplo- matic supremacy of Brazil on the American Con- tinent.

In November, 1906, Dr. Alfonso Augusto Moreira Pena succeeded to the Presidency and was acclaimed with enthusiasm by the people, but unfortunately his death, in June, 1908, interrupted the full reali- sation of the statesmanlike programme he had laid down. Dr. Pena was succeeded by Dr. Nilo Pecanha, and in November, 1910, the Presidency of the Re- public fell to Marshal Hermes Eodriguez da Fon- seca, who is now President and whose term of of- fice will end on November 15th, 1914.

IN BRAZIL 101

Pages might be added to the record of Brazil's progress during the last decade, not only commer- cially and industrially but equally in every other sphere of national activity. Modern Brazil has re- established its position as a great maritime State, and recent events have shown that the construction and acquisition of some of the finest battleships afloat were not, as at one time suggested, for the purpose of aggression against any of its neighbors. Brazil is one of the foremost nations in the move- ment for universal arbitration of international dis- putes; the Capital is adorned by the magnificent white marble structure, transferred from the St. Louis Exposition, which is now known as the Monroe Palace, erected for the gathering, in 1906, of the Pan-American Conference over which Senator Boot, when Secretary of State of the United States, pre- sided; and the Legation at Washington was raised to the rank of an Embassy whose Heads have been exceptionally distinguished even among the many eminent diplomats at the Capital.

If those — and there are many — who still regard contemptuously the term "South America," as ap- plied in a generic sense to some of the Latin coun- tries on the southern portion of this continent, were to pay a visit to Brazil, Argentina, Chile and some of the other Republics, they would soon be disillusionised as regards the signification of that description. Formerly, it was convenient for Euro-

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pean bankers and others having commercial rela- tions with some of these countries to use the expression "South America" to signify political unrest, financial disorder and other disturbing ele- ments which depreciate the value of national issues in the great financial centres. The phenomenal de- velopment, however, of many of them, their stability of government and the enormous extension, during recent years, of their foreign trade, have combined largely to remove such unfavorable impressions with the result that to-day their national credit is higher than that of some of the better-known States of Europe, whilst their high standard of culture and achievements in the fields of art, literature and science have advanced them to the front rank of the nations of the world.

Brazil is the largest of the countries of Latin America, its area being sixteen times that of France and practically equal to that of the United States, excluding Alaska, and, although much of its exten- sive territory is still uncultivated and its immense natural resources for the most part undeveloped, its great national industries, the growth of its foreign trade, its large and beautiful cities, its admirable systems of education and government, together with its general progress in everything pertaining to modern civilisation, give to Brazil the justifiable claim to be regarded as a truly great nation.

A noted British international jurist wittily ob-

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served a few years ago that "South America was discovered at the Peace Conference at The Hague," by which expression he desired to convey the deep impression made upon him by the ability and pro- found knowledge of international law of the South American Delegates to that Conference. He had evidently not taken into account such great author- ities on the Law of Nations as Bio Branco, Nabuco and Buy Barbosa of Brazil, or Dr. Drago of the Argentine Bepublic. He was probably also unaware that Brazil is the only country on the American con- tinent which has a permanent diplomatic service as one of many worthy traditions of its former Empire. Imperialism, however, in its abstract sense, has en- tirely disappeared from the country in which indi- vidual liberty to-day stands out as a striking fea- ture of national character, and it is because of this desire for liberty and an ardent respect for the beauties of nature that many auriferous areas and many valuable sources of water supply in town and camp have not been converted to industrial objects. Yet whilst these principles tend to create a higher cost of living and to consequent suffering on the part of the poorer classes through increased taxa- tion, one cannot help admiring and approving as an example the patriotic qualities of the people who make these sacrifices in order to preserve their his- toric landmarks and to avoid producing govern- mental disorder and the undermining of the social

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fabric. The pursuance of ideals is nation-wide amongst the Brazilians, and if for this reason the natural wealth of some of the remoter parts of the country still remains unexploited compensation is to be found in the wonderful progress of the larger centres and in the results of the efforts of its erudite youth who are already figuring prominently in the universal Republic of letters, in the councils of diplomats, and in the realms of art and science. From the earliest times Brazil has been known as "the land of birds, beautiful plants and flowers." To-day it may justly be called ' ' the land of progress and freedom" where peace and culture prevail and where the laborer may earn more by six hours work than by twelve in most other countries.

In its geological formation Brazil is one of the most ancient parts of the South American Conti- nent, its mountains having been formed prior to the great volcanoes of the Andes. These mountains, which are in the centre of the country, fall abruptly in the direction of the Atlantic coast and are com- posed of crystalline rocks. Although their elevation has been diminished owing to the action of rain- falls, of the sun and of the winds, through the ages, many of them reach great heights, the highest amongst them being the Italiaya which is situated at a distance of about 80 kilometres from Bio de Janeiro. The vegetation in the eastern portion of the plateau is abundant and as beautiful as in the

INBRAZIL 105

tropical forests. From these lands a number of small rivers flow, emptying themselves, in the north, into the Amazon, and in the south into the Parana; and it is at the latter point that Brazil adjoins Paraguay and Bolivia, whose railroads now under construction will in a short time be linked up with the railroads which now cross the States of Sao Paulo, Parana, Santa Catarina and Rio Grande, where they unite with the lines of the River Plate.

CHAPTER VIII

IN BAHIA AND RIO DE JANEIRO

]V/f"Y first stop on Brazilian territory in the trip •*•••• from New York was at Bahia, formerly called San Salvador, which was for many years the na- tional Capital. I had known Bahia during my early explorations on this continent when it was a small colonial city full of imperfections and inconveni- ences. Since then it has been completely trans- formed on the lines adopted in the present Capital, Bio de Janeiro. The hand of modern progress is visible throughout the city. The old colonial houses have been removed to make way for elegant modern residences and buildings, and the many narrow Por- tuguese streets have become broad and imposing avenues, shaded by beautiful trees possessing the exuberant qualities of this fertile tropical centre. It was, however, a source of pain to me on my recent visit to find that the many stately trees which for- merly adorned other parts of the city of Bahia had entirely disappeared. It is unfortunately a characteristic of the Iberian race, both in the Penin- sula and in America, that they are enemies of tree culture and as a natural consequence have in many

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instances rendered productive lands sterile, and have destroyed countless beautiful landscapes, as may be observed in Mexico and in the elevated regions of Colombia, Ecuador, Peru and Bolivia, where this destruction has taken place without any corresponding material results.

Bahia is rapidly developing into a fine modern city and with the improvements now proceeding will doubtless shortly acquire a considerable in- crease in population. Its soil is rich in tropical products and is especially adapted to the cultivation of tobacco and cacao, whilst the commodious and safe harbour is equipped in every way for the com- mercial expansion now taking place. The journey by steamer from Bahia to Rio de Janeiro occupies two days and is made on a route parallel to a con- tinuous chain of mountains which separate the fer- tile and extensive plateau of the interior from the Atlantic coast. This delightful scenery resembles in many respects the rich Valle del Cauca in Colom- bia and its littorals on the Pacific which will shortly be united by railway from Cali to Port Buena Ven- tura. Bahia is the third city of importance in Brazil, with a population of more than 250,000 in- habitants. In the lower part of the city there are numerous industrial establishments devoted to the manufacture of cigars, cigarettes, chocolate, textile fabrics, hats and other articles, the fashionable resi- dential quarter and the Government Buildings being

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located in the more elevated portions of the city. Amongst the more notable structures of Bahia may be mentioned the Naval Arsenal, the Chamber of Commerce, the Government Palace, the Museum, the State Treasury, the School of Medicine and many churches of great architectural beauty.

Approaching the harbour of Kio de Janeiro the joy which everyone on board experienced at the ter- mination of the long and tedious voyage was in- tensified by the beautiful sight which met our gaze in the view presented to us of Brazil's much-fa- vored Capital. Since my last visit it had become a city of palaces encircled by extensive and broad avenues, adorned by artistic monuments which record and perpetuate the names of Brazil's most illustrious sons, planted with beautiful trees and paved with asphalt. There are spacious parks, wor- thy of any great city of the world, with abundant waters, surrounded by the majestic mountains of Corcovado, Pan de Azucar, Los Dos Hermanos and the Tijuca, whose brows are covered with primitive woodlands conserved in all their original beauty; and at the foot of these, there is the picturesque bay with its multitude of islands and islets combin- ing to form a scene of surpassing splendour. This panorama, heightened in effect by myriads of ele- gant and tall royal palms whose foliage appears to mingle with the clouds ; and, illuminated at night by masses of electric lights which reflect in the bay as

IN RIO DE JANEIRO 109

the rays of the sun reflect during the day, makes the city of Eio de Janeiro resemble a veritable fairy- land.

The city proper embraces an area of 158,316 square kilometres which is practically twice the size of Paris although its inhabitants number only about one-fourth of the population of the French Capital. Eio de Janeiro is without doubt a great city in every sense of that description. Amongst its many attractions are the broad and magnificent avenues such as the Avenida Central which was cut through the heart of the city by the demolition of nearly 650 buildings. It is about 100 feet wide and with its statues and beautiful palm trees is one of the most stately avenues in the world. Another feature of attraction is the Botanical Gardens whose area ex- ceeds a million square metres and embraces fifty thousand different species of vegetation. The great Palm Avenue alone contains 134 of these palms, averaging the enormous height of 80 feet, the mother palm from which all these have sprung being of the gigantic proportions of 114 feet high, with a maxi- mum diameter of four feet three inches, and was originally planted by the Princess Imperial in 1809. The population of Eio is estimated at upwards of a million inhabitants and the city is one of the great commercial emporiums of the globe.

In the primitive forests of Tijuca and in all the suburbs of Eio there are innumerable cascades and

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trees of every variety and colour, beautiful plants, valuable medicinal herbs and multi-coloured flowers in profusion. There is also an infinitude of birds with exquisite plumage, and in the words of the Chilean writer Vega, "these surroundings possess so many marvels and beauties of nature as to capti- vate the spectator."

On entering the city my first thoughts again re- verted to my memorable visit to Rio de Janeiro in 1875, where I arrived after a year of arduous travels across the continent from the Pacific to the mouth of the Amazon. I recalled the public favor with which the results of the expedition undertaken by my lamented brothers and myself were received, and rejoiced at our having discovered rubber lands that have since given many millions of dollars to the Brazilian Government and to private individuals who exploit them. The newspapers had already given full accounts of our explorations and on the day following my arrival I was warmly received by the patriotic Brazilian Emperor, Dom Pedro II. Emaciated and sallow through the rigors and priva- tions of the expedition in which we had to cut our way, with the machete, through suffocating primi- tive forests and through thousands of leagues of unknown rivers in canoes manned by savages, the Emperor was surprised at my youth — I was then 22 years of age — and treating me with benevolent familiarity, displayed deep interest in my notes and

IN RIO DE JANEIRO 111

maps of the regions I had traversed. His Majesty presented me to his Ministers and to other digni- taries of the Court, amongst whom were the Mar- quis of San Vicente, Viscount Eio Branco, Senator Nabuco, Baron Cotejipe and Admiral Van der Cook. All of these personages subsequently showed me great attention. The Marquis of San Vicente in- vited me, on the same day, to dine at his house in the Flamenco Square, where I was introduced to his wife, to his daughters, and to his son, Com- mander Manuel Pimenta Bueno, who at that time was the Chief of the National Navigation Company of Amazon Steamers. Much to my surprise the Marquis greeted me with the words, ''this is your house and it affords me great pleasure to welcome you at our table and I trust you will accept the room that we have placed at your disposal so that you may stay with us. " I gladly accepted the invi- tation and for several months the Marquis treated me as a son. Every Sunday I accompanied him to his modest country home, "Agabia," where we talked of his works on jurisprudence and of his con- stant and intense desire for the abolition of slavery in Brazil, and I can affirm with pleasure and pride that the influence of his altruistic spirit and of his cultivated and lofty ideals inspired me to a higher conception of the duties of life than I had pre- viously formed. I did not return to visit this great man and friend

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but for many years prior to the death of my broth- ers we continued to correspond with him until he died. On my visit during the present year I made efforts to find some members of the Marquis' fam- ily. His son, the Commander, and the Marchioness were also dead and we could find no trace of his daughters. At length my friend, the Chilean Min- ister, Don Francisco de Herboso, obtained for me the address of one of the grandchildren of the Mar- quis, Byna Pimenta Bueno, whom I had known as a child and loved as a baby sister. I went to her home and on receiving my card she immediately came forward to greet me and with great emotion, said: "Are you Don Rafael Eeyes, the great and beloved friend of my grandfather, of whom he has so often spoken with enthusiasm and affection, re- garding you as a member of our family?" I replied in the affirmative and recalled to her many touch- ing episodes of her childhood. She then added, "Your photograph is in our album with those of our grandparents, our parents and our brothers and sisters. Unfortunately there are none left but my sister Cortinho, who has dedicated herself to a re- ligious life among the nuns of Buen Pastor, and my Aunt Emilia, who married Dr. Francisco de P. Olivera, who resides in Guaratingueta. Allow me to embrace you as a member of the family. ' ' At that moment tears came to our eyes and there was a com- munion of soul and of revived affection for the be-

IN RIO DE JANEIRO 113

loved dead. This lady represents a beautiful type of the moral and intellectual Ibero-American woman. Well informed, modest, intelligent and pious, she passes her life in the appreciation and esteem of all who know her. I conversed with her for a long time on the subject of her family and of Brazil, which she loves with intensity, and in taking leave of her we arranged that two days of my stay in Eio would be passed together and that we would visit the Cemetery of San Juan Bautista, in Bota- fogo, to see the tombs of the Marquis, of his wife, and of the Commander. We did so and on a beau- tiful morning amidst the impressive effects of a brilliant sun, the fragrance of the flowers and the songs of the birds, which one could only experience in Eio — the City of Paradise — we made this sad journey. We deposited flowers on the tombs and prayed together in that sacred place, like a father and a daughter.

On the following day, accompanied also by my son, Pedro Ignacio, we paid a visit to the old home in the Flamenco Square, which had since passed into the hands of other owners. We also visited the Cor- covado, the orange groves and the Botanical Gar- dens, from whose summit we contemplated the mag- nificent panorama of Rio, so beautiful, so varied and so full of all the beauties of nature ; the moun- tains that are fanciful and bold, the picturesque email islands, and the modern city with its artistic

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embellishments. After these two days I did not see the Senhora Byna until the morning of our departure when, at 7 a. m., she was awaiting us at the railway station with a bouquet of saudades tied together with ribbons of the Brazilian colours, and as the train was about to start she embraced me and my son while the tears flowed from my eyes in say- ing good-bye to one who had brought back to us such loving memories.

One of the great accomplishments of the Marquis of San Vicente was his ultimately successful and almost life-long effort to secure the abolition of slavery in his country. The question of slavery was for many years one of Brazil's most difficult prob- lems, and it was only at the conclusion of the Civil War of the United States that definite measures for its abolition were adopted. The Emperor, Dom Pedro II, always advocated a policy of caution and prudence in dealing with that grave matter, although at the same time he spared no effort to free his country from the crime against humanity which the principle of slavery involves. Repeated conferences took place with that object in view, but it was only in 1866 that the project outlined for the emancipa- tion of slaves was submitted to Congress. That measure, which subsequently acquired the force of law, was drafted by the Marquis of San Vicente (at that time Senator Bueno) who had frequently de- clared that he would not die in peace until he saw

IN RIO DE JANEIRO 115

his beloved country cleared of the stigma which slavery cast upon her reputation. The draft-law was first sent direct to the Emperor, accompanied by a memorial signed by Senator Bueno, and one of my proudest possessions is a copy of that me- morial. As a document of human interest and his- toric value I have no doubt it will appeal to all lovers of freedom, and I regard it as a simple act of justice that I should place it on record when dealing publicly with the abolition of slavery in Brazil. The following is a translation of the memorial :

"To a Sovereign as illustrious and humane as Your Majesty and to a Christian people such as those of Brazil it is unnecessary to dwell upon the repugnant, odious and barbarous character of the perpetual slavery of human beings. It would be a work of supererogation to point out to what extent human enslavement corrupts the morals of society, retards the perfection of labor, weakens the vigor of political liberty and destroys progress in every branch of life. It is a dreadful picture of a sec- tion of humanity whose lives, families, honour, religion and destiny depend solely on the will of their absolute masters, reducing manhood to ma- chinery, to the symbol of blind obedience and to the condition of victims of tyranny.

* * The present century, armed with the irresistible

power of intelligence and of scientific advance, de- mands a vigorous campaign against such an abuse of force. From year to year it has torn down and continues to tear down all the obstacles imposed in the interests of private individuals against the voice of morality and humanity. Every branch of human knowledge has been called before the altar of reason and justice to declare against this viola- tion of all the laws known to man. This universal protest has even penetrated the spiritual region and has awakened doubts as to the existence of that human fraternity which emanates from the sublime precept of charity.

"Even Governments which at other times have sanctioned the abuse have been among the first in recent days to advocate its extinction and these offi- cial efforts have led to a gradual suppression in various parts of the world of this barbarous slavery. In proof of this assertion I would cite the follow- ing instances:

"On the 28th of August, 1833, Great Britain ad- ministered the first blow to slavery within her do- minions, and, in 1838, aided by her Colonies, com- pleted the emancipation.

' ' Sweden followed her example and in 1846 finally decreed the abolition.

"Shortly afterwards France vigorously renewed her efforts to remove the blot from her escutcheon and on March 4, 1848, proclaimed the liberty of

A FULL-GROWN COFFEE PLANT

IN RIO DE JANEIRO 117

slaves even at the cost of the losses and disasters that followed.

' ' On the 3rd of the following July, Denmark took part in this universal movement and abolished sla- very, as did Portugal in 1854, whilst Russia, the Kings of Tunis, and of Holland all followed this civilising impulse.

"In North America, where the freeing of the slaves offered more resistance, waves of blood red- dened her soil until the act was finally consummated. Spain prepared measures for the abolition of sla- very in her remaining Colonies. The others, now independent States, from Mexico to Cape Horn, have long since given freedom to the slaves.

' ' Slavery now only exists in Brazil. It is only in Brazil that prayers are offered at the foot of the throne eloquently attesting the shame of the peo- ple at the continued existence of the institution of slavery. Setting aside all considerations of moral order, it is beyond doubt that this opprobrious treat- ment of a section of the population cannot be per- mitted to continue without serious consequences. The politicians who offer opposition to the pressure now being brought to bear from all sides will inevi- tably share the widespread condemnation of the institution itself. The question is no longer one of liberty of action. It has been decreed that this abuse must die without delay. The only remaining question is when and how?

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"In these circumstances Your Majesty's duty and love of country demand that you take advantage of the brief period at your disposal to formulate the methods and the measures to be adopted for the complete abolition of slavery. If you fail to take advantage of this moment, which is not a long one, you will have to submit to the popular call which cannot be denied. In that case the methods will not be formulated as we desire, but will be dictated by the exigencies of the occasion. The procedure will be summary, precipitate, and probably fatal. Treat- ment of the matter cannot therefore be deferred without grave danger. The sacrifices will probably be great, however well inspired may be the measures taken. It is sure that the abolition of slavery will produce a certain degree of disorder and tempora- rily dislocate our agricultural production, whilst the wages of the labourer will rise and the values of land will fall, but if it is not in the power of anyone to avoid all these unfortunate conditions, it is at least possible to diminish their evil effects. If the transformation be well directed the regenera- tion will soon follow. The laws of compensation will be set in motion. I submit therefore for the consideration of Your Majesty the necessity of gath- ering around you all the men of light and leading in the country for the purpose of combined and in- telligent action in this great crisis.

"The question is so grave, so difficult and so

IN RIO DE JANEIRO 119

transcendental as to arouse nation-wide interest and action; and any failure to give due consideration to the immediate necessities of the case may pro- duce consequences as lamentable as those which ensued in North America. The Brazilian people are in a state of palpitating and painful anxiety and look to their Government for prompt action in this serious matter. It is not desirable that the Govern- ment should relegate to private individuals the solemn responsibility and duty which rest upon it. Such a course can only harm society and aggravate the magnitude of the evil. It is, Sir, for these grave reasons that I have ventured to formulate my ideas, and in the absence of other and more acceptable proposals I submit the accompanying project-law, as the primary basis for suitable legislation.

"I refrain from acting in my senatorial capacity without first appealing to the wisdom and humane sentiments of Your Majesty which are so well known, especially as, at such a crisis in national affairs, it would be unbecoming for me to create new difficulties for the Government of the country."

(JosE ANTONIO BUENO.) Bio de Janeiro, January 23, 1866.

In reference to the project which accompanied the above letter the Visconde de Taunay, in his "Rem- iniscences, ' ' page 98, makes the following comment :

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"The Emperor's interest in the question of sla- very led to his receiving the project with great favor. He regarded it as a scheme, based on solid consid- erations, calculated to assure the gradual emancipa- tion of the slaves, and he considered Senator Bueno, who was afterwards Viscount and Marquis of San Vicente, as a statesman possessing great breadth of view and of great value and weight in the councils of the Cabinet."

During my stay in Eio I visited the President, Marshal Hermes da Fonseca, and the Minister of Foreign Affairs, Dr. Lauro Muller, both of whom cordially approved the object of my visit and gener- ously offered in every way to further my desire to proceed by land from Eio de Janeiro to Montevideo, traversing the 2,500 miles which separate those two cities and visiting, en route, the States of Eio de Janeiro, Minas Geraes, Sao Paulo, Pirina, Santa Catarina and Eio Grande do Sul. The Presidents of these States to whom I had already communicated my intentions also expressed their pleasure at my contemplated visit and on behalf of their respective governments placed at my disposal special cars with every comfort provided for the trip. Several friends, however, advised me to abandon my inten- tion to make the overland journey, which, they said, would be inordinately long and surrounded by dis- comfort and even dangers, whilst it would be pos-

IN RIO DE JANEIRO 121

sible to fully cover the whole territory I proposed to visit, quite as easily, by taking the luxurious steamers which trade between the places named. I was informed that the railway from Parana to the Uruguayan frontier was not completed, that there was no bridge over the Uruguay Eiver, which would have to be crossed by canoe, and that there were no ordinary comforts to be obtained over a large part of the trying railway journey. Nevertheless, I rejected the friendly advice and made my trip by the overland route.

CHAPTER IX

THE CITY AND STATE OF SAO PAULO

T TRAVELLED through some of these States •* until I arrived at the city of Sao Paulo, where I was received at the railway station by a repre- sentative of the State President and by the Secre- tary of Agriculture, who, acting on instructions from the Brazilian Minister of Foreign Affairs, Dr. Lauro Muller, extended to me a cordial welcome and offered me another special car in which to make my visit to the interior of the State. I had previ- ously travelled through the whole of the north of Brazil, but this was my first visit to Sao Paulo, whose energetic inhabitants have conserved the best traditions of their forefathers and who have dem- onstrated in a marked degree their enterprise and love of labour.

Sao Paulo, which is one of the most beautiful cities of the western hemisphere, is situated at about 2,500 feet above sea level and is 308 miles distant from Rio. With a present population exceeding 400,000, it is so rapidly extending in every direc- tion as to justify the well-founded belief of its authorities that in the early future the number of its

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inhabitants will increase with enormous rapidity. The city contains many beautiful avenues, pic- turesque gardens, public squares and monuments. The streets are well paved and there are many pa- latial dwellings served by a system of electric cars installed by a Canadian company with a capital of $13,000,000. Among the prominent buildings are the Government Palace of the State, located in the Gar- den Square where there are also the Ministries; the Palace of the Elysian Fields, which is the offi- cial residence of the President; the handsome Mu- nicipal Theatre, the Normal School, the Commercial School "Alvares Penteado," the Polytechnic School, the Museum of Ypiranga and the Station of the Sao Paulo Eailway Company, without a rival in South America. All the streets, squares and gardens are brilliantly illuminated by gas and electric light.

Education in Sao Paulo is highly advanced, the authorities regarding the efficient instruction of youth as an indispensable basis for the firm and progressive growth of the city and of the country. Hence it receives preferred attention and gives re- markable results. The Polytechnic School, where I was received by its Director, Dr. Paula Souza, a notable Brazilian educationalist, is one of the most famous institutions of its kind in South America. The building, which is largely constructed of marble, is well equipped and will shortly be added to by the establishment of a school of medicine. The Normal

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School, presided over by Professor Oscar Thomp- son, has more than 2,000 pupils of both sexes and of ages ranging from four to fourteen years. Amongst these boys and girls there were many handsome types of Europeans and Brazilians and a complete absence of children of negro origin. Dur- ing my inspection of these and other schools, it fre- quently occurred to me that had Mr. James Bryce visited them and observed the characteristics not only of these pupils but of the greater part of the inhabitants of the State of Sao Paulo, he would never have said in his work, ' ' South America, ' ' that the negro race predominated in Brazil, nor would he have manifested any doubts as to the future domina- tion of the national race in that country.

On all sides of the Eepublic of Brazil and notably in the State of Sao Paulo one sees constant evidence of the increasing growth of industrial life. In Sao Paulo I visited the factory of the National Jute Cloth Company which produces coffee bags and woollen shawls. This concern gives employment to more than a thousand persons of all ages and of both sexes, the average daily wage earned by the women being one dollar and that of the men one dollar and fifty cents. In this factory every consid- eration is shown to the work-people ; and at the time of my visit the directors were concluding arrange- ments for establishing a restaurant in the building, in order to supply the employees with good food at

SAOPAULO 125

cost price, whilst other means were being adopted with a view to adding to the comfort of the workers. I also made a flying visit to another factory where the employees worked under the same favorable con- ditions, demonstrating from many points of view that work-people in Brazil enjoy advantages fre- quently denied to their co-workers in European countries.

Throughout the whole of Brazil foreign skilled labour is highly favored. In Sao Paulo the Italians have amassed fortunes. In Parana the Poles are flourishing to an extent they could never have dreamed of. In Santa Catarina the German colon- ists are a prosperous and contented community. In Manaos the English have constructed the docks, whence the rubber is shipped to the markets of the world, and the North Americans have changed, for the better, the sanitary conditions of the rubber regions of the Madera, the great branch of the Amazon, in which parts there will be shortly con- structed a railway to carry the elastic product to the ports. Indeed, in every part of the country new populous centres are growing up and the signs of modern industrial enterprise are to be seen at many points where but a few years back there was desert waste. In three districts at the extreme end of Parana there have sprung up great manufac- turing establishments. One of them, founded by the Brazilian Railway Company, is constructed of

126 THE TWO AMERICAS

steel and is a model of mechanical enterprise. In this factory there are wonderful machines, appear- ing to be endowed almost with thinking powers, em- ployed to convert the corpulent pine trees into con- struction planks. The first installation of this es- tablishment involved a cost of $25,000,000 and sur- rounding its chimneys is a city of cosmopolitan character, flourishing apace.

In company with my son, Dr. Bocha Conceicao and a prominent Portuguese merchant, Senhor Garcia, we made an automobile tour through differ- ent parts of the State. For the first six hours we crossed fertile lands in which were cultivated sugar and cotton and where there were also a number of factories. At the end of this first part of our trip we arrived at the beautiful city of Piraciacaba, built on the left bank of the torrential river of the same name and adjoining some beautiful water- falls which are also utilised to furnish power to various industries. In that city I was the guest of Dr. Conceicao, and, in order to convey some idea of the modern comforts enjoyed and the taste dis- played by the better class Brazilians, I would give a short description of the palatial dwelling in which I was entertained. It is a veritable palace con- taining large galleries and many rooms beautifully furnished for the entertainment of guests. It is con- structed on the brow of a hill from which there is a clear view of the great cascade and at the foot of

SAOPAULO 127

this the tranquil waters of the river which is navi- gable by steamers for a considerable distance. At- tached to the house there is a series of gardens ar- tistically laid out and emitting the exquisite per- fumes of the multi-coloured flowers. There are fountains and royal palms that sway majestically over an extension of more than twenty hectares; palms from Cuba, the most beautiful of the tropics, native acacias and cedars, passion-flower trees, which at the time of my visit were in full bloom, silk-cotton, lignum-vitae and other trees covered with blossoms of different colours. These with or- chids of great variety formed a picture of joy to the eye, beautifying the walks, whilst the rays of the sun added to the picturesqueness of the scene. There are extensive avenues of royal palms of great height whose straight and perfect trunks give the appearance of columns of an oriental mosque ; ave- nues of hundreds of metres in length formed by deli- cate bamboos, reminding one of the arches of an ancient gothic cathedral. The fruit trees indige- nous to this tropical zone and to these lands of promise are laden with the weight of their exuber- ant burdens, bending to the reach of one 's lips which are tempted, while the walks and the paths bend and twist with graceful turns among the verdant lawns around the green and refreshing arches. It is in such surroundings that one sees in the soil of

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Brazil its rich treasures, the brains of its sons, and the warmth of its prodigious nature.

The city of Piraciacaba contains about 20,000 in- habitants of white Brazilian and European descent and presents a picturesque appearance owing to its many solid and commodious one-story buildings which are shaded by palms and fruit trees. Pro- ceeding by automobile beyond the limits of the city for many hours we covered lands of great fertility, including the famous "red land" where the coffee plants, at short distances apart, grow to a height of three metres; and in the same district there were corn and rice lands as well as pastures for the graz- ing of cattle and horses. In this direction for an enormous distance these flat lands with slight undu- lations are populated by newly-settled Italian and Spanish colonists who in some cases have already become the owners. The trip was made on a Sunday and there I saw these colonists in wagons, on horse- back, and on foot, on the roads leading to the town, proceeding either to the market or to Holy Mass. In all their faces there were the indications of robust health and other markedly favorable physical condi- tions. In one property, sown with extensive coffee plants, there were many small houses erected for the colonists and these were allotted to each family in accordance with its number. The conditions under which the cultivation is effected are alike favorable to the workers and to the owners of the planta-

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tion, the former being permitted to sow corn, beans, and other alimentary products for their use and sale, provided they harvest a given quantity of the coffee crop and purchase the product at the market price. The charges so often made against the Bra- zilian coffee planters of enslaving and exploiting the foreign colonists are unjust and unfounded, as I was enabled to see on my visit, for I saw nothing but contentment and in many instances the colonist had been able to purchase the land which he had cultivated in the beginning on a cooperative basis. The price of land in this part of the State has risen more than in a corresponding degree to the rise in the price of coffee, the present value of a hectare of coffee land of good quality being about $200, whilst a coffee-plant in full production and well situated, including the home and machinery for the colonists is about $1.50, whereas some three years ago it was one-quarter of the present price. In many parts of the coffee-producing areas of the State, the land is insufficient in extent to permit of its acquisition by the colonists with the result that many of them are constantly changing their resi- dence from one estate to another, or in the event of an economic crisis such as occurred some years ago when the price of coffee suffered a heavy deprecia- tion, they emigrate to Argentina or return to their own country. This problem, which is a serious one for the State, is now being partially solved by con-

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siderable activity in the extension of the cultiva- tion of rice and sugar cane and of the cattle and textile industries. These conditions arise to a great extent out of the scheme for the valorisation of coffee; and, irrespective of its advantages or dis- advantages as an economic operation, it is yet to be determined whether artificial means of raising and lowering the prices of staple products can be made to supersede the natural laws of supply and demand.

In the State of Sao Paulo there are nearly 60,000 agricultural establishments occupying an area of about 13,000,000 hectares and employing over 400,000 labourers. In this area there are 700,000,- 000 coffee plants representing a value of upwards of $350,000,000 and it is estimated that the production of coffee for the current year will exceed 12,000,000 bags.

At the Station of Limeira we had a special train the cars of which were better and more luxurious than the Pullmans of Europe or the United States ; and the roads extremely well ballasted and con- structed. We touched first the rich and flourishing city of Campinas, which is the most prominent in the interior of the State of Sao Paulo. It has 40,000 inhabitants and possesses a magnificent Gymnasium, a Secondary School, an Agronomic Institute and a Lyceum of Arts and Crafts, with a cathedral which is considered to be one of the handsomest in Brazil. This city, which a few years ago was a centre of

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yellow fever, is to-day perfectly healthy. In the train I met Dr. Albuquerque Lins, President of the State and candidate for the Vice-Presidency of the Republic. Dr. Lins is an estate owner as well as a public man of the highest reputation; and through his introduction I met a number of the owners of coffee plantations in the region of Biverao Preto, one of whom told me of a plantation of 200,000 trees which gave an annual yield of eight pounds per tree, the average yield in other parts being not more than four pounds.

On my return to Sao Paulo I paid a visit to the Faculty of Law which was founded by my dis- tinguished friend, the Marquis of San Vicente, and in conversation with the Director of the institution I suggested that the youth of Brazil representing the different Schools and Faculties would find it of advantage to visit the different countries of Span- ish-America where they would be received with en- thusiasm by the students of those Republics. I in- formed him that the young men of Colombia had initiated these excursions to Venezuela and Ecua- dor and that similar interchanges of courtesies had been effected by the students of Argentina, Chile and Peru. After further explaining to him that their respective Governments had encouraged these reciprocal visits which brought into personal con- tact the future public men of the Latin countries, the Chief of the Sao Paulo Faculty of Law ex-

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pressed his thanks for the suggestion and gave me his promise that he would endeavour to confer upon his own students similar advantages.

After visiting various industrial establishments I proceeded to make arrangements for the contin- uance of my journey, and as I have already said resolved to abandon the popular and comfortable route from Santos to Montevideo by travelling over- land through the various States in order to study the new commercial and industrial centres in process of formation and the new lines of railroad Avhich are to open them up and expand the national com- merce.

The State of Sao Paulo is crossed by a number of railroads some of which make connection with those of Uruguay and Bolivia whilst there are branches which serve the principal productive areas and so contribute to their increased population.

The principal industry of Sao Paulo is coffee, which is largely controlled by the faceindeiros, or owners of extensive cultivated tracts, wherein the coffee is planted by colonists, generally of the immi- grant class, who are contracted for to produce the annual crop. It is stated that in the other industrial establishments of this State $43,000,000 are invested and employment given to 24,186 people, the annual value of the production amounting to approximately $40,000,000. These establishments are chiefly de-

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voted to the production of sugar and the manufac- ture of textile fabrics.

Public instruction is well carried out. Schools for primary education have been established at every point, whilst in the higher branches of edu- cation there are Colleges and Institutes as well as a free University which embrace all the scientific and professional studies. In the primary schools alone there are nearly 150,000 pupils.

I have already referred to the fact that as a re- sult of the dependence of the entire commerce of the State upon the movements of the coffee market different industries are being created and extended, and these will not only act as an antidote to any falling off in the coffee industry but will also bring increased immigration and justify Mr. James Bryce's prediction that in fifty years Brazil will have fifty millions of inhabitants. To this forecast I would add my own prophecy that the State of Sao Paulo will in twenty years have a population numbering not less than ten million souls, of whom at least one-tenth will be inhabitants of the city of Sao Paulo.

Land values in that city are almost equal to those prevailing in the prosperous cities of Europe or the United States. The value of one metre of front- age land (from 20 to 30 metres in depth) in any of the three central streets is from $12,000 to $16,000. In other streets a front metre of the same depth is

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from $500 to $800; in the aristocratic residential section it varies from $500 to $1,500; and in the poorer districts from $150 to $300. A working man's house costs from $1,200 to $2,000 and usually rents at from $16 to $30 per month, while the dwellings of labourers usually cost from $500 to $1,000 and rent for $10 to $15 per month. The rent of middle class residences average about $150 per month. Good cultivable land near to the populous centres is worth from $1,000 to $2,000 per hectare, and at great distances from the centres from $100 to $200.

Just as the material progress of the United States is a source of admiration to many of the smaller countries of Latin- America whose people delight in calling themselves the ''Yankees of the South," so in Sao Paulo the sons of the soil describe themselves — perhaps with more justice than in many other cases — as the " Yankees of Brazil." The State of Sao Paulo is more advanced in many respects than any other State in the Brazilian Federation. Espe- cially is this the case in agronomical studies, for which purpose it has several well-equipped and skill- fully conducted experimental stations where meteor- ological phenomena are also registered with profit- able results. It may be safely stated that there are many plants in this State producing extremely val- uable essential oils and extracts that would repay a hundredfold their cultivation by scientific methods.

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In these as in many other sources of production val- uable opportunities present themselves to the enter- prising settler. But it is not alone to the wealth of its natural resources that the State of Sao Paulo owes its premier position. It may also claim the honour of having given birth to a preponderating majority of the great statesmen, writers and scien- tists of the Republic of Brazil and their number is le- gion. Whilst there are many whose works are known either through their public prominence or, in the cases of literary productions, through their transla- tion into different European languages, a long list might be furnished of great writers whose merits can only be recognized by those acquainted with the vernacular and with the history of the country. The writings of Buy Barbosa, of Rio Branco, of that polished classical scholar (former Ambassador at "Washington) Nabuco, of Machado de Assis, of Graga Aranha and other distinguished authors have been translated into many languages, but Brazil justly and proudly may lay claim to the possession of many great writers, the national popularity of whose works testify abundantly to the high standard of culture of the people. There are Madeiros e Albuquerque, the Didot of the Brazilian Academy, journalist, poet and writer of fiction ; Affonso Celso, who has translated, in verse, the masterpiece of Thomas a Kempis; the great philologist, Joao Ribeiro; the brilliant historian, Capistrano de

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Abreu, and many others of recent times, excluding reference to the long roll of litterateurs of an earlier period who have added glory to their country. In music, art and science Brazil is equally advanced, although in the latter branch of study Santos Du- mont is perhaps the most widely-known Brazilian inventor.

In explaining my reasons for making the trip to Uruguay overland instead of by boat I should have mentioned an incident of the trip from New York to Eio de Janeiro which influenced me in that course. Amongst the passengers on board the Voltaire there was a young Chilean, Seiior Juan E. Franz, who had taken passage to Montevideo, but, on leav- ing the boat at Kio, decided to proceed by land to his destination, a distance of 3,300 kilometres, and invited me to accompany him on that arduous jour- ney. Arriving at Sao Paulo we met another of the Voltaire's passengers, a Canadian gentleman named Eoy McHarding, who had that day arrived from Eio. I extended to him an invitation to join us, and, having informed him of the hour of departure of the train we were leaving by on the same day, with Anglo-Saxon punctuality he was awaiting us at the station, equipped only with a small travelling bag, to undertake the expedition of several days travel- ling across the pampas and the wild forests to the frontier of Uruguay. As the railway was not com- pleted and we were obliged at different points to

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cross rivers in canoes and to submit to other dis- comforts, the trip, which we were the first to make in that way, was somewhat trying and fatiguing. I record this incident because it reminded me of a similar experience during my second expedition from the Amazon to Colombia, via the Putumayo, when I met a young Englishman, Mr. Alfred Simp- son, then only twenty-two years old, who had al- ready made the journey from Ecuador to Iquitos, by the Napo River. I invited him to accompany me up the Putumayo, or lea, and on his acceptance I gave him charge of a steam launch and a commis- sion to provide the fuel for the steamer Tundama, which I commanded and in which, during five months, we navigated the surrounding desert until we reached the port of La Sofia at the foot of the Andes. Years afterwards I was informed that Mr. Simpson had become a great merchant in Calcutta where he amassed a fortune and is now residing in London. I related this occurrence to my com- panions on the journey to the Uruguayan frontier and consoled them by a narration of the happy hours spent with my former companion in spite of the sufferings we endured in our penetration of the Amazonic regions.

CHAPTER X

THROUGH BRAZIL BY LAND TO THE RIVER PLATE

leaving Sao Paulo we passed through the cities of Jundiahy, Itayci, Capivary and Piraciacaba, which I had already visited and also through the cities of Mayrink, Sorocaba, Tatuhy, Itapetininga, Aracassu, Paxina and Itarare, which is on the border of the State of Parana. The terri- tory of the State of Sao Paulo is the continuation of an extensive and undulating plateau from the chain of mountains in the centre to the hills called the Sierra del Mar on the coast, whose formation is made up of red soil, clay, and rich phosphates. In the cities mentioned there are many colonies of Ital- ians, Spanish, Poles and other foreigners, all in robust health and thoroughly contented. I talked with many of them and in every case I was im- pressed by their affection for the land of their adop- tion. Throughout these colonies comfortable and pretty houses of cement and tiles are being erected, and I have little doubt that in the course of a decade the southern portions of Brazil and especially the State of Sao Paulo will repeat the history of the western section of the United States through which

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I travelled forty years ago. Over practically the whole extent of these regions which embrace the two zones, the torrid and the temperate, and an area of 831,798 square kilometres there is extensive cul- tivation of the products of both climates, from coffee and sugar cane in Sao Paulo, to wheat and barley in Parana and Santa Catarina. On the immense plains of Parana, Santa Catarina and Bio Grande, cov- ered with abundant and nutritive grasses and irri- gated by numberless streams, there is a large cattle industry which is constantly growing, owing to the favorable climatic and meteorological conditions.

In the north, and particularly in the region of the Amazon, the land is covered with gigantic trees in- cluding forests of palms which are so intertwined as to compel the traveler to cut his way through with machetes. There are also orchids of beautiful and varied colours, tropical flowers and a variety of ferns. These plains extend from the heights of the majestic Andes, wherein are active volcanoes, over the perpetual snows for a distance of from 6,000 to 8,000 kilometres down to the sea. Here also are to be found quantities of birds of brilliant plumage and joyous song; here is the gualandat of a dark purple tint; the guaycan of the colour of gold; and flowers whose many colours form a vivid contrast with the verdure of the forest amongst which there is occasionally to be heard the echo of a shot. It is from the gun of the hunter, who, while filling his bag

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with partridges or ducks, is at frequent intervals compelled to turn it on the tiger running through the underbrush to find waters to quench the thirst which the wound has caused. In these forests there are many species of deer and of wild boar which are ferocious and dangerous, besides quantities of mon- keys and other species of the simian order. The forests are watered by extensive rivers which are navigable for large steamers, and in these waters, according to Professor Agassiz, there are some 500 varieties of fish as well as a quantity of ducks and other aquatic fowl that fly over their beautiful sur- face and rest on their currents. On the beaches hundreds of alligators sleep peacefully with their mouths open so that the flies, which form part of their food, may enter ; and in many places they are covered with turtles which leave the water to spawn in the hot sand and are so prolific that the soil, to a depth of twenty centimetres, is laden with eggs which the savages and the inhabitants of the small villages make into a savory butter that will one day become an important article of commerce. In this great ocean of verdure which offers rest to the traveller after the fatigue of the day spent in a narrow canoe under a burning sun or in torrential rain, there is hardly a spot without vegetation. In many of the forests the animals which have so far not been hunted by man do not run away but regard with curiosity the approach of a human being. The

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tiger, the alligator, the vipers and the water snakes (which frequently attain a length of ten metres by two in circumference) are not dangerous. The ani- mal which is ready to make a ferocious attack upon man is the peculiar species of wild boar to which I have made reference. These boars destroy men and animals with their fangs which are as strong and as smooth as ivory, and, gathering in groups, they are generally led by one which is slightly larger than the rest and has a band of light color down the back. During the many years, however, in which I traversed those regions I only once found myself in a position of serious danger. On that occasion I was accompanied in my travels along the banks of the Putumayo by four robust savages, good hunters, armed with poisoned arrows. I had a Winchester rule and encountering a large herd of these wild animals we killed a great number. The remainder ran away and in the excitement of the hunt I followed them, continuing to thin their ranks. I did not observe that my companions had remained behind and I did not notice until I was a long dis- tance off and heard a loud cry that the commanding boar, which I did not distinguish from the rest, was almost immediately in front of me. At that moment they all roared in unison and, forming themselves into a circle at a distance of about a hundred yards, proceeded to surround me so that I could only save myself by climbing a tree. Looking around I found

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a tree with a thin trunk and only one branch, about three metres from the ground, which could possibly sustain me. I looked at it and mounted it imme- diately. I had only twenty cartridges and thought that the savage animals would ultimately get tired of remaining around me and would go away. But this did not happen. I heard another loud cry and saw the leading beast of the herd about fifty metres off behind a large evergreen that had fallen. The sound of his cry caused the other animals to gnash their tusks, producing a deafening noise which seemed to reverberate throughout the forest, and, having approached the foot of the tree which I had mounted, they looked up at me with their vivid and penetrating eyes filled with fury and with their hair standing up like bristles. It was really a Dantesque picture. They fought amongst themselves for a chance to eat the trunk of the tree, but on account of their number and want of order they were pre- vented from doing any harm. The chief of the ani- mals gave another war-cry and then the rest sepa- rated a few metres further away, leaving four of their number behind who commenced to dig their powerful tusks into the trunk of the tree so as to make it fall. I saw that I could not save my life except by fighting with finesse, as when I had killed the first four they were carried away and replaced by four others, which was repeated with a third four. As I had then but eight cartridges left I re-

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solved to keep them to try and kill the leader who hardly showed his head above the tree, but each time I attempted to get him, he promptly hid him- self. Suddenly I caught him and with a well-di- rected shot which entered his brain, killed him. Then all the other infuriated beasts started to cry wildly and run away. I knew then that I was safe. I descended from the tree and when my attackers had covered a safe distance I went over to the spot where the head animal which I had killed and who had given me such a disagreeable time was lying. I saw that he was larger than the others, generally a little smaller than the domestic pig, and that he had a band of a distinct colour which evidently served as an emblem of his qualities of leadership. Thus it may be seen what a wonderful thing is nature and its teachings, proving that amongst the most savage of animals there are well-formed ideas of order, discipline and work.

Entering the State of Parana through the village of Itarare I was struck by the change in the vege- tation of the torrid zone which I recently saw in Cuba, to that of the temperate zone which presented itself during the trip from Cape Horn to New York. On one day I experienced a difference of 40 degrees centigrade. When I left Havana, the thermometer showed 31° centigrade, whilst along the shores of the Potomac Lake it marked 8° below zero. Here on the rich plains of Parana which are covered with

grama grass irrigated by rivulets and streams I observed a new and special vegetation — the inter- tropical. In place of the royal palms and the other tropical growths there arise the tall Parana pines (Araucanis brasilensis) which in some cases grow to a height of thirty metres as rectangular and as imposing as those of Bahia and Bio de Janeiro. The quality and formation of the land are similar to that of Sao Paulo, and it was easy to see that its surrounding conditions were peculiarly adapted to the cultivation of cotton on a large scale. Seeking information from some of the natives of the country on this point, I was told that dur- ing the colonial period, when slavery was enforced, there was a considerable production of a good quality of cotton which was con- verted into primitive cloths used by the inhabitants for their clothing, and that much of it is still to be seen in the ruins of the old homes. I passed through the village of lacuariahyva, from which there is a railroad under survey to San Antonio de Platina and to Curinho, and through the important city of Castro to Ponta Grossa, whence the railway will cross the State of Santa Catarina to Porto Alegre, thence to Cacequi, in the State of Kio Grande do Sul, where, passing through Pelotas, it will connect up with the port of Eio Grande. From Ponta Grossa I proceeded to Curityba, the Capital of Par- ana, which is the commercial centre of the State

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and has a population of between 25,000 and 30,000 inhabitants, largely consisting of Poles, Italians, Spanish, Germans, Russians, Portuguese, Syrians and foreigners. I spent one day in visiting the set- tlements of these widely differing people and in obtaining data in reference to the actual situation of Parana and its possibilities. In my conversations with many of these foreign colonists and their chil- dren born on Brazilian soil, I observed, particularly amongst the latter, their unfeigned love of Brazil and their insistence upon speaking the language of their country in preference to that of their parents. The city, which is built on a slight elevation, pos- sesses wide thoroughfares and is surrounded by for- ests of corpulent pines and prairies of abundant grass. At the top of one of the hills there is a reservoir with a covered aqueduct extending for a distance of 36 kilometres which provides the city with excellent water. The person in charge of the water-works which also have an extensive and beau- tiful garden is a Pole who came to Parana about thirty years ago. In the course of my talk with him I asked if he had no desire to leave Parana and return to his own country, and his reply, perfectly frank and ingenuous, furnishes an apt illustration of the characteristics and sentiments of all the for- eign settlers in these rich Brazilian States. He said : "We, the Polish, have no fatherland; the Russians, the Prussians and the Austrians have snatched it

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from us. In this beautiful Parana we have found a paternal hospitality and land for our homes and our cultivation which belong to us ; and whilst we always think and live in hope of a reconstruction of Poland we are happy and continually prospering here where our prospects have been made still brighter by the railroad which the Brazilian Railway Com- pany is now constructing across the States of Santa Catarina and Eio Grande do Sul to Matto Grosso." I then asked him whether the sons of the Poles loved Brazil more than the land of their fathers and whether they chiefly intermarry with their own race or with Brazilians and other foreign colonists. ' ' Our sons, ' ' he replied, ' ' remember nothing of Poland and the same thing applies to the younger immigrants of other nations who have become more ardent and enthusiastic Brazilians than the natives themselves. They take pride in their new nationality and work for the glory of the country. As a general rule the marriages are contracted in their own colony, but many of them make alliances with Brazilians, Italians, Spanish and other colonists, and are pro- ducing a race of vigorous and intelligent youth. ' '

I visited the Italian colony outside of the city and in all my conversations with those people I received similar replies to my questions. In the Italian col- ony, however, I observed that the families were larger with a closer union amongst them than in the others. In one house, on the estate of Mr. Manuel

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de Macedo, I talked at length with the head of a numerous family who with his wife emigrated from Venice to Parana thirty years ago and to-day has ten children, all married, each of whom also has a family. Eighteen members of this numerous family were present at the time of my visit, whilst some of the sons and sons-in-law were working in Sao Paulo and Buenos Aires, remitting part of their earnings to increase the family land-holdings which they had been able to purchase and cultivate. Fol- lowing their patriarchal customs, parents, grand- parents and grandchildren all lived in the same house, and by a system of cooperation the entire family worked and shared in the ownership of the land. Supreme harmony seemed to reign amongst them and those who were absent to work under more favorable conditions usually returned to the family home after the harvests of coffee or wheat, accord- ing to the country in which they were working. On the day of my visit preparations were being made for a feast to celebrate the marriage of a girl mem- ber of the family. The bride, a good-looking girl of eighteen, was born in Parana, and when I asked her if her fiance was an Italian or a Brazilian, she said, "I am a Brazilian and I think my fiance is one also,'* when her father interposed with the statement that, "Your fiance was born in Venice but came here as a small child and to-day is proud to claim Brazilian nationality." I then enquired of the head of the

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family, a man of sixty years of age, of striking vigour and robust health, whether he desired to re- turn to Italy, and with the same love of his adopted country as is possessed by the younger members of these foreign colonies, he said: "The love of one's native land is never lost ; it is like the love for one 's mother. It would be a pleasure for me to pay a visit to Venice with its beautiful air, sky and sea; but to do that I would have to leave my children and grandchildren and beautiful Parana, my second fatherland, where I desire my bones should rest after I am gone. ' '

During my stay in Curityba I made an automo- bile tour of the surrounding country in the company of Mr. Antonio de Souza Mello, one of the principal merchants of the city, and with the representative of Mr. Macedo, who owns the large industrial estab- lishment in which many of the colonists have their homes; and the latter gave me much interesting data as to the value of land in Parana and the exploitation of the pine-wood industry of the State. The saw mill of the Miriguava estate, two leagues distant from the city and four from Curityba (the Brazilian league has six kilometres), is part of a property of 2,123 hectares in extent, a large portion of which is divided into lots of five, eight and ten alqueires,* for sale to the colonists on easy terms of payment. The renting price of these various

* Space bushels.

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divisions or areas of land which may be respectively used for agriculture or cattle raising varies from 200 to 400 milreis (one milrei equals one-third of a dollar) with special conditions for the ultimate ac- quisition of ownership by the settler. On this prop- erty there are also mate lands. This yerba mate, which is largely used as a stimulating tea in Parana, Santa Catarina, Bio Grande do Sul, Uruguay, Para- guay, Argentina and Chile, is a natural growth of the soil where the pine flourishes and is an impor- tant article of production. After the trees are cut and the weeds are burned the mate covers the whole ground. The leaves are subsequently gathered in, dried in the sun and then taken to the plantations where they are roasted and pulverised ready to be packed in small bags or sacks of cow-hide for ship- ment, and the annual value of the exports of this product from the State of Parana alone is upwards of $6,000,000. The richest lands in the State of Parana are those located near the cities of Itarare, Yaguariaybe, Castro, Ponta Grossa and Curityba.

From the city of Curityba I returned to Ponta Grossa where I met Mr. Hugh M. Taylor, who for many years was in charge of the Mexican Railways but resigned his position there to become the Gen- eral Manager of the lines of the Brazilian Railway Company. During my stay in Mexico, as Minister of Colombia, I had several opportunities of appre- ciating the great capacity and high qualities of this

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gentleman who was much respected by the Mexi- can people, and I was glad to avail myself of the proffered hospitality of a special car in which he accompanied me to the frontier of Uruguay. In Ponta Grossa I spent one day in studying the con- ditions of the land and of the colonies which were in the same flourishing condition as those of Curity- ba and other parts of the State. The city itself is in course of formation with homes being constructed for its various foreign residents, all of whom gave evidence of their general happiness induced by the advantages of a healthy climate, prosperous condi- tions and generous and protective laws, and here again, irrespective of their diverse nationalities, the Brazilian language had become the medium of con- versation. By these means these immigrants and their offspring become assimilated with the people of the country and thus help to assure the pre- domination of Latin ideals throughout the southern Republics of the American continent. In Ponta Grossa I visited the picturesque cemetery which is situated on a hill. At the entrance gate I met an Italian whom I asked how long he had lived in Parana, whether he was happy and if he had any desire to return to his native country? His reply was typical of all the other replies I received to similar questions. He said, "I am now sixty years old and came to Parana with my wife forty years ago. We have ten sons born here all of whom are

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married and we have twelve grandchildren. I am still strong enough to work and although I have not forgotten my beloved native Italy, I do not think of returning there as with my sons and my grand- children who are enthusiastic Brazilians we are all very happy in this country.

"As you are going to visit the cemetery," he added, "I would like to present to you a great Ve- netian architect who has designed most of the beau- tiful monuments." I entered the cemetery where the many artistic marble and cement monuments, covered with flowers, gave me the most grateful im- pressions and reminded me of the cemeteries of Italy where the religion of the tombs is cultivated with taste and feeling. At the foot of one of the monuments there was seated the man whom the col- onist had described to me as the "great architect." He was partaking of his luncheon of bread, cheese and biscuit, with the red wine which the Italian colonists in Parana manufacture. He was an elderly man of small stature, with broad shoulders, black eyes and a heavy beard and moustache, having the appearance of one of the old Doges of Venice. I asked him to tell me his history and impressions of Parana and of its present and future situation. "I am a Venetian," he said. "My business is to design and erect cemetery monuments which furnishes me with a sufficient income to enable my family to live well. I came to Parana forty years ago. During

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the first thirty years my occupation brought me but scant reward owing to the poverty of the State which had practically no means of communication. Since the advent of the railway which Mr. Farquhar has caused to be extended in so many directions there is wealth for all so that the poor as well as the rich indulge in elaborate memorial stones to mark the resting place of their beloved ones. So far as returning to my country is concerned, I shall always love Venice, but my ties, my eighteen descendants with me, owe their gratitude to this great country which has given us asylum and happiness. ' '

"Do you not feel a sadness amongst all these tombs ? " I asked him.

"No, sir/' he replied, "on the contrary I love the tranquility of my surroundings and I imagine my- self conversing with those who are here. When the sun goes down and the shadows of night appear I revel in my thoughts of nature and return to my home to rest for the preparation of the following day's work. Here among the graves I take my lunch every day so that I practically live among the dead. I am present at all the funerals and I see by the acts and the faces of those who are mourning for some beloved one that when man is suffering he is more generous and is more benevolent than at other times."

In pursuance of my investigations into the ma- terial conditions of Parana I thought it desirable to

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elicit the opinions of all classes and therefore de- cided to interrogate even this philosophic and sen- timental builder of monuments as to his views on the subject.

"What are your opinions, " I asked him, "of the respective value as settlers and of the personal characteristics of the Italian, Polish and Spanish colonists existing in Parana!" "My opinion is," he replied, "that the Italians acquire greater force than the rest because of their unity which is exhib- ited in the fact that in many cases two or three generations live under the same roof. I like the Spaniards on account of their intuitive courtesy and loyalty, although their southern temperaments frequently cause them to resort to the knife or the dagger during their quarrels amongst themselves; the Poles are happy and broad minded but their extreme economy leads them to deprive themselves of the necessary comforts of life ; whilst the "tudes" as the Italians call the Germans, are very hard- working, though aggressive and selfish."

"Has the country made much progress during the past ten years and are its prospects improving!" I enquired. "Up to five years ago," he answered, "there was great misery among the colonists in Parana, but during the latter half of the past decade the gradual extension of railways has given the colonists abundant and remunerative work. Other factors which have contributed to this result are

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the increased production and demand for yerba mate and the liberal facilities extended by the Gov- ernment and the Brazilian Railway Company for the colonists to become the owners of their land. These circumstances have combined to place them all in a situation of prosperity."

On the following day, with Mr. Taylor, the Man- ager of the Railway, I continued my journey, pass- ing through the growing cities of Entre Rios and Yrati, the latter being on the borders of the State of Santa Catarina, and through the villages of San Juan, Herval and Ytarare, of this State. The coun- try traversed on this trip contains extensive forests of pine trees which impede the growth of other varieties and constitute a reserve for the world's supply of this wood which is becoming scarcer in Europe and the United States. In these districts colonies are being formed of Poles, Spaniards and Italians, most of whom possess families of healthy children who largely outnumber the adults. There are also representatives of other races and religions, but the great majority of the settlers are of Polish nationality, the most important township in course of formation being significantly called Polopolis. In addition to a great pumber of saw-mills which manipulate the pine and manufacture the fine woods found in other forests into furniture there are im- mense prairies covered with good grass and other lands adapted to the cultivation of cotton, although

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for hundreds of leagues there is not a single human habitation to be seen. The natural wealth of the soil, however, leaves no doubt that with the spread of progress, which is advancing in this country to- ward the west, there will at no distant date be a wave of new immigration to penetrate and cultivate these beautiful and rich lands.

Passing through the forests and approaching the moderate elevations whence the Iguazu Eiver flows and forms imposing cataracts the vegetation changes in aspect. Here the pines disappear and are re- placed by gigantic cedars and other fine woods of value. In no part did I find sterile land. The loco- motive passes through the heart of these virgin forests, their shrill whistles appearing to announce that they had taken possession of them for the bene- fit of civilisation and leaving an impression on the mind that the methods of force and of tyranny, in earlier days employed in the acquisition of new territory, had been substituted by the more peace- ful and civilising influences of the railway which was destined to open up for the service of human- ity these fertile regions in which the foot of civilised man had never trodden. Amongst the modern rail- road conquerors, who by their enterprise and skill have been able to cut into the primitive undergrowth of the soil, to perforate the mountains, and to cross unfordable rivers in hitherto unexplored portions of the American continent, it is right to mention

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such names as those of Minor Keith, Cisneros and Farquhar, who have done so much to extend the cultivable areas and to increase the prosperity, re- spectively, of the countries of Central America, Co- lombia and Brazil.

Leaving the banks of the Iguazu and descending the mountain on whose summit there grows the Bra- zilian pine of enormous height, we arrived at the banks of the Eiver Pescado which, like the Iguazu, forms a number of cascades, and at the points where there was a great deal of stone I saw numbers of turtles which indicated our near approach to the copious Uruguay. In these regions there are but few colonists and occasional primitive dwellings of the track-walkers, who are called "turmas," a Por- tuguese word signifying potato-dwellers. The vege- tation is inter-tropical and the beauties of the for- ests so natural that my son Pedro was impelled to take numbers of photographs. The impressions produced in the mind of the traveller while tra- versing this wonderful country are like those which occur to one in the Amazonic regions. I recognized here the same kind of trees upon which I had so often swung my hammock for sleeping; and they appeared like old friends whom I wished to embrace and to converse with. As one further descends the mountain, the Pescado Eiver, which is a tributary of the Uruguay, increases in the volume of water, the cascades disappear, and on all sides one sees

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the luxuriant sugar-cane, orange, paw-paw and other tropical trees whose valuable timber will no doubt become the source of a great industry in the near future. We gradually came nearer to the territory of Eio Grande do Sul, in whose pampas as in those of the Argentine and Uruguayan Republics, cattle and horse-breeding are conducted on a large and profitable scale, while the natives and the German colonists of the State of Santa Catarina, numbering more than 250,000, devote themselves to agriculture.

The railway lines now operating in the States of Sao Paulo, Parana, Santa Catarina and Eio Grande do Sul, belonging to the Brazilian Eailway Company or controlled by it, are :

The Sorocahana Eailway, in the State of Sao Paulo, which has 1,300 kilometres, of which 434 form the main line between Sao Paulo and Itarare.

The Eailway of Parana, in the State of that name, with 405 kilometres, of which 300 kilometres comprise the line from Punta Grossa to the port of Paranagua.

The Eailway of the North of Parana, 43 kilo- metres, from Curityba to Eio Blanco.

The Eailway from Sao Paulo to Eio Grande, in the States of Parana and Santa Catarina, 883 kilometres, extending from Itarare to the Uruguay Eiver, where there is being constructed a bridge of half a kilometre in length, which will be shortly fin-

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ished when the trains of this road will pass over the lines of the Bio Grande.

The Bailway of Sao Paulo-Bio Grande, a branch of the San Francisco, in the State of Santa Catarina, which has 318 kilometres in use and extends from Tres Barras to San Francisco.

The Bailway of Dona Teresa Cristina on the Uruguayan coast of the State of Santa Catarina, which has 111 kilometres.

The Bailway of the Auxiliary Company of the Brazilian Bailway Company, in the State of Bio Grande do Sul, which has a total extension of 2,253 kilometres, of which, on the main line from the Uru- guay Biver to Santa Ana de Libramento there are 813 kilometres. This line goes to the ports of Bio Grande and Puerto Alegre and connects with the railways of Argentina in Uruguay in Santa Ana de Libramento.

For the Brazilian Bailway Company there are also the following lines in course of construction :

From Tres Barras to Puerto de la Union, 133 kilometres. This line is an extension of that of San Francisco, mentioned above.

That of Itayci, in the Sorocabana line, to Cam- pinhas. This line has 31 kilometres and is nearly finished.

From the Station of Salto Grande, on the Soro-

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cabana Railway, to the Puerto de Tibyrica, 400 kilo- metres, of which 100 are already constructed.

From the Station of Yaguariahyba, on the Sao Paulo-Bio Grande Railway to Curinhos, 220 kilo- metres.

The same company has concessions for the fol- lowing lines not yet under construction :

From Puerto de la Union to the mouth of the River Iguazu, 740 kilometres.

From San Francisco to Puerto Alegre, 650 kilo- metres, and an extension of the railway of the North of Parana from the Branco River to Faxina, in Sorocabana, through Serro Azul.

The Southern Brazilian Lumber and Coloniza- tion Company, a subsidiary of the Brazilian Rail- way Company, owns an aggregation of about 3,000,- 000 hectares of land distributed through the States of Sao Paulo, Parana, Santa Catarina and Rio Grande do Sul, and this is sold to the colonists with a view to their subsequent ownership at a price which covers the cost of the roads crossing them and of the expense incurred in the preparation of plans, etc. Generally the colonists acquire proprie- tary right in these lands after two or three years of work. The wage of a day labourer averages $1.20 per day, and the average railway rates are, for

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second-class passengers, one cent and a quarter per kilometre for the first fifty kilometres, with frac- tional reductions for greater distances.

The greater part of the land extending from Santos to the port of San Francisco is peculiarly suitable to the growth of bananas which are but little cultivated in those regions notwithstanding the great demand for that fruit in all parts of the world. In the United States its consumption reaches a money value of $200,000 per day, and the United Fruit Company, which owns a fleet of ves- sels for its transportation, earns an annual dividend of more than 10 per cent, upon a capital of $40,- 000,000 invested in plantations in Costa Rica, Guate- mala and Colombia. Another thing which attracted my attention in Brazil is that the green plantain is not used as a food for the people as is done on the coasts of the Sea of the Antilles and in the valleys of the interior, although analyses have shown that it is a better and more nutritious food, as well as cheaper, than potatoes or wheat. I remember hav- ing read in the travels of Stanley, "Through the Dark Continent," that when he arrived in the Kingdom of Uganda he and his personnel of the expedition were attacked by dysentery of which they were speedily cured by taking a soup made from green plantains, on the advice of the King. The banana also possesses excellent qualities as a food, as may be seen by the healthy condition of the

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savage tribes of the Amazon who live almost exclu- sively on that fruit in its green state, and when the mothers are unable to nurse their children they give them a soup made from it. Even in Europe to-day medical men are prescribing the banana as a healthy food for delicate children. There is now proceeding in Brazil a strong agitation against the high price of food-stuffs and a campaign in favor of the popular use of the green banana which can also be made into flour. In fact this is already being done on a small scale and will probably be so devel- oped as to make the banana a rival of wheat, owing to the low price at which the flour may be produced. A banana tree producing 300 bunches of the fruit at a cost of twenty cents per annum, will give 25 kilos of exportable flour.

The climate of the State of Parana in summer (from December to March) is about 24° centigrade, and in winter 15°, and whilst the cold is somewhat intense at the highest points snow seldom falls. In the colder regions the colonies are chiefly made up of Poles, Italians, Germans and Spanish, and in the State of Bio Grande do Sul there is a Jewish colony established by the late Baron Hirsch. In all three of the important States of Sao Paulo, Santa Cata- rina and Eio Grande do Sul there are immense tracts of fertile lands, practically unpopulated, available for the cultivation of wheat, alfalfa, and other products of the temperate zone. The cultiva-

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tion of rice has already begun, and I am of the opinion that cotton will ultimately form an impor- tant article of production in these lands.

On arriving at the pampas of Kio Grande do Sul, where the lands are grassy with occasional undula- tions, I knew we were advancing in the direction of the immense plains of the River Plate which con- tinue to the foot of the Andes. In those almost illim- itable areas there are hundreds of thousands of cattle and horses grazing. The cattle are fattened to produce jerked beef which is the principal article of export of this State for the northern parts of Brazil, and the horses retained in the country are employed to carry the products of the soil from one part of the State to the other. There are also large numbers of beautiful ostriches which do not run away at the sight of man, seeming to know that it is prohibited to kill them or to catch them and take their feathers. These birds form a kind of police for the district and destroy insects calculated to do harm, and for this reason the inhabitants protect them in every way. At the station of Cruz Alta, where I separated from Mr. Taylor, who went on to Puerto Alegre, I saw a train-load of Polish and Italian colonists, who were about to establish them- selves in their respective colonies. Amongst them were persons of all ages, children being in the majority. In their faces one saw the signs of the proletariat, of necessity and even of misery, and

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their glances seemed to convey a hatred of the better classes. But little by little, when the benefi- cent climate of this America and its abundant prod- ucts and advantages have satisfied their material and moral hunger, these colonists, many of them anarchists, will be completely changed in character. These territories, almost uninhabited, are only part of many others in Ibero-America to which immigra- tion will flow from Europe to an extent hitherto unknown, and it is with this in mind that I have repeated on so many occasions that the future of humanity, in the present century, is in America.

I ended my lengthy excursion through Brazil at Santa Ana de Libramento, on the frontier of Uru- guay, and I left the country with the firm conviction that it has entered solemnly and resolutely upon the path of order, civilisation and justice, and that the physical, moral and intellectual Brazilian type is becoming stronger by the assimilation of its for- eign colonists with the natives of the country, pre- cisely as has been the case in the United States, Argentina, Chile and other countries of this hemi- sphere. But, if the material advance of the country is undergoing daily improvement there is an equal extension of general knowledge and culture pro- ceeding amongst the better classes. One of the fea- tures of Brazil is the cultivation of the knowledge of foreign languages of which most educated Bra-

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zilians generally speak three or four. This is to some extent due to the fact that the Portuguese tongue is less universally known than that of other countries, thus rendering it necessary for those who travel or come into contact with foreigners to know other languages as well as their own. In Brazil, however, the study of languages is not merely ele- mentary, to be used alone for purposes of conver- sation, as frequently occurs in Holland, Switzer- land and some other countries, the English, French, German, Spanish and Italian classics being better known to the Brazilians than to the people of any other single nation.

These facts will not be new to those who know Brazil and its educated classes, but in view of the misconception prevailing as to the character, gen- eral standard of culture and qualities of the Bra- zilian and other Latin-American nations amongst those personally unacquainted with them it is per- haps desirable that they should be placed on record, particularly in the United States, where the condi- tions of many of the great Eepublics of the South are, to put it mildly, but little known. The great importance of Brazil to the commercial markets of the world and the recent enormous extension of the commercial relations of the United States with that Eepublic imperatively demand a closer intercourse and a better mutual understanding between them. It is, unfortunately, to the hitherto prevailing ignor-

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ance in the United States of the conditions of the great southern Eepublics and to the prejudices born of that ignorance that the friendly and commercial relations of the two countries have not attained those proportions which circumstances justify.

CHAPTER XI

THE ORIENTAL REPUBLIC OF URUGUAY

"La Banda Oriental.''

Tj^BOM the Brazilian frontier I entered Uru- guayan territory and passing through vast tracts of rich meadow land arrived at Bivera, a city noted for its beautiful parks, modern houses and abundance of trees, where on all sides I heard the delightful Castilian language and saw in the fea- tures of its inhabitants distinct signs of Spanish origin. From Eivera to Montevideo it is a railway journey of 500 kilometres across a flat country di- vided into lots by wire fencing, enclosing thousands of head of cattle and sheep and horses feeding on its nutritious pastures. The natural grass grows to a metre in height, and on this grass a young steer is fattened in four months. The whole of this region is exceptionally rich and is watered by the Bio Negro.

It has been said by a famous writer that "the blood that has flown through Latin- American revo- lutions would form but a small rivulet by compari- son with the oceans of blood that have been shed in

166

SR. DON JOSE BATTLE Y ORDONEZ, PRESIDENT OF URUGUAY

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Europe to indulge the ambitions of despots or to satisfy the righteous claims of freedom." That truthful observation may be applied with peculiar force to the Republic of Uruguay, which, during its brief existence as an independent State, has passed through many periods of stress and storm ; but it is invariably these occasions of national grief which evolve the principles of liberty, order and justice, so indispensable to the survival and welfare of a nation. The civil wars, in most cases waged in the cause of human liberty, which mark the history of the Latin-American countries, are apt to be magni- fied as indications of the unformed character of Ibero-Americans, by reason of their comparatively recent occurrences, just as the proportions and san- guinary nature of European wars and revolutions are unconsciously diminished through the remote- ness of the period in which they took place. Whether or not it be true that the evolution of the Uruguayan Republic has been hastened, or even impelled, by the many internecine struggles which have torn and distressed the people, it is beyond question to-day that the Republic has entered upon an era of permanent peace based on the highest principles of justice and of the respect of all legiti- mate rights. Uruguay is in South America what Switzerland, Belgium and Holland are in Europe. Of small territorial extension and population, its people may justly claim to have attained a degree

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of civilisation and progress equal to their most powerful neighbours.

In commenting upon the Laws and Constitution of Uruguay Anatole France expressed the opinion that the Uruguayan nation was capable of creating "a superior type of civilisation." The Constitution which is the only one of the South American Re- publics that has remained unaltered since its formu- lation, eighty years ago, embodies the fullest liberty and protection for all, irrespective of race or re- ligion. Treating the same point M. E. Stocquart, the distinguished Belgian jurist, in his work, "Bel- gian Law, ' ' says : * ' Uruguay, from the point of view of Civil Bights, is the most advanced of all the countries of South America"; and when we look at the' wise provisions and high civic ideals con- tained in the Constitution and in subsequent legis- lation there would appear to be abundant justifica- tion for M. Stocquart 's opinion. The Laws of Uruguay, as in many American States, are codi- fied; and some of these Codes might well be used as models for the legislators of other countries oc- cupying a more prominent position in the world than the Eepublic of Uruguay. Of its Commercial Code a great Italian master has said that it is "one of the most notable legislative works of our time, wor- thy of being used as a model by all who have to legislate on Mercantile Law. ' ' The Penal and Rural Codes are equally replete with sound and far-see-

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ing provisions. The former is largely based upon the doctrines of Zamerdelli, Mancini and Savelli and the Spanish and Chilean Codes ; whilst, in regard to the Rural Code, M. Lepelletier, in his criticisms of the French Rural Code, stated that "it is possible to envy nations who, like Uruguay, have known how to produce a work of such utility in a country where agriculture constitutes the main source of natural production. Commenced in 1873, the Rural Code of Uruguay was promulgated in July, 1875, and re- vised three years later; and it has never since then ceased to be changed and improved by Laws and Decrees which, together with the text of the orig- inal, make it to-day a legislative achievement of the highest value." Equally wise and just are the Codes relating to Civil and Criminal Procedure as well as the Military and Administrative Codes which regulate and provide equitable laws on the different subjects with which they respectively deal.

Without doubt Uruguay is one of the healthiest and most beautiful countries of South America, dif- fering from many in appearance through the ab- sence of the snow-covered mountains which appear so frequently in the southern portion of the Con- tinent. The country is flat, with slight undulations, serpented, so to speak, by something like five hun- dred rivers and streams which make it extremely fertile. In Uruguayan territory, which covers an area of about 72,000 square miles, there are no large

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desert tracts of undeveloped country such as may be found in the greater number of the South Amer- ican Republics, although there are virgin lands merely awaiting the hand of the labourer to till the soil in order to extend the cultivation of the nutritious and natural grasses abounding in all di- rections for stock-raising purposes. The climate is truly admirable, the average temperature in win- ter being only 12°; in spring 19°; in summer 22° ; and in autumn 13°, all centigrade ; and statis- tics show that it has a lower rate of mortality in relation to population than Germany, Austria, France, the British Isles, Italy and many other countries on the other side of the Atlantic; and less than in Argentina, Chile and others on the Ameri- can Continent. Uruguay, from the American point of view, is a small country, although it embraces a larger area than many important countries of Europe. The ownership of the land is not as much divided as it should be, but as Mr. Farquhar has already implanted a system of colonization in Par- ana, the Government and the railroad companies of Uruguay have already purchased large tracts for the purpose of introducing a form of colonization which will ultimately give to the rapidly increasing number of settlers full ownership.

The principal industry of the country is stock- raising, which is constantly increasing in extent and quality through the growing importation of animals

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of a better strain from Europe. The real improve- ment in this industry in the Uruguayan Eepublio commenced in 1870 when Senor Jose Buschenthal brought into the country eleven Durham bulls, two cows, two steers, one pure Swiss male calf, and one Ayrshire bull, which he presented to Mr. Bicardo B. Hughes. These pedigree animals, with others, were devoted to the refinement of the locally bred stock, and this process was continued for many years until the death of Mr. Hughes, when his son largely extended this field of operation, and to-day he is but one of many who produce stock reputed to be equal to the best in Europe or the United States. The same results have followed in the pro- duction of sheep which is almost an equally impor- tant Uruguayan pastoral industry. Another bene- factor of the country in the direction of stock-rais- ing was the late Mr. Thomas Howard, a native of Boston, who was at one time an officer in the United States Navy. This gentleman devoted himself, at great expense and entirely for the benefit of the country, to the introduction of valuable pedigree stock from Europe; and that work is still being continued by his widow and sons who are greatly respected throughout the Republic. All these pio- neers married native daughters of the country and their descendants are ardent and patriotic Uru- guayans, though not unmindful of the fact that

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they, themselves, are of at least partially foreign origin.

The present estimate of the national live-stock industry shows that the country has about 8,000,000 head of cattle, 25,000,000 sheep and about 600,000 hogs, the numbers of other animals being compara- tively insignificant. These figures bear a numerical relation of about one-fourth, in cattle and sheep, to the figures of the Argentine Eepublic, where horse-breeding is likewise conducted very exten- sively, although the proportion and number of ani- mals bred from pedigree stock is naturally in a much larger ratio in the Argentine Republic. There- fore, whilst Uruguay is not a serious competitor of Argentine in supplying the foreign meat markets, it is the largest producer of beef extract and jerked beef, no less than 1,000,000 head of cattle having been slaughtered during the past year, largely for the supply of material to the Liebig and other factories of a similar kind operating in the Republic. Sheep raising is also an important factor in Uru- guayan production and a large portion of its wool exports finds its way into the Boston market. In touching on the question of wool it may be of in- terest to importers of that commodity in the United States, where there are very large consumers, to know that the lack of intercourse existing between the latter country and the River Plate Republics is one of the principal causes of the high price of wool,

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which is seldom purchased by consumers in the United States direct from the producer, owing chiefly to the absence of personal representation on the spot. Wool not purchased direct by European buyers, who are largely represented in the markets of the River Plate, is generally shipped to Europe "to await orders." The consequence is that Euro- pean speculators invariably hold the wool for higher prices. But even if market quotations remain un- changed the American importer who usually pur- chases the Eiver Plate wool shipped "to await or- ders, ' ' has to pay the additional freight involved in the re-shipment and necessarily an increased brok- erage. From this statement of fact it may be seen that in this, as in many other directions, closer commercial contact between the United States and the Latin Republics of the South would largely aug- ment international trade.

Approaching the Uruguayan coast by steamer a delightful impression is made upon the traveller. The splendid capital, Montevideo, is built in the form of an amphitheatre, enclosing handsome mod- ern edifices and gardens, which present a still more picturesque effect when one enters within the gates of the city itself. There may be seen broad avenues, wide squares, and artistically designed parks, fra- grant with the perfume of the flowers that belong to this rich land, and handsome monuments that give their note of art and beautify the walks of this

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delightful city. There also is the never-ending and triumphant procession of Uruguay's lovely women who carry in their lips and in their eyes the dis- tinguished qualities of their Spanish ancestresses. One of the most striking characteristics of the peo- ple of Montevideo is their hospitable and sympa- thetic treatment of foreigners who, regardless of origin or language, are made to feel as much at home as though they were in the land of their birth.

Montevideo is particularly European in appear- ance owing to the fact that its buildings and streets have been modelled upon the lines of the great cities of Europe, whence have been chosen the most beau- tiful specimens of modern architecture and build- ings. The more important avenues with their native foliage may be likened, in summer, to such elegant promenades as the Bois de Boulogne, the Paseo del Prado, the Eambla de las Flores and the Avenida de los Emperadores, so well known to European travellers, whilst in autumn and in winter, in the afternoon, the Calle Sarandi becomes a veritable exposition of female beauty. Here it is where the better class women of Montevideo, whose beauty is world-famed, pass to and fro, the objects of ad- miration of the enthusiastic youth of the city who gather at the street corners to gaze on the enchant- ing procession. Amongst these fair Uruguayans there are varieties of blondes as well as of the

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national classic type, women with black hair and eyes who, endowed with the gracefulness of the Andalusian, enchant with their beautiful faces and figures. Yet with all these claims in abundance the Uruguayan woman excels in her possession of the domestic virtues. It is one of the sights of Monte- video to visit the Cemetery where, apart from the elegance and artistic character of the monuments, one may admire the pious ladies in mourning, pray- ing before their dead, not at long intervals, but, in many cases, almost daily, devoting the utmost care upon the preservation of the tombs which are gen- erally covered with beautiful flowers. This is almost a religion with the better class people of Uruguay who thus demonstrate the sincerity with which their hearts hold their affections.

In the outskirts of the city there are the Bosque de Colon and the delightful bathing-beach, Los Pocitos, which is not only a place of residence for the well-to-do families of the city during the sum- mer months, but also a favorite and convenient marine resort for a great number of the inhabitants of Buenos Aires and the south of Brazil. The Capital of Uruguay is built on the left bank of the mouth of the Eiver Plate, practically opposite Buenos Aires, to and from which city there is a service of splendid steamboats which perform the journey, generally at night, through the silvery wa- ters of the Eiver Plate, in seven or eight hours.

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From Bio de Janeiro and other parts of Brazil the journey is much longer and can only be made com- fortably in the trans- Atlantic liners, which, on their way from Europe to Buenos Aires, put in at Bra- zilian and Uruguayan ports. The long-projected railway, however, from Sao Paulo to Montevideo, a distance of about 3,500 kilometres, will shortly be completed and with the regular schedule proposed, the splendid equipment of the service to be provided, and the route of the line, which crosses the rich Brazilian States of Parana, Santa Catarina and Eio Grande do Sul, the road should largely help toward the further progress of Montevideo.

As I have pointed out in my references to the other Latin countries of America politics allied to a mistaken sense of patriotism have hitherto exer- cised a baneful influence upon the progress of the Eepublic. In Uruguay there are two political par- ties, the "Whites" and the "Beds" and the ambi- tions of these rival factions have often stood in the way of national advance ; and to such an extent has this been the case that M. Clemenceau has stated that * ' when a boy is born in Uruguay he is given a white or a red ribbon which he is enjoined to defend and hand down to his progeny. ' '

As illustrating, in some measure, the harmful ef- fects of revolutionary movements upon the indus- tries and commerce of the country it may be inter- esting to point out that even the process of refine-

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ment of native stock has been retarded in past years by revolutionary outbreaks. An explanation of this is to be found in the Military Code of the Republic which provides for compensation to own- ers of stock which has been seized or commandeered during a period of revolution. That Code, which has since been changed, fixed an arbitrary value upon each animal, not taking into account the higher value of improved stock, with the result that cases frequently occurred in which the loss of valuable pedigree animals was compensated for on an utterly inadequate scale. Hence during the years over which revolutionary outbreaks were of frequent oc- currence prominent stock-raisers naturally limited their operations. These conditions happily no longer exist, the former reign of anarchy having been succeeded by an era of peace and progress. Uruguayan patriotism is as ardent and as intense as that of the Spanish founders of the nationality. At a festival given at the Catholic Club in Monte- video in honor of the great patriot, Artigas, who is regarded as the real founder of the country, I was struck by the warmth and sincerity of the eloquent discourses delivered on that occasion by the poet, Zorilla de San Martin, and many other national celebrities. All these addresses were marked by ar- dent appeals to the youth of the country not only to conserve and defend the principles enunciated by the many South American liberators, but also, in

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their own moral, material and intellectual progress, to extend all protection and a full share of the rights which they themselves enjoy to all the foreigners who come to inhabit their country.

National leaders of thought fully realize the value to the country of foreign enterprise, foreign capital, and of a foreign industrial population. The teach- ing of foreign languages during the past few years has made such advance that, whilst Italian and French are known by the majority of the residents of the Capital, English and German are becoming familiar tongues throughout the country, and with this progressive educational movement the fraternal wars and revolutions, which but a short time since seemed to be a chronic condition of Uruguay, have disappeared. To-day industrial and commercial ad- vance is a national policy, and under the present administration, headed by President Battle y Ordon- nez, a distinguished journalist and writer, who has served a former presidential term, there has been established a system of government which has aroused the energies and progressive spirit of the people.

In the material progress of the Republic the ex- tension of the railways, which unite it with some of the adjacent Republics and widen the sphere of labour, has been the principal element and is being continued with great vigour in all parts of the country. Amongst the many railroads now under

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survey or construction one of the most important will be that stipulated for in a contract with the Pan-American Trans-Continental Railway Company from the northern frontier of the Republic to its southern border at Colonia. This enterprise, which is equally of interest to the United States and the Uruguayan Republic, will form part of the Pan- American scheme to secure rapid transit between New York City and Pernambuco by steamer, thence by rail to Valparaiso (Chile) via Rio de Janeiro, Colonia and Buenos Aires. One of the fixed condi- tions of this contract is that the Company binds itself to colonize something like 40,000 hectares of land extending along its lines, whilst arrangements have been entered into between the Government and the other large land-owning railroad companies, providing that to thousands of families a farm will be allotted to each on terms of a very favorable character. In addition to the grant of land on lines that will easily leave an annual surplus to the colon- ist provision is also made for the supply of stock, agricultural implements, seeds, or other necessary material, according to the use to which the land is put, with equal facilities to the colonist.

In her foreign relations Uruguay is also making rapid advance, having established Legations in many of the South American countries where she was hitherto not represented by fully constituted diplo- matic missions. All her differences on questions of

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frontier limits have been settled by their reference to arbitration or to Joint Commissions, and the gen- erous and friendly spirit which governs her deal- ings with the neighboring Republics is fully shown in the voluntary cancellation of the war-debt due to her by Paraguay, the balance of which still re- mains unpaid and due to the Argentine Republic and Brazil, although there is no likelihood of pay- ment being enforced by either of those countries. In foreign commerce each year shows a substantial increase over the previous corresponding period, and foreign capital is rapidly flowing in to further develop the natural resources. The port of Monte- video, like that of Buenos Aires, is continually ac- quiring greater importance, not even shown by the Government statistics relating to the movement of ships or to the imports and exports, as practically all the shipments of merchandise between Europe and Paraguay pass through Montevideo and fur- nish no means of determining their extent. For some time past port improvements have been pro- ceeding and these, which will enable the largest ocean steamers to dock alongside the quay, are now approaching completion. Uruguayan currency is on a gold basis, the gold dollar being of higher value than that of the United States. Climate, geograph- ical situation, the fertility of the soil and the char- acter of the people combine to give this favored land all the elements of a great and prosperous na-

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tion and with the permanent establishment of in- ternal peace the full attainment of that position can- not be long postponed.

Education, which is obligatory in its elementary form, is highly advanced. High schools are dis- tributed through all the large centres of the Repub- lic; and the University of Montevideo has a large number of Faculties which include agriculture, com- merce and the social sciences. The Government like- wise maintains Schools of Arts and Trades and a National Military College. Through the increased immigration the number of schools has been largely added to but the Government is now further extend- ing its educational efforts by establishing primary schools throughout the Eepublic so that there will be at least one school for every thousand of the inhabitants. The Uruguayan Army, with the auxil- iary forces, may be estimated at 100,000 men, but the unfortunate necessity to other countries of naval forces does not apply to the Uruguayan Eepublic.

The administration of justice in Uruguay was for many years notoriously bad, but it has now been reformed and the Supreme Court is so admirably equipped as to place it on a footing of equality with the Courts of any other South American country. The High Court now consists of five judges selected from members of the bar of the highest attainments and unimpeachable integrity. I have mentioned this in order to show how the

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people of even the smallest of the Latin Kepublics are capable of occupying a proud position amongst the most forward nations of the world; and Uru- guay is far from being an exception to that rule. The generous ideals, the progressive spirit and the patriotism of her sons, for whom the word God only exists before the word Country, render it possible for Uruguay to be regarded by the coun- tries of Europe and of the rest of the world as an example of the energies and the aptitudes of South America, and as a land of the future for the myri- ads of immigrants who leave the congested spots of the old world in search of a new horizon, a new country, and a new home.

CHAPTER XII

THE REPUBLIC OF CHILE

important Republic is separated from Ar- '*• gentina by the cordillera of the Andes whose enormous height and formation until a few years ago constituted such a barrier to direct communica- tion as to make these bordering nations, notwith- standing their proximity, to live as apart from each other as though they were respectively situated at the extreme ends of the continent. To-day, through the construction of the Transandine Railroad, the journey from one side to the other is merely a mat- ter of a few hours, and with the advantages which both countries have derived, commercially, from the closer intercourse thus established the completion of the mountain railway has led to a better mutual understanding both as regards the people and the Governments who have taken advantage of their more neighbourly situation to definitely erase the bitterness of the past and to unite their forces for the common good of Latin- America.

The physical conditions of Chile are in marked contrast with those of Argentina. For more than 1,200 kilometres to the south of Ecuador, in the

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eastern region of the Andes, there is an abundance of rainfall, while the plateau in the centre is dry and the western portion rainless and destitute of vegetation. In the southern regions of Chile these conditions are reversed, there being but little rain on the eastern side of the Andes and a heavy rain- fall on the western side which gives rise to a large number of rivers and lakes. The country is largely volcanic and may be said to possess four great earthquake zones, two of which are in the desert regions, one in the area embracing the city of Val- paraiso, and the fourth in the district extending from Concepcion to Chiloe. When an earthquake occurs on the coast, as was the case in 1906, on the destruction of Valparaiso, tidal waves are occasion- ally formed, and in some instances cause greater damage than the earthquake itself.

In the middle of the sixteenth century Governor Mendoza of Peru founded the present Argentine city of Mendoza at the foot of the cordillera on the banks of the river which descends from the snows of Aconcagua. The latter-day prosperity of the Ar- gentine Republic and the productiveness of the soil in the western areas of that country led to the extension of the railway to Mendoza and to an ex- pansion of the interchange of commerce between the two countries. At a later period a railway was constructed to the foot of the cordillera on the Chilean side, which, with a further extension of the

Photograph by George Grantham Bain

RAMON BARROS LUGO, PRESIDENT OF CHILE

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line from Mendoza in a westerly direction, brought the two Republics within a distance of 120 kilo- metres of each other. A tunnel was then pierced through the mountains for the purpose of joining these two lines, and in 1909 the international rail- road was opened to public traffic. Prior to the com- pletion of the road, land communication was only possible during the summer months and even then, notwithstanding the sure-footedness of the trained mules which carried the travellers, the steep and rugged character of the central portion of the cor- dillera rendered the crossing of the Andes a peril- ous and exciting adventure, causing the majority of people to prefer the route of the Pacific Mail Steam- ers plying between Montevideo and Valparaiso, which took eleven or twelve days to make the passage. The scenery one passes in the railway journey through these elevated regions is much more beautiful and imposing than that of Switzerland. The railway mounts the rocky slopes of the great range, crossing precipices as though it were pene- trating an unknown world. As the train gradually ascends, the whiteness of the perpetual snows, which with the rays of the sun appear like a silver breast- plate, causes the black shadows of the rails to vanish from sight, whilst above this vast white horizon there arises, in all its majesty and beauty, the imposing Aconcagua. The contrast presented by the view at this point of the colossal mountains

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and the despairing flatness and monotony of the desolate pampas of Argentina, where there is no tree to give its pleasing shade and no green spots to attract the eye, is truly remarkable. In the Ar- gentine Pampa are the deserted prairies which ex- tend for an immense distance without variation of any kind, and on these mountain heights, toward the west, there is a view of the palpitating life of nature in its most beautiful and diverse forms. At the bor- der between Argentina and Chile, a few metres from the railway, there is the famous bronze monument of ''The Christ of the Andes," which was erected to celebrate the opening of the international rail- road and to perpetuate the friendship of the two nations which had but a short time before been on the verge of war. Symbolising the act of bless- ing the two countries, the beautiful statue seems to be whispering those divine words, "Love one an- other, ' ' and to be a treaty of peace carved in stone. On the Chilean side the railroad runs along preci- pices and naked rocks until it reaches the valley of Aconcagua, where there are rich and fertile lands as well tilled and cultivated as the best in France. In this rich soil, which yields fruits and products of the highest quality, there are also extensive vine- yards and pastures feeding sheep, cattle and horses. Running parallel with the rails is a road for vehic- ular and pedestrian traffic and there for the first time I saw the huaso or Chilean native, in his

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national costume, carrying his picturesque poncho. His bronzed complexion and energetic expression emphasise his strength of character, while his physique and fighting qualities which make him one of the best soldiers of America also make him a ca- pable workman in any branch of industry in which he is always laborious and skilful. He invariably travels on horseback and carries enough provisions in his saddle-bags to enable him to make excursions, occasionally lasting several days, through the abrupt mountain slopes. In character the Chilean huaso is a fine type of humanity; strong, like his mountains, frank, loyal and brave, he is willing to make any sacrifice for a considerate employer, but is a relent- less enemy of those who ill treat him. Like all Chileans he is extremely hospitable and patriotic. During my journey to Chile I made a short stay amongst these people and one of them, having heard that I was a friend of his country, invited me to his home to partake of a meal. I accepted the invitation and was bountifully regaled by a variety of sea- sonable and delicious native dishes. After the lunch his wife, accompanying herself on the guitar, feel- ingly rendered some national patriotic and love songs, and the husband subsequently related to me many of the triumphs and other interesting episodes of the various wars in which Chilean troops had been engaged.

The topography of Chile is almost unique, being

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comparable only with that of Egypt and Norway. In the northern section of the country there are the nitrate beds which contain vast deposits of that fertilising product. The central portions em- brace the rich valleys and populous centres, and in the south, down to the Straits of Magellan, there are the wide, grassy plains, devoted to the success- ful raising of cattle, sheep and horses. The nitrate lands are situated between the coast and the terri- tory of the plateau of Bolivia. These lands have no vegetation and are perpetually without rain, to which they owe the existence of the nitrate deposits, which rain would dissolve and wash away. At many points of this district there are railroads to carry the product to the factories where it undergoes a process of dissolution and crystallisation and is pre- pared for exportation. The deposits are usually found at a few inches below the surface, in layers of about one metre thick, the mineral being of an ashy color and so hard as to render blasting by dynamite necessary for its removal. The nitrate grounds cover a very extensive area, and it is esti- mated that there are enough deposits still unex- ploited to supply the necessities of the world for a century or more to come. Nitrate is one of the most important sources of revenue for the country, which collects an export duty upon it, and in the thirty years from 1880 to 1909 the amount collected from this tax considerably exceeded $400,000,000.

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It has frequently been said that the concentration of national effort upon the development of this industry would ultimately produce bad, rather than good, results, as was the case with the guano indus- try in Peru, but from what has happened down to the present time these forebodings of evil do not appear to have been justified, as the Government and nation have worked harmoniously to utilise the immense revenues created by this industry in the construction of railways and other reproductive public works. On the other hand sight is not being lost of other sources of national wealth which are in course of development upon an energetic and ex- tensive scale. In this northern section of the coun- try the two principal cities are Serena and Co- quimbo. Serena is an exact counterpart of many of the old cities of Spain and was built at some distance from the coast, in all probability to make it easier of defence against the English and German pirates who made frequent raids upon those shores which Sir Francis Drake plundered and desolated in 1578. The city of Coquimbo is more modern in character, has a good port and is centrally located, although except where irrigation has been effected its surrounding lands are arid and have no vege- tation.

Santiago, the beautiful Capital of Chile, is in the centre of a fertile valley on the banks of the Ma- pocho Eiver and is overlooked by the Cerro de

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Santa Lucia, whose shadows give it the appearance of a great watch tower. There is also another height called San Cristobal on the top of which there is a gigantic statue of the Virgin. From the spacious and handsome thoroughfares in which there are many artistically designed one-story dwellings, rendered still more ornamental by the varied colours of their stucco enrichments, one sees the imposing chain of the Andes with their beauti- ful covering of snow, and, above them all, the Acon- cagua and the Tucumgato, which present a magnifi- cent spectacle. Practically equidistant from the sea and the mountains, Santiago has a beautiful climate as is evidenced by the health, the vigour, and the longevity of its inhabitants, many of whom are centenarians. In that favored city there is an absence of the rigours of the seasons. There the winter is like the autumn, and the summer like spring, the city being sheltered from the cold of winter by the two ranges protecting the valley in which it is built; and refreshed in summer by the cool currents from the South Pole, while the serenity of the lovely blue sky is scarcely ever disturbed by the appearance of a cloud.

The people of Santiago are extremely simple and modest in bearing, and even among the wealthiest classes there is a strong desire to preserve ancient customs and to resist the invasion of modern ras- taquairism. When attending Church or taking their

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walks abroad the ladies wear as an outer covering a black shawl or manto which lends to them a cer- tain grace and dignity and forms a dark frame that reveals the beauty of their faces and the bril- liancy of their eyes. One of the most marked char- acteristics of Santiago's society, and indeed of all the Chilean people, is the cordial hospitality they offer to the stranger who is almost tempted to pitch his tents under the blue sky beneath the chain of the famous mountains.

After Santiago the most important city in the Republic is Valparaiso, which is the terminus of the transcontinental railway and the most important western port of South America. In this city where everything is subordinated to the commercial de- mands of the port the buildings are higher, in most cases, than in Santiago, although it is situated in the very heart of the earthquake zone. The port and harbour are now being considerably extended in order to prepare for the immense growth of com- merce which is expected to result from the opening of the Panama Canal ; and when that great work is completed Valparaiso will be the terminal port for the vessels passing through the Canal to South America, as well as for those which navigate the Straits of Magellan or double Cape Horn. Even today its importance may be seen by the numerous entries and departures of ships trading along the coast of Chile, through Peru, Ecuador and Colombia

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to Panama, besides those which trade with San Francisco and the great ocean steamers plying be- tween Chile, Australia and Asia.

In the centre of the mountains at the point whence the bay of Valparaiso was first observed there is to be a monument erected to the memory of 0 'Higgins, who, when he went from Santiago to despatch the ships which were going to fight for the independence of Chile and Peru, said: "On these few mountain paths depends the welfare of the country." Hap- pily that is no longer the case, Valparaiso now being the commercial capital of the Republic, with all the possibilities of attaining greater importance as a port than either San Francisco or Vancouver, when the greater development of the mineral and other resources of Chile begins to follow the opening of the Canal. The rapidity with which the city has been rebuilt since its destruction in 1906 affords abundant proof of the energy and enterprise of its inhabitants.

The political organization of the country is wor- thy of special mention. The President of the Re- public is chosen from the ranks of the public men noted for their integrity and for the services they have rendered to the country, and there are in- stances, such as that of the actual President, Don Ramon Barros Luco, who has served his fellow citi- zens faithfully and continuously for more than forty years, in which all the political parties combined in

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order to make his election as Chief Magistrate unan- imous. Political passion and hatred are less intense in Chile than in many other countries of South America. In Congress, where public questions are frequently debated with considerable heat, there is mutual respect amongst its members and often the most cordial social relations amongst those of ex- treme party views, and these conditions obtain throughout the country where personal friendship and patriotism are placed above political considera- tions. The Chilean people are imbued with the true spirit of civic life. Members of Congress are not only not paid for their services but they are sub- jected to so many calls for public and private charity as to make the honor of representation a very costly privilege.

Unlike the people of other Latin-American coun- tries the Chileans excel both as soldiers and sailors, their love of the sea having led to their being called the English of South America, whilst the Chilean army, though numbering no more than about 13,000 men, has been stated by an eminent German military expert to be one of the finest in the world from the point of view of training, discipline and fighting qualities. The greater proportion of the popula- tion of Chile are of pure European descent without a trace of African blood and it is doubtless to this circumstance and their mixture with the highest types of aboriginals that they owe their possession

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of the qualities which distinguish them from the people of the sister republics. One hears and reads much of the famous Incas, but beyond all question the finest tribe of Indians which at any time inhab- ited the southern portion of the American continent are the Araucanians of Chile. These people were a nomad pastoral race who understood the value of military organization and were imbued with such courage and intelligence as to leave them the only unconquered Indians in all America. Of these in- domitable warriors, who in early times inflicted defeat after defeat upon the invaders of their terri- tory, there are still about 100,000 living in the peace- ful pursuit of their pastoral and agricultural avo- cations as law-abiding citizens of the Republic, justly proud of their ancestry and of their achieve- ments. They dwell in their camps under the domes- tic government of a Chief belonging to a family which has ruled the tribe from time immemorial, and the hereditary principle was only departed from in former times when the eldest son was incapable of assuming command of his fellow-warriors from amongst whom, when fighting was necessary, the strongest and bravest was specially selected. Their arms consisted of a wooden sabre with an edge of flint, or a tomahawk of stone, occasionally varied by a loaded wooden hammer. When Valdivia crossed the River Biobio and penetrated Araucanian terri- tory the Chiefs of these Indians assembled in con-

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gress and after lengthy deliberation decided to con- test the progress of the invader. At the beginning they were defeated by the fire-arms of the mounted Spanish troops, until Valdivia advanced to the point where the city bearing his name was built. Later, however, the Araucanos attacked the Spanish forces at about a hundred miles south of the River Biobio and by their numbers and bravery secured a com- plete victory over the Spaniards whom they anni- hilated. During the colonial period the wars be- tween the Araucanos and the Spaniards were re- sumed at frequent intervals, but the Indians, hav- ing learned how to defend themselves with the arms they had captured, secured repeated victories. They also, like the Bed Indians of North America, bred horses for use in war ; and they were able to count in their ranks many born tacticians such as Latauro and the great Caupolican, who were as brave as they were skilful in war. When they were worsted in an engagement they retreated to their forests to rehabilitate and to prepare themselves for fresh attacks upon the enemy. In the end, a treaty was established with the Araucanos whereby the River Biobio was fixed as the boundary limit dividing the colony from their territory, but these brave Indians never submitted and were able to preserve their in- dependence even after that of Chile was declared. The effects of this treaty, through their contact with white people and the establishment of commercial

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intercourse, led to an abatement of their warlike ten- dencies and ultimately to their final pacification, and in 1881 when Chile established her authority over the city of Temuco, founded in the centre of Araucanian territory, a gathering of the tribal Chiefs took place, at which it was decided that the Araucanos should incorporate themselves as citi- zens of Chile. Thus these unconquered aboriginals are today contributing to the industrial develop- ment of the country with the same advantageous results as they conferred upon its people in trans- planting their exceptional qualities of character. No actual knowledge exists as to the number of individuals who constituted the Araucanian nation at the time of the Conquerors. It has been esti- mated at 400,000 but this figure would seem to be excessive when it is taken into account that the means of subsistence were very meagre, that they were possessed of very little cattle, and that the forests and surrounding country furnished but little animal food to the hunter. Since their intercourse with the white man their numbers have been dimin- ished by tuberculous affections, notwithstanding the efforts made to protect them from that scourge. Until 1881, when they came under the dominion of the Chilean Government, no success attended the many attempts to convert them to Christianity. Their religion was like that of many of the aborig- inal tribes of America. They adored a Superior

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Spirit and in their rites they prayed for good weather and that the evil spirit should not enter their bodies. Their priests were their women-folk who were educated from childhood to understand their functions. For the religious ceremonies they selected a sacred tree, in which they carved out a series of steps which were mounted by the priests to perform the rites. When the tree died the trunk was still regarded as sacred and on feast-days they displayed their reverence by adorning it with such flowers as they were able to collect. The adoration of the sun, as practised by the Incas, was not per- mitted amongst the Araucanos, the majority of whom are to-day adherents of the Christian faith. Missionaries engaged amongst them declare them to be highly intelligent and easy to manage and educate, when they are treated with consideration, but they are the very reverse of docile or submissive if they are treated harshly or unjustly. After the European revolution of 1848 a German colony es- tablished itself in Araucanian territory and formed the city of Osorno. Many of these Germans have intermarried with the Araucanos and the colony is at the present time one of the most flourishing and progressive in the Republic of Chile.

Throughout my travels in South America I was overwhelmed by the kindness and hospitality ex- tended to me, but I should be wanting in gratitude and in my desire to do justice to the generous in-

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stincts of the Chilean people and to an adequate description of their life and customs if I failed to record, at least briefly, in these pages my grateful recollections of a trip to Almahue, the estate of my old friends, Messrs. Eobert and William Lyon, who invited me with my son to make the visit. Other guests invited with me were General Eduardo Gor- maz, Julio Pereira, Ismael Pereira, Vicente Eeyes Solar, Eduardo Correa E., Fernando Suber- casseaux, Horacio Edwards, Luis Varas (Governor of Cachapoal), Adolf o Luco Blanco, Eaul Besa Eodriguez, Gabriel Vidal and Manuel Merchan Lecaros.

We left Santiago in a Pullman coach and after being served with luncheon arrived at the village of Eengo, where the railway station was decorated with flowers and flags of Colombia and Chile inter- twined. A band of music played the hymns of the two nations, which were also sung by a large num- ber of school children assembled there for that pur- pose. The boy scouts in their khaki uniform formed in line and presented arms as we passed. Vivas were raised for Colombia which I reciprocated by similar salutations to Chile. In Peumo there was another reception of the same kind, whilst a boy and a girl recited eloquent addresses accentuating the traditional friendship between Chile and Colombia. They proclaimed the great Bolivar as the genius of liberty and independence in America, and made flat-

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tering acknowledgment of the friendship I had al- ways shown to their country. The Governor, the Parish Priest and the Chief of Police also made speeches of welcome, to which, profoundly moved by the references to Bolivar and to Colombia, I re- plied, expressing my gratitude for these kindly man- ifestations which were an eloquent proof of the tra- ditional and patriarchal hospitality of the noble Chilean people. I added that the acknowledgment of the genius of Bolivar was an act of justice as well as of glory and of honour for the entire con- tinent, and with sentiments of the deepest respect for the tribute to that great man I desired to link with his name the names of two other South Ameri- can heroes, 0 'Higgins and Portales. I further said that the military instruction imparted in the Chilean schools tended to preserve the high qualities of those great men; that the presence of the Parish Priest showed the harmony existing between the State and the Church; and that the military exercises of the children, so admirably performed, was a proof of the national respect for the army and the navy and furnished an explanation of the strength and pa- triotism of the Chilean nation.

Arriving at the beautiful home of the estate of Almahue, which had the aspect of an English coun- try mansion, surrounded by a large park, extensive vineyards, pastures and woods, covering an area of 14,000 hectares, irrigated by the adjacent lakes and

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waters, we were welcomed at the door by Dona Lucia Besa Rodriguez, the wife of our host, Don Guillermo Lyon. I had recently become acquainted in Paris with this lady, who was greatly admired in that city for her beauty, her modesty, and her grace of manner, which are the attributes of most Chilean ladies. On entering the great salon the vis- itors received an agreeable surprise. They found themselves in the middle of a forest of palms, wil- lows and cypresses adorned with chrysanthemums and other flowers which gave the room the appear- ance of a scene from fairyland. Champagne was served and after a sumptuous dinner there was an improvised programme of excellent music.

On the following day we visited the mixed school of the estate where there were more than sixty children of both sexes, there being two others of a similar kind for the education of the children of the labourers on the estate. On horses and in coaches the visitors were then . escorted to the beautiful church and to the dwellings of the overseers and work-people for whom kitchen gardens and recrea- tion grounds were also provided. There were seen here a troop of magnificent horses, mares and colts of the hackney type, percherons and race-horses equal to those one might see in the famous studs of Europe, whence many of them of distinguished pedi- gree had been imported.

We returned to the house for luncheon which was

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given in the forest-rooin. The table adornments composed of flowers and fruits were formed into figures of the Cross which I understood to mean that the home was protected by that holy symbol. The floor was covered with fresh branches to give completeness to the general effect, and the Chilean and Colombian flags were intertwined in fraternal embrace. Don Roberto Lyon spoke a few eloquent words of welcome and I responded by proposing the health of the lady of the house, her distinguished husband, and my fellow-guests. When the meal was over there was music and the cueca was danced by the younger people. The dance was artistically exe- cuted and reminded me of the bolero, the habanera, the bambuco, the jota, the torbellino, and the fan- dango, in which the dancers performed individually, expressing in their movements the sentimental char- acter of the people. The cueca is danced with more grace, with greater animation, and with deeper in- tensity than the tango; and there is no doubt that it will become a popular terpsichorean exercise in other countries when it becomes better known.

There was later a parade of more than a hundred school children, well dressed, happy and healthy in appearance. A representative of each school car- ried the Chilean flag and sang the national hymn with genuine enthusiasm. These were followed by the tenants and labourers, numbering about four hundred, mounted on splendid horses with luxurious

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saddles, some with spurs of silver, who displayed their affection for their employers by deafening cheers. The parade lasted a considerable time and the procession gave one the impression of a regi- ment of robust warriors, only lacking the lance and the sword, which, in case of need, those who took part would willingly take up in defense of the na- tional honour. Among these sturdy workers there were many men of extreme old age, like the overseer, Luciano Pino, who rode a spirited horse and carried his ninety years with all the agility and strength of an active youth, and in the procession there were others as old and as strong.

After the parade we were taken in coaches and on horseback, under the escort of the four hundred horsemen, to a nearby camp where two platforms had been erected for dancing. Here also there were foot and horse races in which the men took part; and there was played the exciting and popular game of the vara or tapiadura, wherein tens of horsemen participate. Wine was distributed in abundance and camp-fires were lighted to cook the food pro- vided by our hosts. The sports being concluded we returned to the family home and after having bidden farewell to the lady of the house proceeded on our way.

This imposing country festival was a revelation to me, and, as I subsequently discovered, a true exam- ple of the life of large Chilean estates where, as in

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Almahue, there are many tenants and labourers be- tween whom and the owners there exist mutual re- spect and affection.

The mineral wealth of Chile is of such proportions as to have justified the investment of the many millions already employed in its development, most of which have yielded satisfactory returns, in spite of the absence of direct means of communication and of the fact that the ores have to be exported by the circuitous and expensive route of the Magellan Straits. With the opening of the Panama Canal mineral exports will increase considerably, and amongst those taking part in the development of this branch of native industry the Bethlehem Steel Company of the United States are actively develop- ing the iron deposits of Tofo, near Coquimbo, the products of which will all be exported through the Canal. These favorable prospects are also shared by those engaged in the cultivation and export of fruits and other natural products. The excellence of the climate, the superior qualities of the soil, and the fact that Chile produces fruits of the temperate zone in a season during which they are not pro- duced in Europe or the United States, should largely extend the market which is at present limited to home consumption and to the neighbouring Eepub- lics. Chile possesses all the elements for a vast ex- pansion of this industry and there is no reason why in the course of a few years her fruit-producing cen-

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tres should not become formidable rivals of Valen- cia, Florida and Los Angeles. I remember when, thirty years ago, the banana industry was estab- lished on a small scale on the coasts of the Sea of the Antilles, in Central America, Colombia and Ja- maica. Today the United Fruit Company, founded by Mr. Minor Keith, to whom most of the countries named owe their economic redemption, owns a large fleet of steamers which carry bananas to almost every quarter of the globe and derive profits amounting to millions of dollars annually. There are precisely as great chances for a corporation well organized and skillfully conducted to create as great an industry in the fruits of Chile as has been done in Central America by the United Fruit Company. Fourteen years ago Mr. Izquierdo founded a nursery of fruit plants, flowers and other growths for decorative purposes. It was thought at the time that the enterprise would fail and that it had no future. Mr. Izquierdo, however, un- daunted by the warnings of his friends, persisted in his ideas, with the result that his establishment sup- plies hundreds of thousands of plants for use in Chile and Argentina, and is now extending his op- erations to other countries of South America.

There is little doubt that within a few years Chile will become the garden of the temperate zone in South America, and the population necessary for a proper exploitation of its mineral and fruit indus-

MERCURIC BUILDING, VALPARAISO, CHILE

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tries will flock to its shores together with foreign capital and transform the country as rapidly as California was transformed after the termination of the transcontinental railroad. A satisfactory fea- ture in this direction is that Chile, alone amongst South American countries, owns its railroads, which permits not only of reduced tariffs but also of the construction of new lines from the proceeds of sur- plus revenues, and at the present time a line, to be called the Longitudinal Railroad, extending from one extreme end of the Republic to the other, is in course of construction.

Equally with the central valley in which is built the beautiful Santiago the southern part of the Re- public down to the Straits of Magellan is noted for its fertility and wealth of resource. In this region there are copious rainfalls and great rivers like the Maule and the Biobio, the latter being near to the city of Concepcion, which is the most important of the southern part of Chile, where also there are several ports. Great impetus has lately been given to sheep breeding in the lands adjacent to the pros- perous city of Punta Arenas, while agriculture is also flourishing owing to the low price and large extensions of the land which belongs, in great part, to the State, which is thus enabled to establish a system of colonization whereby the settlers ulti- mately become the land-owners, as occurs in Argen- tina and Brazil.

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A short distance from Valparaiso, on the road to Santiago, is situated the beautiful bathing place of Vina del Mar which contains many handsome resi- dences and villas erected there by the wealthier classes of Santiago who pass the summer season, the months of January and February, in that de- lightful watering-place, whose spacious avenues and well constructed roads are shaded by a variety of old trees. The town is made additionally attrac- tive by the agreeable nature of the climate, which is mild in winter and never too hot in summer.

The population of Chile is estimated at about 4,000,000 inhabitants, the annual increase being small, due to its geographical situation and to a consequent lack of immigration, which have made it dependent upon natural augmentation. As in the case of the other Eepublics to the north, the propor- tion of foreigners to inborn citizens is particularly small and in Chile is only about 41 per 1,000. Edu- cation is rapidly reducing the number of illiterates, but unfortunately the rate of infant mortality is somewhat high and is now occupying the serious attention of the Government. On the whole Chile is a land of order and progress, where liberty and enlightenment go hand in hand, and in the new field of thought and action held out by the linking of her coasts of the Pacific with those of the Atlantic, her sons will find a stimulus to renewed energy in every branch of national life.

CHAPTER XIII

THE ARGENTINE REPUBLIC

Topography and History

nnHE great wealth of the natural resources of the * Argentine Eepublic and the vast territorial extension in which there are climates of all the tem- perate and torrid zones, have attracted to its shores an ever-growing tide of immigration and a fabulous amount of foreign investment, British capital alone aggregating considerably over $2,000,000,000. In the course of comparatively few years Argentina's formerly wasted areas have given birth to many cities ; railways have been extended in all directions, fomenting agriculture and commerce and carrying to the numerous ports the prolific production of that wonderful land which provides a great part of humanity with its meat and its wool and where cattle, refined by the best strains of European blood, horses and sheep are counted by millions. The agri- cultural industries have so increased that to-day they rival, and in some cases surpass, those of the United States, justifying the description of the Ar- gentine Republic as "the world's granary"; and all

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this progress has been made with a population that has not yet reached the number of eight million in- habitants and with but fifteen per cent, of the culti- vable area of the country placed under cultivation.

Geographically the Argentine Republic may be divided into four regions: (1) the Pampa, embrac- ing the Province of Buenos Aires and the centre of the country in which the wealthiest estancias are lo- cated; (2) the Great Chaco, which includes all the northern part with tropical climates ; (3) the Andine region which extends from the frontier on the south- ern borders of Bolivia to the frontier of Chile ; and (4) the Patagonian region, extending from the Eiver Colorado to Cape Horn. The latter region derives its name from the extensive foot-prints of human feet which the conquerors found in those vast tracts ; and it is but a short time back that this then un- known territory was described by distinguished travellers, including Darwin, as unsuitable for cul- tivation and unfit for human habitation. To-day it is a fertile country abounding in rich grass-land, in woods and in water, where the cultivation of sheep is conducted upon an immense scale, the scar- city of rainfall having destroyed its value for agri- cultural purposes, although it is irrigated by six large rivers: the Negro, Chubut, Santa Cruz, Deseado, Coyly and Gallegos. In former times fab- ulous stories were related of the gigantic propor- tions of the Patagonian people, but it is now known

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that although they were of larger stature than that of the average man — some of them of a height of six feet four inches — the average is only a little higher than that of other parts, the belief as to their immense height having been caused by the fact that they were extremely tall in body and short in legs, thus giving an impression, when on horseback, that they were of abnormal size.

The real Argentina, however, is the Pampa. It is this vast and fertile land that produces the wealth and prosperity of the country. It is in this section that the traveller finds his % mistake in supposing that the Argentine Republic contains only plains for grazing and land for the production of grain. In this section are the rich lands and prosperous cities, and it is here where agriculture flourishes apace. The Pampa is covered with a rich variety of grasses, reaching to a depth of a metre below the surface; and in tracts, enclosed by wire fencing, there are kept millions of head of cattle, sheep and horses of a quality as good as the best in England or the United States. In the same region there is extensive cultivation, with the most modern scien- tific methods, of wheat, corn, barley, alfalfa, linseed and other products, whilst in Mendoza, wine grow- ing is an important industry.

The geological formation of the Pampa is a com- bination of sand, mud of reddish colour and the red earth of Brazil, intercepted by veins of rock known

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as "tosca." This extends to the 38th degree, or a little beyond, and it elicited from Darwin the de- scription of the "Pampa of Mud." The thickness of this covering varies considerably, averaging about 14 metres and corresponding geologically to the fourth formation, known as the Deluvian. In this combination there have been found a great quantity of remains of mammals of enormous size, and in the excavation of a canal, in any direction, the natives still search for the discovery of whole skeletons. Much speculation is rife as to how these great animals were kept alive, although it is gen- erally believed that they were not of a voracious character but of the order of the elephant which maintains itself. It has been suggested that these animals disappeared during the glacial period, which killed the mastodon and left life to the small birds only. The theory of Bravard is that there was a vast simoom or sand-storm which killed and cov- ered these animals but this theory is opposed by the fact that the greater part of the skeletons are fragmentary, whereas, if they had been destroyed by the simoom or sand-storm they would be pre- served intact. The opinion of Darwin is that this species which existed in all tropical America down to the icy mountains, as in the surroundings of Bogota, were not destroyed in the manner described by Bravard, but that their destruction came with the flood. This is also the opinion of D'Orbigny who

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said that the deposit of the great Argentine Pampa was formed by the invasion of the waters. Darwin likewise found a great quantity of the remains of mastodons in Bahia Blanca, in Bajada, and on the coast and in the tributaries of the Eio Negro, which proves that these animals, or their remains, were driven to the coasts. It is thought that the Pata- gonian region was an immense lake or sea and that the system of the rivers of South America at that time was different from that of to-day, with the re- sult that the immense volume of the waters of the Parana and the Paraguay bathed the north of the continent and accumulated masses of mud to the extent of converting that great sea into dry land and forming the Pampa.

The climate in Argentina varies in relation to its great extension of 4,000 kilometres from the north to the south. In the Provinces of Buenos Aires, Santa Fe, San Luis, Mendoza, a part of Cordoba, and a part of one or two of the neighboring Prov- inces the climate is that of the temperate zone, with mild winters and moderate summers, but in the north the climate is hot and humid. Towards the south the cold is more intense, and during the win- ter, which lasts from May until early in October, there are frequent heavy snow-falls. In Buenos Aires spring-time begins in September and ends in the middle of December ; the summer ends in March ; the autumn continues until the end of May and the

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winter during the rest of the year. Generally speak- ing, the climate of Buenos Aires is pleasant and favorable for the growth of a strong and vigorous race. The most disagreeable feature is the wind from the north, which comes down frequently in winter and produces great changes in the tempera- ture. The north winds are considered to be un- healthy and invariably excite the nervous tempera- ments of the portenos. In the summer the heat is largely increased by the Pamperos; but on the whole, notwithstanding occasional dry seasons, the meteorological conditions of the Argentine Republic may be favorably compared with those of any other agricultural country.

The discovery and conquest of Argentina was of less interest, at the time, than the founding of the countries of the northern part of the continent where there were abundant precious metals. It was effected in 1515 by an expedition formed in Spain by Don Juan Diaz de Solis. Starting out with three ships the party left the port of Lepe on October 8th, sailing as far South as latitude 35, where they fol- lowed the coast in a westerly direction. Observing that the waters in which they were floating were no longer salty, de Solis assumed that he had struck a large river, which in consequence of his being unable to see the other coast he described as Mar Dulce or Sweet Sea. Two of his vessels anchored whilst with the third he proceeded along what is

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now known as the Eiver Plate until he reached the island to which he gave the name of Martin Garcia. Here he disembarked but very soon afterwards met his death at the hands of the Indians. After Solis a Portuguese pilot, Don Hernando de Magallanes, continued the voyage of discovery in the Eiver Plate and in 1520 found the Mount Cerro opposite what has since become the city of Montevideo. On April 10, 1526, another Spanish expedition left Seville and its commander, Don Sebastian Gabotto, having been successful in ascending the rivers Parana and Uruguay, established the fort of Espiritu Santo in the Delta of the former river. These early discov- eries in the River Plate led to a great deal of jeal- ousy and desire for territorial extension amongst the monarchs of Europe, and toward the year 1535 the Emperor Charles V decided to send out explor- ing parties, with Don Pedro de Mendoza in com- mand, to whom as an inducement the offer was made of a governorship for life over any territories he might conquer or otherwise acquire. The Mendoza expedition consisted of a fleet of 14 vessels and about two thousand men, many of whom were Ger- mans. This force entered the River Plate in Feb- ruary, 1536, and landed on the spot which now con- stitutes the capital of the Argentine Republic. Here a township was formed, Mendoza giving it the name of Santa Maria de Buenos Aires. Subsequently the little township was destroyed by the Querandi In-

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dians who inhabited the region. Meanwhile his prin- cipal lieutenant, Don Juan de Ayolas, continued the ascent of the River Parana and after numerous fights with the various Indian tribes occupying the land founded the town of Asuncion, now the capital of the Paraguayan Eepublic. Like several of his predecessors and successors Ayolas was murdered by the Indians and until 1576, when Don Juan de Gavay was made Governor, little extension took place. The latter, however, resolved to attempt the reconquest of Buenos Aires and leaving Asuncion for that purpose arrived at the site of the township founded by Mendoza in 1536. Plans were drawn for the demarcation of the limits of the town which the Indians again essayed to destroy but were unsuc- cessful in their attempt. The first inhabitants of Buenos Aires were 50 Creoles and 19 Spaniards, and with this second founding of the town the period of conquest in the regions now comprising the Argen- tine Eepublic may be said to have finally closed, to be followed by a Colonial regime, which lasted until 1810, when the existing form of Government was proclaimed and established.

During the Viceroyalty of Rafael de Sobremonte, from 1804 to 1806, the British Government de- spatched a squadron of five vessels and a force of 1,500 soldiers, the former under the command of Sir Home Popham, the latter under Sir William Beresford, with a view to securing some of the then

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much coveted territory in this part of South Amer- ica. On June 25, 1806, Sir William Beresford and his troops landed at a point some twenty miles south of Buenos Aires and immediately marched on to the town, which he occupied on the following day. The inhabitants at once organised to repel the inva- sion and appointed a number of officers to bring reinforcements from Montevideo. On August 10th, following, the whole of the suburbs of the town were in the possession of the Spanish who demanded the surrender of Beresford and his force. This being refused the town was attacked from all sides, and two days later Sir William Beresford and his troops surrendered unconditionally. The British Government, still believing in the possibility of a reconquest of Buenos Aires, in the following year sent out a body of 14,000 men under General White- locke. These forces captured the town of Monte- video and shortly afterwards made an attempt to retake Buenos Aires. In this enterprise they were wholly unsuccessful, being repulsed at every point by the Spanish troops whose commander not only compelled them to surrender in person, but also demanded and obtained written undertakings that the British forces would immediately evacuate the city of Montevideo and the whole of the River Plate.

In 1809 the last Viceroy was nominated by Spain and he remained in office until the 25th of May, 1810,

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the date on which an Administrative Assembly ap- pointed by the people of Buenos Aires assumed charge of the Government. The revolution of 1810, which ended forever Spanish rule in the River Plate, was the result of a political movement initi- ated in the Colonies at a much earlier period. This movement was mainly dictated by the feelings in- spired through the inept and wretched form of gov- ernment established over the Colonies, whilst the repulse of the English invaders, the conquest of Spain by Napoleon, and the Declaration of Inde- pendence of the United States of America naturally exercised their influence upon the inhabitants of the River Plate territories and led them to the belief that they could organise and conduct their own af- fairs independently of the mother country with much greater advantage and freedom than they had enjoyed under Spanish rule. On the 13th of the previous month news arrived in Montevideo of the invasion of Andalusia by the French, of the fall of the Bourbons, and of the anarchy reigning in Spain. The hour for the Americans had arrived, and, dis- carding the supreme authority, the Argentine pa- triots and miliary chiefs agreed, and carried the people with them, that a complete change of Gov- ernment was necessary. A popular assembly was convened, the voting resulting in the deposition of the Viceroy and the creation of an Administrative Congress. The members of this body were duly

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nominated by the Cabildos or Mayoral Councils un- der the presidency of the former Spanish Viceroy, but by reason of a strong popular protest this nom- ination was cancelled on the same night. On May 25th the populace assembled in the Plaza de la Victoria, proclaiming its political liberty and nam- ing the first National Government. In order that the same political change might be effected in the other provinces of the ex-viceroyalty, Congress equipped two military expeditions, one to Peru, the other to Paraguay. Both these expeditions ulti- mately succeeded in bringing the two provinces under the new form of government. A very short time elapsed, however, before the newly acquired independence was seriously menaced by the Royal- ists ; but, fortune favoring the Argentine forces, the Royalists were defeated in all directions, and on July 9, 1816, the Congress held in Tucuman declared the Independence of the United Provinces of the River Plate and proclaimed a national flag of blue and white. The population of the Argentine was divided into two classes, the urban and the rural; the former more or less educated, the other largely ignorant. These two classes, although unite'd in the matter of independence, differed considerably in their views regarding the constitution of the vari- ous branches of the Executive. The provincial rep- resentatives were in favor of a Federal form of Government, whilst the educated classes desired the

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Unitarian principle. Civil war arose out of this dissension and so much anarchy prevailed that in the one year, 1820, there were twelve changes of Government in Buenos Aires. A more settled con- dition was later created under the government of General Rodriguez, but this only lasted until 1825, when war was declared against Brazil with the ob- ject of freeing the State of Uruguay. Meanwhile Rivadavia was appointed President and under his rule great progress was made.

In Buenos Aires during this period a National Bank and a University were founded and other con- siderable improvements in the city effected, but in 1827, after the defeat of the Brazilians by General Alvear, the deposition of General Rivadavia took place and with it the end of the Unitarian system of Government. Various changes occurred in the Pres- idency between 1827 and 1831, when Rozas secured the establishment of the Federal system.

The tyrannical methods of the administration of Rozas, who became Dictator, caused a setback in the immigration and general advance of the country. In 1852, after a revolution in which the Dictator was defeated and fled to England, a new era of political and social reorganisation set in, and in 1853 a Congress held in Santa Fe sanctioned the National Constitution on the Federal system. The Province of Buenos Aires not having taken part in this Congress, a civil war resulted. Peace was again

Photograph by Paul Thompson DR. ROQUE SAENZ PESA, PRESIDENT OF THE ARGENTINE REPUBLIC

PLAZA HOTEL, BUENOS AIRES, ARGENTINA

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signed in 1865, but the Province of Buenos Aires remained independent of the remaining States of the Confederation. Four years later the Argentine Confederation was again merged in war which lasted for two years, after which the Constitution was revised and definitely established in 1862 in the form in which it now governs the Republic. Gen- eral Bartolome Mitre, who had done much to pro- duce the necessary reform of the Constitution, was elected President of the Republic and it was during his term of office that Don Francisco Solano Lopez, the Dictator of Paraguay, who was at war with Brazil, invaded the Province of Corrientes without the sanction of the Argentine Government. As a re- sult of this action Argentina became an ally of Bra- zil and Uruguay, and after a war, which continued for five years, defeated the Paraguayans and killed Lopez.

General Mitre's successor in the Presidency was General Sarmiento, who ruled from 1868 to 1874, and to him is largely due the great advance which has been made in Public Education. He was suc- ceeded by Don Nicholas Avellaneda, who retained the Presidency until 1880. During the intervening period, with the military assistance of General Julio A. Eoca, what is known as the conquest of the desert took place, the whole of the plains of the Province of Buenos Aires having been cleared of Indians, who had hitherto impeded the development of the

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agricultural industries in that part of the country. In 1880 General Boca was elected President, and on September 21st of the same year the City of Buenos Aires was declared the Federal Capital of the Eepublic. General Koca, having completed his six years' tenure of the chief magistracy, was fol- lowed by Don Miguel Juarez Celman, who resigned on the 7th of August, 1890, after a political revolu- tion of some importance. The then Vice-President, Dr. Carlos Pellegrini, became President and held the position until it became vacant by effluxion of time. On the 12th of October, 1892, Dr. Luis Saenz Pena was elected President, resigning his office in January, 1895, and was succeeded in turn, until 1898, by the Vice-President, Dr. Jose E. Uriburu. In October of that year General Julio A. Boca again became President. With the return of General Boca it was generally felt throughout the country that its destinies were to be controlled by a man who com- bined the qualities of true statesmanship with those of an experienced military commander. He had al- ready rendered great service to the Bepublic in the defense of law and order, and under his administra- tion Argentina entered firmly upon its present stage of progress. He likewise was mainly instrumental in securing the arbitration of the boundary dispute with Chile, which had brought the two countries to the verge of war. Dr. Manuel Quintana, an enlight- ened patriot and accomplished lawyer, succeeded

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General Boca in the Presidency, but his unfortunate death took place before he had completed the first half of his term, when the Vice-President, Dr. Figueroa Alcorta, assumed the Chief Magistracy. The President now is Dr. Boque Saenz Pena, whose father, as set forth above, had already filled that high office. Dr. Boque Saenz Pena, who is the author of several notable works on international jurisprudence, is free from party political affilia- tions, and his wise administration is popular both at home and abroad.

CHAPTER XIV

IN CAMP AND CITY

npHE ethnical conditions of the Argentine Repub- •*• lie are similar in some respects to those of Chile and Uruguay. The native race is gradually disappearing and the negro is practically non-exist- ent. The unsolved problem of the origin of the natives of South America is still discussed with much interest and doubt. Aristotle suggested the view that at one time there existed a western con- tinent corresponding to Africa. He was of the opin- ion that it was possible to make a journey from Europe to India by a westerly route if the diffi- culty of the great extension of the Atlantic could have been overcome. It is believed that the Cartha- ginians visited Madeira and the Canary Islands, while the Roman poets and writers, including Sen- eca, speak of lands on the other side of the Atlantic ; and it has been proved that the Norsemen entered North America by way of Greenland more than a thousand years ago. On the other hand the origin of the present population of the Argentine Republic admits of no doubts of any kind. The people are pure white with a predominance of the Spanish type. Here have been mixed together the Basques, Cas-

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tilians, Catalans, Andalusians, Galicians and Astu- rians; and this mixture has produced a race of physical and facial beauty unexcelled in any other country of the American continent. To this con- siderable Spanish element there must also be added the flow of immigrants from other parts of Europe, imbued with the spirit of enterprise, labour and sincere love of the country of their adoption, who have combined to stamp the Argentine Eepublic as one of the most progressive countries of modern times. Successive governments have realised, to the fullest extent, the value of this immigration, which is encouraged in every possible way; and it has been estimated that each immigrant represents to the State a capital of not less than $1,000.

The newcomers, who hail chiefly from Italy, Spain and northern Europe, are placed, on arrival, in the Immigrant Hotel, a handsome and spacious edifice surrounded by parks and gardens and containing comfortable sleeping quarters, dining rooms, drug stores, banking agencies, medical service and other accommodation with a capacity for housing five thousand individuals. The traveller visiting this notable institution would imagine himself in a com- fortable modern hotel. The immigrants received here are treated with solicitous and intelligent care and are allocated to the various branches of indus- try most suited to their condition, making them feel from the day of their arrival on Argentine soil that

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they are in a land of promise, a second fatherland, which not only will give them shelter and food but will place in their hands the means to acquire in- dependence and even wealth according to their ca- pacity and energy. It is by these methods, so highly civilising and practical, that the Argentine Republic is receiving every year an increasing inflow of immi- grants as was the case in the United States in the middle of the last century. These immigrants of other races who adopt as their new homes the Ar- gentine Republic and other Hispano- American coun- tries are easily moulded into the customs and modes of thought of the sons of the soil, and in the course of a few generations the beautiful language of Cas- tile will be the mother-tongue of a new race of Latin- Americans in the * * continent of the future. ' ' There they will also acquire the domestic virtues of the people, where the woman is the sovereign of the home and preserves the welfare and happiness of the family by her modesty, her piety, her self-abne- gation and her energy and fortitude. The old and honourable Argentine families are zealous in de- fence of the healthy and good customs inherited from their ancestors and exercise the greatest care to see that the old order is not merged into the ideas and habits of the newcomers. The effect of this is that the children of immigrants, precisely as in the United States, become the most enthusi- astic and loyal Argentine citizens, thus constituting

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an element of the greatest force in the expansion and extended influence of the country.

Notwithstanding the incessant activity and ever- growing importance of the commercial movement of the Argentine Eepublic the real source of its vast production and the true life of the country are to be found in its vast extension of camp, or on the great estancias (ranches) whose products enrich their owners as well as the food repositories of the world. The Argentine land-owner of any impor- tance whatever counts the extent of his land by the league, numbers his holdings of live-stock by the thousands, and employs hundreds of stock-riders, shepherds and labourers to tend the animals and pastures and to sow and reap his abundant har- vests of cereals. On these estancias there is always great anxiety for the care of the valuable pedigree stock, which in many cases has been bred from the most famous English strains, upon which mil- lions are being spent. Indeed there is hardly an agricultural show held in England where search is not made for pedigree animals of the highest quality for the supply of the Argentine campo. All the animals bred in the Argentine Republic are born and raised in the open, and although the best Amer- ican stall-fed beef realises a higher price in the European markets, experts declare it difficult to distinguish the best American beef from the best Argentine beef. Though there are many English

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and German estancieros with extensive holdings in the central part of the Republic the leading land- owners and producers are natives of the country, amongst whom may be mentioned such well-known names as Cobo, Unzue, Martinez de Hoz, Casares, Peyreira, Anchorena and others, who own pedigree stock worth millions of dollars. Estancia life in Ar- gentina, though apparently one of repose, is really one of perpetual activity and incessant industry. At every point of their extensive areas, there may be seen, from early morn to sunset, troops of stock- riders, of gauchos, labourers, harvesters, cultiva- tors of the vine and a multiplicity of others, moving hither and thither, on horseback or on foot, as cir- cumstances require, as though every moment of time was a thing of precious value. Yet when the sun goes down and the workers return to their homes the palatial dwellings of the estancieros and their fam- ilies might be envied by the owners of the most beau- tiful country homes of England and America. Gen- erally surrounded by handsome lawns and flower- gardens, with delightful terraces, the houses are large, in order to accommodate the ever-present guests, and are designed and furnished in the most luxurious style. Everyone dresses for dinner and the same etiquette is preserved as might be found in the baronial halls of England Or in the castles of France and Spain. All kinds of sport are provided and in many instances there are beautiful golf links

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and handsome tennis courts, whilst fishing, shooting and riding are to be had in abundance.

In the case of those estancias largely devoted to cattle-raising the animals are either purchased by buyers coming to the estate or are sent once or twice a year into Buenos Aires for sale by auction, and as a rule the proceeds of these sales are used for the acquisition of more land for which purpose the property already owned is also often mortgaged. Nor is this surprising when we see that for the past fifty years, despite occasional periods of depression, land values have continued to rise, as will undoubt- edly be the case for the next fifty years to come. These values are based chiefly on the yield, pro- ductiveness of the soil, and situation of the property, although the market price for cultivated land is to some extent fixed by the prices realised at previous sales. It is, perhaps, no exaggeration to say that a purchaser, at the present time, of land in the Argentine Republic, railroads or no railroads, at anything like current prices, could count for a cer- tainty upon multiplying his capital several times in the course of a few years; and the reason for this is not far to seek. Compared with land in Aus- tralia, New Zealand, or other new countries and tak- ing into account the yield, acre for acre, the market possibilities and the other physical conditions per- taining to the land, the Argentine Republic would show a balance of nearly fifty per cent, in its favour ;

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and it is with this knowledge that the Argentine estcmciero will not only utilise his current income but will borrow in every direction in order to in- crease his land holdings.

To exclude a reference to the City of Buenos Aires from any description of the Argentine Kepublic would be equivalent to excising the character of the Prince of Denmark from Shakespeare's "Hamlet." That beautiful capital is not only a source of pride to the Argentine people but to all South Americans, and equally a centre of attraction to everyone who has seen it. It has long been the second Latin city in the world, and with the rapid growth of its popu- lation, which amounts already to nearly a million and a half of inhabitants, it is within the bounds of probability that in the not very remote future it may rank on an equal footing with the great cap- ital of France. Nor is it merely in the splendid architecture of its buildings and residences or in the magnificence of its spacious avenues and parks that the city merits the description of great. Its phe- nomenal progress is to be seen in every branch of life from the buzz and movement of its commercial and industrial activity to the social and artistic spheres. To those who only know that Buenos Aires is in South America it will appear fabulous to say, yet it is a fact, that the city of Buenos Aires pos- sesses the finest opera house, the handsomest club- house, two of the greatest newspapers (La Prensa

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and La Nation) and some of the most palatial pri- vate residences in the world. The Colon Opera House surpasses the best in Europe. Its auditorium is larger than that of London, Paris or Berlin, and its equipment and appointments are of the most luxurious and artistic character, whilst the arrange- ment of the building is such that an automobile or carriage may be driven into the beautifully paved square upon which the house is built, almost to the door of any box on the lower tier. But this great opera house is by no means the only channel of supply of the lyric drama to the people of the Argentine Capital. In the winter season there are always at least three grand opera houses, with ar- tists of world-wide reputation at each of them, in full swing, not to mention the additional attractions of minor French and Italian operatic performances proceeding at the same time. Buenos Aires, in fact, is a leading operatic centre and most of the famous artists of the world, especially of the Italian school, have graduated and won their laurels in that city. In the quality and number of its theatres it is equally distinguished, and during the season, in ad- dition to native companies, there are frequently rep- resentations by the greatest artists of the countries of Europe. The musical standard of the Argentine capital may be gauged by the fact that the city con- tains upwards of sixty conservatories, conducted in most cases by teachers of great eminence, and by

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the further fact that there is a popular familiarity with the most beautiful works of ancient and modern composers. In literature and other forms of art there is equal interest, which may be explained by stating that in the city of Buenos Aires there are more University graduates, in proportion to the population, than in any other city of the world, not- withstanding that the course for a degree involves a period of advanced study extending over twelve years divided between the National College and the University.

The great avenues of nearly one hundred yards in width, the splendid parks and gardens, the pav- ing of the streets, the modern and artistic build- ings, together with the smart appearance of the people, combine to make everything appear beauti- ful and large. Its immense port, with its miles of wharfage, attracts thousands of steamers from all parts of the world to receive the foodstuffs which are necessary for consumption in foreign countries, giving it an aspect of New York, Liverpool, or Ham- burg, while in the aristocratic residential quarter one is reminded of the Champs-Elysees of Paris, the beautiful avenues of Berlin, and the Fifth Avenue of New York. Buenos Aires is at the same time a centre of intense work and of a variety of pleasures. In the former case it reflects New York and in the latter Paris. Horse-racing is one of the principal amusements of the natives of Buenos Aires and in

many instances Argentine owners have paid up- wards of $150,000 for a single stud-horse from England. Everywhere indeed manifestations are to be found of excessive wealth and luxurious expen- diture.

The rapid increase in population and the nar- rowness of the streets in the older section of the city have produced a great congestion of traffic, which, as in other large cities, has become a serious problem. Its partial solution, however, has been found in the construction of a subway running through the most thickly populated parts of the city, and this will be shortly opened for public service. Accompanied by Sr. Anchorena, the Inten- dente (Mayor) of the city, I was permitted to in- spect the works and was much struck by the rapid- ity and skill with which they were being conducted. Buenos Aires also possesses a most efficient and up-to-date electric tramway service which has lat- terly been extended for several miles in all direc- tions out of the city, and this system has been great- ly improved by the consolidation of some seven or eight systems formerly under individual control. By way of illustration of the abnormal growth of the city it may be of interest to refer to the fact that it was only as recently as 1901, when Mr. C. G. Young, an American engineer representing a powerful syn- dicate of American and European bankers, visited Buenos Aires to make detailed examinations and re-

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ports on the tramways and electric lighting systems, with a view to their being extended and amalga- mated by the financial groups in question. Mr. Young succeeded in working out elaborate plans for the electrification of the tramways and for their amalgamation with the lighting and power systems, but the bankers not having been then familiar with the conditions and possibilities of Buenos Aires, thought the amount of capital required was alto- gether too large to constitute a safe or lucrative investment. Shortly afterwards, however, other capitalists came forward, the tramways were grad- ually converted from horse-traction to electricity, the amalgamation of the various companies was begun, and centralisation of the electric lighting and power corporations was effected, almost precisely as had been originally worked out in Mr. Young's plans, with results of a favourable character, aston- ishing, even to those who were most optimistic in their view of the project. More or less similar con- ditions existed in Rio de Janeiro, where the present magnificent systems of electric tramways and light- ing, also originally conceived and planned by Mr. Young, for the same financial group, were ultimately carried out almost in their entirety, though not by those for whom they were originally prepared. The delay in the latter case was occasioned by the ne- cessity for a more complete sanitation of the har- bour, but a want of confidence in the future growth

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of Eio also operated, to a great extent, in prevent- ing Mr. Young's plans from being carried out by the groups he represented. To-day there is hardly a limit to the amount of capital available for the exten- sion of public service works in either of the two great cities of South America.

The Park of Palermo, with its imposing trees, its extensive walks, and its Botanical Gardens, is unsur- passed anywhere; yet if at these centres, at the Opera, or at the races, one sees great luxury and feverish enjoyment, the reverse of the movement may be seen in the activity prevailing in and around the port and the docks. These too owe their exten- sion to the studies and plans of an American engi- neer, Mr. E. L. Corthell, from whose original sug- gestions the new deep and long canal, which admits steamers of the deepest draught, has been con- structed. When the plans of the present port were carried into execution it was thought that it would be too large, or, at least, would meet the require- ments of the country's foreign trade and of the growth of the city for the next half -century, but the progress has been so extraordinary and unexpected that to-day the many miles of docks in the Port of Buenos Aires are inadequate to the needs of the country's shipping business. Extensions are still proceeding on a vigorous scale, and when the works now in hand are completed the docks of Buenos Aires will be the largest in the world.

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The rapidity of the growth of the population of Buenos Aires is greater than that of any modern city except, perhaps, some of the cities of the West- ern States of America, Sydney (New South Wales), and Melbourne (Victoria). Buenos Aires has to- day one-fifth of the entire population of the Republic which could easily accommodate and give flourishing existence to ten times the number of its present in- habitants. There are other large cities in the Ar- gentine Republic, such as Cordoba, where there is a highly cultured society and an ancient university, which has been the cradle of many illustrious men, but the commercial and intellectual life of the coun- try is largely concentrated in Buenos Aires, which is its brain and its heart, as is Paris to France; and to such an extent is this the case that the Argen- tine Republic is frequently described by its native sons as "a child with a large head,'* the country signifying the child, and the capital its head. The Argentines may be divided into two classes, the resi- dent portenos or natives of the Capital and those who live in the cities of the provinces and the coun- try districts, but, although the progressive habits and the ideas of the people of the Capital are per- meating many of the provincial cities, Buenos Aires necessarily maintains her splendid supremacy.

CHAPTER XV

ABGENTINE CONDITIONS, PEOGEESS AND CUL.TUBE

rilHE Argentine Eepublic has not yet arrived at •*• the fullness of her forces. She is still in her early youth with the future smiling upon her from all sides. Her march on the path of civilisation and prosperity has constituted a long chain of success- ful conquests and gives admirable promise for the future ; and here I would express the hope that the sister nations will follow on the road so wisely mapped out by this great country of South America, so that all, united in their forces, may realise that their part of the continent will become the home, during the present century, of a large portion of the human race. It should be a source of pride to American readers to know that the Constitution of the Argentine Republic is modelled upon that of the United States, with possibly a higher degree of liberty for its inhabitants. In the great southern Republic religious or racial prejudices are unknown. The liberty of the subject is complete and everyone is free to practise his religion or his lawful avoca- tion with the utmost freedom. There is a State Religion which in no way imposes burdens upon,

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or creates restrictions for, persons of other forms of religious belief. Tolerance and freedom are the watchwords of the national legislation, whilst the liberality of the treatment of the foreigner is un- equalled in any other country. Although it is neces- sary that the incumbents of most of the official posi- tions in the Eepublic should be citizens, the naturali- sation laws are such as to permit of the appoint- ment of foreigners to many important posts by means of special exceptions provided for by the laws. The life of the country is delightful for the educated foreigner who is hospitably welcomed by his own classes amongst the natives, most of whom are able to converse in several European languages. It is, however, a curious and unfortunate fact that of the foreign communities resident in that Republic the English and the Americans are most deficient in this respect.

There are few countries in the world where na- tional and municipal statistics are more carefully compiled and more elaborately presented than in the Argentine Republic. Yet it is a curious fact that, although the era of modern Argentina began when Sarmiento assumed the Presidency of the Republic in 1868, only two national censuses have been taken since that time, one in 1869, and the next in 1895. Legislation, I believe, has been introduced during the past few years for the purpose of securing an- other official count of the population (with provi-

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sion for the operation to be repeated at the end of each succeeding decade), but at the present mo- ment estimates of the number of inhabitants are largely based on assumption.

According to the National Census of 1895, which showed a total population of 3,954,911, there were 2,950,384 Argentines and 1,004,527 foreigners. Of the latter there were 492,676 Italians, 198,685 Span- iards, 21,758 British, 17,143 Germans, and 1,381 North Americans. The greatest increase in the number of foreign inhabitants since 1895 has been amongst the Italians and Spaniards, the total num- ber of whom may be said to-day to be at least double that given in the 1895 census. The English and German colonies have likewise largely increased, but; taking into account the limited character of the commercial relations of the Argentine Eepublic with the United States in former years, together with other circumstances, I doubt whether the present number of American citizens in Argentina is much in excess of the figures given in 1895. The struggle for commercial supremacy in the Argentine market has for many years past been between British and German manufacturers, and, although the precise number of the respective nationals of those coun- tries actually resident in Argentina is a matter of official doubt, the proportionate growth of the two communities between 1869 and 1895 would afford

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solid grounds for assuming that the German popu- lation of Argentina is infinitely larger than the British and has been growing proportionately to the increased German commerce in that Republic. In 1869 the German population was given as 4,991 in a proportion of three per thousand of the total population of the country, and the British as 10,637, in a proportion of six per thousand of the whole. In 1895 the number of German inhabitants had reached 17,143, equalling five per thousand of the total, whilst the British subjects had grown to the extent of 21,768, but still only in the proportion of six per thousand of the total. Hence, if the pro- portionate growth of the British and German popu- lation in Argentina has proceeded on the same lines since the date of the last census, it is obvious that to-day the German residents in the Argentine Re- public are, numerically speaking, infinitely stronger than the British. Looking also to the enormous in- crease in the population of the city of Buenos Aires and to the official estimate of the total number of inhabitants of the Republic, at the present time of nearly eight millions, it is reasonable to suppose that a very large proportion is of foreign birth.

These and other foreign elements in the country have contributed very considerably to its develop- ment. The British community probably now num- bers upwards of 30,000 subjects, representing rail-

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way, banking, commercial, landed and industrial in- terests ; and, estimating the total British capital em- ployed in these enterprises at $2,000,000,000, it would mean that every British subject in that coun- try, man, woman and child, is an individual asset of about $66,000. German capital invested in Argen- tina, though constantly increasing, does not reach the proportions of the capital from the British Isles, which also embraces practically all the National Loan Issues of the Argentine Government and the leading railroads. German investments are chiefly in industrial and commercial undertakings, the for- mer including tramways and a monopoly of the elec- tric lighting and principal power stations in the Eepublic. The increase in German trade is largely due to the more enterprising methods and thorough- ness of the Germans. Unlike the British and Amer- icans, they rapidly assimilate with the people of the country and acquire their customs and language with facility. They also make a point of having established in their principal Consulates throughout South America competent commercial attaches who assist the home manufacturers in extending their trade. Of the one million or more Italians in the Argentine Republic the great majority are of the in- dustrial classes and constitute the labouring popula- tion of the Eepublic. The Spaniards, distinguished for their honesty, largely make up the small trading class, with a sprinkling of commercial houses of

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some magnitude, and the North Americans com- prise, principally, the representatives of American manufacturing interests. There are many other for- eign communities in the Eepublic, as may be seen by the number of newspapers printed in different lan- guages, but, with the exception of the subjects of France, Holland and Belgium, especially the latter, their financial and commercial status is insignifi- cant.

The investment of foreign capital in the Argentine Kepublic is of fabulous proportions, but the fact that it has reached those dimensions is not entirely due to the existence of the country's vast resources and to the opportunities presented for a handsome return, but largely to the honesty of the Argentine Nation and to the liberality and care bestowed upon the protection of foreign interests; and as some confirmation of this statement I need only refer to the fact that nearly twenty years ago, when the Argentine Republic had not attained its present great prosperity, the National Government assumed responsibility for the loans issued abroad of many of the Argentine Provinces (then in default), amounting to hundreds of millions of dollars. The appreciation of the foreign bankers and bond-hold- ers of this generous and honourable act was exhib- ited by their presentation to the Argentine Govern- ment of an immense and magnificent silver statue, bearing an appropriate and eulogistic inscription;

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and that statue stands out prominently in the centre of the inner chamber of the Ministry of Finance as an unqualified recognition of the high standard of national credit. Even during the periods of de- pression inflicted upon the country by disturbed po- litical conditions, the service of the Argentine Public Foreign Debt was always scrupulously maintained and only interrupted on one occasion by a mora- torium, continued over a short period, owing to a then pending reorganization of national finances. But apart from these high recommendations to pub- lic confidence the investor abroad in Argentine un- dertakings has been liberally rewarded by the return of lucrative dividends. At the present time there is being remitted to Great Britain alone, by way of dividends and interest, a sum equal to nearly $100,000,000 per annum, so that when the amount of British capital employed in the Argentine Republic, in respect of which the profits remain in the coun- try, is taken into consideration the yield upon the other British investments will be seen to be of a particularly generous character. Yet the Eepublic is still in its infancy and the opportunities for the foreign investor and trader are equally as great to-day as they were twenty years ago.

The revolutionary period in the Argentine Ee- public is but a memory of the past, no serious sub- versive movement having taken place since 1890, and in the few instances of minor outbreaks, which have

subsequently occurred in the more distant autono- mous Provinces, the National Government has inter- vened and has occasionally sent Federal Troops for the re-establishment of law and order. The Govern- ment of the Argentine Kepublic is as stable as that of any European country; and it is safe to assert that to-day there is an utter absence of anything in the nature of graft or corruption in the higher branches of the public service. The military strength of the Republic has been latterly aug- mented by the new ''Law of Enrolment," which enforces military service, in case of need, upon all male citizens between 21 and 40 years of age, whilst the naval efficiency of the country will be added to materially by the completion of the second new battleship now being constructed in the United States. But the people of Argentina, whilst warmly patriotic, are by no means warlike in their tenden- cies, and there is now, happily, no prospect of war with any of their neighbours. The boundary dis- pute with Chile, which in 1900 brought the two coun- tries almost to the point of war, was averted by a reference of the whole matter to arbitration by the late King Edward, who fulfilled the delicate duty to the complete satisfaction of both Republics, between which there now prevails complete harmony and growing friendship. At even a much later period a war-cloud overhung the rivalries of Argentina and Brazil, but the wisdom and sense of justice of the

statesmen of both countries, realising the possibil- ities of such a disaster to the entire continent, brought about an adjustment of the differences, with the result that the two countries are marching to- gether, hand in hand, as examples to be followed by all the sister Republics.

As in all the countries of Latin- America — and in- deed in others to-day — politics for many years over- shadowed national administration, the political power having been largely in the hands of the few who dominated public affairs and controlled party issues. Successive governments, however, and no- tably the present Administration, have sought to secure freedom of election and obedience to the popular will. The latest effort in this direction is the new Election Law which came into operation last year. Under this enactment every male citi- zen of full age is compelled to vote at all national elections and can only be given immunity for a viola- tion of that civic duty in case of proofs of incapacity through sickness, absence or other good cause. I have already referred to the large number of uni- versity graduates in the City of Buenos Aires in proportion to the population and I would mention them again, especially the younger men amongst them, as well as those preparing to take their de- grees, as it is largely in their hands that the future destinies of the Republic lie. It is among those educated young men that intelligent public opinion

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upon matters of national interest is moulded, and as a result they exercise considerable influence in domestic legislation. Nor is this advance in legis- lative matters confined to home affairs. Acts of Congress are frequently introduced with a view to improving the Diplomatic and Consular Services, which have already attained a high degree of effi- ciency. Amongst the foreign diplomats at Wash- ington but few have been more distinguished than the Ministers of the Argentine Eepublic at that Capital. As examples one might mention Dr. Estan- islao S. Zeballos, one of the most erudite Professors of International Jurisprudence in Latin- America ; Dr. Vicente Quesada, the eminent jurist and author of that delightful work, "Recollections of My Dip- lomatic Life ' ' ; Dr. Martin Garcia Merou, the author of the "History of American Diplomacy"; Dr. Epi- fanio Portela, who was at the head of every move- ment for extending the commercial and friendly re- lations of the United States with the Latin Repub- lics; and Dr. Romulo S. Naon, the present distin- guished head of the Argentine Legation, whose ex- ceptional merits and services have brought him many honours in the United States, including the Honorary Degree of Doctor of Laws from one of its leading universities. Nor is it alone in her rep- resentatives at Washington that Argentina may claim just pride in her Diplomatic Corps. There are also the Dominguez Family, who have charge of the

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Legation in London, together with the very impor- tant financial representation of the Republic for the last twenty years or more ; Dr. Rodriguez Larreta, the present Minister to Paris, who excels both in literature and diplomacy; and many others of the past and the present whose names are household words in diplomatic circles. The Argentine Repub- lic has not, like Brazil, raised its Legation at Wash- ington to the rank of an Embassy for the reason that the National Constitution of the Republic makes no provision for an ambassador and limits its diplo- mats to the positions of Ministers Plenipotentiary, Ministers Resident and Charges d' Affaires, but, whilst no direct step has yet been taken to amend the Constitution in this respect or otherwise, for the elevation of the grade of its representatives abroad, it is contended by many leading authorities in the Republic that the change may be introduced with- out an amendment of the Constitution. With this in view all Missions to foreign countries for the per- formance of special duties have been designated as " Special Embassies," and the distinguished Argen- tine statesman, Dr. Benito Villanueva, who has been named as envoy to the United States, to officially thank the Government of that country for its par- ticipation in the recent Centennial Celebrations, will enjoy the rank of "Special Ambassador." Diplo- macy, international law and constitutional practice would appear to be the particular bent of Argentine

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public men, amongst whom there are many of world- wide fame for their achievements in those branches of study. They are all disciples and admirers of Alexander Hamilton and many of them are worthy followers of that great man. Amongst those of the present generation the name of Drago stands out preeminently. It was the famous Note of Dr. Luis M. Drago addressed to the United States Govern- ment in 1902, when he was Minister of Foreign Affairs of the Argentine Eepublic, that formulated what is now known throughout the world as the " Drago" or "South American" Doctrine, which opposes the collection of contractual debts of States to private foreign citizens or subjects, by means of armed force, a Doctrine that was subscribed to by most of the nations of the world, including the United States, through their Delegates at the last Peace Conference at The Hague. Of a former gen- eration there was that great lawyer, Dr. Nicolas A. Calvo, whose translation (published in 1860) with notes, of Story's "Commentaries upon the Federal Constitution of the United States," is a classic throughout Latin-America, whilst there are many others, of the past and the present, whose names are equally famous. I do not pretend to fathom the reason for this remarkable leaning on the part of the Argentines to the special study of international and constitutional law, but it is a curious fact that in the same degree as the city of Buenos Aires has

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been for years an operatic centre, it has also been the cradle of many, if not of most, of the present great diplomats of the world, for, notwithstanding that all the Diplomatic Missions to the Argentine Republic are below the rank of Embassies for the reasons stated above, since it is an international cus- tom for one country to return a diplomat of the same rank as is sent by the other, the great countries of the world have sent their most brilliant men to rep- resent them in that Republic. Despite the compara- tively high cost of living and of maintaining a suit- able appearance by a foreign diplomat in Buenos Aires, the life for members of that charmed circle in the Argentine metropolis is ideal and during some recent administrations their many privileges in- cluded a special large box at the Opera House placed at their disposal free of charge.

CHAPTER XVI

ARGENTINE COMMERCE AND FINANCE

rilHE total value of Argentine imports and exports •*• during the year 1912, amounting to $865,244,- 725 (exclusive of the value of the imports and ex- ports of gold), though largely in excess of the value of the commerce of any other country on the Amer- ican continent, excepting the United States, is ren- dered more significant by the facts that, firstly, only a very limited area of the country is under cultiva- tion or prepared for the raising of stock; and sec- ondly, the entire population of the country, esti- mated at 8,000,000, would show a proportion of about $120 per inhabitant, a figure not reached by any other country in America. The exports of meat and cereals, to Great Britain alone, in 1912 were of a value of $160,000,000, or in the proportion of 36y2 per cent, of the entire British imports of those staple articles of consumption, whilst the imports of the same products of the United Kingdom from the United States did not reach one-third of that sum. It should, however, be stated that in the meat ex- ports from the Argentine Eepublic the American- owned packing houses contributed a large share.

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The value of the Argentine market to the United States may be gauged by the statement that during the last year American exports to that Republic amounted to $53,158,179, or a sum equal to the total value of American exports to Brazil, Colombia, Peru and Venezuela combined, and more than double the amount of the value of United States exports to Chile, Uruguay, Ecuador, Bolivia, Paraguay and French Guiana, together. On the other hand the United States imported from the Argentine Repub- lic products and merchandise valued at $32,391,348, the latter consisting chiefly of hides, wool, quebracho and other raw materials, whilst the exports from the United States were principally agricultural imple- ments, freight and passenger cars, machinery, steel rails, twine, wire, oils and furniture. When it is remembered that the increase in the amount of American exports to the Argentine Republic has been brought about more by a better knowledge of the conditions of the United States amongst Argen- tine importers than by any special efforts on the part of American manufacturers it will be seen that great openings are offered for a vast extension of American trade in Argentina. Many articles of manufacture, produced on an extensive scale in the United States and used largely in the southern Re- public, are imported from Europe at higher prices than those at which they could be brought from the United States, and I am merely reflecting the opin-

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ion of competent authorities when I say that it is only necessary for the American manufacturer and the Argentine importer to be brought into closer contact to largely extend their commercial relations. Care, however, must be taken to secure suitable representation in the Argentine Republic, as many highly reputable American industrial and commer- cial concerns have suffered in loss of business as well as in reputation, in Argentina, through unnec- essary misrepresentations made in the past by un- scrupulous travelling representatives.

The development of Argentine railways is like- wise proceeding at a rapid pace, there being a total mileage of over 20,000 miles against less than half that mileage in 1900, whilst extensions and branch lines running into thousands of miles are at the present time under construction or survey. These railways are mostly British and are incor- porated under the English Company Laws, British capital to the extent of upwards of $1,000,000,000 being invested in them. Most of the companies pay steady dividends of from six to eight per cent, per annum and construct many of their extensions out of revenue, whilst their property holdings are con- stantly increasing in value.

The Argentine Republic is the only Latin- Ameri- can country where, without the establishment of a definite gold standard, there is a fixed barrier to currency fluctuations. Prior to 1891 so much dis-

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turbance was caused to commerce by the violent changes in the premium on gold that it became nec- essary to legislate to place the currency on a more substantial basis. A law was then passed, under the title of the Conversion Law, fixing the value of the national currency at 44 per cent, of the value of gold, or in other words, of making $227.27, national currency, equal to $100 gold. For that purpose a Conversion Fund was established in order that pub- lic exchange of gold and paper might be made at these rates. This fund was provided by the appro- priation of certain sources of national revenue and was to be added to by annual increments until it reached a total of $30,000,000, gold, which, with the gold reserves then in hand and to be accumulated, were to be employed exclusively for the conversion of currency. In June, 1913, the value of these gold reserves in the National Conversion Office amounted to $264,189,639, a sum equal to upwards of 80 per cent, of the total paper and silver currency of the Republic, and under the Law they cannot be applied to any other purpose than for the conversion of currency at the established rate, thus rendering it impossible that any fluctuations can occur in the gold premium. "With this vast wealth ever increas- ing in volume it has frequently been asked why the Argentine Republic does not finally establish a gold standard. The answer to this question is that the currency is on so permanent a basis and is so

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well understood in foreign countries as to prac- tically render it unnecessary to even temporarily dislocate the commerce of the Republic by sudden changes in its monetary system. It is also urged that changes in the monetary unit or systems of a country are of rare occurrence, very few instances having occurred in Europe during the last fifty years. Nevertheless several projects have been sub- mitted during latter years in Argentina with that object in view, most important of these having been the measure introduced into Congress in 1908 by the late Mr. Ernesto Tornquist, the well-known Ar- gentine banker. That gentleman proposed a change of the present monetary unit of the peso to the type of the franc, the equivalent of which was used in some eleven or twelve countries with which the Argentine Eepublic had commercial relations. The draft-law also contained a provision for the issue of gold-notes which would at the same time have brought about an obligatory gold standard. It was pointed out, when submitted, that the measure would not only simplify and solidify the national monetary system but that it would also cheapen the cost of living and of production. It was likewise suggested that the agricultural labourers from Southern Europe, who were accustomed to the franc, the lira, or the peseta, would prefer a larger number of the latter units to a smaller number of pesos, even though the latter might be of greater intrinsic value.

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Mr. Tornquist's project has been allowed to lapse and although the last Administration submitted a Law to Congress embodying other changes in the monetary system no definite steps have so far been taken for the reorganization of existing conditions. Nor, really, is this necessary for any other purpose than that of getting rid of the present cumbersome methods of calculation incidental to the conversion of gold into paper or vice versa. The guaranties behind the paper and silver currency of the Argen- tine Eepublic are greater than many, and as great as any, of the guaranties provided by other coun- tries for the protection and security of their na- tional issues. The credit of the Republic stands high above that of many countries of the world, and for this reason it is an inexplicable fact that the bonds of part of an Internal Argentine Loan, issued in 1909 on a 5 per cent, basis, taken by American bank- ers, have had to be sold in London, owing to the limited market for them in the United States, where they are still nominally quoted around 96. Although no special guaranties are attached to these particu- lar bonds they are in every sense as safe and sound as United States Treasury Bonds or British Govern- ment Securities. Here I take leave to suggest that the reasons usually given in the United States for the limited extent of such investments are not alto- gether correct. The principal reason, in my judg- ment, is the want of knowledge of the true condi-

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tions of the great countries of Latin- America. It is admittedly true that the United States provides abundant channels for the investment of American money but it is also true that there are few foreign Government Securities which offer so much security and so lucrative a yield as those of the Argentine Eepublic.

The relations of the Argentine Eepublic with all her neighbours and the other countries of the world are entirely free from political or diplomatic entan- glements. Such boundary disputes as she may have had with some of the adjoining countries have been, or are in course of being, amicably adjusted. There is no foreign policy other than that of cultivating friendly and closer commercial relations with the rest of the world, her position amongst the nations being one of complete independence in every respect. The Argentine people are not unmindful of the fact that to Great Britain and other European countries the Republic owes, to a great extent, its present great development. At the same time Argentina's situation is such as to entitle her to open her markets to the countries which off er the greatest advantages, and to give special facilities to the nations which purchase the greater part of her products. The Tariff Laws are so framed as to make them of a reciprocal or retaliatory character, as may be neces- sary to meet the Tariff Laws of other nations. This policy has been consistently adopted for many years

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past, and it has been the constant desire of succes- sive Argentine governments to deal in a spirit of genuine reciprocity with those countries which favour her products. Between the United States and the Argentine Republic there is still much to be done upon those lines, and with the rapidly extending commerce between the two countries there is no doubt that new reciprocal measures of mutual ad- vantage will be initiated at no very distant date.

CHAPTER XVII

THE BBPUBLIC OF PERU

Molendo to Paita, almost up to the boundary line of Ecuador, the Peruvian coast is as bare of vegetation as the Desert of Sahara, whilst for an extension of more than 3,500 kilome- tres, from Tumbez to Valparaiso, the temperature is lowered by the Humboldt currents. Travelling along these arid and barren coasts one is able to better appreciate the courage and the indomitable energy of Pizarro, Almagro, Valdivia, and the other early explorers, who, after leaving the Isthmus of Panama where tropical vegetation abounded, ex- plored, in their primitive vessels, this vast region, without finding drinkable water, without seeing a single plant, and far from all contact with civilisa- tion, without obtaining food. Their arduous efforts, however, were rewarded when they approached the valleys which form a remarkable contrast to the surrounding desert. In many of these valleys there are numberless palms and willows with magnificent foliage, fruit gardens and fields of sugar cane, corn and alfalfa, whilst in others there are productive vineyards and olive yards as well as pasture for

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cattle and horses which thrive on the nourishing yellow pods one sees in all directions.

Callao is the principal port of Peru and is situ- ated at a distance of only nine kilometres from the Capital. It is deep and well sheltered by a chain of low mountains which surround the bay, and although of considerable importance through the extensive movement of foreign shipping and the fact that it is the converging point of practically the whole of the commerce of the interior of the Repub- lic, it is merely a forwarding port, the city itself being limited to the Government Offices, the de- spatching agencies, and the ruins of the old port of San Felipe, the last of those which flew the Spanish flag. Its close proximity to Lima, with which it is connected by an electric tramway, has hitherto im- peded building operations, but with the approaching completion of the Panama Canal, which will greatly extend the country's commerce, sanitary and other reforms are now being undertaken, and there is lit- tle doubt that in the course of a few years the city, as well as the port, of Callao will assume greatly extended proportions.

Lima, the historic and picturesque Capital of Peru, is built at the foot of a chain of hills and close to the Height of San Cristobal whose shadows tower over the City. Pizarro, its founder, called it the "City of the Kings," probably in remembrance of the "three wise men from the East"; but that

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description was subsequently replaced by the name of Lima. The city extends over a wide and flat valley bounded on the north by a range of moun- tains, and on the east by the Andes, which are al- most hidden from view by the generally cloudy sky. The waters of the river irrigate part of the sur- rounding lands, which produce a beautiful and abun- dant vegetation, the remaining areas being sandy and barren like the coast already described. During the colonial period Lima was the most important city in America. Its Viceroy, who had no superiors except the King of Spain and the Judges of the Inquisition, was the most powerful and influential personage on the continent and the pomp and cere- mony of his Court outrivalled those of Eastern po- tentates. Lima counts amongst its inhabitants many families of noble Spanish origin, and for that reason it has been described as "a precious shrine of co- lonial gallantries and splendour s." In this respect it shares with Bogota, Santiago and Quito the pos- session of a society made up largely of families of pure Spanish race who have inherited the dignity and aristocratic qualities of the highest classes of the mother-country. The city is noted for its beau- tiful buildings and squares of the old Spanish type, which is still preserved, notwithstanding the temp- tations to adopt the modern embellishments of other South American capitals. The Cathedral is con- sidered to be the most beautiful in South America,

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though less ancient than other landmarks, owing to the destruction by earthquake of the original edi- fice which was founded by Pizarro in 1540. The city also contains many notable educational estab- lishments, including the universities, the special Schools of Mining Engineering, Railways, Electric- ity, Agronomy, Medicine, Law and Commerce, and among other institutions the famous Atheneum, all of which have combined to add to the culture and advanced knowledge of the Peruvian people, who excel in literary and poetic qualities.

The chief products of Peru are those of mining and agriculture and since the loss of the nitrate Provinces these industries have been brought to a high state of development, many foreign companies being now engaged in further exploiting the vast mineral wealth of the country. Railways are being constructed with great activity, not only for the interchange of commerce with the neighbouring Re- publics but also for the purpose of placing the cen- tral government in closer touch with the distant Amazonic regions, where the atrocities committed in the rubber regions recently created a feeling of horror throughout the civilised world. These shock- ing occurrences, largely due to the absence of direct administrative control and to boundary disputes with the adjacent Republics, have happily termi- nated, and with wireless telegraphic communication with Iquitos, in which direction railroads are like-

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wise being extended, the Peruvian Government will henceforth be able to maintain the conditions of law and order which it has already commenced to implant. Amongst the various railways now under survey or construction one of the most important will be that to unite Lima with La Paz, which will greatly facilitate the completion of the inter-con- tinental railroad from Alaska to the Straits of Ma- gellan. Already steps have been taken by Mr. Minor Keith, who has done so much for railway extension in Central America, to connect these roads with the Panama Canal, and as these in turn, at no very distant date, will be joined up with the railroads of Mexico there will only be lacking the link from the Isthmus of Panama (across Colombia to Ecuador) to connect the intercontinental road with the rail- roads of Peru. Thus with the lines from Lima to La Paz extending to those of Chile and the latter joined with those of Argentina, Uruguay and Brazil, the completion of the intercontinental route, through the two Americas, is only a matter of a compara- tively short time.

For some time before and after the war with Chile the Republic was burdened with excessive debt incurred through the extravagance of succes- sive administrations, and in the later eighties, subse- quent to the loss of the Provinces containing the nitrate deposits, this burden became so intolerable that Peru was compelled, in 1889, to surrender to a

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British enterprise known as the Peruvian Corpora- tion, the whole of the State Railways, the free use of certain ports and the rights to the remaining guano deposits for a term of 66 years, in order to pay off the then large national indebtedness. The operation, however, was equally favorable to Peru and to the foreign holders of her national bonds (the service of which had for some time been unfulfilled) as Peru was thus enabled to use her revenues for the development of other industries, while the foreign bondholders were placed in a favourable position by the opportunity presented for the conversion of their unremunerative national securities into divi- dend-paying stock of a powerful British corpora- tion. The foreign debt of Peru is to-day of insig- nificant proportions in relation to the extent of the country's resources, which have now entered upon a stage of development that gives assurance of a great and prosperous future, and the latest national statistics afford further evidence of the advance of national industry and commerce since economy has been the guiding principle of recent governments. Peru, like most of her sister Republics, has suffered from the effects of international disputes regarding the vexed question of boundary limits, but just as a peaceful adjustment of the differences with Chile, touching the Provinces of Tacna and Arica was ultimately reached by the wisdom of prevailing counsels, so will her frontier difficulties with Colom-

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bia and Ecuador be finally settled, when all these nations, in the peaceful possession of their properly defined rich territories, will be able to devise means for a profitable interchange of their respective prod- ucts and commerce.

No census has been taken in Peru since 1876 when even the computation of the number of inhabitants then made was considered imperfect. Looking, how- ever, at the various later estimates of population and taking into consideration the better means now available for ascertaining the numerical strength of the Indian tribes, it would be fair to assume that Peru's total population numbers about 4,000,000, largely made up of mixtures and submixtures of the white and colored races. As I have already pointed out, Spanish blood has always been domi- nant amongst the white inhabitants, but the inter- marriage of the old Spanish settlers with the high- est type of Indians has produced a race embodying very exceptional characteristics. The Indians are mostly descendants of the Incas, or of the tribes un- der their rule at the time of the Conquerors, and constitute, to a large extent, the industrial element amongst the people. There still exist several tribes of wild Indians, some of whom inhabit the forests, and in many places have no contact of any kind with white people. There are also many Africans and Asiatics, the former of whom live in the towns and the latter on the coast, whilst the foreign popula-

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tion is almost entirely to be found in the Capital. As in the case of other countries on the west coast of South America, the population of Peru has been necessarily restricted by the absence of immigration, due to its geographical situation, but with an area of about 500,000 square miles, a large portion of which is available for agricultural and mineral de- velopment, it can hardly be doubted that the open- ing of the Panama Canal will bring a considerable influx of foreign population.

Although the interchange of commerce between Peru and the United States is rapidly growing, the largest share of Peru's foreign trade has always gone to Great Britain, which probably explains the very wide adoption, throughout the Eepublic, of British ideas and customs. In the national currency the libra, or the pound sterling, is the monetary unit and is uniform in weight and fineness with the English sovereign, from which it was modelled, the first machinery for its production having been bor- rowed from the English Mint, and in this connection it may be of interest to point out that even to a greater extent than in Argentina or in Chile, British names are common in Peru. The actual President, Senor Billinghurst, is of English origin, while the same may be said of many other notabilities of the Eepublic. In other cases the Peruvian descendants of foreign colonists are connected by marriage with English families, and one of the sons of Peru's dip-

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lomatic representative in London is an officer in the British Army. In noting these surroundings of a British atmosphere it should be made clear that no political significance attaches to the suggestion, al- though it is always remembered that Peru largely owes her independence (with the aid of San Martin) to the fleet of armed ships fitted out at Valparaiso, under the command of Lord Cochrane (afterwards Earl of Dundonald) and manned by British officers and sailors. Since that time Peru has undergone many territorial and political changes, but, animated by an ardent patriotic spirit and a desire for ma- terial and moral progress, the people of Peru have been strengthened in their national ambitions by the foreign influences to which I have referred.

In a brief sketch of the country and its people it is unnecessary to deal with the scientific or his- toric value of its ancient treasures. They have formed and continue to form a subject of universal interest, notably in the United States, some of whose eminent authorities are at present engaged in the effort to enlighten the world upon these matters, but I would again make passing reference to the national literature, which is of an exceedingly high standard. Amongst Peru's modern authors may be mentioned Segura ; Salaverri, who as a poet has no equal in Spanish America; Arestegui, a distin- guished novelist; Bicardo Palma, the historian; Felipe Pardo, whose works are known wherever the

CATHEDRAL, LIMA, PERU

GOVERNMENT PALACE, BOLIVIA

Spanish language is spoken, and many others of fame in the world of letters; and to come down to the present time one may point to Senor Pezet, the son of the Peruvian Minister to the United States (himself educated in England and a litterateur of a high order) and Secretary of the Legation, who quite recently delighted Washington society by pro- ducing in that Capital a play which disclosed more than ordinary skill both in its literary and dramatic construction.

CHAPTER XVIII

THE REPUBLIC OP BOLIVIA

T N my travels on the coasts of Chile and Peru, on •*• whose borders, in the interior, lie the rich lands of Bolivia, I had many opportunities of seeing the progress, in recent years, of that rising Republic, which has been described by a native writer of dis- tinction as "a country of contrasts." Its topogra- phy, climate, products and inhabitants constitute an aggregation of heterogeneous elements so widely different in character as to make it difficult to be- lieve that they belong to a single country. Travel- ling through the Republic one is impressed by the multiplicity of views, incongruous and curious, pre- sented at different points. In one part there are the immense table-lands that tire the eye with their per- petual monotony and which appear to exercise a corresponding effect upon the inhabitants. At an- other point there are wide ranges of mountains, whose colossal heights, mantled in eternal snows like giants enwrapped in tunics of royal ermine, seem to contemplate in a monolithic attitude the passing of the centuries, and at the foot of these mountains there are immeasurable plains and prairies bris-

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REPUBLIC OF BOLIVIA 267

tling with life and activity and bathed by large rivers and mysterious lakes like the strange Poopo and the legendary Titicaca, which retains the poetic tradition of the children of the sun. The first time I crossed Bolivia from one end to the other I felt as though I were passing through a land of dreams. In the arid region that overlooks the Pacific I was sickened by the dreariness of the panorama which unrolled itself in ascending the high plains of the Andes, and, like the sailor on the high seas who sees nothing but water and sky, I could see nothing in that ocean of land but the immense dome overlap- ping the colourless prairie which made me yearn for the sight of a tree. The barrenness of the pampa, its serenity and its impressive silence gave me a feeling of sadness. A few days later, however, my love of nature 's life was fully satisfied by the scenes presented at the other extreme of Bolivia in the region of the trees. Of enormous height and count- less in number, they formed over my head a green dome under which I passed months of pleasure amidst their beautiful verdure and perfume. In those parts there was none of the depression pro- duced by the ambient air of the exasperating and'1 silent pampa. The trees, the soil, the water and the air were bubbling with human life and laboratories of energy, and this scene of life and verdure ex- tended over a huge distance. At a later period I visited other parts of Bolivia, traversing its numer-

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ous rivers, descending its deep valleys and climbing its high mountains, but in all parts there was evi- dence of the capriciousness of this extraordinary land. Everything is opposed to something else in Bolivia; the fruitful warm lands to the desolated areas, the cold to the heat, the beautiful to the ugly, and the height of the colossal mountains to the pro- found depth of the valleys, and the same difference of character is to be found amongst the native in- habitants, as in the formation of the cities. Santa Cruz, a tropical city situated barely a few hundred metres above sea level, with the heat of the torrid zone, surrounded by luxuriant vegetation and peo- pled by persons of a marked Spanish type, forms an extreme contrast with Oruro, a city of Siberian cli- mate, built in the middle of a desert, thousands of metres in height and with inhabitants almost en- tirely of indigenous type.

Between these two extremes are the other Bo- livian cities possessing elements of similar variety. Potosi is on the top of a great hill in the direction of the famous silver and tin zone which at one time was the surprise of the world. La Paz on the con- trary, is in a valley, and, viewed from the edge of the highlands, gives the impression of a city car- ried by a flood to the bottom of a precipice, causing one to wonder why its early founders thought of building the most populous city of Bolivia in that stupendous cavity. At times, and occasionally in

REPUBLIC OF BOLIVIA 269

the same place, there are conglomerations of incon- gruous elements and extravagant superpositions. The prehistoric age joins with the present, just as the gigantic and the imposing elbow the small and ordinary. The Tihaguanaco, the humble hut of the Indian, is pitched amongst enormous monuments, the work of a civilisation that has disappeared. Even in its history one sees disproportion and in- coherency, whilst the methods by which the country attained national existence are equally extraordi- nary. The war of Independence preceding this achievement was marked by the intense discord rife amongst its leaders. Nothing was subordinated to a regular or fixed plan of campaign and everyone directed his efforts according to his own views. Yet the nation was formed and the process of uniting into one harmonious whole its many conflicting ele- ments is being rapidly and healthily proceeded with. The consequences of the disparities in its ethnical aspect and the complexity of other conditions have naturally stood in the way of the definite formation of the nation, but the day is approaching when there will be a bond of iron to join the tree with the wilder- ness, the mountain ranges with the pampas, and the aymara with the guayaro.

The principal cities of Bolivia are La Paz, Sucre, Santa Cruz de la Sierra, Cochabamba and Potosi, others being Oruro and Uyuni, which are mining centres with small populations, in the desert; La

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Paz, the Capital, is the highest city in the world (4,200 metres above sea level), and is built along the banks of a torrent on the edge of the western des- ert. Its great height generally induces amongst travellers a disease known as soroche or puna, which causes difficulty in breathing, violent headaches, and a derangement of the digestive organs. The In- dians withstand the effects of these altitudes with the same ease as they resist the cold, and they make long marches, bare-footed, to work in the mines. There are two lines of railway, from La Paz to the Pacific, which pass through sandy mountains and deserts, where there are only the poor huts of the Indians and flocks of llamas which are used as beasts of burden. These animals also give to the Indians milk, meat, and wool for their clothing. When they become fatigued they lie down on the ground and the only way in which the Indians can force them to resume their march is by showering them with a rapid succession of pebbles until they rise and go forward.

The Indians in this region are governed by a Chief whose administrative powers consist of a distribu- tion of labour in the lands, the cultivation of the crops, and the settlement of native disputes. There is also a Justice of the Peace, named by the Govern- ment, to deal with matters of larger importance. It is thought that these Indians belong to a race formed out of a mixture of tribes. By the ruins

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which have been found on the banks of Lake Titi- caca, it has been discovered that there existed in those regions, at a period preceding the Egyptian civilisation, an advanced people not among those whom the Spaniards found on the conquest of the country. The present aymares are more active and intelligent than the quibchuas and may be compared with the Aztecs of Mexico, who take pride in having produced the great Juarez. The Indians of Bolivia are quite civilised and preserve their religious rites, which are those of semi-Christians, worshipping the spirits of nature as represented by the rivers, rocks, etc.

Bolivia has no ports, but the railroad extension now proceeding for the purpose of joining up with the railroads of Chile, Argentina and Peru will fur- nish an outlet for the mineral and other products of the Republic, which has entered upon a period of industrial activity.

CHAPTER XIX

THE REPUBLIC OF ECUADOK

A S is well known the Republic of Ecuador in the •**• epoch of its primitive independence formed a part of the extensive Empire bequeathed by the Conqueror, Huay-Napac, to his sons Huascar and Atahualpa, but the rivalry between these princes led to a violent revolution which continued until the conquest of the territory by Pizarro, Almagro and de Benalcazar. Until 1717 the country was ruled by a Viceroy, whose seat of government was in Lima and whose jurisdiction extended to the Courts of Panama, Caracas, Santa Fe, Quito, Lima, Cuzco, Charcas, Santiago and Buenos Aires.

The initial demand for independence in Spanish America was proclaimed by Ecuador, and in 1809 the revolutionary party named the Marquis of Selva Alegre its first President. Ecuador, however, did not then enjoy complete independence as it was practically a State of the larger Republic of Great Colombia in which was also included New Granada (now Colombia) and Venezuela, governed by Boli- var until 1830. On the death of the Liberator, Venezuela and Ecuador seceded from the united

272

Eepublic, the latter becoming a self-governing Re- public under the constitutional presidency of Gen- eral Juan Jose Flores. From that date to the pres- ent time the Republic of Ecuador has had no less than eleven different Constitutions. Yet despite the troublous times through which the country has passed during its relatively brief existence, Ecuador is steadily advancing, and in this forward march she will be greatly aided by her intellectual and robust youth, who, profiting by the sad experiences of the past and placing on one side personal and political differences, are grouping themselves around their parent country to labour in unison for its moral and material progress.

The territory of Ecuador, embracing a population of less than 3,000,000 inhabitants, is rich in mineral resources and produces large quantities of gold, sil- ver, lignite, marble, coal and petroleum, while the manufacture of hats from the toquilla palm or jipi- japa fibre (incorrectly described as Panama hats) constitutes an important industry. Ecuador also contains a number of sugar estates capable of great extension, and other industrial establishments de- voted to the production of shoes, cigars, cigarettes and textile fabrics, but the lack of railroad commu- nication has hitherto been the chief factor in limiting the output of these industries.

Guayaquil, the principal port, is also a city of some importance owing to its population, its com-

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mercial movement, and its general up-to-date ap- pearance, whilst Quito, the Capital, which is con- nected with Guayaquil by a railroad belonging to an American company, is distinguished by the artistic character of its buildings, its monuments and, above all, by the quality of its society, which ranks high in Latin America. One of the great difficulties of the country is the absence of roads and highways for vehicular traffic, there being little else than mule-tracks for the transport between one town and another; and in some parts of the Republic there are merely fords in the smaller streams during the dry season, and at others, primitive suspension bridges across deep gorges and swift mountain tor- rents. These bridges are constructed from a species of hard fibre and are exceedingly dangerous to cross, rendering it necessary to frequently bring into use short river channels along the coast. Rail- road construction is, however, proceeding at vari- ous points and with its gradual extension and the increase of revenue from commercial expansion, re- sources will be available for the making of new roads and highways for local transport.

Notwithstanding the fact that the Indians and the mestizos form the bulk of the population of Ecua- dor, caste sentiment is very pronounced among those who claim pure white descent; and, as in Chile, the latter are the governing classes. The mestizos, who are generally traders and artisans, are uneducated

REPUBLIC OF ECUADOR 275

and indolent, possessing similar characteristics to those of the civilised Indians, to which type they really belong. As in Peru there are still many tribes of wild Indians who inhabit the forests and stoutly resist all missionary efforts to civilise them and oppose administrative measures to subject them to obedience to the Law.

Education is very backward and confined chiefly to the better classes, as although primary instruc- tion for children of from six to twelve years of age is obligatory, there is an insufficient number of pub- lic schools, and even at those established the attend- ance is irregular and not enforced. A programme has been recently laid down for an entire reorgani- sation of the educational system and with the assist- ance of the authorities of the Universities of Quito, Guayaquil and Cuenca, it is hoped that considerable improvement will be shown in the future.

Much of the backwardness of Ecuador in all that pertains to modern progress owes its existence to the lack of financial resources as much as to the want of means of communication, and it is to the fact that Ecuador has no credit in the great finan- cial centres and is thus unable to effect necessary reforms that progressive measures have been re- garded with indifference, which may be illustrated by the statement that Ecuador, despite the adop- tion fifty years ago of the metric system, still ex- clusively uses the old Spanish system of weights

276 THE TWO AMERICAS

and measures. The extreme poverty of the people and the other circumstances here described have combined to lessen the encouragement of public spirit and of civic ideals, which frequently occurs in States whose inhabitants labour under continued de- pression, and in others, where the rapid accumula- tion of wealth as often results in a forgetfulness on the part of the people of their duties and obligations as citizens. In the case of Ecuador, however, there is a sentiment of ardent patriotism beneath this ap- parent apathy, and I have little doubt that more than in any other of the Latin Republics on the Pacific Coast, when the Panama Canal is opened, a new era will dawn upon the isolated little Republic and bring with its material advance corresponding improvement in other spheres of national life. The country's resources are sufficiently abundant and the possibilities presented are great enough to jus- tify this belief. It is merely a question of time for Ecuador to emerge from her present comparative obscurity and to rise to a level of equality, from the standpoints of progress and order, with her sister Republics.

CHAPTER XX

THE KEPUBLIC OF COLOMBIA

OSSESSING a coast extending from one ocean to the other and embracing vast areas of pro- ductive soil, the Republic of Colombia presents a wide and advantageous field of study for the indus- trial and commercial classes of Europe and the United States who desire to extend their operations to one of the most favored lands of the South Amer- ican continent. Despite the fact that during the greater part of its existence Colombia has been torn by a succession of fratricidal wars and by violent political dissensions, the few recent years of peace it has enjoyed have demonstrated, beyond all ques- tion, the great potential wealth of the national re- sources and an assured future of progress and pros- perity when the conditions of internal peace, already established, become more firmly implanted, as un- doubtedly will happen.

The exceptional situation in which Colombia is placed by having important centres of industry and commerce, as well as ports, both on her Atlantic and Pacific coasts is in itself a sufficient encouragement for an optimistic view of her future, without regard

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278 THE TWO AMERICAS

to the many other favourable conditions of the coun- try. On the Atlantic side there are several flourish- ing cities such as Baranquilla, Cartagena and Santa Marta, where there are already many large fac- tories, while in the extensive areas surrounding these cities, there is considerable activity in the cul- tivation of "rubber, cocoa, coffee, sugar cane, ba- nanas, and other tropical products. The banana in- dustry is rapidly expanding as I believed it would when, during my administration, I initiated confer- ences for the encouragement of that branch of cul- tivation. Further in the interior of the same coast, in the direction of the mountain peaks, where the changes of climate and soil lend themselves to the satisfactory growth of the fruits of the temperate zone, production is steadily increasing. The forma- tion throughout this part of the country is the most uneven and least uniform on the continent, and this probably accounts for the climatic differences in the diverse valleys and elevations which produce an abundance in one section of those products which are scarce in the other. The greater part of this region is bathed by innumerable rivers and streams in whose waters there is a large variety of fish, and in whose sands there are rich mineral deposits merely awaiting the capital and labour necessary for their profitable exploitation.

On the Pacific side Colombia has several ports, the most important being those of Buenaventura "and

REPUBLIC OF COLOMBIA 279

Tumaco, in which for many years past the commerce of the Department of Cauca and a part of the in- terior of the Republic has been concentrated. The port of Buenaventura, located at a distance of only a few hours' journey from the Panama Canal, is protected from the constant winds by two arms of land projecting towards the ocean and has delight- ful surroundings. Everywhere one sees the fasci- nating tropical vegetation spreading out towards the waves. On the horizon, to the south, one sees the blue profiles of the western Cordilleras; to the north, the extensive plantations of man- grove trees, and further inland the peaks and the valleys of the rich and fertile land of Choco, renowned for its many mines of gold, platinum and other minerals. With the open- ing of the Canal, ships from Europe and the United States will be able to make direct communication with this port as well as with Tumaco, thus avoiding the trans-shipment of merchandise at Colon to the railway and thence to Panama to another steamer, which operation at the present time is a barrier to any considerable extension of commerce. From Buenaventura there is a railroad to the interior which will shortly be extended to the city of Cali, one of the most flourishing in Colombia by reason of its situation and of the industry of its inhabitants who make a religion of work. Cali is at the foot of the western cordillera in the beautiful Valle del

280 THE TWO AMERICAS

Cauca, which Humboldt has described as the ' ' Para- dise of America." A great hill called "Los Faral- lones" towers over the city, and from this, which serves to refresh the valley with its cool breezes, there is a view of an immense and magnificent pan- orama. Through the centre of the valley there runs the Cauca River, on whose banks there is an abun- dance of vegetable products and of the natural grasses that give food to a great number of cattle and horses. Fields and woods with spring-like ver- dure surround the small villages with their ancient buildings and the chapel or parochial church in the centre, and herds of cattle and troops of horses are dotted over the green mantle which extends in every direction. On the river there is an unceasing move- ment of steamships laden with plantains and other products of this land of promise. Here also are to be seen boats of a more primitive character packed to their fullest capacity with fruits, above which are the farmers and their families wearing their large hats and carrying long poles which they use as oars, moving gracefully under the shade afforded by the cachimbos and the bamboo-canes.

This valley is located at a distance of about one day's journey by steamer from Panama and is bounded on its eastern and western sides by dif- ferent ranges of the Andes. Its area is 400 kilo- metres in length and 25 in breadth. The tempera- ture varies from 18 to 20 degrees centigrade, in

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the plains and from 43 to 16 degrees in the moun- tains, thus permitting cultivation in the same range of cocoa, sugar cane, wheat and barley. In this valley there is a population of more than 200,000, with growing cities of from 10,000 to 30,000 inhab- itants, such as Popayan, the cradle of many of Co- lombia's notable men, amongst whom may be men- tioned Mosqueira and Figueroa, who was Regent of Spain. The latter city is even to-day the social, educational and intellectual centre of the tropical coasts of the Pacific ocean of the two Americas. The city of Cali, which is beautifully laid out, is capable of accommodating a million inhabitants, and there are also Manizales, populated by the laborious Antioquinians, Buga, Pamira, Cartago, and other cities and surrounding lands, beautified by di- verse and everlasting plants, an imposing variety of orchids, cacao and coffee plantations, shaded by trees which blossom with flowers of all hues, and multi-coloured birds flying over the crystal waters of the rivers, which appear like sheets of silver.

When the railway is completed from Buenaven- tura to Cali it will be extended towards the south through Popayan to Pasto and will serve many vil- lages which in time will become large centres of production. Popayan is one of the most interesting cities of Colombia and has a climate of perpetual spring. It is situated in the valley of the Cauca between the western and the central cordillera. A

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great volcano in constant eruption, called Purace, raises itself towards the west and is covered with snow during the greater part of the year. The outskirts of the city are favorite resorts of holiday- makers who make ascents to the crater and wander through the green fields and the picturesque planta- tions or pass their time on the beautiful river and its banks, and, after picnicking under the shades of the majestic oak trees with which the district abounds, they return to the city playing their guitars on the road and singing the songs of the popular national poets and musicians, with true Spanish instinct and spirit. The city of Pasto is another flourishing centre which embraces various manufacturing and mining industries. It is a short distance from Tumaco and Barbacoas, where min- ing, notwithstanding the difficulties of transport and the primitive character of the machinery in use, is being profitably carried on. Thus it will be seen that almost throughout this beautiful valley, where on the same plantations there are the products of the extreme climates, there are also enormous possi- bilities for agricultural, mining and other industrial production.

Since the discovery of America Colombia has been known to possess great wealth in its gold mines. The value of the precious metal extracted during the colonial period amounted to hundreds of millions of dollars. Since the liberation of the slaves, who

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were employed in exploiting these mines, the produc- tion has diminished, but this affords the greater reason for assuming that by improved means of communication and the introduction of modern ma- chinery the territories of Choco and Force, the mountains of Antioquia, the mines of Marmato and Bio Sucio, those of Alta, Baja, and Vetas, in the De- partment of Santander, those of the Department of Narino, and the alluvial diggings of Barbacoas con- tain all the elements to make Colombia a future rival of the most prolific of the gold-producing countries known to modern times.

In reference to the mineral wealth contained in Colombian territory I consider it important to make known the views of Mr. Thomas A. Edison upon that subject, as expressed to me in a recent conversation which I had with that distinguished scientist. Mr. Edison said:

"Your country, Colombia, is one of the richest and best situated in South America, not only by reason of its extensive and wealth-laden littorals on the two oceans and on both sides of the Panama Canal, but also by its possession of vast quantities of minerals, including platinum and gold, particularly in the district of Choco where these metals are so plenti- ful, as I have had occasion to discover through con- stantly needing their use and having sent agents to those parts to search for them. It is true that the

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mountains which rise in the interior of the country present serious obstacles to the construction of rail- roads but inasmuch as their altitude and climate are suitable for the cultivation of the products of both the temperate and torrid zones and that they con- tain rich mineral deposits there is no doubt that capital will soon be available for the construction of railways over short distances, as has taken place in Bolivia. I have been occupied for years in perfect- ing the construction of a special locomotive to over- come the difficulties of a five per cent, gradient, which I think might be successfully used in Colom- bia as it has been in other countries of similar for- mation, where trains are economically run by elec- tric power from the waterfalls of the mountains. When those methods of exploiting the mountainous and auriferous areas of Colombia are put into opera- tion there is no doubt it will only be a matter of time for the mining industry of that country to attain proportions of great importance."

Of the Departments into which Colombia is at present divided, these being subdivided into Prov- inces and again into Municipalities, the Department of Antioquia is probably the most prosperous. The people of this section of the country have the char- acteristics of the natives of Extremadura and Anda- lusia, in Spain, in appearance as well as in their physical conditions. With rose-white complexions

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and of robust health their energies are devoted pref- erentially to mining. Under the vigourous strokes of their axes the mountains have been levelled for the formation of villages and cities, where they have developed the mining industry of this Department and have thus brought large capital to the country. The Capital of Antioquia is Medellin, the second city of the Republic, whose inhabitants are more ad- vanced and up-to-date in their methods than those of any other part of the country.

Bogota, the Capital City of the Republic, has a population of 120,000 inhabitants and is situated at an altitude of 2,400 metres above sea level. The climate is equable and delightful, the temperature being always 16 degrees centigrade, which makes it one of the most habitable cities of South America. Its modern buildings would be worthy of any great Capital, the Colon Theatre, especially, being one of the handsomest of all the known temples of dramatic art. The society of Bogota, despite the introduction of modern customs, preserves in general the guiding principles of the Spanish home-veneration of the woman and warm unaffected hospitality to the stranger.

In speaking of the women of Colombia, who in common with their sisters of all the Ibero- American countries are models of purity and virtue, I cannot refrain from reciting the substance of an interview

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I was privileged to have with Cardinal Farley on my last visit to New York.

' * I know, ' ' said the Cardinal, ' ' that the Colombian women are pious and are devoted to the organisa- tion of the family and to the practice of the highest domestic virtues. I am, therefore, anxious to learn whether the law of divorce exists in your country." "In my country," I replied, "the law of divorce does not and never will exist, owing to its repug- nance to our idea of national decorum and to our faith in the fidelity and pious qualities of our wom- en, who, as mothers, wives, sisters and daughters, are not only the sovereigns of the home but educate the man from his cradle to his maturity, and even when he marries this moral education is continued by his wife and at her death by her daughters. In this way they exercise greater influence in the family circle and in society than they could possibly have where true femininity is sacrificed to unhealthy con- ditions. Divorce indeed is so opposed to the delicate ideals of our women that the remarriage of a widow, especially if she has children, is of rare occurrence, their guiding principle being that they should con- stantly watch over their offspring, fulfilling the du- ties of both mother and father. The influence of our wives and mothers in this respect is such that in the majority of cases in which a man with a family of children has lost his wife he follows the example

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of the woman and does not marry again. Our idea is to cultivate and strengthen these conditions of the home life which we have inherited from our father- land, and, in the greater number of Latin- American countries, it is my experience that, as in Spain, the sacred ties of home and family are built upon these principles. ' '

"It gives me great pleasure," said .the Cardinal, "to know that in young America the modern ideas of materialism which destroy the virtue of the Christian home and render the woman morally in- ferior have not yet become implanted. Such ideas lower women from the elevated pedestal of sover- eignty over the home and lead to a barbaric condi- tion of affairs. It is a source of deep gratification to me to know of the satisfactory conditions prevail- ing amongst Spanish and Ibero- American families who educate their women with such principles in order that they may use their independence and their influence in the direction of preserving pure family life and the best interests of soci- ety, because it is evident that woman, by her traditions, her delicate sentiments, superior to those of man in honesty, piety and self-abnegation, have more social influence and are thus able to correct many vices including that of polygamy, which, al- though not permitted by law, would probably be se- cretly practised by men. Of Colombian women in general I have little direct knowledge, but one of

the most gratifying incidents of my life was a benev- olent act performed by a pious Catholic lady of your own race, Senorita Barril, of the family of Osma and Casa Valencia, of Peru and Colombia. I informed this lady of the generous offer of Mr. Archer Hunt- ington to provide the land for the site of the pro- posed Spanish Church and Museum on the heights commanding the Hudson Eiver, as well as to con- tribute, dollar for dollar, for all the money required for the building that I might collect from my congre- gation. I informed her of the fact that I found my- self unable to collect from my parishioners even a respectable proportion of the sum required for the temple, and sought her help to enable the worthy project to be carried out. To this request she read- ily consented and in a very short time succeeded in obtaining large contributions from both Catholics and Protestants, with the result that the total sum collected by Senorita Barril considerably exceeded the amount involved in Mr. Huntington's generous offer. That gentleman subsequently gave me a cheque for an equal amount, and the Chapel, which was erected with these funds, is now adorned by precious gifts of lamps and other ornaments by His Majesty, King Alfonso of Spain, and the Infanta Dona Isabela."

In addition to the possessions already described Colombia has immense territories in that section -of

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the Amazonic regions adjacent to Peru, Ecuador, Venezuela and Brazil. The large forests of the Amazon River and the Putumayo are for the most part unexplored, and looking at their vast extent and the sparsity of the villages and colonies already established there for industrial purposes, they are still solitary tracts ready to yield fruitful results to the hand of the labourer. There is in these forests luxuriant vegetation on fertile land which has borne fruit for hundreds of years without its ever having been gathered in, and it is a fact that even in those distant territories there is hardly an acre of ground that cannot be sown and converted into a profitable field for human energy. At the present time Colom- bia has 5,000,000 inhabitants and an area sufficiently large and amply productive to provide for ten times that number. Towards the Venezuelan side there are extensive plains watered by numerous rivers that are especially adapted to the raising of cattle. In other Departments, as in those of Tolima, Cauca, Santander, Antioquia, Cundiamarca, etc., the pro- duction of coffee, cacao and sugar cane is always in- creasing, while the two commodities first named se- cure the highest prices in foreign markets. Its for- ests contain uncountable varieties of fine woods and medicinal plants, the beds of its rivers (all stocked with an abundance of fish) are rich in mineral de- posits, and amongst its other potential wealth of resources are the emerald mines which contain the

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very finest quality of that precious gem. With an intimate knowledge of these and the many other fa- vourable conditions of the country, I am able to say, with confidence, that the Republic of Colombia is a splendid channel for the investment of foreign cap- ital and for immigration.

The results of the measures which I found it nec- essary to adopt for the pacification of the country when, after it had undergone a three years' fratri- cidal war, I assumed the Chief Magistracy of the Republic, give encouragement to the belief that the era of internecine strife and revolutionary out- breaks has passed for all time. Those measures, dictated at a time when the country was devastated by the terrible struggle which had just ended, when progress had been arrested, and the contending fac- tors not even then reconciled, have created good out of evil. Amongst my first administrative acts were to cause the people to be disarmed and their weapons returned to the arsenals ; to see that justice was meted out to all citizens alike and the right of every man to honourably serve his country fully established; and to so reorganise the army as to prevent future serious insubordination or active po- litical partisanship within its ranks, thus definitely placing it on a basis which would make it a bulwark of national honour and respect instead of a force to be exerted for the satisfaction of individual or political ambitions. From that time forward, with

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the exception of one notable interruption, due en- tirely to extraneous influences, the country has en- joyed the blessings of peace, and the energies of its citizens have been devoted exclusively to the objects of moral and material progress. The rancors and the bitterness of former times have vanished and a united effort is now being directed to the assurance of the country's prosperous future which is largely assisted by the extension of railways towards the coasts and by the great work which will shortly bring the Republic nearer to Europe and the United States. With the approaching realisation of these prospects and the application of foreign enterprise to the development of the national resources it is in- dubitable that this great country, to use the words of Paul Kruger though in a more peaceful sense, will "stagger humanity." This view is based as much on the moral conditions of the Colombian peo- ple as on the material prospects of the country. In this connection Dr. Phanor Eder, in his instructive book entitled "Colombia," has made an admirable analysis of the situation. He says :

"I must correct a misconception that the reader may possibly have formed, or been confirmed in, by my use just now of the term 'chronic instability.' Colombia has never in all its history for a long period of time been in such a condition as that which has devastated some other Spanish- American

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countries ; there has been, however, chronic fear of revolution with all its paralysis. There is much misconception as to the number of real revolutions in its history; only twice has the 'legitimate' suc- cession to the Presidency been upset — a record un- equalled by any other Spanish-American country with the single exception of Chile. In other words, successful revolutions have been rare: the estab- lished Government has nearly always succeeded either in suppressing armed revolt or in securing a working compromise. But this past tendency to revolution is worthy of study. The subject cannot be dismissed with the contemptuous generalities that the average Englishman or American is apt to be- stow. There has been no one cause for revolution- ism ; no general f ormulae, sometimes put forward, as to inherent lawlessness, incompatibility of races, un- fitness for self-government fostered by the Spanish colonial system, etc., that will fit the case. Inherent lawlessness we have shown at the beginning of this chapter to be false — racial antagonisms have played but a very small part; the unripeness for self-gov- ernment at the birth of the nation has been a con- tributary cause, but the true causes have been mani- fold. . . . By reason of lack of education for the masses, and for the classes a misdirected education — unpractical and often superficial — there has not been learned perseverance and patience to correct through orderly processes of government.

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Add sectional feeling, the religionism inherited from Spain — undissolved because of lack of facile inter- communication— and the pot is ready to boil.

"The cure, therefore, for revolutionism is obvi- ous; material prosperity and education. It is now at work. With foreign capital and foreign immigra- tion material prosperity will come speedily : without them or either of them the day of salvation will be delayed. Immigration is needed, not so much be- cause there is any real scarcity in the ranks of la- bour, but for education : foreign workers, especially if simpatico, can better teach the Colombians, who are ready pupils, to be workers. Improved sanitary conditions will come with the expenditure of money and with the consequent abolition of malaria, anae- mia, many misnamed cases of laziness will disap- pear. Wealth and education hand in hand will lead Colombia from the brink of the chasm to the high- road of peace and order. ' '

The population of Colombia, though depleted by the losses of life in the many civil wars which have marked the country's past history and checked in its increase by the absence of immigration, is still estimated by reliable authorities at about 5,000,000, as already stated. Amongst these there is a fair percentage of whites, descended from the early Spanish settlers, the remainder of the inhabitants being made up of mestizos (a mixture of whites

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and Indians), Indians and negroes. Of those who first inhabited the country there remain only a few scattered tribes in the forests, practising their an- cient customs with a persistent refusal to conform to the requirements of modern society, but there are many civilised Indian communities who yield to the demands of the social organisation of the coun- try. Amongst the white element there is a small proportion of foreigners engaged in commercial and industrial pursuits, the native whites forming the governing and the professional classes. They are an intelligent, high spirited people with the Spanish- American love of art and literature to which they devote considerable study, and in the world of let- ters many Colombian writers hold high rank. The national religion is Eoman Catholic and the Church which was disestablished by the Constitution of 1861 was restored, twenty-five years later, to the position of a State institution. Education was extremely backward until my accession to the Presidency when I initiated a complete reorganisation of the system of public instruction, adding normal schools for the training of teachers, and agricultural and technical schools for the better development of the country's material resources. Since the partial carrying out of my project for the extension of public instruction there has been a considerable reduction in the num- ber of illiterates. This advance, however, is but the beginning of the spread of education which will fol-

low the general progress of the Republic that will enable the incoming Administration and its succes- sors to appropriate a goodly proportion of national revenue to this worthy object.

My recent trip through the Isthmus has intensi- fied my admiration for the American nation, which has accomplished so much for the causes of civilisa- tion and progress, and especially in its building of the great Canal which will transform the face of the earth and produce greater changes of impor- tance in routes of travel than has ever been accom- plished by any other work of a similar character. Yet, whilst the world at large has eulogised this great American achievement there have been uni- versal expressions of regret that its moral value should be lessened by doubts of the character of the methods whereby it was enabled to be carried into operation. It is therefore sincerely hoped by all friends of the United States that when, in 1915, there will be celebrated the opening of the Inter- national Exposition to commemorate the union of the two oceans, justice will have been rendered to Colombia so that the Exposition will not be an apotheosis of the triumph of might over right.

The importance of the Panama Canal to the Re- public of Colombia cannot be exaggerated or too frequently pointed out at the present time. The completion of that gigantic work will bring to her rich and extensive territories myriads of workers

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from the congested countries of Europe; the trees of the forests will be felled to make way for the locomotive; the rivers will give up their latent wealth and the treasure embedded in the virgin soil will become available to the pick of the miner. There will finally disappear, as though by enchantment, the old political bitterness and hatred; and there will be but one nation-wide policy — that of Father- land and work. The few obstinate patriots, still irreconcilable, will unite in fraternal embrace with their fellow citizens in the task of national recon- struction; and the rainbow of peace, which for the past thirteen years has shone in the Colombian sky, will shine still brighter, as a tribute to the patriotic instincts of the worthy sons of a great country.

The name of the hero, Simon Bolivar, is so indis- solubly bound up with the foundation and early history of the Republic of Colombia as to render incomplete any description of the country which does not embrace some account of that great man. In the preceding and other chapters of this book I have merely made passing references to Bolivar's noble character and great achievements, for the rea- son that his share in the emancipation of South America is already a matter of common historic record. In order, however, to show that in addi- tion to being a strict disciplinarian and a statesman of great breadth of view, he was a pious, simple

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man, inspired by love of family and of God, I append a translation of his last will and testament, which, so far as I am aware, has not yet been published in the English language :

BOLIVAR'S WILL

"In the name of the Almighty God, Amen, I, Simon Bolivar, Liberator of the Republic of Colom- bia, born in the city of Caracas, in the Department of Venezuela, legitimate son of Juan Vicente Bolivar and Maria Concepcion Palacios, deceased, of the same city, being gravely ill but in the full posses- sion of memory and understanding and believing and confessing with firm faith in the high and sover- eign mystery of the Beautiful and Holy Trinity of the Father, Son and Holy Ghost, three distinct per- sons, but one true God, under which faith I have lived and declared my intention to live as an earnest Catholic Christian until my death, I now make my testamentary disposition and, under Divine invoca- tion authorise and order my will in the following form:

* ' 1. Firstly, I commend my soul to Almighty God and my body to the earth of which it was formed, leaving to the disposition of my testamentary execu- tors the arrangements of my interment and the pay- ment of other pious objects which they may consider necessary or may be ordained by the Government.

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"2. I declare that I was legally married to the Senora Teresa Toro, deceased, and that there are no children of the marriage.

"3. I declare that when we contracted the mar- riage my deceased wife had no means or effects and that I introduced for our mutual benefit the whole of my patrimony.

"4. I declare that I do not possess other prop- erty than the lands and mines of Aroa, situated in the Province of Carabobo, and certain jewels set forth in an inventory which will be found amongst my papers in the possession of Seiior Juan de Fran- cisco Martin, a resident of Cartagena.

"5. I declare that my only money indebtedness is a certain number of dollars due to the said Juan de Francisco Martin and to Powles & Company. I therefore authorise and instruct my testamentary executors to recognise such indebtedness and to sat- isfy it from the proceeds of my estate.

"6. It is my wish that the medal presented to me by the Congress of Bolivia, in the name of the peo- ple of that country, shall be returned in the same spirit in which it was given as a proof of the true affection which I preserve, even in my last moments, for that Republic.

"7. It is my wish that the two works presented to me by my friend, General Wilson, "The Social Contract," by Eousseau, and "The Military Art," by Monte-Cuculi, both of which were formerly part

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of the Library of Napoleon, be presented after my death to the University of Caracas.

"8. It is my wish that out of my estate 8,000 pesos shall be given to my steward, Jose Palacios, as a remuneration for his faithful service.

"9. I order that all my papers in the possession of Senor Cavageau shall be burned.

"10. It is my wish that after my death my re- mains shall be deposited in my birthplace, the city of Caracas.

"11. It is a request to my executors that the sword presented to me by the Grand Marshal de Ayacucho shall be returned to his widow, in order that she may retain it as a proof of the affection in which I have always held the deceased Grand Mar- shal.

"12. It is a request to my executors that they should reiterate my grateful thanks to General Eo- berto Wilson for the admirable conduct of his son, Colonel Belford Wilson, who so faithfully accom- panied and supported me until the last moments of my life.

' ' 13. For the fulfilment of the provisions of this, my last will and testament, I name as my testamen- tary executors General Pedro Briceno Mendez, Juan de Francisco Martin, Dr. Jose Vargas and General Laurencio Silva, upon whom I confer full license and authority to dispose of my effects in such man-

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ner as to them may appear necessary, and I further extend their period of the fatal year of executor- ship for such further time as may be required for the general and free administration of my estate.

' ' 14. The provisions of this, my last will and tes- tament, being fulfilled and all just claims being sat- isfied, I name as my sole heirs and legatees to my residuary estate and to all future successions to which I shall have succeeded or may succeed, my sisters, Maria Antonia and Juana Bolivar, and the three children of my deceased brother, Juan Vicente Bolivar, Juan, Felicia and Fernando Bolivar, with instructions that my residuary estate be divided into three parts, two of which are devised to my before- mentioned two sisters, and the other part to the be- fore-mentioned children of my brother Juan Vicente, that with the blessings of God they may use and en- joy such legacies.

"I revoke, annul and declare of no effect any other will, testament, codicil, memorandum, or spoken words, made or delivered prior to this, my last will and testament, which I declare to embody my final wishes and testamentary dispositions.

* ' Made, executed and witnessed, by General Mari- ano Montilla, General Jose Maria Carreno, Colonel Belford Hinton Wilson, Colonel Jose de la Cruz Paredes, Colonel Joaquin de Mier, Commandant

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Juan Glen, and Dr. Manuel Perez de Recuero, at the Hacienda of San Pedro Alejandrino, in the limits of the city of Santa Marta, the tenth day of Decem- ber, 1830."

Before me, Jose Catalino Noguera, Notary Public.

SIMON BOLIVAE.

CHAPTER XXI

CONCLUSION

T T is a fitting conclusion to this humble effort on •*• my part to strengthen the friendly relations of all the countries on the American continent, that I should avail myself of the opportunity to deal with the important declarations made by President Wil- son and ex-President Roosevelt, since the preced- ing pages were written. It is with the keenest satis- faction and, I hope, with becoming modesty, that I claim, at the hands of those two distinguished men, a complete justification of the purpose of this book and of the views it embodies. If, in my criticisms of the international policy of the United States in regard to the Latin Republics, the terms employed have been somewhat vigourous their general tenor will find full endorsement in the pronouncements of the two great American citizens whose authoritative statements will elicit unqualified approval through- out Ibero-America. I refer to the address delivered by President Wilson before the Southern Commer- cial Congress at Mobile, Alabama, on October 27th last, and to the lecture given by Colonel Roosevelt at the University of Rio de Janeiro a few days previously.

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CONCLUSION 308

In my introductory comments I made special men- tion of the fact that the horrors of civil war were still afflicting one of the important States of Latin- America; but ''out of evil cometh good" as, if the unhappy conditions arising out of that revolution had not become so intensified and so fraught with serious consequences to the whole continent, the declaration of the high-minded policy and attitude of the present Administration of the United States towards Latin- America, which will go far to remove the unfortunate mutual misunderstandings still pre- vailing, might have been postponed to a period when its power for good would be considerably lessened, if not altogether lost.

Eliminating the preliminary references of purely local interest the following is a report of President Wilson's address at Mobile, as published by the New York Times, of October 28th :

"I come because I want to speak of our present and prospective relations with our neighbours to the south. I deemed it a public duty as well as a personal pleasure to be here to express for myself and for the Government I represent the welcome we all feel to those who represent the Latin- American States. The future, ladies and gentlemen, is going to be very different for this hemisphere from the past. The States lying to the south of us, which have always been our neighbours, will now be drawn

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closer to us by innumerable ties, and, I hope, chief of all by the tie of a common understanding of each other.

"Interest does not tie nations together. It some- times separates them, but sympathy and understand- ing do unite them. And I believe that by the new route that is just about to be opened, while we physically cut two continents asunder, we spiritually unite them. It is a spiritual union which we seek. I wonder if you realise, I wonder if your imagina- tions have been filled with the significance of the tides of commerce ?

* ' These great tides which have been running along parallels of latitude will now swing southward athwart parallels of latitude, and that opening gate at the Isthmus of Panama will open the world to a commerce that she has not known before — a com- merce of intelligence, of thought and sympathy be- tween north and south, and the Latin-American States which to their disadvantage have been off the main lines will now be on the main lines. I feel that these gentlemen honouring us with their pres- ence to-day will presently find that some part at any rate of the centre of gravity of the world has shifted. Do you realise that New York, for example, will be nearer the western coast of South America than she is now to the eastern coast of South America?

' ' There is one peculiarity about the history of the Latin-American States which I am sure they are

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keenly aware of. You hear of concessions to foreign capitalists in Latin America. You do not hear of concessions to foreign capitalists in the United States. They are not granted concessions. They are invited to make investments. The work is ours, though they are welcome to invest in it. We do not ask them to supply the capital and do the work. It is an invitation, not a privilege, and States that are obliged, because their territory does not lie with- in the main field of modern enterprise and action, to grant concessions, are in this condition, that for- eign interests are apt to dominate their domestic affairs, a condition of affairs always dangerous and apt to become intolerable.

"What these States are going to seek, therefore, is an emancipation from the subordination which has been inevitable to foreign enterprise and an asser- tion of the splendid character which, in spite of these difficulties, they have again and again been able to demonstrate. The dignity, the courage, the self-pos- session, the respect of the Latin-American States, their achievements in the face of all these adverse circumstances, deserve nothing but the admiration and applause of the world. They have had harder bargains driven with them in the matter of loans than any other peoples in the world. Interest has been exacted of them that was not exacted of any- body else, because the risk was said to be greater, and then securities were taken that destroyed the

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risks. An admirable arrangement for those who were forcing the terms! I rejoice in nothing so much as in the prospect that they will now be eman- cipated from these conditions, and we ought to be the first to take part in assisting in that emancipa- tion. I think some of these gentlemen have already had occasion to bear witness that the Department of State in recent months has tried to serve them in that wise. In the future they will draw closer and closer to us because of circumstances of which I wish to speak with moderation and, I hope, without indis- cretion.

' ' We must prove ourselves their friends and cham- pions, upon terms of equality and honour. You cannot be friends upon any other terms than upon the terms of equality. You cannot be friends at all except upon the terms of honour, and we must show ourselves friends by comprehending their in- terest, whether it squares with our interest or not. It is a very perilous thing to determine the foreign policy of a nation in the terms of material interest. It not only is unfair to those with whom you are dealing, but it is degrading on the part of your own actions.

"Comprehension must be the soil in which shall grow all the fruits of friendship, because there is a reason and a compulsion lying behind all this which are dearer than anything else to the thoughtful men of America; I mean the development of constitu-

CONCLUSION 307

tional liberty in the world. Human rights, national integrity, and opportunity, as against material in- terests— that, ladies and gentlemen, is the issue which we now have to face. I want to take this occa- sion to say that the United States will never again seek one additional foot of territory by conquest. She will devote herself to showing that she knows how to make honourable and fruitful use of the ter- ritory she has. And she must regard it as one of the duties of friendship to see that from no quarter are material interests made superior to human lib- erty and national opportunity. I say this, not with a single thought that any one will gainsay it, but merely to fix in our consciousness what our real rela- tionship with the rest of America is. It is the rela- tionship of a family of mankind devoted to the de- velopment of true constitutional liberty. We know that that is the soil out of which the best enterprise springs. We know that this is a cause which we are making in common with them because we have had to make it for ourselves.

' ' Reference has been made here to-day to some of the national problems which confront us as a nation. What is the heart of all our national problems? It is that we have seen the hand of material interests sometimes about to close upon our dearest interests and possessions. We have seen material interests threaten constitutional freedom in America. There- fore, we will now know how to sympathise with those

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in America who have to contend with that, not only within their borders, but from outside their borders also. I know what the response of the thought and heart of America will be to a programme like that, because America was created to realise a pro- gramme like that.

"This is not America because it is rich. This is not America because it has set up for a great popu- lation great opportunities of material prosperity. America is a name which sounds in the ears of man everywhere as a synonym of individual opportunity, as a synonym of individual liberty. I would rather belong to a poor nation that was free than to a rich nation that had ceased to be in love with liberty. But we shall not be poor if we love liberty, because the nation that loves liberty truly sets every man free to do his best and be his best; and that means the release of all the splendid energies of a great people who think for themselves. A nation of em- ployees cannot be free any more than a nation of employers can be.

"So, in emphasising the points which must unite us in sympathy and in spiritual interest with the Latin- American people, we are only emphasising the points of our own life, and we should prove our- selves untrue to our own traditions if we proved ourselves untrue friends to-day. Do not think, therefore, gentlemen, that questions of the day are mere questions of policy and diplomacy. They are

CONCLUSION 309

shot through with the principles of life. We dare not turn from the principle that morality and not expediency is the thing that must guide us, and that we will never condone iniquity because it is most convenient to do so.

"So, it seems to me that this is a day of infinite hope, of confidence in a future greater than the past has been. For I am fain to believe that, in spite of all the things that we wish to correct, the nineteenth century that now. lies behind us has brought us a long stage toward the time when, slowly ascending the tedious climb that leads to the final uplands, upon which we shall get the ultimate view of the beauties of mankind, we, nevertheless, have breathed a considerable part of that climb, and shall presently — it may be in a generation or two — come out upon those great heights where there shines, unobstructed, the light of the justice of God."

In the noble words quoted above President Wilson has proclaimed the policy of the United States in relation to the Latin Republics of the western hemisphere to be one of morality and justice against political or financial expediency, and no one doubts the sincerity or the good faith with which that announcement of policy was made. But it is not the fear of the loss of territory by conquest on the part of the United States that creates uneasiness in

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the greater countries of South America. It is rather the past evidences of a spirit of domination over the Latin Republics that have aroused resentment in those quarters where it is least desirable, and President Wilson emphasised this view when he said:

"We must prove ourselves their friends and champions upon terms of equality and honour. You cannot be friends upon any other terms than upon the terms of equality."

It is obvious, from their very nature, that con- cessions granted to foreigners for the enjoyment of monopolies are based on principles not strictly in accord with the theory of a republican form of government and that they frequently lead to inter- national conflicts as a result of differences between the grantor and grantees, but, even in cases where a weak nation may be the real offender, the re- sources of her courts of justice and of diplomacy should be exhausted before recourse is had to an attack upon her independence or upon her terri- torial integrity. In dwelling upon these conditions President Wilson declared that powerful nations, such as the United States, do not grant concessions but merely invite the investment of foreign capital. Yet if many of the difficulties which the smaller Latin- American Republics have had with other coun-

CONCLUSION 811

tries owe their origin to the granting of concessions it must also be remembered that in their earlier stages of existence and in the undeveloped state of their resources it would have been impossible to obtain capital for the exploitation of their indus- tries on conditions which were not to some extent oppressive. It must also be remembered that in most cases the granting of concessions has not been an unmixed evil to many of the southern Repub- lics. Abundant confirmation of this statement is to be seen in Argentina, where the original conces- sions— apparently onerous in terms — given to Brit- ish capitalists for the construction of railways in that country have led to the investment of upwards of one billion dollars in that form of enterprise alone and have made the Argentine Republic one of the most prosperous countries of the world.

There are also instances in which foreign con- cessionaires have constituted themselves an impe- rium in imperio, but, even in those cases, the gradual development of the national wealth has produced competition among foreign investors and thus mini- mised the effects of the arbitrary exercise of the authority and influence acquired by the concession- aires. On the other hand there could be cited many examples of laudable enterprise and honourable con- duct on the part of the contractors when the only security offered them for embarking upon such investments were the possibilities and the hon-

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esty of the countries always separated from them by great distance, by widely varying con- ditions, and by a foreign system of law. There are to-day many countries on the American con- tinent abounding in mineral riches and other latent sources of production which are retarded in their progress through the need of foreign capital to open them up. Great capitalists in the United States have so many opportunities for profitable in- vestment within their own borders that it is unlikely they would enter unknown and unproved channels without adequate inducements. The credit of a State is based on similar conditions to those apply- ing to private individuals and is governed entirely by considerations of classification and standing. Thus the question of government concessions to pri- vate contracting parties is always one of expediency. In view of what I have said as to the action of ex-President Roosevelt in relation to the Panama Canal it would seem paradoxical and inconsistent on my part to eulogise the attitude of that distinguished man towards Latin- Americans. I am free, however, to admit that his latest utterances in regard to the people and countries of the southern portion of the continent are founded upon principles, the expres- sion of which will do much to allay the general in- dignation aroused by the mistaken act of patriotism which culminated in the violation of Colombia's most sacred rights. Colonel Roosevelt's lecture

CONCLUSION 313

demonstrated the results of his profound and con- scientious study of the history and characteristics of the Latin-American nations ; and in the belief that the objects of this work will be better served by a wider dissemination of the principles and facts em- bodied in that exhaustive analysis, I regard it as a duty and as an act of justice to reproduce here the following report of the lecture, extracted from the New York Times, of October 25th :

' ' The Western Hemisphere is slowly working out for itself its own theory of that part of international policy which concerns both the attitude of all the American Commonwealths in the face of the rest of the world, and also their dealings with one another. You, my hosts and hearers, and your guest, and our fellow-countrymen, alike belong to the young nations of the New World. Because of the fact that it is a new world, and that we are young nations, we suffer certain disadvantages and have certain peculiar dif- ficulties of our own to face. Nevertheless, also be- cause of these very facts, we enjoy compensating advantages, which more than outweigh the disad- vantages.

"Prominent among these advantages is the fact that we have an almost free hand for fair dealing in American international relations, being fettered by comparatively few of the wide inequalities of culture and civilisation, and the bitter memories of

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history, which of necessity prevent any community of feeling among races which stand at the opposite poles of human existence ; whereas in the Old World, in the huge continental mass composed of Europe, Asia, and Africa, there exist many vast and popu- lous regions sundered from one another by the well- nigh impassable gulfs which lie between civilisation and barbarism, and between barbarism and pure savagery.

"Here in America the civilised nations do not have to fear huge military barbarisms. Neither do we have to dread the presence of vast tracts of coun- try peopled by savages, which the civilised nations must bring under control, and which, if not pos- sessed by one efficient and civilised nation, merely become the property of some other efficient and civ- ilised nation. Under such conditions it is practically impossible to reach a general working agreement of any kind about international conduct; for the com- munities— European, Asiatic, and African — stand on planes of culture and conduct which are hope- lessly far apart.

"In the two Americas, on the contrary, there are no such wide divisions. With negligible exceptions all the important nations possess a common heritage of Occidental civilisation, and, as compared with the other divergencies in the Old World, they possess substantially similar governmental forms and re- ligions and cultural ideals.

CONCLUSION 315

"Again, with negligible exceptions, there are no great waste spaces, tenanted only by savages, which are open to settlement by and are the potential causes of quarrel among the civilised powers; the remaining tracts of land open to settlement and de- velopment— and nowhere are they larger or more inviting than here in Brazil — are substantially all within the well-settled boundaries of fully estab- lished nations.

' ' In consequence there is a far better chance here than elsewhere to work out some scheme of common international conduct which shall guarantee to every nation freedom from molestation by others so long as its own skirts are free from wrongdoing, and so long as it does not itself sink into a condition of mere impotent anarchy. There are two sides to consider: first, our common attitude toward Old World powers, and, second, our relations among our- selves.

"Less than a century and a half have passed since the entire Western Hemisphere was held in real or titular possession by European nations; at that time the fate and ownership of the American col- onies depended on the outcome of wars between na- tions across the seas. As late as a century ago this condition still obtained as regards all American countries except my own, and that was less than half its present size and of not a tenth its present strength.

316 THE TWO AMERICAS

1 ' Ninety years ago the countries of Latin America had likewise achieved independence ; but it was still a precarious independence, and there was still like- lihood that some one of the great military European nations would reestablish itself as an American power at the expense of one or more of the strug- gling infant nationalities. At that time the United States was still the only American nation able to secure any hearing whatever in Europe, and even the United States could secure only a scant and im- patient hearing.

* ' Now there are several American nations, promi- nent among which is your own, who can secure re- spectful hearing anywhere in the world. These American nations, such as Brazil and the United States, stand on an absolute footing of equality. One cardinal doctrine on which we all agree is that America shall not be treated as offering ground for fresh colonisation or territorial aggrandisement by any Old World power.

' ' This is a doctrine of vital concern to all the na- tions of America ; for it would be a calamity to all if any great military nation of the Old World obtained a foothold here; such an event would in the end force us all, under penalty of loss of our own inde- pendence, ourselves to become military powers, and to plunge this continent back into Old World condi- tions of armed rivalry.

' ' So much for the common interest of all our Com-

CONCLUSION 317

monwealths in the face of non-American powers. No less vital is the matter of our own behaviour toward one another, no less than toward these non- American powers.

"The relations of the northern and the southern continents of the Western Hemisphere are certain to become much closer in the future. The opening of the Panama Canal will itself markedly help to make them closer, and great though the benefits of the Canal will be to our own country, I believe that they will be if anything even greater to the coun- tries of South America. I wish to see the trade be- tween the United States and all South American countries increase and in such intercourse the first essential is the ability to inspire confidence. There- fore, from every standpoint, I believe that the United States should scrupulously so act as to inspire con- fidence in her sister republics.

"It is for this reason that I feel a peculiar na- tional pride in our having twice withdrawn from Cuba, and having intervened in Santo Domingo purely for Santo Domingo's advantage. There is no brighter chapter in our history than that which tells of these actions. The United States does not wish the territory of its neighbours. It does wish their confidence. If ever as regards any country, intervention does unfortunately become necessary, I hope that wherever possible it will be a joint inter- vention by such powers as Brazil and the United

318 THE TWO AMERICAS

States, without thought of the selfish aggrandise- ment of any of them and for the common good of the western world.

"With every right there must always go hand in hand a duty; and no man, and no nation, can per- manently enjoy the right if he or it shirks the duty. With every privilege there must go the responsibil- ity of exercising the privilege aright. Every Amer- ican Commonwealth is bound as a matter of honor- able obligation to behave fairly toward its sister Commonwealth; and this is an impossibility if it does not keep order and enforce justice within its own borders. Among civilised nations it is a gen- eral, although not a universal, rule that ability to command respect abroad is largely dependent upon the preservation of stability and order and the proper administration of justice at home.

* ' The history of my own country teaches this les- son. Like your country, like Brazil, we had to deal with the problem of the abolition of slavery. We showed less ability than you did to deal with it in wise and cool-handed fashion. You abolished it peacefully and without bloodshed, whereas in our case it cost us a terrible civil war, and brought the nation to the verge of destruction. During that pe- riod we lost all power to help other nationalities in our hemisphere, or to enforce respect from others for our own rights whether in America or elsewhere.

1 * Had we remained disunited, had we become sub-

CONCLUSION 319

ject to chronic revolutionary disturbance, we should have reduced ourselves to utter and shameful impo- tence in the face of the nations of mankind ; and one result would unquestionably have been that America would once again have become subject to schemes of colonisation and armed territorial occupation by Old World powers.

' ' It is for this reason I feel not only that you are to be congratulated but that all of us who belong to the brotherhood of American Commonwealths are to be congratulated because of the steady growth in power, prosperity and stability which your great Republic of Brazil has of recent years so conspicu- ously shown — a marvellous growth, in which certain other South American Republics have had their share. I believe that, just as in the nineteenth cen- tury the most striking growth feature of the civil- ised world was what took place in North America, so in the twentieth century the most permanently important feature will be the growth and develop- ment of South America. I believe that the present century is the century of South America.

"Furthermore, I believe that the world has now grown sufficiently advanced to realise that normally the growth of one nation in prosperity and well-be- ing is of benefit, and not harm, to other nations. Among private individuals it is normally a benefit, and not a disadvantage, to a man to live in a well-to- do neighbourhood, to have neighbours who are sue-

320 THE TWO AMERICAS

cessful in life, and to deal with men who are pros- perous. For precisely similar reasons it is an ad- vantage to a nation to have as neighbours nations which are thriving and successful. Such a nation is benefited if the other nations with which it has commercial and diplomatic relations are prosperous in their business, and therefore stable in their gov- ernmental activities.

" Under a republican or democratic form of gov- ernment this means that there must be an honest chance to settle differences of public opinion at the polls by votes fairly cast and fairly counted, and a willingness, when the decision has thus been fairly reached, to abide by it. This must, therefore, also mean the general recognition of the fact that cheat- ing and swindling, whether by force or fraud, at the polls or at the nominating conventions are well-nigh as obnoxious, and if long continued would be abso- lutely as obnoxious to public morality as armed revolutionary violence itself.

' ' From this it follows that every American nation has reason to congratulate itself on the stability and prosperity of its sister nations. I am sure that I utter the sentiments of the people of the United States when I say that their only desire, as regards neighbouring countries, is to see them stable, or- derly and prosperous. Any country whose people conduct themselves in such fashion can count upon the hearty and practical friendship of the United

CONCLUSION 321

States. If they act with reasonable efficiency and decency in social and political matters, if they keep order and discharge their just obligations, they will surely achieve national success; and it is this na- tional success, for all of her sister republics, which the United States sincerely and earnestly desires.

' ' Chronic wrong-doing, or an impotence which re- sults in a general loosening of the ties of civilised society, may in America as elsewhere ultimately force intervention by some strong and stable civil- ised nation in the exercise of an international police power. Such a duty is thankless, irksome, and un- pleasant, whether it be performed by England, France, or the United States, whether in Algiers or Egypt, or on the Isthmus of Panama; and, there- fore, we all hail with delight the advent to real power of such nations as Brazil, the Argentine, and Chile, whose maintenance of peace and security within their own bounds, and whose efforts to sub- stitute other and fairer methods for those of war in the settlement of international disputes in South America are fraught with good omen for the entire Western Hemisphere.

"Each of us has something to learn from, and something to teach to, his neighbours. I believe that in the era which is now opening the republics of Latin America will be able to teach much to the people of my own country. The Latin American people possess many qualities which it would be

322 THE TWO AMERICAS

well for us of the north to develop. Their unques- tioned superiority in intellectual brilliancy and logic will enable them, when once they have secured in- ternal peace and government stability, to achieve a better solution of some of the most vital prob- lems of popular government than any that has yet been reached in any part of the world. ' '

With justifiable national pride, Colonel Eoosevelt draws his comparison of the social and political conditions of the great Eepublic of the north with those of the south, where, in most cases, they have produced so marked a change in results ; but, whilst indicating these differences he does full justice to the many qualities and intellectual strength of the Ibero- American nations. Warm-hearted, impulsive, and eager for political emancipation, the Latin peo- ple of America have invariably subordinated ma- terial advantage to their social and moral improve- ment ; and this in a large measure accounts for many of the uprisings and for the turbulent conditions which have characterised the comparatively short history of many of these countries. The rude com- motions which followed the liberation of all the Ee- .publics forming the great heart of South America appear to have been rooted in these virgin lands, whose people sought the enemy in their own terri- tory and launched themselves against each other with an utter disregard of the fact that they were

CONCLUSION 323

all of common parentage. Most of these youthful nations have suffered through long periods of civil strife which impeded their advance ; but, ultimately realising that these internal struggles were weaken- ing the national forces, they discarded their fac- tional colours and gathered under a united flag to exchange the rifle for the hoe, the sword for the plough, and the wheels of the cannon for the wheels of the locomotive.

Although, even at the present time in one Republic or another, there arises some revolutionary spirit, it is only the convulsive effect of a medieval era that is passing, the final eruption of a dying political volcano, or the last cannonade in the triumph of peace after a decisive battle. The age has passed for the existence of the barbarous conditions which at one time plunged so many of the Latin Republics into a state of misery. To-day every country must conform to the higher order of civilisation imposed upon it by the demands of universal peace and good will. The smaller Republics of the American con- tinent have many beautiful examples to follow ; and they have only to look for some of these, to the three great countries to the south, whose phenomenal progress in every phase of national effort and duty has evoked the admiration of the world. The Re- publics «of Argentina, Brazil and Chile have shown, in a manner worthy of emulation, the practical wis- dom of diverting the energies of the people from

the harmful pursuits of civil wars to the more bene- ficial occupation of developing the national indus- tries. In a corresponding degree most of the others have entered upon the same forward march ; and in succession to the revolutions which formerly red- dened their soil and darkened the blue of their skies, there has dawned an era of peace and tranquility which will lead to that moral and material advance to which they all have so many legitimate claims.

THE END

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