UMASS/AMHERST 3120bbDD53Q7DE7 m '^PiM^^M[i' little fullness of cod, while fat ones have the cod completely filled with fat. Thin animals also exhibit' a very light hind 32 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock flank. At the beginning there may be httle more than a fold of skin; when fat, this part fills out remarkably full and heavy. By placing the flat of the hand beneath it and lifting, the quantity of fat in the flank is easily determined. When a fat steer walks, there is a characteristic roll or swell to the flank as the hind leg swings forward. This is not noticeable in a thin animal. The thickness of the tongue-root may be determined by grasping the part with the thumb and fingers. Some individuals fatten smoothly, with no special ten- dency to bunch the fat in patches or rolls at certain points, while others become "roily," or "patchy," in spite of all the feeder's skill. Patches and rolls are most often found about the tail-head and end of the rump, along the ribs, and at the edge of the loin. The occurrence of these is highly undesir- able; they indicate an improper distribution of fat, give the animal a rough appearance, and, when the animal is slaughter- ed, the carcass is discounted, for then the bunches of fat are very evident and the appearance is spoiled. The fatter the steer becomes, the greater is the tendency toward patchiness, yet many animals begin to exhibit this defect before they are really ripe and ready for market. Style has actual market value in a fat steer. A stylish steer is one that stands squarely on his feet, with his back level, head well up, and eyes and ears attentive to what is going on about him. This does not mean a nervous animal, but a wide-awake one, full of life, and seemingly interested in the things about him. When he walks, he does it easily and without awkwardness. Other things being equal, such a steer will attract buyers much more quickly than an animal that slouches while standing, showing a pronounced dip in the back, and having an awkward stride when in motion. These two animals may dress out equally high, and yield equally valuable carcasses ; the diflference is that the first steer forces his good points to the attention of the buyer and shows for all he is worth, while in the case of the second steer, the buyer is left to discover the animal's good points without any assistance from the animal. Cattle with style sell more readily and at islightly higher prices than cattle without style. Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 33 Size and weight vary according to age, sex, breed, and fatness. Disregarding breed differences, for this factor need not be considered here, the following figures represent fair standards of weight at different ages for well-fattened steers : At birth „ 70 pounds 6 months 450 pounds 12 months 850 pounds 18 months 1100 pounds 24 months 1300 pounds 30 months _ 1475 pounds 36 months 1600 pounds Age from the teeth. — The ages of cattle may be determined with a fair degree of accuracy by an examination of the teeth. There are eight incisors in the lower jaw of mature cattle. There are no incisors in the upper jaw, but a tough fibrous pad instead, amply suited to the grazing habits of cattle. The dentition at various ages is as follows : 12 months. All calf teeth in place. 15 months. Center permanent incisors appear. 18 months. Center permanent incisors in wear. 24 months. First intermediates up. 30 months. Six broad incisors. 36 months. Six broad incisors in wear. 39 months. Corners up. 42 months. Eight broad incisors in wear. CHAPTER II. THE BEEF CARCASS. Buyers of fat cattle at the large market centers make their bids according to their estimates of the kind of carcasses the animals will yield. These estimates are made with con- siderable accuracy because the buyers have made a study of carcasses and the cuts which they yield. A similar knowledge of meats is essential to the beef producer in order that he may learn to judge and value beef cattle correctly. Fig. 3. Knocking Cattle. Slaughtering. — Upon reaching the packing house, the cat- tle are driven into knocking pens where they are dealt a sledge- hammer blow by the "knocker" who stands on a platform about even with the head of the animal. They are then rolled on the dressing floor, where a shackle is placed about the hind legs. The carcass is raised and bled, and the head re- moved. Again floored, the feet are removed at knees and hocks, and the hide is stripped. The carcass is then placed 34 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 35 on a spreader, known as a "beef tree," where it is disem- bowled, the hide removed entirely, and the back spHt. An endless chain then conveys the sides of beef through a set of washers to the coolers. The time required for dressing a carcass is less than 40 minutes. The beef remains in the coolers from one to two weeks before it is ready for the mar- ket, the temperature being kept at about 38 degrees Fahren- heit. Prime meats require three to four weeks ageing in a refrigerator to arrive at their best. The offal. — The feet, head, hide, internal organs, loose fat, blood, and contents of stomach and intestines are collec- tively called the offal or waste of the steer, so called because formerly, with the exception of the tongue, hide, and tallow, this offal was thrown away. Today all of it is valuable for manufacturing into various by-products. The dressing percentage. — By comparing the weight of the chilled carcass with the live weight of the animal, the percentage of carcass, or what is called the dressing per- centage, is determined. This is a very important point in determining the market price of a steer, and the buyer always estimates the dressing percentage when bidding on a load of cattle. For instance, suppose we have a steer of 1,200 pounds weight on foot. When dressed, the carcass weighs say 720 pounds. The dressing percentage would then be 60 per cent. Now suppose we have two loads of 25 steers each. The average live weight of the steers in each load is 1,200 pounds. When slaughtered one load dresses 60 per cent., and the other 57 1/^ per cent. Each load had a total live weight of 30,000 pounds. When dressed, one load yields 21^ per cent, higher than the other, a difference of 750 pounds of carcass — a difference exceeding the weight of a single carcass. The total dressed weight of the 25 steers in the best load was 18,000 pounds ; 26 steers of the lower dressing kind would not yield this weight of carcasses by 60 pounds. We will sup- pose each lot of carcasses brought a wholesale price of $9.50 per cwt. Then 750 pounds of carcass amounts to $71.25, which is the difference in the income from the sale of the two lots of carcasses. This amounts to $2.85 per head in favor of the high dressers. In handling thousands of animals, as 36 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock do the large packing firms, the question of dressing percentage is a very important one. The range in the dressing percent- ages of cattle is from 35 to 70 per cent. The chief factors determining the dressing percentage of a steer, in the order of their importance are: (1) fatness, (2) paunchiness, and (3) quality of bone and hide. Aged dairy cows which have outlived their usefulness as milk pro- ducers are sent to market; they are very paunchy and very thin, and dress around 45 per cent. Well-bred steers, well fattened and with straight lines, that is, free from paunchi- ness, dress out 62 to 65 per cent. The highest record known to the writer, where the steer was dressed in the usual manner, is 69.9 per cent. Quality of head, feet, and hide is of less importance as a rule than paunchiness or fatness, although in some animals the weight of hide is a considerable item. Commission men who sell cattle on the big markets are al- ways careful that the cattle consigned to them get plenty of feed and water before they are offered for sale. This is called the "fill," and it is important because it corrects the gaunt appearance caused by shipping, and adds weight to the animal. The buyer estimates the fill in various ways, particularly by the degree of paunchiness. Hence the fill does not constitute a fourth factor of the dressing percentage, but is included under paunchiness. On hot days when cattle take a heavy fill of water, buyers stay off the market as long as possible. The wholesale cuts. — When the carcass has been suf- ficiently ripened in the cooler, it is ready for cutting up into the wholesale cuts. The full side of beef, half the carcass, has the appearance shown in the following diagram. The wholesale cuts are indicated by the dotted lines. The navel and brisket are usually sold together in one piece, called the plate; otherwise the navel is difficult to dis- pose of. Sides are usually quartered or "ribbed" between the 12th and 13th ribs. The quarters are called "fores" and "hinds." The forequarter yields the rib, chuck, plate, and shank cuts. The hindquarter yields the round, loin, flank, and kidney suet. Regular hindquarters contain 47 to 49 per cent, of the carcass weight, and fores, 51 to 53 per cent., the averages being about 48 per cent, hinds and 52 per cent, fores. Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 37 Hinds are quoted about 25 per cent, higher than fores in cold months, and up to 40 per cent, higher in summer. This variation is due to the large amount of boiling and stewing pieces in the fores, which meats are in greater demand in winter. Fig. 4. Wholesale Cuts of Beef. 1, Chuck; 2, shank; 3, brisket; 4, rib; 5, navel; 6, loin; 7, flank; 8, round; 3 and 5, plate; 6, 7, and 8, hindquarter. The loin is separated from the round at the hip joint. The shank is sawed off just below the shoulder joint. The plate is taken oif on a line extending from about the middle of the twelfth rib through the point at which the shank is removed. The rib and chuck are separated between the fifth and sixth ribs. A 720-pound carcass will yield a 360-pound side. When the side is cut up, the weights of the various wholesale cuts, their prices per pound, and their total values are as given in the following table, the figures for weights representing aver- ages for good carcasses. Prices are given for No. 1, No. 2, and No. 3 grades. Wholesale cuts Wts. in lbs. 100 60 10 35 40 82 18 15 360 Price per lb. , cents Total No. 1 value of parts No. 1 ~10.5~ 16.5 4 13 4.25 5.75 3.5 4 No. 2 No. 3 No. 2 1 No. 3 Round Loin Flank Rib Plate .. 9 15- 3.5 11.5 3.75 5.25 3 4 7.75 9.5 3 7 3.25 4.25 3 4 $10.50 9.90 .40 4.55 1.70 4.72 .63 .60 $ 9.00 9.00 .35 4.03 1.50 4.30 .54 .60 $ 7.75 5.70 .30 2.45 1.30 Chuck Shank _ Suet 3.48 .54 .60 Total 9.16 8.14 6.14 $33.00 $29.32 $22.12 38 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock High-priced and low-priced cuts. — The average price for the entire No. 1 carcass is, then; 9.2 cents per pound. From the foregoing table it is seen that the loin, rib, and round constitute slightly more than half of the carcass weight, but bring a little more than three-fourths of the return from the sale of the wholesale cuts. The 195 pounds of loin, rib, and round have an average price of 12.8 cents per pound, while the remainder of the side, weighing 165 pounds, brings an average of nearly 5 cents. Hence the packer wants cattle ,_-..:^ ^ 1 .^^^B^H j^tmtr. ^^^ ^.-'^m I L r r v^. 1 -\ Loit^ 1 RIB5 1 CKuCK \ w^ b'l r —^ T i ^HLJflH ^ 6m»K^^ V . ^^ ^a'^J'i'iy"'.:-^'*''-.'''- ■V" < Fig. 5. Cuts of Beef Indicated in the Live Animal. as highly developed in loin, rib, and round as possible. Buyers of cattle for slaughter emphasize this point. They want cattle smoothly and heavily fleshed in all parts, and especially in the three parts mentioned. The selling price of a load of cattle is greatly dependent on this feature. Variations in carcasses. — A study of the carcasses in any cooler brings out striking differences. Some are large, being Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 39 from 1,500- to 1,600-pound animals; others are from younger beeves that weighed 800 to 1,100 pounds. Some are com- pact and wide, others are long and narrow. Some are well developed in the regions of high-priced cuts, while others are deficient in this respect. Some carry heavy fleshing, others are very poorly covered indeed. The layer of external fat is very thick in some, these being highly finished cattle fed on grain. Others show practically no external fat. These are from grass-fed cattle — poor pasture too, for a steer puts on some external fat on grass if the pasture is good. Some show a nice intermixing of fat and lean, called "marbling," while others exhibit this feature very slightly, or none at all. The lean meat of some carcasses has a pale red color; in others it is very dark. Some carry snow-white fat; others carry fat of a yellow color. Some beef is fine grained, and some is very coarse and fibrous. Some carcasses have soft bones, somewhat cartilaginous in character; others have hard flinty bones. Size of bones varies a great deal in different carcasses. To sum up these differences we may say that carcasses vary in respect to (1) size, (2) shape, (3) thickness of fleshing, (4) thickness of external fat, (5) marbling, (6) color of lean meat, (7) color of fat, (8) grain of meat, (9) flintiness of bones, and (10) size of bones. The butcher or packer is interested in all these things, for each is of con- siderable importance. The packer grades the wholesale cuts of beef, as they vary in these points, into No. 1, No. 2, and No. 3 grades. No. 1 cuts bring the highest price, and be- tween No. I's and No. 3's there is a marked difference. These three grades are all used on the butcher's block. Cuts from inferior carcasses not suitable for block use are called strip- pers ; these are manufactured into boneless cuts, barreled beef, and sausage. How the carcass is produced. — Before taking up a dis- cussion of the qualifications of a good carcass, it will be profitable to consider briefly how an animal grows and builds up the parts of its body which eventually make up the car- cass. The carcass consists of bone, muscle, connective tissue, and fat. At birth the calf weighs about 70 pounds. Its 40 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock bones are soft and elastic, and its muscles are tender. It carries a certain degree of fatness, depending on how well it was nourished before it was bom — in other words, on how well its mother was fed. Up to weaning time it subsists largely upon its mother's milk, which is primarily a bone and muscle builder, producing growth. When weaned, the future of the calf depends upon (1) ancestry, (2) feed, and (3) management. If its ancestors were dairy animals, it will never fatten properly nor make a valuable carcass. However, we are dealing with beef pro- duction and will assume the calf is from a good line of beef cattle. If given plenty of feed and good care, in other words every opportunity to develop quickly, the calf rapidly increases in size and its flesh expands and thickens. It also lays on fat. It is hard to fatten young animals because they tend to utilize their feed for growth rather than fat. Growth is increase in bone and muscle. However, with heavy feeding, cattle be- come fat before reaching maturity, and may be sent to market under 20 months of age weighing 800 to 1,200 pounds. Such animals are called "baby beeves." Another way to handle the calf is to turn it out to pasture and perhaps help it along with a little grain if the pasture is short. In this case the object is to produce growth only, and the animal may then be finished as a two-year-old. Under this plan the animal should be roughed through the winter with care, othei'wise it will receive a setback. A third way to manage this calf would be to put it on pasture where it can get grass if there is any, and get thin if there isn't — so thin that it loses what we may call its baby flesh. In winter, under this system, the animal starves along as best it can, and the result is that it never makes a good beef, even though liberally fed at the finish. Once the baby flesh- ing is lost through setbacks received during development, the steer does not make as desirable a carcass as he would other- wise. As an animal increases in age, its bones become hard and flinty. The bones which bear the most strain become most flinty, these being the shank bones. In young cattle the tips of the spinous processes of the vertebrae are soft Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 41 and cartilaginous. These "buttons," as they are called, are present up to the age of 18 months ; thereafter they gradually ossify, and at about the fifth year the spines are hard to the tips. Similar changes take place in the cartilages on the breastbone before the third or fourth year. The breastbone, backbone, ribs, and pelvis gradually harden and whiten, es- pecially after the age of 18 months. When visiting a beef cooler, the age of the animals from which the carcasses came may be told approximately by the bones. With increase in age the muscles become tougher through use. The muscles which the animal uses most and which do the most work become the toughest in their make-up; these are the muscles of the neck and those used in locomotion, including the mus- cles of the thigh, shoulder, and arm. Wild animals store up fat in their bodies as a reserve upon which they rely in times when food is scanty. The bear, for instance, takes on lots of fat during summer and fall, which is resorbed and used to support life during hiberna- tion in winter ; he comes out in the spring in very thin condi- tion. The storing of fat is a provision of nature. The camel with his hump of fat furnishes another good example. In the domestic animals which produce meat, man has encouraged this fat-storing tendency by methods of breeding and feeding. That great success has been achieved along this line is shown by the highly finished cattle, sheep, and hogs coming from the hands of the best stockmen. The natural place for the storing of fat is along the back, forming a layer of clear fat just beneath the skin. It is also stored about the internal organs, between the muscles, and within the muscles among the muscle fibers. This storing of fat among the muscle fibers gives the marbled appearance already referred to. Prac- tically no fat is stored up in the muscles which do much work, hence we find the round steak coming from the thigh to be almost completely free from fat, being lean all the way across. The muscles of the loin and back, having little work to do, take on the marbling feature quite easily if the animal is well fed and properly handled. This largely explains why cuts from the loin and back are most tender, although in these muscles there is not the stimulus to the growth of connec- 42 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock tive tissue such as is the case in working muscles, and this is undoubtedly another reason why the loin and back yield cuts of superior tenderness. The following figures show the relative amounts of lean, fat, and bone in the cuts from a good carcass, as compared with those from an inferior carcass. Good Carcass Inferior Carcass Name of cut Lean Fat Bone Lean | Fat , Bone Hind shank per cent. 28.1 72.2 44.7 54.8 46.3 15.2 53.9 61.1 62.8 54.3 per cent. 13.5 17.0 32.9 33.3 53.2 13.1 34.3 21.5 21.4 21.9 per cent. 57.8 9.2 22.2 11.1 0.4 34.1 11.5 17.2 15.1 23.6 per cent. 43.8 82.9 47.4 62.4 49.3 60.8 62.8 66.3 69.9 67.9 per cent. 5.0 8.2 30.1 24.9 9.2 3.2 21.5 14.8 15.4 11.7 per cent 50.0 Round 8.5 Rump 21.1 Loin 11.9 Flank 0.7 Shank 35.3 Plate 14.7 Rib 18.0 Chuck 13.6 Neck 19.4 1 A cardful comparison of the figures for the good carcass and the inferior one shows that they have about the same percentage of bone, but the inferior carcass shows a con- siderably lower percentage of fat and, therefore, a higher percentage of lean. As stated in the previous chapter, the feeding of mature cattle is essentially a fattening process. This is clearly sho%\Ti by some results at the Missouri Experiment Station, where muscle fibers and fat cells extracted from steers at different periods during the fattening process were examined and meas- ured under the microscope and it was found that while there was very little or no increase in the diameter of the muscle fibers, the fat cells increased enormously both in number and size. Thus we understand why cattle differ a great deal in the kind of carcasses they yield, depending upon their in- herited tendencies and upon their feed and care. The effects of inherited tendencies upon the carcass are discussed in more detail in the next chapter. Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 43 The demands of the butcher and ultimate consumer. — The questions which now come before us are: 1. What kinds of lean meat and fat does the butcher want ? 2. How much lean meat does he want, and how much fat? 3. How does he want these two substances arranged with regard to each other? These questions bring up the demands of consumers of meats, for the butcher is guided by what the consumer of beef wants and will pay for. You and I are consumers of meat, and what we like, or dislike, together with the size of our pocketbook, guides the butcher who buys our cattle. Now what do we want? We want meat that is (1) nutri- tious, (2) tender, (3) juicy, (4) of good flavor, (5) attractive in appearance, and (6) has a small amount of outside fat. Provided beef is well ripened in the cooler and well cooked, there is not much variation in its nutrition or food value. The tenderness depends upon the work the muscle has done and upon the amount of marbling it carries. It is impos- sible to get too much marbling, the more the better. Meat free from fat shrivels and drys up when roasted, becoming dry and tough. Ageing or ripening in the cooler helps to make meat tender. Juiciness results from the presence of fat and manner of cooking. The flavor depends mostly upon fat- ness and upon proper ripening of the carcass. The cuts of beef which are most attractive in appearance are those with bright, rich, red lean, snow-white fat, and a high de- gree of marbling. The consumer desires a maximum of lean meat well marbled, and a minimum of bone and outside fat in the cuts of beef. All carcasses not suitable for side beef. — Carcass beef which is thick and fat enough so that the entire side can be sold over the butcher's block in retail cuts is known as "block beef" or "side beef." Carcasses that are not thick enough in flesh to be entirely utilized by the retailer are called "cutters." The loins and ribs of cutters may be sold over the block. "Canners" are the worst carcasses to be found, from which none of the regular wholesale cuts may be sold over the block, but which must be disposed of as boneless fresh meats and cured beef products. In this chapter our attention is confined to side beef and to a study of the qualifications of a good carcass. 44 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 1. Weight of carcass. — The heaviest carcasses seldom exceed 1,050 pounds, and the minimum is about 250 pounds. Sufficient finish and quality are not often found in carcasses weighing less than 800 pounds. No definite line as to weight can be drawn between carcasses of beef and veal, because there are many factors determining the character of the flesh. The greatest demand is for carcasses from 1,200- to 1,400- pound steers, and most of the cattle coming to market are of about these weights. Such carcasses yield retail cuts of a size to suit the average family. Then there is also a demand for heavy carcasses to supply hotels, restaurants, and dining cars, which use large cuts. 2. Shape of carcass. — The ideal carcass of beef is com- pact and has good width in proportion to length, short shanks and neck, and full rounds, loins, and ribs. Large plates, hollow loins, prominent hips, thin chucks, or rangy, loosely coupled sides are especially discriminated against. A "rimmy" side is one showing an unusual curvature of ribs, giving a warped appearance and corresponding to paunchiness in live cattle. 3. Thickness of fleshing. — There is a clear distinction between thickness due to fatness and thickness due to mus- cular flesh. Only the knife can completely reveal the thickness of a side and the relative thickness of fat and lean ; even expert dealers are often mistaken as to the actual thickness of flesh in an uncut side. 4. Thickness of external fat. — This is referred to as the "finish." Perfect finish consists of a smooth covering of firm white fat over the entire carcass, with the greatest depth along the back, a white brittle "kidney" of medium size, and a lining of flaky fat on the inner surface of the ribs. The rounds and shanks are covered last in the process of fattening. Carcasses show variation in thickness of external fat, ranging all the way from zero to four inches. Beef fat is not palatable to most people. The average consumer does not want more than one-half or three-fourths of an inch of ex- ternal fat, and if the carcass weighs 500 pounds or less, about one-fourth of an inch is sufficient. It is impossible to secure proper marbling unless a certain amount of fat is put on ex- ternally at the same time, but the necessary marbling is Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 45 usually secured when one-half or three-fourths of an inch of fat is laid on externally; after this point is reached, the fat is stored externally only. A certain amount of outside fat is necessary in prime beef in order to insure proper ripen- ing in the cooler, and also for proper roasting. In the lowest grade, such as canners, outside fat is entirely lacking and such carcasses will rot before they ripen. A carcass carrying Fig. 6. Beef Ribs. The rib cut on the left is too fat, the one on the right is too lean, and the cut in the center is correctly fattened. Note that the amount of lean meat is practically the same in all three. soft, "gobby" fat sells at a discount. Grass-fed cattle yield carcasses that are watery and flabby, with a marked lack of finish. Heifers carry a higher percentage of fat in all cuts than do steers. This is one of the principal reasons why they often sell at a discount in this country while in England they are not discriminated against because the Englishman likes fatter beef. Cattle fed to a complete finish, as are the beef cattle exhibited at the larger live-stock shows, carry a great excess of external fat — far too much to suit the average consumer. This excess of tallow adds practically nothing to the value of the carcass as food. In a way, the fat-stock shows set a wrong example for feeders to follow. Such a finish results from a long feeding period of 8 to 10 months, and in some cases even longer. A 3 to 6 months feeding period gives a carcass which suits the consumer better, and such a plan is undoubtedly more profitable to the feeder, because the first 46 Typ Iarket Classes of Live Stock gains a steer maKes are acquired much more cheaply than the last ones. This does not mean that the farmer should send thin cattle to market; it means there is a place to stop in the feeding of a bullock which results in greatest profit to the producer and best satisfaction to the consumer. A smooth and firmly finished steer is the sort this implies. As Fig. 7. Well-Marbled Beef. Rib roast, showing correct proportion of fat to lean, and a high degree of marbling. bearing on the matter of cost of gains, the Kansas Station found the grain required for 100 pounds of gain with fatten- ing steers for different periods to be as follows : Grain for Increase of 100 lbs. gain feed required Up to 56 days 730 pounds of grain. Up to 84 days _ 807 pounds of grain. 10 per cent. Up to 112 days 840 pounds of grain. 15 per cent. Up to 140 days _ 901 pounds of grain. 23 per cent. Up to 168 days _ 927 pounds of grain. 27 per cent. Up to 182 days 1000 pounds of grain. 37 per cent. These figures indicate the heavy cost of thoroughly fat- tening a steer, and the importance of selling as early as possible. 5. Marbling. — The highest quality of beef is that which contains the largest proportion of well-marbled lean. Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 47 6. Color of lean meat. — The meat from grass-finished cattle is dark in color. Grain feeding gives the best color — a bright, rich red. Dark color is due to the presence of much blood in the tissues. Anything which causes the blood to flow into the tissues in large quantities results in dark color. Exercise or excitement will bring about this condition, hence the dark-colored flesh of western range cattle, and of grass- fed cattle in general, is not due to the nature of the food, but to the amount of exercise made necessary in ranging about at pasture. Stags and bulls kill out dark because of their restlessness, and of heifers in heat the same is true. Dark carcasses break down (decompose) quicker than light-colored ones, and customers object to the appearance, hence butchers have two good reasons for disliking a dark-colored carcass. 7. Color of fat. — A clear white color of fat is desired. An unattractive yellow color is rather frequently met with. Some packers believe the yellow color is due to the kind of feed upon which the animal was fattened. Cottonseed meal has been charged with this fault, but experimental work has shown that cottonseed meal does not produce yellow fat. Cattle of Jersey and Guernsey breeding usually kill very yellow. 8. Grain of meat. — This is a little difficult to describe. When the fresh-cut surface is viewed, it should show a smooth, fine-grained appearance, and should feel "velvety" to the touch. Meat with fine grain comes from the animal with quality, that is, one with fine hide, hair, and bone. Such an animal is finely textured throughout, and if well fed, so that the baby fleshing is preserved, a carcass with fine-grained flesh will result. Some meats are very coarse indeed. 9. Size of bones. — The bones should be as small as the weight of the carcass will allow. From the producer's stand- point, however, such carcasses do not always represent great- est profits, because extremely fine-boned cattle do not usually make the greatest gains on feed. 10. Flintiness of bones. — As already shown, flintiness of the bones is an indication of age. The most desirable car- casses are those of young animals approaching maturity, the meat from old ones being tough, dark-colored, and lacking in marbling. The bones of cows and heifers, and of dairy- 48 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock bred animals, turn hard and white earlier than those of steers, indicating quicker maturity. Grading carcasses. — As to the relative importance of the above factors in grading carcass beef, it may be said that finish (by which is meant the thickness and smoothness of outside fat) is particularly essential, with thickness of flesh, fineness of grain, color of lean and fat, fineness of bone, and shape of carcass of about equal importance. From what has been said we now understand why the loin and rib bring such liigh prices as compared to other parts of the carcass; it is because of their superior tenderness, marbling, and pal- atability, combined with attractive appearance. The round brings a good price because it contains so much lean and so little bone and external fat. Other parts of the carcass are -as nutritious as the loin, rib, and round, but are difficult to cook in such a way that they appeal to us as do the porter- house, sirloin, and rib roast. But a carcass will yield only so much of these, hence the great variation in the price of the various wholesale cuts. It is perhaps well that there are cheap cuts of meat and cheap carcasses, for there is a great percentage of population not able to buy any other kind. The packer does not want all beef to be of highest quality. He must take care of the second and third class trade as well as the fancy trade. But the producer of market cattle must aim to produce the highest quality of product, for this work requires skill, and skill always commands a higher reward than unskilled effort. Anybody can produce medium or in- ferior beef, and the price obtained is in proportion. Sex differences. — Steer carcasses are identified by the cod fat and generally by their full, fleshy rounds and loins, heav- ier, coarser bones, and short necks as compared with cows. They show more quality and finish than any other class, and are sold as carcass beef more extensively than any other class, except heifers. Heifer carcasses are distinguished by the ud- der, and usually they have smaller bones, more prominent hips, more angular rumps, less development of lean meat, and they average lighter in weight. The tendency in heifer beef is to carry the fat more extensively as kidney suet or gobby fat than do steers. They have flatter loins, flatter plates, and Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 49 longer, thinner necks than steers. Carcasses of cows have the bag trimmed off as closely as possible. The form is angular, the neck long, the bones hard and white, and the majority lack thickness of flesh. Fat cow carcasses often carry an excess of kidney fat and bunches of fat on the back and rump. The flesh is seldom as well marbled as that of heifers or steers. Cow carcasses require more ageing or ripen- ing to make the meat tender. Dressed bulls are easily recog- nized by the heavy neck and heavy shoulders, thick rounds, dark color, coarse-grained flesh, and absence of cod fat. They have rough shape and the bones show maturity. The coarse dark flesh has no marbling as a rule, and but few bulls are suitable for dressed beef. They are used for sausage and the rounds are made into smoked beef hams. Many stags ap- proach steers in form, quality, and finish; others resemble bulls. All carcasses of cattle are classified and graded as fol- lows : Classes Grades Steers Prime, choice, good, medium, common Heifers Prime, choice, good, medium, common Cows Choice, good, medium, common Bulls and stags - - Choice, good, medium, common Cutters Good, medium, common Canners - Good, medium, common Conclusion. — The study of the beef carcass therefore teaches : 1. That well-bred cattle yield the best carcasses and bring the highest price. 2. The market wants young, highly finished cattle. 3. Steers yield the most desirable carcasses. 4. The best results come from a method of management which offers no chance for a setback during growth and fat- tening. 5. The breeder and feeder of beef cattle should secure |as high development of loin, back, and hindquarter as possible. ; 6. To bring a good price, cattle must dress high. I 7. To dress high, cattle must be free from paunchiness and must be fat. 50 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 8. Broadly speaking, heredity regulates the lean meat, and man regulates the fat. 9. Feeding is a fattening process. 10. Fatness is desirable because it adds weight, makes perfect ripening possible, gives tenderness and juiciness to the meat, and increases the dressing percentage. 11. Cattle may be made too fat. 12. Carcasses vary widely in weight, shape, thickness of fleshing, thickness of external fat, marbling, color of lean, color of fat, grain of meat, and size and hardness of bones. 13. Ancestry, age, feed, and care detennine what sort of a carcass an animal will yield. 14. Half of the carcass meets with strong demand and sells high, while the remainder sells low. 15. There is demand for carcasses of all weights, but the strongest demand is for handy-weight carcasses from cattle weighing 1,200 to 1,400 pounds. 16. To secure the greatest returns, the feeder should send his cattle to market well done after a short feeding period, but not in an excessively fat condition resulting from long continued feeding. CHAPTER III. THE VALUE OF TYPE IN BEEF MAKING. In order to determine just what advantages are possessed by the beef-type steer as compared with dairy-type steers, some experiments have been carried out which have resulted in interesting findings. It has long been known that beef steers suit feeders and butchers better than steers of dairy breed- ing. It has been claimed that beef steers gain faster in proportion to feed consumed, that they fatten more readily, dress out higher, yield a more valuable carcass, and hence bring a higher price on the market. Experimental results have upheld some of these views and disproved others. In 1903, the Iowa Experiment Station conducted a series of experiments dealing with the comparative merits of the two types for beef production. The object was to provide answers to the following questions: 1. Which type of steer makes the greater gains from pounds of feed consumed? 2. In the gains made, what differences exist between the two types as to distribution of such gains over the body? 3. Which type of steer yields the greater profit to the feeder? 4. Which type shows the greater amount of offal? 5. Which type carries the higher percentage of tallow? 6. Which type carries the higher percentage of valuable cuts? 7, In considering the various commercial cuts from the two types, what differences are to be found as regards : weight, thickness, covering of fat, marbling, color, and fineness of grain? 8. Is the low price paid for dairy-type steers due to prejudice, or to an actual inferiority in the value of the carcasses? Four beef-type steers and four dairy-type steers were put on feed January 1, 1903, and fed one year. The steers were on dry feed during the entire time, so that the exact amount of feed consumed by each lot might be known. Of the four beef steers, two were high-grade Herefords, and two, purebred Angus. The four dairy steers consisted of two Jerseys and two Holsteins. The ages at the beginning 51 52 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock of the test were approximately as follows : Average of Here- fords, 16 months; of Angus, 18 months; of Holsteins, 24 months; and of Jerseys, 18 months. The feeds given were mixed hay, sorghum (during July and August), corn meal, bran, oil meal and gluten feed. The conditions were alike for all the animals, and the feed was the same, but each animal was given all he would clean up regularly. At the end of the feeding test the cattle were bought in separate lots by the head buyer of a packing company of Des Moines, Iowa. The prices given were the market prices for such steers, December 28, 1903. Following is a summary of the first part of the investiga- tion : Beef Dairy steers steers Average weight at beginning, lbs 685 574 Average gain per steer, lbs 606 598 Average value of feed consumed per steer $47.27 $45.18 Average cost of one pound of gain 7.81c 7.63c Percentage of dressed weight in slaughter test 61.7 57.15 Selling value, average price per pound 4.888c 3.752c The dairy-type steers made their gains at a trifle less cost per pound than did- the beef steers, indicating that their digestive and assimilative functions were slightly more vig- orous in this instance. The gains made by the dairy steers were not distributed on the body in such a way as to command the highest prices. The beef-type steers made a large pro- portion of their gains on the back, loin, and hindquarters, while the dairy-type steers showed but little increase in thickness on these parts. The beef-type steers were far more profitable to the feeder, for although both lots made approximately the same total gains, and although the average of the four dairy-type steers compared with the average of the four beef-type steers shows that the former made his 600 pounds of gain cheaper by $1.70 than did the latter, nevertheless this 600 pounds gain of the beef steer brought $7.18 more on the market. When $1.70 is deducted from $7.18, there is left $5.48 profit in favor of the beef animals, or a total of nearly $22 for the four head. Nor does this represent all the financial advantage Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 53 of the beef-type steer, for the value of the initial weight (685 lbs.) of the beef steer was increased to a greater degree by feeding than was the value of the initial weight of the dairy-type steer. The report of the experiment furnishes no initial valuations, hence a complete accounting in this re- gard cannot be made. Following are given the weights of the cuts from the carcasses, expressed in percentages of the total carcass weight ; also the wholesale and retail prices of these cuts. Weights in Wholesale price Retail price percentages per lb. per lb. Beef Dairy Beef Dairy Beef Dairy Ribs 9.27 8.80 12.25 10.25 17.6 16. Chuck 25.97 26.78 5.5 5.1 10. 10. Brisket 5.92 5.72 4. 4. 6. 6. Plate 3.85 3.48 4. 4. 6. 6. Navel - 3.00 2.72 4. 4. 6. 6. Shank meat 53 .66 5. 5. 6. 6. Shank beef 2.60 3.04 2.5 2.5 3. 2.8 Loin 17.55 17.09 14.9 12.5 i S. 17.6 16. ) P. 23.1 21. Round 17.74 18.88 7. 7. ' 12." I2! Rump 5.19 4.78 7. 7. 10. 10. Flank steak 66 .58 10. 10. 12.5 12.5 Flank beef 2.16 1.67 5. 5. 6. 6. Cod fat 1.98 1.56 3.5 3.5 3.5 3.5 Suet 3.48 4.18 3.5 3.5 3.5 3.5 NOTE: S, sirloin; P, porterhouse. It will be observed that the carcasses were cut up into a greater number of parts than result from the regular method of cutting explained in the previous chapter, but the differ- ences in the cuts are not great enough to prevent a full under- standing of the above table. On the basis of the above figures we are able to deter- mine the relative profits of the beef- and dairy-type steers to the wholesaler or packer. This is shown as follows : Beef steers Dairy steers Cost of 4 live steers $242.52 $170.64 Cost of killing at $1.50 per head 6.00 6.00 Cost of carcasses and offal $248.52 $176.64 Received from sale of hides, tallow, and tongue 36.13 80.27 Cost of dressed beef $212.39 $146.37 Cost of dressed beef per lb 0715 .0583 Actual wholesale returns when beef was sold 232.61 179.83 Margin between cost and selling price of dressedbeef 20.22 33.46 54 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock The last item in the above table is interesting. It shows that there was $20.22 margin for the beef-type steers and $33,46 for the dairy-type steers, or a difference of $13.24 in favor of the dairy-type cattle. If this difference in margins were applied to the live-weight price of the dairy-type steers, their price per cwt. would have been 28 cents higher ; in other words the dairy-type steers would have brought 4 cents per pound, instead of 3^4 cents. At a meat demonstration in January, 1904, conducted by Mr. John Gosling, some further important differences were brought out between the cuts from the dairj'- and beef-type carcasses. Mr. Gosling is recognized as one of the leading authorities on meats in this country. In grading the car- casses, he placed three of the beef-type carcasses as No. 1, and the other as No. 2. Two of the dairy-type carcasses were graded No. 2, and the other two as No. 3. The color of the flesh was fairly good in all eight of the carcasses, al- though in the Jersey carcasses it was somewhat dark. The external color (or color of the fat) was good in all except one — a Jersey — which killed very yellow. The other Jersey killed very white, although, as a rule, carcasses of Jerseys or grade Jerseys are very yellow. The spines in the backbone of the dairy-type carcasses were hard, indicating the early maturity 'Of the dairy-type. They were much more cartilaginous in the beef-type carcasses, although the ages were nearly the same. The fore-ribs from the dairy-type steers were light and lacking in marbling. The Holstein ribs lacked depth, and were very ir- regular and rough. The dairy-type steers carried more kidney fat or suet ; this is a cheap product which increases the dress- ing percentage, but reduces the value of the carcass when excessive. The answers to the questions asked at the beginning of the experiment are, therefore, as follows: 1. The gains from pounds of feed consumed are practically the same for both the beef and dairy types. 2. The beef-type steer uses his gains to slight advantage as compared with the dairy-type, placing a slightly greater percentage of his gains in the valuable cuts. 3. The beef-t>'pe steer yields the greater profit to the feeder. 4. The dairy-type steer shows the greater Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 55 amount of offal. 5. The dairy-type steer carries the higher percentage of tallow. 6. As regards the percentage of val- uable cuts, there is very little difference; if any, it is in favor of the beef-type steer. 7. The beef-type steer yields cuts that are heavier, thicker, usually covered with whiter fat, nicer in marbling, and a little better in color of muscle. There is no apparent difference in fineness of grain. 8. The low price paid for dairy steers may be due partially to preju- dice, and to the greater expense of carrying and selling the low-grade carcasses, but it is chiefly due to an actual infer- iority in the carcasses. They are unsatisfactory to the con- sumer, because they do not furnish thick and well-marbled cuts; they are unsatisfactory to the butcher, because they furnish low-grade carcasses which are difficult to dispose of; and they are decidedly unsatisfactory to the feeder, because they yield him little or no profit, and both breeder and feeder waste their time in producing such a type of steer for beef purposes. In an earlier experiment at the Iowa Station, James Wilson and C. F. Curtiss found the quantity of fat about the internal organs of fat steers of the various breeds to be as follows : Breed Average dressed Loose Per cent, of loose weight tallow tallow to beef Shorthorn 1,092 145 13.3 Hereford 1,022 129 " 12.6 Red Poll 990 125 12.6 Galloway 1,088 147 13.5 Angus 1,137 157 13.8 Devon 815 123 15.0 Swiss 1,017 119 11.7 Holstein _... 862 155 17.9 Jersey 880 166 18.8 This table gives further evidence of the tendency of the dairy breeds to deposit proportionately more fat about the intestines, paunch, kidneys, and caul. Experiments at the Kansas Station substantiate the results of the Iowa investi- gations. Professor W. A. Henry, of the Wisconsin Agricultural College has the following to say in Feeds and Feeding relative to the comparative merits of beef-type and dairy- type steers: 56 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock "Beyond that which can be expressed in figures or stated percentagely Hes that indefinable something described by the word 'quality' which enters into all objects of barter. No one can compare a bunch of well-fed beef-bred steers with one representing the dairy breeds without being impressed by a difference not measured by the scales. The matter at issue may be illustrated by a condition in the fruit world: No orchardist will hold that the Baldwin apple tree necessarily grows faster than the seedling apple tree, or that it will make wood and fruit on less material from soil and air. Neither will he hold that Baldwin trees necessarily yield more barrels of fruit than seedlings, nor that a given measure of Baldwin apples contains more juice or human food than the same meas- ure of common seedling apples. Fruit growers do rightfully assert, however, that the market wants Baldwin apples and will pay more for them than for common seedling fruit, and that from this judgment of the market, be it reasonable or unreasonable, there is no appeal. Beef cattle have been bred for meat production — it would be passing strange if they did not excel for that purpose." CHAPTER IV. AMERICAN CATTLE MARKETS. The largest live-stock markets of the United States are located in the central part of the country. With the West and Central West on the one hand as the great breeding and feeding ground, and with the East on the other as the chief region of consumption, it is logical that the large markets have a central location. Following are the twelve largest cattle markets and their receipts of cattle during 1914 : 1. Chicago 2,237,881 7. Denver 406,903 2. Kansas City 1,827,246 8. Sioux City 349,082 3. St. Louis 1,040,957 9. St. Joseph 322,348 4. Fort Worth 990,763 10. Pittsburg 310,141 5. Omaha 938,817 11. Indianapolis 256,885 6. St. Paul 467,507 12. Buffalo 241,715 Total 9,390,245 From the figures we see that the Chicago market is the largest in the United States, in fact Chicago is the largest I cattle market in the world. The 2,237,881 cattle received at II Chicago during 1914, if placed end to end, would reach out in a line 4,250 miles long. Their total value was $191,788,783. Texas and western range cattle constitute about nine per cent, of all cattle received at the Chicago yards. Chicago also received 363,614 calves during 1914, valued at $4,908,790. Cattle weighing 300 pounds per head or less are classed as calves. The great markets of the Middle West are points of focus of never-ending processions of beef animals moving from western ranges and cornbelt feed-lots. Upon reaching market, the cattle are either slaughtered at the great packing houses located at the stock yards, or are shipped out of market on the hoof. Both dressed carcasses and live animals are ship- ped to various cities and towns to fill the orders of retail butchers. For example, the Chicago packing houses slaughter- ed 1,430,770 cattle in 1914, and the remaining 807,111 head were shipped out alive. Of the latter number, only 217 head. 57 58 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock were exported, while 521,625 were shipped to various parts of the country for slaughter, and 285,269 were taken out for feeding. The average weight of Chicago cattle in 1914 was 1,002 pounds. The chief business of the Denver, St. Paul, and Buffalo markets is forwarding cattle — only about 30 per cent, being retained for slaughter. Centers whose shipments are less than 70 per cent., but more than 50 per cent., include Chicago, Kansas City, St. Louis, Omaha, Indianapolis, Fort Worth, St. Joseph, Louisville, and Cincinnati. Early cattle markets. — A century ago, cattle markets were small and largely local in character. The "West" at that time comprised what we now designate as the Middle West, embracing Kentucky, Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois, and the live-stock business and the meat business of that time were far different propositions than today. There were no railroads, no live-stock cars, no refrigerator cars, no steam- ships, and no large live-stock markets. Every large town had its own stock yards or cattle market to which cattle were driven from the surrounding country and sold to butch- ers. The cattle business and the meat business were local affairs of small dimensions depending upon the size of the town. In time. New York, Philadelphia, Boston, and Balti- more became rather large markets, and in some instances cattle were driven long distances to supply them. Early methods of transportation. — This was before the days of railroads, and even after the railroads came, very few live animals were carried until about 1860. Prior to 1850, it was the general practice to drive live stock to market on foot. At that time, in many parts of the country, pasturage was free along the routes, and the animals were driven by easy stages, reaching market without very much depreciation. George Renick, of Ohio, was perhaps the first man to find an outlet for cattle fattened in what was then "The West." He was one of the first settlers of the Scioto Valley, having come in with his brother, Felix, from Virginia and selected large tracts of land near the present site of Chillicothe, Ohio. In 1805, against the advice of his neighbors, he successfully drove sixty-eight head of cattle from the Scioto to Baltimore, and disposed of them at a profit. This gave a great impetus Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 59 to the western cattle business of that time, and afforded a means of marketing corn. In 1817, Felix Renick drove one hundred head of prime Shorthorn steers to Philadelphia, re- ceiving $134 per head for them. He became the leading pro- ducer of high-class cattle in Ohio, and one of the most ex- tensive breeders and feeders in the United States. R. R. Seymour, of Ohio, fed 100 to 700 head annually, and in 1841 drove 840 head to Philadelphia. One route from Kentucky to New York City covered about 800 miles and required over ten weeks to complete it. Another route from Lexington extended to Charleston, S. C, a dis- tance of 550 to 600 miles. Drives to the eastern seaboard were made from as far west as Iowa, and even Texas cattle passed eastward in this manner. There is record of a drove of several hundred cattle from Texas passing through Penn- sylvania, on the way to New York City, which had left Texas four months previously. Sheep were driven across country also, notably from Vermont to Virginia. Large numbers of hogs were driven to market, but they were a more active type than the modern fat hog. By 1860, few hogs were driven any considerable distance. Today we do not even drive hogs from the farm to the shipping point, but haul them in wagoiis. Development of large markets. — The large live-stock mar- kets grew up with the country. As long as the market was simply the scene of barter in live animals for local use, no large markets were developed. About 1830 pork-packing was begun, and this furnished the first impetus to the creation of large markets of more than mere local importance. Pork could be pickled, salted, and smoked, and the fat rendered into lard, and the products thus produced could be shipped to dis- tant points. As these products met with good demand, pork- packing was the natural beginning of a vast meat-manufactur- ing business, tending to centralize the hog markets, and much increase them in size. So far as cattle were concerned, how- ever, the development was not parallel. Outside of an article known as barreled beef, which was put down in salt, packers had found no method of handling beef as they did hogs. Not until the era of the refrigerator car, beginning in 1875, were 60 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock cattle of much interest to packers, and not until that time did the large cattle markets reach a maximum development. The advent of railroads marked a decided turning point in the development of the live-stock industry and the live- stock markets. However, it was a long time after the hauling of live stock had been taken up by railroads before it was done efficiently. An account of one of the first shipments of cattle from Kentucky to New York City, made in 1852, shows how crude and expensive were the first attempts at trans- porting cattle by rail. One week was consumed in driving the cattle, one hundred in number, from near Lexington. Ily., to Cincinnati, where they were loaded in box cars and shipped to Cleveland. They were taken to Buffalo by boat, where they were given several days rest and then driven to Canadaigua, N. Y. They were at once hauled to Albany in immigrant wagons, rested two days in a feed-yard, and sent to New York by boat. The cost of the shipment from Kentucky to New York City was $14 per head. The cattle markets of the United States migrated from east to west, following closely upon the settling up of the coun- try. It was at one time believed that Albany was to be the final gateway for western cattle. Next Buffalo, Pittsburg, and Cincinnati were in turn regarded as the future great market of the country ; but eventually it became evident that Chicago, by virtue of location and railroad facilities, was to become and remain the largest cattle market in America. This fact was clearly established by 1870. Chicago's early cattle trade. — The history of Chicago as a cattle market extends back many years to the time when a few hundred animals were driven in to supply the garrison at old Fort Dearborn. It was not until the advent of railroads, however, that Chicago took prominence as a live-stock center. When railroad communication with the Atlantic seaboard was established and lines were built from Lake Michigan toward the Mississippi, a revolution was brought about. Half a dozen stock yards were located in various parts of the city, and when these became glutted, the cattle were grazed on the surround- ing prairie until a price could be realized. Mess pork and barreled beef were staple articles known to the trade under k Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 61 the appetizing names of "sow belly" and "salt horse." Dressed beef was then unknown to commerce, artificial refrigeration was not even speculated upon, the refrigerator car existed merely as an idea, if at all, and the canning of meats had not been attempted. Armour was not a prominent name at that time. Swift had not yet discovered Chicago, and nearly every concern then engaged in the manufacture of meats has since gone out of business. Prior to 1870, the Chicago cattle business was almost ex- clusively a matter of buying, selling, and shipping live animals. Then there were no market papers to inform the producer of the state of the market, and no well-organized commission firms to attend to the disposal of his stock. The producer did most of his own selling. There was danger of finding the mar- ket glutted, or shipping facilities swamped. Since that time -a trade mechanism and a trade demand have grown up, bring- ing a constant market and quick, sure sales for the cattleman. The loss by wear and tear in shipment from farm to market has been reduced to a minimum. In the early days it was all guesswork — guesswork as to how long it would take to reach the market, guesswork as to the freight charges, guesswork as to promptness in handling the stock by railroads, guesswork as to the condition of the market, guesswork as to the price the animals would bring. Luck usually counted for more in determining the profits than did skill in the preparation of cattle for market. Founding of the Union Stock Yards. — In 1865, John B. Sherman purchased two of the principal yards then in exis- tence in Chicago, and founded the present Union Stock Yard and Transit Company, thus laying the basis for a greater live- stock trade at Chicago. In 1876 the Chicago market com- prised 475 cattle yards, 675 covered hog and sheep pens, 375 chutes, 15 corn cribs, and 10 hay bams. The company owned and operated 24 miles of railway, had put down several miles of macadamized streets and alleys, and installed a drainage system. The market could then accommodate at one time ■20,000 cattle, 100,000 hogs, 15,000 sheep, and 1000 horses— in all, 136,000 animals. About one hundred commission firms were then doing busmess. 62 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock The Union Stock Yards today. — The Chicago yards now occupy an area of 500 acres, 450 of which are paved. There are 25 miles of streets, and 300 miles of railway tracks. The number of pens is 13,000, of which 8,500 are double-decked and covered; there are 725 chutes, 25,000 gates, 25 miles of watering troughs, and 450 commission and other offices. The water system has a reservoir holding 10,000,000 gallons, and pumps with a daily capacity of 8,000,000 gallons, of which 7,000,000 gallons are consumed on hot days. Separate accom- modations are provided for each kind of stock ; sheep and hogs are kept in sheds of two or more stories each, and cattle oc- cupy open pens holding from one to several carloads. These yards would hold at one time 75,000 cattle, 125,000 sheep, 300,000 hogs, and 6,000 horses and mules. It is estimated that 50,000 people earn a living at the stock yards and the packing plants, and that 250,000 of Chicago's population are more or less dependent on the live-stock industry. Since 1900, a yearly average of more than 15,000,000 ani- mals have found a cash market at Chicago. Since 1865. 104,137,000 cattle, 7.624,000 calves, 295,618,000 hogs, 116,578,000 sheep, and 3,071,000 horses have been handled, making a grand total of 527,028,000 animals, the value of which was $10,082,342,000. Sixty per cent, of the cattle re- ceived at Chicago have been slaughtered there, also 83 per cent, of the calves, 72 per cent, of the hogs, and 75 per cent, of the sheep. The business often amounts to $3,000,000 in a day, and averages more than $1,000,000 for every business day of the year. Not infrequently 2,000 carloads of stock are received on Monday or Wednesday, the largest market days, When unloaded, the stock is taken in charge by some one o the many commission firms who sell to the packer, shipper, speculator, or feeder, and remit the proceeds to the consignor. Average carloads. — Reports of stock yards and railroads show that the average number of meat animals to the carload is for cattle about 25, hogs in single-deck cars about 75, and sheep about 120 per deck. Sources of receipts. — The coni-growing area of the Missis- sippi and Missouri valleys affords the best facilities for the production of meat animals, and this area is tapped at many s i M fe CS t> O te ^ 2 -S ^ J2:^ H >> ^ si a» 03 e8 >H 3 O) W CS C/2 .s '- c3 C m'2-^^ s rt tJ w 2 c "> CD ^ W W 4J> 05 .$3 75-$8 25 $4 50-$8 25 $4 90-$7 25 $2 75-$4 50 $2 75-»6 50 $3 75-»7 55 »2 75-»6 60 1906 i 4 00- 8 50 4 15- 8 40 5 00- 7 00 3 00- 6 50 3 00- 6 50 4 50- 7 00 2 00- 6 00 U 00-t6 SO 1907... 1 4 80- 8 60 4 00- 8 70 3 50- 8 00 2 00- 7 00 1 25- 7 25 4 25- 8 65 1 25- 7 50 3 40- 7 00 1908 : 3 00- 7 85 3 50- & 25 3 25- 7 60 1 50- 7 00 2 00- 7 00 3 50- 7 75 1 50- 5 75 3 25- 5 65 1909 ' 4 00- 8 80 5 00- 9 00 4 35- 8 15 2 00- 6 90 2 50- 6 85 5 00- 7 85 1 50- 5 85 3 50- 6 50 1910 4 00-10 25 4 75-10 25 4 00- 9 00 1 50- 9 00 2 00- 9 30 3 50- 9 85 1 50- 7 75 3 25- 6 10 1911 ... .12 50- 7 50 3 90- 7 55 3 50- 6 00 1 50- 5 25 1 65- 5 60 3 25- 6 40 1 50- 5 00 3 OO- 5 00 1912 : 4 00-10 25 4 00-10 25 4 00- 8 25 2 00- 8 00 2 00- 7 50 4 OO- 8 50 2 00- 6 00 3 60- 5 50 1913 1 4 50- 9 40 5 00- 9 50 4 50- 8 50 2 00- 7 50 2 50- 7 90 5 00- 8 70 2 00- 6 50 3 50- 5 75 1914 .1 5 00- 9 50 5 00- 9 50 6 00- 8 00 2 00- 7 00 2 95- 7 20 5 15- 7 75 3 50- 6 40 4 00- 6 75 The comparative market values of the sub-classes of mut- ton sheep are shown by the following table, giving the yearly average prices for the several sub-classes from 1905 to 1914, and also the averages for the entire ten-year period: Year Lambs Natives Westerns -Yearlings Sheep Natives Westerns All lambs All sheep 1905 1906. 1907 1908 $6.75 6.80 6.85 6.20 7.30 7.40 5.70 6.90 7.50 7.75 $6.90 6.90 7.10 6.45 7.50 7.65 6.05 7.35 7.85 8.15 $5.80 6.00 6.00 5.30 6.00 6.30 4.50 5.65 6.35 6.55 $5.00 5.15 5.20 4.60 4.95 5.10 3.80 4.40 5.00 5.35 $5.05 5.30 5 25 4.65 5.00 5.35 4.05 4.75 5.30 5.70 $6.80 6.85 7.05 6.35 7.40 7.55 5.95 7.20 7.70 8.00 $5.00 5.20 5.25 4.65 1909 5.00 1910 5.25 1911 3.95 1912 , 4.60 1913 ' 5.20 1914 5.55 10-year average $6.90 $7.20 $5.85 $4.85 $5.05 $7.10 $4.95 The above table shows that western lambs outsell native lambs by 30 cents per cwt., and western sheep outsell native sheep by 20 cents per cwt. All lambs together have averaged $2.15 more per cwt. than all sheep during the ten years from 1905 to 1914 inclusive. Lambs sell $1.25 higher than year- lings, and yearlings outsell sheep by 90 cents. The inability of thin natives to sell for feeding purposes largely explains the difference in prices between native sheep and western sheep in the mutton class. CHAPTER XVI. BREEDING FOR THE MARKET. In colonial times, sheep were all of the coarse-wooled type, brought with the settlers from England and Holland. They were the unimproved original stock from which the present EngHsh breeds have sprung. Later, George Wash- ington and other leading agriculturists of the time introduced sheep representing the early breeding improvement in Europe. After the organization of the national government the Me- rinos made their appearance. Half a century ago, the Merino was the outstanding feature among American sheep. Forty years ago, more than four-fifths of American sheep were Me- rinos or their grades. There were a few middle-wooled sheep and a very few flocks of the long-wooled breeds in the middle states and in the Ohio valley. The old coarse wools were scat- tered through the South. Kentucky had the largest number of long wools. Importations were made from England and Canada. In Texas and New Mexico were Mexican sheep of Spanish origin that had degenerated and almost reverted to the wild state. Their fleeces were coarse and hairy and weighed only one or two pounds. When the first exports of beef were made to England about 1875, the "Scotsman," a Scottish newspaper, sent Mr. James Macdonald to America to investigate the American live-stock industry and render a complete report. The results of this investigation were published by Mr. Macdonald in 1878 in a book entitled, "Food from the Far West." His remarks upon the state of the sheep industry in the United States at that time were as follows: "No one in political or agricultural circles, or elsewhere, seems so confident of the export of mutton becoming or con- tinuing so extensive or so profitable as that of beef. Mutton is not considered an important article of food in America, and the feeding of sheep has received but very little attention from its farmers. Sheep-farming is certainly carried on very ex- 201 202 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock tensively all over America, especially in the Western States of the Union and on the Pacific slopes; but, with a few ex- ceptions in the older and Eastern States, the sheep-farmer's whole harvest is his "clip'* of wool. There is no demand for mutton, and therefore he prepares none. He keeps a class of sheep specially adapted for producing wool, and allows his old sheep to die away naturally, or go where they may — that is, if he cannot dispose of them, even for a mere trifle, before they reach the ripe old age of eight or nine years." There has been a steady increase since 1860 in the pro- portionate number of mutton sheep. This has been mostly due to the increased demand for meat, and partly to the de- mand for wools other than the Merino, that is, combing wools. The flocks of mutton sheep increased in all parts of the coun- try, though Merino improvement was still the predominating feature in sheep husbandry in Vermont, New York, Pennsyl- vania, Ohio, Michigan, and elsewhere, and the great flocks of the ranges became Merino grades of a high order of merit. In recent years many Merino flocks in the eastern part of the country have been made over into mutton flocks by several succeeding crosses of mutton blood. East of the Mississippi the majority of sheep are of the mutton type, while on western ranges Merino blood predominates. The sheep census. — The United States Department of Agriculture estimated that on January 1, 1915, there were 49,956,000 sheep and lambs in the United States, and that their average value per head was $4.50. The leading states in numbers of sheep were as follows : 1. Wyoming 4,427,000 6. Oregon 2,563,000 2. Montana 4,379,000 7. California 2,500,000 3. New Mexico 3,340,000 8. Texas. ._ 2,114,000 4. Ohio 3,263,000 9. Utah 2,068,000 5. Idaho 3.041,000 10. Michigan. 2,033,000 The distribution by geographical divisions was as follows : North Atlantic 2,075,000 South Atlantic 2,238,000 North Central, East of Mississippi River 8,126,000 North Central, West of Mississippi River 4,879.000 South Central 4,730,000 Far Western 27,908,000 Total United States..._ 49,956,000 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 203 The foregoing figures show that the far western division, which includes the range states, has more sheep than all other divisions combined. Source of improvement. — A certain few men have col- lected the very choicest purebred and registered mutton sheep that may be had, almost regardless of price, and have estab- lished magnificent flocks upon which they have used rams that were selected with great care and at considerable ex- pense. The owner of such a flock makes it his business to supply breeding rams and some breeding ewes to breeders of less prominence than himself. Year after year he slowly im- proves his flock by careful selection and mating, and he is thus enabled to send out better rams each year to head the flocks of less prominent breeders. In turn, these less prominent flocks supply better breeding animals to more numerous and still less noted breeders, and so the scheme works out, im- provement slowly, but surely, flowing downward and outward from a few flocks to the many. There is a third class of breed- ers who are producing directly for the market. The produce of their flocks is sold to feeders, or else they themselves feed out the lambs for market. We may, therefore, classify all flocks of sheep as follows: 1. A few flocks solely for improvement. 2. Numerous flocks primarily for propagation and sec- ondarily for improvement. 3. Many flocks solely for mutton production. The breeders of the third class secure their rams from the second-class flocks, and their ewes are generally grades. The mutton breeding ram. — The selection of the breeding ram should be most carefully made as he affords the chief opportunity for improvement in the flock. For this reason it is wise to invest several times the average value of the ewes in the purchase of a ram to mate with them. However, it is not so much a matter of securing a ram at such or such a price as it is of selecting a sire of merit that is strong in the points wherein the ewe flock is weak, and whose offspring will possess a higher standard of merit than the ewes from which they came. It is a breeding-up process, and this fact justifies more careful selection and greater expenditure of money in 204 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock each succeeding purchase of a ram. It is always a matter of locating the sort of ram desired, and the price demanded for him should not stand in the way of a purchase unless it is really exorbitant. The breeding ram of mutton type must be, first of all, a good mutton animal, including as high development of the form, quality, and fleshing as may be secured. He must, in addition, have a strong, robust constitution as evidenced by a wide, deep chest and middle and good feeding qualities. The story is told of an English shepherd who visited a certain flock to purchase a yearling ram. After much deliberation, he found himself unable to decide among several of the offerings, Fig. 54. Correct Type in the Mutton Breeding Ram. Southdown ram, Babraham Sapper, owned by Mr. C. Adeane, Babraham Hall, Cambridge, England. all of which suited him. Suddenly his serious expression changed to one of renewed interest, and turning to the owner he said, "Feed 'em." Grain was placed in a trough in full view of the rams, at sight of which one pricked up his ears and marched quickly to the trough, the others following more leisurely. 'That's him," said the buyer, pointing to the ram Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 205 in front, for in common with all experienced feeders he recognized the significance of good feeding qualities. A strong appetite is evidence of constitution, thrift, lustiness, and health, and indicates a disposition to develop quickly and make economical gains. The ram should exhibit strong sexual characteristics, these being a strong head with distinctly mascuhne expres- sion, a well-developed scrag, a sufficiency of bone, and general ruggedness of build throughout. Particular attention should be given to the shape, position, and strength of feet, pasterns, and legs. These points should receive attention in any sheep, but in the breeding ram their importance is magnified. The feet should be well formed, the pasterns strong, the bone ample, and the limbs straight. Weakness in the hind legs is of more consequence than weakness in front, as it injures the breeding usefulness to a greater degree. The hocks should not be bent so as to give the hind leg a sickled appearance as viewed from the side ; and when viewed from the rear, the hind legs should not be bowed outward, but placed straight and square beneath the quarters. The ram's fleece should be heavy and of good quality ac- cording to his breed, special attention being given to the wool in case the ewe flock averages below desired standards for fleece. So far as the fatness of the ram is concerned, greater satisfaction will ordinarily result from the purchase of a ram in medium condition, or what shepherds call a field ram, than one that has been much pampered in preparation for sale or show. The latter may present a more attractive form and appearance at the time of purchase, but must be let down in flesh before he can be used for breeding purposes, and it is often true that with loss of fat there is revealed some rather disappointing points in form. This more often happens when the buyer is a novice and the ram has had the additional ad- vantage of the correcting power of shears in expert hands. In any case, the purchase price of a fitted ram must include the cost of fitting, which may be no inconsiderable amount. It is. of course, a fact that the very choicest rams are highly fitted before being offered for sale, as no flock owner expects to 206 Types and Makket Classes of Livi k realize full value for an exceptional ram unless he is presented in finished and fitted form; however, this applies to the best offerings and is somewhat outside of the matter under con- sideration. When rams are purchased to head ordinary flocks the produce of which are sent to market, it will usually be best to pay up to the limit of price for a field ram that suits, rather than invest the same amount in a fitted sheep. Only purebred sires should be used on any flock, and the same breed should be patronized each ti^ne a ram is purchased ; in other words, breeding for the market should not result in a mixture of breeds, but the owner should breed in line, grad- ing up his flock by consecutive crosses of the same breed. Thus will the good features of that breed be so strongly stamped upon the flock as to give it a high average of indi- vidual merit and great uniformity. The mutton breeding ewe. — Assuming that there is an established ewe flock to which additions are made from the best ewe lambs of each year, the problem of the breeder is to weed out the less desirable ewes and send them to the butcher. Herein lies a second advantage from the use of good males, for if the sire proves a successful breeder, the owner is fur- nished with excellent material with which to replenish his ewe flock, thus permitting closer culling of the aged ewes than would be possible had an inferior ram been used. Hence, the use of a good ram not only results in direct improvement in the first crop of lambs, but there is the added advantage of the indirect improvement which is realized when the best ewe lambs reach breeding age. It is easiest to cull the flock a short time after shearing, allowing a few days to elapse in order that the ewes may re- cover from the shabby appearance and somewhat disorganized state common to many of them immediately after being shorn. Aged ewes and broken-mouthed ewes should have been weeded out the previous fall, the cost of wintering them being a need- less expense inasmuch as they are difficult to winter without becoming very low in flesh. The wintered ewes may then be sorted two or three weeks after shearing; faulty forms and lack of size are easily detected at that time. It is an easy mat- ter to part with ewes that are aged, broken in mouth, rup- Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 207 tured, crippled, or defective in udder, but it sometimes re- quires strong determination to give up ewes that are sound, but nevertheless unworthy because of faults in conformation, size, fleece, or color. This is especially true when close culling will not leave as large a flock as it is desired to carry, but in the long run it will be best to err on the side of too close culling Fig. 55. Correct Type in the Breeding Ewe. Champion Hampshire ewe at the 1913 International, owned by Mr. A. W. Arnold of Galesville, Wis. This ewe has strength and vigor, combined with femininity and quality. Her dark points are an asset, and her roomy middle and dense fleece are valuable attributes in the breeding ewe. rather than to carry certain individuals that do not measure up to desired standards. Close scrutiny should be made of heads, necks, breasts, shoulders, backs, ribs, rumps, quarters, and limbs. Form, size, quality, constitution, muscling, and smoothness of outline should receive much consideration, the 208 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock ■ requirements for which have been set forth in preceding chap- ters. One word more, however, on heads and necks, the fol- lowing being taken from Professor Wrightson'^: book, "Sheep — Breeds and Management," and is much to the point. "Nothing looks better than good heads, and, strange as it may seem, a sheep's head, which is only worth 9d. at the butcher's is worth a lot of money when carried on a good ram. or ev/e. A muscular neck indicates strength of constitution and good muscular development, and I have never known a sheep breeder who did not strongly object to a shabby neck. Mr. Ellman, the father of the Southdown breed, insisted on the importance of this point. Mr. James Rawlence, of Bul- bridge, one of the oldest of our noted breeders, would not keep a weak-necked ewe, and no man who values his flock would buy a ram with this fault. The neck ought to be muscular, arched, tapering, and neat." Uniformity in shape, size, color markings, and appearance in general is a valuable attribute in any flock. When the pro- duce is intended for the open market, this insures a unifomi lot of lambs for feeding, and it adds much to the attractive- ness of the finished lot when presented to the buyer. The market's preference for dark color markings may well be kept in mind in this connection. The breeder who aims to supply the open market must emphasize the matter of wool when building up a breeding flock. Although meat production is the principal object in view, the clip of wool from such a flock ought to be an im- portant source of revenue. Furthermore, the ewe with the heavy fleece is better protected from the weather, remains more healthy for that reason, and the density of her fleece keeps it free from dirt, sand, manure, bits of straw, and other foreign matter. Moisture is better excluded and the yolk thus becomes abundant, insuring soundness of fiber and prevent- ing a cotted fieece. Her offspring, being heavily wooled, is less liable to chills which throw the animal out of condition and affect the gains made. In a sense, the heavy fleece is an evidence of strong constitution, so necessary in feeder sheep and lambs. And lastly, the heavy fleece finds an appreciation on the live-stock market. All along the line, therefore, from Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 209 breeding flock to packing house, the fleece with density, length of staple, and quality meets with approval and increases the value of the animal it covers. It is evident that it takes years to build up a flock of much uniform merit and value. It is not a difficult matter to stock a farm with sheep, but whether or not the undertaking will be successful depends very largely upon the wisdom displayed in the culling of ewes, selection of rams, and general manage- ment oi the flock. In no other kind of live stock does the in- dividuality of the man in charge display itself so strongly as with sheep. With no other kind of stock does the man count Fig. 56. A Flock of Uniform Type. Champion Shropshire flock at the 1913 International, owned by A. Broughton & Sons of Albany, Wis. for so much. A successful sheep breeder is always a man of wisdom, energy, and judgment, a man who emphasizes the im- portance of little things, because he has seen the cumulative good effects of attention to details manifested in the breeding and management of the animals in his charge. Although some essential points in flock management have necessarily been touched upon in discussing the elements that constitute a good breeding ram and breeding ewe, never- theless a detailed discussion of sheep management cannot be presented here, as it would require a great deal of space and is outside the range of the general subject in hand. However, such important subjects as winter management and feeding 210 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock of ewes, the age to begin breeding, feeding as a factor in get- ting ewes in lamb, dipping, management at lambing time, feed- ing and management of ewes and lambs, docking and castrat- ing, the feeding of lambs, shearing, control of internal para- sites, crops to grow for sheep^these and many other subjects relating to sheep feeding and management should be carefully studied by anyone who contemplates entering the sheep business. CHAPTER XVII. THE MERINO OR FINE-WOOLED TYPE. All sheep are wool bearing, but fine-wooled sheep excel in eight and fineness of fleece. This type is the outcome of ef- forts to develop a sheep capable of producing a fleece of the greatest possible value. Some breeders carried their efforts 30 far as to ignore the meat-producing qualities of the animals they bred, centering practically all their attention on the fleece. At best, the improvement of any kind of live stock is a difficult and slow undertaking. When improvement is sought in one or a few respects, the desired results are secured more readily and in greater perfection than when an attempt is made to im- prove the animal in a rather large number of ways. It is still more difficult to improve a breed of live stock along two or more opposing or antagonistic lines, such as beef and milk, mutton and wool, strength and speed, or size and quality. It was for this reason that many breeders of Merino sheep will- ingly sacrificed the meat-producing qualities of their flocks in order that the production of wool might be made as large as possible. These breeders developed a type of Merino that con- trasts with mutton type as strongly as dairy cattle contrast with beef cattle. Other breeders of fine-wooled sheep did not entirely ignore the mutton qualities of their animals, but placed some emphasis upon a good conformation and a reasonable degree of fleshing ; at the same time they gave most attention to the weight and quality of fleece. Efforts of this kind in America resulted in the creation of what is known as the Delaine Me- rino ; in France similar efforts resulted in the breed known as the French Merino or Rambouillet. Thus a type was estab- lished having better mutton qualities, a smoother skin, a fleece of greater length and uniformity, and a type that is shorn much more easily because of its freedom from wrinkles. Broadly speaking, however, the differences mentioned in the ideals of breeders of fine-wooled sheep have not resulted in 211 212 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock enough variation in type to prevent a satisfactory study of fine-wooled sheep as a single group or type. The general appearance of the fine-wooled sheep is very distinctive. In a general way, the conformation closely re- sembles that of the dairy cow. There is the same narrowness of forequarters and moderate width of back and body, the same muscular rather than fleshy covering, and the same ten- dency to be somewhat rangy of body and long of leg. As com- pared with the mutton type, there is proportionately more length and narrowness of head, more length and thinness of neck, less arch of rib, and less development of thigh and twist. These differences are marked, so that shorn of their fleeces, the two types of sheep present striking differences in form. When viewed in the wool, further variations are manifest. The fleece of the fine-wooled sheep is more compact and is often very dark in color, the latter being due to the very heav'y secretion of yolk which catches dust and dirt and produces a 1 black gum on the exterior of the fleece. The mutton-type sheep has a smooth skin, but the fine-wooled type has a loose skin lying more or less in folds or wrinkles. Sometimes there are only a few folds about the breast and lower border of the neck, while the middle and hindquarters are smooth ; but a large class of fine-wooled sheep present a very wrinkled ap- pearance over the entire body. The live weight of rams varies from 125 to 180 pounds, and ewes vary from 90 to 135 pounds. The head should be rather short, medium wide, and well defined or clean-cut in its features. The muzzle should be broad and the nostrils should be large. Rams should have a Roman nose with more width than ewes. The eyes of both sexes should be rather wide apart, large, and clear, and have a quiet expression. The forehead should be somewhat prom- inent and have a fair degree of width. The ears should be fine, short, covered with silky hair, and actively carried. The horns of the ram frequently interfere with the carriage of the ears. The horns should be placed rather well apart so as to give width and strength to the top of the head. At ma- turity the horns attain a strong development. They have a corkscrew shape, turning backward from the base, then down- ward, around forward, and up, making about one and one-half I Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 213 turns. Wool covers the poll, forehead, upper part of the face, and cheeks, while the ears and lower part of the face are covered with white hair, which should be very soft and fine. The skin about the nose is often wrinkled. The head of the ram should be very masculine as shown by heavy horns, wide poll, Roman profile, and heavy nose, all parts being well de- veloped or massive and the expression resolute. The ewe should have a refined head and a feminine expression. The neck should be moderately short and rather muscular. The neck and shoulders do not blend smoothly as in the mutton type, although extreme angularity or roughness is undesir- able. Males should show a heavily muscled neck; a pro- nounced crest or scrag just behind the poll indicates a strongly sexed animal. The shoulders should be well laid in, and should be mus- cular. The depth of fleshing is not great enough to give that smoothness of form which characterizes a good mutton-type animal. The withers are often sharp and high, especially in those individuals showing the more extreme development of the type; but a neat, rather rounded conformation with a fair de- gree of smoothness is more to be desired, especially in rams. The breast should be deep and have moderate width. The absence of heavy fleshing makes impossible the development of any marked degree of plumpness or width, yet a very nar- row or peaked breast indicates a cramped chest cavity and lack of strong constitution. The chest gets its capacity from depth more than from width. Extreme narrowness is a serious fault; the fore-rib should arch suflficiently and carry down far enough to provide a roomy chest. The fore flank should be reasonably well filled out. Every type of animal needs a robust constitution, one of the best evidences of which is a large heart-girth, proper allowance being made, when judging, for the thickness of fleshing which covers the forequarters. The front legs are often very crooked at the knees, too close together, and too long. They should be reasonably straight, moderately wide apart, and fairly short. The feet are often poorly formed and rather weak, whereas they should 214 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock be well developed and strong. The shanks should be fine and rather short, and the pasterns should be free from weakness. The back and loin vary somewhat according to the ideals of breeders. In the very wrinkly Merinos in which the mut- ton qualities are ignored, the top is noticeably long and narrow, and this may be carried to an undesirable extreme. In the Delaine Merino and Rambouillet, the back is proportionately shorter and wider. In any case the top should be straight from withers to hips, showing a fair degree of width of back and a rather wide, strongly muscled loin. The ribs should be fairly well arched and should show good length in order to provide proper feeding, breeding, and chest capacity. The middle is not very compact, but is mod- erately long. The hips are somewhat prominent on account of their width and lack of deep fleshing throughout, but ragged hips are undesirable. Much smoothness cannot be expected in a Merino, yet a rather neat, tidy conformation is demanded. The rump is often peaked and drooping, but the best form embodies a rump that is long, level, and medium wide. The thighs and twist vary with respect to the class of fine-wooled sheep under consideration. Generally speaking, the thigh should be medium thick, and the muscling between the legs should be sufficient to afford at least a moderate de- velopment of the twist. The hind legs should be straight, medium long, fine in the shank, strong in the pastern, and placed somewhat apart. A large percentage of Merino sheep have crooked hind legs, the hocks being close together and the feet too wide apart, or the hocks much bent so as to place the hind feet too far under the body, instead of carrying straight downward from hock to ground. The feet should be well formed and strong. The skin should have a bright pink color, indicating health. Fine-wooled sheep usually show an excellent color of skin superior to the mutton type, this feature being partly due to their thin skins. As already mentioned, the skin is more or less folded or wrinkled. The Merino has not only a thinner skin than the mutton breeds, but it is more richly furnished Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 215 with oil glands and secretes a great deal more yolk. Fineness of skin and fineness of wool are correlated characters. The quality of fine-wooled sheep is evidenced by fineness of fleece, fineness of bone, fineness of hair on face and ears, and by a medium-sized, clean-cut head with fine ears. The style of the fine-wooled type is usually rather marked. Merinos have good carriage of head and ear and are quick and active in their movements, walking rapidly and covering ground with more ease and speed than the mutton-type sheep. Their greater activity partly explains their popularity on western ranges where Merino blood forms the basis of most flocks. The fleece of the Merino has a very high degree of fine- ness, varying, however, in different flocks according to breed and individual. The skin has many more fibers to the square inch than any of the mutton breeds ; in other words, the fleece is ordinarily very compact and dense. Density and fineness are outstanding features in a good fine-wooled fieece, the crimp being very fine and regular from skin to tip of fiber. The very finest woolen fabrics are made from this wool. A third strik- ing feature of the Merino fleece as compared with mutton sheep is the large amount of oil or yolk it contains. This gives a generous coating to each fiber so as to preserve its sound- ness and pliancy. Merino wool commonly undergoes a shrink- age of 65 per cent, in scouring, and this figure is not infre- quently exceeded. When the secretion of yolk is very exces- sive, the fleece is made subject to criticism and the wool buyer makes allowance for the extra weight in the price he offers. The wool should cover the head in the fashion already described, only the nose and ears being bare. The fleece should cover all of the body and extend down the legs to the feet. The belly and under parts vary a great deal in the cov- ering of wool. It is important that the belly be well wooled, and that the natural bareness occurring at the armpits be as limited in area as possible. The scrotum of the ram should be covered with wool. The wool on the under parts of the animal should be as nearly like the rest of the fleece in density and length as possible. It is usually of superior fineness. A 216 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock good Merino flock should average 11 to 15 pounds of unwashed wool. Classification of fine-wooled sheep. — Breeders of fine- wooled sheep and the managers of the larger sheep shows group or classify Merino sheep into three classes or sub-types, known respectively as A, B, and C. As already pointed out, breeders of Merinos have differed in their ideals for a number of years, and this has resulted in three fairly well-defined classes. The classification is based chiefly on the character Fig. 57. Class A Merino Kam. of the fleece, the number and position of the folds or wrinkles, the size and weight of the animal, and the development of mutton qualities. Class A. — This class is composed of those animals which are most wrinkly and have dense, heavy fleeces. There are heavy folds on the neck, breast, middle, and hindquarters. The fleece is exceedingly dense and fine, and is fully saturated. Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 217 with a free-flowing, rich-colored, creamy oil. The length of fiber is less than on B and C sheep, measuring from II/2 to 21/2 inches. Typical A Merinos have from 44,000 to 52,000 fibers to the square inch of skin, whereas the average mutton sheep has between 4,000 and 6,000. At a public shearing in Middle- bury, Vt., in 1882, 54 rams and ewes of this class averaged 23.3 per cent, unwashed fleece to live weight, and instances where 86 per cent, of the original weight of the sheep was fleece have been reported. The ram of this type should weigh about 135 pounds, and the ewe 95 pounds, these being standard weights for sheep out of the fleece. A good ram will shear 28 pounds, and a ewe 19 pounds. These weights for fleeces represent high standards. The wrinkly skin of the class-A Merino results in con- siderable variation between the wool on top of the wrinkles and that between. In an investigation of wools made several years ago by the United States Department of Agriculture it was found that the fiber on top of the wrinkles averaged 15.333 crimps per inch, while that between wrinkles averaged 18.143 crimps per inch. The former had an average fineness or diameter of .9751 thousandths of an inch, and the latter averaged .8385 thousandths of an inch. The wool from the tops of the wrinkles also averaged 1.100 inches in length of fiber, and the wool from between the wrinkles averaged 1.1375 inches. These figures show that the wrinkles cause a varia- tion in fineness and length of fiber, the wool between wrinkles being longer and more fine. The form of the class-A Merino is most narrow, rangy, and leggy of the three classes, and mutton qualities are practically wanting. It is entirely a wool proposition, with weight of fleece esteemed above everything else. Class B. — The class-B Merino is distinguished chiefly by a smoother body with less folds and a fleece with more length and less yolk than the class-A Merino. They have folds on the neck and breast and often at the thighs, and there may be a few less-pronounced folds along the lower part of the sides. The fleece is much longer than the class-A fleece, slightly coarser, more uniform, and a little less dense and oily ; in other words, it is a more bulky fleece than that of the A Merino and 218 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock worth a little more per pound. Class-B sheep are the largest and heaviest of the three classes. Proportionately, they show more width, compactness, and lowsetness, and there is also a little more natural fleshing and smoothness than is character- istic of class A, but none of these features are so pronounced as in class C. The B type has resulted from efforts to secure as much body weight as possible and still produce a fleece in which weight and bulk are the leading features, with quality ^^^^^^^1 ■ 1 1 ■ / ^1 ■m tk:: 1 ■-* ml it H '^^i Wf'' i' <^^| '^'SmH B L ■ Bp^p^"^ 1 Fig. 58. Class B Merino Ram. of wool almost disregarded except that the quality be uniform and the flber fairly well crimped. B-type fleeces measure 2 2/3 to 4 inches in length of staple. The weight of a B-type ram may be 140 pounds or it may reach 200, there being no definitely established standard of weight essential to best re- sults. Ewes weigh between 115 and 135 pounds. A high-class ram will shear 29 pounds, and the ewe 20 pounds. Class C. — This class is also called the Delaine class. The skin is practically smooth, there being no folds excepting one Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 219 large fold, called the "apron," which lies across and below the breast, and there may be also a few light wrinkles below the neck. The shoulders, middle, and hindquarters are smooth. The C-type fleece has a definitely established standard for the character of wool. It should be very fine and have good length of staple, measuring 2% to 3% inches. There is less density and less fineness than in the A or B fleeces, and also less oil; hence, the Delaine fleece is lightest in weight, yet it sells at Fig. 59. Class C Merino Ram. top prices because it is of combing length and has a compara- tively small percentage of grease. Breeders of Merinos have found it an impossibility to grow the heaviest fleece on a smooth skin, and have devoted their attention to developing a long, fine fiber, in which field the Delaine Merino has no superior. It is undesirable to run below 130 pounds, fleece off, in the rams, and unsafe to go above 160 pounds when best results are wanted. For ewes the corresponding range in weight is 95 to 118 pounds. A good ram should shear 18 pounds, and the ewe 11 pounds. The Delaine is most wide, 220 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock compact, low set, and smooth in outline of the three classes, approaching mutton type more closely than the A and B classes. The covering of flesh over shoulders, back, and loin, and the thickness of thighs and development of twist are suf- ficient to merit some credit as a meat-producing animal, though not great enough to enable the Delaine to compete with the true mutton breeds as mutton producers. Origin of the three classes. — Inasmuch as the Spanish Merino was the foundation of the American Merino, the Ram- bouillet, and of all present fine-wooled flocks in all countries, a word may be said about the introduction of the Spanish Me- rino into the United States and of the causes that led breeders to diverge somewhat in their ideals, thus resulting in the A, B, and C classes as they are known today. Spanish Merinos were imported into this country in great numbers from 1800 to 1850. For a time these sheep were esteemed merely as wool producers, and there was a strong temptation and ten- dency to breed for grease in order to give more weight to the wool. But on account of the difficulty of shearing a wrinkly sheep, seconded by a drop in the price of wool, especially wools of short staple, certain breeders in Pennsylvania, West Yir- ginia, and Ohio developed, by selection, a smooth-skinned Me- rino with better fleshing qualities and greater length of wool, which they called the Delaine Merino. This type produced a longer, less dense wool than the wrinkly Merino, and this wool sold at a higher price per pound. Trouble was experienced, however, in maintaining sufficient density and weight of fleece in the new type, these faults becoming more pronounced in each succeeding generation. Recourse was then made to wrinkly rams which were crossed upon the plain type to cor- rect the faults mentioned. In this way, breeders of Delaines have been able to regulate the fleece and keep it up to the de- sired standards, although it is unfortunate that the Delaine or class-C Merino will not breed true to type. As already mentioned, the B type originated from attempts to push the body weight to the extreme and at the same time grow a fleece of great density, length, and oil. The following, written by Mr. S. M. Cleaver, President of the Ohio Association for the Promotion of Purebred Sheep, Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 221 and Secretary of the American and Delaine Merino Record Association, is of considerable interest concerning the evolu- tion of the Delaine Merino. Ohio has long held first rank in the breeding of fine-wooled sheep. Mr. Cleaver points out how the state may further improve its reputation for the produc- tion of Merinos and wool. "Dtiring the low price of wool in the early nineties, the extremely wrinkly flocks of the country became unpopular, and for the lack of mutton qualities became unprofitable. For this reason a large per cent, of the Spanish flocks of the State drifted their breeding to a plainer type, selecting rams from the Delaine flocks in order to increase the size of the sheep, lengthen the staple, and make it a more practical wool-and- mutton Merino. While this proved to be a valuable move, the old Delaine flocks that had long been bred free from wrinkles were having their troubles b> :i lack of sufficient weight of fleece for the best results. The union between the wrinkly flocks and the plain sire furnished an excellent opportunity for the Delaine flocks to secure rams of a medium type with only a few wrinkles and with greater density of fleece than could be found in the plain-bred flocks. The increased density from the union between the plain and wrinkly flocks proved to be of great value to the plain breeders in bringing up their weight of fleece, without diminishing the size of the Delaine Merino, and, from such a union the flocks of Ohio are greatly improving in length of staple of a reasonable density, besides increasing the size of the carcass, until the sheep of today average in real merit far above what they did fifteen years ago. "With proper culling each year we should, during the next ten or fifteen years, bring up the general form of the sheep to better size, better backs, and better quarters, covered with a better fleece of more bulk, more staple, and more quality, avoiding extremes by breeding too wrinkly or breeding too plain. Either is disastrous to the most practical type of Me- rinos, remembering that the quality of oil has much to do with the quality of fleece and general appearance of the sheep. Ohio's reputation for good wool must be taken care of. This is done by the judgment of the breeder. Too many of our 222 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock breeders breed only for pounds instead of real merit in the quality of the fleece. Some of the eastern states do not un- derstand why they can't get the same price for their wool that Ohio does. This question explains itself when fleeces are com- pared. We can produce a heavy fleece with both quality and staple, and they who fail to do this must abide by results." CHAPTER XVIIL WOOLS AND WOOL GROWING. No animal has a covering entirely of wool; even sheep have hair upon the face and lower parts of the legs. Wool served as a necessary protection to sheep in the wild state, the original home having been in the higher parts of mountainous regions. Wool ranks next to cotton as a source of textile fabrics, the temperate regions universally using woolen prod- ucts. The per capita consumption of wool has increased very greatly. It was about 3 pounds in early times in the United States when all spinning and weaving was done in the home ; in 1850 it was 4 pounds ; it is now 8 pounds. No other people use as much wool as do Americans, nor as much cotton. The world's clip of wool averages about 2 pounds for each person. Growth and structure. — Wool is modified hair. The term hair is ordinarily used to designate a smooth, straight fiber or filament like horse hair. Wool differs from hair in being Fig. 60. A Wool Fiber Highly Magnified. This drawing shows the scaly surface of the wool fiber; the tips of the overlapping scales project outward and point toward the tip of the fiber. more or less crimped and in having a much more serrated or ridged surface. The surface of the fiber is composed of a single layer of irregular, overlapping scales, forming the wool cuticle, there being from 1200 to 3000 exposed points of these scales to an inch. The scales open or point toward the tip of the fiber, like shingles put on the wrong way. Beneath the cov- ering of scales is the cortex or body of the fiber, made up of greatly elongated cells united into bundles, and in the center of the fiber there is sometimes a cavity or canal which may contain granules of pigment. 223 224 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock Hair and wool are very similar in growth and structure, but wool is crimped, has more scales, the points of the scales are more open or projecting, and the entire fiber is more soft and flexible than hair. These small differences give to wool its special commercial values. Hair will not retain the twisted state given to it in spinning, but the crimp of wool causes the fibers to become entangled, and the minute scales hook to- gether and hold the fibers in position when wool is spun into Fig. 61. Cross-Section of a Wool Fiber. a, Central canal, which is not present in most wools; b, cortex or body of fiber, composed of long, spindle-shaped cells which here appear oval because they are cut transversely; c, wool cuticle, composed of scales. (After McMurtrie.) yarn. Thus wool has a thread-forming quality which hair has not, preventing slipping and separation of the fibers in the yarn. The entanglement and locking of the fibers is referred to as the felting quality of wool. The peculiar structure of the wool fiber was first deter- mined by Youatt, a famous English observer and writer. In Merino wool, the scales or projections are very distinct and sharply pointed, and it was by an examination of Merino wool Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 225 that Youatt determined the structure of the wool fiber. In the middle-wooled breeds, the scales are less distinct and sharp, and in the long-wooled breeds, they are rounded off and indistinct. In fine Saxon Merino wool, 2720 of these scale ends are found to the inch ; in the ordinary Merino there are about 2400 ; in the Southdown, 2000 to 2080 ; and in the Lei- cester, 1850 to 1860. Hence, Saxon Merino wool is superior to all others in felting quality, the others standing in a rela- tion proportional to the figures given. Fineness of fiber. — Dr. William McMurtrie, who con- ducted extensive investigations of wools for the United States Department of Agriculture, found the average diameter of the Merino fibelf to be 1/1194 of an inch, while the Southdown had an average diameter of 1/865, the Hampshire Down 1/769, the Lincoln 1/685, the Leicester 1/654, the Cotswold 1/605, and the Oxford Down 1/581. In 1860, American Merino fibers with a diameter of 1/1572, and American Saxon Merino fibers measuring 1/1875 of an inch in diameter were exhibited in London, showing the extreme fineness which may be secured in wools. 4 Secretion and composition of yolk. — Opening into each wool follicle are a couple of sebaceous or oil glands, furnishing a profuse secretion of an oily or fatty material, called the yolk, which is thrown out at the same time the fiber is formed. This secretion consists largely of a soapy matter having a potassium base, together with an animal oil which gives to the yolk its peculiar odor. Yolk, then, is not strictly a grease or oil, but is a soap with an excess of oil. This explains why it dissolves freely in warm water and may be washed almost entirely out of the fleece, why it cleanses and whitens the hands as soap does, and why, when sheep are washed, the hard water of limestone regions does not cleanse the fleece so thor- oughly nor cause it to shrink so much in weight as does water containing less alkali. The quantity and fluidity of the yolk vary greatly, being greater when the sheep are healthy and well fed, and varying also according to the breed. The coarsest wools seldom contain less than 20 per cent, of yolk; the Southdown averages 45 to 50 per cent. ; and in the finest Merino wools it ranges from 60 to 75 per cent, of the weight. 226 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock and has even been known to reach 80 per cent. The yolk maintains the softness and pliancy of the fibers, and protects the scaly surface from injury such as might result from fric- tion of the fibers against one another during the movements of the animal. It also helps to keep the fleece clean and free from a cotted or matted condition. Woolens and worsteds. — When wool is combed, that is, drawn through metal teeth, the fibers are made to lie parallel to each other, some of the scales and the points of others are broken off, thus decreasing the felting property, and the wool becomes adapted to the manufacture of light fabrics. Wool used for combing must be at least 2I/2 inches long in order to give the yam sufficient strength. Such wool is called combing wool. The yam made from combed wool is called worsted, and the cloths made of it are known as worsted goods. Wools which are short and much crimped and serratured are called clothing or carding wools. They are prepared for spinning by carding machines. The two distinct classes of fabrics thus established are known respectively as worsteds and wool- ens. It has, however, become common to intermix some long or combing wool in cloths proper; while in the making of worsted fabrics a varying proportion of cotton is very often combined. Shoddy, obtained by tearing up woolen rags by ma- chinery, now enters into the composition of all except the very finest woolen cloths, having been first used about eighty-five years ago. The difference between woolens and worsteds is largely due to the way the yam for each is spun. In worsted yam the fibers are arranged as parallel as possible by the combing process ; in woolen yarn they are crossed in every direction so as to assist the felting or milling of the cloth. Yam for wool- en cloth is very slightly twisted, so as to leave the fibers as free as possible for the felting process ; worsted yarn, on the contrary, is hard spun and made into a much stronger thread. By the process of manufacture, woolens are felted so as to leave no appearance of the thread, while in worsteds the threads are plainly evident. Classification of wools. — Many classifications of wools are in use. The classes and grades vary in number and name on Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 227 different wool markets and in different market reports, re- sulting in considerable confusion in the minds of many persons who read wool quotations. Clipped wools and pulled wools. — ^The first distinction made in wools is to divide them into fleece or clipped wools and pulled wools. The former are the ordinary clipped wools coming to market in separate fleeces. These are the more valuable and constitute by far the greater portion of the wool of commerce. Pulled wools are those derived from the pelts of slaughtered sheep in the manner described later on. They are marketed in 500-pound bales. Pulled wools constitute about one-seventh of all the wool produced in the United States. Clothing, combing, and carpet wools. — Clothing wools are short wools and combing wools are long wools, any staple with a length of 2i/^ inches or more being suitable for combing. Clothing wools are also those possessing the felting quality to high degree, thus adapting them to the making of cloths, hat bodies, and other similar products. Combing wools are poor in felting quality, permitting their manufacture into such open fabrics as flannels and hosiery. As a rule, the short-stapled fleece wools only are made into cloths, while wor- steds are made from both long fleece wools and pulled wools. Carpet wools are the product of neglected flocks and lack of attention to breeding. They are inferior wools. Some can be used for coarse flannels and cheap cloths, but most of it goes into carpets. It sells at a low price, costing the manu- facturer an average of 10 cents per pound, and some of it not more than 7 cents. Classification based on condition of wool. — Wools are classed according to their condition into the following grades : 1. Domestic wool, which is clean, bright, and produced under the best domesticated conditions. 2. Territory wool, which is dirty and discolored, produced under range or inferior farm conditions. 3. Blanket wool. 4. Carpet wool. The last two sorts belong to the same general class, being the poor- est kind of wool, containing kemp or dead fibers, so as not to dye readily. Domestic wools are subdivided into two groups 228 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock or sub-classes, known as "bright" and "semi-bright," depend- ing on the whiteness and luster of the fiber. Bright wool is produced in Ohio, Pennsylvania, Michigan, West Virginia, Ken- tucky, Missouri, Southern Illinois, and Southern Iowa. Semi- bright wool comes from Iowa, Nebraska, Minnesota, and Wis- consin. The best bright wools are those known as "Ohio" wools, produced not only in Ohio, but in Western Pennsyl- vania, Kentucky, West Virgina, and Southern Michigan. Ohio wool is famous for cleanliness and general quality and always commands a premium on the market. The most commonly used classification is one which first divides wools into clothing and combing classes, and then sub- divides clothing wools into Picklock, XXX, XX, X. No. 1, No. 2, No. 3, and No. 4 grades according to length and fineness. Picklock is an extremely fine fiber, of which very little is found, being produced by a few remaining flocks of Saxon Me- rinos in Western Pennsylvania and elsewhere. There is also very little of the XXX grade, which ranks just below Picklock in fineness. The bulk of high-grade clothing wool is of XX and X grades. No. 1 and No. 2 represent grades inferior to the foregoing. Very little clothing wool grades as low as No. 3 or No. 4. The combing wools are of two sorts. Formerly they were exclusively from the English mutton breeds, or at least were not of Merino origin. But on account of lack of supply of true combing wools, the combing of the longer Merino carding or felting wools was taken up. This made necessary a fiber longer than 21/2 inches; such Merino wool is called "delaine," and the sheep which have been select- ed and bred to produce this long, fine staple are known as Delaine Merinos, of which there are several families. French breeders of sheep, working along similar lines with a similar object in view, developed the Rambouillet from the Spanish Merino. This Merino division of combing wools is graded into fine delaine, medium delaine, and low delaine. The first in- cludes the finest of long-staple Merino wools, the second not quite so fine, and the third comprises wool of combing length and a little finer than the combing wool of the mutton breeds. The wool of the mutton breeds is classed as one-half blood, three-eighths blood, one-fourth blood, common, and braid, the I Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 229 last being the long, lustrous wools of coarse-wooled sheep. Such terms as "one-half blood," "three-eighths blood,*' and "one-fourth blood" or "quarter blood" seem to indicate a knowl- edge of the breeding of the sheep that produced the wool, al- though such is very rarely the case so far as wool in the hands of wool merchants is concerned. Theoretically, at least, the term "one-half blood" is applied to such wool as is ordinarily produced by a sheep possessing 50 per cent, of Merino ances- try, while the three-eighths and one-quarter blood wools re- semble the product of sheep having 37.5 per cent, and 25 per cent, of Merino breeding respectively. However, some of the mutton breeds produce three-eighths and quarter-blood wool. In outline, the classification of wools is as follows : CLOTHING WOOLS Picklock XXX XX X No. 1 No. 2 No. 3 No. 4 COMBING WOOLS fMerino Other than Merino Fine delaine Medium delaine Low delaine Yi blood y^ blood M blood Common Braid The grading of wool in the wool houses is done by expert graders who know wools so well that at a glance they can de- termine the grade to which the wool belongs and the kind of material into which the wool will be made. The larger per cent, of these wool graders may never have seen a sheep in fleece, neither do they know the breeds of sheep and the char- acteristic fleeces. Hence, the wool grade does not depend upon the breed of sheep, and the wool from different individuals of the same flock and breed may be graded differently. Wool pulling. — Wool pulleries may be divided into two groups — those owned by packers and forming a part of the by-products division of packing plants, and those owned and operated independent of packing establishments. The wool pullery of a packing plant receives pelts daily, direct from the killing floor. They are at once placed in vats of cold water, which takes out all of the animal heat and removes some of the dirt and blood. The soaking continues from 12 to 24 hours. Packing plants not equipped with pulleries salt their pelts, and when a quantity has accumulated send them to a 230 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock pullery. Salted pelts are soaked 36 hours, as it requires con- siderable time to dissolve the salt out of the hide. When removed from the vats, the pelts are given mechanical treat- ment in a scrubbing machine which washes them in a spray of water, completing the removal of dirt, and leaving the fleece in an attractive, white condition. The wet pelts are then put in a centrifugal wringer which throws out the water to such an extent that the fleece is made very nearly dry. The pelts are next taken to a room where they are spread, fleece down- ward, upon wire screens and painted on the inner surface with a thick liquid bearing the trade name of "Depilatory," consisting of a mixture of sodium sulphide and slaked lime. Within 2 to 4 hours after this treatment the wool fibers become loosened and easily part from the hide, coming out by the roots when pulled. Before pulling, however, the pelts are taken to large rooms where they are spread out on the floor, fleece upwards, being grouped or classified according to the nature of the fleece. The pelts are then taken up and the wool pulled by hand. Coincident with the pulling the operator sorts the wool. The wool from the back and shoulders is put into one recep- tacle, that from the sides and belly, called "skirts," into an- other, wool from thighs and shanks into another, and painted wool into still another. The operator also separates out wool that contains much sand, manure, or grease, called "shrink- age ;" also wool of different colors. Thus the wool pullery not only classifies and grades the fleeces, but it also sorts the wool as pulled. Furthermore, the pullery keeps each month's product by itself, thus multiplying the assortments by twelve, and resulting finally in over two hundred kinds of pulled wool, each having a distinct trade name. Wool pulleries report a strong demand from wool manu- facturers for black wool which is used to produce various shades of natural gray by mixing it with white wool. For example, the manufacture of army blankets creates a demand for black wool, because a natural gray coloring is required by the government contracts. Black wool thus sells at a pre- mium, for the supply is small. Pelts that vary in color through Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 231 various shades of gray and brown are not in the class of black pelts because the varying color makes them an unknown quantity in color mixing where definite results are wanted. The growth of wool must be at least three-fourths of an inch before it may be profitably pulled. Some pelts are not pulled, no matter how long the fleece may be, because the wool is not salable, or not valuable enough to pay for pulling. Scouring. — If the grease wool comes to the scouring plant in bales, it is first put through a shredding machine which loosens it. This machine is equipped with a blower for the removal of dust, and a screen for the removal of heavy dirt. Scouring is accomplished by passing the wool through a series of four bowls or vats, each containing a different liquor. These liquors are composed as follows : Bowl No. 1 — Mild alkaline solution, preferably pot- assium; temperature 130 degrees Fah- renheit. Bowl No. 2 — Same alkaline solution as first bowl, plus soap; should be a potash soap; temperature 120 degrees. Bowl No. 3 — Soap solution only; temperature 110 degrees. Bowl No. 4 — Luke warm water. Nearly all the yolk or grease is removed from the wool in the first bowl. This is done by the saponification of the oil, the soap readily dissolving in the warm liquid. The action of the soap in the second and third bowls is to whiten the wool and give it "life" which it loses in bowl No. 1. After rinsing in the fourth bowl, the wool is passed through a steam dryer. During treatment in the bowls, a mechanical device keeps the wool moving slowly, for if it is moved rapidly through the liquids it forms a ropy mass. The yolk forms an emulsion in the bowls and may be recovered by chemical processes. It is known as "lanolin," and is much used in salves and ointments. Clipped wools shrink as much as 65 per cent, or more in scour- ing, while pulled wools shrink about 27 per cent, on the aver- age. Often, pulled wools shrink only 10 per cent. The dif- ference is due to the very thorough washing given to pelts before pulling. 232 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock American wools and wool growing. — America is one of four great wool-manufacturing countries, the others being Great Britain, France, and Germany. American sheep are said to have no superior in constitutional vigor and strength of wool fiber. The average weight of fleece of American sheep has shown much improvement. In 1840 it was only 1.9 pounds ; in 1850 it was 2.4 pounds ; in 1860 it was 2.7 pounds ; in 1870 it was 3.5 pounds; in 1880 it was 4.4 pounds; in 1890 it was 4.8 pounds ; in 1900 it was 6 pounds ; in 1910 it was 6.7 pounds; in 1914 it was 6.8 pounds. The increase in the an- nual wool clip since 1840 is shown by the following figures: 1840 ... 35,802,114 pounds 1850 52,516,959 pounds 1860 60,264,913 pounds 1870 -. 162,000,000 pounds 1880 ... 232,500,000 pounds 1890 .... 276,000,000 pounds 1900 .; 288,636,621 pounds 1910 .. .. 336,896,903 pounds 1914 .247,192,000 pounds According- to the estimates of the National Association of Wool Manufacturers, the leading states in number of sheep, average weight of fleece, and pounds of wool produced during 1914 were as follows: Number Average States of weight fleeces of fleece Wool Per cent. I Scoured product, of wool raw shrinkage 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Montana Wyoming.. Ohio New Mexico. Idaho Oregon Utah California Michigan Missouri 3,869,000 3,560,000 2,098,000 3,233,000 1,896,000 1,970,000 1,770,000 1,852,000 1,191,000 1,071,000 Lbs. 7.8 8.0 6.6 5.9 7.8 8.0 7.4 6.2 6.8 6.7 Lb«. 30,177,000 28,476,000 13,844,000 19,077,000 14,792,000 15,763,000 13,100,000 11,480,000 8,098,000 7,179,000 63 67 52 66 62 67 62 65 50 45 11,165,490 9,397,080 6,645,120 6,486,180 5,620,960 5,201,790 4,978,000 4,100,800 4,049,000 3,948,450 This table brings out some important distinctions in wools. The figures for shrink are interesting ; the western states ex- ceed the eastern states by 10 to 22 per cent., due to the greater percentage of Merino blood in range flocks and hence a more greasy wool with a greater shrink. The introduction of mut- ton sheep into the cornbelt has decreased the average weight Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 235 of fleece, but has improved the shrinkage. The entire clip of the United States is estimated to shrink 60 per cent. Wool buyers fix the price on a scoured basis, this being the fairest method of dealing and also the fairest basis on which to com- pare production by states. Montana has the most sheep, and Delaware the fewest. Washington, Oregon, and Wyoming have the highest average weight of fleece, which is 8 pounds, and Georgia is lowest with 2.8 pounds. Virginia has the low- est per cent, of shrinkage, which is 36 per cent., and Washing- ton with 68 per cent, has the most. Imports and exports of wool. — During the fiscal year, 1913-'14, the United States imported 195,293,255 pounds of wool value at $35,579,823. The average value per pound would thus be 18.1 cents. We export less than 100,000 pounds of wool' annually. American wool growers produce slightly more than one-half of the wool used by American wool manufacturers. Australia is the largest exporter of wool, the figure for the- calendar year, 1912, being 693,496,000 pounds; Argentina ranked second with 363,680,000. pounds; South Africa was third with 185,471,000 pounds; and New Zealand was fourth, with 175,982,000 pounds. The four countries mentioned fur- nish over three-fifths of the exports of the world. France wa& the largest importer in 1912, with 579,624,000 pounds ; Great Britain jranked second with 555,161,000 pounds; Germany was third with 523,655,000 pounds; Belgium was fourth with 345,758,000 pounds; and the United States was fifth with 238,118,000 pounds. These five countries annually consume over four-fifths of the total imports of the world. Principal American wool markets. — The principal wool' markets in the United States are Boston, Chicago, Philadel- phia, St. Louis, and New York. During the past few years Boston has handled nearly 75 per cent, of the total wool crop of this country, and nearly 60 per cent, of the foreign wool shipped into this country. Recently Chicago has come forward as a great wool center, although the part that Chicago plays is largely in the storage of wool, rather than in manufacture. Wool is purchased from the producer by different methods depending upon the size of the clip. In sections where wool is not extensively grown, the country wool buyer takes the 234 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock whole clip of the neighborhood regardless of quality or clean- liness. In some sections a wool merchant, or his representative capable of grading wool, will advertise that he will buy at a certain place and at a certain price, depending upon quality, cleanliness, and grade. In such instances the farmer will re- ceive a price according to what is deserved. Then again, wool may be shipped to commission firms and stored and sold for a certain commission charge, including the expense of sale and storage. Again, large wool producers may sell direct to the wool merchant. Quite a number of localities in the West ar- range wool sales on three or four dates during the season, the wool being examined by buyers representing various wool merchants. Bids are made and the producer accepts or rejects the bids as he thinks best. This scheme brings the producer and consumer into close relationship which is mutually bene- ficial, and to some extent the producer benefits by the compe- tition among the buyers. Marketing wool properly. — Poor methods of sheep hus- bandry annually result in the loss of many thousands of dol- lars to wool growers. Neglect of flocks in winter, filthy con- ditions of keep, carelessness in handling, weedy pastures, the use of oil paint or tar to mark sheep, failure to separate the tags when the sheep are shorn, and improper tying of fleeces are factors which greatly lessen the returns to wool producers. Ohio and contiguous territory has long enjoyed a reputation for marketing cleaner wool of much better general quality than the average run of American wools. Yet in Ohio there is much room for improvement in the production and marketing of wool. The loss is large because of the presence in fleeces of seeds, burs, dust, chaff, sand, manure, and other foreign ma- terial, and because unnecessary quantities of unreasonably large twine are used, or because a kind of twine is used that injures the cloth made from the wool. The use of binder twine is objected to by wool manufacturers because the fibers of the twine become mixed with the wool and blemish the fab- rics made from it. Often there is enough twine around one fleece to tie a half-dozen or more fleeces. Even baling wire has been used in some instances. There has recently been put on the market a small, light twine of twisted paper, especially in- Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 235 tended for the use of wool growers. If wool buyers would make more discrimination against fleeces improperly handled and tied, and show more appreciation in the price they offer for clean fleeces properly tied, reform would come more quickly. Recently the writer has noticed the following state- ment appearing regularly in one daily wool market report: — "Wool tied with sisal or binder twine or undue amount of other twine will be classed as unmerchantable." This is surely a step in the right direction. Neatness and honesty constitute the wisest and best policy, especially if the wool grower is to en- gage permanently in the business. PART THREE. SWINE. INTRODUCTION. Swine are useful as a source of meat and lard. Some swine produce meat only, and some produce lard as well as meat. Differences in the demands of consumers of pork, to- gether with differences in the kinds of feed available for pork production, have resulted in the establishment of two distinct types of swine — lard type and bacon type. The lard hog is an American production found chiefly in the cornbelt states where corn is the principal feed for all farm animals. Corn is a great fattening food, and when fed to hogs it is converted into fat from which lard is made. Breeders have therefore developed a type of hog specially adapted to converting feed, principally corn, into fat, although the butcher or packer values this type for meat production as well as for lard. The bacon hog is also found in America, principally in Canada, however, which is outside the cornbelt. In Canada the feeds available for pork production are peas, barley, wheat, oats, rye, skim milk, and roots. As compared with corn, these feeds are not fattening; they are muscle builders, and hogs produced with such feeds take on but little fat and are not useful as a source of lard. Canadians have made no effort to compete with the hogs of the cornbelt; instead they produce a hog suitable for the English and Canadian trade — a hog whose entire carcass may be cut up into bacon. From what has been said it may appear that there is no real hereditary difference in the temperaments and make-ups of the two types of hogs, but that the differences between them are solely the result of differences in the feeds upon which they are produced. This is largely true, yet it is a fact that when pigs of the bacon type are brought into the corn- belt and fed along with lard hogs, they never entirely lose the 237 238 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock bacon type; and when the lard hog is taken into a bacon-pro- ducing section and fed with bacon hogs, there is the same de- gree of change, but the lard hog does not lose his identity under such a system of feeding. Therefore we must conclude that there is something besides the difference in the feeds which accounts for the two distinct types; in other words, there is an hereditary difference between the two kinds of swine. These facts in regard to swine are no more unique than the results of efforts by some men to produce milk from beef cattle, or beef from dairy cattle, or mutton from fine-wooled sheep. In such instances, we find dairy-bred steers tending toward the form of the beef animal, we find beef cattle taking on somewhat the appearance of the dairy animal, and we find that the Merino approaches nearer to mutton type. Wise se- lection and breeding and the establishment of definite types of animals suitable to special purposes cannot accomplish the de- sired ends unaided. The feeding and care must receive as much attention as the breeding. No matter how well bred an animal may be, and no matter how great may be its tendency to conform to a given type, it must enjoy a favorable environ- ment before its inherited good qualities can fully assert them- selves and thereby enable the animal to fulfill its mission. In America the lard type of swine is represented by the Poland-China, Duroc-Jersey, Chester White, Berkshire, and Hampshire breeds. The bacon type includes two breeds, the Yorkshire and Tam worth. The Berkshire and Hampshire do not possess true fat or lard type, but occupy a position about midway between the bacon and lard types, being general-pur- pose breeds. CHAPTER XIX. THE AMERICAN OR LARD-TYPE HOG. The United States has created comparatively few of the breeds now found within her borders. By the time this coun- try reached that stage in her live-stock development when im- provement in domestic animals became imperative, European nations had met and solved a similar problem by the creation of numerous useful breeds. It was but natural, therefore, that many of these foreign breeds were imported to this country, and it was fortunate indeed that most of them proved fully capable of fulfilling the requirements of our stock growers. We were thus afforded an easy short cut across what would have been a long, laborious period in the development of our live-stock industry. We borrowed whenever such procedure was practicable, and the fact that we have never found it really necessary to create a breed of draft or carriage horses, beef, dairy, or dual-purpose cattle, mutton sheep, or bacon hogs shows how great is our indebtedness to the breeders of Europe. Our needs were not entirely met, however, for we have created a breed of trotting horses, a breed of saddle horses, a breed of fine-wooled sheep, and a number of breeds of lard- type swine. We have also found it necessary to modify slight- ly some of the breeds we have adopted, and to our credit it may be said that we have made certain changes in some of these adopted breeds which, as viewed from the standpoint of American conditions and requirements, represent decided im- provements. The Polled Durham, the Polled Hereford, the "American-type" Hereford, and the "American-type" Berk- shire are examples of such modifications. The extended patronage which we have given to foreign stock and the lack of necessity for developing breeds of our own, while highly advantageous, has tended to dim our own glory as a breeding nation. If, because of this fact, our live- stock industry needs a redeeming feature, it is furnished by 239 •240 Types AND Market Classes of Live Stock the creation of a distinctly American type of hog, which in- cludes several breeds. European breeds of swine proved so full}'' incompetent to make pork under American conditions that our breeders found it necessary to create distinctly new breeds of a new type, and this work has been so well done as to give us a clear title to the distinction of leading the world in swine breeding and in pork production. Our conditions demand a type of swine possessing a mod- erate degree of compactness of form, great breadth of back, much fullness of ham, medium shortness of leg, rapid and heavy fattening qualities, and quickness of maturity. Such a type has been developed and maintained by American swine breeders. On account of its heavy and easy fattening quali- ties, it is commonly referred to as the lard-type hog. Its ability to assimilate the carbohydrates of corn and build up a valuable fat from which lard is made has played no small part in the rapid development of American agriculture and in the prosperity of our farmers. "King Corn and the American Hog" have always constituted an invincible combination, creating a channel of disposal for the former in the early days when there was a great surplus of that food stuff, and supply- ing the people of this country with highly palatable and nutri- tious meat at a moderate price. The general appearance of the lard-type hog embodies a broad, deep, fairly compact, and rather short-legged confor- mation, together with great smoothness. Both the head and neck are short and wide, the top is very broad and slightly arched, the sides are deep, and the hams are massive. As viewed from the side the lard-type hog shows great depth of body, moderate length, a slightly arched top line from head to tail, and a straight underline that tends to be rather close to the ground. He should be as deep in front as behind, in other words, symmetrical. When viewed from behind, the hams show great breadth or thickness, not only at the top but also at the lower part about the hocks. When a view is taken di- rectly down upon the top of the hog, he should exhibit great width at all points along the top from shoulders to tail. The shoulders should not be wider than the rest of the hog, nor should the hog taper in width from front to rear, but be uni- Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 241 formly very wide from one end to the other, thus presenting a balanced or symmetrical conformation and increasing the value of the carcass. Much quality should be shown in head, ear, coat, skin, smoothness of form, and fineness and smooth- ness of bone and joints. This type is disposed to be mild and quiet in disposition, but a sluggish, inactive hog is an objec- tionable extreme. ^ Fig. 62. Correct Type in the Lard Hog. Poland-China barrow, Grand Champion at the 1913 International. Bred and exhibited by John Francis & Sons of New Lenox, 111. Lengthy, deep, symmetrical, and smooth. This hog has remarkable quality in head, ear, hair, and bone. His legs are short and his pasterns strong. The head is of medium size, rather short, broad between the eyes, and short of snout. A narrow head and finely point- ed snout are indications of a poor feeder. The shape and length of head vary according to the breed, but in none of the lard breeds is much length or narrowness desirable. The eyes should be as large, prominent, and clear as possible, a small, sunken eye obscured by rolls of fat around the socket being objectionable. The carriage of the ear varies according to 242 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock the breed, being erect in some and drooping or broken in others. All the breeds, however, should have a fine and rather small ear neatly attached to the head. The jowl should be well developed or full, and should extend back into the shoul- der. It should not be loose and flabby, but rather trim and firm. The cheeks and jowl should be free from wrinkles or seams. The poll of the head should be broad and carry for- ward prominently. The neck should be short and wide, and blend smoothly with the shoulder. The neck should be especially broad on top, and it should be deep. A neck that is narrow or peaked on top and rather long is not often associated with a body of the desired conformation. The shoulders are very frequently too open and promi- nent, so that as one looks down at the top of the hog the shoulders are found to be much the widest part of the animal. They should be well laid in, very smooth, and have no greater width than the rest of the body, such a hog being much more desirable from a market and carcass point of view. The skin over the shoulders of mature boars is thicker and heavier than on sows or barrows. This character is called the shields, and was a highly useful feature in the wild boar as a protection in fighting. The wild boar has transmitted this character in greater or less degree to his domesticated descendants. In some instances the thickening and hardening of the skin is so great as to produce pronounced callouses, and these are ob- jectionable. A smooth shoulder is desired in the boar as well as in the sow and barrow. The tops of the shoulders should not stand open and apart, but should be laid together and thickly fleshed so as to present a broad, smooth surface in harmony with the rest of the top. The front legs should be medium short or short, this being a somewhat variable feature depending on the breed, and they must also be straight. It is especially important that the pas- terns shall be short, upright, and very strong, and that the toes shall be strong also. These points should be particularly emphasized in judging breeding animals, for it is a fact that weak, broken-down pasterns and weak, spreading toes are among the most common and most serious faults to be found Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 243 in swine of the lard type. The bone of the market hog should be fine, yet sufficient to carry the weight of the hog. Refine- ment of bone is pleasing to the butcher because it is associated with general refinement of the entire animal, thus insuring a clean-cut carcass of quality, and a smaller percentage of waste in dressing. The breeding boar should stand on large, strong bone, this being one evidence of masculinity, but ex- tremely large, rough bone, covered with a thick, puffy skin is undesirable, indicating coarseness. The breeding sow should show greater refinement of bone than the boar, her somewhat smaller, smoother shanks being an indication of that refine- ment which should characterize the female. However, refine- ment is often carried to the extreme in the sow, whereas the bone should be amply sufficient to sustain not only her weight but also the added weight imposed by pregnancy and large litters. Fine shank bones are not objectionable because they are liable to be fractured by the weight of the sow, but be- cause extremely fine bone is associated with small, weak ten- dons and ligaments which permit the pastern to drop down and the toes to spread apart, thus making the legs weak and greatly injuring the usefulness of the animal. Weak legs may be due to a natural or inherited weakness, or to improper feeding during the growing period. If growing pigs are fed on com exclusively, they are liable to develop weakness of the legs, because corn does not carry sufficient bone- and muscle- building constituents to satisfy the demands of the animal during the growing period. The chest is an evidence of the constitutional vigor pos- sessed by the animal. It should be wide and deep, filling out behind the shoulders and elbows and affording a large heart- girth. The underline should not cut up between the fore legs, but carry straight forward so as to give as much depth through the chest as through the middle of the body. The back and loin of the lard hog are very important parts. They should be medium long and very wide, and, as the animal is viewed from the side, they should be slightly arched. The top of the hog should be very deeply fleshed so as to build the back and loin out level and square on either side of the middle line, thus forming a rather well-marked 244 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock corner at the junction with the upper border of the side. There will thus be no marked rounding off from the middle line, but a gentle arch over the top from side to side and great width of top due to well-sprung ribs and very heavy fleshing, A "ridgy" back is an evidence of lack of fleshing, and a nar- row, "sunfish" conformation is very faulty for the same reason. A dip in the back, or sway-back conformation, greatly detracts from the appearance of the animal and in- dicates weakness of muscling; hence the cuts from the back and loin will be lacking in lean meat. Or, if the animal is intended for breeding purposes, its value is lessened because of this weakness and because the defect is as liable to be transmitted to offspring as is any other good or bad quality. The sides of the hog should carry down straight and deep from top to bottom, and should be neither long nor short, but moderate in length. Very short hogs are open to objection because such a type does not grow big enough, and sows of this type are usually lacking in prolificacy because they do not have the capacity for carrying large litters. On the other hand, extreme length is secured at the expense of width and depth, and also at the expense of quick fattening qualities. For these reasons, extremes in either direction are to be avoided. When fattened for the market, the sides should be thickly and smoothly fleshed so that every point along the side fills out to meet the same straight line from shoulder to ham. Wrinkles in the skin along the side are objectionable because they injure the smoothness of appearance which is so desirable, and if the wrinkles are very deep and are perma- nent, that is, do not disappear when the hog changes position, then they may be called seams and are highly undesirable. These seams most often occur just behind the shoulder, but they may occur all along the side. They are due to creases in the skin and in the flesh underlying the skin, so that when the fingers are inserted into them they are found to be deep and pronounced. They indicate lack of quality and lack of evenness in fleshing, and are especially objectionable because they remain in the side meat even after it has been pressed and cured by the packer, thereby injuring the appearance of such cuts and affecting their selling price. Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 245 The belly should be straight or "well tucked up," thus "insuring a good dressing percentage when the hog is killed. The belly should be firm, not flabby, and should be wide rather than narrow or V-shaped. However, this description will not apply to brood sows that have suckled several litters of pigs, for it is not desirable that they have straight, tidy underlines, but instead an udder composed of twelve or more well-de- veloped glands and teats. The rump should be long and as wide as the rest of the top, and it should carry out from hips to end of body with a slight curve downward to coincide with the slight arch of the entire top from head to tail. Very often the rump will be found very steep or drooping, the hips being carried too high and the tail set very low. Accompanying this kind of a rump, and to a certain extent causing it, is a faulty position of the hind legs, the feet being set too far under the body. This constitutes a weak conformation of the hindquarter, and gives the animal an ungainly appearance. The rump should carry out wide on either side of the tail to form rather square comers, and should not taper in width from hips to end of body, but be uniform in width throughout. When the hog is fat, the tail sets in a socket. The hams really include the rump as well as the thighs and twist. They should be very large and well developed, being plump and thick from every point of view. The thick- ness should carry down to the hocks, and the space between the hind legs and above the hocks should be filled with flesh. Loose, flabby hams are undesirable because they carry too much outside fat and require too much trimming off before they can be sold. Some hams lose fifteen per cent, in trim- ,ming at the packing house. The hams should be reasonably firm in fleshing and neat in form, yet very plump, wide, and deep. I The hind legs should be medium short, or short, and ' should carry down straight and vertical from the hocks to the ground. The pasterns should be short, upright, and very strong, the feet well formed, and the toes strong. The bone should show no coarseness, and in the market hog should ex- hibit considerable refinement. 246 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock The hair should be straight rather than curly, and should be fine. A harsh, bristly coat is an evidence of coarseness. A curly coat is objectionable because curly hair is usually coarser than straight hair, and curly-coated hogs do not shed their coats properly, which injures the appearance. A swirl or rose in the hair on the back or rump detracts from the appearance, and is objectionable for that reason. The hair should be abundant and smooth, and should lie close to the skin. Such a coat affords the most protection and adds to the attractiveness of appearance. The quality of a fat-type hog is determined by the refine- ment of the head, hair, and bone, smoothness of finish, and freedom from wrinkles and seams. The hog with quality has a clean-cut, well-bred appearance that pleases not only the producer and hog fancier, but also the butcher, because such a hog yields a neat, tidy carcass that attracts buyers, and the cuts of meat show a refined texture that is not to be found in the cuts from a coarse, rough hog. The proper finish of a lard-type hog is secured by a high degree of fattening, but the feeding should not be continued long enough to give the hog a soft, flabby covering. When handled along the back, below the shoulders, and at the lowet border of the hams, the fleshing should be rather firm in- stead of soft as is often the case, especially in some breeds. When the fattening has proceeded far enough to round out the lines of the animal and give him a smooth, springy, mellow covering of flesh, he is in just the right condition to meet with most favor from the butcher. The temperament of the fat-type hog is quite different from that of the bacon hog, being less active and more in- clined to quietness, lying down, and the taking on of fat. Ideas as to what is most desirable in the temperament of this type of swine are tending somewhat away from the one formerly in favor, namely, that a hog should eat and lie down, and that a minimum of exercise is conducive to greatest economy in pork production. Many producers are now com- ing to believe that better results are secured if the hog is disposed by temperament to take considerable exercise, espe- cially during the growing period; they are selecting more Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 247 active hogs for breeding, and are managing their young stock in such a way as to induce them to take a large amount of exercise. This results in growthy pigs of robust constitution and lessens the dangers of disease. Exercise also develops the muscles and strengthens the pasterns and legs. Not- withstanding this present-day tendency to select a more active hog than in the past, there must always be considerable differ- ence between the fat type and bacon type in this respect, the former being more quiet, slower in movements, and having much greater natural aptitude to fatten. The weight for age is an important consideration because it is a measure of the profit-making ability of the hog. Cer- tain standards of size and weight must be maintained in breeding stock in order that pigs fed for the market may reach marketable weights as quickly as possible. In early times hogs were fed to maturity before being marketed, but under modem conditions of higher cost of feed it is most profitable to finish them at an early age before the limit of growth has been reached. The average weight of hogs re- ceived at the large markets at the present time is about 225 pounds, and hog growers generally agree that weights from 250 to 300 pounds for market hogs are most profitable. Nevertheless it is as important to maintain large size in breeding animals today as it was in early times when the market wanted big, matured hogs. This is true because the cheapest gains are made during the growing period ; the most profitable hog is one that inherits the ability to grow to large size, but which will fatten before maturity is reached. It is desirable, therefore, to set the standard for matured weight as high as is consistent with proper form and quality. Ex- tremely heavy weights are very often secured at the expense of symmetry and proper refinement, but it is believed that for boars in good flesh the standard may be set at 800 pounds or over without necessarily sacrificing other desirable quali- ties. This may seem a high figure to some, but it is a fact that swine breeders now realize that they have not given enough attention to size during recent years, and today there will be far less objection to the figure mentioned than would have been true a few years ago. Sows in good flesh should 248 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock weigh not less than 650 pounds. By proper selection of breeding stock and by improved methods of feeding and man- agement, the weights here mentioned may be equalled or surpassed. Some very excellent show animals of recent years have exceeded these weights at maturity. At six months of age, pigs should weigh 200 pounds; at twelve months they should weigh 400 pounds, and at about twenty-four months should be matured. Sows reach maturity a little sooner than boars, but do not attain as great weight. CHAPTER XX. THE BACON-TYPE HOG. The bacon hog presents some very marked differences when compared with the lard hog in form, fleshing, and tem- perament. These differences are very necessary because the bacon hog yields a product that is quite different from that of the fat or lard hog. The foremost countries in bacon pro- duction are England, Denmark, and Canada, the first men- tioned consuming the surplus production of the other two. It is a superior product to that with which the American public is furnished, being the finest that is produced. American bacon is the belly meat of the Hghter and thinner hogs of the lard type, but Enghsh bacon is supplied by a hog the entire carcass of which is suitable for bacon. Denmark and Canada ship bacon to England in the form of what is called the "Wilt- shire side." A Wiltshire side represents half the carcass of the hog, minus the head and legs. The neck, shoulder, back, loin, side, belly, and ham are included. The best bacon contains a relatively large amount of lean meat and small amount of fat. The price charged for bacon at wholesale or retail is very largely regulated by these features, a cheap slab of bacon always being characterized by greater thickness, little lean, and much fat. The production of high-quality bacon therefore necessitates a different kind of hog than the lard hog, a hog disposed to be muscular and active, but not a hog that fattens readily. The production of the best bacon also necessitates feeding this hog on such feeds as will furnish nitrogenous or muscle-building materials in abundance, the carbonaceous or fat-forming elements of the ration being supplied in much less amount than would be advisable if lard hogs were being fed. This fact explains why but few bacon hogs are found in the combelt, and also why the United States is able to produce the lard hog at lower cost than he. can be produced elsewhere. Whereas corn plays a large part in the production of lard-type swine for the market, 249 250 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock the bacon hog is fed on such feeds as peas, barley, and skim milk, which are much better suited to bacon production than is com, because they contain a larger percentage of protein. It is of considerable importance that the producer of bacon hogs turn them off to market at that period in their development when the character of the flesh will be nearest the bacon ideal. To be more explicit, if the hog is marketed too young its flesh will be watery and flabby, whereas further feeding and more age result in a more desirable carcass. Pigs have a very strong tendency to utilize their feed for growth during the first months of their existence, and as they be- come older and more matured they fatten much more readily. It is for this reason that the best bacon comes from hogs within certain limits of weight. Experience has shown that a weight of 160 pounds is the minimum weight at which to market a bacon hog and that the upper limit is 220 pounds. These figures represent the extremes; the best bacon car- casses are from hogs that weighed 175 to 190 pounds. This does not mean that the bacon hog reaches maturity at a weight of 190 or 220 pounds, or that it is desirable that he should do so. The matured weight for boars in good flesh should be not less than 700 pounds; sows weigh about 100 pounds less than boars at maturity. When the carcass of a bacon hog is split down the back, the layer of fat along the spine and back should be not less than one inch or more than one and one-half inches in thick- ness, and it should be as uniform in thickness as possible from one end to the other. The production of the best Wilt- shire sides is possible only from hogs that are long from shoulder to ham, light and smooth in the shoulder, neck, and jowl, and very straight and trim along the belly. When thinking of a bacon hog we usually have in mind such a hog as the market wants, in other words, a hog suit- able for slaughtering and cutting up into Wiltshire sides. Also, from what has been said of the importance of certain weight requirements, it is at once apparent that boars and breeding sows are not desired by the packer. If, however, their form, quality, and temperament are such as will cause them to transmit to their pigs the characteristics which are Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 251 necessary in order that these pigs may be fed out successfully for the bacon market, then the boar and sow are said to possess bacon type. In judging breeding stock, certain allow- ances must therefore be made and certain points must be emphasized which do not concern us in judging bacon hogs for slaughter. The same general principles and the same general type apply in both cases, but the judge must empha- size certain points that are peculiar and essential in each. The form of the bacon hog is strikingly different from that of the lard hog. There is much less thickness and depth of body, greater length of leg, a lighter shoulder, neck, and jowl, and greater length from snout to tail, especially from Fig. 63. Fancy Market Bacon Pig. shoulder to ham. From the snout to the rear border of the shoulder the hog should be comparatively short, this being the low-priced end of the carcass. There is considerable dif- ference between the retail prices received for the front and hind ends of the Wiltshire side. Length of side from shoulder to ham and length of ham from front to rear are of very great importance, but it is a mistake to make everything else secondary in importance to length; length should not be car- 252 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock ried to the greatest possible extreme. The hog should have enough depth and width of body to give him a strong con- stitution in a well-developed chest and middle. This applies both to the market hog and the breeding animal. There should be as much depth of body in front as behind, and as much width at one point as another — in other words, the hog should be symmetrical or balanced in his conformation. Great smoothness from one end to the other is a prime essential, and smoothness must be secured without the assistance of very much outside fat, such as greatly assists in giving smoothness to the lard hog. Proper quality in a market bacon hog is very important because a rough or coarse appearance detracts much from the price, and because it is desired that the flesh be fine in texture. In both market hogs and breeding stock, a fine, smooth coat of hair denotes quality. Well-developed wrinkles or seams in the skin indicate coarse-grained flesh, and injure the appearance of the finished product. The snout, face, jowl, and ear should show refinement, yet not to an extreme that indicates lack of vigor and feeding qualities. The bone should be flinty and smooth, rather than porous and rough. As there is a relation between the development of bone and muscle, bacon hogs have proportionately larger shanks than lard hogs; but coarse bone, covered with thick, puff"y skin cannot be excused for this reason. Coarse bone is very ob- jectionable because it indicates hard feeding qualities and slow maturity. The butcher prefers a fine-boned hog, but the breeder wants the boar to stand on heavy, clean-cut bone covered with skin that shows no coarseness. The brood sow should have finer bone'than the boar, but it should be in every way proportionate to her weight, plus the added weight re- sulting from pregnancy. Proper condition for a market bacon hog is a feature re- quiring considerable practice in judging. There is danger of too high a degree of fatness, even though the live weight be within the limits that have been mentioned. Most persons residing in the cornbelt experience some difficulty in accept- ing a properly finished market bacon hog as such when first taking up a study of this type. To them the hog looks con- Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 253 siderably underdone. The indications of the proper degree of fatness are difficult to describe. The hog has a well-fed, thrifty appearance, but not a finished look comparable to that of the properly finished lard hog. The flesh is firm and the hog is reasonably well filled out. Soft flesh at the lower part of the hams, at the lower border of the shoulder, or on the jowl, is undesirable because it indicates an over-fat condition and an uneven distribution of the fat. Smoothness and firm- ness of fleshing are decidedly essential. The style of the bacon hog should be marked. He should be very active, thus indicating a full muscular development. He should walk without apparent effort. A writhing move- ment when walking is taken as an indication of weakness in muscling along the back and loin. The head varies in shape a great deal, depending to a large extent upon the breed, but there is also much variation between individuals belonging to the same breed. Length of snout varies with the breed. A long snout is very often associated with a narrow chest, and a very short snout often goes with a heavy jowl and neck. The face should be broad, and the poll should be broad also and come well forward, these being indications of constitutional vigor and feeding qualities. Large, prominent, bright eyes indicate health and constitution. The jowl has very little market value. A heavy, fat jowl denotes too strong a fattening tendency for a bacon animal. Good width across the jowl is desirable, but it should be very trim and neat. Size and carriage of the ear vary according to the breed. A large ear does not indicate lack of quality provided it is fine or thin. Thick, coarse ears denote a thick, coarse skin, which, in turn, denotes coarse- grained flesh. The neck, while not a valuable part of the carcass, is im- portant as indicating constitution and feeding qualities. A long, thin neck is an indication of deficient constitution and low feeding qualities; while a short, thick neck, with a crest of fat on top will result in a side of bacon that is too heavy at the fore end, which is the cheap end of the side. Moder- ate length and width of neck are wanted. It is to be expected 254 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock that mature boars will have heavier necks than sows or barrows. The shoulders should be light and set in the body smoothly. They should be deep from top to bottom, but not wide from front to rear, and as one looks down on the top of the hog, they should show no greater fullness than the back and loin. Shoulders that have more width from side to side than the rest of the hog are objectionable, but never- theless should be given preference over a narrow chest in a breeding animal. ^1 M Fig. 64. Correct Bacon Type. The breast should be wide and carry well down between the fore legs and straight out in front to join the lower border of the neck, thus insuring a large chest capacity. The front legs should be rather long, but not extremely so, straight, strong, with upright pasterns, and cariying the weight full on the toes. A back of moderate width, very slightly arched, and rounded over the top from side to side represents correct bacon-type development in this valuable part of the carcass. A sagging back or a very much arched back is an evidence of weak muscling and consequently of a lack of lean meat along Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 255 the top where the highest-priced bacon is found. The top of the hog should show a slight arch from head to tail as viewed from the side, the highest point being over the loin. A wide, flat back denotes a high degree of fatness such as is wanted in the fat-hog carcass, but not in the carcass of a bacon hog. A very narrow back is an indication of a lack of flesh or lean meat. The loin furnishes the most valuable part of the side of bacon and therefore should be strongly developed. It should have the same width and form as the back. From shoulder to hindquarter the top of the hog should exhibit a uniform width, uniform arch, and uniform fleshing. When the loin is narrower than the back, the hog is not developed sym- metrically and the loin may be said to be deficient. A side that is flat, straight, and deep, with a great deal of length, and carrying a firm, smooth covering of flesh is demanded. The packer likes as long a side as can be had, but the breeder must avoid extreme length because such hogs incline to be narrow and shallow bodied. They lack constitu- tion and feeding qualities to such an extent that they do not make economical gains on feed. The side of the bacon hog constitutes the most important consideration in judging either breeding or market animals. Score cards for bacon hogs universally allow more points to the side than to any other part of the animal. A study of the side more nearly reveals the worth of the bacon hog than a study of any other single item on the score card. No other part of the animal plays so large a part in determining the nature and value of the carcass. When the hog is standing, a straight-edge laid against his side, either vertically or horizontally, should touch every point beneath it. There should be no signs of seams or wrinkles, but a smooth development everywhere. The side should also be flrm in fleshing, without any softness just be- hind the shoulder or elsewhere. The flank constitutes an important consideration because a high flank injures the appearance of the carcass, necessitates more trimming in order to give evenness to the lower border of the side of bacon, and also is an indication that the belly meat is too thin. When the flank is carried down well, the 256 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock flesh is usually carried well down on the ham, the belly meat is thick and fleshy, and the development of the side is made more uniform in depth and thickness. The belly should be straight, trim, firm, thick, and free from flabbiness. This part yields good bacon, but it is not so high priced as that from the loin and back. The rump should not be broad and flat, which indicates too much fat, but should have the same width as the rest of the top and should be rounding from side to side across the top, the same as the back and loin. It should be long also, and should round slightly toward the tail, but should not be drooping with the tail set low. A heavy, bulging ham is not an indication of correct bacon type. Such hams must have a great deal of fat trimmed off them in preparing the side of bacon for the mar- ket. The ham of the bacon hog should taper toward the hock and should be smooth and firm, especially at the lower part where flabbiness is likely to occur. The flesh should cany well around the bone, inside as well as outside, and should not taper off too suddenly below, but let down well toward the hocks. The ham of the bacon hog is often called the gammon. The hind legs should be straight and strong, the pasterns upright, and the weight carried full on the toes. CHAPTER XXI THE HOG CARCASS. A comparative study of the importance of the various kinds of meat in American, English, French, and German dietaries discloses the fact that civilization is greatly depend- ent upon the hog and its products. The following table gives the latest available figures for the annual per capita consump- tion of the various kinds of meat in the four countries men- tioned, and shows the large contribution of the hog to the meat supply. Kind of meat United States (1909) United Kingdom (average 1903-1908) Germany* (1913) France* (1904) Beef Pounds 80.00 7.50 6.50 78.09 Pounds 56.00 4.00 26.00 33.00 Pounds 31.35 7.25 1.90 71.30 Pounds 37 00 Veal Mutton and lamb Pork, including lard .. 8.00 9.00 26.00 Total 172.00 119.00 111.80 80.00 *In addition to the above, the consumption of horse flesh amounts to about 1 pound per capita in France, and in Germany 1.9 pounds of goat, horse, and dog meat is consumed per capita. The British are well known to be partial to beef in their meat dietary, and the Germans to pork, and this is amply substantiated by the table; nevertheless it is seen that the people of the United States consume more beef than the Eng- lish and more pork than the Germans. The British, however, consume more mutton per capita than any other nationality, and the French come first with veal. The figures show that the consumption of pork, as compared with the consumption of beef, is greater than might be supposed. Germans con- sume more pork than beef, and Americans eat equally of the two kinds of meat, but the table shows a different proportion for the English and French. These variations may be due to 257 258 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock differences in the way appetites have been cultivated in the various countries, or to differences in the quantities of pork produced and the cost of it. The type of hogs found in the several countries varies considerably. In the United States the fat or lard type is produced almost exclusively, this being particularly true of the cornbelt. The stock yards of this country receive prac- tically no bacon hogs; the St. Paul market is something of an exception, although the number received there is com- paratively small. We shall, therefore, give more attention to the fat carcass than to the bacon carcass. Fig. 65. The Hog Hoist. Slaughtering and dressing. — When the hog enters the packing house, and this applies to both the fat hog and the bacon hog, he passes rapidly through the operations of (1) bleeding, (2) scalding, (3) scraping, (4) disemboweling, (5) removal of leaf fat, (6) splitting, (7) dry room (four hours), and (8) cooling. The legs, feet, cheek, and jowl are left as part of the carcass. An exception is made in the case of pigs ?ind some light hogs intended for the fresh pork trade, these being dressed with the head on, leaf in, and the backbone not split. Some variation also occurs in the manner of splitting the carcass. All dressed hogs are cut open along the underline and through the aitch bone and brisket, but the best heavy Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 259 carcasses, called loin carcasses, are split through the center of the backbone, while the inferior heavy carcasses, called pack- ing carcasses, are sometimes split on one side of the back- bone. Bacon carcasses are usually cut with a knife on each side of the backbone and then split on one side and the back- bone taken out, making sides suitable for the English bacon cuts. The ofifal and the dressing percentage. — The parts which the hog loses in dressing are the blood, viscera, head, leaf fat, and hair. The dressing percentage is determined as easily as Fig. 66. Dressing Hogs. with cattle and sheep. Hogs easily dress 83 to 85 per cent. Some hogs in the carcass contests at the International Live Stock Show have dressed as high as 89, 89.3, and 89.6; but these were hogs of show-yard quality weighing 417, 429, and 520 pounds respectively, and had been without feed or water for more than twenty-four hours prior to killing. The chief factors determining the dressing percentage of a hog are fat- ness and paunchiness, of which the former is by far the more important. The wholesale trade in pork. — Only about one or two per cent, of the hogs slaughtered by the large packing houses are sold as whole carcasses. About three-fourths of the whole- sale trade in pork consists of various cured meats and fresh 260 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock cuts, the remainder consisting principally of lard and a small percentage of sausage and canned meats. Only about twenty per cent, of the domestic trade and five per cent, of the export trade in pork products, other than lard, consists of fresh meat. The Fat or Lard-Hog Carcass. Wholesale cuts. — After the carcass has been thoroughly chilled it is cut up into shoulders, hams, fat backs, loins, spare ribs, and belly. These wholesale cuts are shown in the draw- ings which accompany this chapter. Fig 67. A View of the Pork Coolers. The part labeled "fat back" is a clear layer of external fat containing no lean meat. Studies of the carcasses of cattle and sheep disclose the fact that it is easily possible to feed a steer or a wether too long, and thus make the animal too fat to suit the consumer. One-half to three-fourths of an inch of external fat is all that is wanted on the carcasses of cattle, and for mutton and lamb the desired thickness is proportion- ate to the requirements for cattle. With fat hogs we find an entirely different state of affairs, for the packer wants a very thick layer of external fat over the top of the hog. This heavy layer of fat constitutes a separate cut known as the fat back, which may be rendered into lard, or dry salted and sold as a Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 261 dry-salt cut. When manufactured into lard they render 85 to 88 per cent. About one-half of them are sold as a dry-salt cut for which a demand exists in the South and in Europe. Lard is far more valuable than tallow, hence the difference in the packer's attitude toward very heavy fatness in the lard hog as compared with a similar degree of fatness in cattle or sheep. Wholesale Cuts of Pork. English Cuts — A, Long-cut ham; B, long side or middle. American Cuts — 1, Ham; 2, loin; 3, belly; 4, picnic butt; 5, Boston butt; 6, jowl; 7, hock; 8, fat back; 9, clear plate; 2 and 8, back; 2, 3, and 8, side; 4 and 7, picnic shoulder; 5 and 9, shoulder butt; 8 and 9, long fat back; 4, 5, 7, and 9, rough shoulder. The belly contains stripes of lean and is suitable foi- a "breakfast bacon belly" if the cut is from a light, thin hog. If the hog is heavy, the belly cut is dry salted or pickled and sold as a "dry-salt belly" or as a "sweet-pickle belly," as the case may be. 262 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock The following table gives the weights of the various wholesale cuts of pork, the per cent, of live weight included in each cut, the wholesale prices per pound, and the total wholesale price of each cut. This table was compiled from un- published data of a slaughtering and cutting test conducted by Mr. J. M. Evvard of the Iowa Experiment Station, in co- operation with Sulzberger and Sons' Company of Chicago. The test included 24 Duroc-Jersey hogs which averaged 300 pounds live weight and which dressed 75.19 per cent. If the heads and leaf fat are included, the dressing yield was 81.95 per cent. The following table represents averages of the 24 hogs. From carcass of hog having live weight of 300 pounds. Wholesale cuts Weights of cuts Per cent, of live weight Wholesale price per pound Total value of cut Hams Pounds 36.67 45.46 56.70 31.04 1.58 26.92 8.45 8.35 17.77 12.95 12.22 15.15 18.90 10.35 .52 8.97 2.82 2.78 5.92 4.32 Cents 16.5 12 14 11 10 15 5.5 11.25 10 6.5 $6.05 Shoulders . . 5.46 Bellies (dry salt) Fat backs 7.94 3.41 Spare ribs .16 Loins 4.03 Miscellaneous..... .46 Leaf fat .94 Cutting fat . 1.78 Head .84 Total carcass 245.89 81.95 12.6 $31.07 Note. — The above table includes both sides of the carcass. The shoulder cut is a rough shoulder, including the jowl. "Miscellaneous" includes trim- mings, tail, neckbones, and rough feet. "Cutting fat" includes small fat trimmings from the hams, fat backs, bellies, and other cuts. It is rendered into lard. High-priced and low-priced cuts. — There is not much variation in the wholesale prices of the various cuts of pork — much less variation than occurs in the wholesale prices of the various cuts of beef, mutton, or lamb. The rib and loin cuts of the beef carcass sell far above the other cuts, and the rib and loin development, together with the development of the round, practically determine the value of the beef carcass. In the fat-hog carcass, values are rather evenly distributed, al- though the ham may be said to be the most valuable part of Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 263 the hog. A study of the swine carcass emphasizes the im- portance of good development in all parts of the hog, and espe- cially is this true of the back, loin, and hams. The top of the hog and the hams hold most of the value of the carcass, but the shoulder and belly are almost equally valuable. Qualifications of a good carcass. — The value of the fat- hog carcass depends upon shape, finish, quality, and weight. These various factors will now be discussed. 1. Shape. — The shape desired is one combining great width of side and back in proportion to length of body, straight, even lines, and well-filled hams and shoulders. A neat, trim carcass is wanted that is free from prominence on the underline. Hence, barrows are always preferred to sows because sows carry more cheap belly meat, this being espe- cially true of sows that have had several litters of pigs. Such sows are called "seedy," and they bring a lower price than neat, trim animals that are well tucked up along the belly. The accompanying drawings show the importance of the underline in determining the value of the side cut from a hog. The trimming from a seedy sow goes to the rendering tank and is made into a cheap grade of lard. Side from low-flanked hog -^ T Side from seedy sow Fig. 69. Effect of the Underline on Trimming of Side. T. trimming. 2. Finish. — This is indicated by the depth and evenness of fat covering the carcass, especiaHy along the back and over the sides; also by the amount and quality of leaf fat. The leaf is the internal fat and includes the kidney fat and extends down to the flanks and "skirt" or diaphragm. It is important that the fat be white and firm. Packers like hogs well fattened because this means a higher yield of lard and a higher dress- ing percentage. As a rule, the heavier the hog the more fat he carries, because the nearer an animal approaches maturity the more easily he takes on fat. This is shown by the follow- 264 Types and Market Classes of Li\'e Stock ing figures giving the percentage of yields and percentage of parts of carcasses of swine of different live weights. The fat backs were all rendered into lard. Number of hogs slaughtered Average Side live meat Hams weight Shoulder cuts Lard Total yield Figures from Boore and Company, Chicago. 2107 1316 1215 907 Pounds 360 302 234 204 Per cent. 37.10 36.17 36.10 34.60 Per cent. 13.31 13.33 13.20 13.70 Per cent. 9.62 9,05 11.05 10.40 Per cent. 16.00 15.45 11.96 11.55 Per cent. 76 03 74 50 72.31 70 25 Figures from Sinclair Packing Company, Cedar Rapids. 2946 293 37.94 12.74 9.10 15.09 74.87 4067 236 36.86 13.52 6.58 15.04 72.00 1102 232 37.76 13.38 8.42 14.21 73.77 1615 232 38.02 13.29 8.14 13.89 73.34 The above figures do not include the small cuttings, ten- derloins, tails, pig's feet, cheek meat, etc., which are prac- tically alike for hogs within the weight limits mentioned above. When the small parts are added in, the dressing per- centage is increased by about seven to nine per cent., making these hogs dress 83 to 85 per cent., total. The figures show a marked increase in the percentage of lard yield as the hog matures. That the hog is by nature disposed to take on more fat than any of the other domestic animals is shown by the following table of analyses made at the Rothamsted (Eng- land) Experiment Station. After fasting from eighteen to twenty-four hours the animals were killed and the entire bodies analysed. ' Total Contents Live Mineral dry sub- of stom- Animal Age weight Protein Fat matter Water ach and j (ash) stance intestines — moist Lbs. Per Per Per Per Per Per cent. cent. cent. cent. cent. cent. Fat pig . .. 185 10.9 12.2 42.2 35'6 1.65 54.7 2.81 50 6 41.3 43.4 3.97 Fat sheep .. 15 mo. 127 6 02 Fat ox 4 yrs. 1416 14.5 30 1 3.92 , 48.5 45.5 5 98 Fat lamb.... 6 mo. 84 12.3 28.5 2.94 j 43.7 47.8 8.54 Fat calf 8-9 wks 258 15.2 14.8 3.80 33.8 63.0 3.17 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 2BF/ These figures show why the corn crop has formed a closer- alliance with hogs than with any other of our domestic animals. The hog requires more fattening food than other animals because he is naturally disposed to take on a very high degree of fatness, and, as has been mentioned, hog fat is far- more valuable than the fat of cattle or sheep. Packers desire- a covering of outside fat on the carcass of a lard hog that measures from two to six inches in thickness, the require^- ments varying according to the weight of the carcass. 3. Quality. — A carcass is said to have quality when the- outlines are even and smooth, the head and shanks fine, the flesh firm, bright, and smooth grained, the fat white and evenly distributed over the carcass, and the skin smooth, thin, mel- low, and free from wrinkles, blotches, or bruises. Coarse or extremely large shoulders, neck, and jowls show lack of qual- ity and are indications of stagginess, and the carcasses of seedy sows grade low because of their coarse quality. Barrows" and smooth, clear sows yield carcasses of the best quality. 4. Weight. — While it is true that packers find uses for carcasses of all weights ranging from 20 to 400 pounds, the most valuable carcasses are those weighing 200 to 220 pounds,, provided the carcass is at the same time one of good shape, finish, and quality. Such carcasses come from hogs with a live weight of 235 to 260 pounds. Carcasses weighing 200 to 220 pounds yield loins of the proper size and best quality. The general statement may also be made that all carcasses should weigh heavy for their size, thus insuring a high degree of finish or fatness. Bacon Carcasses. The packing house classes the heavier and fatter car- casses as lard hog carcasses, while the lighter, thinner ones are cut up into the bacon or English cuts, so called because they are suitable for the English trade. The principal English cuts are Wiltshire sides, Cumberland sides, and long-cut hams. These cuts are also sold under several other names depending^ on some technical variations in the manner of preparing the side for the retail trade. The Wiltshire side comprises the 266 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock entire side (half the hog), minus the head, feet, shoulder blade, and hip bone. The belly is trimmed smooth and even. These sides average 40 to 70 pounds and are selected especially for thickness of lean meat and a light, even covering of fat from 1 to 2 inches thick, not exceeding l^o inches in the Fig. 70. Fat and Bacon Carcasses Compared. Note the difference in size and especially the difference in fatness between the fat carcass on the left and the bacon carcass on the right. best grades. They are made exclusively from choice, lean bacon hogs. The drawings which accompany this chapter show a bacon side and indicate its division into the long-cut ham and the long-cut middle or Cumberland. Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 267 Classification of Carcasses. The classification and grading of hog carcasses is based on the uses to which they are adapted, or in other words, it is based on the products into which they can be converted. Therefore the shape, finish, quality, and weight determine where the carcass will classify and grade. The generally recog- nized classes and grades and their respective weights as given in Illinois bulletin No. 147 are as follows : Smooth Heavy, or Heavy Loin Carcasses _ 240 — 400 lb Butcher, or Light Loin Carcasses 160 — 240 lb ( Heavy 240—400 lb Packing Hog Carcasses < Medium .200 — 240 lb f Light ._ _..__ _ __ 100—200 lb Choice 120—160 lb Bacon Carcasses < Good .110 — 170 lb ( Common _.._ _.. 90—110 lb Shippers.. 100—200 lb Pigs 20—100 lb Smooth heavy, or heavy loin carcasses. — These are from prime, smooth hogs, either barrows or good clear (not seedy) sows. These carcasses weigh 240 to 400 pounds and have four to six inches of fat on the back. The flesh and fat must be deep, firm, and even, the flesh bright colored, the fat white, and the bones not coarse. As the name indicates, such car- casses are especially suitable for making heavy loins, the re- mainder of the side being made into a heavy fat back and dry- salt belly. These carcasses yield a very heavy ham. The per cent, of such carcasses is a very small part of the general supply. Butcher, or light loin carcasses. — A large proportion of the fresh pork sold in retail markets is pork loins, which are cut into chops and roasts, and light loin carcasses are so named because these cuts can be obtained from them to best advantage. To yield loins of the proper size and quality, a hog carcass should weigh about 160 to 240 pounds and have the same shape, smoothness, and general quality previously described. Thick, firm flesh, smooth, soft skin, and solid, white fat are especially important. The covering of fat on the back should be two to four inches. Barrows and smooth clear sows furnish carcasses of this class. The weights most 268 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock preferred are 200 to 220 pounds. The carcass is cut up into the regular American or fat-hog cuts. Packing hog carcasses. — About one-half of the carcasses in Chicago packing houses are of this class. They are car- casses of mixed hogs of all weights, which are too coarse in quality, rough in shape, and uneven in finish to be well adapted for fresh pork products or smoked meats and are therefore principally packed in such form as mess pork and dry-salt meats. The hams are sweet pickled and the shoulders made into picnics and Boston butts. The general statement may be made that packing carcasses are inferior carcasses weighing 100 pounds or more which are left after the best carcasses have been sorted out. They are graded heavy, medium, and light according to weight. Heavy packing carcasses. — These are the carcasses of rough and seedy sows, coarse barrows, boars, and stags aver- aging 240 to 400 pounds. Common defects of this grade are thick, rough, and wrinkled skin, dark-colored and coarse- grained flesh, soft, oily fat, large bones, and carcass bruises. Medium packing carcasses. — The only important dis- tinction between this grade and the preceding one is weight. These carcasses weigh 200 to 240 pounds. They are inferior to butcher carcasses in shape, finish, and quality. Light packing carcasses. — These weigh 100 to 200 pounds. They are too deficient in shape, quality, and finish to be classified as either bacon, butcher, or shipper carcasses. This grade comes mostly from light sows. Mess pork, which is made from packing hog carcasses, is a simple method of packing cheap pork and was much used in the early days of the packing industry. It is prepared by cutting the side into strips about six inches wide and pack- ing in salt brine in tight barrels (18x29 inches) at 200 pounds net weight of cured pork per barrel or 355 pounds gross. It is shipped principally to the Southern States, northern lumber camps, and South America. Dry-salt meats, the other com- mon product of packing carcasses, are hea\T sides, bellies, shoulders, fat backs, and jowls cured in dry salt, pumped with brine, and shipped in coarse salt. They are usually shipped I Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 269 loose, but sometimes are put up in boxes containing 25 to 500 pounds. Bacon carcasses. — These are suitable for sugar-cured, breakfast-bacon bellies and English meats. Such carcasses have long, deep, smooth sides with a light, even covering of fat. The hams should be full, but lean, and the shoulders liffht and smooth. The flesh must be firm and not "watery," the fat solid, and the carcass very smooth. These carcasses weigh 90 to 170 pounds. The most desirable weights are 120 to 150 pounds. Only a small percentage of Chicago carcasses are of this class. Choice bacon carcasses. — The depth of back fat is from 114 to 2 inches. It must not vary more than l^ to % of an inch over the back and shoulders. Only carcasses of barrows weighing 120 to 160 pounds grade here as a rule. Good bacon carcasses. — These lack slightly in the essen- tial points of the preceding grade. The thickness of back fat must be 1 to 21/2 inches. The carcasses range in weight from 110 to 170 pounds and come not only from barrows but also from smooth, clear sows. Common bacon carcasses. — These are decidedly lacking in the prime essentials of the class. They are usually light, unfinished carcasses from "skippy" or "skinny" hogs. Shippers. — These are similar to butcher hog carcasses in shape and quality, but are lighter in weight and generally not so highly finished. Compared with bacon carcasses they are shorter and thicker bodied, with a deeper and less even covering of fat, heavier jowls, and are younger for their weights. Their chief use is for the fresh retail trade, and they must be fancy in quality. This is the only class of carcasses that is extensively sold as whole carcasses. They are shipped in carlots to eastern points, the greatest demand being in the winter months. They usually weigh 100 to 160 pounds. Pigs. — These are carcasses of light, young hogs that are comparatively lean and light colored in flesh, with thin, soft skin, soft, red bones, and weighing from 20 to 100 pounds. They are dressed and sold like shippers. Roasting pigs are dressed suckling pigs which are fat and smooth. They are 270 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock sold like winter lambs direct to hotels and restaurants. The most desired weight is 15 to 20 pounds, but pigs weighing 30 pounds are used. The Grades of Lard. ^M From one-tenth to one-third of the hog carcass is made into lard in large packing houses, the proportion vaiying with the relative price of lard and grade of hogs. Lard is sold under six different names representing differences in white- ness, grain, flavor, and keeping qualities. Lard is made from leaf fat, fat backs, and fat trimmings from ham, shoulder, belly, jowl, and head. Some hams trim fifteen per cent. The highest grade of lard is Kettle Rendered Leaf Lard, made from leaf fat. It is very white in color and finest in grain and flavor of all grades of lard. Then there is Kettle Rendered Lard made mostly from fat backs, with perhaps a small addi- tion of leaf fat. Fat trimmings are also used at times. It ranks second only to the preceding grade. Neutral Lard is made from leaf or back fat at a lower temperature than is required in the manufacture of kettle rendered leaf lard. No. 1 Neutral Lard is made from leaf fat only. It is tasteless, free of acids and impurities, smooth grained, and remains unchanged in odor and color. No. 2 Neutral Lard is made from back fat. It is not as white in color nor as fine in grain as No. 1 and sells at a lower price. Ninety per cent, or more of the lard made at Chicago is known as Prime Steam Lard. It is made from fat trimmings and internal fats. It is darker colored and coarser grained than other grades and is the form in which hog fats can be most economically stored and shipped. It is refined before using. Then there is Refined Lard made from prime steam lard by a bleaching and stirring process. Also there is Compound Lard or Lard Compound, which is a mixture of lard, stearin or other animal fat, and vegetable oil, usually cottonseed oil. Conclusions. The following conclusions may be drawn from the study of the swine carcass and its various products : 1. In order to bring the highest market price, lard hogs must be fat and well tucked up in the underline. ! , Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 271 2. The greatest demand is for 200- to 300-pound hogs, and hog growers usually obtain the most profit by fattening and selling their hogs at weights ranging from 250 to 300 pounds. 3. Barrows outsell sows because they carry less cheap meat on the underline. 4. No other animal equals the lard hog in its fat-storing tendency. 5. The production of lard hogs furnishes a logical chan- nel of disposal for corn, because corn is a fattening food and lard brings a much higher price than tallow. 6. Any kind of a hog finds a buyer on the market, but the price paid depends on the kind of carcass the hog will yield. 7. The development of the packing industry has made an outlet for the plainer sorts of hogs which otherwise would be a drug upon the market. 8. No other kind of meat comes so nearly being manu- factured by packers as does pork. 9. Indian corn and the American packing industry have combined to develop the American swine industry into a business of mammoth proportions. Corn, properly supple- mented, makes pork economically, and pork finds ready sale because packers have discovered many ways of placing pork on the market in attractive and highly palatable form com- bined with most excellent keeping qualities. CHAPTER XXII. HOG MARKETS AND PORK PACKING— PAST AND PRESENT, During the first half of the nineteenth century, Cincinnati -was the leading pork-packing center of this continent, and this position was maintained until 1863, at which time Chicago took the lead. One by one, other western cities have crowded ahead of Cincinnati until now her rank is twentieth in the list of American hog-packing cities. That Cincinnati's su- premacy was not a permanent one was due to the fact that until the West was settled, live-stock conditions were very unstable, and the logical packing center in 1850 was found to be too far to the east of the center of hog production as it ex- isted twenty years later. With the settling of the cornbelt and the rapid extension of the hog's domain to the westward, Chicago was enabled, by virtue of her location and direct rail- way connections with the heart of the cornbelt, to gain and hold supremacy as a pork-packing center. The evolution of the gigantic pork-packing business of the United States may be told in brief by first reviewing the growth and development of the business at Cincinnati, and then following it to Chicago at the close of the Civil War. Early packing at Cincinnati. — In 1833 Cincinnati packed 85,000 hogs. Five years later the number packed in the year had risen to 182,000 head. In 1843 no less than 250.000 hogs were consumed by the numerous packing establishments then doing a thriving business at Cincinnati, and the town was dubbed "Porkopolis," which name was formerly in general use, but is now nearly obsolete. Cincinnati slaughtered 360,000 hogs for packing pui*poses in 1853, and in 1863 the highest mark was reached, the number that year being 608,457. The demands of the army were largely accountable for the large number packed during the last mentioned year. Prior to the Civil War, Cincinnati was the center of the finest hog-raising region in the world, including the states of Kentucky, Ohio. 272 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 273 and Indiana. It was in this favorable environment and under the stimulus afforded by a large, near-by market that the Poland-China breed originated during the period mentioned. Although Chicago took the lead in the number of hogs packed following the war, Cincinnati continued to hold first place for a considerable time so far as the quality of hogs packed was concerned. In 1866 there were fifteen slaughter houses at Cincinnati, some of which employed as many as one hundred hands. One concern slaughtered 60,000 hogs during that year. Measured by the standards of the time, these Cincinnati pack- ing establishments were considered to be gigantic in propor- tions. In the same year, Cincinnati produced 180,000 barrels of pork, 25,000,000 pounds of bacon, and 16,500,000 pounds of lard. Development of packing at Chicago. — The earliest pack- ing or slaughtering done in Chicago was in 1827 ; in that year Archibald Clybourn erected a slaughter house for the special purpose of supplying the garrison at Fort Dearborn. The trade was mostly local until 1833, when immigration set westward quite strongly, creating a larger demand. During 1835, Mr. Clybourn packed about 3,000 hogs, besides considerable beef, for which a ready market was at hand. This stock had to be picked up at long distances from Chicago and driven on foot to the city. Other men soon engaged in the business which took on larger proportions, the surplus product finding a mar- ket in the East. The slaughter houses were mostly located on the south branch of the Chicago river, and into it the offal and filth were drained, which in later years became a nuisance and was prohibited by the city. In 1863 there were 58 dif- ferent establishments in Chicago doing a general packing busi- ness. During the winter of 1853-'54, Chicago packed 52,849 hogs, and in 1860-'61 the number packed was 231,335. During the winter-packing season of 1863-'64, the rank of the largest packing centers and the number of hogs packed by each was as follows: (1) Chicago, 904,159; (2) Cincinnati, 400,000; (3) St. Louis, 200,000 ; (4) Louisville, 103,996. Growth of American pork packing. — The pork-packing year ends March 1st and is divided into two seasons — the summer season of eight months, from March 1 to November 1, 274 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock and the winter season of four months, from November 1 to March 1. This system came into use before the days of artifi- cial refrigeration, and, although such a designation is no longer necessary it is still adhered to by statisticans. Before 1873, summer packing was not practiced, but it began in September of that year when it is said to have reached the number of 505,500. The total number of hogs packed in the West during the winter season, and the cost of hogs per 100 pounds live weight, according to the Cincinnati Price Current's special re- ports since 1849 and estimates previously, were as follows : Season Number Cost Season Number Cost 1842-'43 675,000 1879-80 6,950,451 $4 18 1844-'45 790,000 $2.65 1884-'85 6,460,240 4.29 1849-'50 1,652,220 2.13 1889-'90 6,663,802 3.66 1854-'55 2,124,404 3.37 1894-'95 7,191,520 4.28 1859-'60 2,350,822 4.73 1899-'00 8,675,898 4.29 1864-'65 2,422,779 11.46 1904-05 10,456,503 4.67 1869-70 2,635,312 9.22 1909-'10 8,725,224 8.30 1874-75 5,566,226 6.66 19 14-' 15 12,559,412 6.74 The number of hogs packed in the West during the cal- endar years, from 1845 to 1914, were as follows: Year Number Year Number 1845 781,000 1850 __ 1,652,000 1855 2,124,000 1860 2,350,000 1865 2,451,000 1870 2,635,000 1875 6,485,000 1914. 1880 12,210,000 1885 11,350,000 1890 16,980,000 1895 15,285,000 1900 _ 23,265,000 1905 25,485,000 1910 25,729,000 25.610,000 Present leading hog-packing centers. — During the year 1914, swine were slaughtered under Federal meat inspection at 286 establishments in the United States located in 142 cities and towns. From the government reports of animals slaughtered under federal inspection, the following table is constructed, showing the present rank of the twenty largest hog-packing cities: Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 275 City Number of City Number of hogs packed hogs packed 1. Chicago 5,917,396 11. Sioux City _ 998,990 2. Kansas City 2,415,591 12. Buffalo 877,061 3. Omaha 2,095,458 13. Cleveland- 795,004 4. St. Joseph 1,715,970 14. Jersey City 767,172 5. Indianapolis 1,376,771 15. Detroit... 719,253 6. Nat'l. Stock Yards, 111. 1,331,530 16. New York.... 713,420 7. St. Louis..... 1,140,700 17. Ottumwa (*) 8. Boston 1,095,544 18. Baltimore... 582,040 9. St. Paul...... 1,091,723 19. Philadelphia... 563,427 10. Milwaukee 1,049,176 20. Cincinnati... 535,908 *Figure3 not available at time of publication. Chicago packing at present time. — The number of hogs packed at Chicago by the leading hog-packing firms in 1912, 1913, and 1914, and the total number packed at Chicago in each of these years was as follows : 1914 1913 1912 Armour & Co 1,063,700 1,325,900 1,340,900 Swift & Co 674,200 928,700 1,060,800 Sulzberger & Sons... 533,700 607,500 682,000 Morris & Co... 424,600 482,500 430,900 Anglo-American Co.. 347,400 317,800 273,800 Boyd, Lunham & Co.... 282,400 280,000 236,900 Hammond Co 344,000 405,900 345,200 Western Packing Co 453,700 394,400 311,000 Roberts & Oake 306,600 223,600 130,800 Miller & Hart 160,500 153,600 125,000 Independent Packing Co 366,700 312,200 240,000 Brennan Packing Co 222,300 216,800 174,700 All others 429,200 482,200 494,900 Totals 5,609,000 6,131,100 5,855,900 By-products from hog packing. — The Report of the Com- missioner of Agriculture for 1866 contains an interesting account of the early hog-packing operations in this country. The following, written by Mr. Charles Cist, of Cincinnati, ap- peared in the report for that year: "I have referred to the remarkable fact, that there was a period in the West when corn would not, in some sections, command six cents per bushel, and in others was of so little value as to be substituted for wood as fuel. Not less extraor- dinary is the fact, within the knowledge of hundreds now in Cincinnati, that in the early ages of pork packing, say in 1828, 276 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock there was so little demand for any portion of the hog, other than hams, shoulders, sides, and lard, that the heads, spare- ribs, neck pieces, backbone, etc., were regularly thrown into the Ohio river to get rid of them !" The same writer also says: "The slaughterers formerly received the gut fat for the whole of the labor of dressing, wagoning the hogs more than a mile to the pork houses free of expense to the owners. Every year, however, adds to the value of fat, heart, liver, etc., for food and the hoofs, hair, and other parts for manufacturing pur- poses. Six years since, from 10 to 25 cents per hog was paid as a bonus for the privilege of killing. This was later raised to 75 cents and even to $1.00." In 1863, hog-packing products consisted of bristles, lard, mess pork, hams, shoulders, bacon, and lard oil used for mak- ing candles. The beginning of the immense packing-house by-products industry of modern times was described by an early writer as follows: "Since the Chicago river has ceased to be the sewer for all the offal from the slaughter and pack- ing houses, the owners have been obliged to cart it off to the commons and open fields beyond the city limits at a veiy heavy expense to them. An enterprising firm has, however, con- tracted with all the principal firms the present season to carry it all away by the owners paying half the expenses. Instead, however, of carrying it off and throwing it away, they have commenced preparing it for fertilizers. They have provided centrifugal machines, into which they place the refuse from the lard and grease tanks, and throw out all the water, leaving only the solid parts, and that in a pulpy or pulverized condi- tion. In this way they will prepare about three thousand tons the present season, all of which will be shipped east for the manufacture of commercial manures. Another concern is gathering all the bones it can pick up, from which are manu- factured large quantities of animal charcoal, and such as are not suitable for that purpose are ground up and sent east, they having shipped the past season over three hundred tons of ground bones alone." Packers estimate that practically 70 per cent, of the live hog is merchantable as fresh or cured meat. Slaughtering and handling involves a shrink of about 10 per cent., which in- cludes the contents of stomach and intestines and loss of i Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 277 weight by the carcass in coohng. The other 20 per cent, com- prises tankage, blood, hair, bristles, grease, and fertilizer. A larger proportion of the hog is edible than of any other food animal, and the value of the by-products is correspondingly less. Exports of pork products. — A good idea of the import- ance of American hog packing to European nations may be obtained from the following table, giving exports of pork ^products for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1913: Pork Products Pounds Value fBacon 156,675,310 $21,211,605 Hams and shoulders 157,709,316 20,708,882 Pork, canned-. 4,010,862 483,959 Pork, fresh 1,355,378 159,654 Pork, pickled 45,729,471 4,944,448 Lard 476,107,857 52,509,217 Lard compounds 73,754,400 7,070,967 Sausage 4,716,610 601,596 Sausage casings 40,013,760 5,466,661 Totals 960,072,964 $113,156,989 The only countries exporting hog products to any great extent besides America at the present time are Denmark and j China. The United Kingdom is our largest customer, and un- I til recently provided a practically free and unrestricted market for all of our products. Since January 1, 1909, some minor re- I strictions have been in force which have curtailed trade to j some extent. Next to the United Kingdom, Germany is our most important customer. Germany's purchases, however, consist almost exclusively of lard. Trade in meats with Ger- many is not possible to any large extent, owing to the high duty imposed. France is a steady importer of lard, and also , buys some fat backs, trade in the latter being interfered with by a high duty. We also sell a good many dried sausages to France where this product meets with much appreciation. Italy, Switzerland, Spain, Norway, Sweden, Denmark, Hol- land, the West Indies, Central America, all countries in South America, Asia, and Australia are buyers of hog products in some form. Some countries buy only the casings for sausage making, but all pay tribute to the American hog in one form or another. 278 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock Modern large hog markets. — The Chicago Daily Farmers and Drovers Journal reports the receipts of hogs at the thirteen principal markets of the country during 1914 as follows : Markets Receipts 1. Chicago 6,618,166 2. St. Louis 2,558,825 3. Kansas City 2,264,805 4. Omaha 2,258,620 5. Indianapolis-.. 2,099,787 6. Pittsburg... 1,808,731 7. St. Joseph... 1,726,966 8. St. Paul : 1,589,821 9. Buffalo 1,568,270 10. Sioux City : 1,256,679 Markets Receipts 11. Fort Worth 515,003 12. Oklahoma City._.._ 428,260 13. Wichita 418,213 Total 25,112,146 1913 total 26,837,217 1912 total 26,239,753 1911 total 27,551,366 1910 total 20,014,283 As shown by the above figures, Chicago receives more than twice as many hogs as any other market in the country. Of the 6,618,166 hogs received at the Chicago yards during 1914, 5,327,454 were slaughtered by Chicago packers and the remaining 1,290.712 were shipped out alive to other points for slaughter. Practically no hogs are taken out of the large Fig. 71. Unloading Hogs at Chicago. markets for feeding purposes on account of the danger of disease. In addition to the hogs included in the above figures, small packing firms at Chicago, located outside the yards, re- ceived and slaughtered 317,959 hogs during 1914. Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 279 The growth of the Chicago market is shown by the fol- lowing list of receipts and shipments of hogs at that point I during the years mentioned: 1 Year Receipts Shipments Year Receipts Shipments 'l858 540,486 392,864 961,746 1,693,158 3,912,110 192,013 227,164 482,875 924,453 1,582,643 1880 7,059,555 7,663,829 8,109,064 5,586,858 6,618,166 1,394,990 1860 1890 1,985,700 1866._ 1870.. 1875 1900... 1910 1914 . 1,452,183 1,202,390 1,290,712 t It is interesting to note that the advent of the refrigera- tor car, about 1875, had a marked effect on the pro- portionate number of hogs shipped. The largest num- ber of hogs received at Chicago in a year was in 1898, when 8,817,114 head were received at the yards proper. If receipts by outside packing firms are included, the figure is raised to 9,363,451. The highest record for a month is credited to November, 1880, when 1,111,907 hogs were received at the yards and enough by outside packers to make the total 1,179,233. The record week was that ending November 20, 1880, when 300,488 were received at the yards, and 302,070 in all. On February 10, 1908, the largest day's receipts were re- corded, the figures being 87,716 and 89,365 respectively. The number of hogs marketed annually varies greatly. This fluctuation is caused partly by the ravages of disease, and partly by the fact that if an unexpected or temporary demand springs up, and higher prices rule, great numbers of hogs of inferior size and weight are rushed to market. Some peculiarities of the hog crop. — The following table gives the monthly average weights of hogs at Chicago during the years from 1903 to 1914 inclusive. The highest monthly average of each year is given in black type, while the lowest monthly average is enclosed in parenthesis. 280 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock Year 1903 1904 1905 1906 1907 1908 1909 1910 1911 1912 1913 1914 January (208) 206 213 217 223 215 (203) (210) 226 (212) 226 (216) February .209 (205) (209) (215) 222 212 204 213 230 217 230 224 March . 215 206 211 218 228 212 206 218 239 218 240 233 April 222 208 216 221 234 219 212 227 241 227 242 233 May 227 214 219 226 235 218 216 239 242 232 242 236 June 231 221 222 226 236 217 219 242 236 235 244 237 July -235 226 228 231 240 222 225 246 233 239 243 244 August ....248 239 236 241 250 224 232 255 239 240 233 248 September 257 244 241 248 253 219 232 259 224 235 222 242 October 241 230 234 237 235 (207) 227 253 212 226 209 229 November .228 232 230 229 (209) 213 225 232 (208j 222 (207j 218 December....219 228 221 225 214 211 214 224 213 223 213 226 Average 227 220 222 226 231 216 218 235 228 226 228 231 The above table shows that, as a rule, the hogs marketed in August and September are the heaviest of the year, while the smallest average weights usually occur in the months of January and February. This is due to the fact that the pig crop makes its annual appearance on the market in finished form during the first two months of the year, being held until the hog's share of the corn crop has been utilized in fattening him for the market. The heaviest weights are attained in August and September because of the absence from the mar- ket at that time of any considerable number of young hogs. Receipts are also fewer during August and September and in- clude more aged animals, such as discarded sows, the result of culling down breeding stock after pigs are weaned and before winter begins. More hogs are marketed in winter than in summer, the heaviest marketing usually occurring in Jan- uary. That the heaviest receipts occur in January and the smallest in September is explained by the close dependence of hogs on corn. Hog growers wait until the corn crop can be put on the backs of their hogs before marketing them. This explains the monthly fluctuation in receipts. CHAPTER XXIII. MARKET CLASSIFICATION OF SWINE. At Chicago the charge for the yardage of hogs is eight cents per head. The commission charge for selling hogs is twenty cents per head. On straight carloads, however, the commission charge is $12.00 plus five cents per cwt. on all wdght over 22,000 pounds. Public inspection of hogs costs twenty cents per car, no fee being charged on cars containing less than twenty head. Following is the classification of swine as used on the principal markets and by newspapers reporting these markets : Classes Sub-classes Prime Heavy Hogs... .350 — 500 lbs. ... None fHeavy Butchers 280—350 lbs. Butcher Hogs 180—350 lbs. ...^ Medium Butchers _.220— 280 lbs. [Light Butchers 180—220 lbs. [Heavy Packing. .....300—500 lbs. Packing Hogs ......200—500 lbs medium Packing .....250—300 lbs. [Mixed Packing.. 200—280 lbs. i [English .160—220 lbs. I Bacon \ Light Hogs 125—220 Ibs.....^ [United Statesl55— 195 lbs. Light Mixed 150—220 lbs. [Light Light 125—150 lbs. Pigs 60—125 lbs. Roughs Stags Boars [Roasting Pigs 15— 30 lbs. Feeders Miscellaneous ] Governments [Pen Holders [Dead Hogs The various sub-classes are graded prime, choice, good, medium, and common. Prime Heavy Hogs. This means a prime, heavy, fat-back hog, weighing from 350 to 500 pour is — the extreme of the fat or lard hog type. With the tendency of the market toward the lighter hogs, there are not so many of this class as formerly. Only the best. 281 282 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock hogs of these weights classify here. They yield a heavy loin carcass. I-'ig. 72. Prime Heavy Hogs. Carload of Berkshires, Grand Champions at the 1913 International, fed and exhibited by Mr. E. D. King of Burlington, Kan. Average weight, 428 pounds. Note their smooth finish, good quality, and trim lines, com- bined with heavy weight. Butcher Hogs. Butcher hogs are principally barrows. Barrows sell more readily and at better prices than sows. In a drove of butcher Fig. 73. Prime Butcher Hogs. hogs there may be present a few good sows without detracting from the value of the drove. Good young sows are usually kept on the farm for breeding purposes, and poor young sows I Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 283 and old sows will not take on the finish required in the butcher hog class. Butcher hogs yield light loin carcasses and are commonly used for the fresh meat trade. They may be slaughtered and consumed in the East, may be slaughtered locally and the meat consumed locally, or the carcasses may be shipped east. About twenty-five per cent, of the hogs coming to the Chicago market are of this class. They range in age, with good care and heavy feeding, from about six months for the light butchers to one year for the heavy butchers. With less feeding the age will be greater for hogs of the various weights. Except in weight, the three sub-classes of butcher hogs are practically the same. Prime butcher hogs. — Hogs that will grade as prime butchers, either heavy, medium, or light, must be very good in quality, correct in form, and show evidence of ripeness in condition. The hog must show a high state of finish resulting from liberal grain feeding to maturity. Maturity is that stage Fig. 74. Choice Butcher Hogs. in the process of feeding where growth ceases and the animal takes on a fully developed form and appearance and a high state of finish. This may result at different ages and weights, thus giving us prime heavy hogs, and prime heavy, prime medium, and prime light butcher hogs ranging in weight from 500 down to 200 pounds. Packing Hogs. The hogs of this class are a poorer sort than butcher hogs, and it is here that we find old brood sows and all other hogs that are heavy enough for this class and not good enough to 284 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock classify as butcher hogs or as prime heavy hogs. However, it does not include the poorest classes, such as roughs, boars, and coarse stags. This is the class of hogs which, as the name indicates, is of particular importance and interest to the packer. The side pork from these hogs is used principally in the various processes of curing. It is made into mess pork, short-cut mess pork, dry-salt sides, and the hams and shoulders are cured. About forty per cent, of the hogs received at Chicago are of this class.' They range in age from nine months upward. A 200-pound packing hog is usually an older hog than a 200-pound butcher hog. Packing hogs differ widely L^,^ i'ig. 73. Tuckiny Sow. in character. The class includes old sows that bear evidence of once having had pigs, but are fitted in very high condition ; good packing hogs, either heavy or medium according to weight; barrows that are not well enough developed and not good enough in form, quality, and condition to go into the butcher hog class, and there may be a mixture of sows and barrows quite varying in quality and condition. Pregnant sows sell with a dockage of 40 pounds. Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 285 Sub-classes of packing hogs. — Heavy packing includes the heavy hogs of the packing hog class, and medium packing includes the lighter hogs. Mixed packing is a sub-class that is somev^hat characteristic in itself, for it includes hogs com- ing from local buyers in the country, and represents hogs of different classes as well as different grades, as the name indi- cates. There may be heavy packing, medium packing, some light hogs, and even a few butcher hogs in the drove. Many such droves come to the market and are sold to the packer without sorting. In such cases the sorting is done after slaughtering when the carcasses are being cut, the heavy ones being sent one way and the lighter ones another. It is principally mixed packing hogs that furnish a field for opera- tion to the speculator. He buys several carloads of these mixed packing hogs and sorts them into various classes and resells them. ^ • l^ tt Light Hogs. The light hog class includes all hogs within the weight limits, 125 to 220 pounds, except roughs, stags, and boars, which form separate classes. About fifteen per cent, of all Chicago hogs are of this class. They range in age from five to eight months. Although alike in weight, hogs of this class vary a great deal in form, quality, and condition. Such being the case, the meat from them is prepared differently, thus making the sub-classes of more importance than in the two former classes. The sub-classes of light hogs are English bacon hogs, bacon hogs of the United States, light mixed hogs, and light-light hogs. English bacon hogs. — The kind of a hog that is typical of this sub-class of light hogs has already been described in the chapter dealing with bacon hog type. The hog that is repre- sentative of this sub-class belongs primarily to Great Britain, Denmark, and Canada. Many hogs are sold on the Chicago and other markets for bacon purposes, but the majority of them are not of true bacon type. This hog must _be_ long in^ body, deep in,side with comparatively narrow back, narrow and light hams and-shoulders, and light muscujar neck. As the side of the hog furnishes the best and most expensive cuts, it is desirable to have the side as well developed as possible in length and depth. This hog must have firm flesh, be well 286 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock covered with lean meat or muscle, and must not have an excess of external fat. The weight must be between 160 and 220 pounds, with weights between 175 and 190 pounds preferred. Such weights insure cuts that are most desirable as to size, flavor, and firmness. A hog smaller than 160 pounds would furnish a side of bacon that would be too thin, while a hog over 220 pounds would yield a side that would be too thick. A hog younger than is required to produce the desired weight would have too much water in its flesh, and the meat would not have proper "substance." When a hog is heavier than 220 pounds there is too much fat on the outside of the carcass and also intermixed with the lean, and there is also a tendency to lay on fat unevenly and in patches. Such a hog cannot produce good bacon. Bacon hogs of the United States. — As there are only a few real bacon hogs produced in this country, the trade is supplied from the lighter hogs of the lard type which show a tendency toward the bacon type. In other words, this sub-class includes hogs selected from the light hog class that confonn as nearly as possible to the bacon type. They weigh from 155 to 195 pounds, and range in age from six to eight months. The bacon made from them is inferior to that made from true bacon hogs and hence brings a lower price. About twenty per cent, of the light hogs that come to the Chicago market are of this sub-class. Light mixed hogs. — About 55 per cent, of the light hogs coming to Chicago are of this class, and here we find somewhat of a miscellaneous class quite similar, except as to weight, to mixed packing hogs. This class contains hogs of the light butcher weights that are too poor in quality, form, and con- dition for butcher hogs. It also contains hogs of the same weights as bacon hogs, that are too much of the fat or lard type for bacon. This class, then, is made up of outcasts of two other classes of hogs ; in one case it takes the poorer hogs and in the other case the better hogs, considered from the fat or lard hog standpoint. Hogs of this class are used principally for the fresh meat trade and weigh from 150 to 220 pounds. They range in age from five to seven months. Light-light hogs. — About 25 per cent, of the light hogs coming to Chicago are of this sub-class. They range in weight Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 287 from 125 to 150 pounds, and in age from five to six months. They are called "light light" because they are the lightest of light hogs. They are used principally for the fresh meat trade. In the Buffalo market light hogs weighing from 130 to 180 pounds are called "Yorkers." They are so called because they find ready sale on the New York market and are very often shipped there from Buffalo. "Dairies" is another term used in Buffalo, and means hogs that have been fed on slops and refuse from dairies. The flesh of these hogs is not so firm nor will they dress out so well as corn-fed hogs. Pigs. Pigs, as they are considered on the market, range in weight from 60 to 125 pounds, and in age from 31/2 to 6 months. All pigs within these limits classify here. They are used principally to supply the demand from the cheaper res- taurants and lunch counters, and are in greatest demand in winter, being hard to preserve fresh in summer and too young to cure. About 10 per cent, of the hogs coming to the Chicago market are of this class. Roughs. In this class we find hogs of all sizes that are coarse, rough, and lacking in condition. The pork from these hogs is used for the cheaper class of trade for both packing and fresh meat purposes. In market reports, pigs and roughs are frequently classed together; not because they belong in the same class, but because they sell at about the same price. Stags. Stags are hogs that at one time were boars beyond the pig stage and were castrated. They sell with a dockage of 80 pounds. If they are of good quality and condition and do not show too much stagginess, they go in with the various grades of packing hogs. When they are coarse and staggy in appear- ance they are sold in the same class as boars. Boars. Boars are always sold in a class by themselves and bring from two to three dollars per cwt. less than the best hogs on the market at the same time. They sell without dockage. The pork is used to supply the cheaper class of trade and also for making sausage. -288 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock Miscellaneous. Roasting Pigs — These are from three to six weeks old and weigh from 15 to 30 pounds. They come to market in small numbers and only during holiday seasons. They are taken direct from their dams, dressed with head and feet on, and served like spring chickens or turkeys. The price varies greatly. Feeders. — These are hogs bought on the market and taken back to the country to be further fed. However, veiy little of this is done, because the profit resulting from such undertakings is small and the danger of diseases such as hog cholera is great. Hogs are usually fitted for market in first hands. Governments. — Before hogs are allowed to pass over the scales to be weighed out to the packer, the speculator, the shipper, or any one else who may choose to buy them, they must first pass the scrutiny of a government inspector. All hogs not considered sound in every respect are tagged by this inspector and retained for further examination. Badly preg- nant sows, hogs with bunches, boils, etc., also hogs with cuts on the hams and shoulders are retained. These are called "Governments." They are usually bought up by a local dealer and taken to one of the smaller packing houses where they are slaughtered under the supervision of an inspector. If found to be affected so as to make the flesh unfit for human food, they are condemned and tanked. The tank is a large steam- tight receptacle, like a steam boiler, in which the carcass is converted into grease and fertilizer. Pen holders. — The stock yards in Chicago are owned by the Union Stock Yard and Transit Company. This firm gets its revenue from the charges for yardage of stock, for weigh- ing the stock, for feed, and for terminal switching. Commis- sion men who sell the stock and speculators who handle part of it pay nothing for their privilege. They hold their respect- ive positions by common consent and their respective pens by keeping hogs in them. These are called pen holders. They are long legged, poor in form, coarse in quality, thin in condition, and worth little money. They are kept simply for the one pur- pose of holding pens. Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 289 Dead hogs. — These are hogs that have been killed in transit. They are used in the manufacture of grease, soap, and fertilizer. If they weigh 100 pounds or over, they sell for $1.25 per cwt. If they weigh less, they are held in payment of the cost of handling and the shipper gets no return. Hog Prices at Chicago. The Chicago Live Stock World reviewed the Chicago hog market of 1914 as follows: "Hog supply all around the mar- ket circle in 1914 was extremely light, the logical result of devastation of Missouri Valley herds by cholera the previous year. Local receipts are close to a million less than last year. Year-end supply was swelled by a heavy December movement for which foot and mouth disease was to some extent re- sponsible. Prices ruled high, especially during the first half of the year. After the European war broke out, the market suffered considerable vicissitude, due to closure of several im- portant outlets for product, especially Germany and the South." Market values of the various classes. — No detailed records are kept of the average prices made by the various market classes of hogs on the Chicago market. The follow- ing table compiled from reports published by the Chicago Daily Fai^mers and Drovers Journal gives the yearly average weight and yearly average prices of hogs marketed at Chicago from 1905 to 1914, and also the averages for the entire ten- year period. Year Average weight 1 Heavy packing hogs Light hogs Pigs Mixed hogs All classses 1905 1906 ... Pounds 222 226 232 216 218 235 228 226 228 231 $5.25 6.25 6.05 5.75 7.45 8.90 6.70 7.55 8.20 8.20 $5.25 6.25 6.15 5.60 7.25 8.90 6.70 7.50 8.45 8.35 $4.90 5.95 5.75 4.80 6.55 8.80 6.05 6.40 7.35 7.60 $5.25 6.25 6.15 5.70 7.25 8.90 6.70 7.60 8.50 8.30 $5.25 6.25 1907... 6.10 1908 5.70 1909.... 7.35 1910 8.90 1911 6.70 1912... 7.55 1913 8.35 1914. 8.30 Ten year average 226 $7.05 $7.05 $6.40 $7.05 $7.05 CHAPTER XXIV. BREEDING FOR THE MARKET. Hog raising has always been a profitable and favorite de- partment of farming in the United States. In colonial times pork production was a very simple matter. Hogs were allowed to run wild in the woods where they fed upon roots and nat- ural grasses and fattened upon acorns and beech and hickory nuts, called "mast." The only expense to the farmer was the Fig. 7G. Good Type in the Breeding Boar. Chester White boar, Champion at the Iowa State Fair in 1913. Owned by Mr. A. B. Somerville of Monroe, la. winter feeding of those too young for market and of those reserved for breeding purposes. Inasmuch as Indian corn was the feed used and as this cereal would not repay the expense of transportation to market until the introduction of railways, it cost very little to produce pork. Even after the organization of the national government and the settling up of the Middle 290 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 291 West it was the general impression among farmers that it cost nothing for a man to make his own pork, and for a long time large numbers of dressed hogs were sold in that section of the country at prices ranging from seventy-five cents to one dollar per cwt. and were considered sufficiently remunera- tive at these figures. As greater areas came under cultivation and the natural forests became more restricted, it was found more profitable and convenient to feed hogs on com than to turn them out into the woods, as they grew faster and took on more fat. It was at this stage in the development of the American swine industry that pork packing was commenced, and this gave a pronounced impetus to hog production. This was before the days of railroads, and hogs were taken overland in droves to the nearest packing point. Later, when the railroads came, a great saving was effected by eliminating losses due to the giving out of hogs on the route, and pork packing and hog raising received an impulse that has greatly helped to make pork one of the most important staples of the country. To show the importance of the United States in the swine industry of the world it is only necessary to state that we have 38.4 per cent, of the hogs of the world. According to the latest available figures, the United States has 64,618,000 hogs. The leading countries are as follows: United States 64,618,000 Columbia 2,300,000 Germany 21,924,000 Philippines 1,822,000 Austria-Hungary 14,540,000 Venezuela.... 1,618,000 European Russia 13,521,000 Denmark 1,468,000 France 6,904,000 Siberia 1,369,000 Canada 3,448,000 Belgium 1,349,000 United Kingdom. 3,334,000 Formosa 1,308,000 Argentina... 2,900,000 Netherlands 1,260,000 Spain 2,571,000 Portugal... 1,111,000 Italy 2,508,000 Roumania 1,021,000 The hog census by continents is as follows : North America... 70,152,000 Africa. 1,808,000 South America 7,322,000 Oceania 1,196,000 Europe 75,400,000 Asia 5,584,000 Total 161,462,000 292 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock The distribution of hogs (on farms) in the United States on January 1, 1915, was as follows: North Atlantic Division 2,551,000 South Atlantic Division.... 7,074,000 North Central, East of Mississippi River 15,812,000 North Central, West of Mississippi River 22,988,000 South Central Division 13,467,000 Far Western Division 2,726,000 Total 64,618,000 The ten leading states and the number of hogs in each in 1915 were as follows: 1. Iowa 8,720,000 6. Ohio 3,640,000 2. Illinois 4,358,000 7. Texas 2,880,000 3. Missouri 4,250,000 8. Kansas 2,656,000 4. Indiana 4,167,000 9. Wisconsin.. 2,255,000 5. Nebraska 3,809,000 10. Georgia 2,042,000 The states of the Mississippi valley play a very import- ant part in the swine growing industry of the world. No other region is so favored as is the corn growing region of the United States. When the United States was settled, swine were brought over from Europe, but conditions here, and especially in the cornbelt, were very different, and the character of the hog was changed to meet the demand as it developed under the different conditions. The new type of hog which was then originated was what is called the fat or lard hog. There were three principal reasons for its development. These were (1) the abundance and good fattening qualities of com, (2) the home demand for cured meats, and (3) the foreign demand for cheap meats. 1. Corn is a plant native to America, and in the corn- belt can be produced with much less cost than can any of the other grains. It is a feed comparatively rich in carbohydrates and much lacking in protein. Carbohydrates are used in the animal body for building up fat and to furnish the fuel that is used in the production of physical energy. Protein is that part of a food material that is rich in nitrogen and is used principally to build up muscle or lean meat. Since corn is the Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 293 principal feed for swine in the United States, it is only the natural consequence that our hogs are of the fat or lard type. 2. In the earlier history of the United States, very few, if any, of the frontier sections had railroad facilities, so could not import fresh meats ; neither had they facilities for local production of meats. Then again, these places, and especially the lumber camps, used a great deal of meat, and it had to be of such a nature that it could be hauled long distances on wagons and be capable of long storage after reaching its destination. The most satisfactory meat for this purpose was mess pork. There are two reasons why fat salt pork was better than lean salt pork, (a) Fat pork does not be- come so salty on being pickled as does lean pork. It is not so thoroughly penetrated by the salt, therefore it is more palat- able after long storage than is lean pork, which also requires a larger quantity of salt, and is not so well preserved as is the fat pork, (b) Fat pork was better both from the em- ployer's and the consumer's point of view, because on account of its fatty nature, it contains two and one-fourth times as much energy per unit of weight as does lean pork, therefore making a cheaper article on the bill of fare, also furnishing sufficient energy to the laborer who was toiling hard in cold winter weather. The following table giving analyses and fuel values of a number of common foods shows the high fuel value of pork products. It will also be noticed that the foods with the largest fat content have the highest fuel value. 294 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock Foods Analy- ses Refuse Water Pro- tein Fat Carbo- hy- drate Ash Fuel value per pound — calories* Lard, refined Per cent. Per cent. Per cent. Per cent. 100.0 89.9 87.2 60.2 39.9 7.3 Per cent. Per cent. 4220 Back fat — hog .. 3 6 13 2 13 7.7 7.3 17.8 33.0 7.2 2.3 1.8 9.6 10.7 15.6 .1 3.7 4.3 5.9 1.9 3835 Salt pork.. 3715 Bacon, smoked.. 8.1 10.5 2720 Mess beef 1885 Oatmeal 68.0 98.0 70.6 75.1 1860 Starch 1825 Entire wheat flour 5 9 15 108 6 28 4 44 12.1 12.9 40.5 35.4 60.7 44.9 50.3 63.0 66.0 61.5 95.7 14.2 8.9 12.8 9.5 18.9 13,6 15.3 18.7 13.1 .4 2.9 1.9 2.2 31.9 1.2 19.5 20.6 19.7 8.8 9.5 .4 "1.2 .9 .6 1.1 .9 .7 .9 1.0 .9 .3 .9 1660 Corn meal, bolt- ed 1655 Mutton loin, without kid- ney and tal- low.... 14.2 1585 Bread, white 52.8 1205 Beef loin, bone- less strip 1175 Ribs 20.2 13.8 8.5 10.5 25.0 1120 Leg of lamb 1115 Round . 720 Hens' eggs . 645 Apples, fresh Vegetable soup 10 1 12.4 .5 255 65 *Heat and muscular WDrk are forms of force or energy. The energy is developed as the food is consumed in the body. The unit commonly used in this measurement is the calorie, the amDunt of heat which would raise the temperature of a pound of water 4 degrees F. 3. There was a foreign demand by the poorer classes of people for cheaper meats than could be supplied by their high-priced bacon industry. This cheaper meat could be sup- plied in the form of fat pork made from low-priced corn, and at the same time could be furnished at a profit. From these various causes it is clearly evident that the fat or lard hog of the United States was produced not only because he could be produced more cheaply than the bacon hog, but also because there was a demand for just such a hog. Some of the weights of hogs marketed at Cincinnati in the early days serve to show rather strikingly that market hogs, like market cattle, have undergone an evolution from im- Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 295 mense weights in the early days to the handy-weight market animal of the present time. In 1857 the following records of weights were made on the Cincinnati market: iber of hogs Net weight Average -per hog 3 2,301 710 5 3,200 640 7 5,040 720 22 8,866 403 50 18,750 375 52 19,604 377 320 104,000 325 657 200,355 305 1,116 361,846 324 In 1866 these weights were exceeded as shown in the fol- lowing records for that year: Number of hogs Net weight Average per hog 11 6,732 612 20 15.452 772 30 15,180 506 35 15,785 451 35 15,712 449 43 15,738 366 107 43.014 402 200 71,800 359 346 139,092 402 400 150,000 375 1,227 488,505 398 Of the lot of twenty included above it was said: "The lot of twenty, raised and fed for market in our county (Ham- ilton County, Ohio) has certainly no parallel in the wide world, none of the hogs exceeding 19 months in age, and gen- erally running from 15 to 16 months old." Wren and Schafter of Middletown, Ohio, packed in 1870 a lot of thirty-eight Poland-China hogs averaging 613 pounds gross at 21 months old, all fattened by one man in Butler County. Following are records of a large number of hogs (Poland-Chinas) raised in Butler County, Ohio, and sold to packers in 1870 : Number of Average Gross Number of Average Gross hogs weight hogs weight 80 574 20 501 40 516 45 586 38 570 75 493 48 513 60 490 42 517 40 713 40 504 12 773 296 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock There is record of one lot of 30 Poland-Chinas marketed in 1870 that averaged gross 384 pounds at eleven months of age, while another lot of ten of the same breed and age mar- keted in that year averaged 410 pounds gross. The immense weights of earlier times were made possible by cheap corn, by the premium paid for heavy hogs by pack- ers in those days, and by selecting hogs of great weight for breeding purposes. During late years the tendency has been to market handy-weight hogs, and fewer heavy hogs appear Fig. 77. Good Type in the Breeding Sow. Hampshire sow, Gloria 2d, Champion at the Iowa State Fair in 1914. Owned by Mr. Russell Yates of Palo, la. on the market each year. This change has been brought about by the high price of corn, by improved methods of pack- ing which permit hogs of less fatness and lighter weight to find favor with packers, by the general tendency on the part of the consumer to favor light cuts, and by the growing de- mand for bacon in place of the old-fashioned, heavy salt meats. The breeder also has played a part in this change to the handy-weight market hog, by giving preference to hogs Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 297 of quality and smoothness over those of large size and tend- ing toward roughness and lack of quality. In fact some breeds have actually deteriorated of late years because of the fact that most of the breeders have gone too far in the matter of securing quality and refinement in their animals and have failed to keep up enough size and constitution to suit the prac- tical hog grower. This mistake is realized at the present time and today the effort is being made to get back on safer ground by breeding for all the size possible and yet maintain a proper degree of quality in the animal. The ideal is a med- ium-weight hog, or a hog slightly above what would be called medium weight, possessing desirable quality, smoothness, and symmetry. At the present time the profitable stage for the grower to market lard hogs is between 250 and 300 pounds. Never- theless, hogs used for breeding purposes should possess plentj'^ of size along with desirable type and quality. If the breed- ing stock is of large size, the offspring will be growthy and will attain marketable weight in quick time. The man who is producing market hogs wants big, roomy sows with good length, such sows being more prolific and hence much more profitable than the compact type lacking in size. The boar should be of the same growthy sort as the sows, but in both sexes quality should be in evidence along with size. In breed- ing for the market, sows need not necessarily be purebred, though it is desirable that they should be, but the boar should in every instance be purebred. Attention should be given to color in order that uniformity of color may prevail among the animals finished for the market. This is secured by select- ing sows which, if not purebred, are at least all high grades possessing the blood and characteristics of the same breed from which the boar is selected. By sticking to one breed, uniformity will prevail among the animals marketed, and this will sufficiently increase the price to more than repay for the extra time and trouble required in selecting breeding stock of the same type and color. With no other kind of live stock is there practiced so much mixing of breeds and cross-breeding as in the breeding of hogs for the market. It is very commonly believed that 298 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock by crossing a boar of one breed upon sows of another breed, more vigorous and growthy offspring will result. While there is no serious criticism to be made against such a method so far as the first cross is concerned, it invariably happens that if this policy is followed up and further crossing and mixing is resorted to, a variety of shapes and colors is pre- sented that is most unattractive as compared with a bunch of hogs possessing good uniformity. In the majority of cases it will be most profitable to pick out one of the standard breeds of hogs and stick to that breed year after year. If this is done there need be no lack of vigor in the offspring if the parent stock is selected with due care as to constitution and vigor. PART FOUR. HORSES, INTRODUCTION. For centuries the horse has been a f aithfuJ servant of man in the capacity of a burden bearer. "From remotest ages he has come with man, side by side, in the glory and achievements of the white race. In all the darings and doings of the Saxon, wherever countries were to be conquered, battles fought, and the banner of Britain carried round the world, wherever has been a footprint, there also was the hoof -beat." As compared with other domesticated animals, the horse is peculiar in his relation to man, for he is valuable on account of his ability to do work and not because he furnishes a tangible product use- ful as food or otherwise. It is his athletic ability which makes the horse useful. None other of our domestic animals occupies as im- portant a place in the economy of things as does the horse; if all the horses were suddenly taken from the nations of the world, agriculture, business, and commerce would be seriously impaired and we would soon be in a state of famine. Con- sider the vast number of horses in use on farms, on city streets, on country roads, in armies, and for numerous pleasure purposes, such as riding, driving, racing in harness and under saddle, hunting, and polo. We could give up any of the other domesticated animals with much less serious results, and this in spite of the advent and improvement of the automobile and motor truck and their wide use at the present time. The horse may be said to be a locomotive which consumes hay and grain instead of coal. He is self-feeding, self-con- trolling, and self-reproducing, and is at the same time a very efficient motor. Farmers who use horses may be compared to the engineer who operates a motor. Farmers who breed horses may be compared to the manufacturer of motors. No man can manufacture or operate a motor with real success 299 300 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock unless he understands its construction, the importance of its various parts, their strength or weakness, and their relation to one another. No man can learn the construction of a motor by studying its exterior only ; he must take it apart and study the various parts, and then put them together again. Then he must put it in motion and study the action of the various levers, pulleys, and springs, in order that he may know the location of weaknesses and at what points the most wear comes. Knowing these things, he can manufacture a motor of high efficiency, or, operating one, he can obtain from it the greatest amount of work with least danger of injuring the machine. Hence we see how important is a knowledge of the anatomy of the horse as a basis for the study of types of horses and the requirements and capabilities of each type. It is not possible to develop a good judge of any kind of live stock by teaching simply what to look for in an animal. A mere description of parts or points is not sufficient. The student wants to know why certain things are desirable in an animal, and why certain other things are undesirable. He must know the "why" of each point if he is to value each point properly and put emphasis where it belongs. This is especially true in learning to judge horses. No matter how carefully the points to be looked for in feet and legs are described, the stu- dent cannot recognize the importance of these parts and know what constitutes a first-class foot and limb, unless he has a fairly good idea of their anatomy and physiology. In the pages which follow, the writer has, therefore, given considerable at- tention to some of the essential features of horse anatomy before entering upon a description of the various types and market classes of horses. CHAPTER XXV. BRIEF ANATOMICAL STUDY OF THE HORSE. In all animal life the cell is the structural and functional unit. A tissue is a collection of similarly differentiated cells. A number of tissues grouped together form an organ. The body is an aggregation of organs. We feed a horse to produce tissue and to produce energy. The systems of organs are seven in number. They are (1) skeletal, (2) muscular, (3) digestive, (4) respiratory, (5) genito-urinary, (6) nervous, and (7) in- tegumentary. Skeletal system. — The skeletal system is important as it largely determines the conformation of the horse. The skele- ton of the horse is composed of a number of bony segments, most of which exist in pairs. The divisions of the skeleton are (1) head, (2) neck, (3) trunk, and (4) limbs. The head consists of numerous bones, mostly flat, united by sutures which gradually undergo obliteration with age. The lower jaws are strong and in each jaw there are six molar teeth (24 in all). Twelve of these are temporary — three in each jaw, and known as the 1st, 2nd, and 3rd molars, while the 4th, 5th, and 6th are permanent. There are also six incisors in the upper and six in the lower jaw, all of which are temporary and are entirely replaced by the time the animal is 41/2 years old. The vertebral column is a chain of 54 to 56 irregular bones (vertebrae) extending from skull to end of tail. There are seven cervical (neck) vertebrae, 18 dorsal (back), 6 lumbar (loin), 5 sacral (croup), and 18 or 20 caudal (tail) vertebrae. From above, the spinal column exhibits a concave cervical curve, a convex dorsal curve, a nearly straight lumbar region, and the sacro-caudal curve is concave below. The 3rd, 4th, and 5th dorsal vertebrae have the highest spines which form the withers. There are 18 pairs of ribs, 8 of which are true and 10 false. The 8 true pairs join the 8 segments of the sternum or 301 302 Types and Market Classes of Live Stocp: breast bone. The 7th or 8th ribs are longest. There is no collar bone (clavicle) as in man, and the fore limbs are not attached to the trunk but are connected by intervening mus- cles. The hind limbs are united to the trunk by the pelvic girdle v^^hich, in reality, is composed of three segments on each side. Fig. 78. Skeleton of the Horse. This illustration shows the location of the bones, and the degree to which the skeleton and the muscle influence the form. Muscular system. — The horse comprises a great number of systems of levers represented in the bones and joints, each supplied with a system of muscles which furnish the power. Muscles exert a force in only one way, and that by shortening, giving a pull. For this reason muscles are arranged in pairs, as illustrated by the biceps and triceps which move the fore- arm in man. The flexor muscles are always inside the joint and the extensors outside. The theory has been advanced that the shortening of muscles is due to a change in the form of the muscular cell from an elongated form to one nearly round when stimulated by nerve action. Muscles act through Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 303 very short distances and upon the short end of levers com- posing the animal frame. Acting in this way, speed and dis- tance are gained with a corresponding reduction in the magni- tude of the force. Because muscles are able to act only through very short distances, it is necessary for them to act upon the short end of the levers in order that sufficiently rapid movement may be gained. The muscular system obtains its maximum development in the horse, and upon the excellence of this, beauty of con- formation largely depends. Especially is this latter true of the neck and hindquarters. The muscles of the back and loin are the largest in the body. There are no muscles below the knees and hocks — only their tendinous prolongations. The first muscle under the skin almost covers the entire body and is the one that enables the animal to shake flies or any irrita- ting foreign substance off its skin. Digestive system. — The tongue is small as compared with that of the ox. The gullet is long and has a very small open- ing into the stomach. The capacity of the stomach is small, holding between 3 and 4 gallons, while the stomach of the ox holds 30 to 40 gallons. But the small size of the organ is com- pensated for by the large size and capacity of the intestines which hold twice that of the ox. The large intestine has a capacity of about 20 gallons, and the small one 12 gallons. The liver is large, as are also the kidneys. Respiratory system. — The respiratory organs are well developed, and comprise the nasal cavities, the larynx, the trachea, the bronchial tubes, and lungs. The heart is large and four chambered, and the blood vessels are large and have strong, thick walls. Thus is the horse well fitted for his athletic life. Nervous system. — The nervous system is well developed and comprises the brain and spinal cord. There are 12 pairs of nerves which take origin from these structures. Integumentary system. — The hair or coat is shed in the spring and autumn, except that of the mane and tail which is permanent. There are both sweat glands and sebaceous glands 304 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock in the skin, but the former are practically absent from the limbs. In judging horses, the judge takes into consideration many matters relating to the structure and interior of the animal, as well as the exterior. A wide, deep middle and a broad muz- zle, for example, indicate great digestive capacity ; a large nos- tril, windpipe, and chest show capacity for respiration ; a silky coat and fine skin are normal qualties of the integument, while alertness and gracefulness of movement are evidences of good nervous control. The horse differs from a mere machine in that he is largely capable of guiding his own movements without aid from his driver. Training accomplishes much in this regard, but the less a horse is possessed of intelligence and nervous control, the less he is automatic as a motor, and the more he becomes dependent upon his driver. Anatomy of the Fore Limb. From the top downward, the bones of the fore limb are as indicated in the accompanying diagram. The fore limb is —3 —4 — 5 Fig. 79. Bones of the Fore Leg. 1, Scapula; 2, humerus; 3, radius and ulna; 4, seven or eight carpal bones; 5, cannon bone and two splint bones; 6, two sesamoid bones; 7, large pastern bone; 8, small pas- tern bone; 9, navicular bone; 10, coffin bone. /--7 composed of a scapula (or shoulder blade) which is articulated to the humerous (or arm) by a ball-and-socket joint, and the Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 305 arm in turn articulates with the radius by a hinge joint. The lower end of the radius rests upon the upper row of the carpal bones of which there are 7 or 8 in the horse, corresponding to the wrist in man. Below the carpus (knee) is the large meta- carpal (or cannon) bone, and articulated with the back of it are two slender rods of bones — the • small metacarpal (or splint) bones. The lower end of the large cannon bone forms a hinge with the first phalanx (or large pastern bone), which is followed by the second phalanx (or small pastern bone), and then the third phalanx (or coffin bone), the two last named being enclosed within the hoof. In addition to these, at the ar- ticulation between the cannon and the large pastern bone are Fig. 80. Fore Leg from Knee to Ground. Showing the bones, ligaments, and tendons. 1, Suspensory ligament; 2, inferior sesamoid ligaments; 3, branch of suspensory ligament; 4, flexor ten- don of foot; 5, flexor tendon of pas- tern; 6, extensor tendon; 7, splint bone; 8, cannon bone; 9, sesamoid bones; 10, large pastern bone; 11, small pastern bone; 12, coffin bone; 13, navicular bone. two small bones, known as the sesamoids, while at the back of the coffin joint there is a small bow-shaped bone, known as the navicular, which is frequently the seat of disease. The bones are held together by ligaments. Tendons are similar in character to ligaments, but differ in that they join muscle to bone. 306 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock The scapula, humerus, the radius and ulna are enclosed in heavy muscles which move them. There are no muscles about the knee and the parts below. Instead, long tendons pass down from the muscles above, thus connecting the power with the levers of the lower part of the limb. Hence there are only bones and tendons below the forearm, together with some very important ligaments which hold the bones in proper re- lation to one another. These ligaments are very strong elastic cords. The lower limb moves when the muscles exert a pull on their tendons, which are likewise strong and elastic. The tendons and ligaments of the fore limb are shown in the ac- companying drawing. The long ligament from fetlock to knee is the suspensory ligament. It supports the fetlock. Anatomy of the Hind Limb. The hind limb consists of the femur (or thigh bone) which is the largest in the body and articulates below with the tibia and also with the patella (or knee cap) . The hock is composed ' caVcuneok' astraQcxlus tarsa\s CUf»nor\ -SP^*^^*^"^^^ Fig. 81. Bones of the Hock. of six bones which may be divided into two sets, each having a purpose of its own. One group of four small bones (tarsals), arranged in two rows and resting on the head of the cannon, are united together and to adjacent bones by short, powerful ligaments, and so close is the union that the movement of one Types and Market Classes of Live Stock \01 bone upon another is reduced to a simple gliding action of very limited degree. Though slight, this movement is of much importance in breaking the jar communicated to this joint in the act of progression. Above the small tarsal bones are two larger bones, the astragalus and calcaneus, as shown in the ac- companying drawing. To the calcaneus is attached the strong tendon known as the tendon of Achilles. By means of it the muscles above exert a powerful pull upon the hock joint, producing extension of the joint. This is the principal means of the horse's pro- pulsion. The knob-like end of the calcaneus (to which the tendon attaches) forms the point of the hock. In some in- stances the pull upon the hock has been great enough to pro- duce a fracture of this bone. Sometimes a diseased condition is brought about by the ossification into one mass of some or all of the bones of the hock. This is called a bone spavin and is a serious unsoundness because it destroys the important gliding action of the tarsals and stiffens the joint. The parts below the hock are similar in structure to those below the knee. The skeletons of man and horse compared show striking similarity, and at some points rather marked variation and difference in proportionment of parts. There scre seven or eight bones in the knee of the horse. The horse's knee corre- sponds to man's wrist. The bones below the horse's knee correspond to those beyond man's wrist. Following is a com- parison of the bones and parts of the fore and hind limbs of the horse with the arm and leg of man. Parts Shoulder Arm Forearm Knee Cannon Pastern and foot Hoof b of Horse Arm of Man Bones Parts Bones Scapula Shoulder Scapula and clavicle Humerus Arm Humerus Radius and ulna Forearm Radius and ulna 7 or 8 carpals Wrist 7 carpals 3 metacarpals Palm 5 metacarpals 1st, 2nd, and 3rd [Thumb— 2 bones phalanx Fingers Finger nails \ Other fingers — 3 [ bones 308 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock Hind Limb of Horse Leg of Man Parts Bones Parts Bones Croup Ilium, ischium, Pelvis Ilium, ischium, and pubis and pubis Thigh Femur Thigh Femur Stifle Patella Knee Patella Gaskin Tibia and fibula Calf Tibia and fibula Hock 6 tarsals Ankle 8 tarsals Cannon 3 metatarsals Instep 5 metatarsals Pastern and foot 1st, 2nd, and 3rd Great toe — 2 bone phalanx Hoof Toes Toe nails < Other toes — 3 [ bones The following drawing makes clear the comparison be- tween the hind limb of the horse and the foot of man. Fig. 82. Man and Horse Compared. Bones of the human foot and hind leg of horse compared. — From Axe's The Horse. A, Tibia; B, astragalus; C, calcaneus; D and E. small tarsals; F and G, metatarsals; 1, 2, and 3, first, second, and third phalanges. Anatomy of the Foot. The foot is not a mere block of horn, but is a composite structure made up of particular parts, each with a certain work to perform. There is an old saying, very full of truth, "No foot, no horse." Therefore a knowledge of the structure of the foot is very essential to the student of the horse. I Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 309 The exterior of the foot may be divided into five parts, each including one-fifth of the circumference. These are the toe, laterals, and quarters. Fig. 83. Exterior of the Hoof. Showing division into toe, laterals, and quarters. From the interior outward, the parts of the foot are the coffin bone, lower end of the small pastern bone, navicular bone, extensor tendon, flexor tendon, suspensory ligament, in- ferior sesamoid ligaments, lateral cartilages, plantar cushion, pododerm or foot-skin, and the hoof. The foot also has its blood vessels and nerves. Bones. — The bones of the foot and pastern are four in number, three of which — the long pastern, short pastern, and coffin bone — placed end to end form a continuous straight col- umn passing downward and forward from the fetlock joint to the ground. A small accessory bone, the navicular bone, lies crosswise in the foot behind the coffin joint, enlarging the joint surface. The short pastern projects about 11/4 inches above the hoof and extends about an equal distance into it. Tendons and ligaments. — The extensor tendon of the toe passes down the front of the pastern and attaches to the coffin bone just below the edge of the hair. The outer branch of the suspensory ligament attaches to the tendon a short dis- tance above this point. The flexor tendon of the foot passes down between the heels, glides over the under surface of the navicular bone, and attaches to the under surface of the coffin bone. The bones of the foot are held together by powerful short ligaments. Lateral cartilages and plantar cushion.- — The elastic tis- sues of the foot include the lateral cartilages and the plantar 310 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock cushion. The lateral cartilages are two plates of gristle, one on either side of the foot, extending from the wings of the coffin bone backward to the heels and upward to a distance of an inch or more above the edge of the hair, where they may usually be felt by the fingers. When sound, these plates are elastic and yield readily to moderate finger pressure, but from various causes they may undergo ossification, in which condi- tion they are hard and unyielding and are called sidebones. Fig. 84. Diagram Showing Structure of Foot. 1, Coffin bone; 2, small pastern bone; 3, large pastern bone; 4, navic- ular bone; 5, lateral cartilage; 6, extensor tendon; 7, flexor tendon of foot; 8, flexor tendon of pastern; 9, branches of suspensory ligament; 10, wall; 11, sole; 12, frog; 13, indicates location of plantar cushion between the lateral cartilages; 14, perioplic ring; 15, coronary cushion. The plantar cushion is a wedge-shaped mass of tough, elastic, fibro-fatty tissue filling all the space between the lateral car- tilages, forming the fieshy heels, and serving as a buffer to dis- perse shocks. It extends forward underneath the navicular bone and flexor tendon, and protects these structures from in- jurious pressure from below. Pododerm (or foot-skin). — The pododerm or horn-produ- cing membrane is merely a continuation of the derm, or true skin. It covers the foot inside the hoof, just as a sock covers the human foot inside the shoe. It differs from the ordinary external or "hair" skin in having no sweat or oil glands, but, Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 311 like it, is richly supplied with blood vessels and sensitive nerves. The functions of the pododerm are to produce the hoof and unite it firmly to the foot. The hoof and how it grows. — The horny shell, called the hoof, which covers and protects the foot, is made up of three parts, (1) the wall and bars, (2) the sole, and (3) the frog. Each part of the hoof is grown by some particular part or parts of the pododerm. In general it may be said that the horn of the hoof is made up of tubules or shafts of horn which grow from papillae the same as does hair. These tubules are cemented together by non-tubular matter corresponding to dandruff exfoliated by the skin. In fact, so pronounced is the similarity in growth of horn and hair that coarse hair, es- rc55 bars Solc-V\ — /-/—wall Fig. 85. The Parts of the Hoof. pecially on the legs and coronet, is associated with horn of coarse texture. Therefore the more coarse and brittle the hair about the coronet, the more porous, brittle, and weak will be the formation of the horny hoof. The wall horn consists of three layers known as (1) the outer or perioplic layer, (2) the middle or coronary layer, and (3) the inner or laminous layer. The perioplic layer is very thin. It is varnish-like in appearance and forms the surface or crust of the wall. Its function is to preserve the moisture of the foot and to absorb moisture. A horse working in sand or dust usually has this outer layer worn away. The coronary layer forms the real basis of the wall. At the heels it is de- flected forward to form the bars of the hoof. The angle be- tween the wall and bar is thickened and is called the buttress. 312 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock The function of the bars is to react against contraction of the heels. The laminous layer of the wall horn is not tubular. It is called laminous because it has the appearance of the leaves of a book. There are 500 to 600 of these laminae which extend from the top of the hoof to the sole. It is less thick than the coronary layer, but, like it, is deflected forward at the heels to help form the bars. Growth of the wall. — At the lower edge of the pasteni, running along the edge of the hair from one heel around the toe to the other heel, is a narrow ridge of pododerm, 1/16 to 1/8 of an inch wide, called the perioplic ring. It consists of papillae, which are microscopic nobs or nodules, and from each papilla a shaft of horn grows downward, foiTning the periople of the wall. Like the periople, the coronary layer grows down- ward from a band of pododerm at the top of the hoof. This band is called the coronary cushion, and it lies just below and parallel to the perioplic ring. At the heels it is deflected for- ward where it produces the horn of the bars. The laminous horn is produced by that part of the pododerm known as the fleshy laminae; these laminae extend up and down between the coronary cushion and the sole. The fleshy laminae of the pododerm and the laminous layer of the wall hom dovetail to- gether, thus holding the hoof securely to the foot. The sole horn is circular in shape except that it is notched at the rear where it receives the bars and horny frog. It is naturally concave below and is bounded at its edge by the wall and bars. It is very brittle, non-elastic, and easily penetrated. The sole horn is produced by the fleshy sole, which is that por- tion of the pododerm covering the entire under surface of the foot excepting the fleshy frog and bars. The horny frog does not come in contact with the sole horn except at its apex. It is tough, elastic, and rather soft hoiTi. The upper part of the horny frog has an elevation or ridge and on the bottom there is a corresponding notch or groove. The horny frog grows from the fleshy frog, which is that part of the pododerm just above the homy frog. The preceding discussion of the parts of the hoof and pododerm may be summarized as follows : Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 3ia fPerioplic layer, produced by perioplic ring. 1. Wall j Coronary layer, produced by coronary cushion. [Laminous layer, produced by fleshy laminae. 2. Sole, produced by fleshy sole. 3. Frog, produced by fleshy frog. All parts of the hoof grow downward and forward with equal rapidity, the rate of growth being largely dependent up- on the amount of blood supplied to the pododerm. Abundant and regular exercise, good grooming, moistness and supple- ness of the hoof, going barefoot, plenty of good food, and at proper intervals removing the over-growth of the hoof and regulating the bearing surface — all these, by increasing the volume and improving the quality of blood flowing into the pododerm, favor the rapid growth of horn of good quality. Lack of exercise, dryness of the horn, and excessive length of the hoof hinder growth. The average rate of growth is about one-third of an inch a month. Hind hoofs grow faster than fore hoofs and unshod ones faster than shod ones. In mares and geldings the horn, grows faster than in stallions. On an average the time re- quired to grow the wall from coronet to ground is 11 to 13 months for the toe wall, 6 to 7 months for the laterals, and 3 to 4 months for the quarters. Irregular growth often occurs. This is almost always due to an improper distribution of the body weight over the hoof, — that is, an unbalanced foot. One authority on this subject says: — "If breeders were more gen- erally cognizant of the power of overgrown and unbalanced hoofs to divert the lower bones of young legs from their prop- er direction, we might hope to see fewer knock-kneed, splay- footed, pigeon-toed, cow-hocked, interfering, and paddling horses." Characteristics of a healthy foot. — A healthy foot is equal- ly warm at all parts, and is not tender under pressure with the hands. The coronet is soft and elastic at all points and does not project beyond the surface of the wall. The wall is straight from coronet to ground, so that a straight-edge laid against the wall from coronet to ground parallel to the direction of the horn tubules will touch at every point. The wall should be covered with the outer varnish-like layer of 314 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock horn called the periople, and should show no cracks or clefts. Every hoof shows "ring formation," but the rings should not be strongly marked and should always run parallel to the coronet. Strongly marked rings are evidence of a weak hoof, but when limited to a part of the wall are evidence of pre- vious local inflammation. The bulbs of the heels should be full, rounded, and of equal height. The sole should be well hollowed out, the frog well developed, the cleft of the frog broad and shallow, the spaces between the bars and the frog wide and shallow, the bars straight from buttress toward the point of the frog, and the buttresses themselves so far apart as not to press against the frog. A hoof cannot be considered healthy if it presents reddish, discolored horn, cracks in the wall, bars, or frog, thrush of the frog, contraction or displace- ment of the heels. The lateral cartilages should yield readily to finger pressure. Some horsemen object to a white hoof, believing it to be less durable, but a white hoof is as good as a dark-colored one. Horn of good quality is fine grained and tough, while poor horn is coarse grained and either too mellow and friable or hard and brittle. CHAPTER XXVI. SOME IMPORTANT FACTS CONCERNING THE HORSE. Base of support. — The horse's legs are his base of sup- port, just as the table legs support the table. The longer the legs, the less stable the base of support. The smaller the base of support, the less stable it will be. The less stable the base of support, the greater the speed of the horse ; while the greater the stability, the greater the power for draft. The base of support of any object will be most stable when it comes directly beneath the center of weight. In horses the center of weight is far forward, lying immediately behind Vcrtebi iral spine 5usj>en 1 i c- ; Fig. 94. Heavy Drafters in Harness. This is the famous team of grays which was invincible at the leading shows a few years ago. They were shown in both the United States and Great Britain. Owned by Armour & Company of Chicago. Standing in natural position, the symmetrical horse carries his head and neck well up, so that the face line, shoulder, and pastern all slope at nearly the same angle ; the croup is fairly level from hips to tail, the tail is set high, and all parts of his conformation are so proportioned as to give him a well- balanced appearance. On the matter of type. — To present the best appearance, the drafter should not be over-draf ty in type ; that is, shortness of leg and compactness and width of body should not be carried to the extreme. This type of horse is sometimes referred to as the "Poland-China drafter." A certain degree of length of Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 349 limb, length of neck, and length of underline is necessary, not only for the sake of looks, but also because it actually makes the horse more useful. He takes a longer step, and will do more work in a day than the extremely pudgy type of horse. On the other hand, we certainly do not want a horse that is all length and style. We must aim at the middle ground, selecting for as much style as may be had without sacrifice of any of those qualities which make the draft horse useful for his kind of work. Action. — The action of the draft horse should be true, snappy, and bold. As you see him going or coming, the move- ment of the limbs should be straight in the line of motion, the feet being carried true, with no paddling or irregularity of gait. Walking away from you, he should move with enough snap to give you the flash of his shoe at every step. As you view him in action from the side, he should show length of stride and enough height of action to clear the :ground safely at each step. High knee action is not essential ; in fact, carriage horse action in a draft horse means useless ■expenditure of energy. However, there should be a strong, free movement of knees and hocks, without dragging or stiffness. The walk is the real gait of the draft horse, and an active, snappy, springy walk, with trueness and length of stride, is the prime essential so far as action is concerned. The horse should walk like a soldier. However, the trot often magnifies defects in gait so that they are more easily seen, and in show and sale rings drafters are shown at both gaits. "The stride in the trot should be long, true, springy, steady, and business-like, with a certain degree of height of action to insure against stumbling. Horsemen like a bold way of ^oing that indicates willingness and courage in the horse. In action, the hocks should pass close together, so close in fact that they nearly brush each other. Some horses go so wide behind that a wheelbarrow could be put between the hind legs and scarcely touch them. Any tendency to spraddle hehind is one of the greatest, if not the greatest, defect which the drafter can exhibit, so far as action is concerned. The study of action is one requiring close attention. The •observer must take into consideration every movement of the 350 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock horse. Attention must be given not only to the movement of the feet and legs, but also to the carriage of the head and neck and the entire body. The head should be carried well up, giv- ing a stylish appearance and a good outlook, and the top of the horse should be carried level and true, without any rolling or wobbling motion from side to side. The front and hindquar- ters should act in unison, and the legs should be kept well un- der the body as the horse travels, showing no tendency to drag the hind legs, and especially the hocks, out behind the body. When kept up underneath as they should be, and when all the motions of the horse are smooth and in unison, we say that he moves in a collected manner. As before stated, perfection in action can result only when there is a combination of proper conformation and strength, and a willing disposition. Common defects in the action of draft horses are (1) go- ing wide at the hocks, (2) swinging the fore legs outward, called "paddling," (3) swinging in, (4) striking supporting leg with foot of striding leg, called "interfering," (5) twisting striding leg around in front of supporting leg, called "wind- ing," "plaiting," or "rope walking," (6) short, stubby stride (7) low, skimming action, called "daisy cutting," (8) unsteadi- ness of gait, (9) striking sole or heels of fore foot with toe of hind foot, called "forging," (10) excessive lateral shoulder mo- tion, called "rolling," (11) lack of energy or snap, and (12) lameness. Color.— It is commonly said that a good horse cannot have a bad color. By this is meant that color is disregarded if the horse suits otherwise. Some colors, however, are very general- ly disliked, and still other colors are not liked by some persons. For instance, duns, flea-bitten grays, white horses, very light grays, and spotted horses are universally discounted, either because they are hard to groom, hard to match, or because the color is unsightly. Dark solid colors, such as black, bro^^^l, bay, very dark or steel gray, and dark chestnut, are given preference. Dark dappled grays are well liked by buyers, and some firms will accept no other color because the flash gray color attracts attention to their turnouts. White markings, including blaze faces, white ankles, and white stockings, are valued by some firms for the same reason. It is not uncom- Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 351 mon for business houses to adopt some color as a sort of trade- mark, on account of the advertising value. However, color is of less importance in draft horses than in any other type. This is true because the drafter is a business horse, whereas other types are valued mostly for pleasure purposes. Finish. — The term "finish" refers to fatness and to the condition of the coat. The horse market discriminates in price to a considerable degree between the fat drafter and the thin one, and it is surprising what an improvement is made in some horses by the addition of fat. Fatness adds to the weight, improves the form and spirit, and provides the necessary re- serve store of energy to carry the horse through the first few weeks in the city during adjustment to city sights, sounds, loads, pavements, stables, and other new conditions. Although fatness is important in the horse for sale or show, the judge must learn to distinguish between fat and muscle. The coat should be well groomed, so as to give the animal a sleek ap- pearance. T'^i^ CHAPTER XXIX. THE CARRIAGE OR HEAVY-HARNESS HORSE. The modern carriage horse is almost exclusively a pleasure horse. His name implies his use. He is put before various kinds of pleasure vehicles, ranging from the light runabout to the heavy coach. Because he wears heavy leather, in contrast to the harness worn by the roadster, he is also called the Fig. 95. Carriage or Heavy-Harness Type. Hackney mare. Queen of Diamonds, imported and owned by the Truman Pioneer Stud Farm of Bushnell, 111. heavy-harness horse. Thus we may say that the carriage horse is one specially fitted for work in heavy harness, before vehicles designed for pleasure purposes and used for carrying people. It is apparent that there should be a wide range in the size and weight of carriage horses, in order to meet the 352 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 353 widely varying demands of ]the various vehicles and uses to which this horse is put. In other respects, all carriage horses are very nearly alike. The value of the carriage horse is determined by (1) beauty of conformation, (2) action, (3) manners, (4) tempera- ment, (5) color, (6) endurance and durability. Beauty of conformation. — The conformation of the car- riage horse must show beauty, style, symmetry, and finish. Being a pleasure horse, it is the ability not only to do certain work which determines value, but to do this work gracefully, and to present, while standing or in action, a picture of pleas- ing appearance. Everything is sidetracked for appearance in the breeding of this horse. Attractiveness of form is not re- stricted to any one type of horse, but it brings the highest price when found in the carriage horse. The value of the drafter is very largely measured by the amount of work he can do; the value of the light-harness horse is measured by his speed ; the value of the saddle horse depends not only upon his appearance, but also upon his knowledge of the gaits and his ability to carry his rider with comfort and ease ; the value of the carriage horse depends chiefly upon his appearance and general attractiveness of form and action. Action. — Here again, beauty is the thing sought at the expense of other quahties. The carriage horse must not only go level, true, and collected, but he must go very high — the higher the better. With this end in view, he is bred, fed, shod, trained, bitted, and driven with a view to securing as much height of action as possible — not because it makes him more useful for his work, but because it makes him more pleasing to look upon. A certain degree of height of action is necessary in all horses, in order to secure length of stride and to pre- vent stumbling ; such action signifies freedom of movement of joints and muscles, and indicates willingness and spirit. But the carriage horse is asked to go higher than this, even though it means added wear and tear on feet and legs, and a great amount of energy to accomplish the result. Beauty is given first consideration. Manners. — Working oftentimes in crowded streets, where driving requires considerable care, it is easily apparent that. 354 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock with proper conformation, action, and durability, the carriage horse will not furnish real pleasure unless he has manners. Furthermore, if he fails to respond to commands, possesses a strong will that rebels at these commands, or fails to act Fig. 96. The Heavy-Harness Type in Action. Hackney pony, Irvington Model, bred and owned by Mr. W. D. Henry of Sewickley, Pa. quickly, his lack of manners may result disastrously to the occupants of the carriage. In most cases, the carriage horse is not expected to stand without hitching, or to be as trust- Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 355 worthy in an emergency as an old "family horse," but he must be so thoroughly trained and familiar with the commands of his driver that the execution of whatever is asked will be done involuntarily, unhesitatingly, and instantly. Every command of word, whip, or rein must be received intelligently, and in- telhgently acted upon by the horse. Temperament. — The sanguine or nervous temperament is the one desired in carriage horses, for without it we cannot expect that degree of action which is required, nor that quick- ness of response to commands which is essential. There are other types of horses which should possess the sanguine tem- perament to even a greater degree than the heavy-harness horse; these are the speed types, the trotter and the runner. Color. — With the possible exception of the saddle horse, color is of more importance in heavy-harness horses than in any other type. The dark solid colors are preferred, as being in proper accord with the elegant vehicles drawn by this horse. White ankles are often favored, because a horse so marked has his action emphasized and easily seen. Grays, roans, and light colors are heavily discounted or even rejected, except for certain special restricted uses, such as sporting tandems, road fours, or cross-matched pairs, and in horses for ladies' use, even the white markings are discriminated against. True ele- gance and good taste are wanted, and this excludes colors that are flashy and calculated to attract undue attention. Endurance and durability. — The carriage horse is re- quired to make only short trips at a moderate pace. Endur- ance is not so essential, therefore, as in other types. How- ever, durability, which means wearing quality, is of great im- portance. The extremely high action which is required makes necessary the best of feet and legs. Durability is almost entirely dependent upon the amount and quality of bone, and the structure and texture of feet. We may make a final summing up of the foregoing points by saying that the carriage horse is one specially fitted to work before pleasure vehicles, over short distances, at a mod- erate pace, wearing heavy leather; and that to be in keeping with the handsome and expensive vehicles which he moves, he must show beauty and attractiveness of form and action that 356 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock will add to, rather than detract from, the appearance of the turnout. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE TYPE. General appearance. — Compactness and fullness of form are required, in order that the horse may fill his harness prop- perly and be in proper keeping with the vehicles before which he is put. He must possess great smoothness of conformation, with all his lines curving rather than angular. He must appear Fig. 97. The Carriage Horse in Harness. Compare this picture with Fig. 100, and note the difference in height of action, type of vehicle, and weight of harness. This is the noted Hackney mare, Bountiful, owned by Judge W. H. Moore of Chicago. snugly put together. Although it is not desired that he stand on very short legs, it is essential that he be not leggy, or what is termed "weedy," in appearance. Medium length of leg is required, to give proper action and lend him style and sym- metry. The height ranges from 14 to 16.1 hands, and the weight from 900 to 1,300 pounds. As previously stated, size and weight are of rather minor importance. There is a mis- taken idea prevalent among farmers that this horse should stand rather high, and weigh 1,250 pounds and upward. It is Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 357 true that big horses that are good ones are harder to find than smaller ones, and hence size is of some importance. Neverthe- less, an animal of desirable carriage horse conformation, style, and action will bring a good price no matter what his inches or weight; the demand is steady, both for those of largest size and those so small as to be called ponies. Hence, carriage horse type refers to a certain kind of conformation and action, and the question of size and weight is of small importance in all except breeding animals. However, we shall consider only heights above 14 hands as carriage horses; those below that height are ponies. The greatest demand is for horses stand- ing from 15 to 16 hands. Quality is indicated in bone, feet, skin, hair, head, and smoothness of form. As the subject of quality has been fully discussed in connection with draft horse type, lengthy description is unnecessary here. Quality is valu- able in the carriage horse because it assures durability, and because refinement and smoothness add beauty to the horse. Head. — The head should be lean, with every feature clean-cut and sharply defined. The forehead should be broad, and the eyes should be large, prominent, and set out on the corners of the head. Strong jaws and a wide muzzle are de- sired, yet the muzzle must be refined, the lips thin, and the entire head free from any appearance of coarseness. The nostrils should be large. The ears should be fine and placed close together near the poll, turning in slightly at the tips. The attachment with the neck must be clean-cut and graceful. The appearance of the head should indicate intelligence, alert- ness, and quality. Neck. — Length of neck is very essential. It should be gracefully arched and bear considerable muscle, — enough muscle to lend fullness and strength, but not so much as to give an appearance of heaviness or coarseness. The upper border of the neck should be fine along its entire length. Ewe necks are very unattractive and undesirable. The neck should blend nicely with the shoulders. The shape and carriage of the head and neck have much to do with making the animal a real carriage horse, or a plain, inferior sort. Without a high- class front, no horse can qualify as a heavy-harness horse of superior type. 358 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock Shoulders. — Long, snugly laid shoulders, that have a decided slope and are well muscled, are wanted. The withers should show refinement. Chest. — The chest should be moderately wide and very deep. The breast should be carried out prominently, and be rather muscular. Middle. — The middle of the horse should be round as a stick, short on top, and long below. This calls for long, well- arched ribs. The back, and especially the loin, should be thick- ly muscled and short, giving strength and a smooth, finished appearance. Depth of flank is essential, for the sake of ap- pearance and keeping qualities. Hips. — The hips should not be prominent. They should be smoothly covered with muscle. Prominent hips in the car- riage horse are decidedly faulty, because they detract from the smoothness of form which is so much desired. Croup. — A long, level, fairly broad, smoothly and heavily muscled croup is the most attractive and the best indication of strength. A short, steep croup, commonly designated a "goose rump," is very objectionable. The tail should be at- tached high and carried out from the quarters. Carriage horses usually have the tail docked and set. Thighs and quarters. — Full, muscular development gives the desired plumpness of form and necessary strength. The gaskins should be strongly muscled and long, so that the dis- tance from hip to hock will be great as compared with the distance from hock to ground. Legs. — Superior quality of bone, associated with sub- stance, should be evident in the cannons. The arm should be very muscular. The forearm should be muscular and long. The knee must be wide both ways, deep, and flat across the front. It should be clearly defined in all its lines, which means an absence of meatiness. The hocks should be wide from front to rear, broad across the front from side to side, and deep from top to bottom. The point of the hock should be prominent, and the rear edge of the joint below the point should be straight, or very slightly incurving. Roughness or coarse- ness of bone about this joint, puflfiness, or meatiness are looked upon with suspicion as indicating weakness. The cannons, both Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 359 front and rear, as viewed from the side, should be short, broad, and flat, with the grooves between the cannon bone and tendons easily seen and felt. The broad, flat appearance results when the tendons are placed well back from the bone, and when the legs are free from meatiness. Smooth, hard, flinty bone and well-developed tendons are necessary. Straight, strong fetlock joints are essential. The pasterns should slope at an angle of 45 degrees, and be long enough to give elasticity of stride, yet show sufficient substance to insure strength. Proper position of the legs is of greater importance in this type than in draft horses. So much of the value of the horse depends upon action, and so much of action depends upon proper position of the legs and feet, that great attention should be given to this point. The legs must come straight down and the toes point straight ahead, to insure true action. Feet. — The size of the foot should be proportionate to the size of the horse. Roundness and size of hoof-head, width at the heels, and height at both heel and toe are important. The discussion regarding the sole, bars, frog, denseness of horn, etc., as given in connection with draft horse type, applies here with equal force. Action. — The requirements of action in the carriage horse are— (1) trueness, (2) height, (3) length of stride, (4) collection, (5) elasticity, (6) boldness and power, (7) grace- fulness of movement, and (8) moderate speed. The walk must be snappy, quick, and business-like to a marked degree. But it is at the trot that action is wholly revealed. The flight of each foot must be in a straight line, parallel to the direction of motion of the horse. The fore foot is carried forward and high up, as if following the rim of a rolling wheel, and the stride is long. The foot meets the ground easily and without apparent jar, in fact, the step appears elastic, and the meeting with the ground seems to send the foot on again as though it were made of India rubber. The foot, pastern, cannon, and forearm cannot accomplish this alone. There must also be freedom of action of the arm and shoulder. Every movement must show grace and style, and the whole attitude of the horse should be one of combined courage and power. Proper folding of the knee meets only half of the require- ment. Associated with this, there should be decided flexing 360 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock of the hock. The hind foot will leave the ground with snap and free movement of pastern; at the same time, the hock will be carried, not backward, but upward toward the dock, to accomplish which the hock must be flexed very decidedly, and, when in this position, the leg swings far forward and the foot is let down to the ground. If the action of the hind leg is as described, the hind foot clears the ground by considerable dis- tance, and the hocks do not drag out behind the horse. Many Fig. 98. Sensational Action. Little Ruby, a Champion Hackney Pony stallion, owned in England. heavy-harness horses swing the hind legs back and forth with but sHght flexing of the hocks. Such action has a straggling appearance that is in marked contrast to the high and col- lected action of a horse posessing proper action. There should also be unison of movement between fore and hind limbs. As pointed out in the description of the draft horse, ex- cellence of action results only when there is a combination of proper conformation of body and limbs, correct position of Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 361 limbs, strength of muscle, proper temperament, and abundant spirit. Action is so valuable in the heavy-harness horse that breeders and dealers often resort to artificial means to secure it in horses which are deficient in their movement. Heavy- shoes produce height of action. Drugs and intoxicants are sometimes given to put spirit into the horse; these have only a temporary effect, and when used at all are mostly used with show horses. Short chains are sometimes fastened to the feet of young horses, to teach them to lift their feet high. Exer- cising over rough or freshly plowed ground, or in straw, is also a common practice, to induce lifting of the knees and hocks. The toe is allowed to grow out long, requiring more energy on the part of the horse in breaking over as he takes a stride, so that when he does break over, the extra force tends to carry the foot higher and farther away. Action produced by any such methods as these is known as artificial action, in contrast to natural action bred in the horse. Artificial action is usually discovered without difficulty. The practiced eye detects that the horse is not doing his work with ease and pleasure. There seems to be a straining of muscles, a "tied up" way of going, and a lack of steadiness that is never seen in the natural actor. Artificial action results in quick tiring of the horse; it is not an unusual spectacle to see such horses come into the show ring with high action which rapidly disappears until the legs drag, if the horse is called upon to do much work, while the natural actor goes high from start to finish. On the other hand, no matter how natural it may be for a horse to go high, he still requires proper shoeing, bitting, training, and driving, in order that his inherent ability may be developed. Even after the horse is "made," as the saying goes, if he is placed in the hands of an inexperienced reinsman, unskilled in driving heavy-harness horses, the result will be an absolute failure. The trained carriage horse responds superbly when under the guidance of the master reinsman, who, by means of word, whip, and rein, telegraphs the signals with which the horse has become familiar, and to Which he in- stinctively responds with certain desired movements. In the hands of a novice, however, he makes a poor showing. Speed. — This is not important in heavy-harness horses; only a moderate degree of speed is wanted. CHAPTER XXX. THE ROADSTER OR LIGHT-HARNESS HORSE. The roadster or light-harness horse is distinctly an Ameri- can type, or strictly speaking, it is a breed — the American Trotter or Standardbred. Such names as American roadster, gentleman's roadster, and trotter are also applied to this type. The light-harness horse is a pleasure horse exclusively; his domain includes the regular race tracks, where he is used for professional racing, and also the city speedways, snowpaths, and roadways, where amateur racing and road driving are indulged in by men who admire the trotting horse and seek recreation in the open air. There are many men too heavy to ride who turn to the roadster as the next best means of get- ting fresh air and exercise from the use of horses. The light-harness type and the sport of harness racing originated in and about Philadelphia at the beginning of the nineteenth century, at which time roads were improved and made suitable for pleasure driving. This type is the result of Yankee skill and genius applied to horse breeding. With all his faults, the American Trotter is a wonderful production, and closely rivals the running horse in point of speed. Large numbers are exported to Europe each year, especially to Russia, Germany, and Austria, where harness racing is be- coming more and more popular each season. This type is styled "light-harness type" because, on both road and track, the horse works in light-weight harness that is quite in contrast to the heavy leather worn by the heavy- harness horse. The harness is hght because the vehicles to which this horse is put are very light in weight. In profes- sional racing, the bike sulky is used, which weighs from 27 to 35 pounds; in matinee racing, the vehicle used is a light speed wagon, having four wheels but of the same general con- struction as the sulky, and weighing only 65 to 68 pounds. On the road, the hitch is to a light wagon weighing about 175 pounds, which may have a top much like the common piano- 3fi2 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 363 box buggy. For snow racing, a specially constructed speed sleigh is used, weighing a httle less than 100 pounds. Undoubtedly, every American realizes the largeness of the demand for this type of horse for professional racing, but the large demand for this horse for use in amateur racing is not so generally known. There are many men in cities and elsewhere who find great pleasure in holding the reins over a horse with speed. In almost every city and town of promi- nence are driving clubs whose membership is made up of busi- ness and professional men. Weekly matinee racing is con- ducted by such clubs during the summer and fall, and, in some cases, during the winter months as well. This is purely from love of the sport, the prizes being ribbons and silver trophies, and not purses as in professional racing. Hundreds of good horses, many of them holders of world's records, have been purchased by men who never compete for cash, prizes ; for example, Lou Dillon, The Harvester, and Uhlan are owned by Mr. C. K. G. Billings who never races his horses for money. The value of the light-harness horse is based upon (1) speed, (2) stamina or endurance, (3) durability, and (4) beauty of conformation. Speed. — Whether in use on or off the track, the light- harness horse is prized almost exclusively for speed. We Americans are said to be possessed of a great deal of nervous energy, and to insist upon speed in everything. Our ships, railway trains, street cars, and automobiles are required to travel faster than those of any other people. Likewise, among our horses, we have placed more emphasis upon speed than have other nations. The American Trotter is a result of the admiration of Americans for speed wherever it is found. For racing purposes, the roadster is required to show 2:30 speed at the trot, or 2:25 at the pace, before he is considered a light- harness horse in the true sense of the word; for road use he should be able to do ten miles within an hour. A light-harness horse without speed is as useless for the purpose intended as a drafter without size, or a carriage horse without action and beauty. The abihty to "get there" is the thing for which this horse is bred and trained. The world's trotting record is now 1:58 (which means one minute and fifty-eight seconds for the 364 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock mile) and is held by Uhlan, a gelding. The world's pacing record is 1:5514, held by the stallion Dan Patch. The world's trotting and pacing records and the years when they were established are as follows: Trotting Pacing 1 mile— Uhlan (19i2) 1:58 Dan Patch (1905) l:55i 3 miles-The Harvester (1910) 4:15i Dan Patch (19C3) 4:17 2 miles-Nightingale (1893) 6:55i Almont (1908) 6:50 4 miles- Polly G. (1899) 9:58 Joe Jefferson (1891) 10:10 5 miles— Zombro (190^) 12:24 Profeasor (1907) I225i Stallion-The Harvester ('910) 2:01 Dan Patch (1905) l:5Bj Mare— Lou Dillion (19.i3) l:58i Dariel a903' 2«0l Gelding— Uhlan (1912) 1:58 Frank Bogash. Jr. (1914) _.. 1:591 Yearling-Airdale (1912) 2:52 Frank Perry (1911) 2:15 Two-year-old — Peter Volo (1913) 2:04i Directly ( 894) 2K)7f Three-year-old-Peter Volo (1914) 2:03i Anna Bradford (1914) 2:00i Four-year-old -Etawah (1914) 2:03t William (1914) 2:00 Five-year-old— Lou Dillion (1903) 1:58* Braden Direct (1913) 2:01i Under saddle-Country Jay (1909) 2:08i Kruger (1907) 2:12 Pair— Uhlan and Lewis Forrest (1909) 2:03i Minor Heir and George Gano (1912) 2:0! Stamina or endurance. -^ Most racing, both amateur and professional, is at mile heats over half-mile or mile tracks. Some races are two in three, and some three in five, heats. Not until some horse has succeeded in winning the necessary two or three heats is the race decided. For this reason, some races extend into very gruelling contests. Some horses show a wonderful burst of speed for a quarter of a mile or so, and then quit. These horses are said to "lack bottom," by which is meant a lack of stamina or endurance. Stamina means ability to go a mile at speed, and to repeat the mile, two, three, or more times, with intermissions of only 25 minutes. To accomplish this requires heart and lungs of the first order, together with long, firm muscles over all parts. On the speed- way and snowpath, there is a great deal of brush racing, that is, racing over short distances of varying lengths, depending on the wishes of the drivers and the ease or difficulty in pass- ing opponents. This If usually not so severe as a regular rac- ing program, provided the horse has been properly conditioned and trained. A great many horses which are possessed of more stamina than speed depend on their ability to wear down their more speedy rivals, in order to win a heat or race. This they do by repeated scoring for a start, or through the good fortune of having a race extended out to extra heats — what is termed a split-heat race. Other horses, with more speed Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 365 than stamina, must be driven to win from the start of the race, avoiding unnecessary scoring in an endeavor to capture the f required number of heats in short order. I Durability. — It is readily apparent that the work re- : quired of the light-harness horse is of such a nature as de- mands the best of feet and legs. This type of horse has a de- cided advantage over the carriage horse and drafttr, in that he works on a much more yielding footing, yet the high rate of speed puts his feet and legs to a very severe test, and many horses with speed and stamina have their usefulness and value greatly lessened because of failure to keep sound when called upon to go through a strenuous racing campaign or do a large amount of work on the road. Some very noted horses and some families of trotters have been notably lacking in this respect. I Beauty of conformation is a comparatively small factor i in determining the value of roadsters. Some breeders have placed considerable emphasis on the matter of looks and at- : tractiveness, but in general it may be said that beauty in the i roadster, while appreciated whenever it occurs, is of as i small account as it is in the draft horse. Some horsemen might maintain that it is even less important in the roadster. These statements must be modified, however, in so far as roadsters strictly for road driving are concerned ; for such use, speed is not so important as endurance and the ability to make a long drive in creditable time, and in selecting horses for this work considerable attention is given also to the ap- pearance of the horse. A big, strong, well-made horse, with quality, a well-carried head and tail, light mouth, good man- ners, excellent feet and legs, and a long stride, is the sort best , suited for road driving. For the various kinds of racing, however, speed, stamina, and durability are the almost ex- clusive requirements. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE TYPE. General appearance. — There is wide variation in the gen- eral appearance of the Hght-hamess horse. "They come in all shapes, and go in all forms." This is a result of breeding for speed alone. Speed is the' only characteristic which all light- 366 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock harness horses possess with reasonable uniformity. To be sure, selection and breeding for speed have resulted in fixing a sort of general type upon this horse. Certain things are nec- essary in the conformation of the horse to enable him to go fast. Acknowledging this, there is yet opportunity for rather wide differences in appearance. Beauty has been almost ignored ; speed is the great essential. Beauty is preferred only Fig. 99. Roadster or Light-Harness Type. Azoff, 2, 2:14%; son of Peter the Great 2:07i4 and Dolly Worthy 2:27%, by Axworthy 2:15%. Owned at Thompson Farm, LibertyWlle, 111., Hon. John R. Thompson, Proprietor. when the speed is equal. Even in selecting animals for breed- ing purposes, the basis of selection has been speed almost to the exclusion of other qualities. S. W. Parlin, Editor of the American Horse Breeder, has the following to say on the sub- ject of breeding trotters: "When choosing between two ani- mals for breeding purposes, one of which is a very attractive Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 367 animal, but known to be lacking in inheritance from animals that were race winners at some gait, and a less attractive one, that has a rich speed inheritance on both sides, it will always be safer to take the less attractive one that has the richer in- heritance." The above outlined practice, while correct enough in breeding for speed, is responsible for the wide variation in appearance found among light-harness horses. A few breed- ers have bred for beauty and speed combined. Mr. C. J. Ham- lin, who during his lifetime maintained a world-famous breed- ing and training plant at East Aurora, N. Y., used to say — "When you go into a ball room, you would rather choose as a partner a beautiful woman who can dance well than a homely one who can dance equally well." He used this illustration to show his attitude in the production of the roadster. Mr. Hamlin successfully combined speed with size, soundness, style, and elegance of form. In breeding for speed alone, certain other characters are bound to be impressed also. Characters are seldom trans- mitted singly. Often there is an association of them found always in company, and these are called correlated characters. Speed in the light-harness horse is associated or correlated with refinement, endurance, and courage. Size, symmetry, and beauty are not correlated with speed except in the most general way. The light-harness horse varies in weight from 800 to 1,250 pounds, and in height from 14.2 to 16.1. Weights from 950 to 1150 pounds and heights from 15 to 16 hands are most common. This type is rather upstanding, leggy, long, deep, narrow, and angular. Selection and breeding for speed have resulted in a refined race of horses. Quality is shown by clean, smooth, dense bone; sharply defined tendons and joints; fine skin and hair; small ears; fine-haired mane and tail; hoofs of smooth, dense horn; and a chiseled, clean-cut, blooded-looking head. The temperament must be decidedly sanguine, which brings courage, willingness, and promptness, with no sluggishness. Head. — The head should be clean-cut and straight, with a fine muzzle, large nostrils, and thin, trim lips. The eyes should be prominent, rather large, full, clear, bright, with a 368 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock thin lid. The forehead should be high, broad, and full. The €ars should be fine, pointed, set close, and carried alert. Neck. — A long, lean neck, with a fine throttle, is desired. Ewe necks are common. A straight neck, or one with slight arch, is preferable. Shoulders. — Long, smooth, sloping shoulders, fitted close together, and forming high, refined withers at the top, are most desirable. Middle. — A deep rib, without much arch, is associated with desirable light-harness type. The chest gets its capacity from depth, rather than from width. A straight, medium- ^hort, well-muscled back and loin are essential. The underline is long, and the flanks should be well let down. Hips. — The hips should be fairly wide, but smooth. This type does not present as smooth a hip as does the carriage horse. A little prominence of hip is not very objectionable, but if this is so pronounced as to give a rough appearance it is undesirable. Croup. — A long, level, fairly broad, muscular croup is best suited to this type. Defective croups are common. The tail should be attached high and well carried. Thighs and quarters. — Long, muscular thighs give speed. Well-muscled quarters are necessary for strength. Legs. — Length of leg is necessary for speed, yet there should be proper proportion between length of leg and size of horse. A shallow body set up high on very long legs is not a good type. Yet it is just as essential that the light-harness horse have length of leg to secure speed, as it is that the draft horse have a short leg to secure greatest power. However, the length must come above the knees and hocks as much as pos- sible; short cannons are just as essential here as in other types. The arm should be short, muscular, and carried well forward, while the forearm should be very long and broad, with a nice tapering to the knee. This gives room for the attachment of the long muscles associated with speed. The knees must be clean-cut, bony, straight, broad, deep, and strongly supported. The cannons must be as short as possible, broad, with large, clean tendons set well back from the bone. Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 369 Straight, wide fetlock joints and strong, sloping pasterns of good length are very necessary. The fore leg must be straight, and the toe should point directly forward, to insure trueness of action. A long, broad, muscular gaskin is even more essen- tial than a long, well-muscled forearm. This brings the hocks far below the point of the buttock, which is essential in secur- ing speed. Clean-cut hocks that are wide, deep, smooth, bony, with prominent point, and well supported below are very nec- essary. The hind legs must be straight under the horse, with the toes pointing straight ahead. Sickle-shaped hind legs are rather too common. Feet. — The best of feet are necessary. Although this type is usually afforded an easy footing, nevertheless the tre- mendous concussion puts the feet to severe strain when the horse travels at speed. At high speed, a stride of 19 or 20 feet is attained. Imagine the force of the backward thrust of the ground when a 1000-pound horse strides 20 feet in less than half a second, as is the case when the horse is trotting at a two-minute gait. The feet should be uniform in size, point straight forward, and slope at the same angle as the pastern. The horn of the hoof should be dense and smooth, the sole should be concave, the bars strong, the frog large and elastic, and the heel wide and open. Gait. — Both pacers and trotters are found among light- harness horses. These gaits differ from each other in that the pace is a lateral motion, while the trotter moves diagonally. A change of a few ounces in the weight of a shoe often trans- forms the gait. Many horses hold records at both gaits. The pacing gait is about three seconds faster for the mile than the trot, but it is not so popular with horsemen as the trotting gait. With the pace there is very often associated a decided rolling of the body, which is disliked. The natural pacer also frequently possesses a steep croup, short underline, and sickle- shaped hind leg. Action. — The walk should be true, elastic, quick, and regular. The trot, in order to be fast without undue tiring of the horse, must be straight and true, with regular, even, long stride. Height of action is of little importance; in fact, the less knee and hock action the better. It is only important 370 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock that the foot clear the ground, accompanied by enough action of knee and hock to secure length of stride. There should be no hitching or unsteadiness of gait, and no great tendency to break when going at speed. The legs should move like clock- work, and the whole appearance of the horse when in motion should be that of a carefully planned machine, able to travel at greatest speed with least expenditure of energy. It is ap- parent that much of the success of the light-harness horse depends upon his action, and action, in turn, is dependent Fig. 100. The Light-Harness Horse in Action. The Harvester 2:01, Champion trotting stallion, driven by Mr. Ed. Geers. Owned by Mr. C. K. G. Billings of New York City. largely upon the placing of the legs. Defects in conformation result in knee knocking, speedy cutting, over-reaching, and other faults of action. Common defects in the action of light-harness horses are (1) swinging the fore feet inward, instead of carrying them straight away, (2) a stride in which extension is more marked than flexion, and when the foot is placed on the ground the heels strike first, called "pointing," (3) pause in flight of foot before foot reaches ground, called "dwelling," (4) striking sole or heels of fore foot with toe of hind foot, called "forging," Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 371 (5) striking supporting leg with foot of striding leg, called "interfering," (6) hitting front of hind foot above or at line of hair against toe of fore foot as it breaks over, called "scalp- ing," (7) the spreading trotter at speed hits hind leg above scalping mark against the outside of the breaking over fore foot, called "speedy cutting," and (8) "cross-firing," a fault in pacers corresponding to forging in trotters. Condition. — The condition of the light-harness horse is in marked contrast to the types previously described. When in desirable racing condition, there seems to be a total absence of fat from the muscles. The muscles are hard and firm, and there is a clean-cut appearance which indicates proper racing trim. This gives the horse a sinewy aspect. Color. — Taking a very large number of light-harness horses with records of 2:30 or beter, or from ancestors with records of 2:30 or better, — in other words, standardbred trotters, — the colors per thousand horses are as follows : — 605 bays, 140 chestnuts, 130 browns, 85 blacks, 25 grays, 13 roans, and 2 duns. The first four colors — bay, chestnut, brown, and black — are liked best. Grays, roans, and duns are not popular colors. However, color is of minor importance, speed being the great and almost exclusive requirement. The misfits. — It is a well-known fact that many horses bred and developed for light-harness purposes do not show the necessary 2:30 or better speed. These may be called the mis- fits, for in breeding any type of animals there is a certain per- centage of offspring which fails to exhibit the desired charac- teristics, whatever these may be. What becomes of the great number of light-harness-bred horses which lack the prime essential — speed ? Among them, a few will show good car- nage horse conformation, and so it is that horses of light- harness breeding are quite often docked and made over into heavy-harness horses ; some very good show horses have come from this source — mere accidents in breeding. Those which lack beauty as well as speed must be sold at a loss to the breeder. These find their way into all sorts of work, such ay filling the demand for cheap driving hoibes, delivery wag m horses, and other demands for cheap horses. When horse pars were in use on street railways, many misfit trotters were disposed of for such work. CHAPTER XXXI. THE SADDLE HORSE. Any horse used for riding might be called a saddle horse. But there is a certain type of horse best suited to carrying a man in safety and comfort, and this is the type to bear in mind when thinking of saddle horses. The horse of all pioneer peoples is the saddler. In new countries, before the opening of roads, the saddle horse is of greatest usefulness. When the country becomes settled and roadways are opened and im- proved, other types of horses quickly appear, and there is less and less real necessity for the saddle horse; but the sad- dler never disappears from any community, because he is highly prized as a horse for pleasure and recreation. When roads were being opened in the states along the eastern seaboard, and the roadster began to gain popularity, Kentucky, Missouri, and the West were yet a country of bridle paths, and there the saddle horse was held in high esteem. In 1818, a traveller through the Kentucky blue-grass region reported that "the horse, 'noble and generous,' is the favorite animal of the Kentuckian, by whom he is pampered with un- ceasing attention. Every person of wealth has from ten to thirty, of good size and condition, upon which he lavishes his corn with a wasteful profusion." Besides Kentucky and Mis- souri, the states of Virginia and Tennessee have been inti- mately connected with saddle horse development in America. These four states produce many excellent saddle animals annually. Today, saddle horses are used in a business way by the cavalry of the United States Army and National Guard, by the mounted police of the larger cities, by cattle drovers in rural districts, by cattle buyers and salesmen at the large live- stock markets, by ranchers in the West, and by overseers and managers of large plantations and farms in the South, East, and Central West. However, the high prices for saddle horses are paid by people to whom the saddler is a pleasure horse. In 372 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 373 city parks and on country roads are to be seen many excellent saddle horses, used strictly for pleasure and recreation. All good saddle horses possess a general type which we may call "saddle type," but the uses made of saddle horses are so varied that several varieties or sub-types of the saddle horse exist, each possessing a distinct type of its own. The most important of these sub-types are (1) the five-gaited saddler, (2) the walk, trot, canter horse, (3) the hunter, and (4) the polo pony. All of these are pleasure horses. The running horse or race horse, the cavalry horse, and the mus- tang are other saddle sub-types adapted to certain special uses, but the following discussion is confined to the four sub-types first mentioned. A brief description of the cavalry horse will be found in the chapter dealing with market classes of horses. The Five-Gaited Saddle Horse. The five-gaited saddle horse is also known as the Ameri- can Saddle Horse, this being the name of the breed which sup- plies practically all horses of the gaited class. To classify as a five-gaited horse, the saddler must have at least five gaits, four of which must be the walk, trot, canter, and rack ; in addition to these four, the horse must have one or more of three slow gaits — the running walk, fox trot, and slow pace. The gaited saddler is the horse that has made Kentucky and Missouri famous. In his native home he is looked upon with reverence, and bred and trained with great care. Dozens of uses are made of him. If a call is made upon a neighbor, be it formal or informal in nature, this horse is brought into service. If it is desired to simply promenade, or to obtain healthful out-of-door exercise, there is the always-present saddle horse useful for the purpose. He carries his master to church, to school, and to war; on neighborhood visits, and on long journeys across country. Wherever and whenever the Kentuckian or Missourian may go on horseback he does so, and, instinctively, when thinking of these people, one thinks of them as mounted on gaited horses. General appearance. — The gaited horse wears a natural mane and tail, in contrast to the other types of saddle horses. The breeders of this type lay stress upon loftiness of carriage. 374 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock airiness of movement, refinement, intelligence, docility with high spirit and courage, — withal, great beauty in every detail of conformation, without any sacrifice of those qualities which insure durability and creditable performance of the work de- manded of a saddle horse. A leading Kentucky breeder pre- sents the points of the typical five-gaited saddle horse in the following brief paragraph* : — Fig. 101. Five-Gaited Saddle Horse. The noted prize-winning stallion, Kentucky's Choice. Owned by^ Mrs. R. Tasker Lowndes of Danville, Ky. 'The typical saddle horse does not differ materially from other light horses in conformation. The characteristics pe- culiar to the type are a long, clean neck, sloping pasterns and shoulders, withers moderately high and narrow, a short and compactly coupled back, smoothly turned quarters, and a well- set, high-carried tail. In action there should be promptness, ease, and precision in going from gait to gait, and absolute *Bit Spur, September, 1912, p. 22. Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 375 straightness and evenness in each. The rack should be smooth, swift, and without side motion of the body or legs, the trot should be fast and without offensive flashiness, the canter should be slow with no increasing speed, the flat-footed walk should be springy and reasonably fast, while the running walk, or fox trot, should be easy and comfortable and equal to about five miles an hour." Fig. 102. The Saddle Horse in Action. Edna May, undefeated five-gaited mare, ridden by Mr. Mat S. Cohen of Lexington, Ky. Owned by Mrs. R. Tasker Lowndes of Danville, Ky. This picture shows correct degree of knee and hock action and proper carriage of head and tail. Gaits. — In a wild state the natural gaits of the horse were three in number — the walk, trot, and gallop or run. Some authorities also include the pacing gait as one of the nat- ural gaits of the horse, and there is good evidence in support of this contention. Under domestication these gaits have been 376 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock variously modified and additions made for saddle purposes. These additions and modifications are largely the result of the selection for breeding purposes of those animals most readily acquiring the desired gaits when trained to them. The gaits desired in the five-gaited type of saddle horse are as follows: Walk. — The flat-footed walk should be springy, regular, and reasonably fast. Trot. — This is a diagonal gait, the off fore foot and near hind foot striking the ground together, the body being then propelled forward from this support and sustained by the near fore foot and off hind foot. It is a "two-beat" gait. The trot should be fast, with only moderate height of action, offensive flashiness being undesirable. Many otherwise excellent sad- dle horses cannot trot well, "pointing" and coming down on their heels, instead of exhibiting a good square trot. Canter. — The canter is a restrained gallop. It is slower than the gallop and easier to ride. The horse easily acquires this gait. It should be slow, with no increasing speed. The canter is not considered perfect until the horse can perform it at a rate no faster than a fast walk. To "canter all day in the shade of an apple tree" is a well-known saying. A well- trained horse will change lead in the canter, and start with either foot leading, at the will of the rider. Rack. — This is a four-beat gait, each foot meeting the ground singly, all the intervals being equal. Hence it is some- times called "single foot." This gait may be distinguished by the ear alone, because the foot-falls are rapid enough to produce a characteristic musical clatter. The rack is taught by urging the horse with the whip or spurs and restraining by the curb. This breaks up the movement of a slow gait, and the restraint is sufficient to prevent a free trot or canter, so that the horse flies into a rapid four-beat gait. The rack is easy for the rider, hard for the horse. It is showy, and some horses can perform it at great speed. This gait has been offi- cially named the "rack" by the American Saddle Horse Breed- ers' Association, hence the name "single foot" should not be used. It should be smooth, swift, and without side motion of the body or legs. Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 377 Slow pace. — The slow pace is the true pace so modifip'^ that the impact on the ground of the two teet on a side is broken, the hind foot touching first, thus avoiding the rolHng motion of the true pace. The slow pace is a comfortable and attractive gait. It is little used outside of the show ring. Many trainers do not favor it, for the horse easily falls into the habit of taking the true pace which is not a desirable saddle gait because it is rough and uncomfortable. The true pace is the worst gait a saddle horse can possess; the rider cannot rise to it and save himself as in a trot. Fox trot. — The fox trot is a slow trot or jog trot. It is not so popular as the running walk. It is a broken-time gait and difficult to describe. Some riders, when asked to exhibit the fox trot, simply restrain their horses to as slow a trot as pos- sible, seeking to pass that off as a fox trot. However, the true fox trot is not accompanied by restraint. Running walk. — This is a slow gait, as are also the slow pace and fox trot. The running walk is faster than a flat- foot walk and is taught by gently urging the horse out of the ordinary walk, but restraining him from a trot. The move- ment of the limbs is more rapid than in a walk, but in about the same rhythm. Each foot strikes the ground independently, and there are three feet on the ground all the time. The true running walk is usually characterized by a bobbing or nodding of the head, and, in some instances, by a flopping of the ears, in unison with the foot-falls. It is an all-day gait, easy and comfortable to both horse and rider, and equal to about five miles an hour. It is, however, not as showy or attractive as the other gaits. Many saddle horses are educated to all seven of the gaits, and some have a knowledge of special movements known as the high-school gaits. Walk, Trot, Canter Horse. This type is also styled the "three-gaited horse" and the "park hack." This is the horse which conforms to English fashions, whereas the five-gaited saddler is exclusively an American type. The three-gaited horse is ridden in true Eng- lish fashion; this means the use of the English pad saddle, the curb bit and snaffle, and the crop in place of the riding 378 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock whip. At the trot, the rider does not sit close to the saddle, but performs what is called "posting." General appearance. — The walk, trot, canter horse has his mane pulled and his tail docked and set, in accordance with English fashion, whereas the gaited horse wears a natural mane and tail. Otherwise, the two types have practically the m Fig. 103. The Three-Gaited Saddle Type. Connoisseur, an excellert type of walk, trot, canter horse. by Mr. Wm. Ritter of Columbus, Ohio. Owned same general appearance. Most three-gaited saddlers are American Saddle Horses which, for one reason or another, are marketed as three-gaited horses. There are also quite a num- ber of walk, trot horses which are of Thoroughbred breeding, and some have a strong infusion of the blood of the American Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 379 Trotter. In such cases, the head and tail are not carried so high, and there is not the evidence of style in form and actior which characterizes the horse that is of American Saddle Horse breeding. Gaits. — This horse must show three gaits, and three only; these are the walk, trot, and canter. It is as objection- able for a three-gaited horse to show more than the gaits mentioned as for the five-gaited horse to know less than the five gaits. While many people have adopted the walk, trot, canter horse in preference to the five-gaited type because they accept English horse fashions as law, there is still another reason why the American type with its five or more gaits is not favored by all riders. The reason is that there is no advantage in having a horse with all the gaits unless the rider is skillful enough to keep them distinct. If the man is less instructed than the horse, a sad confusion of paces is apt to result. A well-mouthed, well-suppled horse, with a good trot and a good canter is more useful to the ordinary rider than is one of the highly accomplished gaited saddlers; hence the popularity of the three-gaited horse, especially in the larger cities. Saddle horse breeders recognize this state of affairs and annually send to market a large number of three-gaited animals with short manes and tails, as well as large numbers of five-gaited horses. Outside of the matter of gaits, the requirements for the five-gaited and three-gaited types are so nearly identical that one discussion will suffice for both. REQUIREMENTS OF THE SADDLE HORSE. The essential points to be looked for in a saddle horse are (1) beauty of conformation, (2) sure-footedness, (3) comfort- able seat, (4) best of manners, (5) knowledge of the gaits, (6) durability, and (7) dark solid color. 1. Beauty of conformation. — Attractiveness of form and action is almost, if not quite, as valuable in the saddle horse as in the carriage horse. People who ride for pleasure take as much pride in the ownership of an attractive animal as do the owners of carriage horses. 380 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 2. Sure-footedness. — Saddle action must, first of all, be safe and sure. A horse inclined to stumble is dangerous, and cannot be highly valued for saddle purposes. 3. Comfortable seat. — Though a horse be sure-footed, he will not be of much use or value for saddle work unless he gives his rider a pleasant ride. Rough-gaited horses are not useful saddle horses. 4. Manners. — The intimate relation between horse and rider calls for the very best of manners. Conduct that would be tolerated from a horse in harness may be very disagree- able if the horse is under saddle. The very nature of the use to which the saddler is put makes manners one of the prime essentials. 5. Knowledge of gaits. — To a considerable extent the value of the saddle animal is measured by his knowledge of the gaits. As this is largely a matter of training, it is placed fifth in the list of requirements. There must be no mixing of gaits ; each gait must be pure, and the horse should change gaits promptly and easily at the signal from the rider. 6. Durability. — This implies enough substance com- bined with quality of bone and joints to insure good wearing qualities. Although a pleasure horse and hence not asked to do extreme labor, nevertheless real pleasure does not come to the rider who knows his horse to be delicate in bone, or otherwise liable to injury, if called upon to do hard work. 7. Color. — Dark colors are much preferred, including bay, brown, chestnut, and black. Flashy colors such as dap- ple gray, roan, dun, cream, white, and parti-color are too con- spicuous for ordinary saddle use, but may find a demand from circuses DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF SADDLE TYPE. Size and weight. — These are quite variable depending on the character of the work and the weight of the rider. The height is usually from 15.1 to 15.3 hands, and the weight from 1,000 to 1,150 pounds. A gaited horse of 15.1 hands and 1,000 pounds is termed a "lady's saddler," or if a walk, trot, canter horse, a "lady's hack ;" but for heavier riders larger animals are required, some men needing a horse standing over 16 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 381 hands and weighing 1,200 pounds or even more. For the sake of comparison the heights and weights of the various sub- tjrpes of saddle horses are here given : Type Height Weight Five gaited „ 15 —16 900—1200 Three gaited 14.3—16 900—1200 Hunter 15.2—16.1 1000—1250 Cavalry 15 —15.3 950—1100 Polo pony _ :.. 14 —14.2 850—1000 Conformation. — The saddle horse is considered by many people to be the most stylish, beautiful, and finished of all horses. The principal requirements in conformation are (1) a long, refined neck, (2) nicely sloping pasterns and shoul- ders, and (3) moderately high and refined withers. The lines of the head should be cameo-like in sharpness and clean-cut- ness. An ideal saddler will naturally have a head showing an unusually kind disposition and high intelligence, for the inti- mate relation between horse and rider demands the best of manners in the horse and thinking ability on both sides. The head should be set at the right angle on aTver^Tlong, refined, nicely arched neck. Unless there is lots of horse in front of the saddle, the appearance is spoiled, and a horse with a short, straight, heavy neck is not easily controlled. There should be easy flexion of jaw and neck, and this is possible only with a long, refined neck, properly arched. However, a "weedy" neck, that is, one lacking in muscular development, is not wanted. Much attention must be given to the slope of pastern and shoulder, for straight pasterns and shoulders are more objectionable in the saddle horse than in any other type be- cause they are almost certain to make the horse a hard rider. Height and refinement of withers are necessary for a similar reason. Horses that are low in the forehand are not com- fortable to ride. Furthermore, the saddle cannot be made secure on round, flat withers, this being particularly true of the side saddle. The extension of the shoulder into the back and shortness and strength of coupling are very important. A straight or roach ed back does not afford an easy ride; there should be a certain degree of springiness, without any weakness or sway-backed conformation. The saddle horse is somewhat upstanding, and the head and tail should be smartly carried. 382 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock RefiMcment and finish. — The saddle horse should possess a high degree of quality, and lots of smoothness from end to end. There should be greater refinement of head, ear, and bone than in the heavy-harness type of horse. The shoulders should be well laid in, and the hindquarters smoothly turned. The smoothness of the typical saddler is in marked contrast to the angular appearance of the roadster. Rotundity of body IS a highly desirable feature. Levemess of croup is more im- portant in the saddle horse than in any other type ; if a horse has a steep croup, the defect is magnified a great deal when the saddle is placed upon his back, and he presents a plain appearance. Action. — The action should be energetic, elastic, of mod- erate height, and especially there should be trueness of motion in all gaits. Gracefulness and ease of action are very desirable. A springy step resulting from sloping pasterns and shoulders is more essential in the saddle horse than in any other type. A straight-shouldered and -pasterned horse gives one a ride like a carriage without springs. Collected action, by which is meant harmony or unison of movement between fore and hind legs is necessary for gracefulness and comfort. It also means that the legs will be kept at all times under the weight, thus permitting of quick turns or any other evolutions desired. Col- lected action is largely a result of properly training the horse, and skill on the part of the rider. By pressure of the leg, or use of the whip or spur, the horse is kept alert, with the hind legs well under the body, while the hands bring sufficient pressure on the mouth to restrain the movement slightly, arch the neck, and secure a small degree of yielding of the jaw. If the action is not collected, the horse moves awkwardly and executes sudden commands in a clumsy fashion. Temperament and disposition. — The temperament should be sanguine, as in all other light horses. The disposition should be kind, willing, honest, and courageous. There should be docility with high spirit and animation. CHAPTER XXXII THE HUNTER AND POLO PONY The hunter and polo pony differ rather markedly from tiie two types of saddle horses just described, largely because they are required to do work of a highly specialized nature in which performance is of greater importance and beauty less valued than with the gaited horse and park hack. Hence, the hunter and polo pony are given separate consideration in order that their peculiarities of type and requirements may be better emphasized. The Hunter The hunter is the type used in following the hounds in fox hunting. He must be up to carrying his rider at good speed over long distances across country, jumping fences and ditches when called upon to do so. Like the park hack, this is an English type. His mane and tail are worn short, and he is ridden in much the same fashion as the three-gaited saddler. Although the American demand for this horse is some- what limited, the supply is still more so, resulting in high prices being paid for green horses of the hunter stamp. In England the demand is great, and American horses of hunter type nave been much sought after by exporters. The English people have invested many millions of dollars in the sport of fox hunting. There is an increasing demand for hunters in this country, and the demand will continue to grow because fox hunting, besides being a most healthful and invigorating amusement, is a fashionable and popular sport among those who are able to take part in its pleasures. It is estimated that within twenty-five miles of New York there are six hundred to eight hundred hunters m daily use, and that the suburbs of New York and Philadelphia total nearly fifteen hundred such animals. Many are well worth over $1,000, and the great majority are worth $400 to $500 each. It is probable that this census represents from $750,000 to $1,000,000 worth of 383 384 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock horses for hunting. In Canada there are hundreds of ex- cellent hunters, and the sport is on the increase. The Cen- tral West of the United States is beginning to take up fox hunting, several hunt clubs having been organized in that section during the last few years. From the nature of the work, the hunter must be a horse of more size, ruggedness, and constitution than the other types of saddle horses. He must be a stayer at hard work, a jumper, and a horse of courage and decent manners. His bone must be of good size and of the right quality, and there must be an evidence of strength throughout his con- formation. Otherwise he cannot long withstand the ward- ships of the hunting field. Height and weight. — With reference to height, much will depend upon circumstances. Weight-carrying hunters are always more difficult to procure and command higher prices. Short, light-weight men prefer 15.2 hands to 15.3, but height is quite subsidiary to confoiTnation. Where fences are high, tall horses are necessary, but conformation must not be sacrified to this. Some hunters are nearly 17 hands. Hunters are classed as light, middle, and heavy weight accord- ing to their size and weight. Most of the hunting horses in use range in height from 15.2 to 16.1 hands, and in weight from 1,000 to 1,250 pounds. General appearance. — The general appearance of the hunter should be that of a thin-skinned, big-boned, small- headed, fine-shouldered, deep-chested, clean-limbed animal, with a neatly turned, compact body, and having a facial ex- pression of great keenness, docility, and quick perception. In selecting or judging hunters, particular attention is given to confonnation, and action comes in for much attention also. Head. — The head should be hght, a heavy head in a hunter being very objectionable; the forehead straight; the eyes large and prominent; the ears erect, thin, and covered with fine hair ; and the skin covering the head and face should also be thin, rendering the various prominences upon the skull easily apparent. The high-class hunter should have a mild, keen, and extremely intelligent facial expression, expressive of alertness to a degree. Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 38b Neck. — The neck must be long, narrow towards the poll, and the head should be carried obliquely, a lofty carriage being undesirable in the hunter. As the shoulders are ap- proached, the neck should increase in width, be of moderate thickness, and clean along its upper border, with a closely- cropped mane. Many hunters are very weedy in the neck, and if this is the case, the horse is unable to recover himself in the event of a fall, as the muscles of the neck materially assist in raising the forepart of the body in its attempt to regain balance. Fig. 104. The Hunter. Withers. — The upper border of the neck should pass into high withers, and most of the best hunters are high in this region. Shoulders. — When judging hunters, attention must be fixed upon the shoulders, not only while the horse is at rest, but also when jumping, as good shoulder action is one of the most important points in a hunter. In action it must be free and full, yet fine, because if the shoulders are logged up 386 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock with muscles (heavy shoulders), the free action is interfered with when jumping. Chest. — The chest must be deep ; in fact, it is self evi- dent that a hunter should be "well-hearted" in order to pro- vide plenty of space for cne free play of heart and lungs under extreme exertion. Width of chest is not required and often means bulky shoulders. Fig. 105. The Hunter in Action. Mr. Edward B. McLean's Alarms jumping at the National Capitol Horse Show at Washington, D. C, in 1914, ridden by Mr. Louis Leith. Ribs. — A slightly flat side is desirable, though the ribs must not be short, otherwise the horse becomes "tucked up" or "washy" in appearance. Back, loin, and croup. — The back and loin should be of medium length, and the latter must be broad and clothed with Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 387 powerful muscles, passing into neatly turned quarters — the so-called "goose rump" being of objectionable conformation. Arms and knees. — The arms should be strong and power- ful; the forearms of good breadth above and ending below in broad- jointed, clean-cut knees. A stiff knee is certainly det- rimental, as is also low daisy-cutting action, as such horses cannot freely flex and extend their joints during the leap. Thighs and hocks. — The first and second thighs must be neatly turned, and clothed with powerful muscles. Particular attention must be paid to the hocks and to hock action; the hock joints must be broad, deep from front to back, clean in outline, and covered with thin skin. Cannons, fetlocks, and pasterns. — The cannons, fetlocks, pasterns, and feet demand special examination. The so-called "clean" legs are indispensable, and every horseman knows the meaning of this term. If a hunter's legs are of this descrip- tion, there is little fear that they will fill up after a heavy day's work. Associated with cleanness must be considerable sub- stance; hence, they have but very little value for breedmg ideal pastern is one with a moderate degree of slope, broad in front, deep from front to back, and well rounded at the sides. It should be covered with thin skin. Pasterns that are too long, too oblique, or light in the bone, are of bad conformation ; and short, upright pasterns are extremely objectionable for very evident reasons. Feet. — The feet must be concave on their lower surface, proportionate in size, of good shape, well open at the heels, neither contracted nor cracked. Color. — In selecting a hunter, color seldom plays any part, and in the hunting field are horses of almost every color. Bay, brown, light or dark chestnut, and gray are the principal col- ors, more especially bay and brown, with either white or black points. Disposition. — This is of great importance in order to in- sure the safety of other horses, the hounds, and the rider. Some hunters are tremendous pullers, in fact, defy all attempts to hold them. There is great difference in temperament and disposition — one hunter will rush at his fences in a rer'kless and headstrong way. and another will even walk to his jump 388 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock and clear it in a businesslike manner. It is because so many Thoroughbreds have bad dispositions, that horses having a small amount of draft blood are often more desirable as hunt- ers than are those of straight Thoroughbred breeding. Production of hunters. — There is no breed of hunters. They are largely of Thoroughbred breeding, about seven parts Thoroughbred and one part cold (draft) blood being a gen- erally accepted formula in breeding hunters. This proportion is secured by mating a three-quarter-blood mare v^^ith a Thor- oughbred stallion of correct type to get hunters. The infusion Fig. 106. A Hunt Team and Pack of Fox Hounds. of cold blood gives greater size and ruggedness and a better disposition, but is said to lessen to some extent the staying qualities and gameness of the animal. Some most excellent hunters have come of straight Thoroughbred breeding. Ire- land has long enjoyed a wide reputation for the rearing and sale of the best hunting horses — the name "Irish hunter" carrying the idea of super-excellence in this type of horse, even if some so named were in reality bred in places far re- moved from the Emerald Isle. Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 389 The Polo Pony. Modern polo is largely a rich man's game. It is playecr with four mounted men on a side, the object being to drive a wooden ball between goal posts at the ends of a field 300 yards long and 120 to 150 yards wide. Each player carries a long-handled mallet of regulation design. It is a very fast game for both ponies and men, requiring quickness and pre- cision. History of polo. — Polo existed in Persia and Turkey be- fore the tenth century. Thence it spread to Central Asia, Thibet, and Central India, being found at Calcutta in the fif- teenth and sixteenth centuries. It is said to have also existed in Japan a thousand years ago. English officers returnmg from India, in 1874, started polo at the Hurlingham Club, Ful- ham, England. Hurlingham has since been recognized as the great center of the sport, and the rules it has laid dov/n have been accepted as authority in every country except Amer- ica, wnere a few changes in these rules have been made. The game was introduced into this country in 1876, and from a small start made in that year it has steadily grown in favor, in 1911 there were 42 civilian clubs and 38 military posts in this country where polo was played. The game is now played the world over. When first introduced into this country, the ponies used were 13.2 hands high; from these, very tall men almost touched the ground with their feet. Larg- er and faster ponies were found more advantageous, and the standard was fixed at 14 hands. It has since been raised to 14.1, and again to 14.2, the present standard. The rules limit the height of ponies to 14.2 hands or under, but this rule is not strictly enforced; the modern game is played at such hign speed that only big 14.3- to 15-hand Thoroughbred or three- quarter-blood ponies are considered good enough for important matches. The range in weight is from 850 to 1,000 pounds. Demand for good ponies. — It is a thoroughly established fact that a player is no more proficient than his pony. The question of suitable mounts has been troublesome to American players from the very first. There was a time when western cow ponies made acceptable mounts for the game. They were brought to the East by the carload and sold at very moderate 390 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock prices. A small percentage of these developed into really good polo ponies. As competition became keener, the demand for better and better ponies became more imperative, and today the cow pony has been replaced by what is virtually a Thor- oughbred horse of small size. In almost every case, the best modern ponies were sired by a Thoroughbred stallion. English ponies used for polo have always carried more or less Thor- oughbred inheritance; they are bred in the purple, trained two years, and carefully housed and fed. There has been formed m England a Polo and Riding Pony Society for the pui-pose of establishing and improving a breed of ponies for polo. Fig. 107. I'olo Toay ot Excellent iype. Owned by Mr. L. Waterbury and ridden by him when a member of the American team which won the International Cup from Engrland. Five years ago a number of American ponies were valued at $1,000, and for some imported English ponies up to $2,000 had been paid. At a sale in England, in 1898, a pony named Sailor, brought $3,750. In 1909 the American team which went to Hurlingham to compete for the world's championship was enabled to win largely because of the excellence of their ponies. These ponies were English-bred, and v;cre reported Types and Market Classes of live stock 391 to have cost high prices ranging up to $5,000. The American victory brought as much credit to EngHsh pony breeders as it did to the playing ability of the American team. In cham- pionship contests, four to six ponies are used by each player and some players maintain a big string of ponies from which to make selections for games. What constitutes a good polo pony? — The polo pony must combine speed with weight-carrying ability. He must be wiry, agile, and under proper training must acquire ability to Fig. 108. A Good Type of Polo Pony. quickly start, stop, and wheel. He must have a Hght mouth. He must be intelligent and learn to like the game and follow the ball. The disposition must be such as msures a level nead, doggedness, docility, courage, and quickness. Much de- pends on the rider; there is danger of the pony becoming a puller if the rider is deficient, and some ponies become ball- 392 Types and Market Classes of live stock and-mallet shy by being struck accidentally on the head and legs. A pony that pulls hard or becomes wild in a fast scrim- mage, or swerves off the ball, is useless in first-class polo. The game calls for lots of endurance and wearing quality hence the conformation of middle, hindquarters, feet, and legs largely determines a pony's adaptability for the game. The object of breeders is to produce a pony 14.2 hands high, able to carry from 168 to 200 pounds for ten minutes in a fast game. The polo pony should be built like a weight-carrying hunt- er. His head should be well set on. wide between the jaws, with plenty of room at the throttle. He should have a big, clear, sound, prominent eye ; small, pricked ears, indicative of alertness ; a well-formed, well-arched, and muscular neck ; a fine, sloping shoulder; not too fine at the withers, and his breast should be ample and in proportion to the remainder of the forequarters. His forearms should be big and powerful, the knees wide, particularly good under the knee, with a short cannon. The fetlocks should be large and clean-cut, the pas- terns well supplied with bone, and of proper slope and strength. The foot should be of good size, smooth, nicely shaped, the heels open, and the frog well developed and elastic. He should be deep from withers to sternum, and fairly wide through the chest; he should be short in the back, well coupled, ribbed close up to the hip, with plenty of muscle be- hind the saddle. His thighs and quarters should be big and powerful, carrying down into the gaskin in well-defined masses of muscle, and the gaskin should bulge with muscle also. The hock should be broad and flat, with the natural prominences clean-cut and well developed. The tendon of Achilles should be well defined and powerful. There should be great bone be- low the hock, and in other respects the hind limb should be similar to the fore one. Production of polo ponies. — At present the only method of producing ponies such as the modern game demands is the mating of polo pony mares with a Thoroughbred stallion of approved type. However, a very large percentage of get is over height, and only a small percentage of foals that are of proper size have the conformation and disposition to become Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 39S polo ponies. Evidently the breeding of this pony is not a proposition for the general farmer, but only for the specialist who makes a special study of the requirements of players and of methods of production. In Texas and other western states are a few ranches which make a business of breeding these ponies and training them, being equipped with polo fields for this purpose. Beginning with western cow ponies, they have graded up their pony stock by the use of dwarf Thoroughbred sires until the present stocks are practically of straight Thor- oughbred breeding. England has taken up the production of 'N Fig. 109. The Polo Pony in Action. polo ponies in a more systematic manner than have we in this country. In 1893 they formed the Polo Pony Stud Book Society, thus laying the foundation for pedigrees and for the establishment of a breed. The name of the society was later changed to the Polo and Riding Pony Society. Beginning in 1895, annual shows have been held by this organization, and enough progress has been made in breeding to indicate that in time a true breed of ponies for polo will be established. When this is accomplished, the production of polo ponies will not be so difficult or uncertain as it is today. CHAPTER XXXIII. MARKET CLASSES OF HORSES. The present rank and importance of the various horse markets is shown by the following figures giving the receipts for 1914. 1. St. Loujs 148,128 8. St. Joseph 26,073 2. Chicago 106,282 9. Denver 16,957 3. Kansas City 87,155 10. Oklahoma City 14,412 4. Pittsburg 49,258 11. Sioux City 9,673 5. Fort Worth .47,712 12. Wichita 7,017 6. Omaha 30,688 13. St. Paul 5,683 7. Indianapolis 26,856 Total 575,894 Auction rules. — At the large horse markets, horses are sold at auction under certain rules which are well known and understood by all horsemen who buy or sell at these markets. As the horse comes into the auction ring, a clerk on the auc- tioneer's stand displays a placard on which appears in large letters the rule under which the animal will be sold, such as "Sound," "Serviceably sound," "At the halter," etc. The rule under which the horse is sold is a guarantee made by the seller to the buyer. The buyer has until noon oi tne following day to refuse the horse, if upon examination and trial he finds that the animal is not as represented. The definitions o± the principal rules which govern the sale of horses are given below. Exceptions to these rules may be announced from the auction stand, pointing out the defects, in which case they are recorded and go with the horse. 1. isound. — Fertectly sound m every way. 2. Serviceably sound. — Virtually a sound animal, barring slight blemishes which do not interfere with his usefulness in any way. His wind and eyes must be good, but a spot or The Illinois Experiment Station has made an extensive stuay of the market ciasses of live stock and meats, and has published tive very valuable bulletins setting forth the information thus obtained. The bulletin on norses, i5ulletm J\o. 122, "Market Classes and Grades of Horses and Mules," written by Prof. R. C. Obrecht, has been used as the basis for this and the next chapters. The student will find it well worth while to refer to this bulletin, especially for the excellent illustrations which it contains. 394 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 395 streak in the eye which does not affect the sight will be con- sidered serviceably sound as long as the pupil of the eye is good. He must not be lame or sore in any way. 3. Wind and work — The only guarantee this carries with it is that the animal has good wind and is a good worker. 4. Work only. — He must be a good worker, but every- thing else goes with him. No other guarantee than to work. 5. Legs go — Everything that is on the animal's legs go with him; nothing is guaranteed except that he must not be Fig. 110. Horse Market at L nion Stock Yards, Chicago. Winding and trying-out horses immediately after purchase. If the horse is found to be not as represented when sold, the buyer has the privilege of returning him to the seller. lame or crampy. He must, however, be serviceably sound in every other respect. 6. At the halter. — Sold just as he stands without any recommendations. He may be lame, vicious, balky, a kicker, or anvthine else. The purchaser takes all the risk. The title only is guaranteed. Market requirements. — The factors that determine how well horses sell up>on the market are soundness, conformation, quality, condition, action, age, color, training, and style. These, together with some minor considerations, are discussed below. Soundness. — The market demands that a horse be service- ably sound, by which is meant one that is as good as a sound 396 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock horse so far as service is concerned. He may have sHgrht blemishes, but nothing that is hkely to cause lameness or sore- ness in any way. He must be good in M^ind and eyes, but may have small splints and puffs, and a little rounding on the curb joint. Broken v^ind, thick w^ind, sidebones, unsound hocks such as curbs, spavins, and thoroughpins, large splints, and buck knees are discriminatpd against. Conformation. — If a horse is to do hard work, with a min- imum of wear, and give the longest possible period of service, he must possess a conformation indicative of strength, en- durance, and longevity, the indications of which are good feet, a good constitution, good feeding Qualities, good bone, and symmetry of conformation. Conformation has been discussed fully in connection with the various types described in pre- ceding chapters, and no further discussion is necessary here. Quality. — Quality in a horse is of great importance, as has already been emphasized. A horse lacking in quality is a comparatively cheap animal. Condition. — To be appreciated on the market, a horse must be fat and possess a good coat of hair, which gives him a sleek appearance. Condition is most important in draft, chunk, and wagon horses. Some men, notably in some parts of Northern Ohio, are making good profits by buying young drafters and stall-feeding them until they are fat. When a green horse goes to the city, he loses weight during the first few weeks until he becomes used to the new conditions, and it is a decided advantage if he enters city work carrying a high finish. When a horse is fed to a high state of fatness, it m- variably improves his spirit and style, as well as his form and weight. The following specifications, prepared under the di- who sends his horse to market in finished form is offering the animal in most attractive condition. Thus will the horse catch the eye of buyers and realize extra dollars. Fat is not muscle and should not be mistaken for it; at the same time, fat is rightfully a very important item of value on the horse market. Action. — Action has been fully discussed in preceding chapters. We have seen that the requirements vary according to the type of horse, and that action is always a very impor- Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 397 tant item of value, in some Instanros hPinjr most important of all factors determining the value of the horse. Age. — Horses sell best from five to eight years old. Heavy hor&es. such as drafters and chunks, sell best from five to seven years old, but a well-matured four-year-old in good con- dition will find ready sale. Carriage, saddle, and road horses sell better with a little more age, because they do not mature so early and their education is not completed as soon as that of heavy horses. They are most desired from five to eight years old. Color — As a rule, the color of horses is of secondary im- portance, provided they possess individual excellence. As has been seen, more discrimination is made against color in pleas- ure horses than in those used for business and utility purposes. Training and disposition. — Every class calls for a horse of good disposition and well educated for his work. Mere "green- ness" in a drafter, however, does not affect the price much if he is free from vice and bad habits, but carriage and saddle horses must be thoroughly schooled in order to realize good values. Sex. — Sex is not of great importance in the market. How- ever, geldings sell better than mares for city use, as there is some liability of mares being in foal, and if not, the recurrence of heat is objectionable. For farm use and southern trade, mares are preferred, because farmers buy horses with the expectation of breeding them. Breed. — The breed to which a horse belongs has but little or no influence upon his market value as long as he has in- dividual excellence. Style and freshness. — If able to shape themselves well in harness, very plain horses often make a stylish showing, and this increases their value materially. They should be spirited and energetic, which generally comes from being well fed. Thev should be well groomed, the hair being short and sleek, lying close to the body, and possessing a luster which indicates health. Clipping of the foretop and limbs should not be prac- ticed in the case of heavy horses, as it is an indication of staleness or second-hand horses. The presence of the foretop 398 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock and feather leaves no doubt as to freshness from the country. For the export trade, removal of the foretop is said to depre- ciate a horse $25.00 or more. The feet should be in good con- dition and of a good length hoof, which is necessary to hold a shoe. Breeders make no real effort to supply some of the market classes of horses, either because the demand is very limited or the price too small. Such classes are supplied by careless breeding, by the mixing of types, and by the misfits which re- sult evpn when the breeding of horses is conducted as wisely as possible. The classification outhned below includes not only those classes of horses which may be said to be regular commodities on the large horse markets, but also other more rare and valu- able classes which are only to be had from certain dealers and breeders who cater to an exclusive trade not represented at the large markets. PAGE 398 Classes Sub-Classes Height Weight Hands Pounds Heavy Draft 16 to 17.2 1750 to 2200 DRAFT HORSES ■> Light Draft 15.3 to 16.2 1600 to 1750 Loggers 16.1 to 17.2 1700 to 2200 Eastern Chunks 15 to 16 1300 to 1550 CHUNKS Farm Chunks 15 to 15.3 1200 to 1400 Southern Chunks 15 tol5.3 800 to 1250 Expressers 15.3 to 16.2 1350 to 1500 WAGON HORSES Delivery Wagon .15 to 16 1100 to 1400 Artillery Horses 15.1 to 16 1050 to 1200 Fire Horses 15 to 17.2 1200 to 1700 Coach • 15.1 to 16.1 1100 to 1250 CARRIAGE HORSES , Cobs 14.1 to 15.1 900 to 1150 ' Park Horses ' 15 to 15.3 1000 to 1150 ,Cab 15.2 to 16.1 1050 to 1200 ROAD HORSES Runabout 143. to 15.2 900 to 1050 i Roadister 15 to 16 900 to 1150 Tive-Gaited Saddle 15 to 16 900 to 1200 Thrre-Gaited Saddler- Light, Heavy 14.3 to 16 900 to 1200 SADDLE HORSES Hunters — Light, Middle, Heavy .15.2 to 16.1 1000 to 1250 Cavalry Horses ...15 to 15.3 950 to 1100 Polo Ponies 14 to 14.2 850 to 1000 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 399 Draft Horses. A full description of draft type has already been pre- sented, so that it is only necessary to mention the chief dis- tinctions between the three sub-classes, Heavy Draft, Light Draft, and Loggers. Heavy draft. — These are the heavier weights of the draft class ; they stand from 16 to 17.2 hands high, and weigh from 1750 to 2200 pounds. Light draft. — The light drafter is similar in type to the heavy drafter, but is smaller; they stand from 15.3 to 16.2 hands, and weigh from 1600 to 1750 pounds. While 15.3 hands is accepted as the minimum, height for light drafters, it should be understood that a 15.3-hand horse is less desirable than one taller and he borders closely on the class known as eastern chunks. Loggers. — These are horses of draft type that are bought for use in the lumbering woods. This trade demands com- paratively cheap horses, yet wants them large and strong. Because of the prices paid, the trade is usually compelled to take the plainer, rougher horses of the heavy di'aft class, and some are slightly blemished or unsound, such as "off in the wind," small sidebones, curbs, wire marks, etc. Loggers should stand from 16.1 to 17.2 hands, and weigh from 1700 to 2200 pounds. Chunks. Usage has fixed the name of this class, which is significant of the conformation of the horse, rather than the use to which he is put. However, the prefixes given in the sub-classes are rather indicative of his use. Chunks are divided into three sub-classes. Eastern, Farm, and Southern. Eastern chunks. — At one time, this class was known as Boston chunks, but as the trade has widened to other cities they are known by the general name of eastern chunks. They are most generally used in pairs or three abreast to do the same work as draft horses; but may be used in pairs, in a four-in-hand, or in a six-in-hand team. The eastern chunk may be briefly and accurately described as a horse of draft horse type in all respects except size and weight. He is, then. 400 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock a little drafter. He is usually a little more blocky and compact than the true drafter. He stands from 15 to 16 hands hifeh, usually not over 15.3, and weighs from 1300 to 1550 pounds, depending upon size and condition. Being required to do hiS work mostly at the walk, his action should be similar to that of the draft horse. The walk should be elastic, quick, balanced, straight, step long, trot regular and high, without winging, rolling, interfering, or forging. Fig. 111. Eastern Chunk. Farm chunks. — Horses of this class may be found on the market at all seasons of the year, but during the spring months they form an important feature of the trade. They are bought to be used on the farm, and are in most urgent need during the season when crops are being planted. They are usually of mixed breeding, draft blood predominating, and are commonly known among farmers as "general-purpose" animals. Mares are more generally taken than geldings. For this class, low-set, blocky horses are wanted, not so heavy as Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 401 the eastern chunks. Farm chunks are usually lighter in bone, and often slightly blemished or unsound. In general, the typi- cal farm chunk should be a moderate-sized, all-round good in- dividual, standing from 15 to 15.3 hands high, and weighing from 1200 to 1400 pounds. Bemg lighter horses than the east- ern chunks, thev should be a little quicker and more active on foot. The varied use to which horses are put on farms re- quires ability to trot readily if necessary. However, since the walk is their most important gait, they should be good walkers and do it with ease and rapidity. Southern chunks. — In some markets these are termed "southern horses," or "southerns." They are small horses that are taken by dealers to large southern cities and sold to southern planters for tilling their lands and for driving and riding. The southern farmer does not cultivate deeply, and the soils are light, consequently he does not require very large horses. However, each year the trend of the market is for larger horses for this trade. Southern chunks are small horses standing from 15 to 15.3 hands high, and weighing from 800 to 1250 pounds. They are rather fine of bone, pos- sessing an abundance of quality, and are more rangy in con- formation than any of the other chunks, having more of the light horse blood. Many of them are similar to the cheaper horses used on the light delivery wagons of cities. They should have good all-round action. The southern chunk is comparatively a cheap horse. Wagon Horses. This class includes horses useful for quick delivery. The demand is from cities and towns. These horses must be closely coupled, compactly built, with plenty of constitution and stamina. They must be good actors, have a good, clean set of limbs, with plenty of bone and quality, and a good foot that will stand the wear of paved streets. The sub-classes are Express Horses, Delivery Wagon Horses, Artillery Horses, and Fire Horses. Their breeding is a mixture of draft and light bloods. They are neither light nor heavy horses, but may be said to be middle-weights. Express horses. — Express horses are used by express companies to collect and deliver goods to and from railroad 402 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock stations. Different companies use horses of slightly different size and weight. For instance, if the business of a company is centrally located in a city, and depots are not far apart, they use larger horses and load heavier ; if the business is done in the outlying parts of a city, and the depots a considerable distance apart, lighter horses with more action are wanted. They are used singly or in pairs, and the size of the horse will depend on the weight of the wagon. The lightest ones are called "money horses," as they are hitched to the lightest wagons to deliver valuables, this kind of work demanding quick service. The typical expresser is rather upstanding, deep bodied, and closely coupled, with good bone and an abundance of qual- ity, energy, and spirit. He should stand from 15.3 to 16.2 hands high, and weigh from 1350 to 1500 pounds in good flesh; the average express horse is 16 to 16.1 hands high, and weighs around 1400 pounds in working condition. His head should be neat, his neck of good length, and his crest well developed. His shoulder should be obliquely set, coupled with a short, well-muscled back and strong loin. His croup should be broad, rounding, and well muscled, his quarters deep, and thighs broad. He should not be goose rumped, nor cut up m the flank. His underpinning should be of the very best, his cannons broad and clean, and his hoofs of a dense, tough horn. The express horse is required to do his work both at the walk and trot, the latter being the principal gait. He should be quick and active, and should keep his feet well under him and throw enough weight into the collar to move a heavy load at the walk, or a lighter load at the trot. As in the previ- ous classes, he should be a straight-line mover, with possibly a little more knee and nocK action. Delivery wagon horses. — Generally speaking, delivery wagon horses are not as large as expressers, and not as high- grade animals; most mercantile firms are not such liberal Duyers as the express companies, and consequently they get a cheaper grade of horses. However, this is not always true, as some of the large department stores, whose deliveries serve as an advertisement, will pay more for the very best than express companies, thus getting very choice animals. The Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 403 conformation requirements are practically the same as for ex- press horses, except they are not quite so large, standing from 15 to 16 hands, and weighing from 1100 to 1400 pounds. The action requirements are the same as for express horses, though some are not as good actors. The demand for delivery wagon horses comes from all kinds of retail and wholesale mercantile houses, such as meat shops, milk houses, grocery houses, dry goods firms, and hardware merchants, for use on light wagons for parcel delivery. Some of the coarser, rougher Fie. 112. The Fire Horse. ones are used on the huckster wagons, junk wagons, sand wagons, and by contractors for cellar excavating, street clean- ing, railroad grading, or almost any kind of rough, heavy work. Artillery horses. — Artillery horses conform very closely to the better grades of delivery wagon horses of the same weight. The following specifications, prepared uuder the di- rection of the Quartermaster General of the United States War Department, clearly set forth the requirements. "The artillery horse must be sound, well bred, of a supe- rior class, and have quality ; of a kind disposition, well broken 404 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock to harness, and gentle under the saddle, with easy mouth and gaits, and free and prompt action in the walk, trot, and gallop ; free from vicious habits; without material blemish or defect, and otherwise conform to the following descriptions : A geld- ing of uniform and hardy color, in good condition; from 5 to 8 years old; weighing from 1050 pounds, minimum weight for leaders, to 1200, maximum weight for wheelers, depending on height, which should be from 15.1 to 16 hands." The demand for artillery horses is rather spasmodic, al some times being much greater than at others. Contracts arp given to the lowest responsible bidder to supply them in large numbers at a specified time. Because of the rigid examination Fig. 113. The Fire Horse in Action and requirements of official inspectors, many men have lost money in filling contracts. Fire horses. — The fire horse is more rangy in confoiTna- tion than the expresser, he being required to throw weight into the collar and often to take long runs. The requirements are very rigid, as will be seen by the specifications set forth by Mr. Peter F. Quinn, former Superintendent of Horses of the Chicago Fire Department: "The work required of a horse best suited to fire depart- ment services necessitates almost human intelligence. Such a horse must not only be well bred, sound in every particular, quick to observe, prompt and willing to respond to every call, but as well, ambitious to discharge his numerous and unusual Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 405 duties under constantly differing surroundings. In selecting, the first requisites are tractability, good feet and legs, with bone and hoof of the best texture, a short, strong back, and well-proportioned fore- and hindquarters, well covered with firm, elastic muscles. For heavy engine companies and heavy hook-and-ladder trucks, a gelding of uniform and hardy color, in good condition, from five to seven years old, standing 16 to 17.2 hands, and weighing from 1500 to 1700 pounds should be selected. Hose-carriage horses, same age; weight from 1200 to 1400 pounds; height, 15 to 16.2 hands." The demand for fire horses is very limited, coming from fire companies of cities. There are usually enough horses in the general supply to meet the demand. Carriage Horses. The chapter dealing with carriage horse type presents a detailed description of the general class known as carriage horses, and while this general class is subdivided into at least four smaller groups, known as Coach, Cob, Park, ana Cab Horses, nevertheless the differences between them relate mostly to size and weight, and practically the same confor- mation, style, and action Is desired in all four sub-classes. Keening carriage horse type in mind as applying to ail four groups, only a few remarks are necessary in order to give the reader a correct idea of each sub-class. Coach horses. — Coach horses may be described as car- riage horses of large size. They should stand from 15.1 to 16.1 hands high, and weigh from 1100 to 1250 pounds. The weight is not of such great importance with coach horses as with draft and wagon horses. The essential thing is to get a horse that looks right and proper before the large, heavy vehicle to which he is hitched. For instance, the most desir- able height in horses for a park drag, body break, or heavy coach is 15.3 to 16 hands, and they should weigh around 1150 to 1200 pounds. For a light brougham, a pair of 15.2 hand horses, weighing 1100 pounds is more appropriate. A hearse requires black horses from 15.3 to 16.1 hands high, weighing 1200 to 1250, and without white markings. White horses are also used to some extent by undertakers. 406 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock The demand for coach horses comes from wealthy men who maintain stables of fine horses and equipages for pleasure driving, and at times there is also quite an active demand from exporters, who ship to Mexico and European markets. They are hitched singly, in pairs, unicorn (sometimes called a spike, as one horse is hitched to the end of the pole, ahead of a pair), four-in-hand, and six-in-hand, to coaches, breaks, park drags, etc. A large percentage of coach horses have a predominance of American Trotting Horse blood, while a few are produced from the imported coach breeds ; but since many of the imported so-called coach horses possess the common fault of grossness and coarseness, as a class they do not pos- sess the requirements demanded by the American markets. Cobs. — Cobs differ from coach horses in size and in the use to which they are put. They are driven singly, in pairs, or tandem, usually by ladies, though they may be used by gentlemen as well. Cobs stand from 14.1 to 15.1 hands high, and weigh from 900 to 1150 pounds. Strictly speaking, this is an English horse, and in England they never consider a horse a cob that stands over 15 hands, but the American mar- kets accept them 15.1 hands high. A 15-hand cob should not weigh over 1100 pounds, but his condition will have much to do with his weight. The strongest demand comes for horses 14.3 to 15 hands higrh. and weighing from 1000 to 1100 pounds. Being essentially a lady's horse, solid colors are wanted, with- out flash markings. The demand for cobs comes from much the same source as for coach horses. Since they are a little more proper for ladies' driving than a full-sized coacher, they are often spoken of as ladies' cobs. They are usually hitched to a light brougham, phaeton, or some carriage that is not intended for carrying more than four. While the demand is strong, it is more limited than for coach horses. Park horses. — The park horse, sometimes called the gig horse, is neither a large nor a small carriage horse, but is a carriage horse of medium size. Many coach and cob horses meet the requirements for park horses so far as size and weight are concerned, yet cannot correctly be classed as park horses. This is because the park horse represents the cream of the carriage horse class. He is a higher-priced horse than Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 407 either the coach or cob horse. He has the same conformation and action as they, but his conformation is more perfect, his action higher and more sensational, and his style and ele- gance more outstanding. This does not mean that coach and means that the park horse is the fanciest of a strictly high- class group, to which all three belong. Park horses are strictly cob horses are in any wise cheap horses, for they are not. It dress horses, and, as their name implies, one that a lady or gentleman would want to drive in a park. They are hitched to a cart or gig, or may be driven tandem to the latter vehicle. They are also driven in pairs before mail phaetons and vic- torias. The limits for height and weight are 15 to 15.3 hands and from 1000 to 1150 pounds, the most desirable height being 15.1 to 15.2 hands, and the weight from 1000 to 1100 pounds. The demand for park horses greatly exceeds the sup- ply, and such will doubtless continue to be the case. It is readily apparent that the park horse is difficult to produce. Some are of Trotting Horse breeding, a few have been pro- duced by crossing Hackney stallions on Trotting or Thorough- bred mares, but the best are of pure Hackney breeding; the latter method is attended by greater certainty of good results than any other method of production. Cab horses. — The cab horse is a comparatively cheap horse, and the requirements are not so rigid as for coach, cob, or park horses. They are used on cabs, coupes, hansoms, and other vehicles for public service in cities. They are much the same type as the coach horse, in fact many of them are the discarded and lower grades of the coach sub-class. Cab horses stand from 15.2 to 16.1 hands high, and weigh from 1050 to 1200 pounds. The principal qualities sought are sym- metry of form and endurance. They should possess good feet and bone, strong constitution, a deep barrel with good spring of rib, and should be closely coupled. Not as much flesh is demanded in cab horses as in coach horses, for they supply a cheaper trade, but they should be in good condition. Their action should be straight, but need not be excessively high. In fact, moderate action is all that is desired, since moderate action means greater endurance. The demand comes from livery and transfer companies, and at times from export buy- 408 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock ers. Horses of this class are generally of nondescript breed- ing, excepting the discarded coachers, and the supply is greater than the demand, making them cheap horses. Road Horses. This class includes Runabout Horses and Roadsters. Run- about horses occupy an intermediate place between typical roadsters and carriage horses, but on account of their action, conformation, and the use to which they are put, may be more properly classed as road horses. Runabout horses. — A runabout horse is a rather short- legged horse, standing from 14.3 to 15.2 hands high, and weighing from 900 to 1050 pounds. His head should be neat, ear fine, eye large and mild, neck of good length and trim at the throttle. The neck should be of medium weight, not quite so heavy as that of the coach horse, and not so hght and thin as that of the roadster. The shoulder should be obliquely set, the withers high and thin, the back short, well muscled, and closely coupled to the hips by a short, broad loin. The barrel should be deep and round, the ribs well sprung, and the chest deep; the croup should be long and the hips nicely rounded. The limbs should be well placed and heavily muscled, the bone broad and clean, and the pasterns of good length and obliquely ' set, joined to well-shaped feet. The runabout horse is not quite so stockily built as the cob, being not so heavy in neck and crest, not so full made and rotund in body, and not so heavy in quarters. The action is more moderate than that of a cob ; he does not need to be as high an actor, but should have more speed. The action should be bold, frictionless, and straight, such as is conducive to speed and beauty of form. The demand for runabout horses is for single drivers. They are used largely by ousiness men of cities on runabouts and driving wagons. The demand is active at remunerative prices. They are of more or less mixed breeding, the pre- dominating blood being either of the American Trotting Horse, American Saddle Horse, or Hackney breeds. Roadsters. — The chapter dealing with light-harness or roadster type sets forth the requirements for roadsters in form, action, and speed, and discusses the uses to which they are put. No further discussion is needed here Types and Market ulasses of Live Stock 409 Saddle Hofses. The saddle horse class includes the five sub-classes known as Five-Gaited Saddlers, Three-Gaited Saddlers, Hunters, Cavalry Horses, and Polo Ponies. All of these, with the ex- ception of the cavalry horse, have received full consideration under the subject of types of horses in preceding chapters. Space need be given here only to a description of the cavalry horse. Cavalry horses. — The Quartermaster General of the War Department has sent out the following specifications as the re- quirements for an American cavalry horse: n Ha^'»'''' ■ — L - w _« ll 1 — - 1 MSk<,i#i^ — aB' ^^■^^^ !>•' UMI c^^^^^^^HH Fig. 114. Cavalry Horse. "The cavalry horse must be sound, well bred, of a superior class, and have quality ; gentle and of a kind disposition ; thor- oughly broken to the saddle, with light and elastic mouth, easy gaits, and free and prompt action at the walk, trot, and gallop; free from vicious habits, without material blemish or defect ; and otherwise to conform to the following description : A gelding of uniform and hardy color, in good condition ; from four to eight years old; weighing from 950 to 1100 pounds, depending on height, which should be from 15 to 15.3 hands." Cavalry remounts for the United States War Department are purchased as needed through contract orders, the contract being let to the lowest responsible bidder. In filhng orders. 410 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock dealers are often obliged to educate many of the recruits to the saddle, in order to meet the specific requirements. Miscellaneous Horses. Feeders. — Feeders are horses thin in flesh which are pur- chased to be put in condition and resold. They may belong to any of the above classes, but the practice is more generally applied to draft horses, chunks, and wagon horses. The old adage, "a little fat covers a multitude of defects," is still true ; the value of flesh when put on thin horses can hardly be appre- ciated, unless one has seen them fleshed and placed again on the market. Range horses. — During certain seasons of the year, there may be found on the market horses bred and reared on the range, commonly known as "range horses." They are divided into two general classes, light and heavy, according to the predominance of light or draft horse blood. For the sale ring, each of these classes is divided into carlots as follows : "colts," meaning weanlings; "ones," the yearlings; "twos," the two- year-olds; "dry stuff," the three-year-olds and over, those not suckling colts; and "mares and colts," the brood mares with colts at foot. In the auction ring, the price is stated per head and the buyer takes the entire lot. Most of the range horses find their way to the country, where they are usually broken; when educated, they may be returned to the market and may fill the demand for some of the commercial classes. Ponies. — Ponies of various grades and breeding are fre- quently found on the market, and are usually bought for the use of children and ladies. The characteristics distinguishing ponies from horses are not easily described. The principal distinguishing feature is that of height, a pony being 14 hands or under. But there are dwarf horses that do not have poaiy blood or characteristics that come within these limits. Other pony characteristics are a deep body with rounding barrel, heavily muscled thighs and quarters, croup not drooping, and width well carried out, all of which the small horse does not usually possess. The neck is usually short and heavy, though this is not a desirable quality. Ponies are essentially chil- Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 411 dren's horses, and they must be kind and gentle in disposition, with as much spirit as is compatible for their use. There are no special requirements for weight, the hmits being quite wide. They should be straight-line movers, and the more knee and hock action they possess, the higher prices they will bring, other things being equal. The Indian pony, or "cayuse" as he is sometimes called, is larger; he is a descendant from the native range stock, and is classed on the market as a range pony. Plugs. — Plugs are worn-out, decrepit horses with but little value. This class is too well known to need description. Weeds. — Weeds are leggy and ill-proportioned horses lacking in the essential qualities, such as constitution and sub- stance. The fetlocks must be capable of full flexion. The -or for service of any kind- Prices for Horses at Chicaffo. Prices during 1914. — The writer has taken the liberty of condensing as follows the Chicago Live Stock World's review •of the Chicago horse market during 1914: "During the first six months of the year, prices on all •sorts of horses, with one or two exceptions, remained as high as they had ever been, and business was better than during the corresponding period of any of the five preceding seasons. "Two notable exceptions to this rule of price maintenance were big, rugged team horses weighing 1500 to 1600 pounds, and neat little farm geldings weighing around 1200 pounds. In July, business began to drop off, and a period of stagnation fol- lowed, for which the reason became apparent when war was declared. Thereafter during August and September, until the foreign inspections were organized, the trade was demoral- ized. There has been nothing doing in commercial classes ever since. The entire stage was monopolized by the rider and gunner. "Throughout the year, there have been signs of changes taking place in the horse trade. Some eastern dealers have gone out into the country, bought their own horses, and, after having them fitted at their own expense, have shipped direct :to the East. Then sundry country buyers have got into the 412 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock habit of going on east with their horses. The absence of these good loads from the market centers lowers the average char- acter of supplies, and lessens price averages." Prices of the various classes compared. — Prices during 1914 averaged as follows upon the Chicago market, figures for preceding years being given for comparison: Class 19H 1913 1912 1911 1910 1902 Draft horses $208 $213 $210 $205 $200 $166 Carriage horses (pairs) 483 493 473 483 473 450 Drivers 169 174 177 182 172 145 General use 160 165 160 155 144 117 Saddle horses 184 189 195 190 177 151 Southern chunks 93 98 97 92 87 57 The above is a rather incomplete and indefinite report, but it is all that is available. Taking all Chicago receipts of horses during 1914, their total value was $19,662,170, and their average value only $183, as compared with an average of $188 in 1913, and $179 in 1912. CHAPTER XXXIV. MARKET CLASSES OF MULES. The mule market is of more recent origin than the horse market, but has developed into a large business. Whereas horses are usually sold at public auction, mules are usually sold at private sale, being sold singly, in pairs, or in any num- ber to suit the needs of the buyer. When large numbers are wanted of a uniform height and weight, they are most often sold as a fixed price per head and the salesman gives a guaran- tee as to age, soundness, and other requirements. When an order is placed for mules of different sizes or for different market classes, they will ordinarily be figured individually, or in pairs. Market requirements. — The market requirements for mules are similar to those for horses. They should be sound, of a desirable age and color, well fleshed, and sleek in coat; and should possess abundant quality and a strong conforma- tion. They should also have good action. These requirements are discussed in detail below. Soundness. — Mules should be serviceably sound. Blem- ishes are objectionable, though not in the same degree as with horses. They should be sound in eyes" and wind, and should be good workers. The most common and serious unsound- nesses are large spavins, puffs, sidebones, defective eyes, and unsound wind. Age. — The most desired age is from four to eight years ; however, there are exceptions in some classes, as noted below. Condition. — The appearance is greatly improved if mules are marketed carrying flesh enough to round out their middles. Sleek, glossy coats of hair are often estimated to be worth ten dollars. The flesh should be smooth, not lumpy or roily The value of flesh on mules is about equal to that on draft horses — which is twenty-flve cents per pound with a good grade of horses. 413 414 Types and Market Classes of Li\t Stock Quality. — Refinement of head, hair, bone, joints, and hoofs is an evidence of good bone and wearing qualities. Conformation. — All mules should have a large chest, long shoulder, deep barrel, straight short back M^ith as much spring of rib as possible, a broad loin, and a long level croup. The underline should be comparatively straight, the rear flank well let down, and the thighs and quarters heavily muscled. The legs lili^iiUPOA^ J Fig. 115. High-Class Draft Mules. should evidence both substance and quality, the feet should be large, wide at the heel, and sound, and the hoofs should be smooth. The form, muscling, and set of legs should be approximately the same as in horses. The head of the mule is a good index of his disposition and temperament ; it should be of good size, yet clean-cut as an evidence of quality. The forehead should be broad and flat, and the nose slightly Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 415 Roman, which indicates stamina and strength. If the head is as described, with hght coloring running well up toward the bridge of the nose, the animal is usually considered to be a more reliable and agreeable worker than one not possessing these characteristics. The ears should be long, thin, tapering, and carried erect; the neck should be long, with moderate crest, and should join the shoulder smoothly. The mane should be roached, and the tail clipped in the regular manner with not too short a bush. Color. — All mules of solid color, except white, are in good demand, though color is not an important factor. Dapple grays are popular in the draft class, but as a general rule, bays, browns, and chestnuts are most desirable, while flea- bitten grays are discriminated against. Action. — Action counts for very little in market mules. They should show vigor and energy in their movements and be straight-line movers. They should not be sore in legs or feet, nor defective in action because of badly set legs. The market classes of mules are determined by the use to which they are put, but in order for a class to exist there must be a demand for considerable numbers of a definite type. In the St. Louis market, which is the largest mule market in the world, there are five market classes which are as follows: Height Weight Classes Hands Pounds MINING MULES _ _ ......_. 12 to 16 600 to 1350 COTTON MULES ._ 13.2 to 15.2 750 to 1100 SUGAR MULES ...._ 16 to 17 1150 to 1300 FARM MULES 15.2 to 16 900 to 1250 DRAFT MULES.. ...16 to 17.2 1200 to 1600 Mining mules. — These are purchased for use in mines, principally to haul cars of ore or coal to the hoisting shafts. They are rugged, deep bodied, short legged, compactly built, and have heavy bone and large feet. They stand from 12 to 16 hands high, and weigh from 600 to 1350 pounds. Those used down in mines are termed "pit mules," and the height of these is limited by the depth of the vein worked. Ages from 5 to 8 years are most preferred, but a well-developed four-year-old, or a well-preserved ten-year-old, is often ac- cepted. Geldings are much preferred to mare mules for this 416 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock trade. Bad wire marks on the feet are severely discriminated against, as they are likely to become sore from contact with sulphur and other chemicals in the mine. The demand for miners is strong and constant throughout the year, and comes from all sections where mines are operated. Cotton mules. — Cotton mules are very similar to mining mules in size, but are lighter boned and not so compactly built. They should have small, neat heads, and possess much quality and finish. Their feet are smaller and bodies propor- tionately lighter. Cotton mules stand from 13.2 to 15.2 hands high, and weigh from 750 to 1100 pounds. They are most desired from 3 to 7 years old, but may find ready sale up to 12 years of age. Mare mules sell better than geldings in this class. The trade begins about the first of September and con- tinues good throughout the fall and winter months, then grad- ually decreases until after the cotton crop is planted, or about April. From this time until the following fall, the demand is light. Cotton mules are used by cotton growers to plant, cultivate, and harvest the cotton crop, but a great many such mules are also taken to cities for use on delivery wagons and other purposes. Sugar mules. — These are mules especially adapted for use on the sugar farms of Georgia, Louisiana, and other southern states. Sugar mules are taller, larger, more breedy looking, better finished, and have heavier bone than cotton mules. The feet should be large in proportion to the bone. They stand from 16 to 17 hands high, and weigh from 1150 to 1300 pounds. Mare mules from 3 to 6 years old are most desired for this trade. As sugar mules are larger and possess more quality and finish than cotton mules, they sell for a little more money. The trade begins in August, and usually ends in February. They are in greatest demand in September, October, and No- vember. Farm mules. — Mules purchased for use on farms in the central states are known on the market as farm mules. They are less uniform in type than the other classes, as farmers like to buy animals that show promise of further develop- ment. Farm mules are usually from 15.2 to 16 hands high, and from 3 to 6 years old, four-year-olds being preferred. Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 417 They are often plain looking and thin in flesh, though possess- ing good constitution, bone and feet, and showing indica- tions of a good outcome when well fed and cared for. Many of them are worked for a time, then fattened and returned to the market. When resold, they may be taken as miners, sugar mules, or cotton mules. The strongest demand for farm mules occurs during the late winter and spring months. Draft Mules. — Draft mules are large, heavy-boned, heavy-set mules, with plenty of quality. They are purchased to do heavy teaming work. Many are used by contractors doing railroad grading, and consequently they are often spoken of as railroad mules. They are especially demanded for heavy teaming work in cities in* warm climates, where they are preferred to horses because they are said to be hardier, able to stand the hot sun better, and not subject to as many ills. Draft mules stand from 16 to 17.2 hands high, and weigh from 1200 to 1600 pounds and upwards. They should com- bine weight and strength. They should be large, rugged, heavily boned, and strongly muscled. The feet should be large, the back short and strong, the middle deep and closely coupled, the croup fairly level, and the thighs and quarters massive. They are most desired from 5 to 8 years old, and little preference is shown regarding sex. The demand is strong and quite constant the year round. Plugs. — These are worn out, cheap mules that have but little value. They are usually unsound in one or more re- spects, very plain and rough in form, and many are of ad- vanced age. Export mules. — The export trade in mules has increased during recent years. Large shipments have been made to South Africa, Philippine Islands, and Cuba. The size and type of these mules varies, depending on the use to which they are put and the country to which they are sent. Some are used for army service, some for agricultural purposes, some for heavy teaming, and some in mines. Hence the term "export mule" is a trade name which is not restricted to any particular kind of mules. CHAPTER XXXV. HORSE BREEDING. This is a broad subject which may be considered and dis- cussed at length from many points of view. Only very brief treatment is possible here, however, in which the most com- mon mistakes in horse breeding are pointed out and their remedies briefly discussed. The subject will not be considered from the viewpoint of the wealthy man with whom horse breeding is mainly a hobby, nor from the standpoint of gov- ernment work in establishing or perpetuating certain breeds and classes of horses. This is written from the standpoint of the farmer who desires to breed horses in a moderate or small way for the profit there is in it. Horse production on the small farm. — The advantages of intensive farming have been widely discussed for a number of years. Intensive farming is farming on a small scale, but doing it perfectly, hence realizing the largest possible return on a moderate investment. Horse production on a small scale, as discussed here, is similar to intensive farming. It means the ownership of one or two pairs of high-class brood mares, preferably purebreds, which are used to do part or all of the farm work, and which are given the very best care and atten- tion. They are bred only to high-class stallions of the same breed as themselves, and during pregnancy they are well cared for, well fed, and not overworked. As foaling time draws near, they are watched carefully and assistance is given if nec- essary. They foal on clean bedding in a clean stall, or, better still, at pasture, and the foals are immediately treated to pre- vent navel ill. The foals are given the best of care and are carefully trained, being halter broken as early as possible and made gentle by proper handling. They are kept growing after they are weaned, and in due time their education in harness or under saddle is accomplished in a careful and complete man- ner. This is intensive horse production. 418 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 419 Intensive horse raising therefore means keeping a few extra-good brood mares, and each year producing a few extra- good foals which may be grown out by the breeder or sold as weanlings or yearlings to be developed by someone else. The first costs under this plan are not necessarily less expen- sive than where a large number of the average kind of brood mares are kept. Good brood mares cost considerable, but they are the only kind on which large profits may be made. If this plan seems impracticable because purebred mares are expensive, why not reach the same end by buying a weanling or yearling filly of the desired breed, growing out this filly to breeding age, and retaining her best filly foals for breeding purposes? In this way, given a few years' time, it is easily possible to get on an intensive footing with as many mares as are desired. We have had enough of the average kind of horse produc- tion in this country; in fact, far too much of it. Until late years, purebred draft mares were so scarce that they were al- most regarded as curiosities. Enough time has elapsed, how- ever, to demonstrate beyond all doubt that it pays much better to keep a few extra-good brood mares and raise carefully a few good foals, than it does to keep a lot of cheap mares and pro- duce a lot of cheap horses, without feed enough to give any of them a fair chance. Put your money in fewer mares, give the foals the best of feed and care, and you will make more money than you will by raising ten or a dozen average foals in the average way. Today the tendency is for the cheap horse to bring less, and for the good horse to bring more than ever be- fore. The automobile has helped to bring about this condition, and the writing on the wall should be heeded. Only recently, the writer visited a farm where he vras shown a sixteen-year-old grade draft mare of good type and individuality. On the same farm were five good mares, all out of the aged mare mentioned. Other of her numerous offspring had been sold at good prices. The mare had made the farmer money and is still making it, for at the time of this visit she had a fine filly foal by her side. But the owner was not satis- fied. "Think how much more money I would have made," said he, "if I had begun with a purebred registered mare. If the 420 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock old mare had been purebred and registered, the value of every- one of her foals would have been easily doubled, and it wouldn't have cost a cent more to raise them." The lesson to the young breeder is clear, — start right, even if it means start- ing slowly by buying one young registered filly, and from her building up a breeding stud of fine mares. The farms of the Middle West and East are well adapted to the intensive plan of horse production, because most of the farms are not large, and usually the teaming is done by the owner himself, or by one or two hands who are always under close observation. On big farms, with incompetent and ever- changing help, if valuable brood mares are kept, they are liable to be injured if used to do the farm work. The writer is not one of those who advocate keeping brood mares in idle- ness. They will be healthier and will produce stronger foals if worked in moderation. The plan should call for working the brood mares, but not working them as hard as we work geldings or mules. Let them earn their board, and board them well. They may be worked well up to foaling time if care is taken not to back them to a heavy load, or put them to a hard strain, or turn them quickly. Mares have been hur- riedly unhitched and unharnessed while cultivating com or doing some other moderate work, and have foaled thrifty, well-developed foals, the equal of any. But such mares have been well fed and cared for during pregnancy, and they should be given as long a vacation on pasture after foaling as the farm work will permit. The most profitable horse breeding in France, Belgium. England, Scotland, and America is done on the intensive plan. on farms of moderate or small size, by farmers who are good practical horsemen with a taste for doing things well. There is ample room in the United States for much more horse rais- ing on this plan, and we nave always had too many inferior mares, too many cheap stallions, and too many cheap horses hunting buyers. Choosing a type to breed. — What type of horse shall the farmer breed? The answer depends upon how much capital is available to put into the business, upon the personal quali- fications of the breeder, and also upon his personal preference Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 421 as to type. To some extent, the choice will depend upon the location of the farm, and upon the crops that can be grown. It will ordinarily require more capital to engage in the breed- ing of light horses than in the breeding of draft horses. Light horses especially require more expensive equipment to ac- complish the training and finishing without which they sell at comparatively moderate prices. Because of temperament and disposition, some men are more successful with one type of horse than another. The man who intends to engage in the breeding of horses should ask himself the following questions regarding any or all types he may have under consideration. 1. Am I familiar enough with the type and the methods of its production to know what I am striving to produce and how to produce it? 2. Provided I can produce the type success- fully, how can I dispose of my animals, and what are the chances of realizing full value for my stock? 3. Are my buildings, fences, land, and crops adapted to handling the type I have in mind, and if not, can I remedy the shortcomings ? Advantages of draft type. — In the majority of cases, the best type for the farmer to produce is the draft horse. It has many advantages. The brood mares are much better suited to do the work of the farm than are any of the light horse types. Practically no special training is needed to make the drafter ready for market, and he is marketable at a younger age than is ordinarily true of the types of Hght horses. If he is kept free from wire cuts and other blemishes, and is fat and well groomed when offered for sale, he should realize full value. The carriage horse or saddler, on the other hand, re- quires months of handling in order to give him a good mouth and develop his action or gaits, as the case may be. Further- more, a wire cut or other blemish is much more serious with these types than with the drafter. They require more care and attention from birth to selling time, and require a greater age to finish them, for market. It is also true that there are fewer misfits in breeding draft horses than with any other type of horse, in other words, results are more certain and sure. The production of draft horses fits into general farming better than the production of any of the light horse types. For these various reasons, the draft horse is of greatest interest to 422 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock most farmers, and is most frequently selected by farmers who take up horse breeding. Light types require greater skill. — Let it be understood, however, that the foregoing arguments are not intended to discourage the breeding of types other than the drafter. The point is that carriage, saddle, and roadster horses are more difficult to produce than drafters, and but few persons, com- Fig. 116. Correct Type in the Draft Stallion. Fyvie Baron, Grand Champion Clydesdale stallion at the 1913 Inter- national. Owned by Conyngham Bros, of Wilkesbarre. Pa. Note his masculinity, quality, style, symmetry, correct position of legs, nice pas- terns, and good feet. paratively, are qualified to breed them successfully. The pro- duction of light horses requires a higher order of skill both in breeding and salesmanship than does the production of the draft horse, and when this is supplied, light horse breeding is a profitable enterprise. Hence the selection of the type to breed should be governed largely by the ability of the man Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 423 who is to supervise the breeding, provided, of course, he is to work under conditions not unfavorable to the type he is best qualified to produce. Failures in horse breeding, as in most other things, usually have been due to the man believing him- self capable of doing things for which he was not qualified. Perhaps in no other field have so many breeders found themselves mistaken regarding their abilities as in the breed- ing of the trotting horse. This type appeals strongly to the majority of Americans, and many farmers and others have believed that they knew a safe and sure system of breeding for speed that could not but make every animal produced a good one. Even in the best of hands, the breeding of trotters is very doubtful as to results, and only a small percentage of the foals ever attains anything noteworthy on the turf. Speed is an elusive quality dependent on such a rare combination of good qualities in the animal as to make results in breeding very uncertain, and it should be understood that only a few men possess the special qualifications necessary to success in breeding this type of horse, and that only the wealthy, who are willing to accept the pleasure and fascination of the under- taking as partial remuneration for the capital invested, can ordinarily afford to take up this difficult art. A few men of moderate means have made a success with trotters by selling yearlings as "prospects" to be developed in the hands of some one else, but even this method is uncertain as to results financially. Pony breeding offers a good field for profit to those who are in position to reach the trade for Shetland, Welsh, or Hackney ponies. The breeding of polo ponies, however, is as yet a very uncertain undertaking comparable to breeding trotters. Selecting a breed. — After the type of horse has been chosen, it is next in order to decide what breed of that type shall be selected. The choice of a breed is not so serious or important a matter as the selection of a type or the selection of the individuals which are to compose the stud. It will de- pend largely upon the personal fancy of the breeder, although in some types of horses in certain localities, one breed may be so much liked or another breed so much disliked as to make 424 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock it advisable for the new breeder to conform to the choice of the community, if it is possible to do so. He can then profit from the experience and advice of his neighbors, he will bene- fit from a greater number of local sales of his stock, and there will be more stallions to select among when mating his mares. After deciding what type shall be produced, the mistake is sometimes made of selecting a breed to work with which does not rightly belong to that type. For example, efforts are sometimes made to produce the carriage tyre from trotting- bred stock, or from a saddle breed, and while many excellent heavy-harness horses have sprung from these breeds, they have been largely in the nature of accidents in breeding, and ordinarily they cannot be produced in this way with enough regularity to make such a plan of breeding advisable. Selecting the individuals. — We now come to the matter of selecting the individuals which are to compose the stud. First of all, they must be sound ; and this is a matter to which many farmers pay too little attention. Buyers offer the best prices for sound stock, and the farmer has too frequently sold his young mares that were sound, and has retained those with sidebones, ringbones, spavins, curbs, etc., for breeding pur- poses. This is radically wrong and a very short-sighted prac- tice. Soundness is of very vital importance in every type of horse, and especially in animals used for breeding puiposes. The individuals should also be true representatives of the type to which they belong. Whether or not the brood mares should be purebred depends on the amount of capital available and on the type of horse selected. If possible, it is preferable that they be purebred, registered mares. In breeding drafters for the market, some very profitable work has been done with good grade draft mares. In such cases, however, these mares have shown excellent draft type, even though they were not eligible to registry. Purebred draft mares cost considerably more to buy, but have the very great advantage of having their foals eligible to registry, and hence of greater market value. In breeding carriage, saddle, and roadster horses, it is essential in most cases that purebred mares be used. Well- developed feminine character and good disposition are funda- mental qualities in a brood mare, as such mares are usually Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 425 more regular breeders, better mothers, and more easily handled and worked than are mares of masculine appearance or mean, vicious, or highly nervous disposition. A sound, purebred stallion that is true to type and a good individual in every way is the only kind worthy of patronage. If there is no such horse in the community, it will pay to ship the mares a long distance to reach such a one. If pKDSsible, Fig. 117. Correct Type in the Draft Mare. Coldham Surprise, Grand Champion Shire mare at the 1913 Inter- national. Owned by Mr. Geo. M. McCray of Fithian, 111. Note her roomy middle, faultless top line, symmetrical form, abundant muscling, and large bone. She has ruggedness and strength combined with quality and femininity. it is always best to patronize a stalHon that has proved him- self a sure breeder and a getter of good foals. There is no greater folly than breeding to a horse simply because he stands at a low service fee, yet this is done in a vast number of instances every season. There would not be the great num- 426 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock ber of unsound, mongrel, and inferior stallions standing for public service if there did not exist a demand for them on the part of mare owners. There can be only one explanation so far as the owner of the mare is concerned, and that is the saving in the amount of the service fee; but no more short- sighted practice can be followed, it having been demonstrated in almost every community that the added value of the foal from a high-class stallion, as compared with the foal by a cheap horse, repays the extra service fee many times over. It costs little more to raise a good foal than an inferior one, and the foal by the cheap stallion is not ordinarily a profit maker. So many breeders have shown a lack of judgment in this matter, and horse stocks have deteriorated to such an extent in some states on account of the large number of mares bred to cheap horses, that stallion laws have been enacted which debar unsound stallions from public service, and re- quire that placards be posted on the stable door telling whether the stallion is a purebred, cross-bred, grade, or mon- grel. Every state needs a law of this kind, modified to suit its needs. Results of careless breeding. — Another evil in need of remedy is the too common practice of mixing the types of horses. Heavy mares are mated with trotting stallions in order to produce an animal for road use, or with no particular idea in the mind of the mare owner except to "get a colt." Light-weight, light-boned mares, without any semblance of draft qualities, are mated with draft stallions in the hope of getting a draft foal, or again simply to "get a colt." The re- sults of such breeding are to be seen on every hand in the coun- try, and a visit to any large horse market reveals the fact that a large percentage of the animals oflfered for sale are of no par- ticular type or market class, because they have a variegated ancestry, the result of indiscriminate crossing of heavy and light horses. One is at a loss sometimes to know by what method some market offerings were produced. The result is a lot of cheap horses adapted to no particular work, which net the producer a loss in most cases and seldom yield a profit. Breeders must learn to stick to type. The experience of all Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 427 successful horse breeders teaches no other lesson more for- cibly than this. Pedigree not always an indication of merit. — In the minds of many people, the words "purebred," "registered," and "im- ported" have a charm much greater than they deserve. Far too often, glaring faults of individuality or even serious un- soundness are passed with light criticism because the animal in question is eligible to one or more of these fascinating names. After all, one must conclude that there is something in a name. It is a fact that many purebred horses are prac- tically worthless for breeding purposes. If an animal is pure- bred and registered, its value is very greatly increased, pro- vided it is a good individual of useful type ; but if the animal is decidedly faulty in conformation, or has serious unsound- ness, its pedigree and registration number are of small ac- count, and the animal is of little or no value for breeding purposes. Feed and care. — Every successful breeder is a good feeder and caretaker, for no matter how excellent the ancestry of a foal may be, its inherited good qualities cannot reveal them- selves unless the foal is provided with good quarters and plenty of the right feed with which to build up and grow. Feed and care are fully as important as parentage in producing good horses. Summary. — In conclusion, therefore, follow the intensive rather than the extensive plan of horse production ; select the type to breed after careful study of the situation; select a breed which truly belongs to that type; select sound indi- viduals possessing a high degree of individual excellence; breed to a strictly high-class, purebred stallion, regardless of the amount of his service fee; if there is no such stallion in the immediate neighborhood, ship the mares whatever distance is necessary to reach a high-class horse ; patronize a tried and proven sire if possible; stick to a definite line of breeding — do not mix the types indiscriminately; raise a class of foals that merit plenty of good feed and care, and supply the same ; be conservative in your judgment and appreciative of the fact that the breeding of horses is an enterprise which repays careful study of all departments of the business. 428 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock A Few Statistics. The leading countries in point of numbers of horses and mules in 1914 were as follows: Horses Mules United States.^ 24,145,000 4,719,000 Canada 2,948,000 Argentina 8,894,000 535,000 Austria-Hungary 4,374,000 43,000 France 3,231,000 193,000 Germany 4,523,000 2,000 Italy 956,000 388,000 European Russia,. 24,639,000 United Kingdom 2,233,000 31,000 India 1,699,000 277,000 Japan 1,582,000 Asiatic Russia 10,330,000 Australia.. 2,509,000 World 95,698,000 8,642,000 The United States has 25.2 per cent, of the world's horses and 54.6 per cent, of the world's mules. Spain is the only country which has more mules than horses. The average value of horses in the United States in 1915 was $103.33, while the average value of mules was $112.36. Ohio, Michigan, Wisconsin, Utah, and Idaho were the only states which reported a higher average valuation for horses than for mules in 1915. Iowa, with 1,600,000 head, had more horses in 1915 than any other state. The other leading states in the order of im- portance were Illinois, Texas, Kansas, Missouri, Nebraska. Ohio, Minnesota, Indiana, and North Dakota. The horses of Ohio were valued higher per head than those of the other nine states mentioned, so that in total valuation of horses Ohio ranks third, Iowa and Illinois being first and second. The leading mule-owning states are Texas, Missouri Georgia, Mississippi, and Alabama, in the order given, while no mules were reported in 1915 from Maine, New Hampshire, Vermont, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, and Connecticut. Five states own more mules than horses, these being North Caro- lina, South Carolina, Georgia, Alabama, and Mississippi. CHAPTER XXXVI. UNSOUNDNESS IN THE HORSE. Soundness is a very vital factor in determining the value of a horse, and a knowledge of unsoundness is very essential to success in breeding. Brief description of the most common unsoundnesses has been deferred until the close of the dis- cussion of horses in order that the student may learn to fix his attention, first of all, on type. The matter of soundness, while important, is often overemphasized. Presented here at the close, such information should supplement, but not dis- place, knowledge previously acquired. If a horse is unsound, his unsoundness may be accounted for in one or more ways: (1) he may have had a natural weakness in conformation or structure which predisposed him to the unsoundness ; (2) he may have been strong in conforma- tion, but forced to do extreme labor which was beyond the power of the animal machine to endure; (3) the unsoundness may be the result of a bruise, blow, cut, or other injury ; (4) un- soundness may result following a diseased condition of some part of the body, and (5) lack of proper care, as, for example, failure to keep the feet in proper balance so as to distribute the weight and wear equally over the various parts of the foot and leg, may bring on unsoundness. In the horse for work, it matters little which of the above explanations applies ; he is unsound, and the horse market fixes his value according to the nature of the unsoundness, without regard to the rea- son why the horse has it. In the horse intended for breeding purposes only, unsoundness should not be considered a serious detriment unless it is explained by the first of the possibilities listed above. For example, it is wiser to breed to a horse having a naturally strong hock which, because of accident or extreme work, has developed a bone spavin, than it is to breed to a sound horse having a weakly formed hock which is free from bone spavin only because it has never been put to the test of even moderate work. It is often difficult, however, to 429 430 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock determine with accuracy the reason for an unsoundness, and in all such doubtful cases the unsoundness should be looked upon with suspicion and the horse rejected for breeding pur- poses. Certain unsoundnesses are ordinarily referred to as "hereditary," on account of their marked tendency to reap- pear in succeeding generations. More correctly, however, it is some weakness of conformation that is transmitted which predisposes the members of the family to one or more un- soundnesses. Considerable difference of opinion exists among well-informed persons as to the hereditary transmission of many diseases. A number of minor troubles which are not unsoundnesses are here given brief mention, because of the frequency with which they are met and to satisfy curiosity regarding them. Treatment is briefly mentioned in some cases for a similar reason. Many minor troubles are important because they blemish a horse. A blemish merely detracts from the appear- ance of an animal, whereas an unsoundness interferes with his working capacity. Many unsoundnesses are blemishes as well. The list here presented is not by any means a complete list of the diseases of the horse, and it is not necessaiy that it should be complete. A study of the ills to which the horse is heir shows that his eyes, legs, and wind are the seats of un- soundness. Blindness. — Any defect of sight is a serious defect in a horse, and eye trouble always furnishes grounds for rejecting horses for unsoundness. Inspecting a horse for blindness re- quires expert knowledge of the diseases of the eye, and, al- though the average horseman can in many cases discover defective eyes, no horse is safely passed as sound in eyes except by a well-qualified veterinarian. Severe weeping, par- tially closed eyelids, sunken eyes, inability to bear strong light, a cloudy appearance of the cornea, unnatural or dull color, failure of the iris to contract to a considerable degree when brought from darkness to light, too active play of the ears, failure to blink when an object is passed close to the eye — these and many other conditions give evidence of de- fective vision. (See also cataract and periodic ophthalmia.) Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 431 Blood spavin. — Blood spavin is situated in front and to the inside of the hock, and is merely a varicose or dilated condition of the vein passing over that region. It occurs directly over the point where the bog spavin is found, and is frequently confused with the latter. It constitutes a blemish rather than an unsoundness. Bog spavin. — This is a round, smooth, well-defined swell- ing in front and a little inward of the hock. On pressure it disappears to reappear on the outside and just behind the hock. It is caused by a weakness in the synovial sacs of the joint, accompanied by a hyper-secretion of synovial fluid or joint oil. Bog spavins are more often blemishes, rather than unsoundnesses. They are classed as the latter only when they are well developed or cause lameness. Slight cases are de- scribed as merely **a little full in the hocks.'" Treatment consists of rest, blistering, cauterization, and the use of pres- sure pads and peculiar bandages. Bone spavin. — This is a bony growth of variable size in the hock, which may or may not make itself visible on the exterior. It most often occurs at the inner and lower border of the hock, but may arise on the upper part, or on the outside of the hock. In some cases, no outward signs of spavin are perceptible; these are called "occult" spavins. Care should be taken not to mistake a prominent development of the inner and lower border of the hock, natural in some animals, for a spavin. Hocks that are narrow or tied in below are subject to bone spavin, as are also those of coarse structure. Bone spavins affect one or more of the six bones of the hock. The spavin usually represents an effort on the part of nature to repair the joint. Spavins are caused by sprains, by violent efforts in jumping, galloping, trotting, or pulling, by slipping or sliding, and other similar causes. This is classed as an hereditary unsoundness. It is one of the most serious unsoundnesses of horses ; it causes lameness and stiff- ens the joint. As with sidebones and ringbones, the size of the spavin is not a safe index of its seriousness. An excellent test for spavin lameness consists in lifting the affected leg off the ground for one or two minutes, holding the foot high so as to flex all the joints. Then start the animal off in a trot, 432 , Types and Market Classes of Live Stock when the lameness will be greatly intensified if it is caused by spavin. Treatment consists of complete rest for a month or more, blistering, the use of proper medicaments, firing, and special operations on the joint. Firing produces a small scar, and when this is present the spavin is called a "jack." Broken wind or heaves. — This condition is denoted by a characteristic hollow cough, short, and something like a grunt, which once heard is easily recognized a second time. Inspira- tion is performed normally, but expiration is abnormal, being double, or what is commonly called the "double lift." The first portion of the expiration expels the air as normally, and the second apparently squeezes the remainder of the air from the lungs in a gradual manner, seemingly with more or less voluntary exertion. When such an animal is put to work, there is also a wheezing noise with the breathing. From a commercial standpoint, a broken-winded horse has practically no value, yet he may continue to work fairly well. The cough is sometimes disguised by unprincipled persons through the administration of such substances as shot and grease; but this is only temporary. The abnormal breathing cannot be concealed. In some cases of broken wind, the air vesicles of the lungs have been found, after death, ruptured; the right side of the heart enlarged, and the walls of the stomach dilated, though this is not always true. A predisposition to this dis- ease may be inherited. In doubtful cases of broken wind, give the animal all the water he will drink and then ride or drive him uphill. This will bring out the symptoms if the disease is present. There is a great diversity of opinion as regards the exact cause of heaves. It is usually associated with disorder of di- gestion, or to an error in choice of food. Feeding on clover hay or damaged hay or straw, too bulky food, and keeping the horse in a dusty atmosphere or a badly ventilated stable produce or predispose to heaves. Horses brought from a high to a low level are predisposed. Capped elbow. — This malady is commonly termed "shoe boil," and consists of a bruise at the point of the elbow, gen- erally caused by the heel of the shoe when the horse is lying down, and sometimes from other causes. The continued irri- Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 433 tation leads to the production of a tumor at the point of the elbow. The skin may be broken, and slight suppuration very often occurs. The cause must be removed, and the animal pro- vided with a leather or rubber ring around the fetlock while in the stall. The remainder of the treatment is surgical. Capped elbow may cause severe lameness, but it is usually a blemish only. Capped hock. — This is quite common and may or may not constitute unsoundness. It is the result of a bruise, either continuous or intermittent, and may appear suddenly or grad- ually. Such bruises may be received in shipping by train or boat, or by the habit some animals have of kicking against the sides of the stall, or at fences, or even in harness. The skin, bursa, or the bone may be involved in capped hock. Usually it is the skin, which becomes very much thickened over the point of the hock. It is in every case a blemish. Treat- ment consists of hot and cold applications and blistering. Cataract. — When the lens of the eye becomes so cloudy or opaque as to present a white or grayish color, the eye is said to be affected with cataract, which is a practically in- curable form of bhndness. A blow over the eye and other causes bring it on. It is rather common, particularly in aged horses. Chronic cough. — A permanent cough accompanying bro- ken wind, glanders, and other diseases constitutes an un- soundness. Cocked ankles or knuckling. — This is a partial dislocation of the fetlock joint, in which the position of the bones is changed, the pastern becoming more nearly perpendicular. While it is not always an unsoundness, it nevertheless predis- poses to stumbHng and to fracture of the pastern. Young foals are frequently subject to this condition, and in the great majority of such cases the trouble disappears in a few weeks without treatment. Horses with erect pasterns often knuckle as they grow old, especially in the hind legs. All kinds of hard work, particularly in hilly districts, are exciting causes of this trouble. It is also caused by improper shoeing, in which the toe is made too long and the heel too low. thus producing inflammation and retraction of the tendons. Last- 434 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock ly, it is caused by disease of the suspensory ligament or of the flexor tendons, whereby they are shortened, and by dis- ease of the fetlock joint. It is one of the worst faults a horse can possess, and it greatly affects the value and the price. Treatment varies depending on the cause of the trou- ble. Relief may be secured by so shoeing as to shorten the toe and elevate the heels, thus relieving the tendons. In extreme cases, the tendons may be operated on to secure relief. Firing and blistering effect a cure in some instances. Contracted feet. — Contraction of the feet is not a dis- eased condition in itself, but is a symptom of such and leads to trouble. Contraction is due to a removal of the full func- tions of the foot, such as is the case in lameness, removal of frog pressure, defective shoeing, etc. Contraction occurs more especially at the heels, and more frequently in the fore feet than the hind ones. Veterinarians look upon this condi- tion as constituting unsoundness. Treatment is not of much avail, but going barefoot or wearing a special shoe to spread the heels will help to alleviate the condition. Corns. — A corn is a bruise to the fleshy sole, and is mani- fested by a reddish discoloration of the horny sole beneath the bruise. It usually occurs upon the inner quarter of the fore foot. A corn very often causes severe lameness, and is a cause of unsoundness. The treatment consists in paring, special shoeing, poulticing, keeping the part thoroughly clean, and a few weeks' rest. Cracked heels. — This condition is denoted by an inflamed state of the skin, which becomes broken, and, if severe, may cause lameness. They are frequent in the horse, especially following a frost, the moisture from the thaw favoring this. It is similar to chapped hands, and Assuring is favored by the movements in the hollow of the heels. Treatment consists of the application of a soothing liniment applied daily with tow and bandage. Curb. — This is an unnatural prominence of variable size, located on the posterior border of the hock, four or five inches below the point of the hock. It is easily detected by viewing the joint in profile. It is caused by a sprain of the tendon which passes over that part, or of the strong ligament located Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 435 there. Hocks that are sickled, coarse, and thick in appear- ance, or that are too narrow from front to back at their base, most often develop curbs. Violent efforts in heavy pulling, high jumping, or slipping are often the direct cause of curb. Curbs do not often cause lameness, or, if they do, it is usually during the formative stage. Legally it is an unsoundness, although it is not much of a detriment, especially in horses for slow work. Curbs are much less serious than bone spav- ins, ringbones, sidebones, cocked ankles, and stringhalt. Treat- ment in the early stages consists of cold applications to relieve the acute inflammation. When the first stage has passed, blistering, frictions with ointments, and firing are often used with good success. Fistula. — This is an ulcerous lesion found at the withers. Fistulas follow as a result of abscesses, bruises, wounds, or long-continued irritation by the harness or saddle. The pus burrows and finds lodgment deep down between the muscles. The horse becomes incapacitated for work for a considerable period. Most cases are curable. The treatment is largely surgical ; the animal should be placed in the care of a compe- tent veterinarian as soon as the condition is discovered. After the fistula is healed, a scar usually remains in the region of the withers. A horse that has had fistula is liable to subsequent attacks of the same trouble. Founder or laminitis. — This is a simple inflammation of the fleshy laminae within the hoof. Being exceedingly vascu- lar, the laminae are subject to congestion, and, being enclosed within the hoof, there is very little room for the relief of the congestion. The animal suffers most agonizing pain. Con- cussion is one of the most common causes. Another is over- feeding, especially on barley, wheat, or corn, causing indiges- tion, irritation of the alimentary tract, and inflammation of the fleshy laminae through sympathy. Other causes are un- usual excitement, bad shoeing, over-exertion, exhaustion, rapid changes of temperature, or any other agencies of an over- supply of blood to the fleshy laminae, resulting in congestion and inflammation. But it is the after-effects which are of most interest to us here. The disease sometimes becomes chronic, and this seriously affects the secretion of horn. The 436 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock toe of the hoof turns up, the heels become longer than natural, while the hoof near the coronet is circled with ridges like those of a ram's horn. These ridges are wide apart at the heel, and close together in front, and are due to periods of interference with the growth of horn simultaneous with the inflammation of the fleshy laminae. Because of the high heel and turned-un toe, the leg knuckles at the fetlock joint. Usually, accom- panying these defects, the sole is found to be thin, convex, and weak, and will stand but little wear. Because of the convex- ity, the diseased tissues bear unusual weight, and such ani- mals are generally incurable cripples. Grease. — This is not an unsoundness, but is such a trou- blesome and common complaint that brief mention is here given. It is a skin disease appearing nearly always in the hind cannons. Draft horses are more subject to it than light horses. Some individuals are predisposed to it — those with coarse skin and coarse feather. Other horses have it as a form of parasitic mange, denoted by a greasy condition oi the skin, congestion of the skin, erect hair, and offensive odor due to discharge from the sores. There is a constant itching and the horse rubs the part, producing thickening and wrink- ling of the skin. Treatment varies. Half an ounce of Fow- ler's solution of arsenic night and morning in the feed, burning with hot iron, applying hot linseed poultices, dressing with lead lotion, giving a mild physic, decreasing amount of feed allowance — all these furnish good methods of treatment. Hip down. — This is a fracture of the point of the hip, often caused by the animal striking the part against the door post of the stable. It causes a flatness and sometimes the broken piece of bone may be felt. It is best detected by stand- ing squarely behind the animal and viewing it across the hips. It constitutes a blemish. Navicular disease. — Navicular disease is a chronic inflam- mation involving the navicular bone, the navicular bursa, and the flexor tendon of the foot. It is brought on by repeated bruising. Light horses are affected much oftener than heavy horses. The hind feet are seldom affected. It is practically never found in mules. One-third of the weight falling on the leg is sustained by the little bow-shaped navicular bone, and Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 437 the bone in turn is supported by the flexor tendon of the foot. (See Fig. 84.) Such defects as an insufficient plantar cush- ion, a small frog, and contracted feet predispose the horse to navicular disease. In this way the disease may be hereditary, as these predisposing causes may be transmitted to offspring. High knee action, fast work, and hard pavements also endan- ger a horse from this disease. Dry stables, heavy pulling, and bad shoeing also tend toward the development of this trouble. In the early stages of navicular disease, the animal at rest points the affected foot forward and rests it on the toe, with the fetlock and knee flexed. In the lameness which develops, the affected leg takes a short stride, and the toe strikes the ground first. The disease is progressive and in- curable, rendering the animal practically valueless, but not en- tirely useless on soft ground. To relieve the pain, neurotomy may be performed, an operation in which the sense of feeling is destroyed in the foot by cutting out pieces of the nerve at the fetlock. Navicular disease is one of the most serious unsoundnesses. Periodic ophthalmia or moonblindness. — This is a disease affecting the eyes of horses, probably caused by a germ. It is quite commonly called moonblindness, because it was thought at one time that the moon had some influence on the cause of the disease. There is undoubtedly a hereditary predispo- sition to the disease, but there are few cases to indicate that the disease itself is transmitted from parent to offspring, but rather the colt is bom with a weakness of the eyes, transmit- ted by the stallion or dam. Other predisposing factors are low, swampy pastures, poorly ventilated or insufficiently light- ed stables, over-feeding, etc. The disease comes on with an inflammation usually of one eye. The transparent portion of the eyeball becomes bluish or white in color, most noticeable in the lower part. The eye is kept half closed on account of pain produced by light. Of- ten this is associated by a swelling of the eyelids and redden- ing of the membrane lining them, with a discharge of tears over the face. There is no indication of an injury or more se- vere inflammation at one point than at another. In one to two weeks these symptoms disappear and the eye may be 438 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock practically normal to all general appearances for a period of usually one to three months, when another attack occurs more severe than the first. After a few attacks have come and gone, the eye has a bluish appearance, looks cloudy instead of clear, the eyeball is shrunken, retracted in the orbit, and the lens develops a cataract. Not being satisfied with having de- stroyed one eye, the disease frequently affects the other, and the history of the first is repeated. Poll evil. — Poll evil is a fistula upon the poll of the head, and in no sense differs from fistulous withers except in loca- tion. It is caused by blows, bruises, and chafing by the halter or bridle. Ringbone. — This is a bony growth at the coronet or on the pastern, in either the front or hind legs. It is called "ring- bone" because it often grows around the coronet so as to form a ring, although in a large number of cases the growth takes the form of a lump on the pastern, rather than that of a ring at the hoof -head. This disease may result from severe work in early life, from bruises, blows, or sprains, or from improper shoeing. Ringbone often follows an abscess of the coronet, or a deep-punctured wound. It is also classed as an hereditary unsoundness, horses with short, upright pasterns being pre- disposed. Ringbones often cause lameness which may disap- pear with exercise, returning again when the animal is cooled. They may or may not stiffen the joint. The size of the ring- bone is not so important as its position. If it is located so as to interfere with the movement of the tendons behind or m front of the foot, it is a very serious trouble. Prevention of ringbones consists in keeping foals well nourished, and keeping the hoofs in balance. Curative measures consist of so shoe- ing as to straighten the axis of the foot and pastern as viewed from the side; blistenng, followed by a few weeks of rest ; and pyoint firing in two or three lines over the ringbone. When these measures do not relieve lameness, the only re- course is nerving. Roaring or thick wind. — Horses that make a loud, unnat- ural noise in breathing are said to have thick wind, or to be roarers, excepting those which manifest this trouble because of a severe sore throat. Any obstruction of the free passage Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 439 of air in some part of the respiratory tract may cause roar- ing; occasional causes are nasal polypi, thickening of the membrane, pharyngeal polypi, deformed bones, paralysis of the wing of the nostril, etc. However, chronic roaring is caused by paralysis of the muscles of the larynx, thus permitting the cartilage and vocal cord to lean into the tube of the larynx. The noise is made during inspiration, and in far-advanced cases may be produced also during expiration. A horse is tested for roaring by putting him to severe exertion, as the sound is usually made only when at work. Roaring is a seri- ous unsoundness because it incapacitates an animal for severe work, and it is a serious blemish because the noise Is un- pleasant. It is classed as an hereditary disease. Treatment varies depending on the exact cause, and includes a course of iodide of potassium in the early stages of the disease, or, in advanced cases, operating on the larynx. Grunting. — When a pass is made at a horse with a stick, or he is otherwise startled, and he grunts, he should be further tested for roaring. It is a common thing for a roarer to grunt, although grunters are not always roarers. Such ani- mals should be given a severe test of wind. Pleurisy and rheumatism will cause grunting, which ceases when the ani- mal recovers from the disease. Whistling. — This is only a variation of the sound emitted by a roarer. It may be temporary, due to a severe sore throat. Sand crack. — Sand crack is a splitting of the wall of the hoof, beginning at the coronet, and commonly at the inner quarter in the fore feet or at the toe in hind ones. It is due to imperfection in the growth of hom. It may cause lameness through sensitive parts being nipped by the crack. It con- stitutes unsoundness. The treatment is rest and cutting a notch transversely below the crack. If there is lameness the crack may be clasped. The shoe may be seated out below the crack, relieving pressure. Sidebones. — Sidebones are fonned by the ossification of the lateral cartilages of the foot, so that they become hard and unyielding, instead of soft and elastic. (See Fig. 84.) 440 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock This disease is most common in heavy horses. They are found more often in the front feet than in the hind ones, and the outer cartilage is more often affected than the inner one. In the hind feet they are of little importance, since they cause no lameness. In the front feet they may or may not cause lameness, usually the latter; however, they always lessen the natural expansion of the heels and often result in shortening of the stride. When lameness is present, the horse comes out of the stable stiff and sore, but with exercise the gait shows improvement. Sidebones are caused by sprains, bruises, blows, and other injuries; and by high-heeled shoes, high calks, and short, upright pasterns. The size and prominence of a side- bone is not an index to the damage it may produce. Treatment is not of much account. It consists in using cold-water bandages, then blistering or firing. Neurotomy (nerving) is often practiced to relieve lameness. This is classed as an hereditary unsoundness. It is a serious form of unsound- ness, but is not so serious as bone spavin, ringbone, roaring, or blindness. Splint. — A splint is a variable-sized bony enlargement on the cannon bone, usually on the inside of the upper two-thirds of the front cannons. The button-like enlargements at the lower end of the splint bones should not be mistaken for splints. Splints occasionally cause lameness; if so, they con- stitute an unsoundness. They are more detrimental in horses used for fast work than in heavy horses used for slow work. In the great majority of cases, splints are only minor blem- ishes. Many horses have them. Splints often appear in young horses and may be absorbed shortly afterwards without treatment. The chief cause of splint is concussion. Other causes are sprains and injuries or blows on the cannon bone. No treatment should be given, as they but rarely cause trouble. Blistering and firing are sometimes practiced. Sprung knees or buck knees. — This defective conformation may be congenital or the result of heavy labor at too early an age, there being retraction of two of the principal flexor ten- dons of the parts below the knee. While not an unsoundness, it detracts from the usefulness and value, especially in saddle Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 441 horses. Horses with badly sprung knees may fall even when standing at rest and unmolested. Stringhalt. — This disease comes under the general head- ing, chorea. It is manifested by a sudden, involuntary jerk- ing up of one or both hind legs when the animal is walking or trotting. It may be very slight in some horses, but increases \yith age. In some the affected leg is caught up very violently and high, and then lowered equally sudden and forcible. It is more often associated with a nervous disposition than with a sluggish one. It is an incurable disease and very consider- ably lessens the price. It is best detected by causing the ani- mal to back, or turning him around in his tracks first one way and then the other. Swollen legs. — A swollen leg usually indicates disease, the causes being many. It is also not uncommon in old horses, or those having a sluggish circulation. It is not an unsound- ness, but detracts from the appearance and is highly undesir- able. Treatment consists in giving laxatives, saltpeter, and moderate exercise. Thoroughpin. — This is similar to bog spavin ; it is a swell- ing occurring at the back and on top of the hock in that part known as the "hollows." It is due to weakness of the capsular ligament and to hyper-secretion of synovial fluid. It is round and smooth, and most apparent when viewed from behind. The swelling is usually on both sides and a little in front of the hamstring. When pressed on one side, further distention occurs on the opposite side. It seldom causes lameness. Treatment is the same as for bog spavin. Thoroughpin is not a serious ailment, being usually only an eyesore, although many horsemen consider it an unsoundness. Thrush. — This is a disease of the cleft of the frog which may cause lameness. It is usually the result of negligence, the result of uncleanliness. The cleft of the frog becomes sup- purating and moist, and there is a very rank odor. Treatment consists in washing, disinfecting, drying, dusting with a little calomel, and packing. This must be repeated daily until the part becomes normal. Windgall or road puff. — Joints and tendons are furnished with sacs containing a lubricating fluid called synovia. When 442 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock these sacs at the fetlocks become distended by reason of an excessive secretion of synovia, they are called windgalls. They form a soft, puffy tumor about the size of a hickory nut or walnut. They are sometimes found in young horses, but are most common in horses used for hard labor, especially on pavements. They may be accompanied by lameness, but if not, they are classed merely as blemishes. As a rule, no treatment is necessary in young horses. Older animals may be treated by resting, cold-water douches and bandages, and blistering. INDEX. Action, effects of conformation on, 320-324. Age from teeth- cattle, 33. horses, 324. sheep, 169. Alveoli, 133. American Saddle Horse, origin of, 332. Anatomy of horse, 301-314. Artillery horses, 403. Auction rules, 394. Automobile, effect of, on horse in- dustry, 334. Baby beef, 70-74. on the market, 84. production, advantages of, 103. Bacon — carcasses, 261, 265. hog, detailed description of, 249-256. Barb horse, origin of, 327. Base of support of horse, 315-319. Bate, John J., early exports of beef by, 65. Beef- breeding cow, type desired in, 109-111. breeds, internal fat of, 55. carcass — detailed description of, 34- 50. steer and heifer carcasses compared, 75-78. weight of internal fat, 55. cattle — breeding for the market, 102-112. class, 80-85. consumers' demands, 43. consumption of, 19, 257. from steer and heifer com- pared, 75-78. production, advantages of, 112. sire — price to pay for, 105. type desired in, 107. type- defined, 20. detailed description of, 23- 33. steers and dairy type steers compared, 51- 56. Blindness, 430, Block beef, 43. Blood- spavin, 431. supply to udder, 134-136. Boar and sow, selection of, 297. Boars, market class, 287. Bog spavin, 431. Bone spavin, 431. Break-joint of lambs, 175. Breed — of horses, selecting a, 423. type defined, 20. Breeding — cattle, weights of, at different ages, 107. ewe, points desired in, 196-198. for milk production, 148-153. sheep class, 195-198. Breeding for the market — cattle, 102-112. horses, 418-428. mutton sheep, 201-210. swine, 290-298. Breeds of — beef cattle, internal fat of, 55. cattle, 20. dairy cows, differences in milk of, 137. horses — classification of, 336. origin of, 326-334. sheep, 159. swine, 238. Brood mare, selection of a, 424. Broken wind, 432. Buck knees, 440. Bulls— and stags, 89. feeder, 98. Butcher — cattle, 88. hogs, 282. By-products from hog packing, 275. 443 Cab horses, 407. Canner — carcasses, 43. cattle, 89. Capped — elbow, 432. hock, 433. Carloads of live stock, number of animals per car, 62. Carpet wool, 227. Carriage horse — class, 405-408. in America, 333. origin of, 329. type, detailed description of, 352-361. Carriages, description of first, 329. Cataract, 433. Cattle- business of today, 67. early, 69. fashions in, 69-78. feeding — margin in, 73. source of profit in, 72. markets — American, 57-68. development of large, 59. early, 58. receipts, 57. number, value, and distribution in U. S., 103. Cavalry horse, 409. Chicago — Cattle- movement and values, 57. prices in 1914, 100. development of hog packing at, 273. early beef packing at, 65. early cattle trade, 60. hog- market, development of, 279. movement at, 278. prices in 1914, 289. horse prices in 1914, 411. sheep — prices in 1914, 199. receipts and values, 180. movement, 180. Chunk horses, .399-401. Cincinnati. 'early hog packing at, 272. Circulation of blood to and from udder, 134-136. Classes and grades of — beef carcasses, 49. sheep carcasses, 176. hog carcasses, 267-269. Classes of Merinos, origin of, 220. Classification of — breeds of horses, 336. fine-wooled sheep, 216. saddle horses, 381. sheep, 159. wools, 226-229. Clothing and combing wools, 227. Coach horses, 405. Cob horses, 406. Cocked ankles, 433. Colostrum, 138. Combing and clothing wools, 227. Conestoga horses, 331. Contracted feet, 434. Corns, 434. Cotton mules, 416. Cough, chronic, 433. Cows — fat, 89. stock and feeding, 98. Cracked heels, 434. Cross-bred, definition of, 104. Curb, 434. Cutter carcasses, 43. Cutters and canners, 89. Dairy — -bred steers for beef, 51-56. bull- selection of. 149-151. type desired in. 127-130. cattle, breeding, 148-153. cow, type desired in, 114-127. cows — methods of judging, 114. number, value, and distri- bution in U. S.. 148. testing, value of, 152. variations in usefulness of, 140-147. world's record-holding, 143 type- defined, 20. detailed description of, 11.3-130. Dead- hogs, 280. sheep, 199. Delivery wagon horses, 402. Digestive system of horse, 303. Distillerv cattle, 84. Draft- horse in America, 333. mare, selecting for breeding, 424. mules, 417. stallion, selecting a, 425. 444 (Draft continued) type — advantages of to farmer, 421. detailed description of, 337-351. origin of, 328. Dressing — cattle, 34. hogs, 258. sheep and lambs, 171. Dressing percentage of — cattle, 35. hogs, 259. sheep, 172. Dual-purpose — cattle, utility of, 154-156. type- defined, 20. description of, 156. Eastern chunks, 399. Eastman, Timothy C, early exports of beef by, 66. Export — mules, 417. sheep, 199. Exports of — beef, pioneer, 65. pork products, 277. wools, 233. Express horses, 401. Farm — chunks, 400. mules, 416. Fashions in market cattle, 69-78. Federal inspection for diseases, 64. Feed, effect of on composition of milk, 146. Feeder — bulls, 98. cattle, 90-99. hogs, 288. lambs, 193. sheep, 191-195. steers, 92-97. Feeds, fertilizing value of, 16. Feet, contracted, 434. Fine-wooled type, detailed descrip- tion of, 211-222. Fire horses, 404. Fistula, 435. Five-gaited saddle horse, 373-377, 379-382. Fleece of — Merino, 215. mutton sheep, 165-169. Foods, analysis and fuel values of, 294. Foot of horse, 308-314. Fore limb of horse, anatomy of, 304-306. Founder, 435. Gaits of the horse described, 375- 377. General-purpose horse, 333. Goats, 199. Governments. 288'. Grade animal, definition of, 104. Grease, 436. Great Horse, origin of, 328. Grunting, 439. Heaves, 432. Heavy-harness type, detailed de- scription of, 352-361. Heifer beef compared with steer beef, 75-78. Heifers, fat, 88. High grade, definition of, 105. Hip down, 436. Hock, anatomy of, 306. Hog — (See also Swine.) carcass, detailed discussion of, 257-271. crop, peculiarities of, 279. markets — and pork packing — past and present, 272-280. present leading, 278. packing — by-products from, 275. development of, 272-280. products, high fuel value of, 294. Hoof— and how it grows, 311-314. mechanism, 319. Horse — anatomy of, 301-314. base of support of, 315-319. breeding, 418-428. digestive system of, 303. hock of, anatomy of, 306. in America, 330-336. in motion, 316-319. limb of, anatomy of, 304-308. market auction rules, 394. markets, receipts in 1914, 394, muscular system of, 302. skeleton of, 301. compared with man, 307. Horses — , . <. one market requirements for, dyo- 398. 445 numbei-, value, and distribu- tion in U. S., 428. numbers of in various coun- tries, 428. Hot-house lambs, 198. Hunter horse — detailed description of, 383-388. origin of, 328. production of, 388. Imports of wools, 233. Inspection, federal, for disease, 64. Judging dairy cows, two methods of, 114. Knuckling, 433. Lamb carcass, 170-176. Lard — the grades of, 270. hog- carcass, 257-271. detailed description of, 239-248. type, reasons for development of, 292-294. Laminitis, 435. Lateral cartilages, 309. Legs, defects in position of, 321. Light-harness type, detailed de- scription of, 362-371. Light hogs, 282-284. Limb of horse — anatomy of, 304-308. attachment to body, 315. Locomotion in the horse, 316-319. Loggers. 399. L o u i s i a n a-Purchase Exposition dairy cow test, 141. Manure, value of, 16. Margin in cattle feeding, 73. Market classes and grade of — cattle, 79-101. horses, 394-412. mules, 413-417. sheep, 180-200. swine, 281-289. Market classes of — cattle, average prices of, 100. horses, average prices of, 412. sheep, average prices of, 199. swine, average prices of, 289. Market requirements for — horses, 395-398. mules, 413-415. Markets, American cattle, 57-68. Meat consumption in various coun- tries, 257. Merino type, detailed description of, 211-222. Milk- cistern, 133. ducts, 133. effect of feed on composition of, 146. nature and composition of, 136. production, breeding for. 148- 153. secretion, 131-139. veins, 123-125. wells, 125. Milkers and springers, 80. Mining mules, 415. Moon blindness, 437. Morgan horse, origin of, 332. Mules — market requirements for, 413- 415. number, value, and distribution in U. S., 428. number of, in various coun- tries, 428. Muscular system of horse, 302. Mutton- breeding ewe, type desired in, 206-209. carcass, detailed discussion of, 170-176. ram, type desired in, 203-206. sheep — breeding for the market, 201-210. class, 183-190. type, detailed description of. 161-169. Native sheep, 180-183. Navicular disease, 438. Norfolk trotter, origin of, 330. Offal of— cattle, 35. hogs, 259. sheep, 172. Origin of — breeds of horses, 326-334. types of horses, 326-334. Pacing records, 364. Packing — hog class, 283-"-85. industry, development of, 64. plant, a modern, 66. Pan-American dairy cow test, 141. Park horses, 406. 446 Pedigree — dangers of, 152, 427. value of, in selecting dairy bull, 150. with performance, 151. Pelt of sheep, value and use of, 176-179. Pen holders, 288. Periodic ophthalmia, 437. Pigs, 287. Plug horses, 411. Pododerm, 310. Poll evil, 438. Polo- history of, 389. pony — detailed description of, 389-393. origin of, 330. production of, 392. Ponies, 410. Pork- exports of, 277. high fuel value of, 294. packing, growth of, in Amer- ica, 273. wholesale cuts of, 260-263. wholesale trade in, 259. Price averages of market classes of— cattle, 100. horses, 412. sheep, 199. swine, 286. Prime heavy hogs, 281. Purebred, definition of, 104. Railroads, early shipments of cat- tle by, 60. Range — cattle, 85-88. horses, 410. Records — highest made by dairy cows, 143. value of — in breeding beef cattle, 111. with dairy cows, 152. Refrigerator car, origin and im- portance of, 65. Renick, George, early cattle feed- ing operations of, 58. Ringbone, 438. Road horse class, 408. Road puff, 441. Roadster — horse, origin of, 331. type, detailed description of, 362-371. Roaring, 438. Roasting pigs, 288. Roughs, 287. Rudimentaries of bull, 129. Runabout horses, 408. Running horse, origin of, 327. Saddle horse — class, 409. first, origin of, 326. type, detailed description ofj 372-382. Saddle horses classified, 381. Sand crack, 439. Scrub animal, definition of, 104. Secretion of milk, 131-139. Sheep — classification of, 159. industry in U. S. in early times, 201. markets, receipts, 180. native and western, 181-183. number, value, and distribu- tion in U. S., 202. pelts, value and use of, 176-179. Shoe boil, 432. Shrinkage of wools, 232. Sidebones, 439. Skeleton of horse, 301. Skeletons of man and horse com- pared, 307. Slaughtering — and dressing hogs, 258. cattle, 34. sheep, 170. Sloan, Tod, his method of riding, 317-319. Southern chunks, 401. Sow and boar, selection of, 297. Spanish horse, origin of, 327. Spavins, 431. Spaying heifers, advantages and disadvantages, 77. Splint, 440. Sprung knees, 440. Stags, 287. Stallion, draft, selecting a, 425. Standard-bred horse, origin of, 331. Stock and feeding cows, 98. Stocker and feeder cattle, 90-99. Stomach worm of sheep, 182. Stringhalt, 441. Sugar mules, 416. Swine— (See also Hogs.) breeding for the market, 290- 298. 447 breeds of, 238. fattening ability of, 264. industry in U. S., 290-298. leading countries in numbers of, 291. number and distribution of in U. S., 291. types of, 237. Swollen legs, 441. Teat, structure of, 132. Teats of dairy cow, 123. Tests of dairy cows — Louisiana-Purchase Exposition. 141. Pan-American Exposition, 141. value of, 152. Texas — and western range cattle, 85- 88. long-horn cattle, 85. Thick wind, 438. Thoroughbred, origin of, 327. Thoroughpin, 441. Three-gaited saddle horse, 377-382. Throw-outs, 199. Thrush, 441. Transportation, earlv methods of, 58. Trotting— horse, origin of, 331. records, 364. Turk horse, origin of, 327. Type- defined, 20. value of in beef making, 51- 56. Types of— cattle, 20. horses — effects of mechanical in- ventions on, 334. origin of, 326-336. sheep, 159. swine, 237. Udder of — cow, structure of, 131-134 dairy cow, 121-123. Union Stock Yards, Chicagu — description of, 62. founding of, 61. Unsoundness in the horse, 429-442. Variations in usefulness of dairy cows, 140-147. Veal calves, 99. Wagon horses, 401-405. Walk, trot, canter horse, 377-382. War horse, origin of, 328. Weeds, 411. Weight, forage — beef breeding cattle, 107. beef cattle, 33. lard hogs, 247. Weight, importance of, in draft horses, 338. Weights of early hogs, 295. Western — range cattle, 85-88, sheep, 181-183. Whistling, 439. Wholesale cuts of — beef, 36-38. lamb and mutton, 172. Windgall, 441. Wool- classifications, 226-229. fiber, structure of, 223-225. fineness of, 225. grading of, 229. imports and exports, 233. marketing properly, 234. markets in America, 233. -producing states, 232. pulling, 229. scouring, 231. Woolens and worsteds, 226. Wools— and wool growing, 223-235. clipped and pulled, 227. clothing, combing, and carpet, 227. shrinkage of, 232. World's— record dairy cows, 143. trotting and pacing records, 364. Worsteds and woolens, 226. Yolk, 166. secretion and composition of, 225. 448