=^^'^-'- ' "mti- FORTHE PEOPLE FOR EDVCATION FOR SCIENCE LIBRARY OF THE AMERICAN MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY ^' ^- ' ^ f THE USEFUL BIRDS OF SOUTHERN AUSTRALIA. THE USEFUL BIRDS OF SOUTHERN AUSTRALIA WITH NOTES ON OTHER BIRDS BY ROBERT [HALL, F.L.S., C.M.Z.S. AUTHOR OF "A KEY TO THE BIRDS OF AUSTRALIA " JOINT AUTHOR OF " NATURE STUDIES IN AUSTRALIA " LIBRARY OF THE AMERICAN MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY T. C. LOTHIAN MELBOURNE AND SYDNEY 1907 ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. 6^4 5«?.?X(<7 4) CONTENTS. PAGE I.— INSECT-EATING BIRDS - - - - - 1 II.— INSECT AND VERMIN-DESTROYING BIRDS - 200 III.— INSECT AND SEED-EATING BIRDS - - - 223 IV. -INSECT AND FRUIT-EATING BIRDS - - - 246 v.— INSECT, NECTAR, AND FRUIT-EATING BIRDS - 270 VI.— INSECTIVOROUS BIRDS AND OTHERS INTRO- DUCED FROM THE NORTHERN HEMISPHERE - 284 List of Illlustrations. PAGE Map of Distribution . . . . . Frontispiece Figure of Bird, showing external characters - • - viii Black-backed Magpie and Nest - - - - 11 Magpie-Larks, male and female - - - - 15 Young Magpie-Larks (Neg. by A. H. Mattingley) - - 16 House-Swallows ------ 18 Masked Wood-Swallow 's Nest and Eggs - - - 29 Fledglings of Wood-Swallow (Neg. by A. H. Mattingley) - 37 Wood-Swallow feeding young (Neg. by A. H. Mattingley) - 38 White-rumped Wood-Swallow - - - - - 39 Fggs of White-rumped Wood-Swallow - - - 40 Map showing Distribution of Australian Swifts - - 42 Hooded Robin ------- 49 White-bellied Slirike-Tit ----- 53 Western Fly-eater ------ 55 Yellow-rumped Tit ------ 57 Nest of Striated Tit - - - - - - 66 White-shafted Fantail ------ 68 Black and White Fantail . - ... 72 Nest and Eggs of Black and White Fantail - - - 73 Brown Flycatcher --...- 76 Blue Wren (Neg. by A. H. Mattingley) ... 79 Emu- Wren ---.... 89 Black-faced Cuckoo-Shiike ----- 92 Rufous Song-Lark . - . - - . 97 Grey-tailed Thickhead - - - - - 103 Grey Shrike-Thrush ...... 105 Chestnut-backed Babbling-Thrush . . - . 109 White-browed Babbler - - - - - - 112 Field -Wren - - - - - - - 115 White-browed Scrub- Wren - - - - 117 Spotted Scrub- Wren ■ - - - - - 119 White-faced Titmouse ------ 122 White-winged Chough ------ 124 Bell-bird ...---- 127 Grass- Warbler -.--.-- 131 Silver-eyes and Nest - - - . - . 133 White-fronted Chat - - - - - 137 Black-capped Tree-runner - . - - - 141 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. PAGE Nest of Orange-winged Tree-runner - - . - 143 White-throated Tree creeper ----- 146 Spotted Diamond -bird - - - - - - 154 Tawny Frogmouth ...... 157 Nest and Young of Tawny Frogmouth (Neg. by C. P. Coni- grave) --..-.. 153 Bee-eater - - - - - - - 162 Cuckoo's Call - - - - - - - 169 Ash-coloured Cuckoo - - - - - - 171 Bronze Cuckoo - - - - - - - 174 Young Narrow-billed Bronze Cuckoo (Neg. by C. P. Kinane) 175 Y^'oung Fan-tailed Cuckoo (Neg. by C. P. Kinane) - - 177 Young Bronze Cuckoo (Neg. by C. P. Kinane) - - 178 Pipit 181 Young Pipit - - - - - - - 183 Queen Victoria Lyre-bird (Neg. by F. P. Godfrey) - - 186 Nest of Queen Victoria Lyre-bird (Neg. by A. J. Campbell, Col. M. B.O.U.) 188 Queen Victoria Lyre bird on Dancing Mound - - - 190 Stone Plover - - - - - - - 195 White Ibis in Swamp (Neg. by A. H. Mattingley) - - 197 Black-fronted Dottrel - - - - - - 201 Pectoral Rail ------- 202 Nest and Eggs of Pectoral Rail - - - - 203 Young of Red -capped Dottrel - . . . . 204 Boobook Owl ------- 210 Nest and Eggs of Crow (Neg. by A. B. Lord) - - - 213 Collared Crow-Shrike - - - - - - 219 Leach Kingfisher ...... 221 Nesting Mound of Mallee Fowl .... 225 Stubble Quail - - - - - - - 231 Eggs of Chestnut-backed Quail (Neg. by W. H. D. Le Souef, C.M.Z.S.) .----.. 235 Painted Quail on Nest - - - - - - 236 Striped Ground-Tit - - - - - - 239 Grass-bird - - - - - - - 242 Reed- Warbler and Nest (Neg. by A. H. Mattingley) - - 244 Head of Satin Bower-bird ..... 250 Nestlings of Black-winged Crow-Shrike - - - 254 Black-winged Crow-Shrike, nestlings and adult - - 255 Oriole -.....-- 258 Friar-bird - - - - - - - 261 Honey-eaters .-.---. 263 Noisy Minah - - - - - - - 268 Musk Lorikeet ------- 275 Nest of the Rosella .--... 278 Bare-eyed Cockatoos (Neg. by W. Grant) - - - 282 Food-diagram of House-Sparrow . . . . 287 Food-diagram of Insect-eating Bird . . . . 288 Starling - - - - - - - - 292 Music of the Thrush -..--. 297 iNTERscnpuLMRY ntciON (auricular />eciON \ CRtA7ta wmecovum ' MtoiMH mine .cc/e/)r3 SiCOHOAJtllS PniMAifiti mmoeft cnom} I Cff^vN , I ' ; rOfttHtAD I ' \ , VPnn r/i(£. couems HALLUA (hind r a Figure of a Bird, showing the principal external characters. PREFACE, OBSERVATION shows the southern half of our continent to contain the majority of birds as common to the whole of it. Further, that they are particularly strong in New South Wales with one wave of exjDansion westward through South Austraha into Western Australia, and a second through Victoria into Tasmania. Thus I am. tempted to bring together the useful birds of the southern part of the continent — those species south of a line drawn from Brisbane on the east to Shark's Bay on the w^est, excepting the sub- tropical area immediately south of Brisbane. The scheme of distribution is still based upon that laid down by Professor Baldwin Spencer, C.M.G., F.R.S., who, in the initial stage, thoughtfully suggested to me the possibility of birds being distributed along the lines laid down for mammals. Valuable help in this direction is periodically rendered by The Emu, the journal of the Australasian Ornith- ologists' Union. To all lovers of nature I commend the careful reading of this work. The derivations and accents are based upon the contri- bution of Professor T. G. Tucker, Litt. D., to the " Key to the Birds of Australia." I lay much value upon this portion of the work, following, as it does, the finding and the placing of a species. PREFACE. Taken together the following pages may aid the work of the Directors of Education in a part of the ground work on Nature Study being laid down by them. And this in particular by Mr. Frank Tate, M.A., I.S.O., through whose vigorous and whole-souled feeling the bud of Nature Study is opening out so thoroughly well, not only in his own, but in all the sister States. May it continue so to do ; for the broader our interests, the simpler and stronger our lives. R. H. January, 1907. ^ NTRODUCTION BIRDS play a large part in the economy of nature. Tn relation to agriculture, fruit-growing, and forestry they are visible agents for good or for ill. The European Starling, lately introduced within our shores — and evidently here to stay — is undoubtedly a foe to the orchardist. On the other hand, until it increases beyond a certain limit, and seeks to change its food, it will remain a good ally of the grazier and agriculturist. The introduced fox is killing thousands of birds which feed largely upon ground vermin, while it appears to me the StarHng is taking their place in the balance of nature. Still it is a problem for the future to decide- whether a war of suppression shall be waged against the Starling, and it behoves all who have the farming interests at heart to closely watch its ways. Remember the rabbit and the Sparrow ! The Ibis of our swamps and river-systems, and the little Blue Wren of the forest, are well equipped by nature to act in the capacity of feathered police for the protection of man's fields and fruit trees. A few years ago a large colony of Ibises, totalling perhaps 200,000 individuals, existed on a swamp in New South Wales. These birds were voracious eaters, and it has been calculated INTRODUCTION. that this single colony accounted for 480 niilHons of grass- hoppers daily. The Wren shows a distinct partiahty for that destructive pest, the chafer beetle, of which each bird eats at least eighty per day, during the time, that the beetle is in greatest number. It is not generally known that many Honey-eaters play the role of useful birds : the Wattle-bird, particularly, wages continual war against the Cicada pest. The services rendered by birds from a health point of view are worthy of notice, albeit such servicer are indirect. Owls render willing service to the city dweller as well as to the countryman. The Brown Owl of the town environs, in close touch with plague-infested rats, earns our gratitude equally with the White Owls who guard our granaries. Even the much-persecuted Hawk, though he may steal a chicken or two occasionally, demands a measure of protection, for his services are many. Further, let us enter for one day into some " Sweetly rural and savage scene," and watch the birds. The ground birds of various species, so intently engaged in searching the surface of the earth, are devouring wire-worms in myriads, and the Quail, which flutters up at our approach, varies its wire-worm diet by devouring vast quantities of seeds, which, if allowed to scatter unchecked, would shortly cover the ground with noxious weeds. The Magpie-Lark wanders over the margin of ponds, creeks, and swamps in search of the host of the sheep-fluke. Warblers incessantly patrol the underwood in search of INTRODUCTION. insects, whilst the Tree-creepers, ever and anon uttering their shrill cries, scrutinize carefully the trunks and boughs of trees for grubs and other provender. Wherever we may turn we see the birds industriously searching for their food. Shrike-Tits hunt along the tops of trees, above the Tree-creepers, catching an insect here and another there. Above them again the Swifts are darting like arrows hither and thither, snatching away the insects of the upper air. Thus from the ground — and even beneath it, for many ground birds dig below the surface for their prey — to the highest regions where insect pests are likely to be found, birds are con?.tantly employed in maintaining a balance, the importance of which can only be realized during the prevalence of a plague. Tt is a curious fact that among birds there appears to be an allotment of areas beyond the bounds of which individuals dare not venture, except under penalty of severe punishment. Even the pugnacious Magpie dare not go beyond his nesting and feeding block without considerable misgivings. An exception must be made of the Gipsy Cuckoos. They are always in trouble, these parasites. Acre after acre of country they wander over, upsetting hundreds of family arrangements. Every bird's " hand " is against them. The Fantail, the Wood-Swallow, the Wren, and the Robin are specially concerned in ejecting the Cuckoo from their areas, for the bird loves to lay her eggs in their nests. It is only by a sly evasion of their watchfulness that she is at last able to deposit her egg in the nest of the least watchful bird. But despite the trouble they cause in birdland. Cuckoos are deserving of complete protection, in particular at the hands of the vigneron, whose chosen friends they should be. INTRODUCTION. With such facts as these before us (and they could be multiphed indefinitely), it is clear that the attention of all interested in the land should be directed to a close study of the particular birds of their districts in order that a just estiniate of their services or ravages may be arrived at. Many innocent and useful birds are yearly slaughtered through ignorance of their value, and if this indiscriminate killing continues unchecked it cannot fail to prove disastrous to the landholder, and eventually to the community at large. The feeling of man towards birds should, on the whole, be a kindly one. The great mass of the small species should be encouraged to take up their quarters in our fields and about our plantations. A few might be spotted with the black mark to be severely dealt with in ways varying with the species. Certainly a part of the cost of upkeep in every well- settled district will need to be expended on the annual subjection of Sparrows and Starlings. Beyond these birds, each district, according to varying chmatic conditions, needs to battle with its own trouble in its own way. It is very much a matter of food supply. Every labourer is^ worthy of his hire, and the bird well earns its share, no matter in what part of our continent it may at any time be living. The birds termed "useful" earn their title when placed in relation to the agriculturist, the pastoralist, the orchardist, and the forester. The illustrations are for the greater part half-tone blocks, and here and now I express my gratitude to the Council of the Australasian Ornithologists' Union for the loan of a number of blocks, the photographers of which have been INTRODUCTION. duly acknowledged in each case in the list of illustrations, the principal contributor being Mr. Arthur H. Mattingley, the Hon. Sec. of the Union. Of the remaining plates many have already appeared, and been acknowledged, in my recent '' Key to the Birds of Australia " and " Glimpses of Australian Bird Life." :p.^^:e^t I. Insect-eating Birds, The majority of land birds which are included in the order Passeres or Perchers are for the most part insectivorous — that is, insects form the bulk of their food. A certain number, however, though still exhibiting insectivorous tend- encies, favour a fruit diet, and in consequence prove them- selves troublesome in the summer. These will be noticed in subsequent parts of this book. In my correspondence with those dwelling in country parts on the question of insectivorous birds, I have repeatedly urged on them the necessity of thoroughly studying the habits of the birds in their particular districts, with the hope that the whole community may be benefited by their observations. Furthermore, I was convinced that a diHgent and impartial inquiry into the pros and cons of the matter would persuade the farmer to hold his hand many times when he is about to destroy some little bird which he, on very insufficient grounds, has come to regard as a pest. The following note from my much-valued correspondent, Mr. Geo. Graham, is eloquent in its recogni- tion of the service rendered by birds to the landowners : — '' It is a fact that our insectivorous birds are little known, 2 THE USEFUL BIRDS and their value less appreciated, by the majority of those who reap the benefit of their work. Thus an orchardist who will note the disappearance of aphis from his fruit trees has not the least suspicion that it is owing to the work of Silver-eyes and little brown Tits. Indeed, he only knows the Silver-eye as a pest on soft fruits. Yet it is probable that no means that he could employ would enable him to grow any fruit but for the busy, impudent, prying little gourmands, existing in greatest numbers where they are most w^anted. Most insectivorous birds seem to show preference for special insects. Such a bird is the Harmonious Shrike-Thrush, whose fondness for hard -shelled beetles, especially of the borer kind, makes it a very valuable friend. Often have I watched our Thrush take its favourite beetle from the hiding place to the solid top of a post, and there drive its bill, crowbar-like, into the beetle's shell, break it up, and eat it in pieces. I am convinced our immunity from the borer pest is due to the great number of Shrike-Thrushes with which our locality (Heytesbury Forest) is favoured. The very few who are able to estimate the services rendered to a vegetable garden by a family of Blue Wrens I have found always careful to preserve a little cover, to encourage their stay and assist them in their increase. What we owe to the various species of Fly- catchers in preventing the spread of noxious flying insects has. perhaps never been correctly judged. These take no toll, and require only an evergreen in which to lodge in return for their labour, or the labour they save. Tree- creepers and Robins, Wood-Swallows and Tits, unlike other workers, the more they eat the better they pay. Out in our open paddocks the bold, alert White-backed Magpie dominates the bird world. Each area has its family — male, female, and young — or else a colony of non-breeders. Such a colony, of about seventy bachelor males and OF SOUTHERN AUSTRALIA. maiden females, have their night quarters in a row of dense pines surrounding this house. From thence they work the paddocks around not in possession of other Magpies, and the execution they wreak upon the grubs in the grub-infested places is wonderful. Judging from the way they have kept the surrounding paddocks free of grubs, the planting of those pines was the best-invested money on the property. I have come to regard them as a standing army of scavengers, ready to go forth to check an invasion of either crickets, grass- hoppers, caterpillars, or any such undesirable visitors. Often during summer and early autumn I have known them go two miles from their camp to distant paddocks where some pest was in force, hunt there all day, and return to their camp late in the evening. Often they are joined on the field of opera- tions by more colonies of Crow-Shrikes from other directions. Then the muster is formidable — three hundred, perhaps more, all working together till the pest gets scarce, then back to their old quarters. During late years their chief occupation through early spring and summer is the destruction of myriads of grub-producing beetles, whose larvae are such a scourge to graziers and dairymen. The beetles are taken on the wing, and as they fly in greatest numbers just before and after dark, it is usual to find our Magpies hard at work long after twiUght. It is somewhat appaUing to think of the state of the land if they failed us. I have a short note, made last month (July), as follows : — ' Watched White-backed Magpie digging out grubs in fowl-yard ; dug out and ate 30 grubs in ten minutes, this one having struck a rich patch that had not been previously worked by others of its kind. The fowls did not know the succulent grubs were there, just beneath the surface, but the Magpie, having the better training, it would watch and listen intently for a few seconds, then, guided by eye or ear, it would run from place to place, and each time, with unerring certainty, dislodge a grub. No doubt the less THE USEFUL BIRDS resourceful birds that feed over the same areas, such as the Magpie-Larks, Ground-Larks, White-frouted Chats, Acan- thizas. Flame-breasted Robins, together ^vith Cranes and Plovers, take the Uon's share of such food that is found above the surface, thus compelling the Magpies to become the superior insect-destroyer and the better servant to man.' " OF SOUTH E EN AUSTRALIA. THE MAGPIES. The Australian Magpie differs widely from its European namesake ; indeed, the name as applied to the Australian species is somewhat of a misnomer, its correct name being " Crow-Shrike." The appellation " Magpie " was bestowed on the bird by the early settlers, who saw in the Crow- Shrike certain external resemblances to the " 'Pie " of the English countryside. In deference to popular opinion, I shall retain the commonly accepted title. The Crow is the Magpie's next of kin, both ap];arertly having arisen from a common stock. Young Magpies are unHke their parents iv: colour, being a uniform brownish-black. On the theory that the history of the race is epitomized in the development of the young, this would seem to point to a time in the past history of the Magpie group when, in place of the thirteen species or varieties at present known, there existed only one brownish- black form, the ancestor of the whole group. Through a slow process of evolution, extending over a lengthened period of time, and involving endless change of circumstances, the Magpies of to-day have descended from this brownish-black species. The Bush-Larks offer a good example of the mxanner in which evolution works among our southern birds. Those inhabiting the grassed lands of the coasts are greyish-brown in colour. If we examine those found in the desert country of the interior we shall find that a great change has taken place ; the birds have adapted themselves to the colour of the surrounding soil, whatever colour that may be. Thus, on rufous soil the prevailing tint of the Bush-Lark is rufous, and on grey soil grey. The. primary object of this change of 6 THE USEFUL BtUDS colour is that of protection from enemies, for so closely do the birds simulate their surroundings that it is most difficult to perceive them in their natural haunts. To the naturalist, however, a second interest attaches to the change of colour, for he finds therein sufficient grounds for regarding the variously coloured larks as different species. White-backed Magpie (White-backed Crow-Shrike), Gyiiiiiorliiiui leiicoiiota, («ld. Jim-nd-rV nd lu-ko-no ta. Gumnos, naked ; rhinos, nostril ; leukos, white ; noton, back. Gymnorhina leuconota, Gould, " Birds of Australia," fol., vol. ii., pi. 47. Key to the Species. — Adult male — Whole of back pure white, like neck and rump ; throat and breast black ; bill pointed and slightly hooked; nostrils bare of feathers, and placed about the middle of the bill (longitudinal slit). Adult female — Similar to the male, but not so white on back. Young — Whole of back clouded with grey. Though Magpies are not wholly gregarious, they are generally to be seen in families of two to five members, occupying a small area, which they preserve against the encroachments of all intruders. Sometimes a pair, or the occupiers of a block, will not breed for one year, but they generally breed as usual in the following summer. Magpies are doubtless fond of wheat, but they much prefer the luscious grasshopper, a horde of which they will attack in a manner most bene- ficial to the agriculturist. Their dependence on insect life as a staple article of diet is well illustrated by the fact that during the season 1897-98 many young Magpies died of starva- OF SOUTHERN AUSTRALIA. tion in their nests because of the scarcity of insects in several parts of the Wimmera. Just as spring seems to come first to the plants near sea levels, and later to the " alpine" forms, so does this species build a nest earlier in the valleys than on the hills. This seems to be true even as regards the small diiierence of 300 feet. The young birds remain with the old ones until they are quite full-grown, and it is only when they are forcibly driven away by the parents that they will face the world " on their own." The keen observations of Mr. Geo. Graham, recorded in his letters to me during August, 1898, state clearly the case of forced individual migration : — "Three out of seven families that occupy my paddocks have with them each a bird of last season's breeding, and to all appearance it intends to stay with them throughout the summer. When the next brood is incubated the family will increase from three to five — two always being the number of the brood here (Heytesbury) — and, providing there are no accidents, it remains until about next May, when one disappears, and shortly after another goes. At this time there is a deal of chasing among the Magpies, and T have concluded that it is the young male that is being driven away. The young male becomes blacker and darkens sooner than the female, as well as I can judge. I think the parent male would not permit the opposite-sexed young also to remain in camp during spring, so the junior male has to go. Tf the young male should be allowed to remain with the parents into the next season it does not mate during its first year. T have also noticed the adult females of two families trying to drive away the young females by repeated attacks of sometimes thirty minutes' duration. The old bird would pin the young one to the ground, but it seemed to have no other effect than to make the young one afraid of its mother. The male parent stands by, looking on, and takes no active physical part in the contest. In both cases the THE USEFUL BIRDS youngsters stood the ill-treatment till the duty of nest-building compelled the dame to leave them in possession. After the young of the new brood are hatched out it is amusing to see the dejected attitude of the oldest daughter (unmarried) when the mother happens to approach it in quest of food for the new brood. In May or June following it disappears, and probably begins housekeeping on its own account. Just at this time a new patch of forest has been opened up, and, if only a few acres, a pair of Magpies will find their way into it. But all is not complete yet, as someone has shot the male because it thrashed his domestic fowls. The female cleared out at once, and returned in a few days with four males, the strongest and best fighter eventually becoming her mate." It is interesting to direct a field- glass on a parent bird with a nest of young. You can see her fill her mouth with insects almost to overflowing, then fly into the nest and equally distribute the collection to the ever-hungry youngsters. My friend, Mr. W. J. Stephen, has a female bird, taken from a nest four years ago, which is a splendid talker. In the spring of 1897 an inclination to sit was observed. The follow- ing year (August), as with wild birds, it showed a similar desire, and some assistance was given as soon as it showed itself in earnest. My friend was good enough to keep a rough diary for me during nest-building, which shows how the bird, in spite of being turned out of its chosen spot several times, persisted in building a nest, using for preference pieces of wire, stiff twigs, and also some strips of stiff white calico, but, strangely enough, rejecting pink flannelette. I know of a semi-domesticated pair of birds that have lived and reared their young in a garden at Box Hill for five con- secutive years. They added to and renovated their first nest up to the third year, and built a new one for the fourth year. That they were the same pair of birds I am convinced, for the male bird had, by some mischance, received a hurt which OF SOUTHERN AUSTRALIA. broke one of its legs, early in 1893. This broken member served as a good recognition mark. A pair of this species living at Pakenham has reared three families of young without any black pigment in their plumage, but these albinos do not seem to live long in captivity. Nest. — Cup-shaped ; large : formed of sticks externally, grasses and hair internally, and nicely lined ; placed high or low according to the size of tree available. Eggs. — They vary considerably in colour. The ground colour may be light green, light brown, or intermediate shades ; the markings may be streaks and blotches of chest- nut, reddish-brown, or varying brown ; some will be heavily blotched, others will be lightly so. Clutch, 3 to 4. Length, 1.5 inches ; breadth, 1 inch. Black-backed Magpie (Piping Crow-Shrike), Gyiiiiiorliiiia tibiccii, Lath. Jim-nd-rtnd ii-btsen. Gumnos, naked ; rhinus, nostril ; tihicen, a flute-player. Gymnorhina tibicen, Gould, " Birds of Australia," fol., vol. ii., pi. 46. Geographical Distribution. — Areas 3, 6, 7. Key to the Species or Variety. — Black band across white back ; throat and breast black ; bill pointed and slightly hooked ; nostrils bare of feathers, and placed as longitudinal shts about the middle of the bill. This bird appears to me as a variety rather than as a species Gradually the black bar of the back is evolving away, and it is more than probable later generations will recognize in these present species a type common to the whole 10 THE USEFUL BIRDS of the continent, with a back quite white. What interests us most at the moment is its utiHty in the order of things. "Fifty birds devouring 140 grasshoppers each in a week would account for 7,000 insects. Supposing on a meagre estimate a grasshopper would eat a square inch of grass-blade per day, then the farmer w^ould have 7,000 square inches of grass for his stock which would not have remained his but for the Magpie. So the service rendered by this much-abused insectivorous bird is quite incalculable."— £'w!^, vol. i., part 1, p. 15 (1901). During certain times, as when the seed grain is in the ground, the " 'Pies " are not in favour with every cereal- grower, but that they destroy the prospect of a crop at such time is not substantiated by actual experience. That they do some harm is incontrovertible, as evidence many stomachs full of grain. At the same time that these minor pilferings undeservedly blacken the Magpie's fair fame, the fact is lost sight of that soft-bodied, injurious vermin are very much reduced in number. For eleven months of the year the bird is indispensable to the grower, doing what other birds never do, and eventually adding its quota to the handsome results the quality of the ground, with a minimum of pests, has given. But for the Magpies the cleaning of our grounds would periodically cost us heavy sums, and like the " whin," when let alone for years, the amount would rather shock us when the evil day could no longer be staved off. Something of this handsome bird might be said with advantage in a homely way. It appears that in captivity Magpies show an aversion to anyone who has annoyed them, as well as to anyone who looks like the person who has annoyed them. The voice of the offending person is quite sufficient to agitate the bird and cause it to rush post haste towards its tormentor to wreak a terrible OF SOUTH E UN AUSTRALIA, vengeance. Although it is principally children and ladies that they have a grievance against, some children and ladies pass by as very good friends. ^^-'■^HH \, i^Bh iL." Mm w^ ^^?^^p^^^^ ^|\S - -'•.' ik ' V ^\i '■-.f ^;,. Black- backed Magpies and Nest. That Magpies can be very pugnacious is a fact well attested by many visitors to the garden of a friend who keeps a pet Magpie. Magpies fly at one for a reason similar to that of a hen with its chicks in danger. The male bird, and not the 12 THE USEFUL BIRDS female, appears to be the attacker of man, and the attacked is not only a man, woman, or child, but may be a dog or a species of small bird, or, more commonly, a Hawk or Crow. Small birds as Robins and Acanthizae, that are breeding in close proximity to the Magpie, may have their nests pulled to pieces, the young destroyed, or even the old birds themselves killed if they can be caught. Maggie, in this respect, is a brutal bird. Both male and female attack Hawks. The Magpies fly desperately at a person when either eggs or young are in the nest, but later their pugnacity ceases. In individual cases the Mag- pie will keep the pugnacious temperament very strongly for some weeks, or even months, and woe betide the unwary who should meet such a hot-tempered bird. In breeding season it recognizes its arch-enemy, man, whether on horseback, on a bicycle, or in a buggy, nnd for a considerable distance from its nest it will follow and make war on him — lucky the man who escapes with nothing worse than a perforated hat ! The bird, I consider, has learnt by direct experience to regard mankind in the hght of an enemy — experience, I say, because in the remote and sparsely-populated districts, where the birds are not subject to the persecutions of schoolboys or other egg-hunters, they are of a much milder disposition. As oiie approaches the towns their ferocity increases. I have examined a number of nests in various parts of the Mallee. Although in the majority of cases these nests contained young, the old birds flew away at my approach, perched on a neighbouring tree, and from this vantage surveyed my doings without offering any resistance what- ever. Even as near Melbourne as Point Cook I have found the Magpies very mild in disposition. As a school- boy I visited this part, accompanied by a school friend, and took fifteen young birds from five nests ; in no one OF SOUTHERN AUSTRALIA. 13 case did the parents fly at us. Their trustfuhiess arose evidently from the fact that the particular portions over which we roamed had for some time been closed to the public, hence the Magpies were immune from persecution. I know of a Black-backed Magpie which had been living for three years in the domesticated role suddenly developing a desire to build. She chose as the site of her home a peach tree in the orchard surrounding the house. Not having full freedom, the bird could only work at the nest between 7 and 9 a.m. and after 5 p.m., and on the whole of Saturday and Sunday. The nest was placed 7 feet 6 inches above the ground, compactly built of twigs and shghtly lined with feathers. The whole breadth was 14 inches, that of bowl 4.5 inches, and depth of cavity 2.5 inches. In October three eggs were laid in it, and the dimensions averaged — diameter, 1.08; axis, 1.5 inches. The colours were also normal — - ground bluish- grey, under markings purplish, over markings dark brown. It is rarely that either of these species lays five eggs to the clutch, but cases were reported to me in 1897. Mr. H. S. Burcher, of Mossgiel, New South Wales, on 15th September, 1^-98, writes to me: — "I noticed a very remarkable incident last week in the finding of a Black- backed Magpie's nest with five eggs. This is quite out of the ordinary for a Magpie here, as it is the first time T have ever found five eggs in a nest. I left them during the first time to make the note you wrote for, when, on passing the second time, I found, to my surprise, the five eggs had gone, although the birds were still there. Noticing the inside of the nest was not so deep as before, I pushed my hand further down and felt the five eggs. It seems that they had built a thin lining over the eggs, which I first thought was to hide them away ; but I found out after they had made a partial new nest on top of the other and 14 THE USEFUL BIRDS laid another clutch. The first set of eggs was poorly developed, and fairly easily blown. Between the laying of the two sets of eggs there was an interval of some fourteen days, including the time occupied in depositing the second clutch." Nest. — Similar in every way to the previous species. Both are placed in the forks of perpendicular branches. Eggs.— The specimens taken from five different nests show very varying differences. The ground colour will be pale green or brown ; the spots may be lilac or chestnut, and the streaks of the same. Clutch, 3. Length, 1.5 inches; breadth, 1.1 inches. MAGPIE-LARK (Mud -Lark, Pe-wit), GraKina picata, Lath. Gra-li'-na pik-a'ia. GrallcB, stilts ; pica, a magpie. Grallina australis, Gould, '* Birds of Australia," fol., vol. ii., pi. 54. Geographical Distribution. — Areas 1 to 9 inclusive ; accidental in 5. Key to the Species. — Breast black; under parts ' pure white; throat white in female, black in male ; upper surface black ; bill broader than it is high ; second primary longer than the second- aries. This is a broadly distributed and most useful species. Fruit- growers and market gardeners have learned to recognize its value and welcome its company in their areas, for this so- called Mud-Lark adds greatly to the life of a place with its pretty " pe-wit " and graceful ways. The Western Austrahan birds vary in their call notes very considerably from those of Eastern Australia. OF SOUTHERN AUSTRALIA. 15 The charm of the bird is best exhibited when it is grace- fully walking on the green banks of creeks and shallow ponds, where its black and white plumage affords a most agreeable contrast to its surroundings. But the fairy form it then Magpie-Larks, male and female. presents is lost as the gentle creature leaves the earth for higher realms. Such clumsy flight as it then indulges in would scarcely be expected of so lovely a creature as seen on the ground. Water in creeks and pools generally harbours 16 THE USEFUL BIRDS snails, which are often found to be the hosts of the " sheep fluke." This bird, in common with the White-fronted Heron (Blue Crane), makes war upon the mollusc hosts, and thus considerably reduces the danger and loss, especially to our western graziers. Nest. — Cup-shaped ; made of mud, and hned internally with grasses ; placed near water, and generally in a eucalypt on a horizontal bough. Young Magpie- Larks. OF SOUTHERN AUSTRALIA. 17 HOUSE-SWALLOW (Welcome Swallow), Hiruiido neoxeiia, CJld. Hi-run'do ne-ox'enci. Hirundo, a swallow ; neos, new ; zenos, strange. HiRUNDO NEOXENA, Gould, " Birds of Australia," fol., vol. ii., pi. 13. Geographical Distribution. — Areas 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 9. Key to the Species. — Forked tail ; throat rust-red ; abdomen white ; ear coverts glossy blue, like back. In 1896 this beautiful species of the air departed from its usual custom of migrating northwards, and was quite content, on account of the moderately mild season, to remain through- out the year in the extreme south of the continent. In March of that year the birds assembled in hundreds in the main street of one of our southern cities, inclining me to the belief that at least one contingent was preparing for the annual journey. They settled on the projecting mouldings on the third floor of a five-storied building, each bird uttering a single note, which collectively constituted a din of weak voices. A flock of several hundreds — apparently on their return journey — entered a large school building in a country town, much to the amusement and interest of the assembled children. Agriculturists ever welcome the House-Swallow as one of their best friends, and it was well for those dwelling in this wheat-growing district that the flock kept the even tenor of its way. In March three features are observable about these birds. Firstly, that they are extremely combative. One pair I noticed for several minutes engaged in a fierce duel while on the wing. Having ascended to a high altitude, they chased each other downwards, alternately becoming pursuer and 3 18 THE USEFUL BIRDS pursued, and presenting an appearance as of comet-like objects floating rapidly through the air, chattering incessantly. Secondly, the male is a vocalist v/ith a considerable amount of ability, for if the sun be shining, as it often does at that House-Swallows. time in this bright country of ours, he produces a strain of music continuous for many minutes, the while resting upon a post or other suitable object. As it now wishes to choose a partner for the next and following months, it must needs be OF SOUTHERN AUSTRALIA. 19 busy witli the duty of the season. The song poured forth is no doubt an appeal to the fickle female, who is apparently charmed in this manner by her lover. Thirdly, owing to the amount of moisture regularly falling upon the ground, they find a part of their sustenance there. As one floats above the short grass, the little body assumes an ovate form, and the tail feathers become lowered. The short legs prohibit them from standing anywhere other than on a flat surface, and it is not unusual to have them rise from the asphalt path as one approaches. Swallows gather moths and other insects from the grass as they rise, noiselessly hovering within a few inches of the surface, and at times appearing motionless. On the 3rd of April I was interested in watching 14 Swallows skimming the surface of the Surrey Hills reservoir. This was at 4.45 p.m. Soon the active flock became 23, after which the number quickly reached 70. The arrivals all came from the south, in companies of from 12 to 18, and the assembling continued until the number totalled about 200 in thirty minutes from the arrival of the first group. The sun was brightly setting, and the weather mild. The scene above the artificial lake was truly a pretty one. The distant birds were of apparently small proportions and fight colour, while those in the foreground were large and dark, and all gliding in giddy circles till one almost imagined the whole scene was in revolution. I could then realize forcefully the application of the poet's lines, " The thin- winged swallow skating in the air." As the light faded at 5.30 p.m. the flock, as though following some concerted action, departed in an instant, and I was left to contemplate, wdth only a faint idea that they had moved northwards to their usual roosting-place in a group of timber some distance away. 20 THE USEFUL BIRDS It surely goes without saying that everyone is fainihar with the Common or Chimney Swallow, yet such facts as the following, gathered by the writer and an able correspondent, Mr. Geo. Graham, may appear new to many in the natural history of the species : — Nesting Habits. — The species starts to nest in July if the weather be favourable, though the month will vary with the season and latitude. It is an early and late breeder. The position chosen for the nest is very varied ; they may be placed in caves, spouts of trees over w^ater, in barns, under verandahs, and even in a dog-kennel, if the dog has been absent some time. In the latter position a pair of birds has been know^n to breed for five years (per Mr. C. Gabriel). Even the floating gate of a graving dock has its nest, under one of the iron ledges. Whether or not tlie birds resort to the same nest annually I cannot say, but since 1881 two nests in the same hollow of a tree have been occupied each year during the whole 16 to 17 years up to 1898. One of these nests was pulled down in the sixteenth year, prior to the return of the birds, and was not rebuilt. I take it the birds were turned aside from the usual custom and went elsewhere. In the building of a nest the birds occasionally make a mistake, and yet persist in continuing with the work. If the nest falls they start again, and a second time it falls, and so on until success is achieved or the w^ork given up. On other occasions nests are partially built and abandoned. A pair will start a nest, and by the time it is half done a number of Swallows assemble, fly to and from the nest, twitter consider- ably, and work is suspended, apparently as a consequence of their deliberations. Such nests are not again touched. It is interesting to know that a House-Swallow in England hatches its eggs in exactly the same time as one in Australia. The following four observations show— (a) an egg is laid on OF SOUTHERN AUSTRALIA. 21 each consecutive day; (6) the clutch takes 15 days to incu- bate ; (c) the young open their eyes on the ninth day ; {d) the young left the nest, in Observation T., in 24 days ; in Obser- vation TV., in one calendar month (30 days). Observation I. — August-September, 1899, Heytesbury, Vic- toria.— To last year's nest, in the much- weathered hollow at the base of a eucalypt trunk, the birds commenced additions as early as the 6th August, and by the 13th a new tier of plaster, 1 inch thick, was laid. Immediately following this an inner lining of rabbits' fur, feathers, &c., was fixed in ample time for the first egg. First egg deposited in nest 23rd August, second egg 24th August, third egg 25th August, fourth egg 26th August, fifth egg 27th August. The birds immediately sat, and brought out five young on the llth September. On the 4th October young left the nest for the first time. Observation II. — September, 1899, Heytesbury, Victoria. — To experiment, the old nest was broken away and taken quite out of sight of the birds. This gave an opportunity to find the time required to build a complete nest. The operation commenced on 7th September, and by the 19th instant the earthen cup was finished. By the 30th instant the Hning was fixed, and an egg was laid. Without giving any clear explana- tion, the owners made no further advance with this nest, and the single egg remained unincubated. Observation III. — October-November, 1899, Heytesbury, Victoria. — The first egg was deposited in nest on 12th October, and a second on the following day. Several days' watching showed no further development. Considering the nest was abandoned, the observation ceased. Passing the nest some weeks later two young were found to be progressing favour- ably. 22 THE USEFUL BIRDS Observation 7 F.— October-December, 1899, Heytesbury, Victoria. — Nest in bole of eucalypt. The second egg was deposited on 18th October, the third on 19th, and fourth on 20th. By analogy with this species, the first egg was laid on the 17th October. On 5th November the young hatched out, their bodies being rather nude, and the down grey. The eyes opened on 14th November. Young growing rapidly on 17th November, quills well out and showing grey tufts. By the 19th instant the grey is giving way to black, with chocolate on throat and vent. At this stage the young are so strong, and cling so tenaciously to the nest, that it is dangerous to take them out for examination, especially on the 22nd instant, when the crown and back are dull black. On 5th December the young left the nest for the first time. When it is found a clutch of eggs will not develop, certain birds, such as the Black-backed Magpie, place a false flooring to the nest, thus covering the eggs, and immediately re-lay. Judging from the following note it is most probable the Swallows do not follow this method, but rather turn out their eggs when they are proved infertile : — " In a hollow trunk that has been used for 15 years," writes Mr. Graham, " I found the nest, freshly lined with feathers. Shortly afterwards I felt an egg in it, and on the following day two additional, thus proving carelessness in my touch, or that three eggs were laid in 48 hours. I do not believe an error was made on my part. On the fifteenth day all three eggs dis- appeared. About nine days later three more eggs were found in the nest, and they are there now (weeks later), probably infertile, as doubtless were the others. There are no rats, cats or bird-nesting boys in this neighbourhood, so I venture to think the birds, finding no young came on the appointed day (fifteenth), threw them out." Young. — Providing for the young necessitates the parents visiting the nest every three minutes. I am inclined to con- OF SOUTHERN AUSTRALIA. 23 elude that the visits are paid alternately by the male and female birds, for of twenty which I observed made to one nest in an hour each sex made ten. If only one nestling is supplied at a time, each of the five in the family would thus be fed every fifteen minutes. After the young have quitted the nest for the first time, they return during the heat of the day for several days following. The pipe in the tree above the nest serves the family as a night camp for 10 to 12 days after the young have made their introduction to the outside world. The non-sitting bird camps in a place apart from the nest during the period the nest is tenanted. While the majority leave the district during the early autumn, a few remain, and then the old birds sing or twitter as well apparently as in the spring. It is not unlikely that this is a training for the remaining young, in preparation for the following spring or summer. Introduced Enemies. — The fox and cat from the mother country cause considerable trouble among our birds. The cat, at the moment, I have noted, is raiding the dry parts of North- Western Australia just as the fox is doing in the south-eastern portion. I know of a hall in a country house in which a nest has been built by Swallows. Two nails below the nest serve as perching places for the two birds. In six weeks previous to 1st October 1898, seven birds were killed by the cat that kept its place in this lobby. If one of a pair was caught the mate would go away for a period varying from one to three days, and then return with a consort. In a day or more one of that pair would be captured, and away the other would go for a mate and return with it. As to which sex was killed my informant could not say, but I should think the same one, and furthermore the stranger, thus showing the persistency of one bird to follow up an idea, just as one of the same specie? will start to rebuild its nest after 24 THE USEFUL BIRDS it has been purposely knocked down on four occasions within a month. In those districts where Swallows build mostly in burnt-out trees, the fox makes a thorough inspection, and all that are not more than 6 or 8 feet above the ground sooner or later are precipitated, sometimes when empty, at other times when containing the sitting birds. The fox scrambles up the distance and grasps in its mouth nest and bird. It seems most unfortunate this scourge should have got among our terrestrial fauna, of which that beautiful form, the Menura, has not suffered least. Nest. — Open, made of mud, and cup-like, the inner lining being of feathers or grasses. Eggs. — Ground colour white, much spotted with ruddy- brown or faint lilac. Clutch, 4 to 5 eggs. Length, 0.75 inch ; breadth, 0.5 inch. FAIRY MARTIN (Bottle Sw^allow), Petroclielidon ariel, Old. Pet-ro kel-id'on ariel. Petros, a rock ; chelidon, a swallow ; ariel, a sprite. CoLLOCALiA ARIEL, Gould, '"' Birds of Australia," fol., vol. ii., pi. 15. Geographical Distribution, — Areas 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 9. Key to the Species. — Under surface whitish ; throat with tiny black streaks ; entire head rufous ; rump creamy- white ; tail forked ; nostrils without any superior membrane, round and exposed. This fairy-like Swallow arrives in the south towards the end of August, and leaves again for the north in the summer, though if the winter be a mild one many flocks remain OF SOUTHERN AUSTRALIA. 25 throughout the year. The Fairy Martin has a distinct partiality for those spots in which there is plenty of water, yet they have been found to occupy almost dry creek beds, where they build their nests, apparently without greatly feel- ing the lack of moisture, for they thrive well, and rarelv leave the immediate vicinity. The generic name originally applied to the Fairy Martin — Lagenoplastes, from lagena, a bottle or flask — is specially apropos, for the shape of their mud nests is that of a bottle, with the neck facing outward. They are fastened to the side of a cliff or under a bridge, and are usually associated in colonies of from 20 to 40 nests, each one representing a pair of birds. Evidently the birds return to their own particular colonies in the spring, for each year the old nests are patched up and used over again. Normally the birds work only in the cool of the day— that is, in the early morning and evening. A system of co-operation prevails in these merry colonies, in so far as half a dozen birds will combine to build each nest, placing them from 3 to 7 inches apart, and if at any subsequent period a nest should happen to receive an injury, the whole colony assist in the repairing process without a thought of mine or thine. In less than fifteen minutes several thousand mud " bricks " have been carried and plastered together, and order has been restored. When finished the interior of the nests is thickly Hned with grass and feathers, thus providing a warm and cosy receptacle for the eggs and later for the young. Mr. Price Fletcher, in a private diary, says : — " Unfortu- nately this curious and closely constructed home is no pro- tection against some of its feathered foes, for I have seen the Red-rumped Kingfisher, instructed doubtless by its habit of breaking into the tree-ants' nests in order to make a nesting place for its own eggs and young, make persistent war on the 26 THE USEFUL BIRDS colonies of Fairy Martins. The Kingfishers fly up, catch the end of the neck or entrance spout in their beaks, and gradually break it off until they reach the eggs or young, which they ruthlessly devour. T have known the pretty little Pardalote, or Diamond-bird, which usually builds a nest at the end of a tunnel 2 feet long excavated in some sandy tank, deliberately take possession of one of those spouted nests of the Fairy Martin, and hold it against all opposition from its original constructors, and safely rear a brood of young." I am informed of another case, in which an introduced Sparrow took possession of a nest that was nearly completed by the Martins. As this Sparrow absolutely refused to leave the nest, the Martins built it in with mud. Perhaps it was sick and could not leave. In any case, my informant released it. Nest. — Made of mud, with a retort-shaped neck, the funnel extending from the bowl several inclies ; the inner lining is composed of grasses and feathers. A colony of nests is placed under a bridge or on a bank. Eggs. — White or white spotted with tawny brow^n ; the spots may be distributed over the egg or at the larger end only. Three to five generally for a sitting. Leugth, 0.7 inch ; breadth, 0.5 inch. OF SOUTHERN AUSTRALIA. 27 TREE-MARTIN (Tree-Swallow), Petrochelidoii nigricans, Vieill. Pet-ro kel-id' on 7iig'ri-ka7is. Petros, a rock ; chelidon, a swallow ; niger, black ; cano, to sing. CoLLOCALiA ARBOREA, Gould, " Birds of Australia," fol., vol. ii., pi. 14. Geographical Distribution. — Areas 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 9. Key to the Species. — Under surface wliitish ; throat whitish, with tiny black streaks ; frontal band sandy-buff ; rump whity-brown ; tail forked ; nostrils without any superior membrane, round and exposed. Of every hundred intelligent people who see Martins in the woods or near bridges, I feel sure ninety- eight never distinguish this species from the second Martin of the genus (P. ariel, Gld.) That is because there is practically but one difference, which in the distance is not discoverable without the aid of field- glasses. One has the forehead rufous only, the other has the forehead and crown rufous, these characteristics being constant. They have similar habits, and very often occupy the same natural surroundings. P. nigricans, as well as I know, stays for the winter, and breeds in holes in trees, while P. arid prefers creek banks and cliffs, against which they build, or bridges, under which large colonies of nests are often to be found. Being strictly arboreal, the Tree-Martin hunts in flocks, feeding largely upon micro-insecta. In this respect it is invaluable as an insect exterminator, rendering a service that few other birds can equal. When each ninth or tenth generation of the aphis comes into existence, the birds display wonderful activity in their destruction. While the Fairy Martin feeds in a lower stratum, upon the 28 THE USEFUL BIRDS rivers, and the swifts in a high stratum of air, this species, in common with the House-Swallow, works the intermediate one. That is to say, different kinds- of insects, which live in different strata of air, have different kinds of Swallows to keep them in subjection. There is also a Black and White Swallow (Cheramceca) that keeps to the dry interior, doing good duty by maintaining a balance in these parts. Nest. — Hollow of a tree limb, with decayed wood as a base. Eggs. — White, spotted with reddish-brown at larger end, more or less. Three to a sitting. Length, 0.75 inch ; breadth, 0.5 inch. MASKED WOOD-SWALLOW, Artamiis persoiiatus, Gld. Ar'ta-mvs per-son-a'tas. Artamos, a butcher ; personatus, masked. Artamus perso^tatus, Gould, " Birds of Australia," fol., vol. ii., pi. 31. Geographical Distribution. — Areas 3, 4, G, 7, 9. Key to the Species. — Under surface of the body beautiful grey ; rump and upper tail coverts clear ashy-grey, like the back. Male. — Face and tliroat jet-black. Female. — Lighter in markings of head and throat. This bird is strictly insectivorous. At times it is most un- popular with the beekeeper, whose winged helpmates suffer considerable havoc wherever the Wood-Swallow has access to his apiary. As a matter of fact, it is known in some districts as the Bee-Martin. A market gardener informs me that the Wood-Swallow renders signal service in the orchard by destroying numbers of the odorous pear slug, which gives off OF SOUTHERN AUSTRALIA. 29 " an odour so powerful that we are obliged when picking fruit to keep to windward of greatly infested trees, and leave them to the care of hellebore and Summer-birds." The ordinary note of the bird is a quick, rasping one, that jars somewhat on the ears of the listener. During spring, however, the male bird feels called upon to lay aside its croak at special moments, and courts the members of the gentler sex by pouring forth a bar of melody, which, though superior to Nest and Eggs of Masked Wood-Swallow. its usual efforts in this direction, still falls feebly and brokenly on the ear of one who would naturally expect a better result from so great an effort. Nevertheless, it is a decided advance, and evidently is effective in charming the member for whose benefit the effort was made. The bird reverts to its usual note at a very early period after courtship. In 1895 I noticed that this species did not build as early as in the following year, and, moreover, that in the majority of 30 THE USEFUL BIRDS cases iicitiire favoured the depositing of two eggs only to the clutch. Of eighteen nests personally observed five contained each three eggs, eleven contained each two eggs, two contained each one egg. The young generally were well advanced in the eggs. Other nests observed by myself e^ch contained two full-feathered young only. Like many other birds, the Masked Wood-Swallow resents the approach of an enemy near its nest, and angrily and boldly attacks all intruders. The female bird, perhaps, is rather more retiring _than the male, who darts at one per- sistently while in the vicinity of the nest. One Christmas Eve I observed that two young were about to fly from a nest built in an odd-looking piece of dead timber near the ground, which I had watched for eight days pre- viously. One would serve as a cabinet representative speci- men, so I withdrew it at 7 p.m. For an hour and a quarter I remained fifty yards aw^ay, watching other birds, and returning at the end of that time I found the parents had removed the remaining young Swallow, probably for preserva- tion sake. Meanwhile I had extracted three fresh eggs (the third one laid the day previously) from another nest of this species, and placed therein the young bird mentioned above. The layer of the eggs, returning shortly afterwards, looked astonished, but immediately and carefully gathered the young bird under its wing. Continuing this mild experiment, I now extracted the young feathered bird after it had been there for fifteen minutes, and placed a member of the White-browed species, bcrn two days previously, in the nest. The proprietor returned, and despite the fact that the young this time was almost featherless, it behaved precisely as on the previous occasion, and carefully covered the new arrival as if it had been its own. The loss of three eggs was apparently a purely philo- sophical consideration. This young bird was taken through OF SOUTHERN AUSTRALIA. 31 its cradled course of life nine days later, and released on the same day as the two in the nest from which it was removed. The yomig of the previous species at 24 hours of age are downy and well stored with vitality. The last movement of one made in methylated spirit was the drooping of the neck and head upon its chest after 20 J minutes had elapsed from the time of placing it in the bottle. The majority of nests are loosely constructed, though occasionally, if fibrous roots be easily available, they are used, with the result that a compact, neatly arranged nest is built. The constructive material is gathered in the immediate vicinity of the spot chosen for the nest, the birds seldom moving far in search of material. An example of this habit ean be easily noticed in a region wherein a fence divides an orchard from a gorse field. On the orchard side, 10 yards from the fence, the nests are con- structed wholly of fruit tree fibrous rootlets, while on the gorse side each nest is composed of the grasses and twigs that can be readily gathered amongst the bushes. There are, of course, exceptions to this rule. Three characters of combinative material appear to be used, though they pertain possibly more to local influences, and may have but little weight in a wide study of the Artamidse : — 1. In orchards, rootlets of the trees, internally fine, but wuth coarse mantling. 2. In Hghtly timbered paddocks, grass stems principally, chlorophyll-bearing before completion ; occasionally a few horsehairs. 3. In well-timbered country, twigs of the trees, with a finer internal lining of linear leaves. The bowls of all the nests are similar in dimensions, but those of the complete structure may vary occasionally up to twice the normal measurements. The positions, as with the previous species, generally range about 6 feet, and often only 2 feet, above the ground. Occasionally nests are placed higher, but, excepting where Pinus insignis and a few species 32 THE USEFUL BIRDS of eucalypti are ubed for building in, the rule is low to mother earth. The two species build promiscuously, favouring a brake of low scrubs. The nests are placed in prominent positions, each species as a whole keeping apart, though in certain instances members of both species nest close together. By the middle of December many of each species were preparing homesteads for the third brood, and they seldom use the nests of a past family for a future one. Late builders were observed in the early portion of January carrying twigs. After sundown those birds not engaged in the night caring for the young or eggs congregate in bodies of from 10 to 15 close to each other in a tree or shrub convenient to the nests and near the ground, and there pass the night. With both kinds I find an egg deposited each day, and the first of the clutch hatches out on the twelfth day of sitting. The young of the two species fly upon the eleventh or twelfth day from hatching, subject to a shght variation in a number of broods. Nest. — Saucer-shaped ; twigs externally, with finer grasses within them ; very flimsy or neatly made. Further reference above. Eggs. — Two or three, sometimes four, to a, sitting. The under surface may be light brown, or occasionally light green, and all blotched with light or heavy brown. Length, 0.8 inch ; breadth, 0.7 inch. OF SOUTHERN AUSTRALIA. 33 WHITE-BROWED WOOD SWALLOW (Martin, Summer-bird), Artaiiius superciliosus, Gld. Ar'ta-tHUS i< fi-persil-i-o siis. Artamos, a butcher ; super, over; ciliiun, eyelid. AiiTAMUS sui'ERCiLiosus, Could, " l'>irds of Australia," fol., vol. ii., pi. 32. Geogkai'hical Distribution. — Areas 3, 4, (>. Key to the Species. — Under surface of body vinaceous chestnut ; a broad white eyebrow ; bill long and pointed, the cuhnen exceeding the length of the hind toe and claw. The White- browed Wood-Swallow shows a remarkable instinct in the choice of a locality where insect life is specially abundant. The decision is evidently arrived at some time previous to their return from the North, though how the knowledge regarding the suitability of the chosen areas is arrived at is a matter shrouded in mystery. It is also noticeable that a certain number are associated with a distinct area, to which they jealously keep, deriving a deal of their sustenance from the grassed lands, over which they move by a series of hops and jumps. Often a single bird, chattering incessantly, will settle upon the upper portion of a tree, some 20 feet above the ground, and from this point start out in pursuit of some winged insect which, unfortunately for itself, has come within the bird's purview. Eeturning, it essays another chase, con- tinuing to repeat the same for a considerable time, soaring downwa.rds and winging its active upward way by a series of rapid flaps. Previous to entering upon the serious business of their life, that of nesting, the birds assemble in flocks in the higher 34 THE USEFUL BIRDS leafy vegetation, and produce a din which one would scarcely expect from such small and graceful birds. The harsh, sharp, powerful chirps, continuously repeated, grate unpleasantly on the nerves of anyone in the vicinity, offering a sharp contrast to the quieter notes of the sobered parents 21 days later. I remember a large flock of the Swallows taking possession of a cluster of timber in which were a Black Fantail, its mate, nest and eggs. Only occasionally could the little bird be heard during the day. It was only after the Swallows had retired for the night that the sweet notes of the Fantail could be heard with any force. Two weeks after their arrival in the South, the Wood- Swallows show a wish to commence nest-building. The more rapid workers complete their structures in one or two days, and others, more dilatory, and exhibiting, like many human beings, a strong desire to introduce play into their work, delay the completion for several days. I discovered a clutch of eggs on 8th November, though many birds, still in flock, had not commenced to build on 17th of the same month. Young birds were noticed on the wing as early as the 23rd. The nestlings amusingly imitate their parents in the perpetual horizontal and perpendicular movements of the short- plumaged tail, proving in this way the force of inherited habit. A fledgling which I took from a nest announced its removal by two calls, one imitative of the general note of the mother, but more broken and feeble, and the second, emitted after it had been away from the nest 15 minutes, of fear. This bird I endeavoured to rear, but without success ; it refused to eat, and, in consequence, died in a few days. The eggs mentioned above varied in markings shghtly, with a deep or light ground colour ; one egg in a set of three had the zone of spots at the narrow end, the other two were normal. They differed on the average only a shade in dimen- OF SOUTHERN AUSTRALIA. 35 sions, and in the number to a clutch from four to two. Of twelve nests observed, three contained four eggs, six three eggs, three two eggs — all well incubated. The nests, though slight in structure, are generally faith- fully built of rootlets or grasses, or more often twigs and grasses, and in many cases they are artistically arranged. They are seldom above 6 feet from the ground, and placed in all manner of positions, preference being given to perpen- dicular shght stems, though nearly as often I have found them placed upon the horizontal firm twigs or branchlets of shrubs and bushes. One nest was placed in the socket for a paddock slip-panel, a second in a furze or whin hedge, many in bushes of the same or in Leptospermum, others in acacia wattles, and fewer in eucalypts. That these two species of Wood-Swallow visited the south in considerable numbers may be deduced from the fact that 40 nests — building, tenanted, and vacated — were observed by the writer on the 16th December within a mile's walk, and nearly within a narrow straight line. Two orchards, a belt of furze or whin, and an almost dry watercourse had to be passed by. Within a given area the nests were placed in the orchards more numerously than in the legume whin. Plum, pear, apple, and cherry trees in particular received the nesting honours. One nest was placed 2 feet above the ground in a sweetbriar in the township of Surrey Hills. My chord of generosity was somehow struck, so I placed a piece of basalt in the nest in order that the birds would be saved more serious disaster later on. Next week the nest was gone, and a hke fate would have awaited the eggs but for the kindly intervention which caused the birds to build elsewhere. Both the male and female birds appear to sit. Generally this bird might be regarded as most sensitive to outside interference. Yet in isolated instances it possesses a wonderful hardihood and persistence in following out an idea, aa THE USEFUL BIRDS as the following instance shows : — On the side of a certain road a pair of Wood-Swallows had bnilt their nest in a young elm tree enclosed in a tree-guard. This nest was removed bodily in order to prevent such damage to the tree as might arise from the investigations of curious boys. Undeterred by this rebuff, the birds again built on the same spot, only to meet with a like fate. For no less than seven times did they persist in their work, evidently convinced that the fork chosen as the site for their home was a desirable one, not to be vacated because of such slight mishaps as the bodily removal of the nest six times in succession — due, probably they thought, to natural causes. After the seventh time, however, they made no further attempt to build on the ill-fated elm, and moved away to pastures new. Nest. — Similar to preceding species. Several nests may be placed in orchards. Eggs. — Similar to preceding species, though varying greatly. Obsolete marks of greyish-brown appear as if beneath the surface. OF SOUTHERN AUSTRALIA. 37 WOODSWALLOW, Artamus sordidus. Lath. Ar'ta-mus sor'did-us. Artamos, a butcher ; sordidus, greyish-brown. Artamus sordidus, Gould, " Birds of Australia," fol., vol. ii., pi. 27. Geographical Distribution. — Ai-eas 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 9. Key to the Species. — Under surface of body dull brown; chin scarcely any darker ; back and rump brown ; two or three quills of wing edged with white ; bill long and pointed, the culmen ex- ceeding the length of the hind toe and claw. Fledglings of Wood-Swallow. This, the most common of the Wood- Swallows, unlike five or six other members of the group who depart to warmer regions in the winter, remains throughout the year in the southern portions of the Commonwealth. 38 THE USEFUL BIRDS They have a peculiar habit of dinging together in masses from a branch, in which position they resemble nothing so much as an exaggerated swarm of bees. Artamus sordidus is a particularly pleasing bird as seen on Wood-Swallow feeding youii< the wing, its graceful soar giving it an air of lightsomeness and charm which cannot fail to attract the observer and bird- lover. OF SOUTHERN AUSTRALIA. 39 Like the other members, it displays Uttle fear of man — indeed, it seems to regard the latter as its benefactor, in so far as he provides gardens and orchards, which Artamus loves to haunt in search of insect life. Displaying every confidence White-rumped Wood-Swallow. Young and adults. in the protecting hand over it, the bird will approach quite closely to pick up the insects disturbed by the movements of the gardener among his fruit trees and vegetables. It thus renders an invaluable service to human kind. 40 THE USEFUL BIRDS Artamus shows no partiality for any particular kind of timber in which to place its nest, building in all kinds in- discriminately. In disposition they are very gentle. The nesting season lasts from September to December. The largest and the most beautiful form of Artamus is found along the Murray River. It has a white rump and abdomen, and is known as the White-rumped Wood-Swallow [Artamus leiicogaster, Valenc.) Eggs of White-ruraped Wood-Swallow in old nest of Magpie-Lark. Nest. — Very similar to the preceding two species. The bird shows a preference for spouts of trees, at the ends of which the slight nests are placed, but the position injthe timber may vary greatly. The figure on p. 38 cost Mr. Mattingley thirteen OF SOUTHERN AUSTRALIA. 41 hours of patient watch before it could be photographed. The bird was very sensitive to the close position of the camera. A further illustration shows the nest of the Magpie-Tiark with the eggs of the White-rumped Swallow in it. This is commonly seen. Eggs. — Three or four for a sitting. They vary in markings considerably. The ground colour is usually dull white, but very often nearly pure white, and always marked with blackish spots, particularly to form a zone near the broader end. Length, 0.9 inch ; breadth, 0.7 inch. SPINETAILED SWIFT, Cluetnra caiidaciita, Latli. ClKt^'tn'ra cauda cn'ta. Cluiite, mane ; ovra. tail ; cauda, tail ; acntus, pointed. Ch.^tura caudacuta, Gould, " Birds of Australia," fol., vol. ii., pi. 10. Geographical Distribution. — As shown in accompanying map. Key to Species. — Shafts of tail have spinous points ; tarsi as long or longer than middle toe ; chin and throat pure white ; small white band across forehead. The Spine-tailed Swift, in common with its near relative, the White-rumped Swift, does not remain throughout the year in Australia. The first-named breeds in Japan, the second in Central Siberia, but each agrees in coming to our shores with their voung at the end of the Northern summer. As they arrive in Australia in November and depart in March, it is, doubtless, the abundant insect life of our summer which attracts them. 42 THE USEFUL BTRDS Map showing Distribution of the Australian Swifts. A. — Edible-nest Swift — 1, North Queensland; 2, Solomon Islands; 3, New Guinea ; 4, Moluccas Islands ; 5, Celebes Islands. B. — Grey-rum.'ped Swijtlet — 1, North Queensland ; 2, Solomon Islands ; 6, Fiji Islands; 7, Samoa; 8, Friendly Islands; 9, Malay Archiyjelago ; 10, Andaman Islands; 11, Madagascar; 12, Mauritius ; 13, Bourbon. C. — [c') White-rumped Swift — 14, Yakutsk; 15, N.W. Mongolia; 10, Amoor River; 17, Japan; 18, China (Cheefoo and Taikow) ; 19, West Burma; 20, India (Assam and Cachar); 21, Aus- tralia in general ; 22, Tasmania. (c") Spine-tailed Swift — 23, Irkutsk ; IC, Amoor River ; 24, Ussuri ; 17, Japan; 18, China: 21, Australia; 22, Tasmania. Twice reported as wandering to Great Britain. OF SOUTHERN AUSTRALIA. 43 Migration may be complete, partial, or accidental. In the case of the Swifts, which pass through the summers of both hemispheres, it is complete. The Welcome Swallow, journeying antmally between Queensland and Tasmania on the eastern side, offers a good example of partial migration ; whilst the European Shoveller Duck, which wanders to our continent occasionally, presents a case of accidental migra- tion. It was generally believed by people living in the time of Gilbert White, of Selborne, that Swifts and Swallows buried themselves away in ponds and mud pools during the winter, which they passed in a state of torpor, from which they were awakened by the advent of spring. It was discovered later by observers that they wandered to other lands, attracted thereto by the abundant food of summer. Finally lines of flight across certain countries were mapped out. For genera- tion after generation, extending probably through thousands of years, these paths had been followed by the migrating birds, who, guided by old travellers or by an unerring instinct, deviated little from the line, excepting under stress of weather. 44 THE USEFUL BIRDS SCARLET-BREASTED ROBIN (Red-breast), Petrflcca leggrii, Sharpe. Pet-re'ka legg'e-e. Petron, a rock ; oiJcos, a family ; Legge, a proper name. Petroioa multicolor, Gould, " Birds of Australia," fol., vol. iii., pi. 3. Geographical Distribution. — Areas 2, 3, 4, 5, 6. Key to the Species. — Upper surface black ; white frontal mark very large ; tliroat black ; breast scarlet. Female. — Throat and back grey ; a flush of red on breast. There are seven species of so-called Red-breasted Robins in Australia, the shade of red which gives the birds their vernacular name varying considerably in the different species. Thus some are scarlet-, others pink-, rose-, or flame-breasted, accorded to the tint affected by the bird. While the " red-cap " shows a decided preference for the dry timber, the " flame-breast " prefers the moist timbered lands. The wildest hills of New South Wales and Victoria are the haunts of the Pink-breasted and the Rose-breasted species. The " flame-breast " and the " scarlet-breast "" are the birds that visit the outskirts of the towns in autumn and winter. They enliven us with their sweet, though hard, notes, and beautify the fields while they stay. Where they go in spring and summer was at one time as great a mystery as where the Pelican lays its eggs, but now we know they simply retire to the forests to nest. The "flame-breast" goes away earlier and deeper into the woods than the " scarlet-breast." Com- paring this gorgeous bird with the conspicuous Blue Wren, it is interesting to note that the male Robin retains its colour throughout the year, while the Wren moults its blue, and goes through the winter in a modest brown dress, and only with OF SOUTHERN AUSTRALIA. 45 the advent of spring dons its brilliant blue again. It takes a Robin at least three years to develop a thoroughly brilliant red. A beautiful sight may be seen by the wanderer through our paddocks on a bright winter day in July ; he often comes across a company of 30 to 40 male Robins flitting about from fence to bush, or starting from the ground as he approaches. To witness such a sight is one of the many joys which face the lot of the enthusiastic ornithologist. The breeding season lasts from August to December, two or three broods being reared each season. The male "flame-breast" (P. phoenicea) essays a little musical performance in the early spring, as though to announce the passing of the cold, and call forth the dormant life of the earth. How welcome these notes are at this time to the expectant farmer ! The song of this bird is a set bar containing about seven notes, very sweet and varied, and occupying perhaps two and a half seconds in production. Early bird- voices, like that of the " flame-breast," because of their rarity, are particularly amenable to study, for the full burst of song that fills our woods later, in the incoming spring, raise a complete medley, delightful yet somewhat confusing. The males then appear to vie with one another in producing the loudest notes. The throat of the Flame-breasted Robin is red ; that of the Scarlet-breasted, black. Nest. — Cu23-shaped ; neatly and compactly made of bark, ornamented exteriorly with mosses and lichens, and lined interiorly with dry grasses, feathers, &c. It is placed on a horizontal branch, but may be put in a fork near the ground. Eggs. — Three or four for a sitting. Ground colour pale green or creamy- white, both spotted with greyish, blue-grey, and brown. Length, 0.75 inch; breadth, 0.6 inch. 46 THE USEFUL BIRDS RED-CAPPED ROBIN, Petr