Mau Rut Mean Gulia! Wubi ag ll} ALU, ATION OF | \ Mi hig AN’ < TIMBERLANDS dep aw Oe ee KW. WOODWARD Frontispiece The Forest Types of the United States. The Valuation of American Timberlands BY K. W. WOODWARD Professor of Forestry, New Hampshire College. Formerly Forest Inspector, U. S. Forest Service NEW YORE JOHN WILEY & SONS, Inc. Lonpon: CHAPMAN & HALL, Luorep 1921 Ele Woe y - PREFACE This book is intended to supply certain information needed by the investor, timber cruiser and student of forestry. In other words, it aims to give for the continental United States and its outlying territories the principal facts regarding the timber resources. Hawaii has been omitted because its timber is useful mainly for its protective value and cutting in the commercial sense is only possible on a very limited scale. Likewise, the Canal Zone is not attractive to either the sawmill man or timberland investor by reason of the restricted area of American territory. The investor will find data which will not only enable him to - form a notion of what the examination of a tract should cost but he should also get the salient features of the general type of which his particular holdings are but a small part. This work tries to give those basic facts upon which a superstructure of detailed knowledge concerning a particular tract may safely be erected. To the estimator or timber cruiser, likewise, it cannot take _ the place of first-hand observation as far as the appraisal of any given area is concerned. It should, however, show him what to look for and help him to keep that sense of proportion without which his reports may easily give a wholly wrong impression. For the student of forestry it should fill an additional purpose. Few attempts have previously been made to gather together in one volume descriptions of the forest types of the United States. We have simply had detailed studies of isolated regions. With these latter as a basis, however, an attempt is here made to evalu- ate American forest conditions and compare the forest types with each other. This leads inevitably to the application of the principles which the student has learned in his courses in protec- tion, silviculture, utilization and management. In other words, it is hoped he may here acquire some of the local color necessary to give vividness to the framework of fundamentals he has con- Vv vi PREFACE structed in the classroom. The book was written to serve as supplementary reading in this way. A forest type as here used is an area which has essentially the same climatic, topographic, and soil conditions, and hence tends in the long run to have the same composition. A subtype is a subdivision of a forest type in which the composition is uniform. A word of explanation seems necessary in regard to prices now that the War has so radically disturbed all our preconceptions of market values. Obviously it is impossible to keep such a work as this absolutely up to date. Care has, however, been taken to give dates for all prices cited as that proper allowance may be made. In general it may be said that the prices of 1920 are roughly double those of 1915. Furthermore, wherever possible, costs are expressed in terms of man and horse hours as well as dollars. Acknowledgment is, of course, due the Forest Service for its courtesy in allowing the free use of its large store of data. EEE Tee TABLE OF CONTENTS Pace SS MME TWP sn cece we tecnns due aeae ob ee iy ou I SUSIE FLARIWOOD . TIPE. 6. os acs oxen cecaecae-ox'gns 16 Sr PS SEIN oo yanks o's 0:0 dkina hn Rah ae cK ee 29 UNE LOO So oa svn eho oe ns sae cae he Re a eee RS 48 Normmsaveew Pie TVPG. 5. <.csns cdi nd edi ews dices canes sss 52 Roarenewy HOTTOMLANDG =. ooo. 6.0 stave cov aes wes siwes tne koas 61 Severe EIAMIIWOODG oo os 5s ie ow tS ows ks east ect n aes 71 Pa Fee TS os cd ties sect iandescskcas st deans ens 81 RAPA RE ee ee kee Se oalnay wae hee cb ice rs 84 Meee VELEOW Pie LWPS os oss Se se i eee 87 Pn PIN PPR oe i Sok ok cass ee eee cee eeeeacueus 95 Se RANT IRI EWI Ss << a eo se de hs de oo cee weno hc erecs 99 Serna SINR WOE Se a hoe a ae oe ee ee ac ako eee 104 Te lg Sel gale eer ate Cee pipahe Laggan, ee arte MA rs ip Bee 112 EPIC <0 WR er oe ce ces i'ac cuba ceae eae aee 122 PE, ROONE 06 cs Cae eens de sono 006 copeen tne eRe eee 128 RAG FE TWP ci occ cose cec cucdcagvs Cbaaee uence 129 MINIs AC aE ow win 6 anes dua Ca baW bows bbek Sacbebay oye nuke 138 NE MMOs ok coin ny s'cs awa Gee bese been ad ceudssoe in as ee 148 RIES eo ac oo ees ob be tale Deke Fear eee 152 TR, WRRIATIONE Soo Sic sw sine bp kc oo wide He Rend Cooney ee ak 163 SAM: VALUATOON 0 ooo io ss is Sa e's Soe Sk as Se eee 219 RPMI a oo pikes wee woe 6 Se oe ow vate ee 230 OUTLINE FOR A REPORT ON A TRACT OF WOODLAND....... 238 ‘ Tn ca CHAPTER I NORTHERN SPRUCE. TYPE General Conditions.— To this type of timberland belong the North Woods of Maine, the upper slopes of the White Mountains, the higher Green Mountains, the summits of the Adirondack and Catskill Mountains, and the northern swampy parts of Michigan, Wisconsin and Minnesota. Furthermore, a slender string of isolated spruce-clad peaks extends southward along the backbone of the Appalachian range and consequently some spruce is found in Pennsylvania, West Virginia, Virginia, North Carolina and Tennessee. The distribution of the type is shown sepleeally on the accompanying map. Thruout its range spruce is most abundant in a cool, moist climate with long winters and heavy precipitation. Seldom is the growing season more than four months long and the annual - precipitation must be at least 40 inches or supplemented by slow drainage. This means that there is an abundance of moisture available for tree growth because the long winters inhibit runoff and the cool summers are unfavorable to rapid evaporation. These climatic conditions only occur on the steeper upper slopes of mountains and in flat swamp land. On both sites the soil is shallow but the spruce is well able to make the most of the scant foothold with its flat, widely extended root system. Likewise its common associates are trees of similar habit like the balsam, paper birch and yellow birch. However, by reason of its greater adaptability to such untoward conditions, spruce tends to crowd out its tompetitors and-form nearly pure stands if given time enough. Hence the subtypes are generally transition types caused by fire or cutting. The more imporant of these and their composition by volume and number are: I 2 NORTHERN SPRUCE TYPE E COMPOSITION OF SUBTYPES — SPRUCE TYPE Virgin subtype Cutover subtype Burn subtype Species Number Volume Number Number Per cent Per cent Per cent Per cent Se 4 peer 60 80 10 10 PSAISAMN saris a5 30 Io 15 15 Paper Birch.... 10 10 40 30 PRY CUTTY 5 ses Sache Pee ee aes 35 45 I00 I00 100 I00 The virgin subtype varies considerably in composition with the altitude. At the upper edge of merchantable growth there is a large admixture of balsam, while at the lower edge where it merges into the hardwood type yellow birch and paper birch are the important associate species. The composition percentages — given above are most representative of conditions in the middle of the altitudinal range of the type. ‘There spruce is the dom- inant species, numerically and in volume, while balsam, paper birch and yellow birch are merely unimportant associates. An average stand is 10M feet B. M. per acre although stands of 20 or 30M are not uncommon. In the virgin subtype little damage is the rule, not because there are no serious enemies but for the reason that fire, insects and wind may wipe the subtype out, but they seldom affect it in a moderate degree. It is a case of total immunity or complete destruction. When the subtype is dry enough to burn the fire usually kills the young trees, © jumps to the crowns of the older timber, and also eats up the ~ shallow layer of soil. In the same way wind makes wide swaths or throws over the timber on entire mountain slopes if it once gets a leverage on a stand of spruce. Likewise, the great insect enemy of this species, the spruce beetle~ (Dendroctonus piceaperda) is a believer in no halfway measures. Working in large colonies it systematically kills all the timber that comes in its way. Fortunately little fungus damage occurs in this subtype. The culled, cutover and burned subtypes are the result of GENERAL CONDITIONS 3 various degrees of lumbering and neglect on the virgin subtype. The culled stands are few for two reasons. In the first place even the early logging was comparatively clean because where it paid to cut the spruce on the upper slopes at all it was worth while taking nearly all the stand because it was of uniform size. The most recent logging has, of course, been clean because the demand for pulpwood furnished a market for all material down to a top diameter of four inches inside the bark. Furthermore in cases where culling has been attempted in the virgin spruce sub- type much blowdown has invariably resulted and the final out- come been identical with clean cutting. The cutover subtype is then the most common where the logger has reached the spruce type. Even the paper birch has often been cut in order that the spruce and balsam might be rolled down over it. As a result this subtype is usually completely stripped of its standing trees. What cannot be marketed is left to rot on the ground. Fortunately, however, tree growth quickly reéstablishes itself if fire is kept out. First, pin cherry and paper birch take possession of the ground and then spruce and balsam come up under their shade. If given time enough the two latter species distance the two first-named short-lived trees and the stand becomes nearly pure softwood. Furthermore, competition ~ between the spruce and balsam is commonly more favorable fo the former because of its greater persistence. The balsam is very subject to heart rot — Polyporus schweinitzit — and it is rare that a tree over 15 inches in diameter survives. The restocking of the burned subtype is not rapid since fire is peculiarly destructive in the spruce type. Usually the weather is too cool and moist to permit fires to start but in droughts the thick layer of humus becomes very inflammable. Especially is this the case where logging has opened up the stand and left débris. Some of the most destructive fires in the unusually lurid forest-fire history of the American continent have been in the spruce type. Such fires are combined top fires and ground fires. Everything is consumed and only the bare rocks are left. Examples of the results of such fires are furnished by the bald summits of Monadnock, Chocorua and Baldface in the White 4 NORTHERN SPRUCE TYPE Mountains and the recently cutover and burnt slopes of Mt. Mitchell in North Carolina. OPTIMUM GROWTH IN 100 YEARS Diameter Height Density | Yield per acre Inches Feet Trees Board feet SPTECEY oc U Suukee seas eS ie hee Io 70 415 7400 PIQISATIES Foo 5! Foc sac eee ee II pe PRE Neon ne eee BE aS PADCR DITOR 6 css 5s Niece sista pie Pee wk Oe Tee eed See 5500 This table shows the optimum diameter and height growth for the important species in this type on a rotation of 100 years. The density and yield per acre are also given. From these it is evident that the short growing season is not favorable to rapid diameter and height growth and that the stands per acre are only heavy by reason of the great density of the trees. There is a marked difference between the northern spruce and southern Appalachian spruce. The latter grows faster in diameter and height but the trees, do not stand so close together. Generally speaking the most profitable rotation for this type is at least 125 years. . Timber Valuation.— There are several: factors which make estimating in the spruce type comparatively easy. The tracts are usually large so that boundary difficulties are not serious. Furthermore, the stands are uniform, the species few and damage slight. On the other hand the tracts are usually inaccessible so that the cost of subsisting an estimating party is high. Supplies frequently have to be brought in on men’s backs because horses cannot be used off the roads. Even these are in many cases impracticable for hauling except when covered with snow. Another obstacle to cheap work is the roughness of the mountain slopes upon which the spruce grows and the density of the under- growth. As a consequence an average day’s work in this type is 24 strip acres —1 chain (66 feet) wide and 240 chains long. However, only a small percentage of the tract need be actually covered in this way. Only on very small tracts is more than a TIMBER VALUATION oe ro per cent estimate necessary. Ordinarily 5 to 10 per cent is ‘sufficient because the tracts are large — over 500 acres — and the subtypes uniform in composition and density. On account of the lack of roads and trails it is frequently diffi- cult to find a suitable place for a base line from which to run the estimating strips. Usually, however, roads or trails are better than survey lines because they are easier to travel. -When selected the base line should be surveyed and stakes set at equi- distant points, measured in a cardinal direction and not along the base line. In fact the distance along the trail used may be _ several times that in a cardinal direction on account of the twists the trail makes to avoid rough going. From the stakes on the base line the estimate strips should be run across the valleys, preferably in a cardinal direction. The object in running them across the valleys is to avoid an overestimate by getting an undue proportion of the better timber in the valley bottoms. By using a cardinal direction possible compass errors are avoided because it is much easier to keep the line straight when a cardinal direction is used than when the lines are run at an angle less than go degrees. This strip method of estimating is, of course, not the only way to determine the contents of a stand. It is, however, generally considered the best and its costs may fairly be considered stand- _ ard. Obviously an experienced local estimator does not need to traverse a tract as carefully as one unfamiliar with the local conditions. He relies on his judgment more because he has had an opportunity to check it by the results of local logging. But his fees are based on the cost of a strip survey. For spruce and balsam pulpwood is the use to which the smallest timber can be put so that the minimum merchantable limits for these species are determined by the sizes which the pulp mills will take. The present minimum standard is a stick four feet long and at least four inches in diameter at the top end. Since at least two such sticks must be obtained from a tree to pay for felling, trees less than six inches in diameter breast-high are considered unmerchantable. For sawtimber alone the limits are higher. At least six inches in the top and ro inches breast-high are the usual requirements. Suitable tables giving 6 NORTHERN SPRUCE TYPE the volume either in cubic feet or board feet will be found in Hawley and Hawes’ “Manual of Forestry,” John Wiley and Sons, Inc., New York City. Only tables based on diameter breast-high and total or used lengths should be employed because there is great variation in the height of both spruce and balsam according to the depth of the soil. For-the other important species in this type, paper birch, yel- low birch, beech and sugar maple, volume tables will also be found in the Manual of Forestry. With them total height is an unreliable factor and only usable length is a safe indication of their merchantability. This may be estimated in either 16 feet log lengths or in units of to feet according to the volume table and the way in which it is worked up. The cost of estimating spruce tracts is determined first of all by the percentage of the stand estimated. As explained above this need seldom be more than to per cent on account of the uniformity of the stands. The second factor, roughness of topog- raphy, cuts down the area possible for a crew to cover in a day. However, 24 strip acres is a reasonable average day’s work. Hence the work ought not to cost more than 15 cents an acre and can frequently be done for half that figure. This should include the preparation of a report showing the amount, quality and value of the timber, the way in which it can be logged and a contour map of the tract. Stumpage Prices.— Stumpage prices tend to approach the difference between the cost of logging and manufacture and the average sale value of the lumber. Fluctuations in these factors are not, however, reflected at once in the stumpage prices. They are inclined to drag behind the increases in lumber prices and be unaffected by declines. This is well brought out by the follow- ing figures from Compton’s “Organization of the Lumber Industry”: AVERAGE STUMPAGE VALUES FOR SPRUCE Per M BGO. es npera aed MAGNE As Carin aka eee $1.74 TOQO i cGs bathe ee eaeee ben rus Van eise selaseee ele eee 2.26 BOOM cs Pounce ke ae he Gas Ook cls Sa ae ee eee 3.70 STUMPAGE PRICES 7 Hence, for the calculation of future prices such figures can only be used as a check and guide. The costs of the different steps in logging and manufacturing must be known for each tract and the sum of these plus a margin of safety deducted from the aver- - age sale value. This requires a knowledge of the methods of lumbering and sawmilling and makes necessary their description in some detail. On account of the inaccessibility of the spruce stands logging jobs are almost invariably carried on by large camps located close to the place of cutting and only connected with the outside world by a slender thread, the rough tote road. Spruce stands are usually in mountainous regions where farms cannot be hewn out of the wilderness. Consequently their logging is no job for the farmer’s spare time. If he does it at all he must go back into the mountains, build a camp and stay with the job with single-hearted devotion. As a matter of fact the typical opera- tion is a large one in which the camps house 30 to 60 men and such a one will be described to give a notion of the methods employed. The first step.is the estimate of the watershed or valleys to be logged and the accumulation of sufficient topographic data to determine where the main roads must go, whether driving can be employed and the approximate cost of logging. This information should be secured by the estimators. The figures given above for the cost of estimating contemplate a report which should cover the following points: — Amount of timber by logging units. Quality of timber by logging units. Topographic data (preferably in the form of a contour map). Logging costs by principal watersheds. Method of sawmilling and estimate of cost. Estimated sale value of finished product. Such a report enables a lumber company to plan its own opera- tions intelligently or let contracts with exactness. The latter method is more common in Maine, New Hampshire, Vermont and New York because there are many jobbers who possess great 8 NORTHERN SPRUCE TYPE skill in this work. In fact they are generally able to log more cheaply than the lumber companies themselves because their supervision is closer, their overhead expenses are small, they make scant allowance for depreciation or interest on investment and are content. with small returns per thousand feet. In the southern spruce regions conditions are different. Seldom have the local inhabitants acquired the experience necessary to con- tract for themselves so that the lumber companies are forced to run their own camps. For simplicity’s sake a contract job in the Maine woods will be taken as the type and after it has been described local variations in other parts of the country pointed out. Assume then that Bill Jones contracted in 1914 to yard on the river bank of the nearest drivable stream two million feet of spruce and balsam. ‘Since the haul from the stump to the yard was only four miles he agreed to do it for $5 per M. He needed a crew of 60 men and started felling by October 1 in order to get the timber down and skidded before the deep snows came. For his labor he hired his neighbors as far as possible and then filled in with French Canadians who came south for the winter after the Canadian harvest had been garnered. A picked crew of choppers was first sent into the woods to build camps and clean out the roads. Then the main crew came in. It was divided up into choppers, teamsters for the skidding teams, tote teamsters, barn tenders, a cook and cookees, a blacksmith, a scaler, camp clerk. The first job was to fell the timber and bunch it up for hauling on two sleds. The methods employed varied with the steepness of the ground. On level and moderate slopes ordinary skidding practices were followed. A single horse or a pair bunched the logs on to skidways from which they could be rolled onto two ‘sleds. On steep ground the procedure was different. Two sleds could not be used to advantage. The only safe way was to drag the log out on a single bobsled with only one end of the logs up. Bare ground was preferable to snow because slower and hence safer. Furthermore, the spruce commonly stood so densely on such steep slopes that it was easy to make up a bob- sled load by merely rolling the logs onto the sled without any preliminary bunching. In fact in many places the timber was STUMPAGE PRICES ee - felled into the roads which were not more than too feet apart so that the horses did not need to get out of the road. For exam- ple, on the Henry operations in the White Mountains and the - Perley and Crockett job in North Carolina two sleds were not used at all. A single bobsled brought the logs off the mountain- side directly to the railroad. On less steep ground, however, the two-sled is the standard method of getting the logs from the skidways to the railroad, drivable streams or mill. This sledding can, of course, only be done after there is plenty of snow. Hence the usual practice in the North Woods is to complete the felling operations by Christmas if possible and then put in January and February hauling. This gets the logs out of the woods before the river opens in the spring and ready for the drive in March and April. The following figures were average costs, in 1915 : M ee SUT NN es oe as vaca emer estpeserisacs $1.50 MS eet al ica we cols dean es ca waee Meeeees 2.00 Hauling to railway or river, 2 miles. ..............-.-..-. 2.00 Drive or railway haul to mill, distance 10 miles........... I.00 $6.50 Felling costs are relatively high because the timber is small and usually found on rough ground. _ Skidding is shown as a separate cost altho as explained above it is frequently merged into the hauling as a single operation of “ yarding.” A charge for two- sledding to the railway or drivable stream is included to make the estimate conservative although sometimes it is possible to yard directly into the drivable stream or railway with a bobsled. Likewise, the distance taken for the railway haul or drive is rather longer than the average to avoid the possibility of having costs which are too low. __ Expressed in terms of man hours and horse hours per M these costs would be as follows: Man hours Horse hours Felligg and bucking. ................. 3 PR Se, Cat es 3 4 Semen, 2 WO ess os cn we 5 7 Driving or railway haul, 10 miles. ...... 4 fe) NORTHERN SPRUCE TYPE To attain these figures the felling crew must cut 6M per day if composed of two men and 9M if there are three men. In skidding this assumes that one team will bunch at least 5M board feet per day. The hauling costs are on the basis of a daily output of 3M board feet or five round trips hauling between 500 and 600 board feet each time. The driving and railway haul costs cannot be expressed conveniently in terms of a day’s work but the figures given are at least conservative. In all the operations except hauling by railroad the labor costs constitute 80 to 90 per cent of the entire charge. On account of the large amount invested in rolling stock the labor costs are but 40 per cent of the cost of operating a railroad. For pulpwood there is a well established market in the log form so that it need not be followed further than the mill. Prices ranged before the War from $7 to $10 per cord unpeeled. Peeling usually increased the price a dollar a cord. For converting board feet into cords a factor of 500 board feet is safe or in other words there will be found to be about two cords of pulpwood in a thou- sand feet of logs. Accessibility is the main factor in pulpwood values. New York State with a shorter freight haul for its paper pays better prices for pulpwood than New Hampshire or Maine. Spruce destined for sawtimber cannot be safely valued in the log but must be carried thru the sawmill. ‘Then its value becomes a simple matter because eastern spruce is well graded with Boston and New York as the principal wholesale markets. Milling charges added approximately $3 per M to the costs of logging so that exclusive of stumpage spruce lumber should not have cost above $10 per M to get ready for the market. The prices paid in October, 1916, at Boston for the principal grades of spruce were as follows: Per M Frames 8 inches and under. ..........eeeeeeeeeeeesee++ $28.00 WOMTIIONN 6 ooo a oes ic es hw len oe ap Ba OS ew aOR Rte 22.50 Covet DOAK ik ce es ee Es Pic ee coe lns cao cee 2 euler The average price, however, was seldom over $25 per M because it was unusual to get more than 40 per cent of frames. A dia- gram showing the recent changes in spruce lumber prices is given in Fig. 3. STUMPAGE PRICES II Yellow pine 10,845,000,000 bd. ft. Douglas fir 5,820,000,000 White pine 2,200,000,000 Oak 2,025,000,000 Hemlock 1,875,000,000 Western yellow pine I,710,000,000 [Spruce] £,125,000,000 Maple_ 815,000,000 Gum 765,000,000 Cypress 630,000,000 Redwood 443,000,000 Chestnut __ 400,000,000 Birch 370,000,000 Larch 355,000,000 Becch 290,000,000 Yellow poplar 290,000,000 Cedar 245,000,000 Tupelo 237,000,000 White fir 213,000,000 Basswood 200,000,000 Elm 195,000,000 Cottonwood 175,000,000 Ash ” 170,000,000 Sugar pine III,000,000 Hickory 100,000,000 Walnut 100,000,000 Balsam fir 82,000,000 Sycamore 30,000,000 Lodgepole pine 12,000,000 All other kinds 60,000,000 Grand total 31,890,000,000 Fic. 1 . LuMBER PRODUCTION, 1918 Computed by U. S. Forest Service. Bulletin 845. I2 NORTHERN SPRUCE TYPE As stated above the stumpage price of any tract should be the difference between the average sale value of its timber and all costs of logging, manufacture and selling. On small jobs such ee BS | = ee x SA 3 g Pats 5 | q = SNe $ 4 Eftews'? a 18) y H A, \ \ a le & ' * A ES ‘ L 7, 4 al hea a Dy \ eRe YS vee NK] I x . 7¥8 2 1 N LS » ae en : ek X ; CY 1 ry slo 98 r oa ey o \ ° St. ws Ks f= ° jean ° + |x 1 s|s vanity e see fynenbord to \ r Sy eA, bomine z~S F AA ie ei paleo” i kay a oN =
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Fic. 2. Distribution of the Northern Spruce Tpye
calculations are simple but where large initial investments are
necessary for railroads, roads, driving improvements, mill
machinery, etc., the problem is exceedingly complex because the
LAND VALUES — 13
exact influence of interest and depreciation must be determined.
The most complete discussion of this subject is to be found in
the U. S. Forest Service Stumpage Appraisal Manual. For our
purposes it is sufficient to state the principles involved. Actual
stumpage values for spruce and balsam range all the way from
$2 to $8 per M according to the accessibility of the tract in ques-
tion. Between 1900 and 1907 there was an increase from $2.26
to $5.49 per M, or a rise of 143 percent. The percentage of bal-
sam also influences the stumpage price of a tract. Fortunately,
however, this inferior species seldom makes up more than 25 per
cent of the total stand except in immature stands only large
enough for pulpwood. It is a relatively short-lived tree which
has to yield in the long run to spruce. Consequently there is
seldom enough to greatly depress the value of a tract.
Land Values.— Land values in this type are impossible to
determine from current sales because the timber is never sold
separately. -However, members of the New Hampshire Timber-
land Owners’ Association have agreed to the taxation of their
clean-cut lands at $2 per acre so that that figure may be used as
a minimum valuation. From the productive aspect it is easy
to show that spruce land is worth at least $3 an acre using a 3 per
cent interest rate and assuming that there will be a yield of 15M
feet in 100 years worth $150 an acre. Losses from insects, fungi,
etc., will be offset by possible intermediate yields from thinnings.
Very little of the soil in the spruce type has any value for
agriculture. Even as pasture in the Southern Appalachians it is
- not a success. The soil is so thin and the slopes so sharp that
grass takes hold very slowly and cannot prevent washing. Fur-
thermore, the climate is so rigorous that only the hardiest north-
erm crops can survive. However, arguments and illustrations of
this kind are superfluous. The facts prove the case. Scarcely
I per cent of the entire type, north or south, has ever been cleared
up for either tillage or pasture in spite of the keen demand for
agricultural land that there has been in the northeast and south-
east.
Titles.— Title questions are relatively simple because the tracts
involved have usually been handled in large units. There have
14 ‘ NORTHERN SPRUCE TYPE
commonly been grants of thousands of acres issued to one paten-
tee. Hence their history is easy to trace. Claims of title are,
however, sometimes obscure from the fact that the tracts of
‘$65 PER M
/
$25 PER M BOARD FEET
1910 1911 1912 1913 1914 1915 1916 1917 1918 1919 1920
Fic. 3. Wholesale Prices of Spruce Frames, 1910-1920, Boston, Mass.
mountain land upon which spruce grows have only recently had
a merchantable value and their early owners were lax in recording
transfers and alienations. Breaks in the chain of title are not
uncommon. either due to simple failure to record sales and
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;
a
:
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%
LAND VALUES 1s
bequests, thru the unperfecting of the claims of minor heirs, or
because of unliquidated liens. Squatters also form another
frequent source of annoyance. In many cases they have been
allowed to use unmolested parts of large tracts for such long
periods that they have acquired rights of possession.
CHAPTER II
NORTHERN HARDWOOD TYPE
General Conditions.— This is the type of timber which lies
immediately below the spruce type — the beech, birch and maple
belt. It is seldom abundant above 3000 feet above sea level but
is the important type in northern Maine, the lower slopes of the
White and Green Mountains, the Adirondacks and Catskills,
and is represented southward along the backbone of the southern
Appalachians by isolated islands of timber. In the Lake States
it is found in Michigan, Wisconsin and Minnesota.
The climate is characterized by a longer growing season than
that of the spruce type, less precipitation, more rapid runoff and
flyoff and hence less available moisture. Only two of these cli-
matic factors may be expressed absolutely. The growing season
is at least four months and the total annual precipitation exceeds
35 inches. The other factors have not yet been accurately
measured so that only comparative statements may be made.
Since the type occupies lower elevations than the spruce type
the slopes aré less precipitous, the surface less stony and the soil
deeper. The absolute range in elevation varies, of course, with
the latitude. In the northeast a range between 2000_and 3000
feet in elevation is the rule, while in North Carolina the northern
hardwoods do not occur below 3000 feet above sea level. On
south and west exposures the type does not extend so low but
reaches higher elevations on account of the longer growing season
as compared with northern and eastern exposures.
The greater depth of the soil as compared with that of the
spruce type has already been mentioned. This would naturally
follow from the fact that the hardwoods are further down the
slopes where the accumulation of talus is deeper. They flourish
particularly well on the southern slopes of the White and Green
Mountains, the Adirondacks and the Catskills where the glaciers
16
GENERAL CONDITIONS 17
have dumped piles of detritus scraped off from the northern slopes
of the mountains. The composition of the soil varies with the
geological history of the region. In the north it is of glacial
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origin, usually a loam with many boulders. South of the con-
tinental terminal moraine the soil is mainly derived from the
decomposition of the underlying rock. But whatever its origin
18 NORTHERN HARDWOOD TYPE
it tends to become a rich, dark loam by the disintegration of the
abundant leaf litter.
While beech, yellow birch and sugar maple are the character- .
istic species in this type there is always a generous admixture of
other species. On the lower edges of the type white pine, hem-
lock, black birch, basswood, red oak, and even occasionally white
oak are part of the mixture while at the upper margin spruce,
balsam and paper birch are the supplementary species. It is
seldom, indeed, that this type does not have a considerable per-
centage of softwood timber. In fact it is here that white pine
and spruce reach their best development. For example, while
the sand plains of northern Michigan produce the dense stands
of pure white pine the largest, tallest and cage individuals
grew amongst the hardwoods.
A variety of subtypes may be distinguished in this type. In
the first place there are the variations due to composition. These
are mainly the results of differences in elevation. For example,
a mixture of white pine and hardwoods is not common higher
than 2000 feet above sea level because white pine does not flourish
at a greater elevation. The distribution of spruce is governed
by the same factor, it being unable to compete successfully with
other species at elevations less than 2000 feet above sea level
except occasionally on.old fields. A few of the more usual com-
binations which it is useful to cemnpoat as subtypes on account
of their composition are:
Hardwoods and white pine.
Pure hardwoods.
Hardwoods and spruce.
These are arranged in order of their occurrence starting with the
lower limits of the type.
Besides the differences in composition due to elevation, lumber-
ing, clearing, and fire have also played an important role. Stands
may be virgin, culled, cutover, or burnt. Each has a different
composition. Culling has been the commonest form of lumbering
because in many places only the softwoods have been merchant-
able. This has naturally resulted in increasing the percentage
ie nye: ag:
TIMBER VALUATION 19°
of the hardwoods in a marked degree. The composition of the
cutover and burned subtypes except where the soil has been
entirely consumed tend to be identical. Commonly such intoler-
ant, light seeded species as popple, pin cherry and paper birch
take possession of the ground. Then when they have reached a
height of 10 or 15 feet the more tolerant hardwoods and spruce
and balsam work in underneath. Occasionally, however, dense
groups of hard maple crowd out the other species, especially
where the maples have been cut and regenerate from sprouts.
A not infrequent variation in the older parts of New England
is the old field spruce subtype. This is go per cent or more pure
spruce in composition and is always found on old pasture. The
grazing kept the hardwoods out while the seed bed conditions
were favorable for spruce.
Fortunately damage is relatively slight in this type. None
of the subtypes are as subject to burning as stands with a higher
percentage of softwoods. Wind seldom succeeds in overthrow-
ing the mixture of deep rooted species. Game, insects and fungi
never cause the death of trees over wide areas because the stands
are not made up of one species. In other words their food supply
is too scattered, for usually but one kind of tree is attacked.
The following table gives data on the growth of the principal
species of the hardwood type from the researches of the U. S.
Forest Service and the State Forester of Vermont:
OPTIMUM IN 100 YEARS
Species Diameter | Height | Density | vicid per acre
Cubic feet
— ee ee Fee ya rea os 12 80 300 10,000
reer pee 12 Ie Es cae eyes Cee te
ee as EES pn os Ree eh ie 23 89 60 13,000
ur neren oo 12 ge Bee ey alee
Vermont hardwoods........... 10 85 275 7,000
Pe
Timber Valuation.— Estimating within the hardwood type is a
complicated problem. While the tracts are usually located on
the lower slopes of the mountains, and hence the going is not
20 NORTHERN HARDWOOD TYPE
rough and roads not far distant, there are the following difficul-
ties to be overcome:
1. Small size of the tracts.
2. Great variation in composition of subtypes.
3. Large number of species with varying uses so that dif-
ferent diameter limits must be employed in estimating.
4. Low branching habit of hardwoods so that the usable
length is very variable.
It is unfair to generalize and say that all tracts in this type are
small, but certainly they average less in acreage than tracts in
the spruce type. The very good reason for this is that the hard-
woods occur on the lower slopes near the farmland and hence
were more desirable as woodlots in the early days. Then too
the prime use of a woodlot 50 years ago was for firewood, and
softwoods don’t make first class fuel. These two factors of
greater accessibility and higher-use value led to the early sub-
division of the hardwood type into lots of 50 acres or more.
Seldom is it possible to find a tract composed of units of more
than 100 acres to the lot. Large grants of 500 or 1000 acres
such as are the rule in the spruce type never occur. This factor
of area is merely one of the reasons why a relatively large per-
centage must be covered in the estimating strips because a low
percentage of a large tract will give as good an average as a
much greater proportion of a small tract.
Still another reason for running the strips close together is the
great variability in composition. There may be a small pocket
of white ash in one corner of the tract which will greatly inhance
its value but which would not be discovered unless an unusually
careful search were made. Other valuable species tend to occur
in small groups also so that nothing less than a to per cent esti-
mate is safe even for tracts of 500 acres or more. With smaller
blocks an even higher proportion is necessary. For example,
at least 50 per cent should be actually measured if a true estimate
of a 10 acre lot is to be secured.
The placing of the base line and the planning of the strip work
present no unusual difficulties but follow the principles outlined
TIMBER VALUATION Qt
in the ae of the spruce type. There are, however, a series
of special problems in the determination of the diameter limits
to be used in estimating. Each species has its own peculiar uses
and hence there is wide variation in the part of the tree which is
merchantable.
The principal’ uses of the species found in the hardwood type
are as follows:
White pine — doors, sash, finishing lumber, and boxboards.
Hemlock — dimension lumber, ‘Tough finish, pulp and box-
boards.
Spruce — dimension lumber and pulp.
Balsam — pulp.
Paper birch — shoe pegs, toothpicks, spools and bobbins.
Yellow birch — flooring, spools, bobbins and interior finish.
Black birch — flooring, spools, bobbins and interior finish.
Beech — flooring, spools, bobbins and interior finish.
Chestnut — rough finish, caskets, poles, railway ties.
Red oak — furniture, car stock, and railway ties.
White oak — furniture, car stock, and railway ties.
Hard maple — flooring, bobbins, spools, Jeet and shoe
lasts.
Soft maple — flooring ian bobbins.
Basswood — boxes, trunks, furniture backing and novelties.
White ash — handles and sporting goods.
The uses and diameter limits for spruce and balsam have
already been discussed. White pine and hemlock are also sal-
able for pulp so that the same minimum diameters hold altho
these species usually find a better market if sawn into boxboards
or square-edged lumber. If they are to be sold in the latter form
a minimum diameter of ten inches breast-high and a top diameter
of five inches. will include all the merchantable timber. Barring
certain special uses the hardwoods may be grouped into two
classes, "those manufactured into boards and those sold by cubic
measure. Into the first class fall the maple, birch and beech
which go into flooring and finishing lumber while the second class
includes paper birch to be used for toothpicks and shoe pegs,
22 : NORTHERN HARDWOOD TYPE
yellow and paper birch, beech and maple for manufacture into
spools, bobbins or dowels. Naturally this latter class can utilize
smaller sizes. The minimum estimating diameters for the dif-
ferent species found in this type are as follows:
MINIMUM DIAMETERS
LUMBER
Species Breast-high Top
Inches Inches
PAIGMOCN Fs Lh de Sea aae eke ek ears We 10 5
Wii Pine oie 5/02 i ayes SEA es RA ee 10 5
PEPUCE SS os si bss as cere ales began ee eee 10 aoe
PeaNaI 5 boas a Paine Paks TaN amicus calc eee $e) 5
On 2 3. Bem atee Ge: UL a pert aap Pai YEE any Sf ee Io 6
Wein Direh © oe cos saa bs hee es Ree eee 10 8
BAC Div oe ee oc ae a ee a ee 10 8
15 rch 5 Pea ee aU ea RR Abin ICE, ST a ies cee a rate Io 8
SOBER Shas iy alee a ate py Shs Pa es CAR TS ci 8 5
PROC Oa ie ere Ses roa as iaricyad, ates kore vate be) 8
WEHICG GAG oa oo cE esas ob aati Peete ee Io 8
Bard Maile. 6.0606 ae ee ek oe a Io 8
ROO COAG eee. be ceca e ae eae ks eee as 10 8
OUVER MANIC. |. os ov ee be SER Ce ae ees $e) 8
BASSWOOU. ..<5 85 oe Ee ee ee 10 8
AV IGE ASH ye es eee ogee en ae ae Io 6
Cordwood — all species... ..... 02.52... eck eke e ees 5 3
Obviously then the first step in planning the estimate of a tract
is to find out to what uses the various species can best be put.
This is in the main determined by the local industries. Hardwood
logs are so heavy that they cannot be hauled long distances. As
a consequence it often happens that a tract may have maple
admirably suited for flooring but the absence of a planing mill
makes it impossible to consider any other use than fuelwood.
Volume tables exist for all the important species in this type —
see Graves’ “Mensuration”’ and Hawley and Hawes’ “ Manual of
Forestry.”” While it may be permissible to use a table based on
total height for softwoods, merchantable length is the only safe
factor for hardwoods. There are two reasons for this. In the
first place there is great variation in the usable lengths of hard-
woods on account of the size of the branches. The straight main
trunk and small side branches of a conifer are entirely different.
With the latter it is entirely possible to get a reasonably close
TIMBER VALUATION 23
estimate with a table based on total height and using a general
average for the top diameter. But with hardwoods the top diam-
eter may vary 100 per cent or more depending upon size and
location of the side limbs. The second reason why usable length
is much safer is that hardwoods are more subject to fungus dis-
orders than softwoods especially where ground fires have been
frequent or the limbs have been broken off by the wind. This
means that a log length or two must be discarded in an otherwise
‘sound tree on account of rot. With a log length table this is
possible whereas a total height table does not have the same flex- —
ibility.
Summing up, then, the difficulties and favorable factors that
are encountered in estimating in this type, the accessibility and
easy slopes make for quick work while the small size of the tracts,
the varying composition, and the high percentage of defect
amongst the hardwoods increase costs. An average of 20 strip
acres per day for a crew of two men is good and the cost per acre
can seldom be kept below to cents. Fifteen cents may be neces-
sary if the tracts are small.
The general principles which determine stumpage prices have
been explained in the discussion of the spruce type so that it is
only necessary to enumerate the main facts with regard to prices
-in the hardwood type.
The best collection of average stumpage prices by regions and
states is that published by the Forest Service in Bulletin 285,
The Northern Hardwood Forest. The most important are repro-
duced here:
COMPARATIVE STUMPAGE PRICES FROM REPORTS OF SALES
IgI2
N. E. States Lake States S. E. States
ois a lek ven deena 5.61 4.85 3-33
aig aaa ci a 4.38 3.67 2.86
Pees os ax! Saks we pees whe eae ue hs
RIMMING. ooo dc wo oe exavt wes §-98 4 58 3-45
ela kai een tana eek .40 30 4-92
ee ee eel enw ee Cok 9.03 5.82 6.16
24 NORTHERN HARDWOOD TYPE
Altho compiled from records of actual sales kept by the Office of
Industrial Investigation they cannot be taken as average figures
for the regions referred to because they apply to only the most
accessible timber. Inaccessible timber would not be sold. Asa
whole, then, they are higher than can be expected on the average.
Furthermore there is considerable variation within the groups
of states cited. Among the northeastern timbered states New
York and Pennsylvania record the highest stumpage, as might
naturally be expected from their advanced industrial develop-
ment. However, Ohio and Indiana have still higher prices but
they are essentially agricultural states with very little true forest
soil. In the Great Lake region Michigan with its large manu-
facturing interests shows the highest stumpage prices. For the
same reason Maryland leads among the states of the southeast.
The following table shows for each of the important hardwood
species the maximum and minimum prices recorded in 1912 with
the state in which they occur.
MAXIMUM AND MINIMUM STUMPAGE PRICES
1912
Species Maximum price Minimum price
Per M Per M
PRRDIB Seog oak! Dos ee: $7.94 Indiana $2.70 Virginia
BPO se ce Wire o a eo See 6.14 New York 2.31 Tennessee
BIO RON aa re ig a ees 6.15 Ohio 1.83 W. Virginia
TUUBRWOOO Fes bac bees 4 11.59 Ohio . 3.30 N. Carolina
MUON ec Sele eoa en Can els aaes 9.43 Ohio 2.67 Virginia
PRM ehrciitte so 05 GING in 4 Mi 8 15.87 Ohio 3.85 W. Virginia
It is evident that maple commands the best price in the north
. central states where the nearness to market, small supply, and
high quality all combine to increase the stumpage price. Both
Ohio and Indiana are primarily agricultural and manufacturing
states so that what little timber is left would naturally be valuable
and in addition the finest quality of maple grows in deep, agri-
cultural soil such as occurs in these states. Of the northeastern
states New York reports the highest prices and Vermont the
lowest but there is only a range of $1.72 or 40 per cent. In the
TIMBER VALUATION 25
Lake States stumpage prices vary from $9.86 to $3.48 or a dif-
ference of $6.38 or 180 per cent. The southern Appalachian
states show a variation of $2.61 or 96 per cent with a minimum
of $2.70 in Virginia and a maximum of $5.31 in Maryland. These
prices are, however, of little value in arriving at a definite notion
of the average value of maple stumpage unless accompanied by
statistics showing the distribution of the standing timber. For
example, while the stumpage prices in Indiana are high there is
so little timber that the effect upon the general level is negligible.
Frothingham’s estimate of the total amount of stumpage shows
that the northeastern and Lake States contain 87 per cent of the
total stand. Asa matter of fact, the hardwood type is relatively
unimportant in other parts of the country.
Since these figures are of little value in determining the stump-
age price on any particular tract it is necessary to supplement
them by logging costs and average selling prices. Average costs
of logging were as follows in 1915:
Per M
oo ove Se ha ue owas be or cvanke bu beaient has $2.50
5 cea esis oa vk ieee ease erae ee DE 3-00
Hauling to mill, 3 miles sé cucu dgmacteak bates casein ns 4-00
So» os < dup fens Cewaes Kah cyan awn es eke tar en 4.00
13.50
These costs are naturally higher than for softwoods because
hardwoods are heavier, crooked and generally more difficult to
handle. Even at the sawmill they cost more on account of their
hardness. Their proper seasoning is also more difficult since
they require closer sticking and more protection from the weather.
The softwoods mixed in amongst the hardwoods can be handled
for $3.00 to $4.00 per M less. Expressed in man hours and horse
hours per M the costs would be as follows:
Man hours Horse hours
Fellihg and bucking.................. 6
sxMiding......... 5 6
Hauling to mill, 3 miles.............. Io 20
MN Gs ob bs Sa oe ee Fos Sense eS 10
26 NORTHERN HARDWOOD TYPE
This means that a felling crew of 2 men would have to fell and ~
buck 3M per day, the skidding crew handle as much, and the
hauling teams make three trips per day with at least 300 board
feet per load.
The logging and milling methods follow very closely those
employed in the spruce type. The large camp is the rule because
of the greater efficiency secured by having the men close to their
work. Skidding on the bare ground is the common practice
because the logs must be bunched up before being hauled out on
two-sleds. The slopes are seldom steep enough to make it worth
while to bobsled the logs directly to the railroad or mill. Hard-
wood logs cannot be successfully driven. The capacity of the
mill varies within wide limits. Many successful operations have
large mills with railroad transportation from the woods. This
insures the highest efficiency of manufacture because solid foun-
dations are needed if hardwood is to be sawn well. Butit does not
encourage close utilization in the woods. By reason of the cost
of transportation to the mill there is a strong tendency to only
haul out the high grade material. To prevent this loss of the
lower grades and save on the haul from the woods the experiment
has been tried of placing the mill in the woods. Then a higher
percentage of the felled tree reaches the mill but only the seasoned
product in a more or less finished state is hauled out. If the
produce is boards the saving on the haul is considerable since
even air seasoned hardwood lumber weighs about*half that of the
same amount of lumber in log form. An even greater saving
can be made where some form of finished product is manufactured.
Dowel, handle and bobbin mills, for example, located close to the
woods, utilize the tree fairly closely and have merely the finished
product to haul.
All the species make excellent firewood since they have a fuel
value per cord equivalent to about three-quarters of a ton of
coal. Cordwood cost from $1.50 to $2.50 to cut and pile in 1915,
or 7 to 10 man hours, and the hauling did not exceed 5c cents per
cord per mile.
Average selling prices are difficult to give because of the
variety of uses to which the different species are put. The figures
LAND VALUES 27
given below are simply general averages which were attained with
reasonable care. Higher prices were, of course, secured if special
products were manufactured.
AVERAGE SALE VALUES PER M
f.o.b. mill. 1914
White pine. ......... $18.00... Beets cis scaess $16.00
MINORS. cscs sas o's 57.00 - Chestiatt... isc. .555 19.00
6 va vh ae hake 38.00. Red oO cue scies 18.00
er ese r7.00 » Hard maple. .5 245 18.00
gS. Snare 17:00 | Soft maple... .<.... 17.00
Yellow birch... ...... 17.00 Basswood........ 18.00
EE MRCR . 0 cues 57.00: Witte asi .<2 27.3; 20.00
Cordwood sold for $3 for softwood and $4 to $6 for hardwood.
To determine what stumpage price may be realized the costs
of logging and manufacture must be deducted from these sale
values. For the softwoods there should be a margin of $6 to
$10 in the lumber with the chance of getting an extra dollar or
two per M from the cordwood. With all the hardwoods, except
ted oak, basswood and white ash, such high returns cannot be
expected, so that a margin of $4 to $7 for the lumber and an addi-
tional $x per M from the cordwood is very satisfactory. Oak,
basswood and ash have special uses which enhance their stumpage
_ values so that stumpage prices of $10 per M are paid in the terri-
tory tributary to the special establishments which need these
species.
Land Values.— Here again as with the spruce type the land
seldom has any value aside from what will be paid for the timber.
Most transactions have not specified any separate valuation for
the land but the transfers have simply been on the basis of stump-
age values. Hence in order to determine what the soil capacity
is for timber production sales of pasture land must be consulted.
Our Puritan forefathers in their hunger for land cleared up many
hillsides for pasture purposes out of the hardwood type. The
modern tendency is to allow such clearings to reforest themselves
and holdings of this kind which are neither pasture or timberland
may be purchased for from $3 to $15 an acre, depending upon
their location. But these figures cannot be taken as representa-
28 NORTHERN HARDWOOD TYPE
tive for the whole type because they only apply to the most
accessible lands.
On the basis of a 100-year rotation with compound interest at
3 per cent and assuming a final yield of 15M board feet per acre
hardwood lands show a value of $4 per acre. This yield is con-
servative because it does not include thinnings. These latter
should easily give a margin above possible losses from fire, insects,
fungi, etc. en
For agricultural purposes this type of soil has a higher value
than spruce land because it is deeper, has a higher percentage of
loam with less raw humus and the growing season is longer.
Reference has already been made to the use of these lands for
pasture prior to the Civil War. It is conceivable that a similar
demand may recur but it seems more probable that the steepness
of the slopes and number and size of the rocks will prevent profit-
able cultivation. Taken as a whole at least 90 per cent of the
type may safely be said to be better adapted to the growing of
timber than to either tillage or pasture. -
Titles.— The past history of land in the hardwood type makes
the searching of titles a difficult problem. The unit areas are
small, the surveys are poor and transfers are not recorded accu-
rately or completely. Such a condition of affairs is inevitable
with land which has been considered of little value for a long
period. The only saving factor is that these so-called “ back
pastures ” and “ sugar bushes ” have in many cases been regarded
as integral parts of the farm and transferred accordingly. It is,
however, always necessary to look up the probate and tax sale
records to make sure that there are no liens on the property which
do not appear in the County Recorder’s Office.
CHAPTER III
WHITE PINE TYPE
General Conditions.— This is the type from which the colon-
ists obtained the masts and shipbuilding timber to which Pepys
made such feeling reference in his diary —
“From New England ships come home safe to Falmouth
with masts for the King; which is a blessing mighty unex-
pected, and without which we must have failed the next
Here were trained the loggers who have made Maine so famous
by their exploits with axe and peevy and in this type they have
gone westward thru New York and Pennsylvania to the Lake
States as the virgin supplies were exhausted on the Atlantic coast.
_ Its exact boundaries are frequently difficult to delimit where the
type merges into the hardwood type but roughly it covers the
lower parts of Maine, New Hampshire, Vermont and Massachu-
setts and the more elevated portions of Connecticut. In New
_ York and the Lake States it is @ lowland type but only occurs in
the northern parts.
The growing season is distinctly longer than with the two types
previously considered. Ordinarily frosts do not occur between
May 1 and September 15 so that there is a vegetative period of
about fivemonths. Moreover, the temperatures are higher. For
the year the mean is 50° F. while during the summer the maxi-
mum is 100° F. with an average of 65° F. This means consider-
ably more transpiration and evaporation than with the spruce
and hardwood types.
Another factor which decreases the total available moisture is
the lessened precipitation. This is mainly the result of lower
altitude above sea level. The hardwood and spruce types cover
the mountains and hills which intercept the moisture-laden
winds from the west. Consequently instead of being over 45
29
30 WHITE PINE TYPE
inches as with the other two types it seldom exceeds that figure
as a maximum. In fact, the pineries of the Lake States have an
average annual precipitation of 30 inches.
There is, however, one factor which tends to conserve the pre-
cipitation. That is the comparatively level topography which
retards rapid runoff. Generally speaking the pine type is con-
fined to the overwash plains formed by the streams which drained
from the retreating ice sheets in the Glacial Age. These are
gently sloping sand or gravel beds from which the runoff is slow.
But the openness of the oil tends to counteract in part, at least,
the lack of slope.
As a consequence the available moisture is so deficient that the
predominating species, white pine, red pine, jack pine and pitch
pine, are all adapted to sites not abundantly supplied with
moisture. Species which cannot endure dry sites are restricted
to those within the type which by reason of drainage or soil con-
ditions have more available moisture. Hence, hemlock and
hardwoods are only found in this type in deep-soiled, well-watered
valleys. Moreover, but few of the deciduous leafed trees charac-
teristic of the hardwood type just described occur in this type.
The important ones are white oak, chestnut, cherry or black
birch, gray birch and black cherry. Paper and yellow birch,
beech and red and white ash occur sparingly on the cooler sites
included within the type.
Since the pine type is most abundant on lands which were
early sought for agricultural purposes, fire and clearing have had
profound effects upon the composition of the type. In addition -
lumbering has played an important role in modifying the original
forest conditions. As a consequence there are very few stands
left which are representative of the type as the early settlers
found it. These virgin stands were either pure pine or pine
mixed with hemlock and tolerant hardwoods like sweet birch
and beech. The usual course of history after the removal of the
virgin stands was more or less repeated burnings. Fire was
used intentionally to clean up the land for cultivation or allowed
to run unchecked in the logging slash. As a consequence the
poorer sandy lands are now covered with a scrubby growth of
GENERAL CONDITIONS 3I
pitch pine and scrub oak in New England and jack pine in the
Lake States. All three of these species are capable of standing
repeated burnings. Pitch pine and jack pine have thick bark
which does not burn readily and their cones are also almost fire-
proof. The scrub oak holds its own thru its ability to sprout
after being injured. Fire is, in fact, responsible in most cases for
the failure of white pine to replace itself. In places where fire is
kept out the pine comes in either in pure stands or in mixture
with hardwoods. For example, old pastures within the type are
quickly covered with pine “ bushes ” while the hardwoods are
kept in check by grazing if the pasture is still used. This results
in practically pure stands of pine. If, on the other hand, the
hardwoods are not held in check by grazing they frequently
occupy the old fields to the apparent exclusion of pine. This
is particularly true with such light seeded, vigorous species as
gray birch and aspen. But the pine slowly but surely works its
way in under the thinner crowned hardwoods and eventually
replaces them because it is longer lived so that the final result is
a nearly pure stand of pine again. In fact white and red pine are
so well adapted to the climatic and soil conditions in this type
that they can be relied upon to take possession of the ground if
they are given even half a chance.
~The commonest subtypes in this type and their composition
by number are as follows:
Pure white pine — over go per cent white pine.
White pine and hemlock — 50 per cent white pine and 50
per cent hemlock and hardwoods.
White pine and gray birch — 60 per cent white pine, 40 per
cent gray birch.
White pine and oak — 40 per cent white pine, 60 per cent
red, white, and black oak.
White pine and pitch pine — 50 per cent white pine and 50
per cent pitch pine.
Besides these subtypes based on composition there are also, of
course, subtypes due to various degrees of logging, as, for example,
virgin, culled, and cutover stands.
32 WHITE PINE TYPE
Both the fire hazard and liability are high in this type so that
damage from this cause is frequent and severe. Locomotive
engines and smokers riding on the railroads, in automobiles,
behind horses, or walking for business, pleasure or to hunt are
the commonest offenders. Two-thirds of the forest fires are due
to these two causes alone. For the other third, fires started to
clear land, stationary engines and incendiaries are responsible.
The important point to recognize with reference to the fire
hazard in this type is that it is so situated that it is brought into
direct contact with nearly all the human activities of the states
in which it is found. It occupies the low lying land near the
seacoast where the railroads form networks of interlacing tracks.
Farms surround it and cut it up. As a consequence it has had
to suffer from every kind of fire carelessness of which man is
capable. :
But worst of all is the amount of damage which fire can do.
The young stands are completely wiped out because the inflam-
mable tops furnish fuel for even a gentle ground fire. Older
stands suffer as badly if there is a wind because the fire leaps
from the ground and becomes a crown fire. In both cases the
thin bark is usually scorched so that the tree dies. ‘Taking every-
thing into consideration white pine stands are as poor a fire risk
as any of our timber wealth. After a fire they must be imme-
diately cut. If allowed to stand the sapwood quickly decays and
the loss is often as high as 50 per cent within three years.
In addition to fire white pine stands have recently been
threatened with another devastating agency. This is the white
pine blister rust, an imported European disease with two hosts,
the five needle pines and currants or gooseberries. Unless
prompt measures are taken for its suppression it threatens all
our five needle pines and there is a chain of them across the con-
tinent including such important commercial species as the
eastern white pine, the Idaho white pine or silver pine, and the
sugar pine of California. It is most serious with small trees.
Fortunately the disease can be controlled by the eradication of
currant and gooseberry bushes, both wild and cultivated.
Prompt action on the part of New Hampshire, Vermont, Massa-
GENERAL CONDITIONS 33
chusetts, Rhode Island and Connecticut will effectually check
the disease. As compared with the capital invested in white
pine timber and woodworking plants the value of all the culti-
vated currants is practically negligible. Red pine and pitch pine
are subject to a similar native blister rust which has as its alter-
nate host sweet fern, but fortunately this disease is not so virulent
as the imported white pine blister rust.
Another fungus which occasionally kills white pine is the
bracket fungus, Trametes pini, or red rot. This is a heart rot
which enters thru a dead limb and destroys the tree by eating
away the heartwood. Sapwood it cannot attack. But the decay
of the heartwood leaves the tree without a backbone, so to speak,
and the wind tumbles it over. The wood of such a tree is, of
course, useless since there is but a shell of sound sapwood around
the rotted heartwood. It is, however, usually possible to get one
or more sound logs from an infected tree because the fungus com-
monly enters near the ground and works within a limited area.
To prevent the spread of this parasite all infested trees should be
removed as quickly as possible.
Another imported pest is the gypsy moth. While the larve
cannot feed on conifers for the first week after hatching they can
and will defoliate white pine;red pine and hemlock if they get
- started on hardwood. Consequently stands of gray birch and
white or red pine offer ideal conditions for-its development. All
the egg clusters laid on the gray birch have the proper kind of
food to give them a good start so that after the first week the
larve are able to digest coniferous foliage. In the individual
woodlot there are two methods of control. ‘ By all odds the best
way is to cut out the hardwoods because they can usually be
made to yield some returns as cordwood at least. Painting the
egg clusters in the winter with creosote is effective if thoroly done
but the expense is usually prohibitive in large lots. It is difficult
and time consuming to climb thru a large oak for example. Such
methods, while justified for shade trees, are usually not feasible
for woodlots.
White pine is attacked by two forms of plant lice — Chermes —
which occasionally become abundant enough to disfigure or even
34 WHITE PINE TYPE
destroy it. In the woodlot the best control measure is to cut and
burn the infested trees.
Another insect which disfigures the white pine is the white
pine weevil. It kills the terminal shoot by girdling it. The eggs
of this beetle are laid in the upper part of the terminal shoot
during the latter part of the summer and the larve burrow around
underneath the bark the following summer. The large number
of deformed trees in nearly every second growth stand of white
pine shows that the insect is no new pest but has been attacking
white pine for at least a century. Nevertheless, it could be
greatly diminished, if not eradicated, by a determined and con-
certed effort. If the infested shoots are cut and burned before
the first of August the weevils are destroyed before the adult
form emerges.
The principal insect and fungus enemies of the commercial
tree species in this type are listed below:
White pine — gypsy moth, Chermes, weevil, blister rust, and
red rot.
Red pine — blister rust.
Hemlock — no serious enemies.
Butternut — no serious enemies.
Shagbark hickory — no serious enemies.
Black birch — gypsy moth, heart rot (Fomes igniarius ‘and
fomentarius).
Grey birch — gypsy moth, heart rot (Fomes igniarius and
fomentarius).
Beech — gypsy moth, heart rot (Fomes igniarius and
fomentarius).
Red and white oak — gypsy moth, browntail moth, heart
rot (Fomes igniarius, squamosus, and sulphureus).
Elm — gypsy moth, elm leaf beetle, heart rot (Polyporus
squamosus).
More complete data probably exists for the growth in this type
than for any other in the United States. On account of their
high value white pine stands have been very thoroughly studied
in New Hampshire, Vermont, Massachusetts, and Michigan.
The best information on the diameter and height growth and
yield of the species in this type is summarized below:
ee ;
oD
Seeeere oe ee eee 0009 ee eenee eeeeeee coos OO0o0Oor eee eeee ee eeeee ooof tr peeeeeeere ner gemak oor
see eeee fee wees ooo$ tee eeee see ewee ool zg tote wee tee enee oosStrr (i eeesencees squeak SZ
eee eee eee eene ooor 2 he ded eee eee ooor ost see eee seen eee o00$g ereeseseceargrpg kl of
eee eee ee eeee o00z eee ene oeeeeee 0002 oore seen ewe ee eeeee oos¢ ee la ees 0 ee Perak Ce
"aioe Jod yoo Orqno Url Platz
2 19 a bl . bg $6 68 Sg bg IOr err feet cca ee ses a peek OOF
fo) of 2 09 89 sg Sg og 89 16 g6 See cee Ree oe
= gf I Sb o$ zl SZ SZ 6b 16 SZ ete te See eek OF
5 61 Sz le of ob gb 09 ve 89 s¢ pacer ey Sees SE
8 9093 Ur 4USt9y [BIOL |
f _9'6 g° 11 S'er gli o'9I fez o' be o'91 abe 2 Seay RE EE sereses sgte9k OOF
ol vg o'r bfx €: Sr o'gr -| o'ee O' eI oie Olas ees oe Cree aia eae
2% oc) vr 6+ g's 8'8 Ler Ler “Lt gil 9‘O1 gor viet tad terres sgrpak of
: oe 6'1 ge bean 4 zs 9°9 for gic 6°38 2s BA ee ‘tress srpok Se
; "YSty-ysvosq ‘soyout Ut soJ0UrKICT ;
odvur poom XO yse os ould ourd *
wed | pr | wom, | ‘a | poe | MV | cam | Pom | poe | oanm
as SNOILIGNOO ‘IVWYON YAGCNNA dTaIA GNV HLMOUD ae
is
36 WHITE PINE TYPE
In diameter and height growth and hence volume accretion,
since diameter and height are to two functions of volume, white
pine, red pine, white ash, aspen, and red oak are in a class by
themselves. All of them will attain a diameter of 18 inches and
a total height of over 85 feet in 100 years. Basswood almost
reaches this size but falls a little short. Of the hardwoods,
beech, birch, and maple, the first is the slowest growing. The
other two grow from 25 to 50 per cent faster. Hemlock is usually
the slowest growing of all. In yield white pine leads because it
is at the same time a fairly rapid grower and will stand much side
shading. This is the reason why pure stands of red pine and
white ash do not yield more heavily. They are intolerant of
shading. Aspen has this same fault and consequently does not
produce so much wood per acre in 100 years as do stands of beech,’
birch, and maple.
Timber Valuation.— In the estimating of white pine lots there
are only two factors which tend to reduce the cost. First of all
the lots are usually accessible. Suitable living accommodations
can often be secured within a few minutes’ walk of the work.
Secondly, the stands are generally quite uniform in composition
and density since they are commonly pure, even aged stands.
However, these two favorable factors are offset by the high value
of the timber and the small size of the tracts. As a consequence
a large percentage has to be estimated. Seldom is it safe to take
less than 20 per cent and with small lots all the merchantable
timber should be measured. In fact estimating as a skilled trade”
has reached its highest development in the white pine region. A
cruiser brought up in the Lake States, for example, has been so
thoroly grounded in the need for careful work that he can succeed
almost anywhere.
Diameter limits will be the same as in the other types dis-
- cussed. For breast-height eight inches is the smallest merchant-
able lumber tree in softwoods and ten inches in hardwoods. The
top diameters usually taken are four inches for softwood lumber
and eight inches for hardwood lumber. Cordwood can be cut
from trees four inches in diameter breast-high and run out to
two inches in the top end.
TIMBER VALUATION 37
The strip method of estimating costs not less than 15 cents an -
acre where the amount and quality of the timber and its value
are reported upon and a topographic map is also constructed.
This should give a 30 per cent estimate with an average run of
three miles of strip per working day.
Since white pine was one of the first species to become commer-
cially important unusually good figures are available as to the
course of stumpage prices. Two such tables are given, the first
taken from Compton’s “ Organization of the Lumber Industry ”
and the second from the report of the National Conservation
Commission.
Sales of northern the State of Minnesota White pine st prices i
: Cer sage lamenghs fcoelpane and spruce) lickin ree
Per M Per M Per M Per M
ee $1.47 1905 | $7.18 | 1866 $1.00 1890 | $5.50
MR Se cas a3 x x73 IgIo 8.00 | 1870 2.25 1895 5.25
SS es ss 2-25 IQII 8.00 | 1875 2.50 1900 | 10.00
ee ee 2.18 1912 8.00 | 1880 3.00 1915 | 15.00
MOGNs 6 6 ac. 5.17 1913 8.00 | 1885 5.00
Both of these show a fairly regular advance in price. In fact
_ white pine is one of the few important American species in which
the stumpage price has equalled the cost of growing the timber.
White pine can be grown on rotations of 50 to 75 years for a cost
of $10 a M and in both cases cited above that figure has been
reached. It must, however, be remembered that the stumpage
prices given above are for old growth timber which has taken at
least 150 years to reach its present size. Nevertheless, the state-
_ ment is valid that white pine may be profitably grown. A price
of $10 per M has been realized for second growth pine in several
places in New England, New York, and the Lake States. To
show the regional variation in stumpage prices the Forest Service
figures collected in 1912 may be cited:
Per M
URMUOMERED BURTON Sos aie clive giiend cdiaseeaue kes 8.44
MM MNOG SS Bye ee ee oa Se be ob dele een 10.39
38 WHITE PINE TYPE
Mill run values have also increased but not in the same ratio as
stumpage prices. For example during the period from 1900 to
1907 stumpage prices rose 121 per cent while lumber prices only
advanced 53 per cent or from $12.66 to $19.41. At present
(1920) the following prices are being paid by retailers in the large
markets: :
Per M
TRIB hk soak Gato os pata e wate his Sen peered $200.00
BOra HOAIAG 0s hee cups obey sane he eae be ENG 45.00
Boxboards;-round edbe: 353 Cee Soe, | ee areata, 35.00
Logging methods vary with the region. In the New England
States and to some extent in New York and Pennsylvania white
pine is now confined to woodlots. ‘These the owners log in the
winter time using their farm teams. This is the particular region
of the portable sawmill. The tracts are small but accessible so
that the mill can be readily hauled into the timber and labor can
be picked up from the nearby farms. Winter time is preferred
both because it is easier to find men then and because of the
easier hauling on the snow. The average costs of such an opera-
tion were as follows in 1914: .
Per M
Felling and bucking. 525s Gi <5 Vaden vin vc we Fhee ee ie me $1.50
Hauling logs to mil. ld bcwk os oS Uae e Colne 2.00
TEN csc ea oe a trae eeu onll ier te ies ayo 2.50
SCR ge ee Oa LS Fb bs eee oo a ee es I.00
$7.00
75 to go per cent of the output goes into boxboards so that the
average price of the lumber at the mill ranged from $14 to $20
depending upon the distance from a box factory. Hence the
stumpage price ranged from $6 to $10 per M. To this could
often be added $1 to $2 from the sale of cordwood cut from the
tops. ;
In the Lake States and other places where larger bodies of pine
are involved the methods are different. ‘The men must be pro-
vided for in large camps back long distances from the railroad.
Large mills are the rule and this entails either a long haul or a
long drive or both. This is the region where the iced road care-
fully graded and maintained has been most highly developed.
re ye St ey: TOT Oe NT eT eRe hal Fe Ne MEN oe pe Een y EME Tg Ee Ea oa aa pid Asal
sgt ip Be eee ti 5 1 ee "
hake ts 3 ; t
TIMBER VALUATION 39
By it the cost of transporting the logs from the woods to the mill
or drivable streams has been reduced to the minimum because
the size of the load can be increased 10 to 20 times. Average
costs for a Lake State operation were as follows in 1914:
“Per M
eer aakael WKN os 6 ce ats ve V5 Coes be ene aace oes $1.00
MN os Ch end cca ee be cs Ree eee eae 2.00
Dune So Otivele SHOR. 8 en cccneh cous ot saeemes 2.00
SE ee PILOT ETE EE Pome CoE Eo Eee ee I.00
’ NE as ay cape ce wussme urns Cl be kus eke an ene wanes 3.00
$9.00
The only step which is cheaper than in the woodlot region is the
felling and bucking. The large size of the timber is the factor
which decreases the cost. The transport of the logs to the mill
is more expensive because the distance is greater and the work is
done in two steps instead of merely one as in woodlot work.
Instead of using a skoot to haul the logs the Lake State practice
is to skid the logs into piles and then put them onto two sleds.
Where a railroad and steam skidders are employed costs can be
reduced if the size of the operation justifies the original outlay
for equipment. Sawing charges are likewise higher for the large
mill than for the portable butthe former turns out higher grade
~ material so that its use is justified where the timber is of medium
to large size. In fact the returns in the Lake States are usually
larger because a greater amount of higher grade timber is obtained.
As against an average mill run price of $18 per M for the portable
mill the large mill obtained in 1914 $25 per M for its output.
Hence, stumpage prices are higher in the Lake States. In fact
there is very little virgin white pine no matter how inaccessible
that can be purchased nowadays for less than $10 per M.
The amount of work turned out per day also varies in the two
regions. In the woodlot area a crew of two men should fell and .
buck 5M board feet on the average while a day’s work with the
larger pine is 8M feet. Expressed in terms of man hours it
takes 34 hours per M in the small pine of the woodlot region and
_ only 2} hours in the stands of old growth timber. Getting the
logs to the mill is naturally much cheaper in the woodlot region. —
40 WHITE PINE TYPE
There it costs three man hours and three team hours per M (4
mile haul) where a small mill is employed. Milling is likewise
less expensive, 3} man hours per M in the portable mill and four
in the large one exclusive of planing, dry kilning, etc.
For hemlock stumpage prices there are the data made avail-
able in Frothingham’s bulletin on the eastern hemlock (Bulletin
152, U.S. Forest Service). They may be summarized as follows:
AVERAGE STUMPAGE VALUES PER M FOOT
Northeastern States Lake States Southern States
(Estimated) (Estimated) (Estimated)
ee seam ae $1.50 $1.00 $1.00
jbo 0) 2 eae es Pema e 2.75 2.25 2.00
LOOT oe wie hw clviesy 5.92 3.83 2.84
2 8 OAPI EU ae csepe ea 6.28 3.78 3.05
By comparison with the figures for white pine it will be seen that
hemlock is from 68 to 28 per cent less than white pine but has
increased during the period from 1889 and 1912 between 200 and
300 per cent which is essentially the same rate at which white
pine stumpage prices have advanced. In other words while
hemlock has fewer uses than white pine, and hence a lower value,
its stumpage has kept pace with that of pine but on a lower level.
The logging and manufacture of hemlock differs little in method
from that of white pine. It is, however, a heavier and harder
wood and does not float so readily. Hence the cost of getting
it out of the woods and thru the mill is at least 15 per cent greater.
Unfortunately too its sale value as lumber is low because of the
rather limited uses to which it can be put. It is generally only
used for boxes, framing, and inside finish if carefully selected. Its
main competitors are southern yellow pine and Douglas fir, both
of which are more durable, and spruce which is easier to work.
Consequently its sale value has always been low. At present
(1920) the following prices were being paid in the Boston whole-
sale market:
Per M
Hemlock frames, 8 inches and under (estimated)......... $45.00
Hemlock boards planed and clipped. ................... 40.00
Fiomilgek: hoards 2.35 os eg sisasasicd ws owe ocr ea eee 30.00
TIMBER VALUATION 41
Mill run prices would be the weighted average of these figures less
the freight haul and handling from the mill to the market. Sel-
dom will they exceed $40 per M.
One factor that increases the possible returns from hemlock
lumber is the use of the bark for tanning purposes. This brought
from $7 to $11 per ton at the tannery. Yields vary from 2.8 to
0.4 tons per M feet of lumber with an average of $ ton. Peeling,
drying and hauling cost from $4 to $6 per ton.
An additional way in which higher returns per acre may be
obtained from hemlock stands is the sale of the tops for pulp.
_ Limbs as small as four inches inside the bark at the top end may
be sold for this purpose at from $5 to $15 per cord, unpeeled,
where there is a market for it. Cordwood cost from $3 to $6
delivered at the mill and about 4 cord may be obtained from the
limbs and tops per M feet of sawlogs.
_ Summing up the factors which influence the possible returns
from hemlock timber, the logging and milling cost from $8 to
$10 per M; and the lumber was worth about $16 per M at the
mill, leaving a margin of $6 to $8 for stumpage and profit. To
this it was possible to add under favorable market conditions
_. $1.50 to $2.50 per M from the sale of bark and $1 per M from
pulp-wood. Therefore, the total=returns per M should be from
$6 to $11.50. ;
While important locally aspen forms such a small percentage
of the total amount of wood used in the United States that sepa-
rate census stumpage figures have never been given for it. At
the present time it sells on the stump for $1 to $5 per cord accord-
ing to the proximity of plants which use it. Wood pulp for paper
and excelsior are the two principal ways in which it is manu-
factured and for both uses it commands a price of $7 to $9 a cord,
peeled. In both industries peeled four-foot bolts are the form in
which aspen is usually sold. The minimum top diameter inside
the bark is four inches so that it does not pay to cut trees which are
less than eight inches in diameter, breast-high. Logging is started
about the first of May and must be completed before July 1 to
take advantage of the spring peeling season. Two men can fell
and peel about 50 trees or 12 cords per day. Sawing into four-
42 WHITE PINE TYPE
foot lengths and piling takes about twice as long per cord so that
the average day’s work is six cords for two men. Hence the
total cost of the logging was about $1 per cord in 1914 under
favorable circumstances but contracts could seldom be let for
less than $1.25 per cord and often ran up nearly to $2. The
hauling cost varies with the number of turns per day but rarely
exceeded 50 cents per mile per cord. The proper stumpage price
for any tract may be closely approximated from these costs by
deducting them from the sale value. Aspen is sometimes used
for lumber where durability is not a factor but it is a soft, weak
wood which is difficult to. season and did not sell for more than
$25 per M retail. As fuel it is excellent where a quick, hot fire
is desired but did not sell for more than $4 a cord in four-foot
lengths, because there are so many better fuel woods in the
northeast. These figures would have to be doubled to bring
them to a 1920 status.
The stumpage price of butternut is determined by the value of
black walnut for which it is a cheaper substitute. The latter has
long held the position of our most valuable tree species, the
average stumpage price according to the 1900 Census being $5.
Butternut would not bring more than half that price. Both
species find their highest use in the furniture trade where mill
run butternut commanded a value of $35 per M f.o.b. the wood-
working establishment in 1914. Its logging is comparatively
expensive because it does not occur in pure stands but scattered
here and there on deep soiled fertile spots. Hence the actual
cost of getting the logs from the stump to the mill and turning out
boards was seldom less than $10 per M. Subtracting this
amount plus a margin of $5 per M for freight and miscellaneous
charges from the average sale value left a maximum stumpage
price of $20 per M.
Hickory is another species which is very valuable to a certain.
class of woodworkers but which is often left to rot in the woods
because of the difficulty of getting it to the user in the form which
he demands. Hickory commanded an average stumpage price
of $6.69 per M in 1900 in spite of the fact that it is the best handle
and spoke material in the world. For the selected boards which
TIMBER VALUATION 43
they use the manufacturers paid $50 per M but these had to be
at least eight inches wide and free from red heartwood. The
weight, hardness and high percentage of defect are responsible for
‘decreasing the stumpage price of this valuable wood. All three
factors mean a high cost of logging which is still further increased
‘by the scattered way in which hickory occurs. Consequently it
was seldom possible to log and mill hickory for less than $12 per
M and even then not more than 50 per cent of what would ordi-
narily be considered merchantable was put into lumber. Hence
the largest stumpage price that can be expected for even acces-
_ sible timber is $10 per M and the average is under $s.
Some willow and alder occur in this type along the stream
courses. Barring the use of the former for willow rods, which is
more of an agricultural than forest use, the highest returns can
be secured by converting the wood into charcoal for black pow-
der. The wholesale price for charcoal was 50 cents per bushel
(1916) and one cord of four-foot wood made 20 bushels of char-
coal, the cost of which, including burning, was usually figured at
50 cents per cord. Hence there may be, under favorable circum-
stances, a margin $f over $9 per cord in handling willow and alder
charcoal. But, unfortunately, the demand is so localized that
there are only a few places where charcoal can be sold. These
species are, therefore, seldom reckoned as an asset. .
Beech has already been discussed in the hardwood type. Like-
wise there are only two species of birch which need further elabo-
ration, the gray birch and the black or cherry birch. The former
- is a small species which is utilized locally. Close to spool or
bobbin mills, or a good market for cordwood, it can be sold for
$1 to $2 a cord on the stump while four-foot wood at least three
inches at the top end inside the bark brought $3 to $5 per cord
delivered in 1915. The cost of cutting and stacking was seldom
greater than $1.50 if the tops were not piled. Hauling varied with
the distance; on a good road a pair of horses should haul a cord
without difficulty. Summing up, gray birch is only an asset in
the most accessible localities and does not bring more than $3 a
cord stumpage even there. It is, however, often a detriment to
a tract of white pine because its rapid growth enables it to over-
44 WHITE PINE TYPE
top the pine and whip off the buds and leaves of the upper
branches when there is much wind stirring. Furthermore, a
mixed stand of gray birch and pine furnishes ideal conditions for
the spread of gypsy moths. Hence it is generally worth while
to cut it out of immature pine stands even if the cost of removal
exceeds its value as cordwood.
Black birch is an entirely different species. It reaches large
size, so that its wood can be used for all purposes to which yellow
birch is put, but it also has a special value of its own for furni-
ture. The dark heartwood is most highly esteemed for this pur-
pose and commanded a price of $50 per M at the woodworking
establishments in 1914. Its stumpage value is also high, $5, as
the Forest Service figures for 1907 show. This is true in spite of
the high cost of logging due to the impossibility of finding this
species in pure stands.
Yellow birch has already been fully discussed under the hard-
wood type.
Oak is the only native hardwood which cuts an appreciable
figure in the total lumber cut of the United States. It ranks, in
fact, third, but even then only makes up 8 per cent of the total.
Nevertheless, it is an important group of species for which the
stumpage price ranged in 1900 from $1 to $6 with an average of
$3 for the United States as a whole. Its main uses are for furni-
ture and cooperage altho it meets a multitude of other demands
where strength, beauty and durability are factors. Thirty-eight
per cent of all the lumber used in the United States for furniture
and fixtures is oak while it furnishes 80 per cent of all the tight
barrel staves and a high percentage of the slack staves. Still
another important use is for cross ties, 44 per cent of the country’s
annual output being from this genus alone.
High grade furniture oak, especially that which is to be quar-
tered, has the most stringent specifications. The logs must be
of large size, at least 10 inches in diameter inside the bark at the
top end, and free from all defects. Plain oak furniture stock is
only slightly less perfect. For tight cooperage staves perfect logs
must be employed but on account of the short lengths used the
- utilization can be somewhat closer than for furniture lumber.
TIMBER VALUATION 45
~ Slack staves need not, of course, be made from such valuable trees
but still very few defects are allowable. Into railroad ties may
be thrown any sound oak which will give a seven-inch face, eight
feet long, and be at least six inches thick. This is the standard
for a No. 3 railroad tie. No. 1 ties must have a nine-inch face
and be seven inches thick and sold for about 75 cents each or
about $20 per M in 1915. They are usually worth too per cent
more than No. 3 ties so that it pays better to put anything but
No. 1 and No. 2 tie material into cordwood where oak firewood
brings $8 or more per cord.
Oak seldom occurs in pure stands in this type so its logging
and manufacture are comparatively expensive from all points of
view, hardness, weight, and scattered location of the trees.
Average costs were as follows in «914:
Per M
ames mined Wachee: 5 5 5 56s Sh sais Sea hake es ae es $1.50
NE Cale vw cee deae ku teks pReues ANE ROER EE: 2.00
MOA a oink CRG caee ps acca bows na kpc veoenas canes Gee 2.00
ME Ain do 3 v5 coxa vet ocd epars causa dene dere eecmiuae iss 3.00
MINION, (0-85 5 os wb 0d qe en-cl kus chb akan bead PeCUs wee eu 1.00
$9.50
The manufacture of quartered-oak cost even more because of the
- many logs which must be rejected and the extra care needed in
sawing. Tie making cost ro to 15 cents per tie, or $4 to $6 per
M, to which must be added the cost of hauling the ties to the rail-
road. Cordwood cutting could be contracted for $1.50 to $2
per cord or $3 to $4 per M while delivery usually cost about $2
per cord more. Summing up, a tract of oak lumber may bring
a stumpage price of $3 to $15 per M to which may be added
$4 more, if ties and cordwood can be made out of the tops and
small trees. :
Elm is an unimportant hardwood which occurs sparingly in
this type. Its average stumpage price, $3 per M, 1900 census,
is low for accessible timber even tho it can only be employed
successfully for certain special uses. It is a fairly hard, fairly
heavy wood which is not durable and is most valuable for vehicle
stock where its toughness commends it for such purposes as
46 WHITE PINE TYPE
hubs. It is also somewhat used for boxes and crates and for
furniture parts which will not be seen such as drawer backs.
All the species are thrown together commercially, but white and
rock elm make up 80 per cent of the total cut in the United States.
Of these two, rock elm is the tougher but does not reach such large
size. An average sale value at the woodworking plant for elm
lumber was $30 per M in 1914 but this must be wide, selected
stock. The logging and milling are expensive and could seldom
be handled for less than $10 per M. Close to centers of popula-
tion the cordwood in the tops and small trees could be marketed
for about $4 per cord so that there was a possibility of increasing
the gross yield per tree by that much, there being at least a cord
of wood in the limbs and tops to the thousand feet of lumber.
Hence the largest possible gross returns that could be expected
were $34 per M. From this should be deducted $10 for logging
and milling, a variable amount for freight and $2 to $3 for cord-
wood making and delivering. This left a possible margin for
stumpage and profit of about $15 per M. In spite of increased
sale values there has been no increase in this margin because
operating costs have grown at the same or a greater ratio.
Land Values.— Land values within the white pine type are
difficult to determine accurately for two reasons. First, there
is the cause already referred to in the spruce and hardwood types,
that the land is seldom appraised separately from the timber.
This, however, only holds in the case of large tracts like those in
northern Michigan. In the woodlot region another reason
obtains. There, farms are sold as a whole and it is difficult to
separate the values of the tillable land, the buildings and. the
woodland. Nevertheless, the land has a tangible value which
may be closely approximated by using the prices at which pasture
is held. Much of this class of land has been allowed to grow up »
to woods so that it now makes up at least one-third of the present
woodlot area in the older sections like New England. Pastures
of the rough, stony type which have been allowed to revert to
woodland are appraised at $5 to $15 per acre and these figures
may be taken as representative of the better kinds of white pine
land in the woodlot region.
Tx aaa
Sibiu
TITLES 47
Productively, too, their value is much the same. On a rota-
tion of 100 years, with interest at 3 per cent, cost of restocking,
$10, annual charges, 50 cents, and a final yield of 50M board feet
worth $10 per M the land has a productive value of $7 per acre.
This is conservative because a yield of 50M per acre should be
obtainable without thinning on poor quality soil.
Titles.— The form of lots within the white pine type differs
radically in the two main regions where this type occurs. In
the woodlot section of New England and New York the lots are
parts of the farms and hence may take any shape. Ordinarily,
too, they are in small units of 50 acres or less. Hence, the title
question is always a difficult one. The lots are difficult to locate
on the ground and still more troublesome in tracing ciaims of
titles. Oftentimes it is necessary to purchase a whole farm with
its arable land and buildings in order to get undisputed posses-
sion to a piece of timber. In the Lake States, however, the
situation is entirely different. There the township surveys apply
and the subdivision of a property into 4o-acre units is com-
paratively simple. Furthermore, the land has little value for
farming and has never been divided into small holdings. The
large lumber companies took possession directly from the State
or United States and there have been few transfers since. Loca-
~ tion and title searching in the Lake States white pine region is an
entirely different problem from that which confronts one in the
farm woodlot section.
CHAPTER IV
SWAMP TYPE
General Conditions.— This type is a comparatively unim-
portant one which occurs scattered here and there among the
three preceding types. It is all north of Mason and-Dixon’s
line and east of the Great Plains. In other words it is confined
to the glaciated regions. In fact the low lying sites in which it
occurs are in many cases directly due to glaciation. Beaver
dams are also a cause for the poor drainage which leads to the
occurrence of this type. On account of the small extent and
localized occurrence of this type it is impossible to give its occur-
rence by states and counties. It is only possible to say in general
terms where it may occur.
The climate of the type varies, of course, with the altitude and
latitude but in general it may be said that the growing season is
shorter than on the surrounding upland because of the poor air
drainage. Swamps are more subject to late and early frosts for
this reason. While the precipitation is the same as that of the
surrounding country the available moisture is greater because of
the slow runoff and retarded evaporation. In fact there is too
much water in the soil for rapid plant growth.
The height at which water stands has the same effect on root
development that a layer of hard pan would have. The roots
cannot reach down but must spread out. Furthermore, a fre-
quent cause of swampy conditions is an impervious soil whether
it be hard pan or clay. Consequently the soil conditions may
safely be said to be very poor for tree growth. Because the
roots cannot go down, the tree cannot grow tall and diameter
growth is minimized by the short growing seasons.
The species which can endure such untoward conditions are
comparatively few. They must be shallow rooted and frost hardy.
Arbor vite, southern white cedar, tamarack, spruce, balsam, .
and red maple are the commonest. Usually they occur in more
48
ee eee 5
:
POT ee a ON ON ST me ES tre ee Th
i a :
ee ee ee ee ey ge RE LY AIG Ne eee A ee ere eer ee Mee yt toe
isos ee a cee is MAES ee Ue itt ieee ite sige agli are
‘i
Gah k ais
TIMBER VALUATION 49
or less pure stands so that the subtypes are easy to distinguish.
The reasons for differences in composition are not always clear.
Lumbering, however, usually favors the light seeded species like
red maple, spruce and balsam at the expense of the cedars. Con-
sequently, a cedar swamp seldom comes up to cedar again when
the poles and posts have been cut out.
In spite of the poor growth conditions insects and fungi ordi-
narily do very little damage in the swamp type. The most
notable exception to this general statement is the damage done
to tamarack by the larch sawfly in the early 80’s. Nearly all
the larger trees were killed over wide areas. Butt rot— Trametes
pini and Polyporus schweinitzii — occurs on all the coniferous
species found in this type. While fire is very destructive when it
does get into the type the wetness of the soil prevents this form
‘of damage except in very dry seasons. But in droughts swamp
fires do occasionally occur and are very difficult to extinguish
because they burn down into the accumulated duff and peat and
may smoulder for days only to break out anew in fresh places.
‘The unfavorable growth conditions have already been referred
to so that it is merely necessary to add that a swamp cannot be
expected to produce more than one-half what the spruce and hard-
wood types will yield in the-same time and one-fifth the returns
from good white pine soil. This is because the trees are shorter
and smaller, not because they do not stand close enough together.
Average diameter and height growth figures are as follows:
Tamarack Arbor Vite Spruce
dbh. dbh. dbh.
ee 2 inches Fanch tole boo Sci s.s ea
me Years... . 2... 5 inches 2 inches 15 feet tinch 7 feet
ey WEAR ko Se 7 inches 4 inches 23 feet 3 inches 14 feet
moo years... ....... 8 inches 6 inches 32 feet 4 inches 26 feet
Timber Valuation.— Estimates of this type present only one
difficulty, the swampy ground. Hence winter is the best time
to work inthem. The small size of the type usually necessitates
a high percentage estimate but to offset this the stands are usually
50 SWAMP TYPE
uniform in composition and size so that a 20 per cent estimate is
commonly accurate enough. The cost should not exceed 15
cents an acre.
The stumpage value of all the swamp tree species has been so
low that it is only recently that data has been gathered in regard
to them. Cedar is the only species on which the Forest Service
has figures. Its stumpage rose from $1.32 to $4.63 between 1900
and 1907, an increase of 250 per cent while the lumber only
advanced 75 per cent during the same period, from $10.91 to.
$19.14. Even these figures cannot be taken as representative of
the swamp cedars alone because several western species and the
southern red cedar are included under the same name in the Cen-
sus and Forest Service reports. Hence it is all the more impor-’
tant to present data from which the stumpage value of each
individual tract may be worked out.
The most valuable products obtained from the swamps ‘are
cedar and tamarack poles, ties and posts. The ovrices of these
on the cars were as follows in 1916:
Each
Cedar poles........ RE TORRE SR PUES Mn RMD RPM yy $0 . 50-$40.00
et Sechrest ee ce aes
BOM OL LE ee ee ee 0.35
Tamarack poles 5 35.250 6.5.05 oes vee ar diwd eeu ck os. ee ee
Le MEE MERE. pape ere e ORE ET ey Ty 0.50
DOSS. pa CHa Oe LAR ARON Dae Seca eee 0.30
Spruce and balsam seldom get large enough for more than
pulpwood, the specifications and prices for which are discussed
in the chapter on the Spruce Type. |
Red maple cordwood brought a price of $5 in four-foot lengths
in 1915 where the market was good.
The minimum sizes required are as follows:
Poles — 20 feet long and 4 inches in diameter at the top end.
Ties — 8 feet long, 6-inch face and 6 inches thick.
Posts — 8 feet long and 3 inches in diameter at the top end.
Cordwood — 4 feet long and 2 inches in diameter at the small end.
Logging and manufacturing costs in 1916 may be summarized
as follows:
TITLES 51
Per lineal foot
Poles — cutting and peeling. ...........+...4.. $o.02
hauling 10 miles. ...........++++- wae 0.02
TRAE os hss chek ne eee $0.04
or $1 for a 25-foot pole.
Ties — cutting, hacking and peeling. ........... $o.10
eile ¢ 100s 30. SS ee esavecs “0.20
TOMB. i « dace nans boeatorctiuetaeeee $0.30
PS or CRUINE So oe tec caus ous gave sews $0.03
btn § WR oss oie vee bee © 05
Rotals ov Suis oes eae ee ee $0.08
Deducting these costs from the sale values given above it is
clear that it is possible to have margins for stumpage and profits
as follows:
Each
WE 5S ha ona ss ant ahen ae raneereneas $1 .00-$3.00
ee ee Lyk sede ee ae Ea en eaee 0.20
ee Pe rary te meine Phe eee ae tee Ps Nee gy, 4 0.22
To put this on a board foot basis it will be necessary to assume
certain equivalents. For poles a conservative converting factor
is 50 board feet for a 25-foot, 7-inch pole. There are more than
25 board feet in a tie eight feet by six inches by seven inches.
A post eight feet by four inches in diameter contains approxi-
mately to board feet. Hence poles may yield a stumpage price
of $10 to $20 per M, ties $5 to $8 and posts $15 to $20. The ~
average figures are, of course, much lower than this on account
of long hauls, poor markets, and bad management. No figures of
costs in man hours and horse hours exist for this type.
Land Values.— Land values are low for this type because it
yields little in timber and needs expensive drainage before it can
be made arable. Hence it has little or no value unless it can be
drained and turned into celery beds or flooded for cranberry
growing.
Titles.— Title problems have already been discussed for the
hardwood and white pine types so that no further remarks are
necessary for this type since it does not differ from the surround-
ing upland in title history.
CHAPTER V
SOUTHEASTERN PINE TYPE
General Conditions.— This region lies along the Atlantic sea-
board from southern New. Jersey to Central Texas. It is made
up of low lying, comparatively level sandy lands which seldom
rise more than 500 feet above sea level. It is part of what
geologists call the Coastal Plain. Between it and the southern
bottomlands there is no hard and fast line. The difference
between the two is simply one of soil drainage and fertility. With
the southern hardwood belt, however, there is a sharper contrast.
The pines quickly give place to the hardwoods as the hills of the
Piedmont plateau with their stiff clay soil rise from the sandy
coastal plain.
The climate is like that of the Sothomninie hot and moist.
The winters are short. Scarcely a single month during the year
has an average temperature below freezing even in the northern
extension of the region. The precipitation is heavy, over 45
inches, and has a distinct period of maximum fall during mid-
summer. The evaporation is naturally great with the high aver-
age temperature. Runoff would also be rapid were it not for the
gentle slopes but this is offset in part at least by the openness of
the sandy soil. Taking all the factors into consideration the
climate may not be said to be especially favorable to tree growth.
The evaporation and runoff affect the heavy precipitation so
that there is frequently a deficiency of soil moisture. This is
reflected in the openness of the stands and the adaptations of the
foliage to prevent excessive transpiration.
The topography has already been described in a general way
and there is little that needs to be added. It does not present
local variations but is remarkably uniform. Extending from the
low sand dunes of the coast west to the foothills of the Piedmont
Plateau, the Coastal Plain is described by its name. It is a plain
without marked elevations or depressions. The soil is likewise
remarkably homogeneous in its sandy character altho there is a
52
GENERAL CONDITIONS 53
tendency for it to have less pure sand on the northern edge of the
Coastal Plain where much material has been brought by the
streams from the pile of glacial débris to the north. |
= = - =
= 7m iad - -
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Fic. 5. Distribution of the Southern Pine Type
might be expected from the climatic and soil conditions the
predominating tree species are ones which can stand a relatively
‘ small amount of available soil moisture. The longleaf pine was
: originally the most abundant species but lumbering and fire have
54. . SOUTHEASTERN PINE TYPE
in many places made it second in importance to its more vigorous
competitor, loblolly pine (Pinus taeda L.). Shortleaf, pond,
Cuban, pitch and scrub pine are also found within this type but
seldom in pure stands over large areas like the longleaf and
loblolly pines.
In determining the distribution of tne stands lumbering, fire
and agriculture are the controlling factors. Virgin timber is
almost invariably pure longleaf pine. Areas which have been
logged and burnt may be either longleaf or loblolly but usually
the latter species is more abundant. Where the land has been
cleared for tillage, various species may take possession depending
upon the latitude and the degree of soil exhaustion. In the north-
ern part of the Coastal Plain in New Jersey, Delaware and
Virginia scrub pine is generally the first invader on abandoned
fields with pitch’ pine occurring only on the poorest portions.
From Virginia to South Carolina loblolly pine plays the réle of
soil reclaimer while farther south slash or Cuban pine gives
promise of becoming an important source of revenue on worn out
lands, and those from which long leaf pine has been cut.
Were fire kept out of the southern pine region the damage
would become negligible. Unfortunately, however, there are
many reasons why the practice’of annual burning has become the
rule. First of all there is the argument that the grazing is im-
proved by burning out the-old grass every spring. ‘Then, too,
the turpentine hackers like to burn in order to discourage the
snakes. So potent are these arguments with the natives that the
owners of turpentine orchards have adopted the practice of
burning around their tapped trees after the inflammable débris
has been raked away from the base in order to protect them from
fire. Norcan this usage be condemned under present conditions.
As long as fires are allowed to burn unchecked it is better to burn
lightly annually making provision for the protection of the tapped
trees than to allow the débris to accumulate around the bases of
the trees to such an extent that the tree is sure to be burnt thru
in case of fire. oe
Freedom from fires will only come as a result of a long cam-
paign of public education. Yet it is easy to show that the small
GENERAL CONDITIONS 55
amount of good done in “improving” the grass and killing ~
snakes is offset many times by the loss in soil fertility, small
trees and mature timber. Furthermore, in addition to these
direct losses a large amount of indirect damage can be charged to
burning because it makes the trees more susceptible to fungus and
. insect attack. :
Annually the red rot fungus— Trametes pini — causes
thousands of dollars’ worth of damage to living trees. Special
care should be taken to see that a tract of timber is not infested
with it because it works rapidly and thoroughly.
Another common result of unrestricted burning is a serious
infestation of pine bark beetles — Dendroctonus pinicola. This
insect, if unchecked, is capable of killing large amounts of other-
wise healthy timber as numerous areas in the southeast show.
Other forms of damage are not serious. Snow-break does not
occur in the warm climate of the pine belt nor does lightning
damage more than an occasional tree. Hurricanes may snap
off all the large trees in their path but fortunately ‘they seldom
cover large areas.
Stands per acre under virgin conditions, which nearly always
means pure stands of longleaf pine, range from 20,000 board feet
to 5000 board feet with 10,000 board feet as a high average for
large tracts. Second growth stands vary in volume directly with
the age so that their possibilities may best be obtained from the
following growth figures. Yields per acre in cubic feet may be
converted into board feet by multiplying by seven.
OPTIMUM GROWTH
Diameter Height Density Yield per acre
50 roo 50 100 50 roo 5° too
ins. ins. deg. deg.
Longleaf pine....... 7 13 65 95 SE Sle aE eee terse
Loblolly 1: paar 16 24 85 TIO | 200 | 100 | 7125 | gooo
Serub pine......... 9 ioe 63 ain 370 ved 4650
56 SOUTHEASTERN PINE TYPE
Timber Valuation. — On the whole estimating in southern
pine is simple and comparatively inexpensive. A strip estimate
covering 15 per cent ought not to cost more than eight cents per
acre. This is because the surface is level, the stands are not
dense, there are few species, and the trees are generally of about
the same size and quality. This uniformity means that only a |
small percent of the total area need be actually covered in the
estimate. Hence large tracts will give good results with a 5 per
cent estimate, while a tract has to be less than 30 acres in extent
to justify a 50 per cent estimate. In fact the only factor that is
liable to cause difficulty in estimating is the boundary lines and
even this source of possible error is not present except in one of
the original thirteen states. Unfortunately the rectangular sys-
tem of land surveys was not used by the colonists so that the
property lines do not run in a uniform manner but form an intri-
cate maze of lines which is often very difficult to unsnarl. Where
such conditions exist the cost of appraising the timber is pro-
portionately more expensive.
The limits of merchantability are commonly uniform because
the purposes to which the timber is devoted do not vary greatly
from region to region. It is usual to convert the bole into logs
up toa top diameter inside the bark of not less than five inches.
Of course where there are large limbs to interfere with the clear
length there are fewer logs and the top diameter is greater. Tops
and limbs may be used for firewood or even pulp where there are
favorable market conditions. Rarely there is a demand for the
stumps in destructive distillation plants which secure turpentine
and its by-products in this way. |
The remarks concerning estimating which have gone before
apply merely to the estimating of timber for lumber and cord-
wood. With longleaf and slash pine turpentine is frequently the
more important product so that every southern timber cruiser
should be able to estimate the number of “ cups ” or “ boxes.”
that a tract of pine will yield. This is determined by counting
the number of cups or boxes which can be placed on a given
sample area which is representative of average conditions within
the tract. As with ordinary estimating it is better to take this
TIMBER VALUATION . 57
sample area in the form of a strip rather than in isolated plots
because a better average is obtained. The smallest size tree
which can be cupped is six inches dbh., but it is far better practice
to bleed no trees less than ro inches. For boxes the tree must be
at least 12 inches dbh. because boxing naturally injures the tree
- more and it must therefore be sturdier to stand up. With both
cupping and boxing only one face is possible on trees of the
minimum diameters. Those between 18 and 24 inches will stand
two faces. Larger trees will stand three or even four faces but
care must be taken not to girdle the tree or weaken it so much
that it will break off easily. In virgin timber the number of
cups or boxes varies from 35 to 50 per acre with an average of 40.
Ten thousand five hundred boxes or cups make up a “ crop”
which includes an area of 200 to 250 acres in virgin timber.
Where the timber has been boxed, areas of 500 to 1600 acres are
necessary to yield the requisite number of cups for a crop.
For the important species in this type no separate stumpage
prices are available. The figures given below are for “ southern
aes
.
pine
Per M
MINN Si ee Ss wo! b'o ed os Rw e hanno ee eee eee $0.05
BURA oc 55 ces cn con ee haere re Ea esas ys 0.30
OE a ANDAR Fey ty gee Sate Ce 0.75
BN Ls tsa eb pebubes sameeee eine ae 3.00
ie ieepeieeaiememrer epee aero ys ME Sta poe 5.00
These are, of course, merely averages and do not indicate the
possible ranges. Generally speaking pine stumpage is more val-
uable in the north than in the south. Accordingly one may
expect to have to pay twice as much for the same grade of timber —
in North Carolina asin Texas. Thisis, of course, merely a reflec-
tion of the difference in freight rates and the length of haul to
the mill.
As far as uses are concerned there is little difference between the
different parts of the pine belt. Dimension — house frames,
bridge timbers and railway ties — and rough construction lum-
. ber take the bulk of the annual cut. Only the clearest and best
goes into flooring and finishing lumber. Between species little
distinction is made ordinarily, longleaf, slash, shortleaf and lob-
*
58 SOUTHEASTERN PINE TYPE
lolly all being sold under the general caption of ‘‘ southern pine.”
However, since there is a marked difference in durability great
care must be taken ‘to get longleaf and shortleaf where the
lumber must be placed in contact with the ground or used for
wharfing or piling. It has been necessary to devise a system
of grading which will segregate the more durable species. This
was accomplished -by separating the lumber according to the
number of annual rings per inch that appeared on the end of the
board or the cross section of the log. The explanation of this
apparently arbitrary system of grading is that the less durable
species like loblolly pine are much faster growing than the more
durable longleaf or shortleaf. Therefore, a board, a plank, or a
pile with relatively few rings per inch can be thrown out imme-
diately where durability is a factor.
The prices received at the mill for high grade frames or bridge
tumbers are not high absolutely, $30 to $40 per M, but relatively a
fair value because there is less sawing required than with one-inch
boards and no planing. Even flooring or inside finish seldom
brings more than $75 per M f.o.b. the mill and it never makes up
more than 20 per cent of the scale of the logs sawn up. The tops
and mill waste can occasionally be marketed locally for $4.00 to
$6 per cord. Hence an average value of $50 per M at the mill
is very good indeed.
From this sale value milling and logging costs must be deducted
to determine the stumpage value of any particular piece of
timber. For running thru the saw mill exclusive of planing,
kiln drying and selling $3 to $3.50 per M is a good average figure
for large permanent mills equipped to saw high grade lumber.
Smaller mills will do it for as low as $2 per M but their average
product is usually less well manufactured.
Logging costs vary little thruout the pine belt. The topog-
raphy is uniform, labor varies little and methods are standardized.
The logs are brought from the woods to the railroad with big
wheels and then shipped into the mill. Occasionally a portable
mill is set up in the timber or a stream is employed for driving,
but the rule is the large mill fed by its logging railroad. The
x “yl ao
; Ts LAND VALUES 59
following figures are typical of the average operation under the
conditions in 1914:
Per M
DN GINS THICK a5 os da 6d oh Ci ncos oe conc cneunsen ghee $0.75
Hauling to railway 3.00
Railway freight. . 3.00
Re TERR RR Ri my Gia temaneg pane menawy sare Ap ke 4.00
Freight... 5.00
$14.75
Deducting these costs from an average sale value of $25 leaves
a margin of $10.25 for stumpage and profit. Asa matter of
fact prices paid for stumpage are now (1920) between $5 and $10
per M.
Expressed in terms of man and horse hours per M the following
figures give an idea of average conditions:
Felling and bucking... i Pag ee 2}
eiAitilie and hauling to mill... 3 8 16
NRA ee Ga aCe rm Aaa 4
Us os oct obec ocewkc heures 14} 16
Land Values. — The problem of setting a proper valuation on
_ southern pine land is difficult because it has in most cases a poten-
tial value for agriculture. The climate permits of the raising of
a variety of crops and the lands are frequently so accessible to
water or rail transportation that they appear susceptible of
intensive cultivation. Three factors tend to offset these advan-
tages, however; in the first place, the sterility of pine soil has
become a by-word and since there is a large amount of erosion
due to the open winter and heavy midsummer rains fertilization
is a constant and heavy charge. Furthermore, there is the cost
of clearing the land of stumps and the distance to market.
Twenty-five to fifty dollars an acre must be figured on to put
the land in shape for thoro cultivation. Altho sandy land is
well adapted for market gardening if heavily fertilized the dis-
tance from market militates against a rapid spread of this indus-
try. Virginia and North Carolina pine lands within a few hours
of the Baltimore and Philadelphia markets have been profitably
=“
60 SOUTHEASTERN PINE TYPE
turned into market gardens but south of there it has only been
possible to raise certain special crops like early potatoes from
Florida, for example. Of course, market gardens near the larger
southern cities have prospered but every section does not con-
tain a New Orleans or an Atlanta.
Probably the best criterion of what the average pine land is
worth for agriculture is the standard set at the recent Cut-over
Land Conference in New Orleans — April 11 to 13, 1917. There
it was agreed that $5 an acre was a reasonable figure for raw
lands which had to be cleared, fenced and cultivated. This
valuation is not so high that growing a second crop of trees is out
of the question. In fact it was resolved that many acres were
“better adapted for forest growth than for agricultural crops.”
Briefly then, while pine land has a potential value for market
gardening, general farming and grazing, the economic conditions
must be favorable to make these uses more profitable than
forestry. For any of these purposes an average value of more
than $5 per acre does not seem justified.
Titles. — The same situation with reference to titles prevails .
asin therest of thesouth. In the surveyed parts they are reason-
ably clear and simple but in the old original thirteen states where
the quarter section system of land surveys was not adopted the
confusion is almost hopeless. Grants have been issued with
reckless disregard to prior claims so that there is a network of
conflicting lines. This maze has been still further snarled up by
the loss of records during the Civil War. As a consequence a
complete abstract of title or even a clear chain of titles is out of
the question in many places and it is as difficult to locate grants
on the ground. Much of the land has been considered of low
value so that no attempt has been made to keep up the fences or
corners,
E
i
a
’
CHAPTER VI
SOUTHERN BOTTOMLANDS
General Conditions. — ‘The Dismal Swamp of Virginia and the
Everglades of Florida are symbolic of the dark and mysterious.
They have furnished a somber background for many a weird tale. .
But they are also representative of an important type of timber-
jand which furnishes millions of board feet of cypress and tupelo
gum annually. These characteristic species are only found in the
wet river bottoms and river swamps of the southeastern United
States.
With such a location the climate is mild to subtropical. Th
growing season is never less than seven months and may be
11 months in duration. The precipitation is usually over 50
inches annually, as a glance at a rainfall map of the United
States will show. The south Atlantic coast, the Gulf coast and
the lower Mississippi valley are all regions of heavy rainfall.
Absolute evaporation figures are lacking but the long growing
‘season would naturally tend to minimize the effect of the heavy
precipitation were it not for the great humidity of the swamps.
This in turn is mainly the result of the slow runoff. The water
from the higher lands accumulates in the low lying river bottoms,
converting them into swamps. Hence, it comes about that this
type has as much moisture available for tree growth as any in
the United States. In fact there is often too much. Tree
analyses show that while growth is very rapid on the relatively
high river banks the same tree species increase very slowly in the
adjacent but wet “ back swamps.”
Besides cypress and tupelo gum the other commercially im-
portant species are cottonwood, red gum, white ash, live oak,
holly, maliogany and lignumvitae. Their relative abundance
and grouping depend upon two factors, the degree of wetness of
the soil and the amount of logging or clearing. In the perma-
nently wet back swamps the cypress and tupelo gum have
61
62 SOUTHERN BOTTOMLANDS
proved themselves capable of distancing all competitors in their
ability to stand flooding. In fact many individuals of these
species stand with their roots permanently in stagnant water.
4 One : :
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ae f ae f t ee” pike y xy Hy
“ 20)
&, ae -_ ~
i SS 1 a \ J Zyy
Ei yr k BY TO KY x Ps j - Uf Y, & |
f i 2 1 r
&
Sars Pe, 3
nt
B &
BN Pet
m D
N i «
> iad Ki
| Sy
:
5 % D 38"
= ——— = oe = es}
Fic. 6. Distribution of the Southern Bottomlands
Along the higher river banks there is not the same monotony of
composition. The better growth conditions give rise to keener
competition. Then, too, there is further complication of clear-
ing for it was along the river banks that the ante-bellum corn-
soa ica ius cl Ta ee Pe a ee
diet ofc) Ls Tx >
7
GENERAL CONDITIONS ‘ 63
fields were hewn out of the swamp with cheap slave labor. Altho
these clearings were subject to destructive floods about once in
three years the heavy yields from the fertile alluvial soil in the
two good years tended to offset the loss of the flood year. In
these old fields cottonwood and ash usually preémpted the best
drained sites while red gum took the second choice. The latter
is, however, far more abundant numerically because its toler-
ance permits it to grow well in dense, pure stands. Live oak is
another species which keeps to relatively high ground if there
may be said to be any such thing in a river bottom. Holly,
mahogany and lignumvitae are seldom found in abundance but
occur scattered sparingly on the better drained portions under-
neath the other trees. The following subtypes include the
principal composition combinations which occur commonly:
Pure cypress.
Cypress and tupelo gum.
Pure red gum.
Mixed white ash and cottonwood.
Hardwood hammock (in southern Florida).
-Bottomlands are not favorable places for forest fires so that
this kind of damage is at a minimum. Likewise destructive in-
sects and fungi are not abundant, whether because fires have not
weakened the timber or because the frequent floods tend to keep
them in check has not been yet determined. Beyond a heart
rot in cypress— called “peck ”’—all the bottomland tree
species are unusually free from defects.
The rapidity of growth on the better drained sites is truly
remarkable. Individually the intolerant species like cotton-
wood and ash attain the largest diameter and greatest height but
in yield per acre the more tolerant red gum and cypress lead.
The results of growth investigations of the leading species are
summarized below:
64 : SOUTHERN BOTTOMLANDS
ESTIMATED GROWTH IN 100 YEARS
Yield per acre
Species Dbh. Total height (3 inches and
over dbh.)
Ins. Ins. Cubic feet
PONS. Gaia ev hoees Nepal 32 120 10,400
Cottonwood. sii eoi Fase is 35 150 12,000
CYDTEES 27555 SN vs He daeees dee ea’s 30 TIO" jd ae eee
Bes Ween ie eee eas 26 ob SOO es As La ieee
Timber Valuation.— The cost of estimating in this type is
seldom’ high, but neither can it be made low. An average figure
per acre is eight cents with a range from 5 to 15 cents. The
factors which work against low costs are:
Inaccessibility.
Irregularity of boundaries. .
Poor living conditions. .
Danger from snakes and disease.
Swamp and bottomlands are not frequented by many people.
Hence they have few roads. Only the hunter, the hog grazer,
~ the logger, and the rhoonshiner are called by business, legitimate
or otherwise, to penetrate the back swamps and to none is a road
a necessity. Even the logger prefers to use water transportation.
Unfortunately, however, the estimator cannot do his work well
in a boat and must therefore be in the swamp when it is driest
and hence least accessible by the usual standards. Bottomlands
are governed entirely by topography so that they will not be
bounded by any geometric figures of man’s devising. This
makes the task of determining the area of a tract to be estimated
one of great difficulty. Either the outside boundary must be
traversed or the estimate strips run close enough together to
catch up all the major indentations and excresences. The third
factor is really ‘an outgrowth of the first. Where people do not ~
_ often go for business or pleasure, the living quarters are crude
makeshifts only. Hence it is usually difficult to find either a
comfortable logging camp or clean farm house to use as head-
quarters. If tents are used they must be raised above the flood
line, protected from roving hogs and cattle, and screened to keep
_ ‘TIMBER VALUATION. 65
out dangerous insects and snakes. This type is, in fact, prac-.
tically the only one in which the danger from snakes is a constant
menace. Rattlesnakes occur in other kinds of timber but they
are seldom abundant and are not accompanied by the water
moccasin, one of our deadliest and most active reptiles. Then
_. too crocodiles occur in the southern parts of the bottomland type.
But probably the most serious enemies of the estimator are the
fleas which disturb his sleep, the chiggers which burrow under
his skin, the mosquito that inocculates him with malaria and yel-
low fever, and the bacteria that produce dysentery and _ typhoid
fever. All are abundant in the swamps.
There are, fortunately, certain offsetting factors which tend to
keep down the estimating costs. The stands are fairly uniform
so that a low percentage estimate is adequate. Rarely is more
than 15 per cent necessary. Then, too, the merchantable limits
are fairly constant because practically all the lumber cut from
the type goes into the general market and the logger does not
attempt to utilize below a diameter of 10 inches breast high nor
run his logs above a top diameter of eight inches.
Stumpage figures for the species in this type are not abundant
but all that could be secured are given below:
1900
I hitrdi ok sana «dcp >> cance eee $3.03 ($2.75 to $3.10)
MN os as ee EL SE aes Ss 1.45 (1.15 to 2.24)
SE. a... Va 5) Staaten bitten 1.68 ( 1.42to 1.72)
SM SG eb ioc cs cps kcaves cenecences 3-18 ( 1.79 to 5.83)
They show that live oak and white ash are the most valuable
species while the other three are not sufficiently valuable to get
above an average value of $2 per M. It must, however, be under-
stood that the figures given are averages from the whole United
States., For the bottomland type they are somewhat too high
_ for the species like ash and oak which occur in other types which
are more accessible. The other species which occur only in this
type give values which can be taken as a Seven 06 of con-
ditions in 1900.
-
66... SOUTHERN BOTTOMLANDS
To determine the stumpage value of the timber on any partic-
ular tract it is necessary to subtract the costs of logging and man-
ufacture plus a reasonable profit from the average sale value.
This latter is, of course, determined by the uses of each species
and grade. It will, therefore, be necessary to consider in con-
siderable detail what each species can be used for and how
much each use will bring.
Ash and oak have already been discussed under the northern
hardwood and southern hardwood types so that they need not
be taken up again. Cypress is a fairly soft, strong wood with
great durability and a handsome figure. Hence, it has a wide
variety of uses. It can be used as a substitute for softwoods
like white pine and yellow pine especially where a durable wood
is required. As a consequence it is in demand for outside con-
struction work, railroad ties and telephone poles. For these
purposes it commanded a price varying from $15 to $30 per M
at the mill or shipping point in 1914. The higher grades of clear
lumber brought even better prices because they can be used for
interior finish. Recently cypress wainscoting either stained or
“ brush treated ” to’bring out the figure has become very popu-
lar so that the best grades sold for $100 at the mill. Equally high
prices were paid for the clear lumber used in the consrtuction
of tanks, silos, and wooden piping, uses in which the workability
and durability of cypress make it preéminent and without com-
petition except from the best grades of white pine and redwood.
Even the poorest grades of cypress are ordinarily salable be-
cause they can be used for sidewalks and fencing. Hence the
average value per M is high and may be summarized as follows
in 191
20 per cent at $rd0.00 per Meise ieee eases nes $10.00
ao per cent Ot. 3166.00 ne ein ao Ge ewe nes baa 12.00
Go Der Gent BE ADDO. esa ek iti ei ga we ea ee ae 20.00
wa Dek cent OL See he. vetexenss es ks absense bid 5.00
$47.00
Red gum is another wood which started low in the scale of
lumber values but has achieved an enviable position. At first
it was merely used for boxes and crates and little valued for these
eee er
* TIMBER VALUATION 67
purposes on account of its liability to warp and stain in seasoning.
However, as better methods of kiln drying and sticking were
developed, it has been more and more used for furniture, gun-
stocks, and veneers, uses for which a hard, close grained wood
which will take a good polish are needed but where durability is
not a factor of importance. The common grades sold for $18
at the mill in 1914 and the high quality at not to exceed $30 per
M board feet. The wood has slight value for cordwood so that
the tops are usually left in the woods and the slabs and mill
refuse are either burned as fuel in the mill boilers or thrown on
the refuse heap. Hence, the average value per M feet log scale
never exceeded $25 per M.
Tupelo gum is less valuable than red gum nisl its light
color does not permit of its use as a substitute for dark hardwoods
like black walnut. In fact it finds its highest use merely as a sub-
stitute for yellow poplar or basswood neither of which are used
for high grade furniture fronts. However, where handsome
figures or durability are not required but softness and elasticity
are assets tupelo gum is being employed more and more. The
lower grades are usually discarded so that its average value per
M log scale was never more than $18 in 1914 and frequently less.
Like red gum it is difficult to-season.
Cottonwood has about the same uses as tupelo gum: boxes,
furniture backs, buggy and sleigh panels, etc. It is equally hard
to season, is not hard enough to polish readily, and does not have
an attractive figure. Hence its average sale value at the mill
was seldom more than $15 per M, nor could the tops be put to
any use for fuel or pulp.
Logging methods differ from those employed in any other type
because of the water in the swamps. The cheapest way where
there is enough of it is to make it an ally and drive the timber out.
This necessitates preliminary seasoning even for cypress so that
itisa common practice to deaden the trees in advance of logging
and allow them to dry out standing. This same method is
applied with all the swamp species except ash which floats
readily green. Skidding and hauling to a drivable stream may
be accomplished in several ways. Where the bottomlands are
68 SOUTHERN BOTTOMLANDS
dry enough steam railways may be used supplemented by horse
skidders or steam skidders. A cheap and effective way is to
mount the steam skidder on a flat boat equipped with a steam
shovel so that it may dig its own channel. Then the skidded
logs are dropped into the cleared waterway behind the scow and
floated out to the main stream. The primitive method, but still
often employed, is to deaden the timber in the early fall, allow it
to season all winter and then float it out during the spring freshets
in “ roads,” so called, which are lanes cut thru the timber during
dry weather so that the logs may be floated out. Of course, the
main disadvantage of this method is the fact that each step in
the operation must wait for suitable weather conditions. Time
is money in logging as well as in other industries.
Bottomland lumber operations are most economically con-
ducted in large camps because the swamps are inaccessible from
ordinary habitations.
The average costs per M in 1914 for the different steps may be
summarized as follows:
Per M
TOMRIIE, | ce’. ca narals «V4 oA eo bs he od bs oa ee ge $0.15
Felling and logmaking Pei ss a CoO ca ahr se wink sare ©.60
Plauling or driving. to mill. ies oe cas aa ea we I.00
Milling and kilndrying 3 )0 5030s. cs io acvsb.< vee cea wien 4.00
$9.00
A fair day’s work for a crew of two men felling and bucking
cypress is 7M. Red gum is harder so that 4M per day is normal.
Cottonwood, tupelo gum, and ash come in between these two.
Hence the cost in man hours would be as follows:
Man hours per M
SV EESS B a Ciiai cin asic ie els sccikeiiaiecaiei a’ 2}
CIE a re i ee eS eee 3
Riipelo ran ae eshte, he eC EN ae ete 3
WP ESILS BSIN pe ae eas oo gaia Rin wig tata Sich sinless 3
Red gum 4
The cost to the mill likewise varies with the species. Those that
float can be transported for eight man hours per M while those
that must be hauled five miles will cost about six man hours and
LAND VALUES - 69
16 horse hours if wagons are used. The milling time ranges from
four to ten man hours per M. Red gum is particularly hard to
season.
Summarizing the data for the bottomland species gives the
following results:
‘ ‘
Costs sale value fr prot and
a aR ae Bae $9.00 $35.00 $24.00
Mesomwood...:. 2.0.52. 8.: 9.00 15.00 6.00
MMI 5 So as cc oie sbudapes 9.00 24.50 15.50
WEIR 655s os De wea ce 9.00 20.00 II.00
ME MONO ose 6s oe ed 9.00 18.00 9.00
SER aig eis kackd< cankcowe ode 9.00 25.00 16.00
Land Values.— The soil in this type has a large potential agri-
cultural value if it can be drained and protected from floods.
When this can be done it is easily worth $100 an acre for the pro-
duction of corn, cotton, or truck. But, unfortunately, this
involves great expense in nearly every case. A short ditch levee
will not answer. The ditches must be miles in length, carefully
leveled, and properly interlaced. There is usually only a slight
fall and the distribution of this fall over an elaborate network of
_ ditches is an engineering task of no small magnitude. The
levees, too, must be conceived and constructed on a large scale.
Unless the river is kept within bounds for long stretches the
floods will turn the flank of the levees.
Another factor which influences the agricultural value of these
lands is the season at which they are liable to be flooded. If the
floods come during the early spring the water will subside before
the spring planting needs to be undertaken. The damage done
can often be repaired. But if the streams rise during midsum-
mer when the corn or cotton is full grown the loss is irreparable.
The Mississippi is more liable to early spring floods and summer
floods are rare because the periods of high water are commonly
due to the melting of the snow at: their headwaters. In the
Atlantic coast streams the conditions are different. They rise
in the southern Appalachians where there is no great accumula-
7O SOUTHERN BOTTOMLANDS
tion of snow. Hence spring floods are of minor importance.
The period of heavy precipitation comes in the summer so that
crops planted in the bottomlands of North Carolina, South
Carolina, or Georgia are lost about once in every three years.
Consequently large drainage schemes are not so practicable in
the Atlantic Coast states as in the Mississippi valley where the
Federal government has already spent large sums on levees and
drainage canals. This difference in the season of flooding is
reflected in the prices commonly paid for bottomlands. Lands
on the eastern coast seldom bring more than $30 an acre when
cleared, whereas the Mississippi lands seldom sell for less than
$50 an acre. To determine the value of the bare land the cost
of clearing must be deducted. This will be not less than $25 an
acre.
For timber productive purposes bottomland is worth $10 an
acre assuming a final yield of 100M per acre worth $10 per M, a
rotation of 100 years, interest at 3 per cent, cost of regenera-
tion $10 per acre, and 50 cents an acre annually for protection
and administration. :
In timberland sales the value of the land plays an insignificant
role in this type as with most other kinds of timberland but it is
nevertheless true that bottomlands have as high a potential agri-
cultural value as any type of timberland — if they can be drained.
Titles.— The title problems differ with the method of land sub-
division. In all the thirteen original states there is confusion of
ownership, a network of overlapping grants, and a multiplicity
of claims of titles. Where the state lies wholly or in part within
the bounds of the Louisiana or Gadsen Purchase the square
section system prevails and there is greater clarity. In both
cases, however, the irregularity of the swamp outlines is an
obstacle to easy description. Commonly it is necessary to
include small parcels of upland in rounding out bottomland hold-
ings.
Still another difficulty in tracing past ownership is due to the
destruction of land records during the Civil War. The bottom-
lands lay in the war zone and many of ai old landmarks and
records were razed at that time.
CHAPTER VII
SOUTHERN HARDWOODS
General Conditions.— Immediately south of the white pine
type a vast body of hardwood timber extends southward along
the Appalachian Mountains te Alabama. Westward the plains
at the root of the Rocky Mountains are the limit of this hard-
wood timber. On the north it does not reach farther than south-
ern Connecticut and southern New York as a type but its out-
posts occupy the warmer sites within the pine type. In the
United States it is unique and constitutes our greatest source of
hardwood lumber. The only similar bodies of timber are those
which occupy the ridges of the lower ranges in France — the
Ardennes, the Vosges, the Céte d’Or, the Cevennes, and the
Pyrenees — and the Carpathian Mountains in Austria, but none
of these possesses the extent, the variety of species, or the ra-
pidity of growth that our hardwood belt does. The accompany-
ing map shows its distribution.
The region is characterized by“mild winters, long summers, and
‘meftlium to heavy precipitation. The growing season ranges
from six months — May to October —in the north to seven
months in the south— April thru October. The rainfall is
heaviest on the southwestern end of the Appalachians in North
Carolina where it totals over 65 inches per annum. The lowest
precipitation in the type is found on its western edge where grass
takes the place of trees. For example in Missouri the rainfall
ranges between 34 and 47 inches. -As might be expected from the
long growing season the evaporation or flyoff is much greater than
in the types previously considered. The total amount of mois-
ture available for plant growth is still further reduced by the
rapid runoff which takes place on the hillsides. In fact there is
probably no place in the United States, with the possible excep-
tion of the southwest, where the erosion is so great. Denuded
7i
72 SOUTHERN HARDWOODS
hillsides are quickly gullied by the heavy summer rains and even
during the winter erosion keeps up at a rapid rate because the
ground is not protected by snow but is alternately frozen and
Any / i
SU 7 \ ae a
«a ¢
WN oS BAI
Ae ,
id j ig $f i
: Ve :
: YW
he Za
LN : : aa
YY °
ut nen -
TeSS eRS
sr s as")
I ' 5
i ‘7
“ Rood s° os* a m
a a a
Fic. 7. Distribution of the Southern Hardwood Type
thawed so that the top layer of soil is rapidly broken up and
sloughs off down hill.
On account of the rapidity of erosion the characteristic topog-
raphy of the type is an alternation of sharp ridges and narrow
valleys. ‘There are no natural lakes in the southern Appala-
chians or middle and lower Mississippi valley.
GENERAL CONDITIONS 73
This type has a greater variety of species than any other forest.
type in the United States because it is the meeting ground of
northern and southern species. The cool summers on the
mountaintops allow such species as white pine, hemlock, and red
oak to extend their range southward while typically southern
_ species like loblolly and shortleaf pine, yellow poplar and cucum-
ber tree have worked their way from the foothills up on the higher
elevations. While it is impossible on a small scale map to sub-
divide the hardwood region, in the examination of any particular
tract it soon appears that there are three distinct types with
different climatic and soil conditions and consequently a distinct
tree composition. The mountain valleys — called coves in the
southeast — with deep, rich, alluvial soil, well watered, possess
the greatest variety of species. In fact all the kinds of trees
would grow here by preference, but yellow poplar, hemlock, the
oaks, the hickories, and occasionally the chestnut possess greater
reproductive capacity, more rapid growth or greater tolerance, so
that they are usually able to crowd out other species. Normally
a cove stand which has been untouched by the lumberman’s
axe is either pure hemlock, pure chestnut, or a mixture of yellow
poplar, white oak, cucumber, hickory and hemlock. In this
type is found the best timber. —It has been the main source of the
yellow poplar for which the southeast is so famous. But while it
produces large, long boled timber the stands are seldom very
heavy. While hemlock coves may occasionally cut better than
30,000 board feet per acre the average for the type is nearer -
15,000 feet because the hardwoods do not stand so close together
as a tolerant species like hemlock. Unfortunately, also, the total
extent of the coves is not great. They seldom occupy more than
15 per cent of a tract and 5 per cent would more nearly repre-
sent the mountain conditions. Hence, reports of tracts in the
southern Appalachians which average 10,000 board feet to the
acre over large areas are always open to serious question. It is
the two other types, slope and ridge, which make up the bulk of
such tracts and their average stands are much less than that of
the cove type.
The slope type is an intermediate one between the cool, moist —
74 SOUTHERN HARDWOODS
climatic conditions of the cove type with its deep alluvial soil and
the ridge type which as its name implies occupies the overdrained
ridges where the soil is shallow and sterile and evaporation and
transpiration are at their maxima on account of exposure to wind
and sun. Since, then, the soil of the slope type is not quite so
well supplied with moisture as the cove type nor the soil so deep,
only the hardier tree species will be found climbing up thru it
from the more sheltered coves. On the margin where the two
join it is difficult to draw the dividing line by composition alone,
but at the upper edge where the slope type merges into the ridge
type no yellow poplars, cucumber trees or hemlock are found.
Typically its composition by number in virgin stands is as follows:
Per cent
CaS kes 5 sa oh aaa aes M8 bow e Sule tee nae epee eae 30
SCIONS kph kek oa Wes ah ats 97+ add vas eek Sr eaeee 20
MOUOW DOWIE Nc isco hauhue Re Sa O NL e Ne bee taeaaey eee be)
SRG CRIEY Soir) sds cig ick DE dw es awake eee 5
PRICRONG ini o 5c ns cele sad orn ha leo RA WK 6 oa 5
PIORMIOCK sce e ci oa ate tects «pgs aioe Secon ww a pata ee 5
CYERGE OCI Se sis Be eas perce Cea eae hiee as aeuewea eee 15
The average stand per acre under virgin conditions is 5000
board feet. Naturally it is the most extensive type in the south-
ern Appalachians. It usually makes up at least 60 per cent of the
total area of a mountain tract. .
_ In the ridge type the number of species is still further reduced.
Chestnut and hickory occur sparingly but the important species
are chestnut oak and shortleaf pine. The latter preémpts the
southern and western exposures while the chestnut oak is more
abundant on the cooler north and east slopes. _ Seldom do virgin
stands average more than 2000 board feet per acre. Fortunately
for the productive capacity of the region. this type is compar-
atively limited in area. It usually occupies not more than one-
third of a tract.
Fire is here as everywhere the great enemy of the forest. The
drier slope and ridge types suffer most. The latter has usually
been burnt over at least every other year and frequently annu-
ally. As a consequence most of the trees are fire scarred at the
"
a " vi
eS ee ee ee a eee
Ses oe
: GENERAL CONDITIONS coe
butt and more or less damaged by insects and fungi as a result.
_Amongst the hardwoods, however, loss from insects and fungi is
not serious, probably because there are few pure stands. With
pine, on the other hand, which occurs in pure groups, insect
damage is frequently very serious, usually after the tree has been
weakened by fire. For example, in 1890-1892 the southern pine
beetle, Dendroctonus frontalis, killed practically all the mature
shortleaf pine and pitch pine in an area extending from North
Carolina to southern Pennsylvania and aggregating over 75,000
square miles.! Fortunately chestnut blight is the only serious
fungus enemy as yet reported from any of the three types altho
there are many species which will attack trees which have been
weakened by fire.
The growth of individual trees in dianabes and height is usually
very rapid as the following figures show:
Yellow poplar......... ie 1 i 15"’-83° 19’’-93° 22’'-100°
Chestnut sprouts..... —50 13°'-77° 17’’-88° 20’’-93°
_ Chestnut seedlings... . Pitas. 2 11"’-65° 16’’-80° 20°'—go°
|S) ES Ra RS es ‘— 12/'— heed 16’"—
CE Stas. ey Bag 7 t1r’’-64° 16’’-82° 20’’-98°
(oe re, ° id °o Lad °o
Bick oat 22002000 oP ee | es | eect
Red cedar. .-...-..... 2’'-17° "_as° 12’’-60° 18’’-65°
Shagbark hickory. .... 2"'-25° 7''-50° 10”’-67° 13’’-80°
But in spite of the rapid growth of single trees the yield per acre
per annum is not high because the trees do not stand close to-
gether. Generally speaking the density per acre is one-half to
one-third of that in the types previously considered. This is due
to the lack of available moisture. Both the runoff and the flyoff
are rapid and hence there is not as much available for tree growth
as in the cooler northeast. The low average yields per acre in
virgin stands have already been referred to and the yield figures
available tell the same story, large trees individually but few per
acre.
1 See reports by Dr. A. D. Hopkins, U. S. Bureau of Entomology.
96 SOUTHERN HARDWOODS
YIELD PER ACRE — SOUTHERN HARDWOODS
U. S. Forest SERVICE DATA
Quality 1 site, pure, even aged stands
25 years 50 years 75 years 100 years
cubic feet | cubic feet | cubic feet | cubic feet
Scrub pine, Maryland............. 2510 4OS0 °F ase eee
Yellow poplar, Virginia........... 3425 SA50 2. boa pe a eee
Yellow poplar, Tennessee......... 2000 4000" Ho. ia Pea ee
BIICRORY F395! SEE a ee a a 75 500 925 1300
Red Cedar 54 oct se eee be ee eee I500° 2400 feiss ans
These figures are unsatisfactory at best because they do not
differentiate between the types, cove, slope and ridge. Unfor-
tunately, there are no really satisfactory yield data in existence.
However, as a guess, using the meagre information available, the
average annual growth conditions in even aged stands is esti-
mated to be:
Cubic feet
COVE fc. LOGS eens oad en slo ks cone etc bas Abe 50
no RE Pia «pba REGED Hix tone kaw Se oie ee 30
MIMO ns ceo Wiese Aad eh ate ae ae sh S CES OP ERT Eke ore re ce Io
Or in other words it is unreasonable to expect in a rotation of
roo years more than the following amounts unless the stands are
thinned intensively: 3
Cubic feet Board feet
COVES. 5. POLES i Sl ees Gahew ene ed are 5000 30,000
SMI ie iene decipiens wpa onetete de are 3000 18,000
BO ee ea to crate vars we Cee 1000 6,000
And even these figures could not be realized unless there was
complete stocking and thoro fire protection.
Timber Valuation.— It is difficult to generalize in regard to the
methods of estimating: There are so many variable factors. In
the first place the size of the tracts differs greatly in the different
regions. In the southern Appalachians they tend to be large
because there are few farms to cut them up, but even there there
is no uniformity. The grant system of selling land has led to the
setting aside of small holdings of less than 100 years in between
oe
TIMBER VALUATION 77
- the boundaries of the larger tracts. In the Ohio and upper Mis-
sissippi valleys the holdings are commonly small since they are
merely portions of farms which could not be tilled to advantage.
Obviously a larger per cent of a small tract must be estimated _
than of a large tract.
Another complicating factor is the variation between types.
This has already been referred to. Fortunately, however, the
_ type which contains the most timber, the cove type, is the most
accessible while the scantily timbered ridge type is the least so-
In estimating, therefore, it is not necessary to take a uniform
percentage of the three types but the amounts covered should
stand in the ratio of 5:3:1. In other words, if a 5 per cent
estimate is to be made of the ridge type, 15 per cent of the slope
type should be covered, and 25 per cent of the cove type.
The third obstacle to be overcome is the variation in merchant-
able limits. Each species must be investigated locally before it
is impossible to say to what size it should be estimated because
the diameter limits are determined by the local markets. In
general, however, it may be said that lumber should not be esti-
mated below ro inches dbh. and six inches in the top, cordwood
eight inches dbh. and four inches in the top, poles to a top diam-
eter of five inches and posts to three inches at the top end.
The actual costs per acre of estimating southern hardwoods
run from 45 cents to 3 cents with an average of to cents per
acre where the work is done in the usual way, i.e., strips 66 feet
wide run out from the base line in cardinal directions so as to
cross the topographic features as nearly as possible at right angles.
The Twelfth (1900) Census gives the following figures for aver-
age stumpage values for the species in this type:
d Per M
White pine $3.66
MOR 55 sags cde -sb-cs s coe ae shed eke Herpes + keen 2.56
PERE PUNO Sn oss sinus ode 8 cr ch cade Oka beau nen I.12
MEA OMNI Ss By co snc dw sv inwtded Ws se melee epeweusotne 5.00
i Lt) Saar ener pes area Gye ea em ars (Sm ei re en Be 2.71
Oak. whites: 2.2 ee A t Sa ee aiertaai as 3.18
78 SOUTHERN HARDWOODS
These have, of course, no interest at the present time except
a historical one and to show relative values.
What the stumpage prices may be on any tract depends upon
the cost of logging and manufacture and the average sale value
for the lumber f.o.b. the mill. For softwoods, including yellow
poplar, the following figures were conservative in 1914:
q Per M
Felling and bucking. 6250/5. tos oe eee a ees
SHIAGHIG. ia oa eae sl. ee a were Es 2.00
Finaimng (othe Wile. oes oes ao Sia Ve os 20. ek a pe ee 4.00
Sawing, planing and Isading | i206 25. ose eee ae 7.00
ROUBN yy 5 kos a cee a os Oe RC PN Oe eae tee $14.00
Hardwoods cost at least $5 more per M because the felling, haul-
ing and sawing are more expensive on account of the greater
weight, hardness and crookedness.
In order to determine costs with varying labor prices average
costs in man and horse hours per M are given below, separately
for hardwoods and softwoods:
; Softwoods Hardwoods
Man Horse Man Horse
Hours Hours Hours Hours
Felling and bucking................. 3 Baie 6 he
Skidding and hauling to mill (5 miles) 6 16 eo 25
PA og Oe Satc ans «nee ks Lee uta 4 ee 6
Lotals. 4, (3. hits estas ban csc uae 13 16 22 25
Since labor makes up 80 to go per cent of the total cost of these
items it is possible to get a very close approximation of the whole
charge from these figures.
The uses to which white pine and hemlock are put have already
been discussed. Shortleaf pine, like most softwoods, has a
variety of uses. The better grades command a good price as
flooring and interior finish, while the poorer grades make excel-
lent common lumber, railroad ties and wood pulp. The prices
which material fit for these various uses brought in 1914 were as
follows f.o.b. the mill:
TIMBER VALUATION 79
Flooring and finish (30 to 35 per cent of the total cut).......... $25.00 per M
aeeerrminns Wirt pal i Se Pe ee ewe ec atalee 5 .. 10.00 per M
I as aun cw dea Cou ha age ane eun ya as 10.00 per M
Wood pulp BO CTL ee Lies eo LU Ps on veiens cence ssP@aweneers 5-00 per cord
Black walnut, hickory, chestnut, and oak have already been
discussed under the white pine type so it is not necessary to detail
here the uses to which they are put and the values received for
the various grades.
Yellow poplar is one of our most valuable and widely used
woods. On account of its large size, clearness, and softness it is
in great demand for interior finishing. For this purpose it com-
manded a value at the mill of $40 per M in 1914. The lower
grades go into boxes, crates, vehicles, etc., in fact everywhere
where durability in contact with the ground is not a prerequisite.
The average mill run value was $25 per M in 1914. The tops
and limbs may be worked up into pulpwood and brought $5 to
$9 per long cord at the pulp mills in 1914.
Black cherry has its main use in furniture where it may be used
as a substitute for mahogany or in its own name. The wide
clear boards-demanded for this purpose were worth $45 per M
f.o.b. the millin 1914. Smaller pieces are worked up into handles
for small tools. |
- Locust has a hard, durable yellow wood which takes a hich
polish. Its most important uses are for insulator pins, railway
ties and fence posts. The average value of lumber at the mill
did not exceed $25 per M in 1914.
SUMMARY — COSTS AND VALUES
I9QI4
- Logging and manu- Average Margin fi
Species Sectaraia come sale value price cad peotte
mete Pine. s,s $14.00 $25.00 $11.00
- Shortleaf pine...-..... 14.00 20.00 6.00
mremueeke oo. 14.00 18.00 4.00
Black walnut CE Ere 20.00 40.00 20.00
eS 2 eee 20.00 25.00 5.00
DRAGS es so os 15.00 20.00 5.00
RG oan hn ae 20.00 25.00 5.00
Yellow poplar......... 14.00 30.00 16.00
Diack cherry: . ... 22s: 20.00 35-00 I5.00
peOU oo oS 20.00 25.00 5.00
80 SOUTHERN HARDWOODS
Land Values.— Land values are easier to determine for these
types than in the previous ones because all except the ridge types
have some agricultural value. The coves, in fact, are usually
deep soiled and fertile enough for farm land and should be so
used if they are sufficiently large and accessible. In other words
farming is their highest use if workable farm units can be made
from them. This is the case except in the mountains, and prac-
tically all the cove type throughout the Mississippi and Ohio val-
leys is so used. Its value is mainly determined by its accessibil-
ity. Ina region of railroads and good roads $200 an acre is not
excessive while uncleared stump land of the same quality and
having the same climate but inaccessible may not sell for more
than $10 per acre. For timber productive purposes it is worth
between $5 and $10 per acre.
The slope type naturally has a lower value because it will yield
less. Hence, more than $5 per acre cannot profitably be paid for
it for forest purposes under present market conditions. It is
generally too steep for farming but can be used for pasture in
limestone regions. Other types of soil wash so badly that a grass
cover cannot be maintained.
The ridge type is likewise usable for grazing but only lime-
stone soils will make permanent pastures. For timber produc-
tion the value is less than $1 per acre because of the excessive
washing and drainage.
Taking the three types together the land has practically no
present value. Sales of large tracts of mountain land including
the three types have never taken into account the land values but
have been based entirely on the amount and quality of the timber
until the Forest Service began buying land in the southern
Appalachians. . The Government has used the following figures:
Per acre
pve COR ak esiicaes Fs ix ce vo nasagns Fated cere $5.00
Sone tyNes; 5. Ste kkas + ea soos oe eed anon eens 3.00
13g Tosa al em a sce es
’
CHAPTER VIII
PINON AND JUNIPER
General Conditions. Location and Extent.— This is the type
of woodland which occurs on the foothills of the Rocky Moun-
tains in western Texas, New Mexico, Arizona, Colorado, Utah,
Nevada, California, Idaho and Oregon. Above it lies the western
yellow pine and below it stretches the plains country with its
sparse vegetation of sage brush and buffalo grass.
The climate of the type may be characterized as a hot, dry one,
but as might be expected in a type with such a wide range there
is a considerable local variation. The mean annual temperature,
for example, ranges from 65 degrees to 45 degrees. With the
annual precipitation there is less variation. It is quite uniformly
to to 15 inches, But again, the length of growing season differs
greatly from north to south. In New Mexico five to six months
are free from frost whereas barely four months have mean annual
temperatures above 32 degrees in the northern part of the types
_ Tange.
The topography and soil are varied and do not seem to have
any controlling influence on the distribution of the type. Gen-
erally, however, it occupies a well drained slope with a deep
loamy soil but the type is found on shallow soiled hillsides pro-
vided the climatic conditions are right.
The two species which give their names to the type are the only
arborescent forms which occur in any abundance. The pinon,
Pinus edulis, is not more abundant numerically but the larger
size which it attains and the edible character of its seeds makes
it the more important commercially. The junipers, Juniperus,
are often'more numerous individually but their small size makes
them less valuable for firewood and hence they are the subor-
dinate species. A striking feature of the type is the openness of
the stands. The trees are scattered with open places in between
81
82 PINON AND JUNIPER
which are covered with grass if fertile and moist enough but
bare if dry and sandy. Since the trees are seldom large enough
to make saw timber an idea of the total volume can not well be
expressed in board feet. The cubic foot is the usual unit of
measurement. The stand per acre seldom exceeds two cords
and an average for the type thruout its range would be nearer
one cord. oe
The growth is relatively slow on account of the dryness of the
climate. For yield prediction there is little foundation. The
type has had so little commercial value that its growth has not
been investigated. It is only possible to say that the average
growth per acre per annum does not exceed one-quarter cord.
Even this small annual accretion may be retarded by such
parasites as mistletoe and the cedar apple. No especially
destructive insects have been reported as yet from this type.
Timber Values.— The only wood products that the type fur-
nishes are fence posts and fuel. These may be cut as small as
an inch at the top end and three feet long. The cost of cutting
is relatively high on account of the scantiness of the stand but
labor is cheap so ‘that $2 a cord is usually ample. Delivering
is done in great part by burros, the wood being bound on pack
saddles. This costs about 50 cents per mile per cord on account
of the expense in handling the many small pieces into which fuel-
wood has to be cut to allow it to be packed readily on the burros.
As a consequence the total delivered value is in the neighborhood
of $5 per cord. This leaves a stumpage value of about $1 per
cord for the owner of the standing trees.
Land Values.— From the figures given above it follows that the
pinon-juniper type has a negative value for the production of
wood alone. It is only where the tree growth has additional use-
fulness as a protective covering to prevent erosion and hinder
rapid runoff that the trees can profitably be retained. This use
is difficult to measure but it is a real one as the many instances
where water is conserved in this way for domestic and irrigation
purposes show. The absolute value depends upon the demand
but $1 per acre may safely be set as a minimum. An equitable
way to determine the value in a specific case would be to deduct
Pe ee
'¢
TITLES 83
. from the sale value all costs of construction, as, for example, the
masonry work in a retaining dam, and assign the remainder as the
conservation value of the growth on the watershed. To make
this more concrete assume the case of a town that gets its water
supply from a valley in the pinon-juniper type. The capital-
ized value of the annual water rentals in the town amount to
$5000. The cost of constructing a dam including ail necessary
roads, interest charges, etc., and the capitalized value of the
annual costs of operation and maintenance total $4500. This
leaves a balance of $500 for the conservation value of the water-
shed, or $2 per acre if there are 250 acres.
Titles.— Titles present no special difficulties because this type
usually occurs on land that has been surveyed. This means that
the boundaries are easy to locate and that transfers have been
accurately described by quarter sections. Smaller areas have
not usually been sold because the land has so small a value per
‘acre. Its main use is for grazing and at least 40 acres are needed
to keep a cow or horse during the year. Consequently the
transfers have commonly been in large blocks for the use of some
large cattle or sheep outfit.
CHAPTER IX
CHAPPARAL :
General Conditions.— The plant formation in which occur
sclerophyllons, dwarf, evergreen shrubs and trees is confined to
southern California and southern Arizona. Various species of
shrubs are found but the type takes its name of “ chapparal ”
from the dwarf oaks which occur init. Approximately 10,000,000
acres are included.
The rainfall according to the Weather Bureau records varies
from 9.54 inches at San Diego to 21.42 inches at San Luis Obispo.
The average is, however, less than 15 inches. 60° F. is the mean
annual temperature with a range from 22 degrees to 109 degrees
and hence the evaporation is high. As a consequence there is
a very small amount of moisture available for plant growth
more especially since the rainfall is concentrated during the
winter months and runs off rapidly.
The length of the growing season is not determined so much
by the number of months during which the thermometer is above
freezing but by the period during which there is enough moisture.
Chapparal is confined to the slopes of the mountain ranges
which are high enough to be above the arid plains country.
This is arid because the mountains intercept the rain bearing
clouds from the Pacific Ocean. Even the drought resisting vege-
tation of the chapparal cannot creep down into these areas of
scant rainfall. The type is therefore confined to the lower
slopes of the mountains of California’ and Arizona between
elevations of o to 8000 feet above sea level. The lower limit is
only reached near the Pacific Ocean where the rainfall is relatively
abundant. Inland the chapparal has to ascend the mountains
to obtain enough soil moisture. As a consequence the topogra-
phy of the type is characteristically steep and much cut up while
the soil is thin. |
84
4
:
a
;
2.
:
:
TIMBER AND LAND VALUES 85
Plummer’s studies show that in southern California the distri-
bution of genera by number is as follows:
Per cent
nn. S58 5% Soo ec Be as Obes Sh eke hos ne eas 39
Quercus...... C2 es £5 eRe ed pebmE ee eae 66 Comashesss 14
NG 3 aes si tia eee ek whee sawed oka ecs he os 14
ee TE EEE OE PR RE EEA RSE? Sie aie 10
NN i Ge so eae Rae ee co ceri wees 5
NS SER SI IEP PEE, EERIE! Fe Co ee, eng eae 4
RN I oe 5 x 0's oh 5 ce Renee bans ae bacuee 14
100
Of these only the species of oak (Quercus) attain tree form but
even they are much dwarfed and can only be used for fuel and
fencing.
As might be supposed from the dry climate growth is very slow.
An annual increment of one-fifth of a cord of firewood per acre
per annum is the best that may be expected.
Fire is the worst enemy of the type and may burn the roots so
deeply that a ground cover will not reéstablish itself for years.
Timber Land and Values.— Since the type furnishes nothing
but low grade fuel and fencing the question of stumpage values
can be treated briefly. Were better material available the dwarf
trees would not even be considered for these purposes but the
scarcity of trees in the arid region gives chapparal firewood and
“fencing an average value of $8 per cord, delivered. The cutting,
stacking, seasoning and delivering cost a great deal on account of
the scattered condition of the trees and the high price of labor.
Hence there is seldom a margin of more than $3 per cord for
stumpage and profit. With the average stand of two cords per
acre, the stumpage value of the timber never exceeds $5 per acre.
For the conservation of water, however, the chapparal possesses
a high value whenever settlement creates a demand for domestic
or irrigation supplies. This is the prime use of the Cleveland,
Angeles, and Santa Barbara National Forests and without such
protection, the cities of San Diego, San Bernardino, Los Angeles
and Santa Barbara would suffer greatly for lack of water. This
value is difficult to appraise accurately but $10 an acre does not
seem an excessive figure where the water supply of a large city is
- in puestion.
86 CHAPPARAL
Agriculturally the type is valueless except for a limited amount
of grazing on account of the arid climate and steep slopes. Goats
and sheep can obtain a certain amount of winter grazing but this
use seldom creates a land value of more than $10 an acre adjacent
to settlements. The greater part of this type which is grazed has
been considered too poor for private appropriation and remains
in the hands of the Federal Government.
Occasionally these lands are valuable for mineral deposits.
Land Titles.— Titles are seldom difficult to trace because the
nearness to settlement and demand for mining: have forced the
survey of the lands within the type. Holdings are for the most
part small. :
CHAPTER X
WESTERN YELLOW PINE TYPE
General Conditions.— The timber type in which western yel-
low pine is the dominant species is found all the way from the
Canadian line to the Mexican border. Patches of greater or less
extent occur in all the states west of the Great Plains. Large
solid bodies do not, however, occur in Nevada.
With such a range the climate of the type must necessarily
vary within wide limits. For example, the annual average
temperature varies from 45 degrees to 60 degrees while the num-
ber of months during which there is no growth on account of cold
range from three in southern New Mexico and Arizona to seven
in northern Montana. In fact the only climate factor which is
fairly uniform is the annual precipitation. This never exceeds
25 inches and has a normal range between 15 and 2o inches. Its
distribution is not, however, nearly so regular. In the southwest
44 per cent of the annual precipitation comes in the summer
months of June, July and August while in the northwest only
25 per cent falls during the same period. Such a wide range of
climatic conditions has naturally resulted in considerable varia-
tion in the form of the species. In the warmer and drier parts of
its range where the scant rainfall is barely sufficient the cones are
small and the seeds encased in thick scales. Where there is more
abundant moisture the cones are larger and do not retain the
seeds so tenaciously.
The yellow pine type is confined to the foothill region of the
Rocky Mountains and hence occurs on the lower slopes of the
higher mountains. These are usually alluvial in origin or at
least covered with loam, sand or gravel to a good depth. The
exact effect of the soil upon western yellow pine has not been
definitely determined because it grows thriftily on a variety of
soils provided they are well drained. Swampy or alkaline soils
87
88 WESTERN YELLOW PINE TYPE
129° 126° 121° ne 113° 109° 105°
y
a
Z.
LV.
i f. Hy
; i T
\ Meets rae Gaon 2
{ \ ” actenl Nepni
nate \ i “Or
37° o*. : Denver
\ Z,
3 A oe A AT
AN, We
Sy \ — — y < hd -
\ os wie Neg
NG
bh 2 i he sa 8 fe El Paso one; XK
¢ Bae b oa »
we 2 &
Z
‘a
sa 29
“ J ty
\)
° A
2
259 I
al o |
v { en “ a
117° ns? 109° 105° 101°
Scale
100 ° 100 200 300 400 500 600 walles
Fic. 8. Distribution of the Western Yellow Pine Type
a
a ae a oe eS
GENERAL CONDITIONS 89
are inoiis unfit. But the soil seems to be secondary in
importance to the climate. In other words yellow pine is now
occupying the foothill region of the Rocky Mountains not
because the soil conditions are particularly favorable but because
it has been more. successful than any other western species in
adapting itself to the climatic conditions which characterize the
foothill region.
Western yellow pine is so predominant within the type that
the other species which sometimes occur with it may be briefly
disposed of. On the lower edge of the type where the foothills
run out into the plains pinon and juniper advance a short dis-
tance into the type. On the upper edge or on north or east slopes
within the type Douglas fir, lodgepole pine, western larch, and
Alpine fir sometimes occur but all these species are typical of
climates cooler and moister than that of the yellow pine type.
Hence for the present purpose the type may be said to be uni-
formily pure in composition. The other species are never of
great commercial importance.
Damage is confined to four main causes, fire, insects, fungi and
wind. Of these the most active, the most serious, and yet the
easiest prevented is fire. The white man has adopted the
Indian’s habit of frequent burning so that there is scarcely an
acre of the type that has not been burnt over at one time or
another. The danger is the more insidious because the apparent
damage done is small. The mature trees are thick barked, crown
fires are rare and a fire seems to merely burn up old grass and use-
less litter. But countless young trees are killed in this way, the
soil is impoverished and an investigation reported by T. T.
Munger in the Proceedings of the Society of American Foresters
for April, 1914, shows conclusively that serious harm is done the
mature timber. He concludes that, “‘ each surface fire, no matter
how light, kills a merchantable tree to each two or three acres,
fire scars,42 per cent of the remaining merchantable trees so that
they may fall victims to the next high wind or surface fire, and
‘ pitches ’ the butts of a large proportion of the best trees.”
But more serious in the long run than this direct damage is the
indirect loss thru the trees being weakened by fires so that they
go WESTERN YELLOW PINE TYPE
fall an easy prey to insects and fungi. One of the most destruc-
tive members of the genus Dedroctonus, or bark beetles, attacks
western yellow pine and if the conditions are favorable for its
rapid increase damage over a wide area may result. For example
in the Black Hills of South Dakota the numbers of this beetle
increased so rapidly that practically all the mature timber over
‘an area of 500,000 acres was killed and forced sales were neces-
sary to salvage any of it. The National Forests in California
are having a similar experience at the present time. Such
infestations get started because the beetles find weakened trees
in which they may breed in large enough numbers so that they
successfully attack vigorous trees and overcome them by sheer
force of numbers. In fact this habit of seeking out weakened
individuals where there are but few of the beetles is taken advan-
tage of in combating infestations in the early stages. So called
“trap ”’ trees are girdled in the late summer so that the beetles .
may lay their eggs in them. Then these trap trees are felled,
peeled, and the grubs destroyed before the adult beetles can
emerge the following spring.
In the same way certain species of fungi, notably red rot,
Trametes pini, attack the western yellow pine when trees have
been weakened by fire or other causes and spread rapidly unless
the surrounding timber is thoroughly sound and healthy.
With the great variety of climatic conditions under which
yellow pine grows it is natural that there should be a wide range >
in rates of growth. The following figures are for growth under
favorable natural conditions but do not represent what can be
done under intensive management.
GROWTH IN 100 YEARS
Diameter Height
Inches Degrees
ATIZONR ooo 5 cs deta bees oe es aha a eee ee 14 48
1 BEN Tay gt VE: CRE LEI eta HS a eto eh npn aid eS 20 94
Prewon ee Se eae WEN aes Gals Se eee rie eae ae 13:2 62
Unfortunately no accurate figures can be presented for density
and yield per acre in a given time. It is only possible to state
TIMBER VALUES ; gt
in a general way that from 7500 to 17,500 board feet — 1500 to
3500 cubic feet — has been grown under natural conditions in
too years. Protection and thinning should, of course, greatly
increase these yields.
Timber Values.— The cost of estimating dail of yellow pine
- should be relatively low because the topography is not rough, the
stands are of a uniform density and size, and the Government
section—a square mile—is the standard unit of subdivision.
Hence, the cost per acre for an estimate which shows the amount
and quality of the timber, the topography and the cost of logging
should not exceed 5 cents for a 10 per cent estimate. The
only feature that is liable to increase this cost is the presence of
box canyons which must be crossed. This is always time con-
suming and sometimes dangerous.
A to per cent estimate is usually intensive enough because of
the uniformity in the stands and the present relatively low value
of the timber.
The smallest merchantable tree at the present time is one with
a top diameter of 10 inches while logs can seldom be run higher
than to a diameter of six inches in the tops.
The average stumpage value of western yellow pine according
to the 12th Census was slightly over $1 per M. This was 20
~ years ago and prices have of course risen in the meantime but the
fact remains that this tree does not yield a large per cent of high
grade finishing lumber. It is mostly used for framing and rough
construction so that while it is true that about 15 per cent of it
on the average brought $30 to $40 f.0.b. the mill in 1916, the
mill run sold for not more than $20 per M. Only rarely can
the slabs, edgings and tops be disposed of to advahtage for cord-
wood. The average grades, the per cent of each and the price
they bring at mill are given in the table shown on p. 92, com-
piled from data in Munger’s “ Western Yellow Pine in Oregon,”
Bulletin 418, Department of Agriculture.
The possibility of using this species for turpentine deserves
mention at least. It*was so used in California during the Civil
War when the southeastern supply was cut off and can be utilized
again but so far it has not been possible to compete with the
g2 WESTERN YELLOW PINE TYPE
Grades Fer cent of | F.O.B. value
Th etist Detee, yc asasa ce osie a eet eee eee 6 $35.00
CS BOLO oa sico ss oo ee 4 oe ee ee er oa ce ees 7 30.00
Diselech sce sa Ge irs aes cre ik oh sede averse ideas nee 5 20.00
NS ANOO co ex a eee es nhs een een ee ees eee be) 25.00
ING. 5 GUO Soo vn Cikccas weu coh ear cre pexe artis 16 16.00
NOs 4 SHO ee an Pies cade rere ora ya ie 7 II .00
IND:<3 COMMON Soo. 51 Wee ens ota ees Bhs ee ee 2G 8 21.00
ING. @ COMMON Es Sita eae deus cena abe de 16 14.00
NiO. S\ COMMON: 01.15 eee baie salen g pees 20 II.00
NG. 4 CORMION co Le Koen wees cook sae ok ak 5 8.00
100
southeast under normal conditions by reason of the cheap negro
labor obtainable in working long leaf pine. Hence, the turpen-
tine value need not be reckoned in calculating the stumpage price
of the average tract.
The normal method of utilizing western yellow pine is to fell
and buck the trees into logs 16 feet long, bunch the logs, use
four-wheeled truck or big wheels to get them to the railroad and
then freight them to the mill. Portable mills have not been used
to any great extent because the difficulty in getting water in
suitable quantities has made it better to locate a large mill in a
central place. Then too such a mill is better equipped to turn
out the higher grades. This is an advantage since the local
market will not absorb readily the total annual cut and much of
it must be shipped to such middle western markets as Kansas
City, St. Louis and Minneapolis. Average costs in 1914 were as
follows:
Peling and Waking). heli ak suka eae $1.00
Skidding and hauling to railway. ...............-0.0005- 4.00
Freight to mill, 15 miles.............. I.00
Walia ioe Ss Cul eck Ot ed ad ciewlale Segoe Pee rea emiaeees 5.00
$1.00
There is, therefore, a possible margin of $9.75 for stumpage
and profit if an average sale value of $20 can be secured. No
account need be taken of possible returns from cordwood because
aes. Se. ¥
LAND VALUES 93
this is too uncertain. Asa matter of fact stumpage prices range
all the way from $1 to $6 per M with $3 a high average.
Expressed in terms of man hours and horse hours per M the
costs of an average operation would be as follows:
Man hours Horse hours
Felling and bucking 2
oe ain 4's Open kame sesh ds 7 15
ae Caius cad veneer caseena ee 4
13 15
Railway hauling is only about half labor costs so that man hours
are of little value for it.
Land Values.— Besides its value for the production of timber
yellow pine land can frequently be used for agriculture. For
this purpose, however, it cannot have more than a 5 per cent
slope because otherwise it cannot be irrigated and will not “ dry
farm ”’ well by reason of the rapid drainage. But if fairly level
the land can be used for any crop suited to the climate. In fact
much of the homesteading in the foothills of the Rockies has
been done in this type and very good results obtained where there
was opportunity to irrigate. The cost of clearing the land for
cultivation is not excessive because there are relatively few
stumps. Fifty dollars an acre-ought to clear and fence such
land and the net annual returns should total $5, so that its pro-
ductive value at 3 per cent would be over $100.
As a private investment the growing of yellow pine is not
attractive. Even with a stand of 15,000 board feet in 100
years and interest at 3 per cent a reasonable return cannot be
secured. Where other considerations enter, however, the returns
are well worth while. For example, the National Forests yield
not only timber but watershed protection for the irrigation
interests and support annually a large number of cattle and sheep.
Hence from the public point of view the highest use to which any
of the yellow pine land not fit and needed for tillage can be put
is the raising of timber as the main crop. It would therefore
appear that land of this type should not be cleaned for tillage
unless it can be irrigated or dry farmed. The tendency has been
to clear up more land than can be properly farmed.
94. : . WESTERN YELLOW PINE TYPE
While grazing does not bring large returns in itselt-—— 5 to 10
cents per acre per annum — it deserves consideration as a second-
ary source of income since it can be practiced in connection with
forestry. After suitable reproduction has been secured cattle
and horses will do little damage to the young trees, and even
sheep may be allowed to graze the area as soon as the trees get
more than 10 feet high.
Titles.— Land disputes are rare within this type because the
boundary lines are plainly marked and there have not been
many changes of title since the Federal Government issued
patent. For land of level or gently rolling character the mile
square section system of subdivision is ideal. Furthermore there
has been little excuse for slipshod work in surveying so that yel-
low pine land is generally well marked and accurately subdivided.
Likewise the record of transfers is generally free from the con-
fusion that is found in the archives of the counties which have
been settled for 50 years or more,
CHAPTER XI
LODGEPOLE PINE TYPE
General Conditions.—This type occurs in the higher mountains
—at least 4000 feet above sea level—of Colorado, Utah,
Wyoming, Idaho and Montana. Altitudinally it is the next
important timber type above the western yellow pine and reaches
nearly to tree line on some of the lower and more protected
mountains. Generally, however, it gives place to Engelmann
spruce and alpine fir before tree line is reached.
Since it occurs at a relatively high altitude the precipitation
is naturally greater than in the yellow pine type. Exact figures
are not available but it seems safe to estimate that the annual
precipitation averages between 25 and 35 inches. The mean
annual temperature is low, 40 degrees to 45 degrees, as might be
surmised from the altitude. Likewise a high percentage of the
year has temperatures below freezing. In fact the growing
season does not exceed five months.
From the previous description it follows that the topography
is generally steep and rough. Lodgepole pine does, however,
need a fair degree of soil depth:so that it is never found in abund-
ance on ledges or rock cliffs.
Usually no other species is vigorous enough to contest success-
fully with lodgepole pine for the possession of soil adapted to the
-latter. It is a prolific seeder, a thrifty grower and has few
enemies. Hence it usually occurs in pure stands over large areas.
Only occasionally are there small groups of aspen, Douglas fir,
alpine fir, white bark pine or western larch mixed with it.
While there is great range in the growth conditions the follow-
ing figures give a fair notion of what lodgepole pine can do under
good conditions in 50 and 100 years.
é 5° years I0o years
oe pa Sey ieee 7.5 inches 9 inches
GSS 3s ok cso acc tc eee 46 feet 68 feet
pemsity per acre... . 065. cess 1490 600 ~
PMN DOE MOTE, |. onc scene occu ccs 2250 cubic feet 10,800 board feet
95
LODGEPOLE PINE TYPE
x S
Y age
WD Nis
WELTY
way ' 2 =
RK ; Vi.
LP) > aS WY
. 3 Up swae-iy on
SEF
OPA
QQ SAN Re
SAN Ni
)
\)
WN
Fic. 9. Distribution of the Lodgepole Pine and ‘Engelmann Spruce Types
TIMBER VALUES | 97
Timber Values. — The roughness of the topography is the only
factor that makes estimating in the lodgepole pine type expensive.
The stands are uniform in size and density and the section cor-
ners are easy to find. Therefore, a cost of five cents per acre for
a 10 per cent estimate is representative of average conditions. -
Lodgepole pine is not quoted separately in the census figures
because it is only of importance locally, but the stumpage price for
any particular tract can be figured by deducting the cost of log-
ging and milling from the sale value of the finished product. On
account of its small size — very few trees-attain a diameter breast-
high of more than 14 inches — relatively little lodgepole pine is
sawn. Most of it is used in the round as mining timbers, fencing
or hewn railroad ties. Moreover, the little that does go thru the
sawmill makes narrow, low grade lumber which sells for less than
$30 per M at the mill. The market for slabs and edgings is neg-
lible and the tops are so small that little cordwood can be cut
from them, so that no return can be expected except that to be
obtained from the main bote.
Since a tie operation is more typical than a lumbering job
figures will be given for the former in order to show what the cost
of getting lodgepole timber in shape for market is under normal
_ conditions.
Per tie
Felling, hacking and peeling............cecesceecess 15 cents
Hauling four miles to railway..........ceceeceeeess >
NR es. Coe, ss Gacics aes eniee FavieKegiaw seek a: *
Value at railway....... 40 “
Margin for stumpage and profit...........2ceeeeee: 1 ie
To convert this margin per tie to the basis of M feet it is neces-
sary to multiply by 30 since the average tie contains 333 board
feet. Hence the margin per M is $3.33. Actual stumpage prices
range from $1 to $5 per M with an average of not more than $3.
Even this is relatively high for such small sized lumber but lodge-
pole pine,occurs in a region where large timber is scarce and the
settlers are glad to get almost anything in the way of wood.
In man hours and horse hours the average costs per M will be as
follows:
98 . LODGEPOLE PINE TYPE
Polling and Ducking?) oer ey vias 4
DOM VES ces Na er oes ERR ee een 7 15
Mailing isha eeespen cet Pua Sibed wn Rate Ve wee 4
15 15
‘Land Values.— Most lodgepole land is too rough to be tilled so
that its main value is for the production of timber. For this pur-
pose alone it will not pay a profit but a combination of timber
raising, grazing and watershed protection does yield well. :
Where the land is not too rough and steep to till and irrigate
it commands the same prices as raw yellow pine land, $5 to $10
per acre, and has the same productive capacity.
For grazing it is not so valuable because the shade of lodgepole
pine stands does not permit the more valuable grasses to thrive.
Hence, only so called “ weeds ” are found in this type and they
are not palatable except to sheep. Five acres are needed to
keep a full grown ewe or wether during the summer which means
a value of about $2 per acre.
Titles.— Titles are in all respects similar to those in the yellow
pine type except that the land is less liable to have been surveyed
because of its greater inaccessibility.
3 a A ~
Se ee ee a ee Le eS le a a Lo
CHAPTER XII
ENGELMANN SPRUCE TYPE
General Conditions.— Capping the tops of the higher peaks in
northern New Mexico, Colorado, Utah and Wyoming are unique
stands of timber which in their luxuriance and density remind
one of the tree growth of the northeast gr northwest. In these
Engelmann spruce is the dominant species. Naturally they do
not occupy any considerable area because the peaks extend
upwards and not outwards and they are not much known either
commercially or scenically. But no description of Rocky Moun-
tain timber resources would be complete without a reference to
this very distinct and locally important type.
~ On account of the inaccessibility and bleakness of their location
no accurate, long time climate records have been kept within
this type. It is merely possible to say in a general way that the
precipitation is evenly distributed, relatively heavy, at least
35 inches, and that the mean annual temperature is below 35
degrees. Hence it follows that the growing season is short. In
fact at least eight months of the year have average temperatures
below freezing.
As stated above this type is confined to the higher peaks so that
the topography is rough and steep and the soil shallow. Like
its eastern relative, the red spruce, Engelmann spruce can cling
to mountain sides where the actual mineral soil is not deeper than
a few inches.
_ Normally the stands are nearly pure in this type but on the
lower edges on the deeper soiled sites lodgepole pine, Colorado
blue spruce, aspen and Douglas fir occur. In the southern part
of its range Engelmann spruce is also occasionally associated with
bristle cone and limber pine. It loses its capacity to dominate
as it approaches the Canadian line. For example in northern
Idaho pure stands are very rare and limited in extent but mixtures
99
I00 ENGELMANN SPRUCE TYPE
in which spruce is found with Douglas fir, lodgepole pine, western
larch, silver pine, hemlock and western red cedar are not uncom-
mon. The only other species that has the same tolerance for
the thin soil and high wind of the mountain summits as Engel-
mann spruce is alpine fir but it is seldoin more than a subordinate
associate. ‘The merchantable contents vary from 3000 to 50,000
feet with an average of 5000 feet per acre.
As might be expected from the rigorous climate and thin soil
growth is slow. The following figures show what 100 years will
give under average conditions:
Timber Values.— The cost of estimating is neither cheap nor
very expensive. Five cents an acre should give a 10 per cent
estimate. The factors that make for cheapness are uniformity
of stand and size of timber while the rugged topography and rela-
tive inaccessibility increase the cost. Inaccessibility has two.
phases which may both be of importance. In the first place the
Engelmann spruce type is usually a long distance from roads and
hence transportation is slow, difficult and costly. Secondly,
the fact that the type is hard to reach reduces the probability of
its having been surveyed. The Land Office has naturally con-
centrated on the more accessible public land in the foothills
which was in demand for tillage and grazing as well as for the
timber. Furthermore, even when surveys have been made
they are likely to be poor in quality. The contract method of
surveying is not conducive to accurate work under difficulties
because the surveyor’s main object is to cover the largest possible
area at the minimum cost. In addition the inspection of moun-
tain survey work has been notoriously lax. The temptation to
hurry over the inaccessible mountain peaks is very strong and
only the most conscientious inspectors have resisted the impulse
to be lenient with contract work in such localities. This failing
of inspectors has been taken advantage of to the fullest by the
contract surveyors. hy
The following minimum diameter limits are used in esti-
mating timber within this type:
TIMBER VALUES Ior
Species Diameter breast-high Top diameter
Inches Inches
oernane ance Sek ha Wg ai ca :
ESI aaa al ea 8 4
I cn os od 5 cae hoe so ex 10 5
DNS Huei in sees \aecivteesestaa 8 3
Lodgepole pine is cut to a smaller size because its taper is less
abrupt than the other species. Aspen may be cut to eight inches
in diameter breast-high since it is the best firewood to be had in
the southern Rocky Mountains and much sought for this purpose.
It is the only species that should be estimated in cords.
None of the species in this type are listed separately in the
Census because they are of only minor commercial importance as
they grow in the type. This does not mean that Douglas fir,
for example, is. not an important timber tree but only that the
individuals which are found in this type do not reach the general
market. When used at all they are employed for local purposes
only. Hence there do not exist any figures which show the varia-
tion in stumpage prices for the species found in this type in dif-
ferent states and in various years. It is only possible to say in
a general way that no stumpage in this type is worth more than
- $5 per M. The values applicable to individual tracts must be
figured out on the basis of average sale values and logging and
manufacturing costs.
Generally speaking logging costs are high because of the
inaccessibility and small size of the timber. Its density and
uniformity of diameter and height are the only factors that help
to decrease the cost. Inaccessibility means high cost of supplies
and labor and small timber is more expensive to buck, haul and
saw, the main items of logging and manufacturing cost. The
following figures are averages based on the methods commonly
employed in this type and representative of conditions in 1915:—
Felling and bucking Pies
ME WOE ON in a cnuh bd ag ho kee sd Mea cicaoe bx s 1.50
OO a sons tavoeshan dieses e wiv ke ChtkGs akst tee 2.00
Ns oS as oe cams es Sis ea: 5 ah oklewSe au ck 4.00
102 ENGELMANN SPRUCE TYPE
Portable mills are the rule and they are placed as near the tim-
ber as possible. This is why the cost of getting the logs into the
mill is low. But this is offset by the distance from market. A
mill set up near the head of a timbered gulch may be close to its
source of raw material but there is always a long haul to the rail-
road or the ranches in the valley beneath. Hence the sale value
at the mill was seldom more than $15 per M in rors for the
log run and commonly less. This left a possible margin for
stumpage and profit of $8.50. This was the maximum. The
average was nearer $5 per M, nor could this be materially in-
creased by the sale of firewood. The tops and slabs will seldom
pay for salvaging. Aspen is the only good fire wood in the type.
The costs in man hours and horse hours will average as follows:
Man hours Horse hours
Felling and bucking..... Ea at eau ey 4
Siding to WN as os ss vss ass cee e's 33 43
WOON esas oss och van eae kee et 33 ,
10 43
No appreciable difference exists in the average sale value per
M of the log run of the different species, because they are all
used for the same purpose — rough construction. Of course there
is variation in the durability and workability of the species for
different purposes. For example, no one would use a spruce
barn sill if a Douglas fir one could be obtained, but the difference
in durability would amount to only a few dollars per M and per-
haps be offset by the greater usefulness of spruce for other pur-
poses. The fact remains that nearly all the species fouad in the
Engelmann spruce type can be used interchangeably in the uses
for which they are desired provided the sizes are right.
Land Values. — Since tillage is out of the question on Engel-
mann spruce land it has value only for the production of timber,
occasionally for grazing, the protection of water supplies, and for
scenery. For the first purpose it is not an attractive investment
for the private individual because the rigorous climate inhibits
rapid growth and the yields are therefore low in spite of the
density of the stands. This very density reduces its value for
grazing because grass and herbs do not find sunlight enough for
a al el i Ta er
TITLES 103
their growth. Only sheep can find anything to eat in this type.
But the density is a favorable factor again when it comes to con-
serving moisture and spruce stands play an important role in this
way. They are especially useful because they are commonly
located at the heads of the valleys of the streams which furnish
_the supplies of irrigation water for the valley farms below.
Another very important use from the national point of view is
their scenic value. No one will deny that much of the beauty
of the higher Rocky Mountain peaks is due to the dark green
patches of Engelmann spruce clinging to the mountain sides.
_ We are at last beginning to recognize this function as a useful
one and insisting that such mountain slopes be protected from
reckless denudation. In other words this intangible use has so
great a value that the public will not permit cutting in which no
provision is made for a second crop and to enforce this mandate
has created National Forests and Parks thru Congress. Hence,
lands which will not pay dividends for the production of timber
alone give handsome returns when the by-product uses, grazing,
the prevention of erosion, the protection of water supplies, and
recreation are considered. These by-product values the public,
thru its agent, the Government, can afford to conserve.
Titles.— No special difficulty need arise under this heading
when the lands have been well surveyed. Unfortunately, for
reasons explained above, this is sometimes not the case. Hence
the location of much of this type is very vague and the chain of
title is correspondingly confused. Unsurveyed lands cannot
legally be transferred because the title remains in the Govern-
ment until surveys are made and accepted by the General Land
Office.
CHAPTER XIII
SILVER PINE TYPE
General Conditions. —This is a well developed but restricted
type confined to northwestern Montana, northern Idaho and
northeastern Washington. Even within this area it is not found
thruout but merely on the lower slopes of the mountains. It does
not reach the upper slopes nor descend into the valleys but occurs
abundantly only between elevations of 3000 and 6000 feet above
sea level. This does not, of course, mean that the dominant
species, silver pine (Pinus monticola,) is not found above or
below these elevations. As a matter of fact it descends to sea
level at the Straits of Fuca and attains an elevation of 10,000 feet
in the Sierras. But the type is not of commercial importance
except in the region referred to above.
Climate seems to be the controlling factor in the distribution
of this type. In general it is moderately cool and moist. To be
specific, the total annual precipitation does not exceed 40 inches,
the mean annual temperature is about 45° F., and only five
months have average temperatures above 32° F. The type is
probably restricted from extending to lower elevations because
the precipitation is less in the semi-arid valleys while its upper
limit seems to be determined by the length of the growing |
season.
The topography of the lower slopes upon which the type is
found is characteristically gentle. The type does not reach up
on to the upper slopes. Hence the soil is deep and alluvial in
character being derived mainly from the wash of the slopes above.
While silver pine is the most abundant species and the most
important commercially, red cedar (Thuya occidentalis) and hem-
lock (Tsuga occidentalis) are also found in the type. They
always occupy a subordinate position, however. Both are tol-
erant enough to grow well under the silver pine and mixed stands
104
TO5
A\ SS
RN
—
> Ns
' GENERAL CONDITIONS
Fic. ro. Distribution of the Silver Pine Type
| ’ SENG —S .
Wee
aes
106 SILVER PINE TYPE
are two storied with the.pine always on top. Stands may be
divided by their composition into the following groups or sub-
types:
Stands per acre
Pure silver pine........ 100,000 board feet maximum, 30,000 board feet average
Pine and red cedar..... 200,000 board feet maximum, 50,000 board feet average -
Pine and hemlock...... 200,000 board feet maximum, 50,000 board feet average
Growth conditions for silver pine on good sites may be sum-
marized as follows:
Age Diameter Height Yield in board feet
Inches
WO POR sh .liees Gpeete 7 50 25,000
A thf. tee ge ine Daeg © 10 7O 40,000
POO VOATS ae. Wee te 14 100 60,000
These figures are simply estimates since there are unfortunately
no accurate measurements for the tree species in this type.
Damage may be either negligible or very severe. Fires, for
example, can ordinarily do little harm in the type because the
stands are so dense as to keep the ground cover moist except in
times of long continued dry weather. But when the woods do
dry out a fire that starts on the ground quickly becomes a top fire
and kills the entire stand. Hence, the damage is appalling in a
serious drought. For example, the fires of 1910 in northern
Idaho killed outright thousands of acres of silver pine.
While there are species of insects which attack the silver
pine none of them have so far been reported in large numbers.
Three fungi, Trametes pini, Polyporus schweinitzii and Fomes
annosus have, however, been found to cause a large amount of
heart rot. In the Coeur d’Alene region of Idaho investigation
showed 7 per cent of the volume of the stand affected by these
fungi. These studies by Weir and Hubert (U.S. Dept. of Agr.,
Bul. 799) covered 1400 trees on seven National Forest sale areas.
Timber Values. — In this type as with eastern white pine the
high value of the timber makes an intensive estimate necessary |
so that the cost is high in spite of the easy topography and uni-
formity of composition. In fact, nothing less than a ro per cent
TIMBER VALUES 107
estimate is safe in such valuable timber. As a consequence the
costs per acre range from: 5 to to cents, with the latter as a
safer figure if an accurate estimate is to be made. Nor can the
relatively level topography, uniformity of the stands in compo-
sition, size and density, and the accessibility of the timber offset
this single cost factor. This is in brief a problem similar in every
way to the estimating of Lake States white pine with the single
“exception that silver pine is not so near the market and hence
not quite so valuable.
The only Census figures available, those for 1900, give low
average stumpage values because at the time they were gathered
the white pine of the “‘ Central Empire ” had not been put on the
market in any large amount. The following values obtained at
that time: ;
NE UN eo ews ci beck cece $1.50 per M
RUA ee ".. 0.77 per M
Hemlock......................... Not considered merchantable
SE el. Not considered merchantable
At present, however, stumpage values are much higher. This
is the natural result of market development. Intrinsically silver
pine is as valuable as eastern white pine and can be used for
exactly the same purposes. Naturally, however, trade preju-
dices had to be overcome before a wide market could be found.
Furthermore, a relatively low value can only be secured as long
as wood is marketed as rough ungraded lumber. High prices
ate only paid for carefully graded lumber which is especially
selected for the particular purpose to which it is to be devoted.
The careful grading of silver pine only dates from 1903 while the
sash and door mills which now work up the rough lumber into
semi-finished form, are no older. Since, however, silver pine is
a wood which can be used for pattern work, cabinet making, and
fine finishing it is fast commanding the same sale value as eastern
white pine. This means that the average value of the mill run
at Minnesota transfer was $35 to $40 per M board feet in 1910
based on the following percentages of grades: :
Fine finishing lumber.............. 10 per cent at $100 = $10.00
Sash and door stock............... 20percentat 40= 8.00
Reower etades oo 7yopercentat 25 = 17.50
$35.50
108 SILVER PINE TYPE
While silver pine competes successfully with eastern white
pine, the high stumpage prices which prevail in the Lake States
do not hold good for Idaho and Montana. Nor is it reasonable
to expect that they should when it is remembered that there is a
long freight haul to the eastern markets. This is in fact the main
item of cost and averages about $10 per M. To this must be
added the usual logging and milling charges so that it is seldom
that there is a margin of more than $5 per M for profit and stump-
age value. The costs of a typical operation in 1910 may be sum-
marized as follows:
Per M
Peting Avid DUCKING oo, O20 oi so baud & cam cen Camda see $1.50
Riau S OE Ok FS ks iat ed pa eet 5.00
Milling (sawing, planing, seasoning, etc.)..............-. 5.50
EOIN 0 6 Gig os Aa ey ee OO I.50
PC oo. 5 eaaackanalne Ee ve ves ees Babs bonnie eae Ub ae
RMA SNE Sa inno waliak picky $.5 Glos vaio. Sp GE $25.00
PVRROIG CADE WAU ooo ks bin sey be ais leks Cone eae 35.00
Margin for profit and stumpage............0.......0- -I0.00
Expressed in man hours and horse hours per M these costs
would be:
Man hours Horse hours
Felling and bucking. .....5.3.......... 2
Se rs sy Sees Se a Ws yi ben ale ca 3 4
PINMUG as. ok a ha ci sa oe ke 9 15
ETN cs ccnu: Cale bsg ik accra es psa a ocaie ate 7
21 19
These figures may be safely used in estimating an average
** chance ”’ and presuppose the erection of a fair sized mill at some
point on the railroad not too far from the timber. Then the
logs are either brought in by the railroad, by tractor or by
horses. The latter are the most expensive because they suffer
severely from the dust. Especially during the summer this
frequently gets to be six inches or more deep and only an iron
- lunged traction engine can keep hauling thru it day after day.
At the mill the logs are washed and then put thru the saw, the
plane and the dry kiln in order to get out of them the highest
percentage of finishing lumber which will show a margin above the
:
E
~
TIMBER VALUES 109
transportation charge to the eastern markets. For the low grade
lumber, slabs and edgings there is no market unless the mill
itself can use them for fuel. Many plants pay as much as 50
cents per M simply to dispose of them. Consequently the
whole profit of the operation r must be sought in the lumber which
will repay shipment cost.
The three main uses of red cedar are for shingles, poles and
piling. For these purposes it commanded the following prices
in 1915:
Shingles:
Extra stars, $1.43 per thousand shingles.
Extra clears, $1.71 per thousand shingles. _
Approximately, $13 per M board feet f.o.b. the mill.
? Poles:
Prices ranged from 55 cents for 20-foot, 4-inch top diame-
ter pole to $33 for an 80-foot, 9-inch diameter pole or
- from $25 to $60 per M board feet. On account of the
higher proportion of small size poles $40 per M is a fair
average price f.o.b. the shipping point.
Piling sells for slightly better prices than Poles but must gen-
erally be straighter and sounder.
The cost of logging shingle material and making the shingles
averaged as follows in 1915:
Per M board feet
ead deswbition to rill. Sobhi cwuPas wel ee eed btuhwa bread 2.00
MS oO. lee i Sc oS oe ee eee ee 5-00
$10.00
Poles and piles costs were as follows:
‘ Per M board feet
Aptis and pechng@. oc. 2s Paes a ee ee $5.00
WN oc as cc wo ec ets ee eee 20.00
peuree, lonting, ele. i. dade fre geht a a ao
IIo SILVER PINE TYPE
Consequently the margins for profit and stumpage were $3 per
M in the case of shingles and $5 for poles and piles.
Western hemlock is similar to its eastern relative in properties,
so that it can be used for the same purposes. There is not,
however, as good a market for it. None of it is of sufficiently
high quality to be shipped across the continent so that it is all
used locally for dimension lumber and rough boarding. ‘For
these purposes it commanded an average price of $14 per M
f.o.b. the millsin 1915. Since the logging, milling and other costs
amounted to at least $10 there was only a margin of a few dollars
for profit and stumpage. |
Land Values. — As explained above in discussing the typical
soil of the type it is commonly a deep, well drained alluvial loam.
This is, of course, first rate agriculturally when the slopes are
right for cultivation and in this connection it must be remem-
bered that erosion is not the determining factor with reference
to the slope but suitability for irrigation. Obviously steep
slopes cannot be irrigated successfully without an expensive sys-
tem of terraces so that only the level stretches have been.sought
for tillage. Still another factor has restricted the use of this type
for agriculture and that is the cost of clearing the land. With
the large number of stumps, frequently over 150 per acre, and
the high cost of labor, land can seldom be cleared for tillage for
less than $75 per acre. Such a large initial investment demands
high returns such as can only be secured by a local market. As
a consequence clearing has as a rule been confined to those level
pieces of soil which can be cheaply irrigated and which lie close
enough to a town to insure an eager demand for the hay, vege-
tables and fruit raised. In other words, this is not a small
grain soil but one where the cost of clearing enforces intensive
cultivation. For the same reason grazing is not extensively
‘practised. The natural openings in the woods are few, mainly
beaver meadows, and the crown cover is too dense to permit
abundant grass or weed growth. Clearing the woods for grazing
is, of course, out of the question.
For growing trees this type has a value of at least $5 per acre.
The value per acre for grazing is much less than this, $1 per acre,
logs.
LAND TITLES — III
while the tillage value may be $100 an acre if slope and market
conditions are right. Generally speaking, however, the highest
use for at least 90 per cent of the type is the production of saw
Land Titles.— Northern Idaho and northwestern Montana are
new regions but recently surveyed so that there are few cases in
which title cannot be traced directly back to the Federal or
State Government. The surveys themselves are for the most
part well done because the high quality of the timber, the poten-
tial agricultural value of the soil, and the presence of mineral
deposits have all conspired to secure good surveys from the
General Land Office.
CHAPTER XIV
SUGAR PINE TYPE
General Conditions. — The sugar pine type is one of the illus-
trations of how favorable the climate on our Pacific Coast is for
the growth of trees. It lies immediately above the giant sequoia
type on the western slopes of the Sierra and Coast ranges in
southern Oregon and northern California and merges on the north
into the luxuriant Douglas fir type, the heaviest yielding timber
type in the world. In other words, the sugar pine type is that —
association of trees which has developed the capacity to thrive
under conditions which are not moist and warm enough for the
sequoias and are too warm for the best growth of Douglas fir. —
Commercially the type is of importance from Douglas County,
Oregon, to Kern County, California, along the Sierra Range, a
distance of 500 miles. In the Coast Range the north and south
extent is less, 200 miles from Jackson County in Oregon to Glenn
County, California. In an east and west direction the type
ranges from 50 miles to too miles in width with an average of
60 miles. There is, consequently, roughly 40,000 square miles
included within the type. Much of this area is, however, sparsely
timbered. Three-fourths of the total stand is concentrated in
the mountainous portions of Siskiyou, Trinity and Shasta Coun-
ties, California.
Altitudinally the type ranges from 3000 to gooo feet above sea
level but in any particular locality there is seldom a variation of
more than 3000 feet. In other words, where the type descends
within 3000 feet of the sea as in the northern Sierras it does not
ascend beyond 6000 feet while in the southern Sierras the range
is from 6000 to gooo feet.
The climate of the type has certain marked characteristics
which differentiate it from that of its neighbors. As stated above
the growing season is shorter and the available moisture less than
II2
113
GENERAL CONDITIONS
Se ee ee ee
Fic. rr. Distribution of the Sugar Pine Type
114 SUGAR PINE TYPE
in the sequoia type while the Douglas fir type on the north has a
shorter growing season but much more precipitation. To be
specific, sugar pine and its associates thrive best with an annual
precipitation of at least 40 inches altho they can endure a mini-
mum of zoinches. Likewise, the largest trees, 10 feet in diameter
and 200 feet in height and scaling over 25,000 feet, are only found
where the growing season is at least seven months long. Like
the rest of California the heat of summer in this type is unrelieved
by showers. Fully four-fifths of the precipitation falls during
the early spring, late fall and winter.
As was seen in discussing the location and extent of the type
it is essentially a mountain form of vegetation. The valleys are
too hot and dry to allow tree growth. At the other extreme
‘sugar pine does not reach the summits of the Sierras, at least as
a commercial tree, because of the cold. The type may, therefore,
be characterized as a middle slope type. From this it naturally
follows that the soil is of medium depth because great accumula-
tions of alluvial soil are not found on mountain slopes but still .
the grades are gradual enough so that the bed rock is covered in
most places with a,moderate layer of soil. As with other forms
of tree growth the chemical composition of the soil has little
effect upon the growth of sugar pine and its associates. The
physical characters of the soil are the controlling factors, reason-
able depth, good drainage and good capillarity.
- By composition the type may be divided into two subtypes or
cover types, the sugar pine-yellow pine subtype and the sugar
pine-fir subtype. The former is the more abundant in the
southern part of the type’s range since it is an association of trees
which are well.suited to the hot, dry summers of the middle and
southern Sierras. ‘The important species in order of their abund-
ance are as follows:
§ Per cent by volume
Sigar pine.) es Saw EA awe wes boeh Say eet 25
Weatear yellow pint... 6.05 cc a. Sine os hose ne een 20
White Tes acs cs eee aaa org aise oan cy ek lara ea gic cade See 15
Dougias Geo oC Se aes se a ea oes eee 15
INGCUSC COORE £5, 55 chee Shae ak ae ae Re ado sks METS 10
jefirey IgGs So cs wee ae kd oe mele se eb ane ane be)
BOGUT. o:00b0 4a RUN Ee HEP CNV aA OEE ivexrieecion 5
1 Sie il ath ela mi
GENERAL CONDITIONS II5
Stands in this subtype range from 60,000 board feet per acre ou
the moister sites within its range to 2000 board feet on the drier
sites with an average of 20,000 board feet.
The sugar pine-fir subtype, on the other hand, is character-
istic of the northern part of the type’s range and is found where
the climate is moist and cool enough for Douglas fir. The
average stand per acre is 30,000 board feet with a range from
150,000 board feet to 5000 board feet. The composition by vol-
ume is as follows:
‘ Per cent
RS ee See eR oR Se A RI 30
SN Oe ies chs eee ec ct ec eee vou ea dr 40
SS iin ak Seas cag be Bo aR camech ue che we 30
This subtype occupies a much smaller area than the sugar pine-
yellow pine subtype.
Growth within the type is summarized in the following table:
Diameter Height in feet
Yield per acre
I 2 3 all species
Sugar | Yellow| Incense} 1 2 3
pine pine | cedar
: Inches | Inches | Inches board feet
- oS eae I 4 I to 15 5 400
ET” Se Nene agen 5 8 5 35 45 20 1600
4 Ratan Io 14 8 60 65 35 4000
ORE os. ees 18 20 14 92 94 65 | 7300
These figures are low because they have come from the measure-
ment of virgin timber. Stands under management can be
expected to grow much more rapidly because the better species
could be aided to dominate the poorer individuals at an early age
and thus shorten materially the struggle for supremacy. The
yield, particularly, can be much increased. This will come,
however, by making the stands more dense so that more trees
will grow per acre. Virgin stands have been greatly decimated
by fires, insects and fungi but there is no reason why reasonable
care may not prevent the greater part of these losses.
Fire is, as always, the main source of damage in this type. On
account of the openness of the stand fires do not, however, get
off the ground and burn the tops except in rare cases where a long
r16' SUGAR PINE TYPE
continued drought is followed by very high wind. As a conse-
quence only the small trees are killed outright but the larger
trees are injured at the butt. This is particularly the case on a
hillside where leaves, cones and branches collect on the upper side
of the tree and form an accumulation of inflammable material
that will burn long enough and hard enough to make deep scars.
Such damage is not so serious in itself as in its indirect effect in
weakening the trees so that they are more susceptible to insect
and fungus injury. Similar results follow breakage by light-
ning, wind, and snow. In such damaged trees bark beetles of
the genera Dendroctonus and Buprestide reproduce in numbers
great enough to attack live timber successfully. Losses of 5
to 10 per cent of the total stand are not uncommon in this way.
While several species of fungi attack the weakened trees in
this type no serious damage to sound, living timber has been yet
reported. In fact, sugar pine when protected from fire seems
unusually resistant to diseases.
Timber Values.— On the whole the advantages offset the dis-
advantages in estimating in the sugar pine type. The stands are
open with comparatively little underbrush. This means few
trees per acre with few shrubs and vines to impede the estimator’s
progress. Then, too, the trees are large size and a few big trees
are easier to estimate than the many small trees which it would
take to make up the same volume. Another aid is the high pro-
portion of the type which has been surveyed so that tracts may
be readily located on the ground... These factors make it. pos-
sible to get fairly good results from a ro per cent estimate where
areas of more than 100 acres are to be valued. Hence the cost
need seldom exceed 10 cents per acre in spite of the inaccessi-
bility of some of the mountain tracts and the fact that the type
is usually a mixture of several species.
Separate stumpage prices for the different species in the type
were unheard of two decades ago. Private holdings of a size
great enough to be lumbered economically were secured by
grouping timber and stone claims which were bought at a flat
rate of $2.50 per acre from the Government or approximately
¥5 cents per M board feet. From this minimum there has been
TIMBER VALUES
117
a steady increase until in 1900 accessible sugar pine was worth
$x per M; in 1915 the following prices prevailed in private sales:
Maximum | Average | Minimum
7% ea EE ety ie ere peor, $3.00 | $2.50 $1.50
PN en un o> chen bed vee be cine €.< 2.50 2.00 1.00
RS EC iCRe 6s cau dss tas $0.65
eames Cea pee Cut OF CMD) 6. os casa os see doe dae ck OLEO
NN os cn co wk vic 4 0 OREM Res 15 a ns oe we ve oe a ccs 0.25
MIL PRM SS. ies og Sea ak Vis ice ws Sheen sebas 1.50
OMINOUS i. sk cess hu Su oi beewan ke Cou shan es