HAUSSMANN & DUNN GO. MAKERS OF SURGICAL INSTRUMENTS 392 SOUTH CLARK ST. CHICAGO. tvV { fe 0 ^ ■ \y 'Jyyv ^' / /' /I ft \ I z-zz. .t^'/^-^'-i /s ;• ^'^'^n^' t <:-«_ f,v/. m YETERINAEY MEDICINES THEIK ACTIONS AND USES I'rinterl ul the lulinhnrg^ Vniversity Preff By T. and A. CusXBTaui.k. I'dK l« A V I I) DOUG LA8. X . . . SIMPKIN, MARSHALL, HAMILTON, KENT AND CO., LTD. t'AMBRlDOE OLASGOW . MAfMILLAN AND BOWES. .lAMES MACLEHOSE AND SOXS VETERINARY MEDICINES THEIR ACTIONS AND USES FINLAY DUN FOBMEBLY LKCTUBEE OX MATERIA MEDICA AND DIETETICS AT THE EDINBURGH VKTERINAKT COLLEGE, AND KXAMINER IN CHEMISTRY IN THE ROYAL COLLEGE OF VETERINARY SURGEONS EDITED BY JAMES MACQUP^EN, F.R.C.V.S. BOYAL VETERINABT COLLEGE. LONDON (Icnti) (Ebition New York WILLIAM K. JENKINS CO. PUBLISHERS 851-853 Sesth Avenue 1907 Digitized by tine Internet Arciiive in 2009 witii funding from NCSU Libraries littp://www.arcliive.org/details/veterinarymediciOOdunf NOTE TO ELEVENTH EDITION Owing to the rapid sale of Dun's Veterinary Medicines, another edition has been called for earlier than was antici- pated. After due consideration of the few important changes in Veterinary Therapeutics which have been recorded within the last five years, and after examination of the text of the existing book, which seems to require no immediate material alteration, the present edition — virtually a reprint of the tenth — has been produced. J. MACQUEEN. April 1906. ft 2 PEEFACE TO THE TENTH EDITION A NEW Edition of this standard work on Veterinary Materia Medica has been wanted for some time. Prior to his lamented death, Mr. Finlay Dim, recognising the urgenc}^ of the demand, had commenced the preparation of the Tenth Edition, which, on the plans indicated by his MS. and marginal notes, has now been completed. Numerous important alterations, rendered necessary by the publication of the new British Pharmacopoeia (1898), have been made and many new remedies have been inserted. The body of the work has been rearranged, and while every article has been revised, no change has been made in the principles enunciated by the author. To provide space for the various additions and alterations without enlarging the volume, the text in places dealing with the Chemistry of Drugs, has been curtailed. Revision has been carried out with a constant regard to practical utility, and in the hope that Dun's Veterinary Med.icines will continue to serve eftectually the requirements of students and practitioners. The Editor desires gratefully to acknowledge his in- debtedness to Professor German Sims Woodhead, Cambridsre University, for revising and extending the pages on bacteria and antitoxines; and to Professor John F. M'Fadj-ean, Principal, Royal Veterinary College, for permission to insert the directions for using mallein, tuberculin, and black- quarter vaccine. Much valuable information has been VI 11 PREFACE obtained from Guinard's Tlierapeutique et Pliarmaco- dynamie (1899), Delaud and Stourbe's Pharmacie et Toxicologic Veterinaires (1900), Cagny's Fot^mulaire dea VMerinaires, Hale White's Materia Mcdica (fourth edition), Squire's Companion to the British Pharmacopoeia (1899) Martindale and Westcott's Extra Pharmacopoeia (ninth edition), Coblentz's The Newer Remedies (1899), and Hare's Practical Therapeutics. J. MACQUEEN. RdYAL Veterinary Colleoe, London, 10//t April 19ul. PREFACE TO THE EIGHTH EDITION The First Edition of Veterinary Medicines was published in 1854, while I was Lecturer on Materia Medica and Dietetics at the Edinburgh Veterinary College. The work continues a text-book at the British Veterinary Colleges, is used by Veterinarians and Agriculturists, and meets with increasing demand in the United States of America and in the Colonies. The Seventh Edition, published in 1889, has for some time been out of print. The increased bulk of the present volume results from the introduction of the recently discovered antiseptics and antipyretics of the benzol series, and other new remedies; from details of various British and foreign experiments made with alkaloids and other medicines ; and from fuller and more systematic treatment of the actions of various important drugs. As in previous editions, the general actions and uses of Veterinary Medicines, and the more important principles and practice of Pharmacy, are dealt with in the Introduction. This preliminary section has been arranged on the plan adopted by Dr. Lauder Brunton in his admirable work on Pharmacology, Therapeutics, and Materia Medica. The several drugs, discussed in alphabetical order according to their English names, occupy the bulk of the volume. Under each individual medicine the space allotted to preparation and properties has been curtailed, while careful revision has been made of the matter relating to the actions on the several domesticated animals, the curative uses, doses, and niedicinal forms. X PREFACE The Index of Diseases and Remedies, which in former editions was little more than a list of drugs usually pre- scribed in diiferent disorders, has been considerably enlarged, and an endeavour has been made to indicate the nature of each disease, the conditions which dictate the use of particular remedies, and the manner in which they relieve or cure. In preparing the present edition the following works have been consulted: — Dr. Lauder Brunton's FJiarmacology, Therapeutics, and Materia Medica ; the late Professor ^ohQvt&on'& Equine Medicine; Professor Williams' volumes on the Principles and Practice of Veterinary Medicine and Svirgery: and the Journal of Comparative Pathology and Therajyeutics. Her twig's Praktische Arzneimittellehre fiir Thierdrzte, and Moiroud's Traite Mdmentaire de Matiere MMicale et de Pharinacologie Viterinaire — for many years the standard works on Veterinary Pharmacology in Germany and France respectively — have contributed matter to former editions. Further valuable information has been derived from the Lehrbuch der Arzneiraittellehre fiir Thierdrzte, von Dr. Eugen Frohner, Professor an der K. Thierdrztlichen Hochschule zu Berlin (1890); Traits. Therapeutique et de Matiere Mddicale VStdrinaires, par M.Kaufmann, Professeur de Physiologic et de Therapeutique d VfJcole Vdterinaire d'Alfort (1892); Precis de Therapeutique de Matiere Mddicale et de Pharmacie Vetdrinaires, par Paul Cagny, President de la Society Centrale de Medecine Veterinaire (1892); as well as from Pathologic et Therapeutique Speciales des Animaux Domestiques, par MM. Dr. Friedberger de Munich et Dr. Frohner de Berlin, traduit de I'allemand par MM. P. J. Cadiot et J. N. Pies (1891). FINLAY DUN. CONTENTS PAGE 1 INTRODUCTION, I. THE ACTION^i AND U.^ES OF MEDICINAL AGENTS, 2 II. VETERINARY MEDICINES, .... 153 The Alkaline Metals, Ammonium. Potassium, Sodium, ...... 161 The Alkaline Earths, Calcium, Magnesium. Barium, Aluminium, .... '202 The Metals, Bismuth, Lead, Zinc, Copper, Silver, Iron, Antimony, Arsenic, Mercury, The Non-Metals, Phosphorus, Bromine, Chlorine Iodine, Sulphur, . - • - Acids, ..-••• Carbon Compounds, Alcohols, Ethers, 304 321 343 III. MEDICINES DERIVED ERO-M THE VEGETABLE KINGDOM, 426 Medicines Derived from the Animal Kingdom, . 661 IV. VETERINARY PHARMACY, .... 687 INDEX OF DISEASES AND REMEDIES, . • TIT INDEX OF 3IEDICINES, .... 779 \ VETERINARY MEDICIlSrES THEIR ACTIONS AND USES INTRODUCTION Veterinary Materia Medica, in the extended sense of the term, treats of every agent which is used for the relief or cure of disease or injury, or for the preservation of health, among the domesticated animals. The full con- sideration of a subject so large and diversified would, however, fill several volumes, and the present work has been restricted to the description of drugs, their natural history, characters and properties, their pharmaceutical pre- parations, and their actions and uses among veterinary patients. Medicines or drugs, although derived from the mineral, vegetable, and animal kingdoms, possess many actions in common, and are prepared for use by similar chemical and pharmaceutical processes. In this work the first section is devoted to general observations on Pharmacology, which treats of the actions of drugs, and Therapeutics, or the application of remedies to the cure of disease. A description of the medicines, arranged according to their source, occupies the body of the volume, which is completed by a section on Pharmacy, or the preparation and dispensing of medicines, and an index of diseases and remedies. Section I The Actions and Uses of Medicines The general and medical management of the domestic animals has greatly improved during the past forty years. The laws of health, the causes and nature of disease, as well as the actions and uses of remedies have been more fully studied. The beneficent curative effects of fresh air, diet, suitable surroundings and good nursing are more thoroughly realised. Preventive treatment also receives more attention alike from stock-owners and practitioners. Disease accord- ingly is not only less prevalent, but it is generally less serious, and the attacks of shorter duration. In Great Britain such equine maladies as specific ophthalmia, canker of the feet, and mange, are now seldom seen, while colic and inflammation of the bowels are not nearly so common as they were forty years ago. Cattle plague, contagious pleuro- pneumonia, and sheep-pox have been exterminated. The prevalence of glanders or farcy, swine - fever, rabies and bovine tuberculosis should be greatly limited by the measures now being adopted in dealing with these disorders. Fuller and more definite knowledge of the actions of remedial agents has been obtained by systematic experi- ments and clinical observations not only on the lower animals but on man himself. Numerous illustrations might be adduced of the practical benefits of such investigations. Magendie's experiments with the Java upas antiar and nux vomica demonstrated that these strychnine-containing plants violently stimulate the spinal cord, producing tetanic con- vulsions. In virtue of this stimulation of the cord, and its reflex functions, carefully regulated doses of this drug have been utilised to restore disturbed co-ordination of the gastro-intestinal functions, and to relieve some forms of paralysis. Experiments on animals also have demonstrated the action of digitalis and strophanthus as cardiac stimu- lants, and hence have led to their use in strengthening and BACTERIOLOGY 3 steadying the weak and overtaxed heart. It has been proved in the same way that ergot of rye, and its active constituent, ergotin, have the power of causing contraction of the arterioles, hence their employment for the arrest of internal haemorrhage. Belladonna, and its active principle atropine, have been shown to diminish sensibility of the ends of the vagi and sensory nerves, and from this results their value in quieting cardiac irritability, diminishing ex- cessive bronchial secretion, and relieving certain forms of pain. When the precise action of medicines is recognised then practical use is obviously rendered not only safer, but more effective. The Study of Bacteriology within the last twenty years, has done much to throw light on the diagnosis, prevention and treatment of disease both in men and animals, and is apjDarently destined to do much more. A number of diseases classified as zymotic, and comprising anthrax, glanders, tuberculosis, rabies, strangles, swine - fever, tetanus, with typhoid, eruptive and other fevers, have been shown to depend upon the introduction into the body of micro- organisms belonging to the lower class of vegetable fungi which, in susceptible subjects, multiply rapidly, and pro- duce chemical ferments, alkaloidal poisons, and deadly albumoses. Pasteur, Koch, and others have investigated the life-history of many of these disease-producing microbes, the pathogenic conditions to which they give rise, and the methods by which their invasion may be averted or counter- acted. Microbes, when cultivated in media containing chemicals, or when repeatedly passed by inoculation through the bodies of certain animals, become weakened, and lose their virulence. Attenuated cultures or vaccines, properly em- ployed, confer on certain animals more or less protection against poisonous doses of the natural virus subsequently introduced by infection, or by experimental inoculation. In districts of France, Russia, Austria, and Switzerland, where anthrax abounds, cattle and sheep for many jea.rs have been vaccinated with attenuated anthrax virus, the mortality amongst the vaccinated is stated to be less than one-tenth of that which occurs amongst the unvaccinated 4 PROTECTIVE VACCINES Stock. Sterilised cultivation of hog cholera virus is used in America as a protective against swine plague. Immunity from fowl cholera, and from septicemia, has been similarly secured. Pasteur, by repeated injection of attenuated rabies vaccine, rendered dogs and other animals insusceptible to the action of lethal doses of rabies virus, and Pasteur's method applied to persons bitten by rabid animals continues to afford protection against hj^drophobia in 99 per cent, of the cases timeously submitted to this treatment. Pigeons inoculated with small doses of snake poison for periods of three months withstand seven times the ordinary fatal dose of snake poison. The modified black-quarter virus, obtained by drying and heating the muscle of an animal that has suffered from this disease also exerts a distinct effect in protecting even susceptible animals against attacks of this disease ; whilst cultivations of the swine erysipelas bacillus, when similarly modified by heat, have been used with great success as a protective inoculation agent against the ravages of swine erysipelas (Rouget du pore). The manner in Avhich these vaccines effect their protective powers has been variously explained, but the most satisfactory view is, that small repeated doses of the cultivated organism or its products modify the functions of the cells on which they specially act, and thus confer upon .them a tolerance against deadly doses of the same or allied poisons (Bacteria and their Products, by G. Sims Woodhead, M.D.). Going further than this, however, it must now be recognised as a result of the observations of Behring, Roux, Ehrlich, and numerous later workers, that this tolerance is due in great part to the pro- duction, during the reaction between the cell and the toxine, of an antitoxine which at first stored in the cell, soon over- flows its boundaries and passes into the blood where it appears to be stored up in the fluid elements, always ready to combine with any toxine that may be produced in or introduced into the tissues. This is not the only factor in the resistance, but it is certainly a very important one. From the fact that these antitoxic substances are stored up in the fluid constituents of the blood it has been found possible to produce antitoxine in one animal, and then by AHTlTOXINES 6 drawing off its blood, and allowing the clot to separate from the serum to obtain a fluid containing a large quantity of antitoxine which injected into a second patient acts upon the toxine neutralising it just as surely and completely as if it were acting upon the original patient. This has gradually developed into a definite system of treatment — the anti- toxine treatment. It has been worked out most thoroughly in diphtheria in the human subject, and in tetanus in veteri- nary medicine ; whilst fair results have also been obtained using a similar method in the treatment of snake poisoning. In Diphtheria, the best results have been obtained (1) because the local lesion, i.e. the false membrane, &c., is usually well marked before the constitutional disturbances, i.e. the toxic effects, make their appearance ; and (2) because the poison is not only formed slowly, but takes some time to produce its effects upon the nervous tissues to which it usually attaches itself To produce diphtheria antitoxine all that is necessary is to inject subcutaneously the toxic products of the diphtheria bacillus grown in slightly alkaline broth, or still better in broth containing a certain proportion of blood plasma into some animal, preferably a horse. This should be followed by a rise of temperature, and by swelling at the seat of injection. Unless this reaction is obtained no antitoxine will be formed. Gradually increasing doses of the toxine must be injected from time to time, care being taken to obtain a distinct reaction after each injection, and to make the fresh injection before the effects of the last one have completely passed away. After a time it will be found that it is very difficult to obtain a local reaction, or a rise of temperature, even when large quantities of toxine are injected. During the whole of this period it will be found that the antitoxic value of the blood is rising more or less rapidly, and at last there is sufficient antitoxine present to make it valuable for the treatment of diphtheria patients. The antitoxine in the serum injected into a patient suffering from the effects of diphtheria poisoning, combines with the toxine formed by the diphtheria bacillus, and so prevents it from exerting its deleterious action upon the tissues of the patient. The SERUM TIIERAPV diphtheria bacilli, with their poison neutralised, now behave like ordinary non-pathogenetic organisms, and are rapidly destroyed by the tissues, and the patient recovers. In tetanus the principle of production of antitoxinc is the same as in diphtheria, but the treatment has not been so successful, because the disease in this case does not manifest itself locally in the first instance, the poison has already attacked the nerve centres before the necessity for treatment makes its appearance. The damage has already been done, and antitoxinc, though it can neutralise the poison, and so prevent further damage being done, cannot make good the ravages already carried on. Tetanus antitoxinc, however, like diphtheria antitoxinc, acts as a most poAverful prophy- lactic, and it is in this character that its greatest value as a therapeutic agent must be sought. Calmette's antivenin has also been found to be of great use in the treatment of snake bite. It is prepared in the same way as are the other antitoxines. By treating a horse with gradually increasing doses of the mixed venom taken from various snakes — cobra, black snake and others, it is found that, if sufficient care be taken to give small enough preliminary doses, and to allow the animal to regain weight and condition after each injection, large doses may be given later ; the horse then becomes not only immune against the action of these large doses, but his blood contains an anti- venin which, held in solution in the serum, may be injected into other animals where it acts not only as a prophylactic, but also as a curative agent against snake bite, even of the most virulent types. Scrum therapy, or the treatment of disease with these various antitoxic substances, has now taken a recognised place in medicine, and a new vista has been opened up in connection with the treatment of si)ecific infective diseases that are produced by poisons. Tiie products of micro-organisms, however, liave been utilised in other most important fashions. Tuberculin (which consists essentially of the products of the tubercle bacillus grown in beef peptone broth containing a five per cent, solution of glycerin, the bacilli destroyed and then CLASSIFICATIONS OF MEDICINES 7 filtered out by means of a Pasteur-Chamberland filter, the whole concentrated by evaporation at a low temperature), is now used for the diagnosis of tuberculosis, as it is found that these products, when injected subcutaneously, appear to co-operate with the poisons already in the body, and to cause a reaction of the tissues, and a rise in temperature which, together, give evidence of the presence of a tubercular process. Exactly the same thing happens in the case of mallein, which is prepared in the same way from the glanders bacillus as the tuberculin is prepared from the tubercle bacillus. A small quantity of this substance in- jected subcutaneously in a healthy animal with a normal temperature gives rise to little or no local swelling, and a very slight rise of temperature, whilst a similar quantity in- jected into a horse suffering from glanders gives rise to a local swelling of considerable size, which goes on increasing up to the 18th or 24th hour, or even longer, and is accompanied by a rise of temperature to 104'' F. In certain cases where the temperature is high to begin with, even where the disease — tuberculosis or glanders — is well advanced, no characteristic reaction is obtained ; but in almost all these cases the diagnosis can be made without the aid of the specific products. It is evident, then, that bacteria are coming to play a greater and greater part in both diagnosis and treatment of disease, just as they have come to play such an important role in our conception of its production. Classifications of Medicines Medicines are drawn from the three great natural king- doms, and are characterised by various physical and chemical properties: but these characters do not afford sufficiently accurate or definite indications of the actions of drugs on living bodies, and hence are not of much service in practical classifications. The atomic weis^hts of inorganic elements are of little or no value in determining on what organs or in what way inorganic elements and their compounds act as medicines. The soluble salts of the heavy metals are 8 CHEMICAL, BOTANICAL, AND certainly generally active poisons, though neither similar chemical composition nor similar chemical reaction neces- sarily confers similar physiological effects. Substances which crystallise in the same form, have, however, somewhat similar actions, and on this isomorphous basis the elements have been arranged into nine groups, in each of which it is noted that the intensity of action increases with the atomic weight (Dr. Lauder Brunton). The same base, united with different acids, produces salts which exhibit very different actions, as illustrated in the several com- pounds of sodium and potassium. Equally diverse physio- logical effects are produced by compounds resulting from conjoining the same acid with different bases. Such irritant corrosive substances as caustic soda and sulphuric acid, entering into chemical combination, produce a neutral, com- paratively mild saline. Organic, like inorganic, bases are notably modified by the acid radicles with which they unite. Thus, amyl-hydride is an aniesthetic ; when oxygen is introduced, as in amyl-alcohol, or amyl-acetate, spasm is added to the antesthesia ; amyl - iodide notably increases secretion, while amyl-nitrite lessens arterial pressure. It is hence evident that the action of a compound medicine cannot be inferred from a knowledge of the action of the substances that combine to form it. On the contrary, a compound substance exerts special actions of its own, these depending on the proportion of its components, and upon its own physical qualities. Very important investigations have been made by Pro- fessors Crum Brown, Fraser, Schroff and Jolyet, in artificially modifying the chemical constitution, and thus changing the physiological actions of drugs. When strychnine, brucine and thebaine, which act upon the spinal cord as powerful convulsants, are converted b}' addition of methyl into methyl-str3'chninc, methyl-brucine and methyl-thebaine, they act upon the ends of motor nerves as paralysants. Indeed, methyl, when combined with other alkaloids, as quinine, morphine, atropine and codeine, renders these also powerful paralysers of motor nerves. The study of the natural orders of plants affords some PHYSIOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATIONS 9 general information as to their physiological actions. Thus, the Ranunculacese furnish many acrid irritants, such as aconite, podophyllum and stavesacre. The Solanacese yield narcotics, such as tobacco and dulcamara; while the sub- order, Atropacese, are paralysers of involuntary muscles. The seeds of many Umbelliferse yield carminative volatile oils. These general botanical characters do not, however, afford sufficient data for the accurate classification of drugs. Edible as well as poisonous plants occur in many natural orders. Plants of different orders and genera sometimes closely resemble each other, while plants of the same genus may have very different properties. Thus, one species of Strychnos yields strychnine, which stimulates the motor centres of the spinal cord, inducing tetanic convulsions, while another yields curare, which paralyses the peripheral endings of motor nerves. But even the same drug some- times yields antagonistic active principles. From opium are obtained the soothing anodyne morphine, the convulsant thebaine, and the emetic apomorphine. Calabar bean yields eserine which depresses, and calabarine which stimulates the spinal cord. Jaborandi yields pilocarpine and its an- tagonist jaborine, the former stimulating, and the latter paralysing the ends of secretory nerves. The grouping of medicines according to their actions has not hitherto been of much more practical value than their chemical or botanical classification. The precise actions of many medicines are only now becoming definitely known. Many, moreover, have a variety of actions, and hence have to be included in several groups. Alcohol, for example, is stimulant, irritant, narcotic, and sedative, as well as nutrient, antiseptic, and antipyretic. Opium is narcotic, anodyne, and hypnotic ; but it also stimulates certain patients, and tetanises others. Disregarding the classifications hitherto adoj)ted, students and practitioners will find it advantageous to study the actions of medicines upon the chief organs and functions of the body. Adopting this method. Dr. Lauder Brunton de- votes a large section of his admirable work on Pharmacology, Therapeutics, and Materia Medica to an explanation of the 10 ACTIONS OF MEDICINES actions of medicines on protoplasm, muscle, the nervous system, resi^iration, circulation, digestion, etc. '^ and following a similar plan this introductory section will be subdivided as under : — Actions of Medicinal Agents. I. Local and general actions : absorption and distribution. II. Elective affinity between drugs and particular tissues or cells : elimination. III. Effects on different classes of patients : IV. Modifying influences of Climate and Temperature, Habit, Idiosyncrasy, Disease, and Surroundings, etc. Curative Systems : Allopathy, Homoeopathy. On Protoplasm, Blood, and Low Organisms. Antiseptics : Disinfectants : Deodorisers : Germicides : Antiperiodics. On the Surface of the Body. Counter-irritants: Rubefacients: Vesicants: Pustulants: Caustics : Setons : The Actual Cautery : Astringents : Styptics : Demulcents : Emollients : Diluents. On Muscles. Muscular Poisons : Muscular Stimulants. On the Nervous System. The Brain. Cerebral Stimulants : Exhilarants. Cerebral Depressants: Soporifics: Narcotics: Anodynes: Antispasmodics : Anesthetics. The Spinal Cord. Spinal Stimulants and Depressants. Motor Nerves. Stimulants : Paralysers. Sensory Nerves. Stimulants: Local Sedatives: Local AniTesthetics. On the Eye and other Special Senses. Mydriatics dilate the Pupil. Myotics contract the Pupil. ACTIONS OP MEDICINES 11 On the Respiratory Organs. Errhines or Sternutatories : Resj^iratory Sedatives : Ex- pectorants : Disinfectants. On the Circulatory Organs. Cardiac Stimulants : Vascular Stimulants : „ Tonics : „ Tonics : „ Sedatives: „ Sedatives. On the Digestive System. The Salivary Glands and Fauces. Sialagogues : Anti- sialics : Refrigerants. The Stomach. Gastric Tonics: Stomachics: Bitters: Antacids: Emetics: Anti-emetics: Gastric Sedatives. The Intestines. Purgatives: Carminatives: Intestinal Astringents : Antise2)tics. The Liver. Hepatic Stimulants: Cholagogues: Hepatic De23ressants : Worms. Athelmintics : Vermicides: Vermifuges. On the Skin. Diaphoretics: Sudorifics: Anhydrotics: Parasiticides. On the Urinary Organs. The Kidneys : Diuretics. The Bladder : Lithontriptics : Urinary Sedatives : Tonics : Astringents : Disinfectants. On the Organs of Generation. Aphrodisiacs : Anaphrodisiacs : Ecbolics : Agents acting on the Mammary Glands. On Tissue Change and Temperature. Restoratives : Tonics : Hsematinics : Alteratives : Antipyretics : Febrifuges : Blood-letting. Poisons and Antidotes. Mode of Administration. Doses : Manner of exliibition. 12 rUYSIOLOGICAL AND THERAPEUTIC ACTIONS THE ACTIONS OF MEDICINES LOCAL AND GENERAL ACTIONS — ABSORPTION — ELECTIVE AFFINITY BETWEEN DRUGS AND PARTICULAR TISSUES OR CELLS — EFFECTS ON DIFFERENT CLASSES OF PATIENTS — MODIFYING INFLUENCES OF CLIMATE AND TEMPERATURE, HABIT, IDIOSYNCRASY, DISEASE, SURROUNDINGS, ETC. I. Every medicine is possessed of certain effects or actions on living animals, as distinctive as its colour, taste, or chemical properties. Such actions, when exerted in health, are termed physiological actions ; when exerted in the treat- ment of disease they are termed tlierapeutic or curative actions. These actions cannot, however, be regarded as twofold or distinct, for the physiological action determines and is merged in the curative results. A horse eats some indigestible food, and in consequence suffers from spasm of the bowels, for which a dose of purgative medicine may be prescribed. The purgative exerts its physiological action by increasing intestinal secretion and peristalsis ; the irritant is thus swept away, and spasm and pain are removed. A dose of physic prescribed for a horse with itching and swollen legs produces the physiological effects of emptying the bowels, and clearing the body of irritant waste matters with the curative result of relieving or removing the itching and swelling of the limbs. Hunting horses frequently, after a hard day, have stiff" limbs, with puffy joints and tendons ; diligent hand-rubbing and subsequent bandaging mechani- cally and physiologically stimulate the activity of the local circulation, with the therapeutic effect of restoring the parts to their normal state. All the physiological actions pro- duced by medicines may not be favourable to the curative result desired, but subsidiary, useless, or harmful effects may be diminished or neutralised by judicious selection and combination of remedies. Some medicines arc chicHy local and direct in their action. A strong acid applied to the skin irritates and, it may be, destroys it. A hot fomentation or poultice in contact with a painful surface soothes it, and relieves local congestion and pain. The primary action of ABSORPTION AND DISTRIBUTION OF MEDICINES 13 local irritants is frequently followed by secondary and remote effects. In sore throat the application of a blister directly irritates and inflames the skin, and reflexly, or through the nervous system, it relieves congestion and pain of the respiratory membrane. In horses a large cantharides blister, owing to absorption of the active principle of the fly, occasionally produces febrile symptoms, and congestion of the urinary passages by which the irritant is excreted. The general effects of most medicines are only produced when they enter the blood, and the more rapidly a medicine enters the circulation the more immediate and powerful are its effects. The short time required for absorption, distribu- tion, action and elimination is well illustrated in the rapidly fatal effects of such poisons as prussic acid and strychnine. Yellow prussiate of potash injected into the trachea Avas detected two minutes later in the jugular vein (Colin); injected into one of the jugular veins of a horse it appeared in the other in twenty-five seconds, and in a few minutes was exhaled from the mucous and serous membranes (Hering). Barium chloride traversed the circulation of a horse in twenty seconds, and injected into the jugular vein of a dog it reached the carotid artery in seven seconds. When the foot of an Albino rat was immersed for a few seconds in chloroform containing one per cent, of atropine, absorption occurred, and dilatation of the pupils followed in from two to five minutes (Waller). Medicines may be administered by injection into the sub- cutaneous areolar tissue, the trachea, veins, glands, muscles, rectum, uterus, udder, and large serous cavities; but the most frequent and generally the most convenient mode of administration is by the mouth, whence, speedily reaching the stomach and small intestine, medicines enter the circu- lation. Administered in a tolerably concentrated but soluble form medicines do not require to be acted upon by the ferment-containing secretions of the digestive canal; but the digestion of mashes and many restorative foods is pro- moted by the alkaline saliva, which also favours the hydration and solution of some drugs. The acid, pepsin-containing, gastric juice dissolves protcids, as well as iron, mercurial and 14 ABSORPTION BY THE DIGESTIVE TRACT other salts. The alkaline bile emulsionises fats and resins ; the pancreatic fluid furthers digestion of starch albumin and fats; and specially refractory substances are more thoroughly reduced by the alkaline intestinal juices. Medi- cines taken up by the vessels of the gastro-intestinal mucous membrane are convoyed to the liver where they may be stored up, detained for a time, neutralised or moditied, eliminated in the bile, or passed unchanged into the general circulation. Absorption by the healthy buccal membrane is possible, but medicines introduced into the mouth are either quickly swallowed or rejected, and consequently contact with its thick epithelium is too brief to permit of penetration. Gastric absorption varies with the species, the age of the animal, and the state of the stomach as regards contents, digestive phenomena, and freedom from disease. Very active in dogs and pigs, gastric absorption in cattle and sheep only occurs in the abomasum. In horses, absorption by the stomach has been doubted or denied since Bouley and Colin published the results of their experiments with strychnine. Bouley, after dividing the pneumogastric nerves, admini- stered lethal doses of strychnine without injurious effect. Colin found that after tying the pylorus, large doses of strychnine introduced into the stomach did not poison ; but later experiments seem to prove that poisoning docs not occur when after an interval the ligature is removed, and the contents of the stomach are allowed to pass into the bowel. Schiff" considers that absorption of the strychnine is sufficiently gradual to allow of its being proportionately eliminated in the urine, and that the drug docs not accumu- late in the blood in sufficient quantity to cause poisoning. The empty stomach is supposed to absorb more rapidly than the stomach tilled with food : but the empty stomach is less vascular, and its corrugated lining is protected by a thick mucus, which probably retards absorption. Medicines given on a full stomach or mixed with the food are exposed to attenuation and the action of the secretions formed in the digesting stomach, and, if unstable, they may undergo rapid alteration, and fail to produce general effects. Medi- ABSORPTION BY THE RESPIRATORY TRACT 15 cines intended to act directly on the stomach should be given to the animal fasting, and nutrients should be given either with the food or soon after feeding. In gastric impac- tion medicine given by the mouth seldom acts with the desired rapidity. It mixes with the ingesta, but owing to the movements of the stomach being either diminished or suspended, the food does not pass into the intestine, or the drug in sufficient quantity does not reach the absorbent surface, and in consequence its action is delayed. Absorption by the small intestine in all the domestic animals is very active. A strychnine salt injected into the duodenum produces its effects in three or four minutes, and ferrocyanide of potassium similarly used may be found in the blood in five to six minutes (Kaufmann). The caecum and large colon absorb rapidly, and in cases of tympany treated by puncture advantage may be taken of the canula to introduce medicines directly into the intestine. The rectum and floating colon rapidly absorb soluble medicines and nutrients introduced by the anus ; and in gastric disease rectal injection is preferable to administration by the mouth. Ansesthesia may be induced by chloral or ether thrown into the rectum, but this method is unsatisfactory. To ensure speedy absorption, and to prevent ejection of medicines introduced through the anus, the solution should be warm and concentrated to a few drachms. Larger quantities will be retained and absorbed, but the injection should not be bulky if immediate effects are desired. The respiratory tract furnishes probably the most actively absorbent mucous surface in the body. Long used for anaesthetic inhalations, it is occasionally employed for the administration of remedies in cases of purpura ha^morrhagica, and parasitic bronchitis. Soluble drugs, introduced by in- sufflation, are absorbed by the nasal lining, and medicines in aqueous or alcoholic solution, not too concentrated, are well borne and very rapidly absorbed by the tracheal, bronchial, and pulmonary mucous membranes. Drugs dissolved or suspended in oil are less tolerated, although Dr. Levi, the chief authority on intra-tracheal administration, maintains that small injections of oil are absorbed. Emulsions, how- 16 ABSORPTION BY THE SKIN ever, are safer, so long as the quantity is small and injec- tion is made slowly. Intra- tracheal injections are especially risky in bronchitis and pneumonia. Beyond a slight gain in time, intra-tracheal injection has no advantage over hypo- dermic administration, except in cases where direct or local action is required (Guinard). Although seldom employed in practice for the administra- tion of medicines, the female generative tract — the uterus, especially after parturition, absorbs very rapidly. Potassium iodide has been found in the urine in from two to four minutes after injection into the womb. The healthy vagina absorbs very slowly, but when congested its absorbent power is much increased. Absorption from the lining of the galac- tophorous sinus of the cow's udder is fairly active. The absorbent power of the conjunctiva is well kno^vn. Cocaine appears to promote conjunctival absorption of solutions of atropine, eserine, and strychnine, and of other drugs. The peritoneum, pleura, and the synovial membranes of joints and tendons absorb very rapidly. Potassium prussiate injected into the peritoneal cavity was found six minutes later in the urine; and strychnine similarly used caused death in less than four minutes. Anaesthesia can be readily induced in dogs by intra-peritoneal injection of chloral and morphine. Drugs, even when volatile, pass very slowly and im- perfectly through the unbroken skin, except when applied with the assistance of an electric current (cataphoresis or dielectrolysis), but absorption readily occurs from open wounds and abraded skin surfaces. Clean-cut fresh wounds, free from bleeding, absorb more rapidly than wounds which are irregular, bruised, or bleeding. Absorption by granulation tissue is less active, though occasionally undesirable effects follow the careless application of toxic antiseptics to wounds in process of healing. Drugs incorporated with oil or lard penetrate more readily than do ointments made with vase- line. Absorption of aqueous solutions is hindered or pre- vented by the sebaceous matter, but salts which are dissolved by the secretion of the skin may produce general effects. Kxperimcnts prove that agents which are soluble in sebaceous SPECIAL AFFINITY FOR PARTICULAR, ORGANS 17 matter, or which emit during their application vapour or gas, as guaiacol, alcohol, benzine, potassium iodide, mer- curials, carbolic acid, etc., pass more or less rapidly through the skin. But the intact epidermis offers considerable resistance to penetration ; and in practice, lotions, liniments, or ointments, carefully used seldom endanger life. Slow absor]3tion may occur, but owing to rapid ehmination the drug does not accumulate in sufficient quantity to excite toxic symptoms. The subcutaneous areolar tissue absorbs nearly as rapidly as the respiratory mucous membrane. Hypodermic injections, properly prepared, are promptly taken up unchanged by the blood-vessels and lymphatics. II. Between certain organs, -tissues, or groups of cells, and certain medicines, there appears to be a special elective affinity. A medicine absorbed and in circulation, owing to its chemical affinity, becomes arrested in contact with cer- tain cell groups, where it fixes itself and tends to replace some of the normal nutritive elements. From the common stream of blood each tissue takes up its appropriate nutrient materials, and, in like manner, it appears to select its own medicines. The characteristic effects are not developed until medicines come into actual contact with the special organs, or, it may be, the particular cells, on which alone they operate. Curare does not exert its paralysing power until it reaches the intramuscular endings of the motor nerves. Magendie found that strychnine does not excite its notable tetanic convidsions until it is in contact with the spinal cord. Indeed, w^hen a frog or other small animal, immediately after receiving a full dose of strychnine, has the spinal cord removed or broken down, tetanic symptoms do not occur. On the particular part on which they act — as, for example, on the nerve-centres or nerve- endings that control blood- vessels or glandular secretions — some medicines exert stimulant, others depressant or paralysing effects. These effects, as already indicated in the case of drugs acting locally, frequently produce reflexly indirect or remote effects. The same medicine sometimes acts differently when given in different doses. Thus, alcohol and ether B 18 ACTION DIFFERENT ON DIFFERENT ANIMALS in small doses arc stimulants, but in large doses are depressants. Within the living body most medicines not only effect changes, but themselves coincidently undergo changes, notably of oxidation or deoxidation. Thus, many salts of tartaric, acetic, and other organic acids are converted into carbonates. Morphine has its chemical constitution altered, and its soothing anodyne actions in part superseded, by nauseating and irritant effects. The activity of medicines depends materially on their solubility, the rapidity of their absorption, and the period during which they remain within the body. Some drugs, as lead, mercury, silver, and digitalis, are apt to be retained for a considerable period, and hence have more or less continuous or cumulative effect. Un- usual activity of such excreting channels as the bowels or kidne3^s hurries most medicines out of the body, and hence diminishes their action. In a variable but usually short period, medicines, generally in a modified form, are eliminated by the bowels, kidneys, skin, salivary and mammary glands, or jDulmonar}' mucous membrane. Digitalis, for example, after exerting its action mainly on the heart and arterioles, is removed by the kid- neys. Alcohol and its analogues are got rid of by the skin and kidneys, and also pass away through the respiratory mucous membrane. During their excretion medicines exert their in-contact effects on the excretory organ and passages. Thus, aloes and full doses of oils and neutral salts, after stimulating the secretion and movements of the bowels, are in part absorbed into the blood, and thence are returned into the bowels, causing further purgation. Nitre, and small doses of salines and ethers, chiefly removed through the kidneys, produce diuresis. Terebene and various balsams during their excretion b}?- the pulmonary membrane or urinary passages exert their antiseptic and astringent properties. III. The several species of veterinary patients are differently affected by many medicines. These differences, however, are in degree rather than in kind, and depend upon differences in organisation and function. On the SPECIAL ACTIONS ON HORSES 19 circulatory, respiratory, and urinary systems, which nearly resemble each other in man and the domestic animals, medicines act tolerably uniformly. Thus, aconite, digitalis, and nitre produce very similar effects in men, horses, dogs, and cattle. Greater diversity, however, occurs in regard to medicines acting on the nervous, digestive, and cutaneous systems, which differ considerably in the several species of animals. Rabbits and monkeys seem to possess a special resistance to the action of atropine. Apomorphine, which promptly causes vomiting in dogs, has no emetic action on pigs. Morphine is an excellent hypnotic for the dog ; but in the cat and pig it causes excitement and convulsions. The more highly any organ or system of organs is de- veloped, the more susceptible does it become to the action ^of medicines, and, it may be added, to diseases also. This general law explains why the highly-developed human brain is specially susceptible to the ett'ects of such cerebral medi- cines as opium and chloral, and why frogs, whose spinal system is better developed than their brain, are so sus- ceptible to strychnine, which acts specially on the cord. The human cerebrum, the seat of intelligence, is more than seven times the weight of the mesencephalon and cerebellum, which regulate motor energy. In the domestic animals the cerebrum is only five times the weight of the posterior parts of the brain, whilst the cord is relatively larger than in man. These differences of development explain how such medi- cines as opium, chloroform, and chloral cause in man blunted intellectual function and deep stupor, while in the lower animals, with less marked depression of brain function, they conjoin more marked deranged motor function and con- vulsions. The Horse has a small stomach, and capacious, highly- vascular intestines, adapted for absorption of nutriment from bulky vegetable food. Nearly two-thirds of the water in the ingesta pass off by the bowels, while in man only 5 per cent, is removed by this channel, and the amount is still less in dogs and cats. Vegetable purgatives, notably aloes, appear more suitable than mineral purgatives, and act chiefly on the small and large intestines. Except in very rare diseased 20 SPECIAL ACTIONS ON CATTLE AND SHEEP States, and under the intiucnce of large doses of aconite, attempts at vomition are not excited in horses. Tartar emetic, of which a few grains cause immediate emesis in dogs, has no such physiological effect on cither horses or cattle. According to some authorities, this insusceptibility of the horse to the action of emetics is ascribablc to an inaptitude of the vagus nerve to receive and convey the special irritation, but more probably it is due to imperfect development of the vomiting centre. Actual vomition in horses is hindered by the small stomach not being readily compressed between the diaphragm and abdominal muscles, and by the stout band of muscular fibres which surrounds its esophageal opening. Most substances which act as emetics on men and dogs are supposed to produce sedative effects when given to horses in sufficient doses ; but the many sedatives available in human and canine practice operate uncertainly and imperfectly on horses, for which aconite is the chief reliable sedative medicine. The kidneys of horses are easily stimulated ; in ordinary circumstances they remove about one-seventh of the fluid ingesta, while the same organs in man drain away 54 per cent., and in dogs nearly 50 per cent, of the fluid discharges. Sudoriflcs are loss prompt than in man, and are apt to act on the kid- neys, unless the animal be well clothed. In Cattle the peculiarities of the action of medicines are chiefly referable to the construction of their alimentary canal, and to their phlegmatic temperament. The stomach of these ruminants is quadrisected, is extensively lined with cuticular mucous membrane, and, as regards its first three divisions, is less vascular, and in function is less chemical and more mechanical than the corresponding portion of the alimentary canal of men, dogs, or horses. The first and third compartments always contain food, often in large quantity. These facts explain why cattle require large doses of all medicines, why considerable quantities of irritant and corrosive poisons can be given them with comparative im- punity, and why purgatives, unless in large doses and in solution, are so tardy and uncertain in their eflects. Several times a day, for about an hour at a time, in animals of this ACTION OF MEDICINES ON DOGS AND PIGS 21 class, the solid food is returned from the first and second stomachs for more thorough mastication and insalivation. Imperfect and suspended rumination is the chief cause, as well as a common effect of stomach disorders in cattle. Their kidneys and skin are less easily affected than the corre- sponding organs in horses ; and their dull, phlegmatic dis- position resists the action of both stimulants and tonics. It is a very prevalent notion that medicines, when poured slowly doAvn a cow's throat, pass, like the ruminated food, direct to the fourth stomach. From observations made at the slaughter-houses on both cattle and sheep, I find, however, that neither animal can be induced to exert this voluntary effort in behalf of medicines, which in all cases, no matter how slowly they are administered, fall partly into the first and second stomachs, whence they shortly pass onwards through the third and fourth stomachs, especially if given, as they always ought to be, with a considerable quantity of fluid. Sheep closely resemble cattle in the way in which they are affected by most medicines ; they usually require about one-fourth of the dose suitable for cattle, and are best drenched by being backed into a corner, the head being steadied between the operator's knees, while the medicine is. cautiously poured over. On Dogs medicines generally operate much in the same way as on man ; but to this rule there are some remarkable exceptions. Dogs, for instance, take six or eight times the dose of aloes usually given to human patients, but are seriously injured by half as much calomel or oil of turpentine as is prescribed for a man. The opinion generally held, that medicines may be given to dogs in the same doses as to man, cannot therefore be safely entertained without many reservations. In dogs, while the stomach is relatively large, the alimentary canal is short and straight, and purgatives consequently act with greater rapidity than in other veterinary patients. Another peculiarity is the facility with which they can be made to vomit. Indeed, vomition in dogs is often produced by their eating various grasses, by their swallowing nauseous or unpalatable matters, or by their 22 CONDTTTONS MODIFYING MEDICINAL ACTIONS overloading the stomach. To prevent dogs vomiting their medicine, it is well to keep the head raised for an hour after its administration ; and this may be easily effected by attach- ing a chain or cord to the collar, and fixing it to any object at the requisite elevation. The kidneys are excited with more difficulty than in horses or cattle. On Pigs the effects of medicines are similar to their action on men and dogs. Dr. Lauder Brunton points out several curious differences in the action of drugs on several of the lower animals. Morphine convulses frogs, but, even in large doses, has no effect on pigeons, except in reducing their temperature. Belladonna quickens cardiac action in man, dogs, and horses, by paralysing the vagus, which controls or restrains heart action. But in rabbits the vagus has hardly any appreciable effect in regulating the heart-beats, and these animals accordingly take large doses without having the rapidity of the circulation increased. The rabbit's heart not being controlled by the vagus, a marked difference also occurs in the action of amyl-nitrite on rabbits as compared with dogs. Such observations are not only most interesting in them- selves, but greatly further the understanding of the actions of drugs. The action of medicines is influenced by the age of the patient, and as a rule very young animals are more sus- ceptible than adult animals. Kittens, however, seem to be able to withstand larger doses of morphine than fully grown cats. The young tolerate chloroform anaesthesia better than the old, and poisons such as strychnine and digitalis may be given in larger doses to young animals than to adults. IV. Climate and Temperature modify considerably the actions of medicines. Heat increases the power of anti- septic solutions. Narcotics are generally believed to act more powerfully in warm than in cold climates. This fact, as well as other differences in medicines observed in hot as compared with cold climates, may depend upon slight differ- ences in animal temperature, and in the varying amount of excretion effected by the skin and kidneys. Moderate warmth favours chemical reactions and proto- plasmic movements — two conditions intimately connected HABIT AND IDIOSYNCRASIES 23 with the actions of medicines. 'Alexander von Humboldt first observed that warmth not only acted as a stimulant to the heart, increasing the power and rapidity of its contrac- tions, but noticed that warmth increased the rapidity with which alcohol destroyed the irritability of a nerve, and potassium sulphide that of a muscle. . . . Many, if not all, muscular poisons act more quickly with increased tempera- ture. . . . Rabbits poisoned with copper or potassium salts also die more quickly when placed in a warm chamber than when left at the ordinary temperature ' (Brunton). On the other hand, however, narcotic poisoning by alcohol or chloral is retarded when the animals are in a warm atmosphere. Habit. — The continued use of a medicine sometimes alters the degree of its action. Caustics and irritants, which exer- cise only topical action, exhibit, on their repeated application, gradually increasing activity. But many medicines, when continuously administered, have their ordinary power con- siderably diminished. Thus, arsenic-eaters sometimes use with perfect impunity twelve or fifteen grains of arsenic daily — a quantity sufficient to poison three or four unhabitu- ated persons. A like tolerance is observable among horses which have been accustomed to receive arsenic. Opium, and most general stimulants, when administered for some time, gradually lose their effects. Virginian deer, from habit, are said to thrive on tobacco ; some monkeys, feeding on strychnine-containing nuts, are stated to become insus- ceptible to strychnine (Wood). The tolerance thus induced by the habitual use of a medicine occasionally depends on retarded absorption or quickened secretion; sometimes, as in the case of many alkaloids, on the liver acquiring greater power for the detention, modification, destruction or excre- tion of the drug, while frequently the tissues, by repeated contact, become progressively accustomed to its influence, and more or less resistant. Idiosyncrasies, probably the result of reversion to ances- tral forms, which in the human subject render some poisons almost innocuous, and some simple medicines deadly poisons, are less frequent and notable among the lower animals. Those of m.ost frequent occurrence among veterinary patients 24 ACTIONS MODIFIED BY DISEASE are cither an increased or a diminished susceptibility to the action of purgatives and diuretics. Most medicines act with greater certainty and etfect upon well-bred animals, whether horses or dogs, than upon coarsely-bred mongrels. The prescription even of a blister or a colic draught demands con- sideration of the temperament, breeding, and condition of the patient. Diseases modify the actions of many medicines. Altered structure and functions, and increased temperature occur- ring in most serious disorders are important modifying factors. A congested or inflammatory condition of the alimentary canal, or even an overloaded stomach, retards absorption, and the consequent activity of medicines given by the mouth. Acute fever, on account of increased arterial pressure, is also unfavourable to absorption. When excretion is hindered, medicines, however, are usually retained longer in the system, and some accordingly act more powerfully. Conversely, when excretion is active, as in diuresis, diabetes, or diarrhffia, such medicines as opium, belladonna, and alcohol, being rapidly got rid of, do not manifest their full activity. Influenza, low fevers, and any considerable inflam- mation of mucous or cutaneous surfaces, withstand reducing remedies badly, and require for their successful treatment the early exhibition of restoratives, tonics, and stimulants. Even the comparatively slight and temporary requirements for the changing of the coat render horses in spring and autumn notably less enduring and less able to stand lowering treatment. Blood-letting and full doses of sedative medicines induce less depression in acute inflammation than in health ; large quantities of opium and chloral hydrate have compara- tively slight ertcct in tetanus, enteritis, or other painful disease ; while excessive doses of purgatives and stimulants are well borne in the apoplectic form of parturient fever among cattle, and in other cases in which there is depression of nervous force. The surroundings of the patient materially alter the action of remedies. Diseases, whether in horses, cattle, or dogs, occurring in largo towns, and in fllthy, overcrowded, and badly-ventilated premises, are notoriously liable to CURATIVE SYSTEMS 25 assume chronic and untoward forms, and are apt to defy- even skilfully devised curative measures. Medicines can only act effectually when seconded by proper sanitary arrange- ments. Over-heated, imperfectly ventilated stables lower the vitality of their inmates, by retarding excretion, and favouring absorption of noxious exhalations. Such facts demand consideration alike in the treatment and prevention of disease. Frequently a horse with influenza, bronchitis, or pneumonia, is thrown back for days by being senselessly stripped and taken out of his box in cold weather. One meal of coarse, indigestible food, even of moderate amount, sometimes retards recovery from gastric derangements, and, indeed, from most debilitating diseases. Constipation or torpidity of the bowels interferes with the absorption, and hence with the satisfactory operation of all medicines. Exposure to cold seriously injures patients which have received full aperient doses of salts or of turpentine, or which have been freely dressed with mercurial ointment. Foul air and disordered digestion retard the healing even of simple wounds. On the other hand, gentle exercise en- courages the action of most eliminatives ; quiet favours the effects of soothing remedies ; generous diet seconds powerfully the benefits of restoratives, tonics, and stimulants. Inflammatory disorders usually bear more prompt and actively depleting treatment in winter than in summer, in the country than in the town, in well-bred animals in good condition than in coarser subjects which have been indifferently nourished. CURATIVE SYSTEMS: ALLOPATHY, HOMCEOPATHY The difiicult question is frequently asked — How do medicines cure disease? Endeavour is made, guided by biological laws, to adjust or restore to harmony any irregu- larity or deviation from health which may have affected the organism or any of its parts. The complex composition and diverse functions of the bodies of the higher animals are liable, however, to be altered and disturbed in many different ways, and such alterations or aberrations cannot 2 6 ANTIPATHY — ALLOPATHY — HOMCEOPATH Y be restored by any one curative system or formula. As already indicated, medicines have special actions on different organs or groups of cells, and affect them in very different ways, and hence would seem to produce their curative effects, not in one, but iu many ways. The late Professor Headland taught that ' the only general explanation we can give of the modus operandi of medicines in the cure of diseases is to say that they operate by various counteractions.' Two such systems of counteraction have been propounded — (1) the antipathic, whereby medicines were believed to overcome morbid conditions or symptoms by a superior and antago- nistic force ; (2) the allopathic, whereby effects are produced which, although they may sometimes be unnatural, overcome the disease. But diseases, it has been affirmed, may not only be cured by counteractions, but by similars. Upon the old saying that ' like cures like,' Homoeopathy ^ is based, and its votaries declare that diseases are to be treated by small doses of such medicines as in large doses produce symptoms ^ Homceopathy (dfioios, homoios, like or similar ; and irdOo^, pathos), was propounded by the German physician Hahnemann in his Organon der rationellen Heilkunde, published in 1810. This system teaches that the cure of a disease is eCFected by infinitesimal doses of such medicines as would induce, if given to a healthy subject in large quantity, symptoms similar to the disease. Cinchona is declared to cure such fevers as ague and inter- mittcnts, because it produces some such febrile symptoms when given to healthy individuals in considerable doses ; aconite is regarded as the appro- priate remedy for reducing inflammatory fevers, because in large doses it produces symptoms which are thought, by homceopathists, to resemble tliose of inflammation ; while strychnine is selected as a remedy for paralysis, because in largo doses it appears to produce paralytic symptoms. This doctrine, if sound, would stamp most disorders as hopelessly incurable ; for it is only in a few exceptional cases that any similarity can be detected between the symptoms produced by large doses of tlie remedy and those of the disease for which it is given. No known medicines, for example, are capable of developing symptoms such as those of thick-wind, roaring, pleurisy, strangles, distemper, or rabies, yet fifteen or twenty remedies are prescribed homoeopathically for each of these diseases. Mr. Dudgeon's translation of the Organon of Medicine states that, ' the symptoms of each individual case of disease must be the sole indication, the sole guide to direct us in the choice of a curative remedy.' Now, symptoms, although sometimes requiring special treatment, are but the visible signs and results of derangement and disease ; whilst their removal, wliich is all that is ain-.ed at in homoeopathic treatment, docs not always ensure the removal of the conditions on which they depend. Thus, rheumatism, pleurisy, enteritis, worms, and many other disorders, frequently remain unchecked after their symptoms have been relieved. Instead of thus vainly attempting DOES LIKE CURE LIKE ? 27 similar to the disease to be cured. The pathological con- ditions which underlie and produce the symptoms, and which a rational cure generally aims if possible at removing, are ignored. The homoeopathic dictum of sirtiilia similibus curantur does not bear investigation ; at best it is only capable of narrow and occasional acceptance. The symptoms of ague and intermittent fever are certainly similar to those produced by cinchona bark, which is an accepted cure for ague, and the illustration on which Hahnemann founded his system. But many diseases exhibit no symptoms accurately similar, as the homoeopathists insist they should be, to those produced by the medicine prescribed for their cure. Numer- ous drugs, moreover, cause symptoms wholly unlike those of the diseases in the treatment of which homoeopathists use them. The homoeopathic selection of so - called appropriate the removal of symptoms, it were therefore more rational to remove at once the morbid condition — the source of the evil. No curative system directing its efforts, as homcEopathy does, merely against the symptoms of disease, can ever rest upon a safe or scientific basis ; for it is notorious that, under varying modifying influences, the same diseases sometimes induce very dissimilar symptoms, and would consequently, according to this system, require dissimilar treatment. On the other hand, diseases essentially different sometimes manifest similar symptoms. Thus, stupor and vertigo result sometimes from an excessive and sometimes from a deficient quantity of blood sent to the brain ; difficulty of breathing from too much as well as from too little blood circulating through the lungs ; vomiting from irritation of the stomach, or from irritation of the vomiting centre ; diarrhoea from crudities in the alimentary canal, or irritant matters in the blood. Not only are the principles on which homoeopathy is said to be based untenable, but the details of the system are inconsistent and ridiculous. The homceopathic doses are so small that they are often incapable of detection either by the microscope or by chemical analysis, and are sometimes so inconceivably minute that the mind can form no idea of them. It is admitted, even by homceopathists, that millions of such doses may be swallowed by a healthy individual without inconvenience : but in disease the body is stated to become so susceptible to their action that much risk is incurred by their insufficient dilution ! Medicines such as charcoal, sand, and calcium carbonate, which, in doses of several drachms, have only slight mechanical effects, when given in fractional parts of a grain are thought to produce very powerful effects, and cause many hundred symptoms. The extraordinary powers supposed to be conferred on these and other medicines, even when given in doses of inconceivable minuteness, are chiefly ascribed to the magic influence of careful and continued triturations and often-repeated shakings, performed according to most precise directions. Some homceo- pathic authorities declare that there is little difference of activity between 28 PROTOPLASM remedies, on the presumption that ' like cures like,' is based upon a fallacy, while the minute, finely triturated, and sub- divided doses are too attenuated to affect veterinary patients. The practice of homoeopathy has, however, developed whole- some discussion, has suggested some useful experiments on the actions of medicines, has helped to show the evils of heroic and indiscriminate drugging, has taught the advan- tage of simple prescriptions, exemplified the power of nature to cure, when not too much interfered with, and demonstrated the powerful influence of diet and regimen in the successful treatment of disease. ACTION OF MEDICINAL AGENTS ON PROTOPLASM, BLOOD, AND LOW ORGANISMS ANTISEPTICS — DISINFECTANTS— DEODORISERS — PARASITICIDES — ANTIPERIODICS. Recent studies of the life of the simplest animal struc- tures, and the manner in which they are acted upon by medicinal agents, have thrown much light on thera- (lifferent dilutions of the same medicine ; and it is said that, if the medicine be well selected, it matters little whether the tenth, hundredth, or thou- sandth of a grain be used (Guuther and Haycock). There is probably some truth in this observation, for, with most medicines, especially when ad- ministered to the lower animals, all the dilutions mentioned would be equally harmless. But homouopathists assert that, in spite of the errors which their opponents discover in the system, it is nevertheless very successful in the cure of disease. In judging, however, of homoeopathy as a system of prac- tical medicine, it must be regarded as made up of two distinct parts : — 1st, The original and peculiar part of the system, consisting in the use of medi- cines selected in accordance with a law embodied in the axiom similia similihus curantur, and administered in infinitesimal doses, usually varying from one grain to one-millionth of a grain, and carefully prepared according to certain precise directions ; and 2nd, Attention to diet and regimen — tlie only effectual and rational part of homaopathy, the true source of all its boasted cures, and that department of medical treatment which has always been insisted upon by rational and successful practitioners, of human and veterinary medicine. The value of medicines given homoeopathically has never been satisfactorily shown, and never can be until two series of cases, as nearly as possible alike, be treated — the one in tlie iisual homioopathic fashion, tlie other with the same attention to diet and regimen, but witliout the globules. In comparative experiments, made at the Edinburgh Veter- inary College, in the treatment of pleuro-pneumonia and other diseases, it appeared that those cases treated by diet and regimen alone were as speedily and effectually cured as those treated with tlie globules in addition, so long as the globules were given only in homoeopathic doses. PROTOPLASM AND BLOOD CONSTITUENTS 29 pen tics as apiDlied to the higher animals. The complex albuminoid material termed protoplasm, which is the ever- present constituent of living cells, is coagulated and pre- cipitated by heat, and dissolved by alkalies. It is precipitated by small quantity, and dissolved by excess, of most mineral acids. Organic alkaloids resemble acids in lowering the temperature at which heat coagulates albumin. Protoplasmic movements, as illustrated in the amoeba, are retarded or arrested by cold. Heat, slight electric shocks, and common salt, even in diluted solution, first quicken them ; but a higher temperature, a stronger electric current, or prolonged ex- posure to a saline solution, tetanises them. Protoplasm has the power of absorbing and storing oxygen ; and the chemical energy developed from this oxidation is capable of conversion into mechanical energy and movements. Protoplasm has also the power of carrying and transferring oxygen to other substances, and appears to contribute largely to the diffusion of oxygen, and interchange of gases, constantly occurring between the blood, the intercellular fluid, and the cells, and constituting what is termed internal respiration. Leucocytes are affected in much the same way as amcebse. Their movements are, besides, notably arrested by the cin- chona alkaloids and beberine sulphate. Quinine injected into the circulation has been found to diminish the miofra- tion of leucocytes from the blood-vessels. The red corpuscles pass out of the vessels when an excess of sodium chloride is introduced into the blood, while still more rapid extravasation is produced by the introduction of rattlesnake poison. The size of the red corpuscles is increased by oxygen, hydrocyanic acid, quinine, and cold, and dimin- ished by carbonic acid, morphine, and warmth. The important blood constituent haemoglobin, like proto- plasm, has great capacity for taking up oxygen, thus becom- ing converted into oxyhsemoglobin, which, however, holds its added ox}gen loosely, and parts with it readily, as it slowly circulates through capillary vessels. The haemoglobin also combines with other substances as well as with oxygen — as with hydrocyanic acid and carbonic mon-oxide, forming tolerably stable compounds; which, however, neither take 30 FERMENTS lip oxygen from the air in the lungs, nor give it ofY in tlie tissues, which hence become asphyxiated. Addition to the blood of such drugs as alcohol, chloroform, quinine, mor- phine, nicotine, and strychnine, likewise, in various degrees, diminish the amount of oxygen absorbed, and of carbonic acid given off by the blood. * Uric acid and snake-poison had a contrary effect, increasing the absorption of oxygen and the evolution of carbonic acid. Curare appeared to lessen the absorption of oxygen, but increased the evolution of carbonic acid. Mercuric chloride lessened the carbonic acid, but increased the absorption of oxygen (Dr. Lauder Brunton). Infusoria have both their rhythmical and ciliary move- ments increased by heat and diminished by cold. Weak saline solutions increase their movements; while strong saline solutions alter the amount of water they contain, and cause them first to shrivel, and subsequently to swell. Ferments determine the healthy nutrition of plants and animals, as well as their decay and many of their diseases. They are exemplified by the yeast which raises bread and converts the starch and sugar of barley into beer or spirit, the rennet which coagulates milk, the filamentous fungus which causes ringworm, and the bacillus which induces the deadl3'^'anthrax. Ferments are divisible into two classes : — 1. Organic ferments or enzymes contain carbon, are hence organic, though they are not organised or living. They are exemplified by diastase, which causes germination in barley and other seeds, ptyalin from saliva, pepsin from the stomach, trypsin from the pancreas, with histozyne, a recently discovered ferment present in blood, and believed to be the chief agent in the reduction of albuminoids. 2. Organised or formed ferments, such as yeast, mycoderma vini, moulds, and bacteria, arc living vegetable organisms of parasitic habit. The reduction of complex carbon compounds into simpler forms is the work of both classes of ferments. Their effects are produced, it is believed, in one of two ways :— (1) By abstraction of water, as in the conversion of starch into sugar, or the splitting up of glucosides — changes chiefly effected by enzymes, and analogous to the effects of heat in PATHOGENIC AND NON-PATHOGENIC BACTERIA 31 conjunction with diluted mineral acids or alkalies. (2) The breaking up of the fermentible body is sometimes effected by transfer of oxygen from its hydrogen to its carbon, as in alcoholic and lactic fermentations, and in putrefactive processes — a mode of reduction usually effected by the organised ferments. The organised ferments, which are the causes of putrefac- tion and of various diseases, have been classified as — 1. Yeasts, or sprouting fungi, which consist of ovoid cells, multiplying by budding, and represented by the torula cere- visise, mycoderma vini, and, according to most authorities, also include the aphthous patches of thrush found in the mouths of 3^oung animals. 2. Moulds, or filamentous fungi, occur in threads, which are agglomerated into masses or tufts, multiplying by budding and formation of spores, and exemplified by the common moulds which appear on moist objects, and by those which cause such skin diseases as favus and tinea. 3. Bacteria, Microbes, or Schizomycetes, are the lowest forms of vegetable life, but the most widely distributed, in air, earth, and water. They consist of round, oval, or cylindrical cells, so minute that they can only be examined with high powers of the microscope. They multiply chiefly by division, occasionally by spore formation. Their multiplication is effected with enormous rapidity, a single individual cell sometimes producing a million in twenty-four hours. Some are fixed, others are motile. For their formation and growth they require organic matter, moisture, salts, and a moderate temperature ; some, further, need oxygen ; some thrive with- out it. They speedily exhaust the nutriment obtainable from the substance on which they grow, or form in it matters inimical to their life ; but where one species languishes and perishes, others frequently spring up and flourish. Bacteria are divided into two groups — (1) Non-pathogenic or saphrophytic. Many of these feed and live on dead animal or vegetable matter, and their great function is the conversion of complex into simpler forms. They are exemplified by the bacillus of hay infusion, the bacillus termo found in all putrid fluids, and the bacilli developing the saccharine and lactic 32 BACTERIAL INVASION fermentations. (2) Pathogenic or parasitic bacteria live on or within the bodies of living plants or animals, and Avhen in large numbers interfere with nutrition and cause disease. Their pathogenic power is proved beyond all question by taking cultures from any of the specific disease products, growing them in suitable media for several generations, and inoculating these on living subjects, when the original disease is reproduced. But pathogenic and non-pathogenic arc only relative terms. The organisms, usually harmless, under certain conditions become harmful ; while those that are pathogenic by cultivation and otherwise sometimes lose their toxic poAvcr, and live and reproduce themselves amongst dead vegetable and animal matter. The bacilli of anthrax, hog cholera, and tetanus illustrate these varying states of activity and change of habit. Microbes which have had their activity reduced or destroyed may, however, under certain conditions regain it. Both pathogenic and non-pathogenic bacteria are divided into three classes, each distinguished by the form assumed : {a) Micrococci or round cells, such as the sarcina found in the stomach, or the cocci which arrange themselves in clusters or in chains, and cause strangles in horses, rinder- pest in cattle, erysipelas and pus formations in all animals. (6) Bacilli or rod-shaped bacteria, as those of anthrax and glanders, as well as the short ovoid bacillus of pneumonia, (c) Spirilli or thread-like bacteria, as of relapsing fever in man and the comma-like organisms of cholera. Dr. T. Lauder Brunton states : ' It is probable that bacteria are constantly entering the organs of man and animals from the lungs and digestive canal ; but unless they are excessive in number, and virulent in their nature, they are quickly destroyed. When only a small number of pathogenic bacteria, such as the bacillus anthracis, is injected into the blood at once, they are destroyed in the organism, but when they are in larger numbers they have the best of the struggle, and the organism itself is destroyed.' Fortunately in healthy subjects, under favourable conditions, the bacilli and their spores are attacked and destroyed by leucocytes, connective tissue cells, and probably other healthy textures. BACTERIAL PRODUCTS 33 Both organic and organised ferments, in breaking up complex vegetable and animal bodies, frequently produce substances of great activity. The emulsin— the ferment of bitter almonds — gives rise to a hj-drocyanated oil. The myrosin of mustard seed develops the acrid mustard oils. The protoplasm of particular plants j)roduces their respective alkaloids, some of Avhich are active poisons. Certain mush- rooms produce the poisonous alkaloid muscarine ; putrefy- ing yeast yields sepsin ; from putrefied maize is obtained an extract which contains one substance which tetanises, and another which narcotises. Animal bodies invaded by bacteria undergo decomposition, and the bacterial cells, according to their kind, elaborate their respective alkaloids, some of which are poisonous. Under healthy conditions they are excreted, but if retained they are injurious. In the healthy muscles of living animals, after active exertion, there are found alkaloids allied to xanthin and creatin. During digestion of fibrin by pepsin an alkaloid is formed. Bouchard has stated that the alkaloids formed in the intestines of a healthy man in twenty-four hours would suffice to kill him if they were all absorbed and excretion stopped. The pathogenic, like the putrefactive bacteria, when they invade the bodies of higher organisms, act as ferments, cause disintegration of living tissues, and formation of alka- loidal toxines, and, besides, produce globulins or albumoses, often as deadly as the alkaloids. Special local effects are produced by the action of these poisons, notably congestion, inflammation, and necrosis ; but the soluble poisons carried in the blood-stream further develop general effects. Thus, the anthrax bacilli cause local malignant oedema or pustule, and further lead to nervous collapse. The diphtheria bacillus causes special throat lesions, Avhile the toxine it develops, circulating widely, impairs the functions of the great nerve-centres. In relation to the prevention and cure of the diseases depending upon bacteria, it must be noted that these patho- genic organisms have their activity retarded or destroyed by exposure to high temperatures, by the action of chemical solutions, by being reproduced for several generations in the C 34 PROTECTIVE VACCINES bodies of certain animals, and in other ways. Anthrax virus is thus attenuated by heat ; rabies virus by being grown in the bodies of rabbits. These attenuated viruses are used as protective vaccines. The vaccine of anthrax and rabies, as well as those of black quarter, swine and fowl cholera, when injected into the bodies of animals liable to these disorders, render the vaccinated subjects immune. This is demon- strated by the animals operated upon suffering no harm when subsequently inoculated with doses of the un- attenuated bacterium or its products, which would destroy unprotected animals. One class of these micro-organisms frequently modifies or arrests the action of others. Thus, the harmless earth bacillus has been found to protect mice and rabbits from anthrax, while a similar power is exerted by the products of blue pus. These important protective powers conferred by bacteria and their products appear to depend upon their exerting metabolic changes on the blood and tissues, with formation of special chemical agents. This immunity, like that produced by an ordinary attack of specific disease, may be more or less permanent. It may be so marked as to be hereditary. In some cases the blood of such immunes transfused into the veins of susceptible animals renders them also immune. Such investigations appear to foreshadow important developments in practical medicine. Vaccines exerting a curative as Avell as a preventive effect may also be obtainable. This is a justifiable expectation, for human patients who have been exposed to the contagium of smallpox, if promptly vaccinated Avitli cow-pox lymph, have the smallpox attack favourably modified. Perhaps still more to the point are Pasteur's experiments with rabies. He inoculated dogs and rabbits with lethal doses of rabies virus, and thereafter Avith repeated doses of vaccine. No serious results followed, although control animals inoculated with rabies virus, but not Avith the vaccine, died. Another important discovery connected Avith bacteria has recently been made. Brieger and Fraenkel have found that the bacteria of diphtheria produce not only a toxic, but also a protective substance. J)rs. Klemperer, experimenting ANTIZYMOTICS 35 with pneumo-cocci, have obtained a pneumo-toxine and an anti-pneumo-toxine. Koch's investigations with tuberculin also point to the conclusion that both a pathogenic poison and its antidote are formed by the tubercle bacillus. Ex- periments may show that others of these pathogenic bacteria also develop their several anti-toxines, and as the toxines have been isolated and cultivated, so, doubtless, also will be the respective anti-toxines. The general method of fighting these pathogenic bacteria at present at our command consists in strict isolation of animals aft'ected by such specific diseases, and fully recognis- ing and acting on the fact that infected subjects and their discharges are apt to distribute the virus. Remedial measures must be adopted early — if possible, before the bacteria have multiplied, and before the toxines are produced. In such cases as rabies, which have a long incubation stas^e, there will be time for the protective operation of vaccines, which appear to confer on the tissues a tolerance of the bacteria, and enable them successfully to cope with the intruders and their products. Ever}'^ endeavour must be made to maintain in its fullest vigour both the part primarily attacked and the system generally, with the view that the healthy tissues may, if practicable, destroy the parasites and their products. The excreting channels, moreover, will be maintained in healthy action, in order that waste and diseased materials, as well as the organisms themselves, may be re- moved. Disinfectants will continue to be used so that the bacteria and their spores shall be destroyed, and the spread of the disease prevented. Many agents inhibit or retard the action of ferments, and some eftectually destroy them. These agents have been de- signated : — Antizymotics — substances which arrest fermentation. They act chiefly in two ways: — (1) Chemically, by direct or indirect oxidation. Chlorine, iodine, bromine, and potassium permanganate act in this way. (2) Arresting proHferation or catalysis of ferments; such is the mode of action of corrosive sublimate and many other metallic solutions, of carbolic, boric, salicylic, and benzoic acids, and of tempera- 36 ANTISEPTICS — DISINFECTANTS — DEODORISERS tnrcs above 200° Falir. Antizymotics include antiseptics and disinfectants, and nearly allied to these are deodorants. Antiseptics are remedies wliicli arrest putrefaction. They kill or 2)rcvent the development of those bacteria which pro- duce septic decomposition. Disinfectants destroy the specific poisons of communi- cable diseases. Their special function is to kill, or arrest the development of, those germs or bacteria which produce disease. Deodorisers or deodorants destroy smells. Some of the most disat^rccable smells, and those most injurious to the higher animals, result from putrefaction, hence their cause is removed by effectual antiseptics. Smells consisting mainl}' of sulphuretted hydrogen are neutralised by chlorine ; those from ammoniacal gases by hydrochloric and nitric acids. Noisome odours may also be attracted and absorbed by freshly-burnt charcoal or dried earth. Enzymes or separable ferments generally have their action arrested or are destroyed more readily than the organised ferments, amongst which there is much difference in viability. Microzymes are more sensitive than bacilli. The bacillus anthracis is more easily killed than some others. The spores of all species are specially resistant, and for their effectual destruction require prolonged exposure to tolerably strong solutions of potent antiseptics. The action of watery solutions of various drugs on the several enzymes has been carefully examined by Wernitz, and his experiments corroborated and quoted by Dr. Lauder Brunton. Corrosive sublimate stands pre-eminent in the certainty of its effects, even in very diluted solution. The action of emulsin was arrested by l-65,000th part, of diastase by 1 -50,000th part, of ptyalin by l-52,000th part, of pan- creatin by l-21,G00th part ; but it took 1-I766th part to arrest the action of pepsin, and l-720th part to arrest that of rennet. -Minute quantities of copper sulj^hate, chlorine, iodine, and bromine, and also bleaching powder and sul- phurous acid, readily destroy these organic ferments. Salicylic and benzoic acids and chlorinated lime arc also effectual, usually in proportions of about 1-lOOOth part. Borax RELATIVE ACTIVITY OF VARIOUS ANTISEPTICS 37 is effective generally with 1 to 100, although l-3580th part arrests the action of the intestinal ferment invertin. Alumi- nium acetate, carbolic acid, and glycerin in the order men- tioned are weaker still. Chloroform, thymol, eucalj'ptol, and mustard oils have little, if any, action, even in saturated solution. A temperature over 125° Fahr. weakens or destroys the enzymes. Drugs act differently on different ferments. While l-52,000th part of corrosive sublimate, as already indicated, arrests the action of ptyalin, 1 part in 720 is needful to arrest the action of rennet, which is, however, destroyed by ] -1000th part of borax, 1 part of which in 100 is required to destroy ptyalin. For destruction of rennet, bromine and chlorinated lime are specially effective. Creosote, although it has small effect on the enzymes, in solution of 1 part to 500 destroys yeast cells, and, in solution of half that strength, kills bacteria. The mould fungi are destroyed by the same agents which kill yeast and bacteria. Bacteria of different sorts exhibit some differences in their susceptibility to different antiseptics; indeed, the susceptibility somewhat varies in the same bacteria when raised in different media. It is more easy to prevent than to arrest development of bacteria. As already pointed out, the spores have much greater resisting powers than the fully-developed bacteria. The fully-developed bacteria are destroyed by exposure for an hour to a temperature of 150° to 168° Fahr., but the spores require more prolonged ex- posure at 212° Fahr. Moist heat, having a greater power of softening and penetrating the spore envelope, is more effectual than dry heat. Milk containing the bacillus of tubercle or other S23ecific disorder may be rendered inno- cuous by five minutes' boiling. Experiments bearing on the poAver of different substances to prevent the development of bacteria in various stages and solutions, to kill them, or to arrest development and reproduction of their spores, have been carried out b}' many good observers. The plan of procedure has generally been to add to carefully prepared sterilised fluids in test tubes, known quantities of the disinfectant to be tested, and then 38 KOCHS EXPERIMENTS introduce a drop of liquid containing bacteria or their spores. Such experiments show that the agents which most promptly and effectually arrest the action of enzymes also prove the most destructive to bacteria. Of corrosive sublimate, l-5805th part kills the developed parasite; l-25,258th part prevents the development of bacteria taken from meat infusions; but it requires a strength of 1 in 252.5 to prevent reproduction of spores in unboiled meat infusion, and still stronger solutions to penetrate and kill the spores. Chlorine, chlorinated lime, bromine, iodine, and quinine stand next in activity. Sulpho-carbolates and strychnine follow in order. Sodium sulphite is about 1-lOth the strength of quinine. Compared with corrosive sublimate, it requires twenty times the amount of thymol, salicylic acid, or potassium permanganate to prevent development of bacteria, and sixty times the amount to prevent repro- duction of spores. Sodium hyposulphite has very little action. Carbolic acid did not stand so high as expected. The fresh blood of an animal just dead from anthrax must be mixed with its own bulk of a 1 per cent, solution in order to destroy the bacilli, and enable it, without harm, to be injected into another animal. A half per cent, solution fails to destroy the bacilli. Koch's experiments with anthrax spores constitute the most recent, extensive, and reliable tests of the value of disinfectants. Solutions of the several substances, of speci- fied strength, were placed in tubes, their mouths stopped, as is generally done, by cotton wool; and threads steeped in fluids containing bacilli and their spores were carefully introduced. Some of these threads were removed from day to day, and subjected to microscopic examination. Even after one hundred days' exposure to the antiseptic, some threads still exhibited bacilli. Chlorine water, freshly made, bromine 2 per cent, solution, iodine 1 part in 7000, corrosive sublimate 1 per cent, in water, were found effectually to destroy these anthrax spores with Avhich they had been in contact one day. Formic acid, specific gravity 1 1 20, destroyed all spores after four days' exposure. In five days all spores were killed by 5 per cent, watery solutions of chlorinated lister's principles of antiseptic surgery 39 lime and ferric chloride. One per cent, of arsenic in water, and the same proportion of quinine in acidulated watery sohition, were effective in ten days. Oil of turpentine took five days, ether thirty days. The results with carbolic acid were disappointing; a 1 per cent, solution had not much effect on the spores, even when exposure was prolonged for fifteen days; and a five per cent, solution was required to secure their destruction in one day. Like salicylic, boric, and benzoic acids, sodium chloride, and many metallic solutions, carbolic acid was thoroughly effectual in destroy- ing microzymes which had not formed spores, and from its volatility it is frequently more serviceable than fixed anti- septics. The infected threads, subjected to the influence of even the least active of those antiseptics, produced only scanty and retarded crops of bacilli. Such reliable anti- septics as corrosive sublimate, bromine, and iodine, when dissolved in alcohol, ether, or oil, were not nearly so effectual as when dissolved in water. The uses of antiseptics. — In surgery, zinc and iron chlorides, pitch and tar, tinctures of myrrh, benzoin, and other balsams have long been used empirically both in human and veterinary practice. But Lord Lister has explained and systematised the antiseptic treatment, and rendered it both certain and successful. He studied fer- mentative processes, and the analogous actions of micro- organisms on living tissues; and in 1867 inaugurated the aseptic treatment of wounds. Two conditions, he insists, are essential in dealing with wounds, whether accidental or made by the surgeon: (1) Nothing septic must be left in them; and (2) Nothing septic must be allowed to get into them. Acting on these principles, wounds which for an hour or two have remained exposed, and into which the ubiquitous dust-particles and organisms have been intro- duced, should first be thoroughly cleansed of mechanical irritants, and then washed, and, if need be, syringed with a watery solution of corrosive sublimate, zinc chloride, or carbolic acid. The Avound thus rendered aseptic, and the removal of discharges, if need be, provided for, it is to be protected from ingress of organisms by antiseptic dressing's 40 PRINCIPLES OF ANTISEPTIC SURGERY Wounds become septic not so much from the germs found in the atmosphere as from those found on the hands of tlie operator. — (Lord Lister.) Any wound from a clean knife, or howsoever produced, if it is perfectly aseptic, is as quickly as possible covered Avith the dressing. This consists of lint, tow, oakum, or other such absorbent substance, saturated with an effectual germicide solution of carbolic acid, which has the advantage of being volatile, of perchloride or biniodide of mercury, or of boric or salicylic acids. These dressings are removed daily, or as required, and are continued till healthy granulations cover and protect the wound. Further, to prevent wounds from being inoculated by septic germs, the knives, probes, ligatures, sponges, drainage tubes, and other appliances used in connection with them, should lie in an antiseptic solution until required, while the operator, whose hands should be most scrupulously clean, must repeatedly moisten his hands with a similar solution. Wounds kept strictly aseptic heal quickly ; if otherwise properly treated inflammation rarely appears, inasmuch as the conditions determining irritation are avoided ; pain con- sequently is slight and of brief duration ; suppuration does not occur, its organismal causes being excluded ; blood-clots are preserved from harmful decomposition, and are gradually replaced by new tissue ; portions of damaged structure without hurt are removed ; septica3mia and pyjiemia cannot occur when micro-organisms and their products have been destroyed or prevented from entering the protected wound. Serious operations, such as opening the chest or abdomen, exposing joints and tendon sheaths, can be undertaken with greatly diminished risk when proper antiseptic precautions are adopted. Carbolic acid is the antiseptic most frequently used in veterinary surgery. Its volatility carries it into the recesses of wounds, and thus in many cases increases its efficacy. It is applied, according to circumstances, in the proportion of one part dissolved in twenty to forty of water ; but besides watery solutions, liniments and antiseptic lints are used. It is em- ployed alone or in conjunction with corrosive sublimate. ANTISEPTICS FOR INTERNAL USE 4l As an effectual non-poisonous antiseptic and parasiticide, Professor Frolmer and other German authorities strongly recommend Jeyes' creolin, which is a derivative of coal- tar. Salicylic acid destroys some ferments, but is not volatile ; it is used especially for the dressing of ulcers and eczema. Boric acid is non- volatile, non-irritant, and is often serviceable for superficial wounds, where frequent dressings are unnecessary, where the more active carbolic acid has for some time been persevered with, and where granulations and growth of skin require encouragement. The watery solution of sulphurous acid is cheap and effectual. Chlorinated soda solution is sometimes used. 'Sanitas,' which consists of camphoraceous bodies and peroxide of hydrogen, is a non- poisonous and valuable antiseptic. Iodoform readily parts with its 90 per cent, of iodine, conjoins antiseptic and local ana3sthetic actions, and stimulates granulation. It is applied to ulcers and chronic foul wounds. Such poisonous dressings require, however, to be used with some care for dogs, as they are liable to lick them. Iodine tincture undiluted or diluted according to requirements, proves a useful stimulant and antiseptic ; zinc chloride, chinosol, lysol, Izal, Formaldehyde, Naphthol, and Thymol are also employed. Antiseptics used internally are neither so certain nor so effective as when used externally. Bacteria within the living body are not easily reached or destroyed; and, moreover, medicines such as corrosive sublimate and carbolic acid, which readily destroy the micro-organisms, are also liable to poison the patient. Dr. Cash, however, has found that the continued administration of minute doses of corrosive sub- limate render animals capable of resisting the deadly effects of the subsequent inoculation of anthrax. Professor Poll! of Milan found that dogs, which for five days previously had received daily doses of sodium sulphite, suffered compara- tively little inconvenience from the inoculation of foetid pus, which destroyed, with gangrene and typhoid symptoms, dogs not previously protected by the antiseptic. Mr. Crookes {Cattle Plague ComTnission, 1866) injected into the veins of a cow affected with cattle plague 105 grains of carbolic acid, dissolved in 6 ounces of glycerin and water. Not only 42 METHODS OF DISINFECTION" were no bad effects produced, but the cow steadily improved and recovered. But even more to the purpose, as showing the efficacy of the administration of antiseptics, is the ob- servation that cattle in plague-infected buildings receiving daily an ounce of carbolic acid along with their food, and having carbolic and sulphurous acid fumes frequently liberated in their sheds, did not contract the disease. Researches in this direction will probably lead to important results. To prevent decomposition of the contents of the digestive canal, allay irritation and vomiting, and relieve diarrhaa and dysentery, such antiseptics as salol, dermatol, naph- thol, tannalbin, lysol, creolin, creosote, carbolic, salicylic, and sulphurous acids are administered. Alcohol, ether-oils, and other members of the fatty series of carbon compounds, are prescribed. Most of the bodies of the aromatic series are also antiseptics; but carbolic and salicylic acids are more active than salol, exalgin, thallin, and resorcin. Creolin and lysol are the antiseptics most frequently pre- scribed in Germany. The notable efficacy of mercurials in many gastro-intestinal disorders depends upon their anti- septic properties. In the treatment of phthisis in human patients, inhalation of spray, containing very minute quan- tities of corrosive sublimate, has been used with some success. The uses of disinfectants. — Perfect cleanliness of the animals and their surroundings, with sunlight and abundance of pure air and water, are the chief purifying agents re- quisite, so long as animals are in perfect health. When, however, contagious or zymotic disease occurs, it is necessary to destroy the specific micro - organisms produced, and prevent their diffusing and attacking healthy subjects. Pure air dilutes, but it also diffuses, and does not destroy these contagious organisms. Water, like air, mechanically dilutes noxious matters, and hastens their oxidation. Sewage freely mixed with running water is hence rapidly decomposed and robbed of injurious properties. Decomposing organic and contagious matters, insufficiently diluted with water, instead, however, of being EFFICACY OF DISINFECTANTS 43 deprived of their activity, are apt to get distributed, and are liable to assume more dangerous forms. Hence, in purifying foul or infected places, solid accumulations should be mixed with some fitting antiseptic, and removed without the addi- tion of water. Infected stables, sheds, market-stances, trucks, and ships should be swept out, and, if need be, scraped ; and dry or semi-solid filth, which proves so ready an absorbent of contagious virus, should be mixed with disinfectants, and cleared away. The partially cleansed surfaces should then be weU washed with carbolic soap and Avater, or corrosive sublimate solution; brickwork subsequently lime-washed, and woodwork sprinkled with carbolic acid in the proportion of two ounces to the gallon of water. It is of paramount importance to attack the infecting micro-organisms as soon as they are produced, and before they have opportunity for distribution. Animals affected with contagious diseases should accordingly be immediately isolated, provided with attendants who shall have nothing to do with the healthy stock, their droppings at once dis- infected, their skin and feet washed daily with some disinfectant, whilst antiseptic medicine should be given internally. Sheds or stables occupied by infected animals should be fumigated with chlorine or sulphurous acid. The former is the more effectual, and is evolved gradually by treating bleaching powder with diluted sulphuric acid, or more freely by mixing common salt and black oxide of manganese with sulphuric acid. Half-a-pound of sulphur, mixed with about one-fourth part of charcoal, and placed in a chauffer or on a shovel of hot cinders, fumigates a shed about 100 feet long and 20 feet in breadth and height. Neither chlorine nor sulphurous gas, properly managed, should cause pulmonary irritation, either to the animals or their attendants. Carbolic acid in its impure liquid form is conveniently applied with a brush over the doors, walls, and mangers; and carbolic powder should be scattered daily over the floors and manure heaps. Rugs or sacks, wetted with a strong solution of the volatile carbolic acid, should be hung about the premises. The reporters to the Cattle Plague Commission adduced 44 EFFICACY OF DISINFECTANTS many striking cases showing the efficacy of disinfectants. Mr. William Crookes and others used carbolic and sulphurous acids on many farms during the prevalence of cattle plague, and these herds, although within centres of contagion, escaped. Nay, more, individual animals breathing an atmosphere of carbolic acid, and receiving daily doses of the acid with their food, resisted the disease for weeks, although plague-stricken subjects were dying in adjoining standings. One herd of seventy-three animals in Cheshire was for months surrounded by cattle plague. The virus was eventually conveyed to them by one of the milkmen. Four of the cows milked by him sickened and died : twenty-eight younger animals, unprotected by disinfection, also perished ; but disinfection, continuously applied, effectually arrested further spread of the disease. From the end of February until the middle of April no new cases occurred. The disease abating in the neighbourhood, the forty-one surviving cows were turned out to grass ; within, however, a few days of their removal from the protecting influence of the dis- infectants, they were, one after another, struck down by plague, and all died. Carbolic acid sprinkled about the boxes, sheds, and enclosures of the Jardin d'Acclimatation, in Paris, proved successful in preventing the spread of cattle plague in 1865. Similar treatment has secured the like immunity from attacks of contagious pleuro- pneumonia and foot-and-mouth disease. Repeated instances have come under my notice where foot-and-mouth disease has been arrested, after a portion of the herd has been attacked, by washing twice a week the walls, floors, doors, and other woodwork of the infected premises with carbolic acid, con- tining the animals for several weeks to their sheds or boxes, and keeping them surrounded by an atmosphere abounding in the tar acids, freshly evolved by sprinkling IVl'DougalTs powder daily over the floors and the manure. By similar disinfection, the progress of influenza and of strangles in large studs has frequently been arrested. Professor Nocard has shown that, when a cow aborts, whether from mechanical and accidental causes, or from virus introduced from subjects which have previously aborted, further cases of the mishap SPREAD OF CONTAGION 45 may be prevented by corrosive sublimate injections into the vagina, washing the external organs with a siniilar solution, and disinfecting and burying or burning the aborted calf and membranes. Incalvers standing with those aborting should have the external organs and tail washed daily with an antiseptic solution. Burning is the only absolutely safe method of dealing with the bodies of anthrax subjects, from which removal of the hides is dangerous to persons employed or, it may be, to other animals. Cattle plague and swine fever subjects should be either burned or deeply buried ; Avhile for the diseased organs of tuberculous patients the furnace is the only safe tomb. A high temperature, as already indicated, destroys infec- tive particles. Koch, as above stated, found that the bacilli of anthrax and swine fever, even when bearing spores, were deprived of pathogenic power when exposed for four hours to a temperature of 216" to 220° Fahr. ; while exposure for five minutes to boiling water, or, better still, to steam heat, is equally effective. The power of steam depends — (1) on its latent heat ; (2) on its moistening ; (3) on its condensing ; (4) on its penetrating. It is most effective when employed under pressure, and when its entrance into the chamber is occasionally interrupted, so that cold air in the interstices of bulky and non-conducting bodies may be displaced. Dr. Russell, Glasgow, exposed all infected washable articles, for three-quarters of an hour in a chamber, to steam heat, along with soap and soda, and found that this treatment destroyed bacilli of anthrax and swine fever, tuberculous pus, and also the ova of lice. This method should, where practicable, be adopted in the case of rugs and other articles used by infected animals. Conveyance of contagium by attendants is prevented by sprinkling their clothes with weak carbolic solutions. After handling animals affected by contagious disease, or making post-mortem examinations of such subjects, the hands should be cleansed first with soap and water, and then washed with a 4 per cent, solution of carbolic acid, or with a solution of 12-15 grains corrosive sublimate 4*G DISINFECTANTS FOR DIFFERENT PURPOSES to a quart of water, which very effectually destroys any adhering bacilli. So soon as the premises in which animals affected with contagious disease have lived can be emptied, more thorough disinfection should be carried out. To this end, doors and windows having been closed, chlorine or sulphurous acid should be freely evolved, and the place kept shut for several hours. Walls, floors, and woodwork should subsequently be scraped, and washed with corrosive sublimate solution or other disinfectant. Different disinfectants are suitable for different pur- poses. For putrefying or contagious matters mixed with water, the best are mineral salts, of which the most effective and cheapest are corrosive sublimate ; zinc chloride, in the familiar form of Burnet's fluid ; and iron chloride, the active constituent of Ellerman's deodorising fluid. For sewage disinfection, or where there is much water, aluminium sul- phate, followed by lime, can be recommended. Sulphites promptly remove smells, and are most effectual when con- joined with the tar acids. The mixture of sodium sulphite and carbolic or cresylic acid, although effectual for deodoris- ing, has a feeble power in preventing the putrefaction of night soil, for Avhich Condy's fluid is most useful. Common salt, although ineffectual in checking, decay Avhen once established, or in neutralising bad smells, is a cheap pre- server of many animal substances. It preserves and disinfects skins. For conserving for manure meat seized as unfit for human food. Cooper's salts, consisting of refuse commercial chlorides, are cheap and effectual. Iodine is volatile and penetrating. It is used in many sick-rooms and hospitals, conveniently dissolved in the light diffusible pentane. The solution contains 20 grains to the ounce ; an ounce suffices for four cubic feet of space ; distributed by a spray producer, it volatilises rapidly ; it leaves, when freely used, a film of iodine, and effectually destroys smells and noxious organic matter. Its expense, however, precludes its general use in veterinary practice. The uses of deodorisers. — Bad smells, however unpleasant, are not necessarily prejudicial to health, and, although some- DEODORISERS i7 times associated with, are perfectly distinct from, the micro- organisms of zymotic or contagious diseases. Objectionable smells are largely made up of sulphuretted hydrogen, phos- phuretted hydrogen, and nitrogen gases, with sulphurous and ammoniacal compounds. Still more injurious are the noisome exhalations from the skin and lungs of animals. Some popular deodorisers only cloak and overpower, instead of neutralising or destroying offensive smells. Of this descrip- tion are fumigations with aromatic and balsamic substances, such as camphor, cascarilla, and lavender, the burning of brown paper, the sprinkling of scents and essences. Odours depending upon gases are readily removed by effectual chemical neutralisers : sulphuretted hydrogen, by chlorine ; ammoniacal emanations, by hydrochloric and nitric acids. Smells from decomposing organic matters are usually most effectually got rid of by arresting decomposition by suitable antiseptics. Noisome odours already floating in the air may be attracted and absorbed by freshly-burned charcoal, dried earth, or cotton wool; or altered and broken up by such gases as chlorine and sulphurous acid. For destroying the intolerable smell from cochineal dye-works, no deodoriser has been found so satisfactory as sulphurous acid. For deodorising the contents of privies, without detracting from the manurial value, a iliixture of common salt and carbolic acid, or eight parts of calcined dolomite mixed Avith two of peat or of wood charcoal, can be recommended. Powerful mineral antiseptics, such as the zinc and iron chlorides, especially when used in concentrated solution, are not good deodorisers. They are apt to evolve disagreeable fatty acids. Not being volatile, they can only destroy the odorous particles brought into immediate contact with them. Iodine, dissolved in spirit, although an expensive, is an elegant and effective deodoriser. Cresylic and carbolic acids are good deodorisers, and are volatile, but have the dis- advantage, when used in concentrated form and in presence of much water, of evolving sulphuretted hydrogen. A mix- ture of dry sodium sulphite with carbolic acid is effectual, and moderate in cost, and should be placed in vessels about the premises. M'Dougall's disinfecting powder is also good. 48 PARASITICIDES AND ANTIPERIODICS especially when charged Avith an extra quantity of" carbolic acid; animals appear to have no dislike to the tar-like odour, and nothing answers better for removing the smell and arresting the decomposition of stable or other manure. Jeyes' Fluid — one part in 80 to 100 of water — is largely used as a deodorant for cattle-sheds, stables, piggeries, and kennels. Chlorinated lime, in the familiar form of bleaching powder, although possessed of small antiseptic power, is a prompt and effectual deodoriser, can be employed either for solid or liquid impurities, gives off' chlorine, and never causes any disagreeable combinations ; but breaking up instead of pre- serving organic matters, it diminishes the value of manure with which it is mixed. It is applied as powder, or in solution containing from 2 to 5 per cent., to the walls, wood- work, and floors of the places requiring purification, or sheets soaked in the solution are suspended about the premises. Parasiticides are killers of parasites, whether animal or vegetable. The group includes germicides, or killers of micro-organisms (p. 31), and vermicides, which will be sub- sequently noticed. They are referred to here as they mainly consist of antiseptics. The two varieties of ringworm pro- duced by fungi are destroyed by antiseptic solutions, by phenol oils, and tincture of iodine. Scab and mange caused by various acari are treated by sulphur ointments, solutions of carbolic acid, creolin, or arsenic, or by tobacco infusion. The strongylides invading the bronchial tubes of young cattle and sheep, and causing hoose or husk, are destroyed by inhalation of diluted sulphurous acid, or chlorine, or by turpentine, chloroform, or terebene, given intratracheally. Antiperiodics are medicines which mitigate or prevent intermittent intensity of the symptoms of certain diseases. Such periodical recrudescence is less marked in the lower annuals than in man, but is sometimes observable in the pyrexia of influenza in horses and distemper in dogs. These exacerbations usually occur in specific disorders, and are believed to result from the recurring development of fresh crops of micro-organisms or their products. Cinchona, quinine, iodine, arsenic, and salicin, arc the most effective antiperiodics. COUNTER-IRRITANTS 49 REMEDIES ACTING ON THE SURFACE OF THE BODY RUBEFACIENTS — VESICANTS — PUSTULANTS — CAUSTICS— SETONS — THE ACTUAL CAUTERY — ASTRINGENTS — DEMULCENTS — EMOLLIENTS — DILUENTS Irritants, or Counter-irritants, applied to the skin, produce nervous and vascular reaction, and reflexly induce certain remote effects. They relieve or remove congestion and pain, and, by stimulating functional activity, promote repair. It is not always easy, however, to explain how these curative results are produced. Heat and cold both relieve tension, and hence pain ; but they produce their effects in different ways. Cold reflexly contracts arteries, and hence lessens the quantity of blood flowing to an inflamed part. Warmth dilates capillaries adjacent to the seat of inflammation, and hence slows the blood current. Cold lessens the amoeboid movements of the white corpuscles, but to be effective it must be used in the earlier stages of inflammation, and continuously for a considerable time. Irritation or inflammation of the skin surface, as indicated, frequently relieves or removes congestion or inflammation, and pain of adjacent or deeper-seated parts. To effect such purposes blisters are applied, in most animals, in sore throat, bronchitis, pleurisy, inflamed joints, etc. Their curative actions are thus explained : When the chest walls are blistered in a case of pleuro-pneumonia, so soon as the skin becomes hot and tender, a stimulus is conveyed by the afferent nerves to the vaso-motor medullary centres, and thence is reflected by the vaso-motor nerves, causing the lung and pleural capillaries to dilate, and thus diminishing tension and pain. Dr. Lauder Brunton mentions that when ' cantharides collo- dion was painted repeatedly over the back of a rabbit for fourteen days, the vessels underneath the skin and the superficial layers of muscles were congested. The deeper layers of the muscles, the thoracic wall, and even the lung itself, were much paler and more ansemic than those of the D 50 RUBEFACIENTS — VESICANTS other side.' A blister is thus believed to act in the same way as a warm poultice, viz., it dilates the congested or inflamed capillary network. Counter-irritants may occa- sionally, however, act reflexly, as cold does, and by contract- ing arterial vessels, relieve congestion, inflammation, and pain. But whether a blister dilates or contracts the capil- laries of affected parts, it certainly increases circulation through them, promoting cell growth and hastening absorp- tion. It thus restores healthy action in most inflamed organs, in swollen glands and joints. The several classes of irritants used externally difl'er materially in the intensity and duration of their effects. Rubefacients produce slight redness and vascular dilata- tion or congestion, and are represented by ammonia solu- tion, iodine, mild preparations of cantharides, and arnica ; by alcohol, ether, and chloroform, if evaporation be prevented by oiled silk or other means ; by turpentine and other volatile oils, as well as by smart friction and moderate heat. The laundress's smoothing-iron heated and pressed equably over the skin, either bare or covered with brown paper or flannel, proves a useful rubefacient in rheumatism and enlarged joints in delicate young animals. Owing to the colour of the skin and abundance of hair, reddening in veterinary patients is, however, less obvious than in man. Massage or friction with pressure, as in kneading or shampooing, exerts many of the effects of counter-irritants, and, moreover, assists in mechanically relieving overloaded lymph vessels and veins. In this way hand-rubbing reduces the swollen legs and joints of hard- worked horses. Vesicants are more active; cause exudation of plasma, which, collecting under the epidermis, raises vesicles or blisters. Vesicles contain a fluid consisting of about 78 parts of water, 18 of albumin, with a little fibrin, and 4 of salts. Steam and boiling water rapidly produce a large amount of effusion. Blisters, by whatsoever agent raised, after some da3^s generally dry up, protecting the parts until the new epidermis forms. Cantharides, mustard, acetic acid, turpentine, and strong ammonia, are the vesicants commonly used in veterinary practice. PUSTULANTS AND CAUSTICS 51 PusTULANTS inflame tlio deep-seated cutaneous tissues, especially the orifices of the sweat glands, cause exudation of leucocytes and raise pustules. These arc the effects or euphorbium, croton oil, tartar emetic, mercury biniodide; and also of cantharides, mustard, and other active vesicants, when applied with sufficient friction. Caustics combine with the water and albumin of the tissues, w^ith wdiich they arc brought into contact, and cause the separation of a slough. Those producing extensive sloughing receive the title of escharotics. Caustics are exemplified by the concentrated mineral acids, glacial acetic, carbolic, and chromic acids, concentrated alkalies, antimony chloride, arsenic, bromine, and the soluble salts of the heavy metals. Caustics are used to destroy parasites or virus in Avounds, and for this purpose penetrating fluid caustics are some- times preferable to solid. They are employed for opening abscesses, and for removing warts and other growths, especi- ally when so deep-seated and vascular that they cannot be safely extirpated by the knife. When emj^loyed to arrest hsemorrhage from accidental or surgical wounds, they receive the special title of styptics. When thus used, the blood is removed by a piece of lint or a sponge, and the part lightly pressed, so that the blood-vessels may be more readily seen, and the caustic applied to them with precision, and with as little destruction as possible of surrounding textures. The effect of the styptic may be seconded by equable pressure and application of cold. {See Astringents and Styptics.) But besides these more direct and mainly chemical actions, they develop more complex and vital reparative effects. Applied, for example, to indolent or callous ulcers, they stimulate the trophic nerves and blood-vessels, promote healthy nutrition, and thus hasten healing. Lightly used, they condense soft, spongy, exuberant granulations, and hasten the cicatrisation of sinuses. These beneficial effects on morbid processes probably result, not only from direct action on the diseased tissues, but also from indirect reflex action on surrounding parts ; in other words, from counter- irritation. 52 THE ACTUAL CAUTERY Setons are sbmetiines substituted for blisters or firing, and are frequently preferred to firing on account of their being less apt to blemish. The seton consists of a piece of tape or cord, and is usually inserted by means of a seton needle. To prevent slipping out, its ends are tied together, or knotted. It is usually moved daily ; and if severe effects are desired, it is smeared with blistering ointment. Setons act chiefly on the comparatively insensitive subcutaneous cellular tissues. They are serviceable in combating chronic inflam- mation of joints, and in relieving some forms of lameness. Placed in the dewlap, they have also been used as preventives for black-quarter in calves and young cattle ; and the effects ascribed to them may result from their increasing the phago- cytes which destroy the specific bacilli. A rowel acts in much the same manner as a seton. A wound is made in the skin with a bistoury or rowel scissors, and is kept open by the insertion of a pledget of tow, or a disc of leather, which, to increase counter-irritation, is smeared with blisterinsf ointment. Acupuncture is effected by needles three to six inches in length, introduced into fleshy parts, with a rotary movement. Occasionally anodynes are deeply injected into muscles for the relief of rheumatic pain. The Actual Cautery is still much used in veterinary practice as a counter-irritant. It is generally applied at a full red heat, and the higher the temperature, the less the pain attending its application. It is employed for some of the purposes of active vesicants, and also of caustics. In the treatment of chronic inflammation of bones, joints, ligaments, and tendons, for which it is chiefly used, it modifies the nutrition of the diseased part. Deep cauterisation with penetration, as in pyropuncturing exostoses, increases the activity of the inflammatory process and hastens consolida- tion. Moderate cauterisation, as in linear or transcurrent firing, acts as a revulsive, and promotes absorption of exudate and resolution. The fired skin does not, as was once believed, form a permanent bandage around the parts; for a short time indeed after the operation the skin is corrugated and tightened, but it soon resumes its natural elasticity, and does USES OF COUNTER-IRRITANTS 63 not embrace the subjacent parts more firmly tlian in health. The firing of healthy limbs, with the popular idea of strengthening and bracing them up, is now deservedly dis- countenanced, and any benefits apparently accruing really result from the rest which the operation necessitates. In nervous, excitable horses, firing occasionally produces irri- tative fever, especially if several parts are fired at the same time. Dry Cupping is occasionally employed as a derivant or irritant in the human subject, and is equally serviceable in the lower animals. The uses of counter-irritants. — In influenza, bronchitis, and other depressing disorders of horses, in order to rouse the action of the heart and avert lunsr consrestion, rube- facients, such as soap liniments or mustard paste, are some- times rubbed into the chest, abdomen, or legs, and when the surface is warmed, as it generally will be in ten to fifteen minutes, the dressing is washed off. Counter-irritants are in common use in certain stages of inflammation of the joints, air passages, intestines, and their investing membranes. They are more beneficial in laryngitis and bronchitis aftecting the larger tubes, and in pleuris}^ than in pneumonia. In the outset of inflammatory attacks, by reflex action, they lessen hyperemia, chiefly by stimulating the dilated paralysed capil- laries, thus favouring resolution. In more acute stages, when blood-plasma and red and white corpuscles are escaping through the walls of the distended vessels, fomentations and poultices are generally more suitable than irritants. ^Vhen the urgency of the febrile symptoms has somewhat abated, counter-irritants are, however, agam useful in promoting absorption of inflammatory products, and they frequently invigorate enfeebled, over-distended capillaries, and sub- stitute higher formative for lower debased action. Blisters act more powerfully on horses than on cattle, and require to be used with special caution on dogs, which are apt to bite and rub the blistered parts, and thus induce sloughing. For general purposes in canine practice, iodine is a most useful counter-irritant. The action of turpentine on the skin of horses is peculiar. Applied over a consider- 54 CHOICE OF COUNTER-IRRITANTS able surface, it produces such intense irritation that some animals for a short time become unmanageable, a result the more remarkable as turpentine acts but slightly on the more delicate human skin. The choice of a counter-irritant and the mode of using it are determined by various conditions. Promptly to produce general revulsion, as in combating chill, rousing nervous dej)ression, or overcoming such functional disturb- ance as occasions colic, mustard and other rubefacients are specially indicated. To act more permanently on parts in which nutrition has been more seriously impaired, cantha- rides is the appropriate counter-irritant. Where bone, cartilage, or ligament has been chronically affected, still more profound and permanent effects result from the use of mercuric biniodide ointment, the hot needle-iron, or setons. In inflammatory diseases of the chest in horses mustard is preferable to cantharides. In well-bred sensitive animals a pound of mustard flour made into a paste with Avater is rubbed into the sides and washed off in half-an-hour. In the heavier less sensitive breeds paper is laid over the mustard dressing, and the body-sweater loosely applied. Some horses show considerable restiveness, and even pain. So soon, however, as tenderness and swelling are notable externally, as they usually are in a few hours, the chest symptoms abate. No other remedy aftbrds such prompt and effectual relief in these cases. Indeed, when mustard fails to produce its external irritant results, the patient's chances of recovery are small. Professor Williams, how- ever, disapproves of the use of all blisters in chest diseases, urging that, besides causing needless pain, they aggravate he inflanmiation. He further states that they increase the liability to hydrothorax, while, when used in diseases of joints, he declares that the superficial inflammation they produce extends to the subcutaneous tissues, including even the periosteum and bones. These charges are inconsistent with physiological obser, vations, and are effectually disproved by the five following experiments, undertaken by Professor M'Call in 1891 : — 1. Post-mortem examination of the chest of a horset PROFESSOR M'CALL's EXPERIMENTS 55 which, three days prior to slaughter, had mustard as a counter-irritant appHed. Inflammatory congestion of the skin and subcutaneous celhilar tissue, with effusion very pronounced, but periosteum, ribs, and other tissues unaltered in colour or consistency. 2. Post-mortem examination of a chronically diseased hock-joint which had been pyropunctured, and thereafter blistered, about one Aveek prior to slaughter. Inflammatory action produced in the skin, and markedl}^ at the points of puncture on the superficial layer of subcutaneous tissue; but all structures deeper placed not in the least affected or altered in appearance. 3. Post-mortem examination of chronically enlarged fore fetlock joints of a horse, which, three days prior to slaughter, had been blistered with cantharides ointment. Inflammatory action and effusion confined to skin and subcutaneous cellular tissue. 4. Post-mortem examination of a lady-toed worn harness horse, having a large splint or bony growth on the inside of each fore limb, with considerable thickening of the skin from brushing, and to which diseased parts cantharides blisters had been applied three days prior to slaughter. Inflam- matory action marked upon skin and cellular tissue, but no deeper. 5. Post-mortem examination of a horse which had a con- siderable growth of bone, involving the last row of small bones of hock, and head of large metatarsal bone on the outside, and which had been line fired, and thereafter blistered with cantharides ointment, three days prior to slaughter. Evidences of the effect of counter-irritation well marked, but confined, as in all the previous cases, to the skin and subcutaneous cellular tissue, and leaving the periosteum, bones, and deeper structures to the unaided eye unaffected and unchanged in colour. Before a blister is applied, the skin should be well washed with soap and water, and the hair, when long or thick, removed Avith scissors or razor. The effect of the blister may be hastened and increased by subjecting the part to smart friction, or the action of hot water, and by 5G ASTRINGENTS CONDENSE LIVING TISSUES rubbing the agent well in, taking care to spread it over the surface of the part diseased. Violent, deep-seated action is seldom desirable. Better curative results are usually attained by moderate and continuous effects kept up by repeated applications. Counter-irritants may generally be applied directly over the inflamed area, when removal of fluid or inflammatory products is desired; but should seldom be applied to ex- tensive acutely inflamed parts, or to tissues immediately continuous with them. An inflamed joint is sometimes better treated by placing the blister above and around rather than upon the acutely painful spot. According to the late Dr. Anstie, the irritant, if applied over the spinal nerve trunk, from which the irritated nerve-branch issues, often produces reflex effects of a beneficial character. When vitality is low, or the skin irritable, blisters are apt to cause slousrhing'. When inordinate local irritation has been produced, it may be abated by fomentations, while undue constitutional excitement is removed by opiates, diluents, a mash diet, and salines. On the next or second day after a blister has been applied, the part should be dressed with zinc ointment, lard, vaseline, oil, glycerin, or acetate of lead lotion. Astringents condense the living tissues. Many pro- duce their effects by coagulating or precipitating albumin. These comprise alum, chalk, salts of the heavier metals, acids, and alcohol, with tannic acid, and such tannin-con- taining substances as oak-bark and catechu. All caustics used in small quantity, or diluted solution, are astringent. Agents, such as ergot, digitalis, turpentine and other volatile oils, and eucalyptus gum, have no coagulant power on albumin, but constringe the tissues, in virtue of their action on the walls of the nutrient arterioles. Gallic acid has hitherto been regarded as an astringent, but experiments made by Dr. Stockman (British Medical Journal, 1886) show that it has no claim to any special coagulant action nor any effect in lessening, like ergot, the calibre of blood- vessels, cither by peripheral or central action. Like all other acids, although in less degree, it possesses, however. STYPTICS 67 the power of diminishing the alkalinity of the blood, hence increasing its tendency to coagulate. The remote effects of vegetable, and probably of other astringents, have been over-estimated. So soon as their chemical affinities have been satisfied by union with a base or with albumin, they must evidently lose their power of coagulating or pre- cipitating albumin ; and it is therefore difficult to compre- hend how they can exert astringent effects upon either the respiratory or the urinary mucous membrane. Astringents are used to diminish excessive, and modify faulty, secretion, to combat congestion of cutaneous and mucous surfaces, and to arrest limited recent superficial inflammation. These results appear to be obtained in several ways. Heinz has shown that they prevent exudation of leucocytes. But, howsoever acting, some change is effected in the vascular walls, not always, however, by narrowing the vessels, for such notable astringents as alum and tannic acid dilate vessels ; while silver nitrate acts on the cement sub- stance of the endothelium. Their efficacy is often well seen in circumscribed inflammation of the conjunctiva or fauces. Solutions of tannin, eucalyptus gum, or alum, in spray or gargle, or inhalations of turpentine vapour, mixed with air, arrest the inordinate secretion, and relieve the congestion of sore throat and bronchitis. Their application in disorders of the digestive organs will receive special notice under that heading. As injections and suppositories, they are used in irritable and inflamed conditions of the vagina and uterus. The uterus and rectum, when prolapsed, are washed with astringent antiseptics, in order to diminish their irritability and swelling, and to facilitate their safe return. They con- dense exuberant granulations, lessen and amend discharges from wounds and ulcers, which they usually coat with a pro- tective film of albumin. Styptics are astringents specially used to arrest bleeding. Some, like matico, tow, lint, or pressure, mechanically check blood-flow from superficial vessels ; others, like most astrin- gents and caustics, coagulate albumin, and thus plug the leaking vessels ; others, like ergot, digitalis, ice, ether spray, and antipyrine in tannic acid solution, contract capillary 58 DEMULCENTS — EMOLLIENTS vessels, while lead acetate probably acts in a twofold way, increasing coagulability of the blood, and also contracting arterioles. In serious internal lucniorrhage, it is further desirable that the patient be kept quiet, and that his food be given cold. Demulcents soothe and protect parts with which they come into contact, act chiefly mechanically, and closely resemble emollients. They include gums, mucilage, linseed, cotton-wool and collodion, fuller's earth, starch, treacle, gelatin, albumin, fats, oils, glycerin, and milk, Tliey take the place of mucus and other natural demulcents, where these are deficient or wanting. They lubricate or defend abraded or irritable parts from external injur}', acrid dis- charges, and poisonous matters. When absorbed, they exert, although in modified degree, remote demulcent effects. They are employed in solution, spray, draught, or enema, to relieve dry, irritable conditions of the skin, respiratory, digestive, and urino-genital membranes. Emollients soften, soothe, and relax the parts to which they are applied. They resemble demulcents, and include many of the articles specified in that class, as well as those substances which absorb and retain heat and moisture. They are represented by fomentations, poultices, and spongio-piline, and by folds of lint, flannel, or woollen cloth, wrung out of hot water, and covered with water- proofing. (See Poultices and Fomentations.) Fats, oils, lanoline, vaseline, paraffin, with soap and other liniments, are also emollients. Fatty emollients rubbed into the skin soften and supple it; and when applied with smart and continued friction, they also increase tissue changes, and hasten removal of deposits. In the form of watery vapour, simple or medicated emollients relieve irritability and congestion of the respiratory mucous membrane. Not only do they reduce tension and relax tissues to which they are immediately applied, but, acting on adjacent vaso-motor centres, they dilate collateral blood-vessels; and mainly in this way fomentations and poultices relieve irritation and inflammation of the throat, lungs, and other deep-seated organs. In the earlier stages of inflammation MUSCULAR STIMULANTS 59 they promote resolution; and in all stages they relieve heat, tension, pain, and spasm. Although serviceable for softening and cleansing "wounds, they should not be used for Avounds in process of healing by first intention or adhesion. Diluents are allied to demulcents and emollients, are liquid or solid substances used along with more active agents in order to diminish their activity. Water is generally their basis, and the}' include most demulcent drugs. They promote the action of diaphoretics, diuretics, and cathartics. MEDICINES ACTING ON MUSCLES MUSCULAR POISONS — MUSCULAR STIMULANTS Muscles possess extensibility and retractility. Heat renders muscles less extensible and more retractile ; cold, and section of an important nerve, have the opposite effects. Fatigue and acids, notably lactic acid, one of the products of muscular waste, increase extensibility. Very dilute alkalies diminish extensibility. Irritability is increased by heat and physostigmine ; while it is diminished by cold, curare, and other substances which cause muscular paralj^sis. Con- traction and relaxation of muscles, possibly consisting, like other forms of motion, in waves of vibration, appear to be connected with chemical changes in the muscle resembling oxidation ; oxygen is used up, while sarco-lactic and sub- sequently carbonic acids are formed. These products, and the accompanying fatigue consequent on repeated violent contractions are removed experimentally by washing out the muscle with a current of blood. A saline solution, notably potassium permanganate, by ready oxidation, causes similar results, which likewise follow the use of a mere trace of veratrine. In practice, removal of these waste products is hastened by shampooing the muscles or massage, the effects of which, in overcoming fatigue, are fully recognised. In like manner thorough grooming and diligent hand- 60 MUSCULAR POISONS rubbing of the limbs of horses after hard work lessen fatigue, and prevent subsequent stiffness and swelling of joints. Spasm consists of irregular purposeless contractions of voluntary and involuntary muscles, usually depending on faulty action of the higher co-ordinating centres. Spasm of involuntary muscles, as illustrated by that of the heart, blood-vessels, bronchi, or intestines, is antagonised by nitrites, such as amyl-nitrite and nitrous ether {see Antispasmodics). ' Rapid alternation of contraction and relaxation, or tremor, may affect either — {a) a few bundles of muscular fibres; (6) a single muscle; or (c) groups of muscles' (Brunton). Such tremor may occur when the muscle is at rest, or when it is in motion. This form of insubordination may probably result from the number of stimuli from the nerve- centre being either too few or too many. If the stimuli are insufficiently rapid, veratrine or calcium salts, which increase the duration of each individual contraction, are recommended. AVhen a muscle, or its motor nerve, receives an abnormal number of vibrations, or is over-stimulated, instead of contraction being followed by relaxation, per- manent contraction or tetanus ensues. Muscular Poisons are divided by Dr. Lauder Brunton into the following six groups : — 1. Leaves the irritability of the muscle unaffected, but diminishes the total amount of work it is able to do. This group contains apomorphine, saponin, salts of copper, zinc, and other emetics. Antimony, arsenic, and large doses of iron have somewhat similar but weaker effects. 2. Diminishes the excitability of the muscle, as well as its capacity for work. This group contains salts of potassium, lithium, and ammonium, the cinchona alkaloids, chloroform, and alcohol, in large doses. 3. Diminishes the capacity for work, and produces marked irregularity in its excitability, and contains lead, emetine, and cocaine. Similar effects are also pro- duced by ptomaines. MUSCULAR POISONS 61 4. Alters the form of the muscular curve, as exhibited by veratrine, and to a similar, although less extent, by strontium and calcium salts. 5. Increases the excitability, as is notably done by physo- stigmine. 6. Increases the capacity for work. The agents belonging to this group cause rapid restoration of the muscle after fatigue, and are represented by creatin, hypo- xanthin, caffeine, and glycogen. These substances must hence be regarded, not only as nerve stimulants, but as direct muscular restoratives. Voluntary muscles differ from involuntary, not only in structure, but in other particulars. Their contraction and relaxation are more rapid. The nerves in voluntary muscles terminate in end- plates, while the terminal twigs in involun- tary muscles form a plexus round the fibres. Small doses of curare paralyse the motor nerves of voluntary muscles, but much larger doses are required to paralyse the nerves of involuntary muscles. On the other hand, small doses of atropine paralyse involuntary muscles, while much larger quantities must be used to affect voluntary muscles. Striking illustrations of the diff'erent effects on striated and unstriated muscle are recorded by 'Szpilman and Luchsinger, who found that atropine produces paralysis of the motor fibres of the vagi supplying the oesophagus, only in those parts of it where involuntary muscular fibre is present. Thus, the oesophagus of the frog and the crop of birds consist of in- voluntary muscular fibre, and atropine destroys the motor power of the vagus over them. The oesophagus of the dog and rabbit contains striated muscular fibre, and atropine does not paralyse the motor nerves. The oesophagus of the cat contains striated muscular fibres in its upper three- fourths, and non-striated in its lower fourth; atropine destroys the motor action of the vagus upon the lower fourth, but not upon the upper part' (Brunton). The paralysing effects of drugs upon muscles are believed to result from their disturbing the relations between the nerves and the muscular fibres which they excite. 63 MEDICINES ACTING UN THE NERVOUS SYSTEM MEDICINES ACTING ON THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. On the Brain.— cerebral stimulants — exhilarants — cerebral depressants — soporifics — narcotics — anodynes — antispasmodics — anesthetics. On the Spinal Cord. — spinal stoiulants and depressants. On Motor Nerves. — stimulants — paralysers. On Sensory Nerves. — stimulants — local sedatives — local anesthetics — electricity. The nervous system of the higher animals comprises : — I. The brain, which takes cognisance of external im- pressions, co-ordinates movements, and originates mental or psychical ideas. Relatively to other parts of the nervous system, the brain of man is more highly developed than that of animals, and most drugs, accordingly, act upon it more powerfully than upon the less-developed brain of the horse, ox, or dog. The cerebellum is chicHy concerned in the maintenance of equilibrium. II. The spinal cord conveys sensory impulses to the brain and medulla, and transmits motor impulses to muscles and glands. The cord, moreover, in several ways, transmits and regulates reflex move- ments. That part of the cord, or, indeed, of the nervous system, most essential to life, is the medulla in which are situated the respiratory, cardiac, and other vital centres. III. Nerves of sensation, distributed to all parts of the body, convey impressions to the brain or cord. IV. From the cerebro-spinal axis arise nerves which give motion to muscles, and convey other efferent impulses to glands. Concerning the functions and diseases of the nervous system much has still to be discovered, while the ejects of medicines acting upon the brain and cord have only recently been thoroughly examined, and still require much invcstieration. CEREBRAL STIMULANTS 63 ACTION OP MEDICINES ON THE BRAIN Medicines affecting the brain act either directly on the nerve- cells or on the general circulation. Blood flowing freel}^ through the brain increases its excitability; insufficient circulation diminishes excitability. Many medicines, such as alcohol and ether, act both directly on the nerve-cells and on the general circulation. They stimulate nerve-cells, wherever found, act on most of the brain centres, and, according to the dose in Avhich they are given, are stimulants or depressants. Full doses very frequently exert primary stimulant, and secondary depressant, effects. Such medi- cines as opium, alcohol, and ether, according to dose, are stimulant, narcotic, soporific, or ansesthetic ; and accordingly have the disadvantage of affecting functions which it may be undesirable to disturb. The cerebro-motor centres have their excitability lowered by alcohol, chloral, and cold. The depression caused by cold, unless extreme, or applied for a long period, is followed, how- ever, by reaction. Bromides of potassium and ammonium, without disturbing the relations of one centre to another, appear to have a marked effect in lowering general brain activity. Still more prompt and powerful are anaesthetics which abolish all motor action. Atropine in small doses increases, but in large doses diminishes, motor excitability. The motor centres have their excitability increased by mechanical irritation, as by the point of a needle, which pro- duces epileptic convulsions. But similar convulsions also ensue when the vessels of the brain are surcharged with venous blood, as in asphyxia. Camphor causes excitement and constant movements, succeeded, after large doses, by clonic convulsions and death. The active principles of coculus indicus, cicuta virosa, and oenantha crocata, as well as cinchonidine and quinine, have similar convulsant effects. The action of these agents is not confined to the brain motor centres, but also extends to those in the medulla. Cerebral Stimulants. — The functions of the brain gener- ally are stimulated by a large group of agents, sometimes 64 SOPORIFICS termed brain stimulants or exhilarants, and exemplified by alcohols, ethers, and oil of turpentine. A moderate dose of alcohol, in a somewhat concentrated state, by stimulating the sensory nerves of the mouth, throat, and stomach, promptly exerts a reflex action on the vessels of the brain. Further, but less direct and powerful, brain stimulation ensues when the spirit enters the circulation and increases cardiac action. When a large dose has been administered, the cerebral exhilaration is not, however, long continued ; the normal relations between one centre and another are disturbed, delirium ensues, followed by impaired action and depression. Ammonia vapour, liquor, or carbonate, applied to the nostrils, reflexly stimulates the cerebral vessels, and then acting upon the vaso-motor centres, also increases general blood circulation and pressure. Brisk exercise has much the same stimulating effect on the cerebral as on other arteries and capillaries. Mastication and sucking in young animals have been shown by experiment to increase circulation in the carotids and cerebral arteries. Chewing tobacco, betel-nut, or, indeed, anything else, smoking, sipping stimulants, or even tea, coffee, or cold water, have similar effects in dilating the human cerebral arteries. Placing the head on a lower level than the rest of the body favours brain circulation, and hence wards off' syncope. The functional activity of the brain is lowered by large or repeated doses of stimulants, such as alcohol, which, after exhilaration, and, it may be, delirium, produce narcosis, sleep, and sometimes death. Bromides of potassium and ammonium, without preliminary excitement or disturbed function, diminish brain activity. Accumulation of lactic acid, and probably other elements of tissue waste, appears to have an effect similar to that of the bromides in lowering the activity of the nerve-cells. Soporifics or Hypnotics are agents which induce sleep. Many hypnotics lessen functional activity of the nerve-cells of the brain and spinal cord, while others impede the im- pressions transmitted through the nerves and special sense organs to the cerebrum. Full doses further depress the functions of the respiratory and vaso-motor centres in the HYPNOTICS 65 medulla, as evidenced by slower respiration, dilatation of surface- vessels, and lowering of arterial tension. During sleep, certain parts remaining in a state of partial unregu- lated activity, induce the phenomena of dreams, which occur in the domesticated animals as well as in man. A perfect hypnotic has not yet been found even for human patients. Those prescribed are liable to be uncertain, and injuriously disturb motor, organic and trophic functions. Hypnotics act still less satisfactoril}^ on the lower animals. Their effects do not appear to be so notably concentrated on the brain. Dogs and pigs are, however, brought under their influence more readily than horses or ruminants. Those most trusted are opium and morphine, chloral hydrate, croton chloral, hyoscyamus, cannabis indica, and bromides. Opium and morphine prove of special value, not only in depressing cerebral functional activity, but also in antagonis- ing pain and irritation which interfere with sleep. Bromides diminish conduction of impressions, and hence notably quiet cerebral excitement. Chloral is a powerful hypnotic, but in large doses it is irritant, and sometimes produces dangerous delirium and convulsions. It induces sleep mainly by its action on the brain, and by dilating vessels generally. Chloralamide is prescribed for human patients as a safe and effectual hypnotic. Some recently discovered substances of the fatty carbon series possess marked hypnotic action. Paraldehyde, even in full doses, has none of the disadvan- tageous secondary effects of opium or chloral, causes quiet sleep in dogs, but is rather nauseous, and not one-third of the strength of chloral. Sulphonal is more active, but being insoluble, hypnosis is slowly established. It has been used especially in cases of motor unrest. Large doses diminish excitability of the reflex functions of the spinal cord, and also of peripheral sensations. Trional is allied to sulphonal, but is more soluble and active ; and in experiments on dogs it pro- duced sleep more rapidly. Hypnone, urethane, and amylene hydrate, recently brought into notice, are feeble hypnotics. Warmth to the body and legs, and comforting warm drinks withdraw blood from the brain, and hence favour the anaemia which occurs in sleep. E 66 NARCOTICS AND ANODYNES Narcotics are drugs wliicli disturb the relation of the mental faculties with the external world. This disturbing effect is produced by full doses ol alcohol, ether, chloroform, and most stimulants. After a variable amount of excite- ment, locomotor inco-ordination ensues, and the animal staggers in its gait. Where the effect is still further developed, fatal paralysis of the respiratory centre occurs. Opium and Indian hemp produce little vascular excitement, and their narcotic effects are stated to be due chiefly to alterations in the relative functions of the different parts of the brain. Belladonna and its analogues produce active delirium, perpetual movements associated with debility, and depending. Dr. Lauder Brunton states, on the combined stimulant action of these drugs on the nerve-centres in the brain and spinal cord, and their paralysing action on the peripheral ends of the motor nerves. Anodynes or analgesics are agents which relieve pain by diminishing excitability of nerves or nerve-centres. Pain may originate in the hippocampal region, which Professor Ferrier regards as the central seat of sensation, and some abnormal excitement of these nerve ganglia is believed to occur in hysteria. It may depend upon stimulation of the grey matter of the cord, through which painful impressions are conveyed. It may begin in the trunk of a nerve, but frequently its origin is in the peripheral endings of the sensory nerves. Pain, thus produced in various ways, requires diverse treatment. Its cause should, if possible, be discovered and removed. When merely local, it is combated by local anodynes, such as opium and belladonna, with their alkal- oids ; by cocaine, veratrine, carbolic acid and other phenols ; by menthol and thymol, local blood-letting, heat and mois- ture as by poultices and fomentations, and by cold, in the form of ice or cold water. Counter-irritants also act reflexly as analgesics. When pain is not localised, general anoydnes are adminis- tered, either by the mouth or hypodermically. Many act mainly as sedatives or paral3^sants of the hippocampal centres. Chloral hydrate, Indian hemp, hemlock, bromides, ANTISPASMODICS 67 and aiiiBsthetics are types of this class. But others, with less marked action on the brain, more notably diminish the conductivity of the sensory nerves, and are exemplified by atropine, cocaine, aconite, and veratrine. Opium and morphine, and indeed most effective anodynes, produce, however, their paralysant effects on all nerve-cells Avith which they come into contact, and hence act in both ways. Several of the newly-discovered bodies of the benzol or aromatic series conjoin antiseptic and anodyne properties. Such are salol, a salicylate of ]3henol; antifebrin, which controls many varieties of pain ; while exalgin is still more generally effectual. SalicyUc acid and salicylates have a special power of controlling the pain of acute rheumatism. Electricity applied along the course of the stimulated nerves, and, in acute rheumatism, nerve-stretching, are sometimes tried. Dividing the nerves supplying the seat of injury, as is done in navicular and some other diseases of the feet, prevents the feeling of pain, but of course does not arrest local inflammation or other mischief. In horses, as in other animals, a dose of physic is often an effectual anodyne, probably owing to its relieving irritability of the cerebro-spinal centres. Antispasmodics are agents which prevent or remove spasm, which is an irregular painful contraction of voluntary or involuntary muscles. In the medulla oblongata, wdiere it joins the pons, is a centre which, when stimulated, causes general spasms. These are excited by direct irritation of the centre with chemicals, by contact action of such poisons as strychnine, nicotine, picrotoxine, and ammonia, by rabies and other animal toxines, as well as- by the altered condition of the blood in asphyxia, and hy sudden ansemia of the medulla from copious blood-letting. This spasm centre appears to be m an abnormal state in epilepsy, when its inordinate action is directly controlled by bromides. The tonic spasms of tetanus, and strychnine -poisoning, are relieved by bromides, chloral hydrate, and nicotine. But spasms are more frequently local than general. They are defined by Dr. Lauder Brunton as a kind of insubordina- tion, in which the individual muscles or nerve-centres act 68 TREATMENT OF SPASM for themselves, without reference to those higher centres which ought to co-ordinate their action for the general good of the organism. Spasm may be due, therefore, to an excess of action in the muscles or local centres, or diminished power of the higher co-ordinating centres. As a rule, it is due to diminished action of the co-ordinating or inhibitory centres, rather than to excess of action in the motor centres. It is, therefore, a disease rather of debility and deficient co-ordination than of excessive strength. Local irritation is frequently the cause of spasm. Excessive exertion develops in the muscles of locomotion, especially when employed in unwonted work, waste products, which produce spasm or cramp. Both cause and effect are frequently removed by smart friction. In the intestine, cramp may be due to the presence of a local irritant, which ought, in the normal condition, to produce increased peri- stalsis, and thus ensure the speedy removal of the offending substance, ' From some abnormal conditions, the muscular fibres around the irritant contract excessively, and do not pass on the stimulus to those adjoining. From this want of co-ordination, painful and useless spasm occurs. In order to remove it we apply warmth to the abdomen, so as to increase the functional activity both of the muscular fibres and of the ganglia of the intestine. Peristalsis then occur- ring instead of cramp, the pain disappears, and the offending body is passed onwards and removed. Or we give, inter- nally, aromatic oils, which have a tendency to increase the ordinary peristalsis ; or, 3'^et again, we may give opium for the purpose of lessening the sensibility of the irritated part, and thus again bringing it into relationship with other parts of the body ' (Brunton). In the treatment of colic in horses, these several modes of attack are usually conjoined. A diffusible stimulant such as ether or alcohol is given to increase the powers of the higher nerve-centres, and thus bring the disturbed lower centres and the muscles into subordination ; an opiate is associated to lessen local excit- ability; while a purgative is, besides, administered in order to remove the indigestible food, which is usually the cause of the mischief. ANTISPASMODICS 69 The convulsions of epilepsy, as already mentioned, are warded off by bromides, while endeavour is also made to remove the conditions which produce them by the adminis- tration of salts of arsenic, silver, zinc, and copper. Chorea, depending probably upon some lesion of the sensori-motor ganglia at the base of the brain, is treated by arsenic and copper salts, and when the patient is ana?mic by iron and a generous oleaginous diet. Spasm affecting the heart is usually controlled by the judicious use of alcohol, ether, digitalis, or nitrites. These nitrites, exemplified by amyl- nitrite, nitro-glycerine, and nitrous ether, are pre-eminently relaxers of spasm of involuntary muscles. They relieve the heart and blood-vessels in angina pectoris of human patients, and the dyspnoea of bronchitis, as well as intestinal cramp in all animals. In overcoming spasm of particular parts, it is, as already indicated, important to exalt the power of the controlling centres of the brain and spinal cord by such stimulants as alcohol, ether, camphor, and bromo - camphor, and thus regulate or co - ordinate the lower disturbed centres. This twofold stimulation of the higher central and lower topical centres is also exerted by valerian, asafcetida, musk, and volatile oils. Other antispasmodics as borneol and menthol, instead of exalting nervous excitability, lessen irritability, and paralyse motor, sensory, and reflex centres of the brain and cord, and thus often relieve spasm. In the successful treatment of spas- modic diseases which generally depend, as already indicated, on deficient and imperfect nervous power, restoratives, tonics, and good hygiene are essential factors. Anesthetics are substances that produce insensibility to pain, diminish muscular action and other phenomena. They are allied to anodynes, but act more promptly and powerfully. A state of brief and imperfect ana?sthesia may be induced by checking or arresting circulation of blood through the brain and higher centres, as by copious blood- letting, pressure on the carotids, or by inhalation of charcoal fumes, or other suffocating vapours. It may be produced locally by firm pressure, or ligature impairing circulation in the part. These methods, however, cannot safely induce 70 ANESTHETICS such profound or prolonged unconsciousness as is requisite for the performance of surgical operations. But certain volatile drugs, brought into contact with the nerve-cells, reduce or arrest for considerable periods their functional activity, probably in virtue of chemical action. Local anaesthetics produce paralysis of the peripheral endings of sensory nerves. They include cocaine, eucaine, holocaine, ethyl-chloride, methyl-chloride, carbolic acid, antipyrine, iodoform, extreme cold, and aconite. Cocaine is generally preferred. The part is painted or injected with a solution of the hydrochloride, until the requisite insensibility is secured. Cocaine proves particularly serviceable in di- minishing irritability, and facilitating examinations of the eye and larynx, as well as for the performance of minor operations. Iodoform conjoins anaesthetic and antiseptic etfccts, and is used for operations connected with the rectum and vagina. General anaesthetics, when inhaled, are carried by the blood-stream to the centres of the brain and cord, which they paralyse. They comprise nitrous oxide gas, chloroform, ether, and other substitution compounds of the methane (CHJ and ethane (C.^Hg) series. Nitrous oxide produces its effects rapidly, induces a venous condition of the blood, with contraction of arterioles and rise of blood-pressure, and there is hence no risk of its causing syncope. In human practice, anesthesia is sometimes induced by nitrous oxide, and sub- sequently maintained by chloroform or ether. Chloroform is generally used both in human and veterinary practice. It is the most effectual and, rightly used, the safest known anjcsthetic. It acts in smaller quantity, more rapidly, and with less excitement than ether. Ether, first employed in America, is preferred by many English practitioners, on the jDlea that it is less apt than chloroform to impair cardiac action. But it has the disadvantage of causing more irrita- tion and excitement than chloroform, while its administration requires the use of an inhaler. The A. C. E. Mixture consists of one part of absolute alcohol, two of chloroform, and three of pure ether. It is much used on the continent of Europe, and is stated to be THE FOUR STAGES OF ANESTHESIA 71 more stimulant than chloroform, and less likely to depress heart action. A mixture of equal parts of ether and chloro- form is used in various parts of France and Germany. The Austrian Government has advised one part of chloroform Avith six of ether in winter, and with eight of ether in summer. Chloral hydrate is given by the mouth or rectum, or by intravenous injection. It depresses the heart and vaso- motor centres, and consequently the vessels dilate and blood pressure falls. Methylene (CH2CI2), containing an atom more of hydrogen and an atom less of chlorine than chloro- form, causes more rapid anaesthesia, but requires to be used in larger amount. The pure drug has also the disadvantage of being costly, and that usually sold is stated to be a mixture of chloroform and alcohol. Methylal which has also been used, acts quickly and effectually on dogs without apparent injurious after-effects, and is also serviceable for local anaesthesia. Anaesthesia is generally divided into four stages — I. Sti- mulant ; II. Narcotic ; III. Anaesthetic ; IV. Paralytic. I. The stimulant stage is characterised by symptoms of inebriation, more marked in the case of ether than of chloro- form ; excitation of cerebral and cardiac functions ; vigorous animals struggle ; the special senses and general sensibility are blunted. This stage usually continues from one to three minutes, but is shortened when the drug is given quickly in full doses. II. The narcotic stage is marked by paralysis of the motor centres, the voluntary muscular system gradually becomes relaxed, the force and volume of the pulse are lowered, the functions of the higher brain centres are im- paired, but reflex functions are slightly if at all affected. This stage, usually reached in less than five minutes, is that suitable for anodyne and antispasmodic effects, and for moderating violent and irregular labour pains. III. The anaesthetic stage exhibits complete muscular relaxation, unconsciousness, and insensibility ; the frequency and force of the pulse are increased, the functions of the cerebrum and spinal cord are paralysed, the oculo-palj^ebral reflex is impaired or abolished, but the centres of the 72 THE HYDERABAD CHLOROFORM EXPERIMENTS medulla presiding over respiration and heart action are only slightly affected. This full insensibility may be safely main- tained for an hour or two by small doses of the anaesthetic, and is the condition requisite for the performance of serious surgical operations. IV. The paralytic stage occurs when the functions of the medullary centres are abolished. It includes two distinct phases — suspension of respiration, and subsequently suspen- sion of cardiac action. Implication of the respiratory centre is indicated in animals by irregular sighing or shallow breathing, with long pauses between the respiratory move- ments. Up to this point the animal is in no serious danger. But if anaesthesia is further pushed, the heart centre is paralysed, the pulse beats very quickly then stops, and usually within two minutes heart action also ceases. The action of anaesthetics has been very fully elucidated by two series of investigations undertaken at the instance of the Nizam of Hyderabad, The first, made in the spring of 1888, under the supervision of Surgeon-Major LaAvrie, com- prised 141 experiments, chiefly on dogs ; while the second, made in the later months of 1889, under the direction of Dr. Lauder Brunton, included 571 experiments on dogs, monkeys, horses, goats, cats, and rabbits. Chloroform, ether, and the A. C. E. Mixture were used. The investigations demon- strate that the action of these anaesthetics is the same on man and on the animals mentioned; that lethal doses, of chloroform or ether, whether poisoning be slow or rapid, arrest the respiratory before the cardiac action; that the heart is never primarily or directly affected, but in uncom- plicated cases stops two to six minutes after respiration. Consequently, as was taught by Simpson and Syme, the careful observation of the respiration is the safeguard in the administration of anaesthetics. Although the patient is safe so long as the anaesthetic vapour continues to be eliminated by respiration, whenever the heart stops, unless artificial respiration is had recourse to, the chances of resuscitating the animal are small. This important practical point was established by numerous experiments. In the use of chloroform, and indeed of all anaesthetics, RESPIRATORY PRECEDES HEART FAILURE 7.3 in animals, these investigations emphasise the necessity of constantly watching the breathing, and, moreover, ensuring that nothing shall in any way interfere with it. The animal should be in the recumbent position — the head placed so that air passes directly into the lungs ; no girths, straps, or pres- sure must interfere with respiratory movements. Monkeys, encased in plaster of Paris, or bound with abdominal bandages, died quickly. The paralysed tongue, dropping back upon the larynx of the unconscious patient, may cause suffocation. Respiratory failure is also hastened by having the limbs of the subject firmly bound; while struggling, or shallow, gasping breathing, by filling the lungs with the volatile vapour, intensifies its effects. Respiratory arrest was accelerated, and heart failure followed rapidly, when chloro- form administration was slow and prolonged, and when one- third of a grain of atropine was injected subcutaneously before inhalation. That chloroform has no direct paralysant effect on the heart was further demonstrated by the injection in some cases of ten, in others of twenty minims into the jugular vein, when only ordinary and safe anaesthesia was induced. Deaths occurring during anaesthesia, both in men and animals, have been ascribed to syncope, or surgical shock, and in order to elucidate this matter numerous experiments were made on dogs and monkeys. When full anaesthesia was produced, teeth were extracted, nails evoluted, incisions made into the abdomen, portions of intestine ligatured, and the testicles sharply struck ; but in no case was any marked effect produced on the heart action. To test the effect of chloroform on animals with enfeebled heart, dogs and monkeys were fasted, others were freely bled, while others were given grain doses of phosphorus during several days, in order to produce fatty degeneration of the heart muscle. But neither syncope nor heart-shock was observable when these subjects were deeply chloroformed ; respiratory failure invariably preceded cardiac failure ; and when breathing was stopped by full doses, the animals, like others in perfect health, were restored by artificial respiration. Occasionally, however, death occurs suddenly through paralysis of the 74 USE OB" AN/ESTHETICS heart; and experiments prove that healthy horses can be killed in a few minutes by rapid administration of concen- trated chloroform vapour. The post-mortem appearances of animals dying under amesthesia consist in general congestion of the lungs, liver, kidneys, and spleen, which is also puckered, and two or three times larger than usual. The left heart may be empty and the right heart distended with blood. Anesthetics are used in painful, delicate, or protracted operations, as in castration, neurectomy, excision of portions of the hoof, and other operations on the foot ; reduction of hernia), and removal of tumours ; extraction of firmly-fixed teeth, especially in dogs and cats ; in tetanus, and strychnine poisoning ; in difficult parturition, especially in the mare ; and in destroying injured, useless, or old animals. Administration to horses may be made while the animal is standing, but more safely and effectually when he is cast and secured. A sponge or piece of lint, saturated with the anaisthetic, is placed in a tolerably close-fitting nose-bag, which is adjusted to the head. Inhalers, bags or muzzles for the purpose have been designed by Mr. Roalfe Cox, Messrs. Carlisle & Bell, Mr. Gresswell, Mr. Dowell, and other veterinary surgeons. Many practitioners, when the horse is cast, place the lint, moistened with chloroform, over one nostril, that on the upper side being preferable, while, to prevent undue evaporation, a napkin is laid over both nostrils. Endeavour is sometimes made to dilute the chloro- form vapour with about ten volumes of air. But as far as possible air sliould be excluded, as diluted chloroform vapour acts slowly, and the stage of excitement is prolonged. Un- due excitement and struggling can be overcome by giving the anesthetic freely or by previous subcutaneous injection of morphine. But chloroform anesthesia can be most satis- factorily induced in horses by slow administration. Be- ginning with half an ounce poured on a warm sponge and adding a drachm or two at short intervals until the requisite degree of insensibility is reached, which is ascertained by testing the conjunctival reflex. Small quantities of the drug suffice to maintain insensibility safely for an hour or more, provided a careful watch, as already stated, is kept TREATMENT OF AN^STBE.slA NARCOSIS 75 on the respiration. Au ounce and a half to three ounces of chloroform properly given, without waste, will fully anaes- thetize an aTerage horse or ox in from five to ten minutes. Four times the quantity of ether is required. Young animals are more readily anaesthetized than old ones. Dogs are very susceptible to the action of anaesthetics, but, with rational precautions, may be kept under their influence for an hour or longer. It has frequently been stated that chloroform is not so safe as ether ; but the Hyderabad ex- periments seem to disprove this. The dog should be fasted for two or three hours. The drug may be placed on a sponge, or on lint, in a wire muzzle covered with a towel; or it may be given through an inhaler. During anaesthesia free respiration by the mouth should be ensured by separating the jaws with a piece of wood. Savage dogs are coaxed into a kennel, or covered with a packing case, and pieces of cotton waste or blotting paper, saturated with the drug, are then intro- duced. Small dogs, cats, rabbits, etc., are speedily and safely anaesthetized when placed under a bell jar or tin pail enclosing cotton wool saturated with chloroform. In dogs the last reflex is furnished by the upper incisor gum, which when irritated induces quick elevation of the lower lip. This reflex is abolished in complete anaesthesia. The aspect of an animal perfectly anaesthetized is that of an inert body, in which movements of the thorax and heart alone show that life is not yet extinct (Guinard). When anaesthesia has been pushed too far, inhalation of the drug must immediately be stopped, and any im- pediment to breathing of fresh air removed. The mouth should be widely opened and the tongue pulled forward; if breathing has ceased, artificial respiration must at once be adopted. But unless the lungs are surcharged with the anaesthetic, as when it has been given in large quantity and for some considerable time, artificial respira- tion, properly employed within thirty seconds after natural breathing has ceased, will revive most animals in two or three minutes. In the Hyderabad experiments some animals were recovered fifty, but none sixty, seconds after natural breathing had stopped. In narcosis occurring in ordinary practice, recovery, however, need not be despaired of so long 7d SPINAL DErHESSANTS as cardiac movements continue. Artificial respiration should be persisted with for at least half an hour after natural breathing has ceased. Insufflation of air through a tube inserted in the trachea may be tried. Hypodermic injec- tion of ether, strychnine, or hot brandy, and a continuous galvanic current, the positive pole being placed in the rectum, and the negative moved rapidly over the chest wall, are recom- mended in the hope of stimulating the arrested respiratory movements; and bleeding from the jugular is enjoined to relieve the right heart. ACTION OF DRUGS ON THE SPINAL CORD SPINAL DEPRESSANTS — SPINAL STIMULANTS On the spinal cord different drugs act in various ways. Caffeine, injected into the circulation, was found by Dr. Hughes Bennett to paralyse the sensory columns of the cord, while morphine and chloral diminish its conducting power. Antagonising these are strychnine and other convulsant poisons, which so increase excitability that slighter stimulants cause increased effects. Reflex action is diminished by chloral and morphine, and is increased by strychnine and such other convulsants as nicotine and ammonia. Spinal Depressants such as methyl-conine, directly para- lyse ; and others, as aconite and digitalis, produce paralysis indirectly, by impeding circulation. Pharm acologists classify spinal depressants as (1) those which depress without marked previous excitement, including hydrocyanic acid, mcthyl-conino, saponin, physostigmine, turpentine, the alcohol group, ergot, emetine, salts of antimony, zinc, and silver; (2) those which excite first and afterwards paralyse, comprising the morphine group, ammonia, cam- phor, carbolic acid, chloral, nicotine, veratrine, arsenic, and mercury. Sulphonal, with hypnotic effects, also diminishes activity of the reflex functions, and is given in motor unrest. Spinal depressants are prescribed to lessen increased excitability of the cord, as in tetanus, chorea, and some VIBRATORY THEORY OF NERVE STIMULATION 77 forms of paralysis. By diminishing the conducting power of the grey matter of the cord, they impede the trans- mission of painful impressions. It is often, however, difficult to determine how the curative effects of agents like mor- phine and chloral are produced, inasmuch as they act in various ways on different parts of the nervous system, sometimes dejjressing, sometimes stimulating. Some of these ditfering results are believed to depend on the inhibitory or restraining power which certain of the nervous centres exert on other centres. But Dr. Lauder Brunton propounds a more satisfactory explanation of the nature of inhibition. He believes that nervous stimuli consist in vibrations in nerve-tibres or nerve-cells, analogous to the vibrations of light or sound. When two waves of light or sound fall upon each other so that their crests coincide : the intensity of the light or sound is increased ; but when they fall so that the crest of one wave occupies the trough between the two preceding or succeeding waves, such two waves of light cause darkness, or two such waves of sound cause silence. Moving the one wave forward or backward upon the other intensifies or diminishes the vibrations of light or sound. ' Supposing nervous stimuli to consist of vibrations like those of light and sound, the action which any nerve -cell would have upon the others connected with it would be stimulant or inhibitory accord- ing to its position in relation to them.' If nerve-force, as believed, consists of vibrations similar to those of liofht or sound, the relative position of nerve-cells in action will often determine a stimulant or inhibitory result. If one nerve-current meets another in such a way that the waves of which they consist coincide, the nervous action will be doubled, but if they interfere the nervous action will be abolished. If they meet so as neither completel}' to coin- cide nor to interfere, the nervous action will be somewhat increased, or somewhat diminished, accordingf to the deo-ree of coincidence or interference between the crests of the waves. The relation of these waves to one another may be affected by the distance each travels and the rate of transmission. 78 SPINAL STIMULANTS This liypo thesis seems to explain why different doses of poisons sometimes produce very different results. The phenomena of strychnine poisoning thus appear to depend upon the nervous vibrations being thrust crest upon crest, when intense convulsions occur; while, from one or another wave dropping half a length behind, the interval of rest or relaxation follows. In like manner may be explained the similar effects of cold and heat. Cold retards, while heat accelerates, transmission of vibrations, and either agent may thus alter one of the waves, causing coin- cidence and consequent stimulation, or separation by a half or a quarter of a wave and consequent inhibition or restraint. Spinal Stimulants increase the functional activity of the cord. They apparently act much in the same manner as mechanical irritation or electricity. They seem to increase conductivity through the nerve-cells. Small doses heighten reflex excitability ; large doses cause tetanic convulsions ; but such convulsions, as already indicated, also result from large doses of drugs which exert a sedative or paralysing action, as opium, morphine, and belladonna. Spinal stimu- lants include strychnine, brucine, and thebaine, as well as nicotine, calabarine, caffeine, absinthe, and ammonia. They are used in cases of general debility, in paralysis unaccom- panied by inflammation, and to rouse sluggish action, as of the bowels. ACTION OP DRUGS ON THE NERVES PARALYSERS — STIMULANTS — ELECTRICITY Nerves may be acted upon in various parts of their course ; in the nerve centres in which they originate ; in their cords or trunks ; or in their minute endings distributed in muscles or glands. Motor nerves have their excitability more readily disturbed or destroyed than sensory nerves. Injuries of compound nerves frequently arrest motor function, but leave the sensory function slightly, or only temporarily, impaired. The nerve trunks are much less susceptible than the end plates, and are only acted upon by strong solutions directly PARALYSERS OF MOTOR AND SENSORY NERVES 79 applied to tliciu. Many medicines, acting on the terminal nerve iibrils, also act on other parts of the nervous system. It is always, however, important to realise the order in which different parts are affected, inasmuch as the primary action frequently modifies those which may be subsequently produced. Dift'orent effects are often caused by the same drug when given in different doses, and many medicines, such as alcohol and ether, first increase and subsequently diminish nervous irritability. Paralysers of motor nerves have their most powerful representative in curare, which seems to destroy the con- ducting power of the minute nerve fibrils by acting on their cement substance at Ranvier's nodes. Numerous other agents also paralyse motor nerves, of which the best known are Conine, ammonium cyanide, and iodide, and the ammonium iodide compounds of ethyl, methyl, amyl, and phenyl. Increased excitability of motor nerves is more difficult to measure than paralysis ; but, like the latter, it occurs in the nerve-endings, and is produced by aconite, camphor, nicotine, pilocarpine, and pyridine, and in warm-blooded animals by physostigmine. Alcohol, ether, and chloroform, applied directly to nerves, first increase and then diminish their irritability. Atropine applied in like manner diminishes irritability of the intra-muscular endings, and afterwards of the trunks (Brunton). Sensory nerves are readily affected by many drugs ; their local effects are comparatively easy to determine ; but when the drug enters the circulation many structures are liable to be affected, and definite results are difficult to obtain. Much trustworthy information has, however, been got by experiments on frogs, chiefly by ligaturing the sciatic artery of one leg, injecting into another part of the body the drug to be tested, and by pinching, pricking, heat, or electricity, noting the difference in sensation between the poisoned limb and the ligatured unpoisoned limb. By these and other ex- periments it has been demonstrated that nervous sensibility is diminished by aconite; belladonna and atropine, carbolic acid, chloroform and chloral, veratrine, with opium and morphine. Hydrocyanic acid exerts topical paralysing effects 80 ELECTRICITY on sensory nerves. Notable reduction of the sensibility of sensory nerves is likewise effected by several members of the aromatic series of carbon compounds, such as exalgin (methyl-acetanilide), antifebrin (acetanilide), and antipyrine (phenazone). Diminishing excitability of sensory nerves, such agents relieve pain, and are accordingly anodynes. Some exert marked paral3'sing effects on the terminals of cutaneous nerves, temporarily destroy sensibiUty, and hence are useful local anaesthetics. Amongst these are cocaine, other spray, cold, in the form of ice or freezing mixtures, and carbolic acid. The irritability of sensory nerves is increased by topical irritants. Aconite, whether applied locally, or carried through the circulation, produces peculiar numbness and tingling of the tongue and lips, and indeed of all parts supplied by the fifth nerve. Veratrine causes similar sensations in the joints and extremities. Electricity in the form of galvanism or faradism, is used in medical, and in veterinary practice. Faradism as a galvanic current momentarily interrupted is most generally employed. Batteries, coils, and appliances for veterinary purposes are now manufactured by Messrs. Arnold, West Smithfield, London. Slight electric currents stimulate both motor and sensory nerves and muscles; more powerful or long-continued currents exhaust, paralyse, or tetanise. Like nux vomica and other excito-motors, electricity stimu- lates depressed nervous action, controls disordered action, and hence improves impaired nutrition. For strains of muscles and ligaments, after the primary inflammation and effusion arc relieved by fomentations and rest, faradism over the seat of injury lessens pain and stiffness. A current of suitable strength applied for six or eight minutes, and rejieated if needful twice daily, frequently benefits and some- times removes muscular rheumatism, and is also serviceable in chronic articular rheumatism, which has resisted other treatment. Paralysis depends upon various conditions, functional and molecular, and hence demands very different methods of treatment. Electricity, however, is often useful alike in, ELECTROLYSIS 8 1 diagnosing its exact seat and extent, and also in abating or removing the depressed or disordered conditions on which it depends. Torpidity of the bowels, resulting from im- perfect intestinal peristalsis, is sometimes overcome by fara- disation. To stimulate contractions in muscular atrophy one electrode is placed over the principal local nerve-centre, or nerve of the wasted part ; while the other is moved over the altered muscles, for ten or fifteen minutes twice daily. Cases of roaring have thus been treated. One electrode is applied to the jugular furrow above the larynx, while the other is moved over the surface of the larynx and down the trachea. Only gentle, occasionally interrupted currents should be used. The application is continued for five to fifteen minutes, and repeated twice daily. Clonic spasms, represented according to their cause or site by trifling tremors or violent convulsions, are some- times treated by electricity. The current may be directed to the faulty centre in the brain or spinal cord, to the nerve trunk, the conductivity of which is morbidly affected, or to the local centres which are acting abnormally. Chorea in dogs, especially when of the chronic paralytic type, has been benefited by electric treatment. When insulated needles are placed in the tissues, and traversed by a galvanic current, decomposition ensues, and this process of electrolysis is occasionally employed for the removal of tumours. Cauterisation is sometimes effected by heating a platinum wire by a current, now conveniently derived from one of Faure's portable accumulators. Electro-therapeutics as applied to the domestic animals deserves more extended practical study. The primary con- ditions for its rational and safe employment consist in a thorough understanding of the instruments used, and a knowledge of the strength of currents and their proper distribution to the parts to be influenced. 82 MYDRIATICS AND MYOTICS ACTION OF MEDICINES ON THE EYE In the local treatment of the cornea and conjunctiva the fitting astringents are zinc sulphate and silver nitrate. When the surface of the cornea is abraded, lead salts are unsuitable, as they form an insoluble albuminate, which may cause opacity ; while alum and potassium permanganate are undesirable, on account of their tendency to dissolve the corneal cement. The antiseptics generally used are mer- curic chloride and boric acid, the latter frequently conjoined with an equal quantity of sodium sulpho-carbolate. The sedatives preferred are aqueous solution of opium, morphine, atropine, cocaine and eucaine. The sensitiveness of the eye is increased by strychnine. It is diminished, and local anaesthesia produced, by cocaine, which, accordingly, is serviceable in some examinations, as well as in operations on the eyes. The lachrymal secretion is increased by such volatile oils as mustard and onion, and by physostigmine. It is diminished by atropine. The pupil is dilated by belladonna, atropine, homatropine, cocaine, daturine, and hyoscyamine. Such dilators are termed mydriatics ; they paralyse the ends of the third nerve. The pupil is contracted by calabar bean, eserine, opium, morphine, pilocarpine, and nicotine. They are termed myotics. AniEsthetics, and some narcotics in full doses, first contract, and afterwards from circulation of venous blood dilate, the pupil. The action of most mydriatics and myotics is purely local. Stimulation of the third nerve causes contraction of the pupil, while section of it causes the pupil to dilate. Stimulation of the sympathetic dilates, and its section contracts, the pupil. Mydriatics are used to allay irritation, inflammation, and pain, and in iritis to prevent adhesions. Dilating the pupil, they facilitate examination of the lens for cataract and of the retina. Myotics arc used alternately with mydriatics to discover adhesions of the iris, and to break them down, to restrict the passage of light in painful diseases of the e3'e; and in the earlier stages of glaucoma to lessen intra-ocular tension. THE RESriRATORY FUNCTIONS 83 ACTION OP MEDICINES ON RESPIRATION ERRHINES AND EXPECTORANTS Respiration consists in tlie alternate enlargement and diminution of the cavity of the chest, whereby air is alter- nately inspired and expired. These movements, so essential to the life of all the higher animals, are chiefly presided over by a nerve-centre or group of ganglionic cells, situated in the medulla, posterior to the vomiting centre, and extending into the anterior part of the spinal cord. This centre is normally stimulated by venous blood, and inspiratory movements are thence co-ordinated. The diaphragm is drawn back, the intercostal, scaleni, and other muscles raise the ribs, and air enters the lungs, distending the elastic walls of the air-cells. In ordinary circumstances, almost passively, the chest, with little muscular exertion then contracts, and air is expired. Expiratory effort, although scarcely realised in ordinary breathing, is, however, evoked in coughing and sneezing, as well as in producing vocal sounds. Inspiration and expira- tion thus alternate, in healthy adult horses at perfect rest from twelve to sixteen times, in cattle about fifteen to twenty times, in sheep from thirteen to eighteen times, and in dogs from fifteen to twenty times per minute. The respiratory centre is stimulated by heat, and by strychnine, ammonia, atropine, thebaine, apomorphine, sub- stances of the digitalis group, and salts of zinc and copper. It is first excited and then depressed by caffeine, nicotine, chloro- form, ether, alcohol, quinine, and saponin. Its activity is diminished, with consequent slow and shallow respiration, by cold, opium, physostigmine, and aconite. The vagus branches distributed to the lung (and, when slightly stimulated, all sensory nerves), are mainly nerves of inspiration, and when stimulated cause quickened shallower respiration. The expiratory nerves are the nasal branches of the fifth, the laryngeal, and the cutaneous nerves, particularly of the chest and belly. When these are stimulated, the respiratory movements become slower and deeper. When respiration 84 ERRIIINES is paralysed, as in narcotic poisoninj^, subcutaneous injection of stryclminc is sonictinics useful. Errhines or sternutatories, when applied to the nostrils, cause irritation, sneezing, and increased secretion. They include tobacco in a finely divided state, hellebore, ipeca- cuanha, euphorbium, and saponin. Errhines, although now seldom used, Avere formerly prescribed to cause counter- irritation in diseases of the eye and head, and to expel, by inducing sneezing, foreign substances lodged in the nostrils, facial sinuses, and respiratory passages. Expectorants facilitate the removal of secretions from the air-passages. The healthy respiratory mucous mem- brane is moistened and protected by a thin, slightly adhesive solution of nuicin, which is gradually moved outwards by the cilia. Cold applied to the surface of the body, dust and foreign particles, and microbes, as in cases of influenza, readily excite irritation of the respiratory tract, and alter the amount and character of the mucus. While the irritated membrane is dry and vascular, as in the earlier stages of catarrh and bronchitis, the breathing of warm, moist air, diflfused from a steam kettle, or nose-bag containing steamed hay, beneficially dilates the congested vessels, and promotes secretion. In such cases, and notably in laryngitis, heat and moisture should also be applied externally by means of poultices, or flannel or woollen waste wrung out of boiling water, covered Avith thin water- proofing, and kept in place by a properly adjusted hood. Further counter-irritation may subsequently be needful. In the dry stage of inflannnation of the respiratory mem- brane, expectorants of a depressant type, lessening blood- pressure and increasing secretion, are indicated, such as antimonials, alkalies in small doses, ipecacuanha, lobelia, jaborandi, apomorphine, and potassium iodide, the last of which, moreover, increases and liquifies many other secre- tions. Frequently in chronic bronchitis, when the respiratory membrane is congested and blood stagnates in the lungs, good results follow the combination of depressant expector- ants with digitalis. The bronchial mucus, when superabundant, is diminished DEPRESSANT AND STIMULANT EXPECTORANTS 85 by belladonna, opium, turpentine, and many volatile oils. When the secretion becomes thick and adhesive, and irri- tating cough is hence provoked, stimulating expectorants, which increase blood-pressure and diminish secretion, are indicated. The most trusted of these are acids, ammonium salts, nux vomica, senega, squill, balsams, terebinthinates, sulphur, sulphur oils, and saccharines. Terpine, oil of turpentine in a vaporised state, or the old popular remedy of the fumes of burning tar, prove eti'ectual in moderating vascular congestion and profuse secretion in many cases of bronchitis. A relaxed throat generally indicates the exist- ence of a similar condition throughout the respiratory tract. An appropriate remedy is a combination of terebene and an acid given as an electuary, which exerts beneficial effects both topically and generall}-. Expulsion of the respiratory secretions is produced by increased activity of the cilia, which are believed to be stimulated by ammonia solutions, and by increased activity of the respiratory centre, which, as already stated, is also stimulated by ammonia salts, as well as by ipecacuanha, belladonna, and senega. Influenza colds, so common amongst horses, and notori- ously infectious, very probably depend upon specific micro- organisms, which attack the upper, sometimes the lower air-passages, and not infrequently also induce gastro-intestinal catarrh, and other complications. Occasionally such seizures may be checked or mitigated in their early stages b}" moistening the parts first affected with solution of carbolic or sulphurous acid or eucalyptus oil, applied in the form of spray, gargle, or inhalation. Similar treatment proves beneficial in the later stages, by lessening congestion or by exerting antiseptic effects. The washing out of the nostrils is conveniently done by an ordinar}- syringe, by Higginson's enema apparatus or b}' Key's nasal funnel. Cough is a modified, usually involuntary, respiratory act, whereby gaseous, liquid and solid substances are forcibly removed from the air-passages. This sudden expulsive expiratory effort is brought about by faulty mucus or other irritant, lodged in the pharynx or larynx, by irritation of the 86 THE TREATMENT OF COUGH lower air-passages, and refloxly, by impressions produced on surfaces other than the respiratory mucous tract, as by cold applied to the skin, or by nasal, buccal, pleural, gastric, or hepatic irritation. Soothing gargles and electuaries, even if they do not actually reach the seat of irritation, frequently abate cough. Mechanically acting mucilaginous or saccharine substances may be rendered more effectual by combination with mor- phine, which diminishes irritability of the respiratory centre, and decreases secretion of mucus. The latter result is still more notably effected by atropine. A combination of these alkaloids is hence specially valuable where there is trouble- some cough and profuse secretion of mucus. A somewhat different effect is obtained by conjoining morphine and apomorphine, which, with diminished excitability of the respiratory centre, produce increased bronchial secretion, and are hence serviceable where there is cough, and the membrane is dry, or coated with thick, sticky mucus. A comfortable loose box, with abundance of pure fresh air, at a temperature of about 60° Falir., in several ways benefits the patient suffering with respiratory disease. More perfect aeration of blood is secured, while the cool, pure air, moreover, contracts dilated vessels, combats congestion, and hence will often remove cough, especially when depending upon irritation of the larynx, trachea, or larger bronchi. But while in many stages of respiratory disease the breath- ing of cool air is grateful and beneficial, draughts and cold must be scrupulously guarded against, and the body and legs of the patient kept comfortably warm, with extra covering, in order to promote free circulation in the superficial vessels, and thus antagonise congestion of the internal organs. Experiments on small healthy animals show that ice applied to the surface of the belly immediately induces paleness of the respiratory membrane, speedily followed by congestion, and gradually developing venous lividity, accom- panied by increased secretion of mucus. Kemoval of the ice and substitution of a hot poultice gradually restore the parts to their normal state, and this acute congestion and gradual return to health may thus be alternately demon- HEART STIMULANTS 87 strated. These effects of cold and heat strikingly illustrate the causation of congestion of the respiratory organs, and also an effectual manner of relieving the hyperemia. Cough depending upon gastric derangement, not un- common in young animals, is often relieved by antacids. Cough resulting from bronchial filarise is abated by the usual soothing remedies, and sometimes removed by tur- pentine administered in drench or intratracheally, or by inhalation of diluted chlorine or sulphurous acid, which is rendered still more effectual for destruction of the parasites Avhen conjoined with carbolic vapour. In dogs with bronchitis or pneumonia, when the breathing is difficult, relief is often obtained by giving an emetic of ipecacuanha and squill. Venous congestion is overcome, and the state of the bronchial secretions improved. These good effects may often be maintained by the subsequent use of frequently repeated doses of ammonium carbonate, which is also serviceable earlier, or when the patient is too weak to justify the use of an emetic. In dogs recovering from acute attacks, or suffering from chronic bronchitis, cod liver oil is often useful, possibly on account of its furnishing readily assimilable nourishment for the delicate epithelial cells. ACTION OP MEDICINES ON THE CIRCULATION STIMULANTS — TONICS — SEDATIVES Many agents act in various ways on one or more portions of the circulatory system. An able authority on the subject — Dr. Lauder Brunton — divides them into agents acting on the heart and on the vessels, and again subdivides these two groups into three classes of stimulants, tonics, and sedatives. Heart Stimulants increase the force and frequency of the pulse in conditions of depression. The most important are ammonia and its carbonate, alcoholic solutions, ether, chloroform, camphor, oil of turpentine, and other volatile and aromatic oils, with heat and counter-irritants to the chest. They exert their effects in somewhat different ways. The alcohol group mainly stimulate the motor ganglia 88 HEART STIMULANTS Strychnine, physostigmine, and camphor are believed to act chiefly on the heart muscle, exciting it to pulsate rhyth- mically. Strychnine stimulates the cardiac excito-motor apparatus (Habershon). Ammonium carbonate and sal volatile, with turpentine and other volatile oils, chiefly stimulate the vaso-motor centres. Alcoholic, etherous, and ammoniacal solutions, especially Avhen given in tolerably concentrated form, immediately stimulate the mouth, throat, stomach, and other parts with which they come in contact, and thus their effects often anticipate and increase the stimulation resulting from their actual conveyance in the blood stream to the heart and other organs. Cardiac stimulants are used to counteract failure of the heart's action from shock, physical injury, overwork, or depression dependent on disease. Stimulants, when acting favourably, produce a more vigorous heart-beat — the pulse, previously slow, is accelerated ; or if quick, unequal, or weak, it becomes slower, stronger, and more regular. The heart pulsating more quickly, and propelling at each contraction a larger volume of blood, arterial pressure is increased. A combination of two stimulants, acting as indicated in more ways than one, is often more eftectual than any single drug. Hence alcohol is frequently conjoined with ether, annnonia, or aromatic volatile oils. Strychnine is prescribed with caffeine; and in serious cases hypodermic injections may be needful. Heat used in the form of warm drinks, and also externally, as warm rugs, fomentations, or poultices, is a heart stimulant, especially when the applications are made to the chest. Vascular Stimulants dilate the peripheral vessels, and thus accelerate the blood-flow through them. They do not increase the action of the vaso-motor centre, nor the con- tractility of the vessels, but, on the contrary, diminish their contractility and cause their dilatation. Prominent amongst remedies acting in this Avay are alcoholic solutions, ether, nitrous ether, amyl nitrite, nitro-glycerine, and nitrites, which, by dilating peripheral vessels, lower blood pressure. Alco- holic solutions, combining the twofold action of stinuilating the heart and dilating arterial and capillary vessels, usefully HEART TONICS 89 combat chill, equalise circulation, and prevent or relieve congestion. Horses brought in chilled and exhausted arc frequently saved from congestion and intianimation of in- ternal parts by the timely use of a stimulating drink, the good effects of which are further ensured by an extra rug, and flannel bandages to the legs. More permanent dilatation of external vessels is effected by frequently repeated doses of nitrous ether and ammonium acetate, with which camphor may also be conjoined. In combating chronic inflammation, vascular stimulants are also serviceable, and their operation is further promoted by hot applications, friction, and counter- irritation. Heart Tonics produce their effects more gradually and slowly than heart stimulants. All are muscle poisons, and exert fuller effects on the heart than on other muscles, on account of its receiving much larger supplies of blood. Although large doses induce violent, irregular heart action, repeated moderate doses prolong the diastole, and render the contractions slower, stronger and more regular. Most, besides, contract the muscular coat of the arteries, and hence are vascular tonics. On the muscular coat of the digestive canal they are also liable to act, producing nausea, spasms, and sometimes diarrhQ?a. Heart tonics comprise digitalis and its alkaloids, casca, and its active principle erythrophloeine, strophanthus, veratrine, convallaria majalis, squill, caffeine, nux vomica, and strj'chnine. Digitalis has hitherto been the heart tonic generally used, notwithstanding the disadvantage of its preparations being of irregular strength, and its so-called active principle, digita- lin, usually consisting of several bodies, differing consider- ably in their actions. Digitalis is prescribed where the left ventricle, from weakness caused by reducing disease, or from incompetence of the bicuspid or mitral valve, is unable to drive the blood into the aorta. In hard-worked horses compensating hypertrophy gives increased propelling power, and hence sometimes mitigates the results of valvular disease. When dilatation occurs, and the mitral valve is insufficient to close the orifice, blood is liable to regurgitate into the left auricle, retarding the blood flow from the lungs, 90 VASCULAR TONICS and leading to general venous congestion. Heart tonics, notably digitalis, relieve this condition by imparting to the contractions the needful regularity and strength ; while, moreover, by slowing the beats, the ventricle is more com- l^letcly filled. In dilatation of the right side of the heart usually depending upon serious attacks of influenza, bron- chitis, or emphysema, heart tonics are seldom so beneficial as in mitral disease. In the various diseases for which digi- talis has been used, strophanthus, which is not cumulative, is now generally preferred, both in human and veterinary practice, on account of its solubility, and less liability to produce nausea and gastro-intestinal irritation. In heart failure, whether depending on nervous asthenia or on muscular weakness, strychnine in continued small doses is specially useful. "Wliere there is marked irritability, it may be con- joined with cocaine, and, in anemia, with preparations of iron. Where there is cardiac pain, nitro-glycerine is pre- scribed. Where blood pressure is abnormal, it is usually desirable in vigorous subjects to relieve venous congestion by purgatives or diuretics before even the most cautious use of heart tonics is attempted. Vascular Tonics cause increased contraction of arterioles and capillaries. They stimulate the vaso-motor nerves, and thus raise blood pressure, and also proinote outflow and absorption of lymph. The most important are digitalis, iron, and strychnine, with friction of swollen, infiltrated parts, equable pressure of well-applied bandages, and exer- cise, which secures oxidation and muscular movements favouring removal of lymph and waste products. Vascular tonics are chiefly used to combat local oedema, resulting mainly from changes in the Avails of the capillaries, and general dropsy depending upon tardy removal of lymph, from the lymph spaces or serous cavities, upon a watery condition of the blood, or upon vaso-motor paralysis. Dropsy resulting, as it often does, from anaimia is appropriately treated by iron salts. Inflammatory oedema or lymphangitis attacking usually the lymph glands and vessels of the hind limbs of the heavier breeds of horses, and occurring chiefly in well-fed, VASCULAR SEDATIVES 91 hard-worked animals after a day's rest, is probably caused by a toxine, and connected witli imperfect oxidation, tbe con- sequent formation of sarcolactic acid, obstruction and con- gestion of veins, capillaries, and lymph vessels. The result- ing acute inflammation is combated by hot fomentations, a smart purgative, antiseptics, and saline diuretics, while the tediously chronic oedema, which is apt to follow, is removed by friction, vascular tonics, and stimulants, and regular exercise. Cardiac Sedatives lessen the force and frequency of the heart's action. For such purposes aconite, gelsemium, vera- trine, and antimonials are chiefly prescribed. In veterinary patients aconite is most effectual, especially when given in small doses, at intervals of two or three hours. It is chiefly used in antagonising violent palpitating action of the heart, or lowering the quick, full, bounding pulse, and other febrile symptoms of laryngitis, laminitis, acute lymph- angitis, and other local inflammations. Vascular Sedatives contract blood-vessels, lessen the flow of blood throusfh them, and hence limit local inflammation, and arrest haemorrhage. They are represented by ergot, lead acetate, and opium, full doses of digitalis and other heart tonics, and topical application of cold. Ice or re- frigerant lotions applied to circumscribed spots contract the capillaries, and even considerable arteries, and thus relieve congestion, inflammation, and pain. In like manner, ice, when swallowed, arrests bleeding from the stomach, reflexly checks bleeding from the lungs, and, moreover, acts as a cardiac sedative. When the bleeding vessels cannot be reached, either directly or reflexly, ergotin is injected hypo- dermically. 92 SIALAGOGUES MEDICINES ACTING ON THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM On the Salivary Glands. — sialagogues — antisialics — KEFUIGEllANTS. On the Stomach. — antacids — gastric tonics — STOMACHICS — bitters — EMETICS — ANTI-EMETICS — GASTRIC sedatives. On the Intestines. — purgatives — carminatives — intes- tinal ASTRINGENTS — ANTISEPTICS. On the Liver. — hepatic stimulants — cholagogues — hepatic depressants. On the Pancreas and Spleen. On Worms. — anthelmintics — vermicides— vermifuges. Sialagogues are drugs which increase the secretion of saliva. This alkaUne fluid comes from the secreting glan- dular cells, which are replenished with fresh materials from the blood-vessels of the glands. The process of salivation is regulated by a nerve-centre in the medulla, and subsidiary nerve-centres in the several glands. By food or other sub- stances moved in the mouth, by irritation of the stomach, or even of the eyes or nostrils, stimulation is conveyed by their respective nerves to these ganglia, and reflexly salivation ensues. In this way the presence of food in the mouth and the movements of the jaws naturally provoke salivation. In like manner, through different nerves distributed within the mouth, acids, alkalies, ethers, mustard, ginger, and other pungent substances reflexly increase secretion of saliva. Tartar emetic and other nauseants exert similar effects re- flexly by acting on the stomach. Another group of siala- gogues, consisting of jaborandi, calabar bean, and their alkal- oids, with muscarine and nicotine, produce salivation when injected into the blood, stimulate the peripheral ends of the secreting nerves within the glands, and are termed specific sialagogues. Another group, including mercury, tobacco, and potassium iodide, induce their effects, partly by acting reflexly on the membrane of the mouth, and parti}' by absorption and stimulation of the secreting nerves. ANTISIALICS AND PvEFRIGERANTS 93 The salivary and buccal secretions moisten the mouth and fauces, and hence facilitate mastication and swallowingf, and lessen or prevent thirst. The ptyalin of the saliva, more- over, helps the solution of starch, and the alkaline fluid, when swallowed, promotes secretion of the acid gastric juice, and thus further assists digestion. Graminivora secrete propor- tionally large quantities of saliva for the moistening of the dry food, on which they chiefly live. The horse in twenty- four hours secretes 84 lbs. In all animals the fluid is more alkaline the larger the amount of the starch food. Antisialics are medicines which lessen the salivary secre- tion. Borax and potassium chlorate frequently remove the faulty irritable conditions of the mucous membrane, which lead to over-secretion. Opium and morphine diminish irri- tability of the nerve-centres, while atropine is the most effective paralyser of the peripheral endings of secreting nerves. The fermentative action of ptyalin is diminished by alcohol, alkalies, and acids, and checked by 1 per cent, solu- tions of carbolic acid. It is promoted by small quantities of quinine, strychnine, and morphine. Refrigerants, in contact with the buccal and pharyngeal membrane, induce a sensation of coolness, and allay thirst, which is locally manifested by dryness of the mouth and fauces. Thirst is quenched by washing out the mouth with water, or lubricating the dry throat with bland mucilaginous fluids, sucking portions of ice, which horses with sore throats soon learn to do, or swallowing slowly slightly acidulated drinks, which, by stimulating secretion of saliva, moisten the parched membrane. But thirst also depends upon a deficiency of fluid in the body, and excess of soluble or saline substances in the blood — conditions which are remedied by ingestion of water or other diluents. The extreme thirst which occurs in horses affected Avith polyuria, or diabetes insipidus, is best controlled by a combination of iodine and opium, the former probably exerting its anti- septic effect, the latter perhaps lessening excitability of the thirst-centre. 94 GASTRIC ABSORPTION IN DIFFERENT ANIMALS ACTION OP DRUGS ON THE STOMACH The stomach of the horse is small relatively to his size ; the cardiac portion is lined with stratified epithelium, and secrets no digestive fluid. The pyloric portion, which occu- pies about one-half of the viscus, is the active digestive part, and is lined with a vascular villous membrane, in which lie the gastric glands. Gastric absorption in horses has been questioned or denied since Bouley and Colin published their experiments with strychnine ; but probably slow absorption does take place from the right sac in a normal condition. In ruminants, the first three compartments of the sub- divided stomach are lined with cuticular mucous membrane, are chiefly occupied in the reception, maceration, and sub- division of the bulky fibrous herbage, which constitutes their principal diet. This thick epithelial covering, and the amount of food always lodged in these three stomachs, ex- plain the tardy action of many medicines administered to ruminants, and their taking with impunity large doses of irritants. The fourth stomach is lined with vascular velvet- like mucous membrane, and secretes the gastric juice, while from its walls slow absorption takes place, In the dog and hog the stomach and digestive organs resemble those of man, and in both animals absorption commences in the stomach. Secretion of gastric juice is stimulated by gentle mechani- cal and chemical irritation, by introduction of suitable food into the stomach, and by administration of dilute alkalies, alcohol and ether. When indigestion occurs from pre- sumed insufficiency of the gastric juice, two modes of treat- ment are available — (1) dilute acids and a little S2)irit are given to stimulate secretion ; but (2) where, from reducing disease or other causes, the stomach is enfeebled, a substi- tute for the gastric juice should be given in the form of diluted mineral acid, conjoined, Avhere the food is albumin- ous, Avith pepsin. Moreover in all such cases, the food uuist be readily digestible. For horses, well-prepared mashes are substituted for dry corn and hard fibrous hay; while calves ANTACIDS 95 or foals, when their undihited milk disagrees, should have it mixed with water, or, better still, with linseed tea, in order that the tough curd may be more easily broken down. In dyspepsia, acids and bitters are frequently conjoined, the latter being serviceable probably on account of their stimu- lating the movements of the stomach, and of their action on the liver. Antacids. — Certain forms of dyspepsia depend upon, or are aggravated by, undue gastro-intestinal acidity, Avhich is counteracted by antacids. These comprise the alkalies — potash, soda, and ammonia ; the alkaline earths — lime and magnesia ; and carbonates and bicarbonates of these bases. The neutral salts which these alkalies form with vegetable acids, notably the tartrates and citrates, after acting primarily as salines, are converted in the blood into carbonates, and secondarily exert alkaline effects on the tissues and secretions with which they are brought into contact. It is thus that they are serviceable in rheumatism, eczema, some cases of pyrexia, and in counteracting acidity of the urine. As an antacid, the volatile ammonia is less permanent than the fixed alkalies. Potash and its salts are more active than soda and its corresponding salts. Lime salts, being soothing and astringent, are indicated in diarrhoea ; magnesia salts, being laxative, are appropriate where acidity concurs with torpidity of the bowels. Lithium carbonate, present in Baden-Baden and Bath mineral waters, is prized in human medicine as a solvent of urinary calculi and deposits. Horses fed irregularly, or too closely restricted to dry food, frequently suffer from gastric acidity, instinctively lick the lime- washed walls of their stables, or eat earth, and are usually promptly relieved by antacids and suitable feeding. Calves carelessly managed manifest the same disposition to allay their discomfort by eating earthy matters. Antacids given before meals excite gastric secretion ; given after meals they neutralise gastric and intestinal acidity. After pro- ducing local and direct effects on the digestive organs, they undergo absorption, and produce remote antacid effects on the blood and urine. Gastric Tonics or stimulants, sometimes called stomachics. 96 EMETICS AND VOMITING aid gastric digestion and improve tlie appetite. Such results occur when, in experiments, the stomach walls are gently irritated, and are also produced by small doses of stimulants and bitters. In certain conditions of gastric irritation, stimulants or bitters are, however, unsuitable, and small doses of mineral acids, or of gastric sedatives, such as bismuth, strontium bromide, ammonium chloride, or prussic acid, arc prescribed. Emetics are agents which cause vomiting. This is effected by tirm compression of the stomach between the diaphragm and the abdominal muscles, and by the simultaneous con- traction of the longitudinal fibres which pass from the oesophagus round the gastric walls. When the stomach is thus compressed from behind, and drawn forward, the familiar spasmodic movements of retching result. When concurrently, however, with these movements, the cardiac orifice is dilated, the contents of the stomach are thrown up, and vomiting occurs. Dr. Lauder Brunton thus describes the phenomena of vomiting : — ' Uneasiness is felt ; the in- spirations become deeper ; several swallowing movements are made, which sometimes carry down sufiticient air to distend the stomach moderately. After several deep inspirations, there suddenly comes one which is deeper still. Then, instead of this being followed by expiration, the glottis shuts to prevent the esca]3e of air ; the diaphragm again contracts still more deeply into the abdomen, and pulling the ribs together, the abdominal muscles forcibly contract; the left half of the stomach is drawn upwards, and the cul-de-sac flattened out ; the cardiac orifice dilates, and the contents of the stomach are forcibly expelled. The pylorus remains firmly contracted, and allows but little escape into the intestines.' The movements of vomiting are modified respiratory and ruminating actions, and are presided over by nerve-centres in the medulla. The ganglia regulating respiration and vomition lie close together. Certain cells probably take part in both actions, and are acted upon by the same agents. ' Emetics usually quicken the respiration considerably be- fore they produce vomiting, and, if injected into the veins, they not only quicken the respiration, but prevent the THE PHYSIOLOGY OF VOMITING 97 condition of apnoea being produced by vigorous artificial respiration. On the other hand, the desire to vomit may be lessened, to some extent, by taking frequent and deep inspirations, and narcotics which diminish the excitability of the respiratory centre also lessen the tendency to vomit ' (Brunton). That the vomiting centre, rather than the stomach itself, is the prime factor in the production of emesis, is evident from Magendie's famous experiment of removing the stomach of a dog, attaching to the severed oesophagus a pig's bladder filled with fluid, Avhich, when tartar emetic was injected into the veins, was compressed between the abdominal muscles and the diaphragm, and emptied of its contents by vomiting. When the fauces of men, dogs, or other animals which vomit readily, are tickled with a feather, or when the interior of the stomach is irritated mechanically, or by a solution of mustard, the stimulus is conveyed by afferent nerves to the vomiting centre with which the special motor impulses are correlated. Many other parts of the body, through their afferent nerves, have communication with the vomiting centre, and hence vomiting is produced, not only by irritation of the fauces and stomach, but by irritation of the brain, lungs, liver, and gall ducts, the intestines, kidneys, and bladder, sometimes even by pain or injury of the extremities. Dogs, cats, and pigs vomit as readily as men. Indeed, in dogs, vomiting is induced by most disagreeably- tasted nauseous, or acrid substances, and sometimes is brought on purposely by eating certain grasses which instinct readily enables them to discover. But horses, ruminants, rabbits, and guinea-pigs rarely if ever vomit, and are in- sensible to the action of powerful emetics. In horses emesis only occurs from extreme distension and spasm of the stomach, from dilatation of the lower part of the gullet, from complete obstruction of the intestines, and from the action of large doses of aconite, which, however, induce retching and discharge of excessive secretion of saliva rather than true vomiting. The insusceptibility of horses to the action of emetics is due apparently to some undiscovered peculiarity of the nervous mechanism concerned in vomi- Q 98 HORSES AND RUMINANTS DO NOT VOMIT tion in most other animals. The horse's inability to re- gurgitate matters from the stomach, even when attempts to vomit are excited, depends upon several conditions — on the smallness of the stomach, which prevents it, even when tolerably full, from being grasped and squeezed between the abdominal muscles and the diaphragm; on the strong horse-shoe-like band of fibres which guards the cardiac orifice; and on the greater length of that portion of the a3Sophagus between the diaphragm and stomach, which bends on itself, and thus more securely obstructs the cardiac orifice when the tube, under the influence of emetics, is shortened by the contraction of its longitudinal fibres. The contents of the horse's stomach, even if discharged upwards, owing to the position and length of the soft palate, would pass out by the nostrils, and not by the mouth. As cattle naturally ruminate, it might be supposed that they might also readily perform the analogous act of vomiting; but the substances which cause emesis in other animals have no such effect on cattle or sheep. This, in part, depends upon the large size of the subdivided stomach, which cannot be grasped and compressed between the abdominal walls and diaphragm. In horses and ruminants, the arrangement of the digestive organs thus virtually pre- venting vomiting, the vomiting centre Avould not be required; if it ever existed amongst earlier races, it has become dwarfed or ineffective, as seems evident from the notable tolerance which horses have of tartar emetic. Pro- fessor M'Fadyean suggests that in ruminants the power to vomit has perhaps been merged into the habit of rumination. Emetics are divisible into two classes : — (1.) Those which mainly act locally on the pharynx or stomach, such as copious draughts of tepid water, bitter infusions, solutions of salt, mustard, alum, and ammonium carbonate, with copper and zinc sulphates. (2.) Those which act, through the circulation, on the vomiting centre, such as tartar emetic, ipeca- cuanha and ciuctiiie, apomorphine, senega, and squill. Muscarine and digitalis are general emetics, although not used medicinally. USES OF EMETICS 99 Emetics, acting locally, stimulate the vomiting centre reflexly from the stomach. Those of the second class may be carried direct to the vomiting centre; but many are also attracted to the stomach, and thus, in part, at any rate, act reflexly. Tartar emetic injected into the blood is believed thus to act in both ways. The effects of local emetics are not of long duration, ceasing usually when the cause of irritation is expelled, and leaving little depression. The effects of general emetics are more per- sistent, and are followed by nausea, depression, and increased secretion of saliva and sweat, as well as of mucus, alike from the digestive and respiratory tracts. Emetics are used on dogs and pigs for removing from the stomach foreign bodies, acrid, irritating, undigested food, and poisons. Where prompt and effectual results are desired, as in cases of poisoning, copper and zinc sulphates are most suitable. By relaxing the longitudinal fibres of the gullet, and exciting anti-peristaltic movements, they are also serviceable in expelling obstructions from the fauces and upper part of the oesophagus. They expel bile from the gall ducts, and gall bladder, and force in- spissated mucus and small gall stones into the intestine, thus relieving jaundice resulting from obstruction. By clearing out both the stomach and biliary system, they remove biliousness, and, used at the outset, they thus mitigate distemper, and other febrile attacks, and some- times arrest epileptic seizures. In animals which vomit easily it is better that irritants lodged in the anterior parts of the digestive tube should be promptly got rid of by the mouth, rather than make the longer and more tedious route through the intestines, running risk of absorption, and thus probably doing further mischief. By stimulating the respiratory as well as the vomiting centre, emetics beneficially promote secretion and expectoration in the dry stage of catarrh and bronchitis, and sometimes in congestive as well as spasmodic asthma. In respiratory disorders, ipecacuanha and squill are often conjoined, and, where there is cardiac depression, ammonium carbonate is prescribed, alone or in combination. Relaxing muscular 100 EMETICS AND ANTI-EMETICS fibre, they were wont to be given to assist in the reduction of dislocations, but for such purposes ana3sthetics are much more effectual. Their paralysing effect on muscle explains why emetics in excessive doses often fail to cause vomiting. Emetics are contra-indicated in gastric inflammation, cere- bral congestion, and hccmorrhagic conditions, and require cautious use in pregnancy and hernia. A safe and convenient emetic for a medium-sized dog consists of a teaspoonful each of common salt and mustard dissolved in three ounces of tepid water. More prompt and certain effects are produced by two or three grains of copper or zinc sulphate dissolved in a couple of ounces of warm water, rolled in a piece of meat, or mixed with other food. Greater depression follows the administration of three grains tartar emetic and ten grains ipecacuanha, given dissolved in three or four ounces of tepid water. Apomorphine, the most prompt and certain of emetics, acts by whatever channel it enters the body, and produces full effects on dogs in doses of one-tenth to one-fifth of a grain. To check vomiting, which occasionally proves trouble- some in dogs, three methods of relief are indicated — (1) the removal, by appropriate means, of the irritation of the fauces, bronchi, stomach, or other part which excites the reflex act ; (2) lessening irritability of the gastric nerves by giving small pieces of ice, or cocaine, carbolic acid, creasote, silver nitrate, or hydrocyanic acid ; (3) quieting over-activity of the irritable vomiting centre by morphine, atropine, chloral, potassium or ammonium bromide, or amyl-nitrite. ACTION OP DRUGS ON THE INTESTINES PURGATIVES — CARMINATIVES — INTESTINAL ASTRINGENTS AND ANTISEPTICS Purgatives or Cathartics cause intestinal evacuations by sLiuuilating the nuiscular coat, and accelerating the peristaltic movements of the bowels; by increasing secre- PURGATIVES 101 tion from the intestinal mucous membrane ; and sometimes by limiting absorption of the intestinal fluids. Intestinal movements are dependent on the ganglia of Auerbach's plexus, situated between the outer longitudinal and inner circular layers of muscle. Secretion is believed to be influenced by Meissner's plexus, lying in the sub- mucous coat; but these ganglia, immediately regulating intestinal movements and secretions, are controlled by cerebro-spinal centres and nerves, notably by the vagi, which, when irritated, cause increased peristalsis, and by the splanchnics, which, although containing both stimulant and inhibitory fibres, generally diminish intestinal move- ments. When all the cerebro-spinal nerves, going to a portion of intestine, are divided, copious fluid discharges pour into the intestine; but Dr. Lauder Brunton and Dr. Pye Smith, who thoroughly investigated the subject, found that the nerves which specially restrain secretion are the inferior ganglia of the solar plexus, with the superior mesenteric offshoot from them. The blood-supply of the intestine is mainly regulated by the splanchnics, but also in part by the lumbar portion of the cord. Purgatives vary in the degree and method of their action. Some, like castor oil, act tolerably uniformly on the wdiole tract; podophyllum operates mainly on the duodenum ; jalap and salines chiefly on the small intestine ; the several species of rhamnus or buckthorn and aloes mostly on the large boAvel. Purgatives are frequently classified as follows : — Laxatives or aperients, such as small doses of oil, mag- nesia, sulphur and treacle, wdth fruits, roots, and green vegetable food. Simple purgatives, such as full doses of oils, aloes, various species of rhamnus, produce more copious, softened, or fluid evacuations, and act mainly by increasing the intestinal secretions. Drastic purgatives, such as croton oil, colocynth, ela- terium, gamboge, and podophyllum, greatly increase both peristalsis and secretion ; violently stimulate intestinal con- tractions, causing more or less pain ; promptly produce copious, fluid discharges; and in large doses may cause 102 CLASSIFICATION OF CATHARTICS serious intestinal irritation and inflammation. Eserine and liarinm chloride exert similar effects. Hydragogues, such as claterium, gamboge, crotou oil, and other drastic cathartics, with large doses of the more active salines, excite copious intestinal secretions. Cholagogue purgatives, such as mercurial preparations, aloes, podophyllum, and euonymin, remove bile, and will receive special notice later. Saline purgatives consist of neutral salts of the alkalies and alkaline earths, such as magnesium sulphate and citrate, sodium sulphate, potassium tartrate, and bitartrate. The salines have been specially investigated by Professor Matthew Ha}^ Aberdeen University. His admirable observa- tions show that, without causing much increased peristalsis, they notably increase the alimentary secretions, and impede absorption. They do so chiefly in virtue of their specific irritant and bitter properties. They act especially on the small intestines, but only slightly increase the secretion of bile or pancreatic fluid. When the accumulated fluid mechanically distends and stimulates the intestine, some extra peristalsis is excited. Saline solutions weaker than 10 per cent, provoke little or no secretion in the stomach, and not much in the bowels. A 20 per cent, solution given to dogs or men rapidly increases secretion, which reaches its maximum in one to one and a half hours. But the larger the amount of fluid given with the saline, the more prompt will be the purgation. Magnesium and sodium sulj)hates are in part decomposed, their acid being more rapidly absorbed than their base. No increase of secretion is pro- duced, as was formerly taught, by the acid or salt, when, after absorption, it is excreted into the intestine; and neither of these salines excites intestinal secretion when injected into the blood, or subcutaneously. More inorganic than organic matters are removed by salines from the blood. The amount of fluid secreted has been measured by Dr. Lauder Brunton, who experimented on cats with con- centrated solutions of Epsom salt tied into a loop of intes- tine. In four hours he found that from 42 to 56 minims of serous fluid wore outpoured for every inch of surface acted PRECAUTIONS IN THE USE OF CATHARTICS 103 on. In cattle or horses upwards of 12 square feet of intestine must often be directly stimulated by even a moderate dose of physic. A secretion of 50 minims to the inch would give a discharge of nine pints of fluid. Such considerations illustrate the depurative and febrifuge effects of an active cathartic. The intestines of the horse are voluminous, presenting about 550 square feet of vascular mucous membrane. Purgatives and other irritants hence require to be used with much caution. For a day previous to the exhibition of a purgative, the animal, if possible, should be restricted to mash diet or green food. The dose should be moderate, and its effect may be accelerated and increased by administering it while the animal is fasting, by occasional gentle exercise, until it begins to operate, and by the repeated use of clysters. This last auxiliar}^ when properly employed with sufficient perseverance, is indeed so effectual in promoting the action of the bowels that one of the most successful of army veterinarians was wont to trust almost entirely to its use, seldom giving, except in extraordinary cases, any purga- tive medicine whatever. In serious, obstinate impaction of the large intestines, a flexible tube, six feet long, should be screwed on to a Read's pump, and copious enemata introduced into the colon. For horses, aloes is the best cathartic. Linseed and castor oils are tolerably good, but less certain; while croton is much too drastic, unless in small amount, and largely mixed with some bland oil. Salines in cathartic doses are irregular, and sometimes act with unexpected violence. Senna, colo- cynth, buckthorn, and other drugs used as purgatives for men and dogs have little effect on horses. With a warm mash the previous night, and subsequent abstinence from solid food, a moderate dose of aloes given in the morning, assisted by further mashes and occasional draughts of tepid water, purges most horses in ten or twelve hours. AVithout this desirable preliminary j)reparation, purgation seldom occurs within eighteen or twenty hours. In acute febrile cases absorption is usually tardy, and the action of the purgative is hastened by combination with a 104 CATHARTICS FOR CATTLE, SHEEP, AND DOGS small dose of calomel, mix vomica, or tartar emetic. A liorse should never have pm-gative medicine when his strength is reduced as in the advanced stages of inflamma- tory disease of the air-passages, in influenza and other debilitating epizootics, and seldom when the bowels are con- gested or inflamed. I have known horses aft'ected by bron- chitis die from superpurgation, induced by three and four drachms of aloes ; and similar susceptibility to the action of moderate doses is also observable in influenza, purpura haimorrhagica, and laminitis. In cattle and sheep the magnitude of the quadriseded stomach, the large amount of food Avhich it always contains, the relatively small size of the true digestive compartment, and, compared with the liorse, the greater length but smaller capacity of the intestines, explain the tardy, uncertain action of purgatives and some other drugs. For these ruminants saline cathartics are preferable, and their action is materially hastened by encouraging the drinking of water, rendered palatable by sweetening it Avith treacle. In obstinate constipation, or torpidity of the bowels, gamboge, croton, and calomel are often useful. Purgation may usually be produced in cattle in twelve to sixteen hours ; but cases frequently occur where, in spite of treatment, the bowels remain unmoved for several days. The best purgatives for sheep are common and Epsom salts and castor oil, in doses of about one-fourth of those given to cattle. Calomel and croton are apt to act too violently. As sheep drink sparingly, their medicine should be given with a liberal quantity of fluid. The dog, on account of his small stomach and short alimentary tube, and the concentrated nature of his food, is peculiarly susceptible to the action of purgatives. Jalap, with a little calomel, or a mixture of equal parts of linseed and castor oils, is most generally approved of, and usually operates in from five to eight hours. Aloes acts more slowly and uncertainly, while saline medicines are apt to cause vomiting, or, if retained, to purge with undue violence. Pigs are acted on by cathartics much in the same way as men and dogs, and are best physicked by administering, USES OF CATHARTICS 105 from a shallow spoon or bottle, three or four ounces of Epsom salt dissolved in water, or a like amoimt of linseed or castor oil. The uses of purgatives are numerous. Few medicines are applied to so many important purposes. (1.) They empty the alimentary canal of undigested food, fasces, bile, some poisons, and worms. Sweeping away partially digested food, they diminish the amount of blood- making materials, and thus diminish plethora and obesity. In horses fully two-thirds of the fluid ingesta, under ordinary circumstances, is removed by the bowels, and this large amount is greatly increased when physic is given. They remove noxious gases and fluids, micro-organisms, ptomaines, and other intestinal toxic matters which are the causes of dyspepsia, colic, and diarrhoea ; and which, more- over, secondarily or reflexly produce nervous depression, skin irritation, and local hyperassthesia. Constipation is usually dependent in great part on deficient peristalsis, and hence, when of frequent occur- rence, is often advantageously combated by conjoining a little nux vomica with the cathartic. When the general vigour of the patient is defective, the aperient may be conjoined with iron or arsenic ; and where there is venous stasis with belladonna. Horses restricted to dry food are frequently affected with constipation, and in such cases the diet should be varied with an occasional mash, a little linseed cake or green food, while Avater ad libitum should be allowed at least four times daily. The bulky and comparatively indigestible nature of the horse's food induces copious alvine evacua- tions, which are passed usually at intervals of four or five hours. Impaired intestinal action, or obstruction, hindering or arresting these frequent evacuations, causes more serious and rapidl}" fatal results in horses than in dogs, or ruminants, in which the bowels naturally act less frequently. Torpidity or obstruction which has resisted ordinary treatment is now usually relieved — even in horses — by the hypodermic injec- tion of a grain of eserine and one or two grains of pilo- carpine; or by intravenous injection of a solution of barium chloride. Constipation, troublesome in dogs kept 106 PURGATIVES RELIEVE PYREXIA in the house, or on the chain, is best treated with a dose of oil, and prevented by attention to diet. Diarrhoea, at its outset, is usually most effectually treated by a dose of oil, containing a little laudanum or hyoscyanms — a combination which removes the cause of irritation, and prevents irregular peristalsis and griping. When diarrhoea dejiends, as it sometimes does, on diminished absorption of fluid from the bowels, a little ether proves serviceable. (2.) Purgatives, notably salines or hydragogues, increase the secretion of intestinal fluid, and hinder its absorption, and thus purge the blood of waste products, relieving febrile attacks, and lowering blood-pressure. The blood, thus left in a state of concentration, speedily recuperates itself, absorbs water and lymph from the tissues, thus relieving oedema, dropsy, and lymphangitis. To secure this special action, such salines as Epsom salt and alkaline tartrates are specially useful, and their efficacy is increased when they are prescribed in tolerably concentrated form, and given when there is comparatively little fluid in the alimentary canal. When catharsis caused by a saline has almost ceased, another concentration of the blood occurs, which has also an influence in reducing dropsical swellings. (3.) Purgatives lower fever temperature, but how this effect is produced is not definitely known. They diminish the force of the circulation, and may in this way lessen the production of heat, and, moreover, hasten removal from the body of waste or other deleterious matters, which are a frequent cause of fever. In animals in health purgatives do not, however, produce any appreciable lowering of tempera- ture. (See Antipyretics.) Carminatives are agents which assist the expulsion of gases from the stomach and intestines. When digestion is in any way interfered with, the contents of the stomach are liable to undergo excessive or irregular fermentation, giving rise to large quantities of carbonic acid and h3drogen, which unite with sulphur, sometimes derived from the food, some- times from the bile, and produce the noisome sulphuretted hydrogen. Formation of these gases is favoured by accumu- lation of mucus on the walls of the stomach, and by venous CARMINATIVES 107 congestion of the organ, both of which conditions interfere with the natural absorption of oxygen and excretion of carbonic acid. These gases cause uncomfortable distension, and often provoke spasm and pain. {See Antispasmodics.) Carminatives are closely allied to Antispasmodics, and include the aromatic oils of the umbelliferce, labiatse, and other orders, with ginger, mustard, and peppers, alcohol, ethers, and chloroform. Carbonic acid gas is neutralised by ammonia preparations, sulphuretted and carburetted hydro- gen, and by solution of chlorine or chlorinated lime. They are used to expel flatus, relieve spasm, and pain, whether resulting from direct intestinal irritants, or, second- arily, from chill or other causes. Their effects mainly depend upon their controlling irregular peristalsis. They stimulate contraction of the distended stomach, and thus promote escape of gas by either the cardiac or pyloric open- ing. Kegulating, in like manner, intestinal peristalsis, they displace and expel gases from other parts of the canal. They are usefully conjoined with purgatives. In cattle, owing to the large amount of food in the first stomach, it is some- times difficult to remove accumulations of gas, by either carminatives or antispasmodics, the use of a gag fixed in the mouth, or even by the probang. Where these means fail, and distension is so great as to interfere with breathing or circulation, it is necessary to remove the gas by opening the rumen, with either a trochar and canula, or a tolerably large knife. In serious distension, threatening rupture of the large intestines, in horses, the gas is liberated by puncture of the caecum or colon with a special trochar and canula. Intestinal Astringents diminish excessive or unduly fluid intestinal evacuations. They are specially used to antagonise various forms of diarrhoea. Some, like opium and chloral, lessen the excessive peristalsis on which diarrhoea generally in great part depends. Some, like antacids, neutralise acids which provoke both peristalsis and increased secretion. Some, like creasote, check fermentation and putrefaction, and thus arrest formation of irritants. Others, like catechu and tannin- containing substances, coagulate albumin, and 108 INTESTINAL ASTRINGENTS consequently dry up both discharge of mucus and of blood. Others, like copper and iron sulphates, usually conjoin anti- septic and astringent actions. Coto-bark and its alkaloids, although devoid of astringency, exert antiseptic effects, and besides, by increasing absorption, remove superfluous fluid from the intestines. Mineral acids and metallic salts are specially indicated when the mucous membranes are relaxed and flabby. Drs. Lauder Brunton and Pye Smith experimented with various agents, with the view of discovering any which would arrest the copious discharges of cholera. The conclusion arrived at was that most cases of diarrhoea, whether continuous or alternated with constipation, were best checked by castor oil, administered with a few drops of opium tincture. Where the diarrhcjea still persists, opium in moderate doses is given. Where active peristalsis occurs after eating, drinking, or the excitement of quick work, as in some nervous horses and dogs, liquor arsenicalis is prescribed. Undue relaxation of the bowels, occurring in irritable horses during active work, is mitigated by careful attention to diet, by using the best food in digestible form, allowing water in small quantity at a time but frequently, and withholding water for several hours previous to putting the animal to quick work. Intestinal antiseptics or disinfectants are sometimes pre- scribed in the treatment of disorders of the bowels, and of diseases which are believed to depend on the presence of pathogenic bacteria or their toxines in the intestine. Naph- thol, salol, iodol, dermatol, lysol, creolin, carbolic acid, sali- cylates, iodine, iodides, tannoform, thymol, tannalbin, tannic acid, terebene and boric acid are the disinfectants generally •employed. Experiments show that rej^cated small doses of beta-naphthol, salol, or creolin, rapidly diminish the number of micro-organisms expelled with the fa?ces; and the admini- stration of these or other intestinal antiseptics in hemoglo- binuria, parturient apoplexy, South African horse sickness, some cases of tetanus, and in distemper and other infectious diseases, deserves further trial. To ensure full eftects within the bowel, the agent selected should be given encased in kera- tin, which is unaffected by the gastric secretion. A course of FUNCTIONS OF THE LIVER 109 intestinal antiseptics may be preceded by a dose of purgative medicine. ACTION OF MEDICINES ON THE LIVER HEPATIC STIMULAXTS — HEPATIC DEPRESSANTS — CHOLAGOGUES The liver is the largest gland in the body. It not only secretes and excretes bile, but part of the bile, mingled with the food materials, is again taken up from the intestine and again excreted, and this circulation through the liver and back to the intestine is accomplished within five minutes. The liver, moreover, forms glycogen, and is concerned with the general metabolism of the body, the breaking up of the blood globules, and the formation of urea. Medicines taken up by the vessels of the small intestine enter the liver, where they may be retained, destroyed, or neutralised. Some are eliminated in the bile. Arsenic, copper, and mercury are retained, and morpine, atropine, strychnine, veratrine, antipyrine, cocaine, and other alkaloids, are detained and modified. It further acts upon peptones, and probably upon ptomaines and waste products (which, accumulating in the blood and tissues, prove injurious, and indeed poisonous), and forms them into sugar, glycogen, and simpler forms, which are stored, as it were, "in a coal-bunker," as Dr. Lauder Brunton aptly puts it, for the production of heat and muscular energy. This important power of the liver to destroy poisons, elaborated in the vital processes or intro- duced from without, is illustrated in Lautenbach's experi- ments. One- twentieth of a drop of nicotine does not kill a frog, but half that dose suffices when the liver has been removed. When the glycogenic function of the liver is impaired, retained or transformed toxic substances exert unexpected activity. In this way liver toxines formed in ill health aftect nervous and other tissues, and produce tem- porary sickness, fatigue, and lassitude. The bile has various functions. It promotes absorption and assimilation of fats. Containing a diastatic ferment, it transforms starch and glycogen into sugar. It moistens the intestinal walls, and excites contraction of their muscular 110 HEPATIC STIMULANTS AND DEPRESSANTS coat, thus acting as a natural laxative. The action of various medicines upon the liver has been ascertained chietiy by Roiirig, Rutherford, and Vignel, who curarised fasting dogs, ligatured the common bile duct, and inserted a canula through which the bile secreted was discliarged and collected Numerous drugs were experimented with, usually by injeo tion into the duodenum. As food increases the secretion of bile, the experiments were made on fasting animals. These experiments demonstrate that medicines acting upon the liver are divisible into three classes : — (1.) Hepatic Stimulants or Direct Cholagogues increase the functional activity of the organ and the formation of bile, and are represented by dilute nitro- hydrochloric acid, sodium phosphate, sodium sulphate, salicylate, and benzoate, corrosive sublimate, turpentine, podophyllum, euonymin, aloes, rhubarb, jalap, colocynth, colchicum, and ipecacuanha. Some of these drugs augment the quantity of bile without altering its quality ; others, like sodium salicylate, increase the quantity and fluidity; others, such as toluylendiamine, increase the solid parts, rendering it so viscid that it cannot readily pass through the bile ducts, and hence becomes reabsorbed, and may produce jaundice. Podophyllum is a powerful hepatic stinuilant, in small doses, but loses this effect when given in large doses, in which it causes purgation ; and similar results occur when other hepatic stimulants are given in such doses as actively to move the bowels. Many aromatic bitters slightly increase bile secretion. Healthy dogs with biliary fistulas, liberally fed with fats and oils, were found to secrete more bile than when freely fed on albuminoids or carbo-hydrates. (2.) Hepatic Depressants or Anticholagogues diminish the quantity of bile secreted by the liver. Professor Rutherford found that calomel, castor oil, gamboge, and magnesium sulphate lessened the secretion probably by lowering blood- pressure in the liver; while these and other purgatives besides diminish secretion by sweeping out of the intestine bile which might otherwise be reabsorbed, and partially digested food which might furnish fresh bile. In this way cholagogues are also hepatic depressants. CHOLAGOGUES 111 (3.) Indirect Cholagogues remove bile froui the body mainly by increasing intestinal action. Superfluous bile cannot be got rid of by a hepatic stimulant alone, which increases the secretion, nor even by a hepatic depressant, which diminishes secretion, for, as already indicated, excess of bile is apt to lodge in the small intestine, and become re- absorbed. Effectually to get rid of it, the bowels must be freely moved, preferably by a purge, which will produce sufficient fluid to wash out the small intestine. The drugs which eftect this are calomel and other purgative mercurial salts, given with a cathartic, such as aloes, jalap, podophyllum, or sulphates of magnesium and sodium. Their effects are increased by active exertion. In dogs and other animals that vomit, emetics efiectually remove bile by compressing the liver between the diaphragm and the abdominal muscles, diluting the bile with abundant mucus, and promptly dis- charging it by the mouth as well as by the rectum. Owing to the low blood-pressure in the portal vein, and also the low pressure at which bile is secreted, there is little vis a tergo to overcome obstruction in the gall ducts, and hence the bile flow is rather liable to stagnation, with conse- quent increased reabsorption. This is apt to occur in human patients living largely on albuminoid food, and not taking sufficient brisk exercise. It also occurs in cattle forced for exhibition, and in all animals as a concomitant of intestinal catarrh. It is frequent among horses suffering from in- fluenza, and the circulation of bile accounts not only for the yellow membranes, but also, m great part, for the dulness and languor characterising such complaints. The removal of this superfluous bile, with the waste products it has helped to neutralise, in these cases is suitably effected by half a dose of physic, or by some calomel or grey powder, followed by or conjoined with salines. Nitro-muriatic acid and iron salts, which experience shows to be subsequently serviceable, owe their good eflects, at least in part, to their action on the liver. In jaundice, the late Professor Robertson prescribed a purgative, followed by salines, and subsequently administered twice daily a bolus of inspissated ox bile, alternately with aromatic spirit of ammonia. The pancreas has been termed an abdominal salivary 112 AGENTS WHICH KILL OR EXPEL WORMS gland, but its secretion not only converts starch into sugar, but also digests proteids, and breaks up and emulsifies fat. Not much is accurately known regarding the action of drugs upon the pancreas. Its secretion is increased when ether is introduced into the stomach, and diminished in dogs by atropine and vomiting. Calomel and salicylic acid check decomposition of pancreatic juice. Few investigations have yet been made regarding the action of drugs on the spleen. MEDICINES WHICH KILL OR EXPEL WORMS ANTHELMINTICS — VERMICIDES — VERMIFUGES Anthelmintics are agents which kill or expel intestinal worms. They include vermicides, which kill the parasites, and vermifuges, such as purgatives, which, without neces- sarily killing, detach them from the walls of the canal, and wash them away with the mucus in which they are usually imbedded. The parasites most frequently infesting the alimentary canal are — bots, the larvae of the oestrus bovis, found in the stomach of the horse ; various tape-worms and round worms, occurring in the intestines and stomach of most animals; and fluke-worms, which invade the liver, gall-ducts, and in- testines of sheep, and occasionally of cattle and deer. The appropriate vermicides are — 1. For bots, green food, a combination of aloes, asafoetida, turpentine, and ether; iodine tincture, or carbon bisulphide. 2. For tape-worms, areca nut, male fern, kamala, kousso, pomegranate root bark, turpentine, and chloroform. 3. For ascarides, popularly known as round worms, the remedies used are tienicides, with santonin, bitters, arsenic, strontium salts, lysol, and creolin. 4. For strongyli or thread-worms, turpentine and essential oils, thymol, tannin, and tannin-containing substances, lysol, carbolic acid, naphthol, turpentine oil, with enemata of common salt, ferric-chloride, or lime water. 5. For fluke-worms infesting the liver and gall-ducts of slicep, and occasionally of cattle and other animals, the treatment consists in maintaining the patient's strength by BOTS AND TAPE-WORMS 113 good feeding ; furnisliing common salt and soluble iron salts, which exert general tonic effects and limited vermicidal action, and giving a dose of physic, which hastens the re- moval of flukes which have migrated into the intestines. Prevention is ensured by keeping the flock on sound pastures, free from the developmental forms of the parasite. Bots in horses comjDlete their larval stage in spring, and their discharge is then readily promoted by the laxative fresh grass. During autumn or winter they are dislodged with difficulty, and unless numerous, and causing much irritation, their removal is seldom attempted; but animals seriously infested with them require liberal feeding. A considerable number of the larvae may be dislodged by giving, after twelve hours' fast, two drachms each of aloes and asafoetida, dissolved in hot water, to which is added, when cold, half an ounce each of oil of turpentine and ether. The mixture is administered in gruel or linseed tea, and repeated on several consecutive days. Carbon bisulphide, in half-ounce doses, given for several days before feeding, and followed by a purgative, causes discharge of the dead bots ; and iodine tincture one ounce diluted with two ounces each of glycerin and water kills bots lodged in the stomach. Tape-worms of the three species infesting horses are usually expelled by aloes, turpentine, and oil. Drs. Fried- berger and Frohner place first on their list of tsenicides three to five drachms of male fern extract. Professor John Gamgee {Veterinm^ians Vade Mecum) recommends two drachms of asafoetida, a drachm each of powdered savin and calomel, with thirty drops of male fern, made up with treacle and linseed meal, given at night, and followed by a purge next morning. Mr. Robert Littler, both for tape and and other worms, gives for three or four consecutive morn- ings a ball containing two drachms of copper sulphate, and follows this with a purgative dose of aloes. Whatever remedies are used, it is essential that the bowels be emptied as thoroughly as possible by twelve to fifteen hours' fasting, or by a gentle aperient, in order that the vermicide shall be brought into contact with the head of the worm. Dogs in some localities, in the proportion of fifty to every H 114 VERMICIDES hundred, are infested with tape-worms. The most effectual remedy is powdered areca nut ; 15 to 20 grains, in half an ounce of linseed oil, is the dose for an animal 25 to 40 lbs. weight. Amongst other remedies are male fern extract, now reputed the most certain remedy for tape-worm in man ; pomegranate root bark, the flowers of the Abyssinian kousso, followed by a purge ; the American remedy, emulsion of the pumpkin seed; tenaline, a registered preparation of areca nut ; and kamala, obtained from a Euphorbiaceous plant, is eftectually used in India. A drachm of turpentine in two ounces of castor or linseed oil is frequently used. Sheep, and especially lambs, are victimised by the Tcenia expansa, which grows very rapidly, and sometimes does wide-spread mischief Areca nut, or extract of male fern, in the dose suitable for large dogs, is most eflfectual. Poultry harbour various species, for which areca nut followed by a laxative is the best remedy. Ascarides are more readily removed than tape-worms. British practitioners usually treat the Ascaris viegalocephala (which chiefly occurs in the small intestine of horses) with drenches containing one to two drachms of aloes, and half a drachm each of chloroform and turjjeutine, given fasting on two consecutive mornings, and repeating the treatment a week later. German authorities recommend three or four doses of one drachm of tartar emetic, conjoined with bitters, at intervals of three hours, or a drench of arsenic, aloes, or absinthe, thrice daily, either jDrescription being followed by an aloe tic purge. The Oxyuris curvula, met with in the colon and rectum of the horse, is removed by similar prescriptions, and when confined to the rectum is still more readily dislodged by enemata of quassia decoction or other bitters, creolin solu- tion, lime water, or solution of common salt. The Ascaris niarginata, the most common lumbricoid of dogs, is killed by three to five grains of santonin, the active cr3^stalline principle of artcmisia or wormwood. Turpen- tine and oil, gentian and other bitters, aconite and various other medicines also remove round worms. The effect of vermicides, as already indicated, is greatly increased by first ASCARIDES AND STRONGYLI 115 emptying the intestines by fasting, or by a purgative, in order that the drug may act more directly on the parasite. Occasional doses of salines and mineral tonics remove super- fluous mucus, which shelters the worms. The spread of parasitism is prevented by isolating infested animals, de- stroying their excreta, and by keeping healthy animals in uncontaminated quarters, and supplied with pure water and sound food. The Strongyli include many species, two of which infest the horse, and, imbedding themselves in the nuicous mem- brane usually of the large intestine, are difficult to expel. The S. contortus invades the fourth stomach of sheep and goats, and not infrequently concurs with the S. filaria, infesting the bronchi. Other species attack dogs, cats, pigs, and poultry ; Avhile the S.pergracilis is the cause of disease in grouse. Emp}Teumatic coal-tar oils, lysol, creolin, thymol, and chloroform are the remedies used. Some cases of parasitism, unfortunately, are beyond the reach of anthelmintics. Trichinae get immured in the muscles ; the palisade worms develop aneurisms ; Strongylus tetracanthiis, Avhich causes fatal enteritis in many horses, becomes encysted in the raucous coat of the caecum, colon and rectum, and is thus protected from the action of medicinal agents. Several species of Uncinaria burrowing in the mucous coat of the bowels of dogs and cats produce a pernicious anaemia (Friedberger). The treatment of such cases is limited to a dose of aloes, with antiseptics, nutritive food, and tonics, to sustain failing strength. MEDICINES ACTING ON THE SKIN DIAPHORETICS — SUDORIFICS — ANHYDROTICS The skin, in the domesticated animals, besides being pro- tective and tactile, secretes sweat and sebaceous matter, exerts a modified respiratory function, and, on account of its constant and large secretion of fluid, is an important factor in regulating animal temperature. Sanctorius's ex- periments show that of eight parts of food taken into the 116 FUNCTIONS OF THE SKIN healthy body, about three parts leave it in the faDces and urine, three by the hings, and two by tlie skin. So important are the cutaneous functions that when they are impaired by covering one lialf the body of horses, dogs, or pigs with a gelatin varnish, the temperature falls, and there is much weakness. When these animals are wholly en- veloped in varnish, or when one-eighth of the body of a rabbit is similarly coated, the temperature rapidly falls, blood is imperfectly arterialised, and the animal gradually dies from loss of heat. The poisonous action of retained per- spiration is illustrated by Rohrig's experiment of the injection of 3| centimetres of freshly-filtered human sweat into the external jugular of a rabbit, which was nearly killed, the temperature promptly rising from 99'2 to 104-3, the pulse mounting from 192 to 315, the respirations from 85 to 105. The sweat Glands, f)laced in the subcutaneous adipose tissue, number 2000 to 3000 on every square inch of the surface of men and horses. Their activity is regulated by the special centres which are situated in the spinal cord. The amount of natural perspiration depends mainly upon the dryness and temperature of the air. Sweating in men and horses begins, even Avhile they are at rest, at a little over 80° Fahr. It is chiefly determined — (1) by increased circulation of blood through the cutaneous vessels ; and (2) by increased activity of the sweat glands. The taking of food, the drinking of warm water or other bland fluids, the administration of strong tea and coffee, and active exercise, by raising arterial pressure increase blood circulation through the cutaneous vessels, and pro- mote perspiration. The sweat glands are stimulated by various aromatic and volatile substances which are excreted by them. The sweat centres are stimulated by ammonia salts, ipecacuanha, opium, camphor, nicotine, and antimony salts, by mental emotions and nausea, by a venous condition and high temperature of the blood, and reflexly by warmth to the surface, warm drinks, alcohol, and pilocarpine. Diaphoretics and sudorifics are agents which increase the skin secretions. They include (1) agents which stinm- late the sudoriparous glands, or nerves connected with them, DIAPHORETICS 117 comprising jaborandi, physostigmine, and warmth to the surface ; (2) agents which increase superficial blood supply, including such vascular stimulants as alcohol, ethers, and ammonia acetate solution, Taso-dilators such as amyl-nitrite, sweet spirit of nitre, and such nauseants as ipecacuanha and tartar emetic. Diaphoretics are less prompt and certain in veterinary than in human patients. Horses are made to sweat more readily than cattle, while the skin of horses and cattle is more easily acted upon than that of sheep, dogs, cats, or pigs. In all animals the readiest way of pro- moting copious cutaneous secretion is by heavy clothing, warm diluents, and keeping the animal in a dry atmosphere of about 70°, and administering small and repeated doses of ammonia acetate solution, or sweet spirit of nitre. General stimulants in small doses raise arterial pressure, and hence usually increase skin secretion. When, however, blood- pressure is high, as in the early stages of acute inflammation, sedatives, such as aconite, or blood-letting, by reducing the action of the heart and blood-pressure, notably increase cutaneous secretion. Friction or grooming with suitable brushes beneficially excites the action of the skin in all animals. Warm and vapour baths, at temperatures varying from 100'' to 120' Fahr., are useful diaphoretics. Hydrotherapy affords a ready means of producing dia- phoresis in the lower animals, as well as in man. The patient may be enveloped in a sheet saturated with either cold or tepid water. Over this are placed three or four large horse-cloths. The legs should be subjected to similar treatment, or rolled in warm bandages. After the patient has been thus clothed for half an hour or an hour, he will steam and perspire very freely. The sheet and rugs should then be removed, and the animal dried by hand-rubbing, and comfortably clothed. This practice has been success- fully adopted both with horses and cattle. The evil effects of chills are thus counteracted, colds are cut short, and rheumatism, especially in gross subjects, removed. Hydro- therapy should not, however, be adopted unless with due consideration, and under competent supervision. Pro- tracted or violent diaphoresis, howsoever produced, proves 118 DIURETICS debilitating. It rcinoves from the body an undue proportion of its solids, and especially of its saline matters. Diaphoretics are used for the following purposes : — (1.) They restore checked cutaneous secretion, and hence equalise irregularities of circulation, counteract congestion of internal organs, and lower abnormal temperature. They are hence often serviceable in cutting short chills, colds, and simple febrile attacks, especially amongst horses. (2.) They remove injurious waste products, and other morbid matters, which are apt to accumulate, particularly in febrile, inflammatory, and rheumatic disorders. These depurative services are especially valuable when the eliminating functions of the kidneys, bowels, or pulmonary membrane are impaired. In such cases the skin may be made to undertake a vicarious duty, and excrete waste matters usually removed by other channels. Anhydrotics are drugs which lessen cutaneous secretion. Their etfects appear to be induced (1) by diminishing the activity of the sweat glands ; (2) by lessening excitability of the sweat centres ; or (3) by acting on the circulation, usually by stimulating the respiratory centre, and thus overcoming that venous condition of the blood which in weakness and disease is a frequent cause of sweating. It is in this manner that belladonna and atropine, jaborandi, ipecacuanha, nux vomica, and salts of zinc check sweating; but belladonna and its alkaloid, moreover, are effective by their paralysing the terminals of the secreting nerves of the skin. MEDICINES ACTING ON THE URINARY ORGANS ON THE Kn>NEYS: DIURETICS Diuretics are agents which act on the kidneys and in- crease secretion of urine. The amount of urine is liable to much variation, depending mainly on the nature of the food, the quantity of water drunk, and the proportion of fluid removed by the bowels and skin. Horses during the twenty-four hours pass from CONDITIONS MODIFYING SECRETION OF URINE 119 two quarts to two gallons, or on an average about ten pints. Secretion is augmented during digestion, especially when the diet is rich in proteids, by such food as heated oats or musty hay, and by vetches, particularly when animals are unused to them. More urine is passed during rest than when the horse at active work is losing fluid freely by the skin and lungs. Veterinary-Major Smith, from a series of examinations of the urine of horses, finds the specific gravity averages 1036, and that 3f ounces of urea are excreted in the twenty-four hours. Cattle j^ass 10 to 40 pints of urine per diem, the specific gravity ranging from 1007 to 1030. Sheep pass 10 to 30 ounces of alkaline urine having a specific gravity of 1006 to 1015. Pigs excrete 3 to 14 pints of urine, which may be acid or alkaline. The quantity of urine, 15 to 35 ounces, excreted by the dog depends upon the diet and the size of the animal. The specific gravity ranges from 1016 to 1060. The urinary secretion is increased by a variety of con- ditions, notably by raising the pressure of blood in the Malpighian tufts, by cardiac stimulation, as also by con- traction of the blood-vessels of other vascular areas, as when cold diminishes cutaneous activity. Irritation of the medulla in the floor of the fourth ventricle experimentally produced by mechanical injury, or naturally produced by circulation of venous blood, greatly increases secretion, owing, it is believed, to stimulation of the special vaso-motor centre which controls the renal arteries. Similar subsidiary centres are also found in the spinal cord, and in connection with the solar and mesenteric plexuses. The proportion of the several urinary constituents is altered by different conditions. Urea, uric acid, and hippuric acid are increased by nitrogenous food, by common salt, phosphoric acid, leucin, and glycocol, and are also augmented during the early stages of most acute diseases. They are diminished by alcohol, turpentine, arsenic, and large draughts of water. Horses at rest pass a maximum of uric acid and a minimum of the less per- fectly oxidised hippuric acid, but these proportions are reversed during and immediately after exertion, when dis- 120 CLASSIFICATION OF DIURETICS integration of albuminoid tissues freely uses up oxygen and increases production of carbonic acid. Albumin is not a normal constituent of urine, but occurs in convalescence from febrile disorders, temporarily in horses receiving excess of albuminoids, and also in hoemo- globinuria in horses, and red water in cattle. It appears Avhere contraction of the renal arteries has been induced by digitalis or strychnine; and is likewise produced by full doses of cantharides, which also causes ha3maturia. Such exudation of albumin, more apt to appear suddenly and temporarily in horses than in man, is lessened by administra- tion of tannin, and by arbutin, the active principle of uva ursi, and also by keeping the bowels and skin in proper action, clothing the patient comfortably, but avoiding active diuretics. Bile constituents are occasionally found in the urine of the lower animals, but sugar is rarely present. Classifying diuretics as refrigerant, hydragogue, and stimulant, Dr. Lauder Brunton presents the subjoined tabular view of their probable modes of action : — Generally. Increased action of the heart : Digitalis Alcohol Contraction of vessels in intestines and throughout the body : /^Digitalis. Erythrophlcjcum. Strophanthus. Squill. Convallaria. Strychnine. Caffeine. Cold to surface. Raise arterial •< pressure Locally in kidney. Contract efferent^ arterioles of glo- meruli, so as to raise pressure in glomerulus, or lessen absorp- tion in tubules or both : By action on]rp, vaso - motor V „ , • , centres. preceding list. By local action"\ Broom, on vessels or i Turpentine, nervous struc- rJuniper. tures in the Copaiba, kidney itself. J Cantharides. Dilate afferent vessels : Nitrites. Alcohol. Urea. ^Paialysc vaso- motor nerves, oriuvoluntary muscular fibre or stimulate vaso - dilating nerves. /-Increase water ex-fjjj^j^^^ Act on the secretory nerves * [Calomel, or secretory cells of the< kidney itself. I Increase solids ex- f ^'1"°'' ^^*^''*^^''^- inciease soUds ex- I pot_.,sj^i,„n Acetate, etc. I, cretea : (^Qther Saline Diuretics. THE USES OF DIURETICS 121 The selection of a diuretic must in great part depend upon the purpose for which it is given. A diuretic ball, commonly used for horses standing for several days in the stable, or affected with swollen or itching legs, is made with half an ounce each of nitre, resin, and soft soap, and may be repeated daily for four or five days. The same ingredients dissolved in a pint of water make a diuretic drink for the cow. For a medium- sized dog, Stonehenge advises six grams of nitre, a grain of digitalis, and three grains of cringer, made into a pill with linseed meal and water. Another useful combination for dogs consists of thirty drops of sweet spirit of nitre and five grains of saltpetre in a little water. Diuretic effects are best ensured by conjom- ing several drugs, by giving small and repeated doses, by encouraging the animal to drink water, thin gruel, or other bland fluids, and otherwise promoting excretion of the medicine by the kidneys rather than by the skin or bowels. Diuretics are used — (1.) To increase the proportion of water in the urine, thus preventing deposition of its solids in the kidneys or bladder, and mechanically washing out such solids when they have been formed. Along with medicinal diuretics, diluents in such cases are freely supplied. (2.) To hasten expulsion of waste products and poisonous matters from the body, as in febrile or rheumatic disorders, or where the kidneys are acting tardily. In these, as in other cases, a combination of diuretics is desirable, and digitahs, turpentine, or oil of juniper is often usefully conjoined with nitre. In human practice caffeine is pre- scribed. (3.) To remove excess of fluid from the tissues or serous cavities. When dropsy is connected with cardiac disorder, digitahs, and other drugs which act on the vascular system, are indicated, their efficacy being rendered more certain by combination with some salme diuretic, such as nitre. Copaiba is added to the prescription when the liver is affected. In dropsy connected with chronic kidney disease, nitrous ether and oil of juniper are preferred ; but they should be used with extreme caution. 122 URINARY DEPOSITS Calomel augments secretion of urea, and hence promotes secretion of urine. In excessive or too frequently repeated doses diuretics are apt unduly to stimulate the kidneys and urinary organs, and provoke strangury, inflammation and hajmaturia. In cystitis, urethral disease, or obstruction, to prevant alkaline decomposition of the urine, antiseptics, benzoic and salicylic acids, citrates and tartrates are prescribed. MEDICINES ACTING ON THE BLADDER LITHONTRIPTICS — URINARY SEDATIVES, TONICS, AND ASTRINGENTS The movements of the urinary bladder are mainly regu- lated by a centre in the lumbar portion of the spinal cord, but in all the higher animals there is also a presiding centre in the brain, which may be set in action either voluntarily or reflexly. Most drugs influencing the bladder appear, however, to come into actual contact with it, and produce their effects reflexly. Some horses will not urinate while in harness ; others will not while the rider is in the saddle. As with other animals, the desire to urinate is suggested, and the act facilitated, by seeing or hearing other animals stal- ing, or even by the sound of flowing water. If, as is often the case, the horse is in the habit of being whistled to when urinating, the act will be encouraged by whistling to him. Hard-fed and hard- worked horses are liable to suffer from urinary deposits, which arc sometimes found in the kidney, but more commonly in the bladder, and in male animals in the tract of the long urethra. In horses, as in other herbivora, urinary deposits consist mainly of calcium and magnesium salts, sometimes derived directly from drinking water, from earthy matters mixed with fodder or grain, or from lime salts, abundant in clovers and other fodder, which unite with the carbonates produced by oxidation of the vegetable acids also present in the food. These calcareous deposits are sometimes in a finely-divided pulverulent state; sometimes they are aggregated into masses or calculi. Whether occurring as sediment, gravel, or stone, they cause PREVENTION OF URINARY DEPOSITS 123 more or less difficulty, straining, and pain in urination ; the stream is interrupted, and from irritation of the lining membrane of the passage the urine usually contains excess of mucus ; while the portions last discharged are often turbid. When such symptoms are caused by a calculus in the bladder, medical treatment is unavailing. No medicine can be safely given in sufficient amount or sufficiently con- centrated to dissolve calcareous urinary deposits within the body. Hence a stone which cannot be naturally discharged can only be removed by a surgical operation. When small it may be extracted by lithotomy; when large or of awkward shape, it should be crushed and removed in pieces. Calcareous sediment can usually be got rid of in great part, or entirely, by giving liberal supplies of barley water, linseed tea, or other diluents ; or with a syringe and flexible catheter the bladder inay be filled with tepid water, and deposits thus washed out. Successive quantities of w\ater may be introduced until they come away tolerably clear. LiTHONTRiPTics are defined as remedies which prevent deposit of solids from the urine, or cause their resolution. In veterinary patients, as already indicated, they cannot resolve calculi, although they may mechanicall}^ remove them, and may check their formation. Such preventive treatment in the case of horses mainly consists in furnish- ing abundant, regular, and pure supplies of drinking water. Waters rich in calcareous matters are theoretically more liable to deposit such earthy constituents, especiall}^ under conditions where their carbonic anhydride is diminished. A weekly mash, containing any simple saline, somewhat lessens the tendency to these urinary deposits; and it is further important to remove conditions which interfere with regular urination or any obstruction to the outflow. It is accord- ingly advisable, from time to time, to vrash out the horse's sheath with soap and tepid water, and thus get rid of accumulating sabulous matter. Bulls and oxen, and still more frequentl}^ rams and wethers, when liberally supplied with albuminoid food, and having little or no exercise, are liable to deposits, chiefly ot 124 VESICAL SEDATIVES AND TONICS ammonio-magnesian phosphates, in the bladder and curved or tortuous uretlira. Amongst feeding sheep, fatal uraiinic poisoning may thus be produced. The patients must be turned up, and endeavour made by manipulation to displace the deposits which block the urethra. Where these means fail to effect a passage, the vermiform appendage may be excised, or the canal may be opened, when a full stream of urine will be discharged, and with it a considerable amount of deposit. Prevention is effected by withholding or reducing the allowance of cake and corn, supplying soft laxative food, raising the sheep and moving them about at least thrice daily, so as to encourage urination, and by prescribing potassium bicarbonate. Dogs, when freely eating animal food, suffer occasionally from deposits of uric acid and acid urates, the tendency to which is combated by suitable diet, diluents, and salts of potassium and lithium, both of which form soluble salts with uric acid, but the lithium having a lower atomic weight, unites with a larger proportion of uric acid. Vesical and Urinary Sedatives are agents which lessen irritability of the bladder and urinary passages, and thus remove straining and pain. Dikients, such as linseed tea or other nuicilaginous drinks, are often serviceable. Irritability when caused by the presence of calculi is diminished by administering calcium carbonate, and when due to acidity of the urine alkalies are beneficial. In cystitis, rugs Avrung out of hot water and laid over the loins, and hot fomentations to the perineum, afford much relief Irritability of the nerve- centres is soothed by opium, belladonna, and hyoscyamus. Chronic inflammatory conditions are relieved by such astrin- gents as uva ursi, buchu, and Pareira brava. Copaiba, sandal- wood oil, and terpenes are excreted in considerable amount by the kidneys, and exert their antiseptic and astringent effects throughout the urino-genital tract. Relaxed and hfemorrhagic conditions may be treated by sulphuric acid and iron sulphate, alternated by salicylic acid. Vesical and Urinary Tonics are agents which increase the contractility of the bladder. Strychnine and cantharides strengthen the sphincter muscle and thus prevent involun- APHRODISIACS 125 tary escape of urine. Belladona acts upon tlie regulating nerve-centres, and is believed to lessen their sensibility. MEDICINES ACTING ON THE ORGANS OF GENERA- TION AND THE MAMMARY GLANDS APHRODISIACS— ANAPHRODISIACS — ECBOLICS, OR OXYTOCICS The sexual function is regulated by two nerve-centres which influence and react on each other. (1.) The cerebral is believed to lie in the crus cerebri, is stimulated reflexly by the special nerve of smell, sight, or hearing. (2.) The spinal centre, situated in the lumbar region, regulates the vascular supply of the erectile genital tissues. Irritation of this centre causes turgid rigidity. Erection is also produced reflexly by local stimulation of the genital organs, as well as by irritation of the bladder, prostate, and lower intestines. Aphrodisiacs are agents which increase sexual desire. Deflcient sexual activity usually depends upon want of general vio-our, and the rational treatment consists in the administration of tonics — notably of iron and of strych- nine, which latter, in addition to its general action as a nervme tonic, has also a special effect in stimulating the sexual centres. Cantharides exerts aphrodisiac influences mainly by irritating the urinary mucous membrane, and hence is an unsafe remedy. Alcohol, although stimulating the cerebral sexual centre, appears to paralyse the lumbar vaso-motor centres, and hence interferes wdth the proper performance of the generative act. Anapkrodisiacs are agents w^hich diminish the sexual pas- sion. Some, as applications of ice, or cold water, act locally on the organs themselves ; others, as potassium iodide, and bromide, purgatives, digitalis, and hemlock, act generally on the genital nerve centres. A spare diet and steady work exert anaphrodisiac effects. Irritation of the genital lumbar plexus is produced reflexly by distension of the bladder with acrid urine, by accumulation of filth around the prepuce, by ascarides, and even by fgeces m the rectum. Removal of 12G AGENTS AFFECTING SECRETION OF MILK such causes of irritation accordingly diminishes undue sexual excitement. EcBOLics. — The involuntary muscular fibres of the uterus have the power of rhythmical contraction, hut are besides controlled by higher nerve-centres in the lumbar portion of the cord, and in the brain. Experiments have demonstrated that stimulation of the cerebellum, crura cerebri, corpora striata, and optic thalami produces uterine contractions. Ecbolics cause expulsion of the contents of the uterus. They include ergot, hydrastis, savin, and thuja; but ergot is the only one in general use. It induces uterine contractions even when all nervous connections have been divided, but it also acts on the special centre. It is occasionally used in veterinary patients — particularly in the bitch — to hasten par- turition when no obstruction is jiresent, but when expulsive power is deficient. As it induces persistent contraction of the uterus, with consequent arrest of placental circulation, it must be used sparingly and cautiously during parturition. It is serviceable, however, subsequently in promoting contrac- tion and checking hemorrhage. Prompt contraction of the flaccid uterus, with arrest of dangerous bleeding, is best secured by subcutaneous injection of ergotin, and also by injection of warm water. The local irritation of metritis and leucorrha^a can be relieved by injection of warm water, which is rendered still more eftectual by addition of Condy's fluid, creolin, or car- bolic acid. Suppositories of opium and belladonna may be subsequently introduced. Agents acting on the Mammary Glands. — A full stream of healthy blood passing through the mammary glands is essential to the abundant secretion of good milk. Animals which are to milk well must accordingly be well fed. Their diet must contain a sufficient proportion especially of albumi- noids and fatty matters, Avhich furnish the casein and cream of the milk. There are no drugs of much practical value as galactagogues, or increasers of milk. Jaborandi exerts only a temporary ett'ect. Many drugs, however, pass into the milk, communicating to it their flavour and medicinal pro- perties. Ether-oils promptly taste the milk of any animal TREATMENT OF DISEASES OF THE UDDER 127 to which the}' are given. Fixed oils and salines administered to milking mothers, purge the sucking offspring. Acids, diuretics, opiates, potassium iodide, arsenic, and other active drugs given to suckling mothers frequently exhibit notable effects on their susceptible progeny. By careful selection of good milking breeds, and by suit- able management, the quantity of milk yielded by first-class dairy cows is many times that obtained from cattle in their natural or semi-feral state, which furnish only sufficient for the rearing of one calf But the highly developed mammary organs of these improved dairy animals become increasingly susceptible to disease, and less amenable to treatment. Acute inflammation frequently attacks the udder, causing much constitutional disturbance, and necessitating the administration of purgatives, febrifuges, and antiseptics. In order to relieve its weight, the inflamed udder should be suspended by a broad web passed over the loins, and pro- vided with holes for the teats. The web will conveniently support the light poultice of spent hops, which is often advantageously applied. A teat-syphon is generally useful to withdraw the milk or exudate, and to introduce disinfec- ants. The inflamed parts are dressed with belladonna, which paralyses the terminations of the nerves, and diminishes lacteal secretion ; and also relieves tension, and relaxes the sphincters of the teats. These desirable results are some- times obtained by the hypodermic injection of atropine. With the view of hastening the drying of cows, belladonna is sometimes applied topically to the udder, and is also administered ; but the desired object is more practically attained by restricting the cow to dry food, milking her at gradually lengthening intervals, and, where the result has to be quickly secured, giving a dose of purgative medicine. 1 28 KESTORATIVES REMEDIES ACTING ON TISSUE CHANGE RESTORATIVES — TONICS — HiEMATINICS — ALTERATIVES — ANTIPYRETICS — BLOOD-LETTING The various structures of healthy animal bodies are con- tinually undergoing reconstruction, change, and devolution. Fresh materials or restoratives, in sufficient abundance, and containing in suitable proportion the constituents of the several tissues, are required. By digestion and assimilation, the food materials are prepared for their special uses. But these complex nutritive processes sometimes become de- ranged. Some fault occurs in the digestive snzymes ; some want of activity or co-relation overtakes the presiding nervous centres; some delay takes place in the prompt and effectual removal of waste products by the bowels, kidneys, or skin. Hence arise muscular and nervous depression, expressed by dulness, debility, and diminished capacity for exertion. For such weakened, relaxed, unfit conditions, the appropriate remedies are tonics. Within the living organs and tissues themselves, further subtle reparative processes constantly occur, and certain drugs, termed alteratives, modify these remoter tissue changes in a manner not fully understood. The maintenance of a tolerably uniform temperature is essential tc the performance of normal tissue changes in warm-blooded animals. In fever, however, the temperature is increased, and the remedies employed for its reduction are antipyretics, or febrifuges. Restoratives. — The bodies of all animals, especially when at work, undergo disintegration and waste, and their growth ,and repair hence require continual recuperation. Food must bo provided in sufficient amount, of suitable quality, and with its several constituents in fitting proportion, to furnish appropriate nutriment for every tissue. Water, which constitutes four-fifths of the total weight of most animals, is being constantly removed by the lungs, skin, kidneys, and intestines, and, unless restored at short intervals, thirst and impaired health ensue. Kot only are water and v;atery fluids requisite for the normal nutrition of the tissues, DIETING OF SICK ANIMALS 129 and for dissolving and carrying away their waste products, but in sick animals tliey besides assist the removal of the products of disease. Even more imperative is the need of pure air to oxygenate the blood, maintain internal respira- tion and normal tissue change, and remove waste products. Animals require, either in the form of food or as restora- tive medicines, varying supplies of many constituents — phosphorus, specially for blood, bone, brain, and nerves; sulphur, for the skin and bile acids; fats, for cell-growth generally; iron, for the blood globules; salines, for the healthy restoration of the blood and most other parts. These requirements, essential in health, are even more important in animals affected by disease. Food then requires to be given with especial care, and in an easily disfested form, for in all serious diseases the dio;estive func- tions are impaired. In many febrile complaints, of horses and cattle, the ordinary grains and dry fodder, being imper- fectly digested and assimilated, are apt to produce or aggra- vate gastric derangement. Animals suffering from febrile and inflammatory disorders should therefore be restricted to mashes, gruels, or cooked food, to which extra nutritive value can be given as required by addition of milk, eggs, or meat extracts. Food should never be allowed to lie long before a sick animal. If not piomptly eaten, it should be removed, and in a couple of hours, or less time, replaced by a fresh supply. During and after attacks of debilitating diseases patients fed, as they should be, on small quantities of rapidly- digested fare, obviously require food more frequently than in health. With returning appetite a convalescent occa- sionally greedily eats more than can be easily digested, and against this contingency well-intentioned attendants require to be warned. Relapses of colic and lymphangitis sometimes occur by allowing horses, immediately after recovery, their full allowance of dry corn and hay. Unless when affected with diarrhoea, dysentery, or diabetes, animals do not injure themselves by taking too much water or watery fluids, but are often rendered uncomfortable by undue restriction. A supply of water should always be within the patient's reach. Cold water seldom does harm, I 130 HYGIENIC REMEDIES and is more palatable and refreshing than when tepid. Salines, chalk, and other simple medicines, sometimes given with the water offered to sick horses, should be sparingly added, or administered in some other way. Much mismanagement occurs with regard to the ventila- tion and temperature of the habitations of sick animals. Even for horses or cattle accustomed to comfortable boxes, a temperature of 60° to 65° Fahr. is sufficiently warm. Avoiding draughts, cool air should be freely admitted. No restorative or tonic is so effectual as cool, pure air, and it is especially needful in diseases of the respiratory organs and in zymotic cases. Sunlight is also an essential factor of health, especially in young animals. It increases the capa- city of the blood and tissues for oxygen, favours healthy excretion, and is an excellent disinfectant. A comfortable bed greatly conduces to the restoration of most sick animals. A sick, exhausted horse, who to his dis- advantage would continue to stand if kept in a stall, will often at once lie down and rest if placed in a comfortable box. In febrile and inflammatory attacks, and during recovery from exhausting disease, alike in horses and cattle, a warm rug or two, and bandages to the legs, help to main- tain equable temperature and combat congestion of internal organs ; but at least twice daily these rugs and bandages should be removed, the skin wisped over, and the clothing at once replaced. In fever, when the skin is hot and dry, great comfort results, a natural moist state of skin is secured, and more active blood purification and restoration ensue, from sponging the body several times a day with tepid water acidulated with vinegar, quickly drying, and at once putting on the clothing. Attention to the position of the patient is frequently important in the treatment of disease. The debilitated horse allowed to lie long on his side is apt to suffer from congested lungs. The horse with severely injured knees is advantageously placed in slings. The cow, in the uncon- scious stage of milk fever, if permitted to lie on her side, speedily becomes tympanitic, and her chances of recovery arc seriously impaired. In this and other cases, in which MECHANICAL AND PHYSIOLOGICAL REST 131 she has to lie even for a few hours, she must be propped up m a natural position on her breast-bone. Mechanical and physiological rest are great restoratives. The pain accompanying most injuries and diseases, and greatly aggravated by performance of the natural functions of the part, instinctively enjoins as much rest as possible. Mechanical rest is frequently secured by splints and bandages, applied in all animals in cases of fractures of long bones of the limbs, and serious muscular and tendinous strains. Slings are also of similar service in horses suffering from fractures, open joint, and occasionally in laminitis. An inflamed part, when practicable, should be raised above the level of surrounding parts. Any pressure likely to interfere with circulation should be removed. To relieve irritation, pressure, and tension, the inflamed udder of the cow is suspended. In irritable and inflammatory states of the digestive organs, the simplest and most digestible food is given, and as little action as possible exacted from the stomach and bowels. When the kidneys are diseased, their work should be lightened, by promoting the action of the skin and bowels. Emollients and demulcents, as well as opium, belladonna, and other agents which paralyse the endings of sensory nerves, exert their curative effects mainly by ensuring physiological rest. But when acute disease has passed away, the gradual use of an affected part generally does good. Exercise in such circumstances proves a health restorer, improving appetite, and stimulating most of the bodily functions. The medicinal restoratives in common use are as follows : Linseed, in the form of gruel, tea, or cake, proves a soothing, palatable, digestible laxative combination of food and medi- cine. Cod-liver oil, especially in dogs and cats, conveniently supplies assimilable fatty matters. Iron salts, possessing tonic and hfematinic, as well as restorative properties, are specially serviceable in anaemia ; phosphates are prescribed for ill-thriving, weakly young animals ; salines are indicated in skin eruptions and itching, often met with amongst hard- worked, liberally-fed horses; pepsin, liquor pancreatis, and malt extract, are sometimes administered to foals, dogs, and 132 TONICS calves, when the natural digestive ferments are deficient or faulty. Kreochyle is an excellent restorative for dogs. Tonics. — When digestion is enfeebled, nutrition impaired, circulation languid, or waste products not promptly removed, there is apt to ensue weakness, want of energy, and unfitness for Avork — conditions treated for the most part by tonics. They are defined as remedies which impart tone or strength to the parts on which they specially act. They are allied to nutrients and restoratives. They resemble stimulants ; but their effects are more slowly and gradually produced, are more permanent, and not succeeded by subsequent depression. While stimulants usually call forth strength previously latent, tonics frequently give strength. They are also allied to astringents, but do not exhibit the same chemical power of coagulating albumin and constringing tissues. The same drugs, in different doses, often appear, however, in two or more of these classes. Alcohol, for example, is nutrient, tonic, and stimulant. Iron salts, according to their dose and the state of the patient, are nutrient, tonic, and astringent, but, used improperly, are sometimes irritant. Tonics exert their curative effects in one or more of the following ways : — 1. By influencing primary digestion, usually increasing gastric secretion. Gentian, calumba, chiretta, and other bitters are chiefly serviceable as gastric stimulants or stomachics. 2. By promoting secondary digestion, thus improving the chemical and physiological condition of the blood, secretions, and tissues. The most important members of this class are hfEmatinics, noticed below. 3. By acting on other special organs and structures, notably on the heart, nervous centres, or liver. In using tonics it is accordingly essential to discover what part or organ is primarily and chiefly at fault. When diges- tion is enfeebled, gastric or intestinal tonics are prescribed. When the pulse is soft and weak, with a tendency to local congestion and oedema, cardiac and vascular tonics are used. When nervous functions are imperfectly performed, nervine tonics are appropriate. In the early stages of tuberculous ALTERATIVES INFLUENCE METABOLISM 133 disease of the mesenteric glands, in cattle and horses, copper sulphate is often useful, probably on account alike of its tonic and antiseptic properties. Cold, in the form of baths, douches, and sponging, proves a valuable tonic, applicable for general as well as local purposes, relieving irritability, bracing up soft, flabby textures, and equalising circulation. H^MATiNics, or blood tonics, constitute an important group of tonics, which increase the quantity of red corpuscles and haemoglobin in the blood. ' The red blood corpuscles are probably formed in the spleen, the medulla of bones, the liver, and possibly other parts of the body, from leucocytes, which lose their nucleus, take up haemoglobin, and alter their form to that of the red corpuscles' (Brunton). These red corpuscles are in great part destroyed in the liver and spleen, and it hence appears probable that disorder of these organs is an essential cause of anaemia, which is very common amongst badly reared young animals. In order to restore iron and fatty matters which are deficient in ansemic blood, daily doses of soluble iron salts are prescribed, while easily assimilated fatty matters, such as boiled linseed, or linseed cake, are given to horses and cattle, and cod-liver oil to dogs. An improvement of general health is further effected by judi- cious feeding and comfortable quarters. The anaemia result- ing from debilitating disease requires similar treatment. To ensure their good effects, tonics are generally given in moderate doses, two or three times daily, for six or eight days,, and throughout their administration the bowels should be kept in a normal state. Alteratives are drugs which influence the amount and kind of tissue change going- on in different organs and cells. Their results are usually readily recognised, but the way in which they are produced is difficult to explain. ' They produce no marked corresponding changes in assimilation, circulation, or excretion. It is uncertain how thoy act ; it is possible that they may alter in some way the action of enzymes in the body, but it is also possible that they act by replacing the normal constituents of the tissues, and forming compounds which tend to break up in a different way from those which are ordinarily present. Thus, chloride 134 MODIFY TISSUE CHANGE of sodium, and nitrogenous bodies such as albumin are amongst the most important constituents of the body ; and W(B find that among the chief alteratives are substances Avhich will replace chlorine, sodium, or nitrogen in many compounds. Thus, we have iodine and iodides, and nitric and nitro-hydrochloric acids, which will displace or replace chlorine. We have chlorine itself, and chlorides, which may alter the proportion of the chlorides to other salts in the blood and tissues, and thus modify the solubility of various constituents of the tissues. AVe have salts of potassium and calcium, which may replace those of sodium ; sulphur and sulphides, which may replace oxygen ; phosphorus, hypo- sulphites, antimon}', and arsenic, Avhich may replace nitro- gen; mercury and its salts, which may replace calcium. Besides these, we have organic alteratives, regarding the action of which we can at present form no hypothesis, unless they influence the processes of digestion. Nitro-hydrochloric acid, taraxacum, and small doses of mercurials probably act either by modifying the digestion of food in the duo- denum and jejunum, or by modifying the changes Avhich it undergoes in the liver after absorption ' {Pharmacology, Therapeutics, and Materia Meclica). Sodium chloride, sulphate, phosphate, acetate, and biborate, potassium nitrate, ammonium chloride and carbonate, and probably all salts excreted by the kidneys, increase tissue change and the amount of urea excreted. Fats and fatty acids lessen decomposition of albuminoids and excretion of urea, but glycerin has no such action. Alcohol, in small or moderate doses, lessens, and in large doses increases tissue change. Benzoic and salicylic acids increase tissue change. Quinine lessens, iron appears to increase it. Mercury also causes a slight increase, but has a peculiar power of breaking up new deposits of fibrin, and hence is used to remove lymph deposits and prevent adhesions. Iodine, iodides, and pro- bably also chlorides, apparently act on the lymphatic system, promoting absorption. Potassium iodide arrests the progress of actinomycosis. In general malnutrition, without definite symptoms, mercurials, nitro-hydrochloric acid, and taraxa- cum arc indicated, and especially when the liver appears to ANTIPYRETICS LESSEN PRODUCTION OF HEAT 135 be at fault. Antimony, arsenic, and phosphorus exert their actions notably on the glandular, nervous, respiratory, and cutaneous systems, and large or continued doses affect the liver in a marked manner, producing fatty degeneration. Antimony is prescribed in acute disorders of the respiratory organs; arsenic, in chronic consolidations, which it probably softens, by fatty degeneration. Arsenic is also employed in chronic skin diseases, such as psoriasis, lichen, and eczema. Phosphorus and arsenic are prescribed in nervous debility. Antipyretics lower the temperature of the body in fever. They are sometimes termed antithermals, and correspond to the old group of febrifuges. Their effects are more notable when the temperature is abnormally high. Animal heat is chiefly produced by oxidation, in the muscles, both volun- tary and involuntary, and in glands, especially when they are in a state of activity. It is given off by the skin and lungs, in small amount by radiation ; in still larger amount by contact with cold water or cold air, the latter abstracting heat with especial rapidity when it is damp or in motion. Owing to diminished activity of the cerebro-vaso-raotor centre, and consequent dilatation of the surface vessels, loss of heat is greater when animals are asleep than when awake. Conversely, more heat is produced when the animal is in active motion, and blood circulates freely through the heat- producing apparatus of the muscles and glands. Small animals, having a cooling surface relatively larger than their internal heating appliances, are more rapidly cooled than large animals. A centre has been found in the corpus striatum, which appears to regulate the production of heat (thermotaxis), and certain antipyretics appear to develop their effects by stimulating this centre. Antipyretics are divided by Dr. Lauder Brunton into two classes— those which lessen production of heat, and those which increase loss of heat ; and these again he subdivides as shown in the following table : — 136 ANTIPYRETICS INCREASE LOSS OF HEAT ^Acting on Tissue Change ''Lessen pro duction of- heat. Acting on the Cir- culation : Generally Locally ''Cinchona Alkaloids. Benzoic and Car- bolic Acids. Salicylic Acid. Salicylates. Salicin. Camphor. Eucalyptol. Thymol and other Essential Oils. ^Alcohol. Antimony Salts. Aconite. I Digitalis. I Veratrine. IThallin. (Local Blood-letting. Poultices. Blisters. Guaiacol. 03 o •1-1 (D Pi .1-1 < By dilating cutaneous ves- TAlcohol. sels and increasing radia--^ Nitrous Ether, tion : [Antipyrine. Increase loss of heat. By increasing the loss of heat due to evaporation of perspiration : Sudori- fics: Mode of action un- V certain. By abstracting the body : J Purgatives. I Venesection. heat from Antimonial pre- parations. Opium and Ipeca- cuanha. Nitrous Ether. ^Cold Bath. Cold Sponging. AVet Pack. Ice to the Surface. Cold Drinks. .Cold Enemata. The production of heat (therinogcnesis) is lessened in various ways: — Hydrotherapy, chiefly in the form of cold bath or cold packing, diminishes abnormal thermogenesis. Water absorbs and parts with heat quickly; it is capable of application locally or generally, continuously or inter- mittently. Cold water, medicinally used, stiuudates the HOW HEAT IS LOST 137 cerebrospinal as well as the sympathetic nerve centres, increases the activity of healthy vital processes, notably metabolism, elimination, and leucocytosis, and thus conjoins antithermogenic and antipyretic actions. Cinchona and its alkaloids, antipyrine, and other drugs of the aromatic hydrocarbon group, the salicyl compounds and alcohol appear to act directly on the trophic nerves and nerve- centres, both central and local, and thus retard oxidation of protoplasm, and of red and white blood globules. Acids long used in the treatment of fever appear to reduce the alkalinity of the nutrient fluids, and in this way retard metabolism. Antimony, aconite, digitalis, and blood-letting probably lessen the production of heat by diminishing the volume and rapidity of the blood stream. Guaiacol, poultices, blisters, and local blood-letting exert similar effects topically. The notable effect of purgatives in checking pyrexia is probably somewhat complex, comprising a diminished force of the circulation, derivation, and increased excretion of those waste products and pathogenic germs which are fruitful causes of elevated temperature. The loss of heat (thermolysis) is increased, as set forth in the above table, chiefly in three ways : — (1.) By dilating the cutaneous vessels, and augmen ting- radiation of heat from the body, as is efl"ected by alcohol, volatile oils, and antipyrine. These agents, it will be noted, exert a twofold action of lessening production and increasing loss of heat. (2.) By promoting secretion of sweat, and thus increasing cooling evaporation, as is effected by diaphoretics. (8.) By directly removing heat, as is effected by hydro- therapy, cold baths, cold affusion, etc. Antipyretics are used to lower abnormal temperature, whether caused by prolonged exposure to heat or by febrile disease. Cinchona and its alkaloids are the remedies most trusted in the treatment of the fevers of animals. They mitigate the pyrexia, cut short the attack, and prevent the exacerbations which characterise such cases. Antipyrine, although it has little action on the temperature of healthy animals, reduces abnormal temperature quickly, and usually 138 BLOOD-LETTING permanently. For veterinary patients it is the best of the new fever medicines. It has been successfully used in in- fluenza, and is given both by the mouth and hj^podermically. Salicylic acid and salicylates are specially serviceable in com- bating the fever and pain of acute rheumatism. Alcohol, in its several forms, exerts a twofold effect, diminishing oxidation and also dilating cutaneous vessels, and thus accelerating cooling. Bleeding, both general and local, judiciously used, lowers abnormal temperature, by relieving alike local inflammation and symptomatic fever. Purgatives doubtless act in like manner, and in some cases, moreover, relieve gastric derangement, and remove disease products. Horses and cattle are sometimes quickly sponged with cold or tepid water, rapidly dried, and comfortably clothed. Heat is thus directly removed ; the cooling functions of the skin, which are impaired in most febrile attacks, are re-established, and their action may be further stimulated by the admini- stration of ammonia salts, ethers, and alcohol. Very essential adjuncts for ensuring the effects of antipyretics are perfect rest, comfortable quarters, and a temperature of about G0° Fahr. Guaiacol applied locally acts on the peripheral nerve ends and reflexly on the vaso-motor centres, diminishing pro- duction of heat. But although reducing temperature in pyrexia connected with tuberculosis, it appears to have no effect on fever depending on local inflammation or septic intoxication. Blood-letting promptly and directly affects tissue changes. A full bleeding diminishes the activity of all vital func- tions, excepting the production of blood globules. The heart-beat is quickened, but its force is lessened; arterial tension is lowered ; absorption is increased ; sensibility to pain is diminished, owing to reduced activity of the peri- pheral centres. When blood is lost rapidly or freely, nausea, fainting, and convulsions ensue, and artificial anaemia is produced. In healthy subjects, however, these effects quickly disappear, and the blood is rapidly restored to its normal state. Until within the last forty years, blood-letting was freely practised, and very generally abused. Venesection is now PRECAUTIONS REGARDING BLOOD-LETTING 139 seldom employed even in cases of acute congestion and inflammation, which it is especially fitted to control. It may be practised either generally or locally. In robust animals suffering from acute congestion or hsemorrhage from the lungs, especially when accompanied by venous stasis, blood- letting affords prompt and frequently permanent relief. Alike in horses and cattle, it is serviceable where fever is acute, with a firm, incompressible, or full, slow pulse, as in pleurisy and peritonitis, as well as in acute rheumatism. ^ In lymphangitis, and in some cases of laminitis in horses it is also useful. Dogs are so readily brought under the influence of emetics and nauseants that bleeding is less needed in them than in horses and ruminants. Blood may generally be taken from full-grown horses or cattle to the extent of three or four quarts. The amount drawn should be accurately measured. The circumstances of the case materially affect the amount of blood to be drawn. It should flow freely until its abstraction has made a decided impression on the volume and strength of the pulse, or until the earliest symptoms of nausea and faint- ing are apparent. The jugular vein on either side is gener- ally selected as the vessel on which it is most convenient and safe to operate. Excepting in expert professional hands, the fleam is safer than the lancet, which in restive horses may make a ugly gash. When practicable, the horse should be bled with his head erect, for in this position the nauseating effects, which indicate that no more blood can be spared, are most noticeable. When sufficient blood has been taken, the edges of the wound of the skin are brought accurately together, and secured by a pin, round which is wound some aseptic thread, or tow. Blood-letting, although valuable m the earlier stages of acute inflannnation in vigorous animals, is injurious m young or weakly subjects, in the later stages of disease, in epizootic and eruptive fevers, and, indeed, wherever the pulse is small, quick, or weak. A pulse of this character indicates debihty, and bleeding in such cases mcreases exudation and efl'usion instead of preventing them, while it unnecessarily weakens the patient and retards recovery. 140 POISONS AND ANTIDOTES While blood is being drawn, the finger should, in all animals, be placed upon a prominent artery, and if the pulse is observed to become rapidly weaker, it is evident that the treatment is unsuitable. Such mischance should, however, rarely happen, for when there is any question as to the pro- priety of blood-letting, such a reducing remedy should be avoided. Local blood-letting' is not much practised among the lower animals. Lancing the tumid gums of teething horses is seldom necessary, especially if soft food is supplied, as it should be in such cases. In laminitis some practitioners pare the horny sole, and open the vessels of the sensitive sole, encouraging the flow of blood by immersing the foot in hot water or in a warm poultice ; but in such cases the heat and moisture are generally of more benefit than the bleeding. Cupping and leeches are not used in veterinary practice. POISONS AND ANTIDOTES Antidotes are agents which counteract the effects of poisons. A poison is an agent which is capable of deter- mining definite modifications of protoplasm. It produces cellular death or cessation of cell action. In the popular acceptation of the term, a poison is a drug, whether animal, vegetable, or mineral, which, in small quantity, destroys health and life ; but it differs from a medicine only in the degree or intensity of its effects. Indeed, many valuable medicines, when given in large doses, become active poisons, whilst many poisons, properly administered, prove valuable medicines. Antidotes may prevent the action of the poison, or may mitigate or arrest its effects. When a Ictlial dose has been swallowed, endeavour should be made, before it has time to enter the circulation, promptly to remove it by the stomach-pump, stomach syphon, or by an emetic. It is advisable, however, in all cases to empty the stomach, and thus remove unabsorbed portions of the poison, before giving any fluid which favours solution and absorption, or PHYSIOLOGICAL ANTAGONISM 141 eyen before administering the antidote. Some antidotes, such as cliarcoal and demulcents, mechanically envelop the particles of the poison, or ensheath and protect the mucous surfaces, and thus retard absorption. Many enter into chemical combination with the poison, forming compara- tively insoluble inert compounds. Thus, albumin forms, with corrosive sublimate and other metallic salts, insoluble albuminates. Freshly precipitated ferric oxide converts arsenious acid into an insoluble iron arsenite. When poison has been introduced into a wound, as by the bite of a rabid dog, or by the fang of a serpent, a ligature, if possible, is placed so as to prevent or retard absorption, and the wound is forthwith thoroughly washed with antiseptics and cauterised or excised. The action of poisons, even after absorption, may, more- over, be controlled and counteracted by remedies which antagonise their lethal tendencies. Hypodermic injection of antivenomous serum neutralises the poison of cobra. Opium lessens the irritation and pain caused by irritants. Artificial respiration frequently sustains life throughout the stage of deadly narcosis induced by curare, prussic acid, or anaesthetics. But still more definite antagonism occurs between certain drugs. The stimulant and convulsant effects of strychnine on the spinal cord are opposed by chloral hydrate and tobacco, which lessen the excitability of the cord. The fatal depression of the cardiac and respira- tory centres, produced by large doses of aconite, is antago- nised by alcohol, atropine, digitalin, and by strychnine. Between physostigmine and atropine the antagonism is very marked in their actions on the vagus, heart, muscular tissues, and iris, as well as on secretion. Two explanations are given of this antagonism — (1) By chemical action, the drug Hrst given is supposed to combine with the tissues immediately acted on, and to this combina- tion the second drug may be added, developing another and less active compound ; or otherwise, from such compound the second drug may displace the first. (2) The two ant- agonistic drugs may act independently of each other on the tissues, producing opposite effects — the one exciting, the *2 POISONS AND ANTIDOTES other, it may be, paralysing. This Latter physiological view seems to meet with most general approval (Brim ton). In the case of poisons not rapidly fatal — such as lead, mercury, savin, or yew — an important curative measure consists in hastening their removal from the body by the organs through which they are chiefly excreted. Poisons Sulphuretted Hydro- gen Chlorine, Bromine . Iodine Vapour . Ammonia Vapour , Carbon Monoxide Nitrous Oxide Coal Gas Charcoal Fumes Carbonic Acid . Marsh Gas Sulphuric Acid Hydrochloric Acid Nitric Acid Phosphoric Acid Oxalic Acid and Ox- alates . Tartaric Acid . Acetic Acid / Antidotes Chlorine cautiously inhaled. Ether, alcohol. < Steam inhalation. I Opium, starch. Vinegar vapour. f Fresh air and artificial respiration ; [ transfusion. {Artificial respiration; tongue drawn forward ; intermittent pressure over cardiac region if heart action failing. f Artificial respiration. Alternate warm and cold douches to the head and neck. Encourage circulation by friction. 3Iustard plasters over surface. Alkalies; sodium or potassium bi- carbonate. Magnesia: chalk: plaster Soap ; milk ; eggs wh Olive or almond oil. The alkalinity of the blood impaired by acids is restored by intravenous injection of sodium bicarbonate. Chalk, whiting, or wall plaster, with - water. , Carbonates of lime and mao:nesia. .]' in oil. POISONS AND ANTIDOTES U3 Hydrocyanic Acid Potassium Cj^anide Potassium hydrate and Carbonate Sodium hydrate, Car- bonate and Chlo- ride Ammonia Solution Calcium Oxide Aconite . Acorns ; Oak Shoots ; Fern Alcohol . Anaesthetics — Chloroform, ether, etc. .. Antimony Arsenic 'Alternate cold and warm affusions to the spine. Artificial respiration. Ether and camphor subcutaneously. { Atropine injection, repeated every half-hour. Mixed salts of iron: ferrous sul- phate, ferric perchloride ;raagnesia. Tracheotomy. Vinegar; lemon juice. Other dilute acids. Milk : oil : acidulated drinks. Stimulants. [Spirits : ammonia. Ether hypodermi- j cally. [Digitalis; atropine; warmth. -Oil : salines : laxative diet. rStrong coffee, and cold douches to the \ head. Camphor, ether, ammonia. rArtificial respiration. Amyl-nitrite : ammonia. [Cold douche to head and neck. 'In patients that do not vomit, wash out the stomach with tannic or gallic acid, followed by milk, white of esfor or other demulcents. ^ Wash out stomach with large amount of warm water, introduced by stomach syphon or pump. Give dogs zinc sulphate or other emetic. Iron oxide, moist, made by precipita- tion of ferric chloride solution by sodium carbonate or ammonia. Milk; oil. 144 POISONS AND ANTIDOTES Atropine — Belladonna . Hyoscyanms Stramonium Barium Chloride Calabar Bean— Physostigminc Cantharides Carbolic Acid . Creasote . Chloral . Cocaine . Colchicum Conium: Conine- Cicuta Virosa Qlnanthe Croton Oil Curare Stimulants and coffee : tannic acid. Caffeine, subcutaneously injected. Sustain action of motor centres by interrupted electric current, and occasionally moving the animal. Artificial respiration, if needful: animal charcoal. Physostigminc given cautiously, j Epsom salt. Glauber's salt. [Sulphuric acid diluted. [Stimulants: chloral. - Atropine, strychnine. (Artificial respiration, if necessary. [Barley water, gruel, and other demul- cents. [Avoid oils and fats. (Oil : sodium sulphate. Saccharated lime : stimulants. Sulphate of lime. rWarmth. Keep patient moving. Strychnine and caffeine, subcutane- ously. [Chloral; amyl nitrite. 1 1nhalation of chloroform. [Tannic and gallic acids : demulcents. I Stimulants. Tannic acid. Potassium iodide. Strong coffee. Stimulants. Demulcents : stimulants. [Artificial respiration. If there be a wound, ligature, if possible, above it, and incise and suck strongly. Loosen ligature from time to time, but avoid letting too much poison into the blood at a time. POISONS AND ANTIDOTES 145 Digitalis — Dicritalin Ergot Fungus - infested or mouldy fodder or Sfraiu Gelsemium (Tannin: stimulants. Aconite, subcutaneously. Perfect quiet. Tannin : stimulants. ''Substitute sound food: laxatives. Eucalyptol, menthol, other anti- septic volatile oils. Ether : stimulants : saline antiseptics. [Atropine: stimulants. 1 Artificial respiration. Insects' Venomous "i Apply ammonia and oil. Solution of . r carbolic acid. Sal Volatile. . Stimulants : diaphoretics : hot baths. Stings Iodoform . Laburnum Lobelia Lead Salts. Copper Lead Mercury [Stimulants : coffee. 4 Alternate hot and cold douches to [ chest. I Tannin : stimulants, I Strychnine, hypodermically. rEpsom salt : dilute sulphuric acid. I Potassium iodide : occasional dose of [ castor oil 'White of egg, in large amount. Subsequently wash out stomach. Give demulcents. Milk and soap: treacle : magnesia : moist iron per- oxide. Foment: poultice. Morphine, if needful. {Magnesia sulphate ; sodium sulphate. Sulphur. Potassium iodide ; olive oil. E 146 POISONS AND ANTIDOTES Morphine — Opium . Other Narcotics /Empty stomach by syphon or pump; or wash out stomach with sol: potassium permanganate. Warm coffee : ammonia : emetics : alcohol. Maintain activity of motor centres by keeping patient moving, and by electric shocks: tannin: zinc sul- phate. Strychnine hypodermically sustains action of heart. Atropine in small doses subcutane- ously. \ Artificial respiration, if ncodfuL (Stimulants. Alternate hot and cold douche. Artificial respiration. (Ergotin : atropine subcutaneously. Cold to head. rCopper sulphate : emetics : charcoal .Oil of turpentine, old and oxidised. I Avoid fats, fatty oils, and alkalies. Picrotoxine: Cocculus)^, , , , . , .■, )■ Chloral: potassmm bromide. Indicus . . •) Pilocarpine : Jaborandi. Atropine. I Tannic or gallic acid : coffee, [Stimulants: artificial respiration. r Epsom salt; demulcents: ethereal I stimulants. ^Ligature limb : excise wound, and I sear with hot iron : antivenin. Alcoholic stimulants: ammonia. Artificial respiration. {Chloroform : chloral : tobacco in- fusion : apomorphine for dogs. Potassium bromide : tannin. Nitro-Benzol Amyl-Nitrite Nitro-Glycerine Phosphorus Quinine Savin Snake-Bite Strychnine : Brucine Nux vomica DOSAGE 147 (Warm stimulants. Tannin : strychnine : solution of iodine. Turpentine Oil . . Demulcents : Epsom salt. Veratrine — fStimulants : warm coffee : emetics. White Hellebore .[Perfect quiet; opium: tannin. (Stimulants : laxatives : ammonia acetate. Demulcents. „. <^ , (White of egg: acetate of ammonia '1 emetics. DOSES AND THEIR ADMINISTRATION The dose, channel of administration, and manner of using remedies demand consideration. The dose, or quantity of the medicine used, affects the degree, and sometimes also the nature of the action pro- duced. Thus, small doses of most salts of potassium, sodium, and magnesium are alterative and diuretic, while larger quantities are purgative. Aloes, in small quantity, is tonic, and in large, purgative. Alcohol and opium are examples of medicines in which variation in dose produces difference in effect. With topical remedies, an increase of the time during which the drug is applied is generally equivalent to an increase of dose, as illustrated in the case of mustard, cantharides, and concentrated acids. The period during which a drug remains in the body determines in like manner its activity. Hence increased action results from rapid absorption and prolonged retention within the body, while diminished action results from tardy absorption and quick excretion. Where prompt and full effects are desired, as in the case of such a sedative as aconite, or such a stinmlant as ether, carefully regulated doses are given every hour or oftener. Where continued effects are 148 ADMINISTRATION OF MEDICINES desired, as iu the case of tonics or alteratives, small doses repeated three or four times daily are preferable to larger doses given at longer intervals. Stinnilants, which are evan- escent in their eflfects — such as alcohol, ether, and ammonia — are usually beneficially repeated every two or three hours, or, in critical cases, oftener. The dose of a medicine, and the desirability of its repetition, intermission, or suspension, must frequently be determined by the manner in which the patient is affected by the first dose or doses. The doses mentioned in this work under the head of each drug, unless otherwise stated, are those suitable for adult animals of medium size. But, as already indicated, the size, weight, and environment of the patient require consideration in fixing the dose. In the lower animals, differences of sex do not materially affect dosage; although, on account of their larger size, extra doses are required for stallions, bulls, and rams. Doses must be adapted to the age of the patient. It is generally estimated that a one-year-old colt requires one-third the quantity of any medicine given to an adult horse; a two-year-old, one-half; a three-year-old, two-thirds. A somewhat similar ratio is applicable to cattle. Medicinal agents are used to produce either local or general actions, or a combination of both. Local Actions are produced by applying the agent to the surface of the skin, to the mouth or throat, the eye or ear, and also by injection into the rectum, bladder, vagina, uterus, udder, and substance of muscles. Agents thus used, besides acting locally, may pass into the general circulation, and produce general effects, or by reflex action develop secondary or remote effects. General Actions are usually produced by the introduction of the medicine into the circulation. Injection may be made directly into the veins as in the treatment of collapse and acute anicmia, and occasionally into the arteries, for purposes of experiment. When transfusion is undertaken the fluid should be watery, and of the specific gravity of blood- serum. Drugs injected into serous cavities are very rapidly absorbed. They are also quickly taken up from abraded skin surfaces. BY THE MOUTH AND TRACHEA 149 The channels by which medicines are administered are: — • (1.) The digestive tract, generally by the mouth. (2.) The pulmonary mucous membrane, by inhalation. (3.) Intratracheal injection. (4.) Intravenous injection. (5.) The skin : — (a) Epidermically by inrubbing ; (b) En- dermically by inunction after removal of the epidermis. (6.) Hypodermically, by injection into the subcutaneous ceUuIar tissues. 1. The mouth is the channel by which medicines are most frequently administered, for they immediately pass into the stomach and intestine, whence they are readily and rapidly absorbed. To avoid their admixture with food, and conse- quent impaired and delayed eifect, they should generally be given after the patient has been fasted for several hours. Nutrient oils, iron salts, arsenic, and other irritants are, how- ever^ given along with food, or immediately after eating. When it is desired that they shall be quickly absorbed, and thus act promptly and certainly, they should be given in the fluid state, and this is especially requisite in ruminants. The time, labour, and patience of attendants may be saved, and high-spirited, nervous animals preserved from injurious struggling, if they can be persuaded to take their medicines voluntarily. This may sometimes be accomplished where comparatively concentrated, tasteless, or pleasant- tasted drugs are used, by mixing them with palatable food, or disguising them in gruel, milk, or even in water. Dogs and cats will often bolt concentrated drugs rolled up in a piece of meat. Although absorption is not so active from the posterior portions of the digestive tract, soluble medicines introduced into the rectum enter the circulation. 2. The pulmonary mucous membrane has a superficies of fifty times the extent of the skin surface, and actively absorbs substances in the gaseous form. By this channel are administered anaesthetics, when their general effects are required; watery vapour; balsams and anodynes to relieve morbid conditions of the respiratory passages ; diluted sul- phurous and chlorine gases to destroy bronchial filarioe. 150 rN-TRATRACHEAL INJECTION But other volatile drugs may thus be introduced into the body, while others, in a finely divided state, can be inhaled along with watery vapour, or such a readily diffusible volatile body as chloroform. 3. Intratracheal injection has lately been adopted both in this country and abroad. Tolerably bland fluids in consider- able quantity can, with impunity, be introduced into the trachea, and agents too bulky to be used hypodermically can thus be absorbed into the blood more quickly and directly, and with less risk of having their activity impaired than when administered through the digestive tract. Various experiments on dogs, made at St. Petersburg, indicate that the effects of curare, strychnine, and cocaine were frequently produced in ten seconds, and more rapidly than when these drugs were injected subcutaneously. Turpentine by this channel exerts its lethal action very effectually on the bronchial parasites which attack cattle and sheep. The injection is effected with a syringe of somewhat larger size than that used for hypodermic purposes. Intratracheal injections intended to produce general effects should not con- tain oil or fat, and the quantity should not exceed half an ounce. Beyond a slight gain in time, intratracheal injections, other than those intended to act locally, have no advantage over hypodermic injections. Drugs have occasionally been injected directly into the lungs. 4. Intravenous injection of medicines is resorted to when immediate effects are desired. In this way salt-solution, barium chloride, silver colloid, and a few other remedies have been injected into the jugular vein. The injection should be diluted, non-irritant, and introduced slowly with strict attention to antiseptic precautions. The introduction of air, the formation of clots, and septic contamination must be avoided. 5. On the skin many medicinal agents are applied, most of them — such as counter-irritants, caustics, and poultices — for the production of local effects, or of reflex actions exerted on adjacent or distant parts. The skin, protected by epidermis, although it absorbs oxygen and other gases, excretes carbonic acid, and takes up water from baths or HYPODERMIC ADMINISTRATION 151 from wet clothing, especially if there is a deficiency of fluid in the body, does not absorb drugs unless they are dissolved in chloroform or other agent which promotes penetration (see p. 16). Drugs, whether in alcoholic or watery solution, are absorbed through the unbroken skin only in very small amount and tardily; but when the epidermis is removed by a blister, the true skin readily absorbs drugs placed on it. By this endermic method, morphine was wont to be used for the production of its general anodyne effects, but the hypodermic method is more convenient, and is now generally preferred. 6. The hypodermic administration of drugs consists in their injection in solution into the subcutaneous cellular tissue, or occasionally into the substance of a muscle. They thus enter the blood-stream unaltered by contact with the contents or secretions of the digestive canal. They escape the changes which many substances undergo in the liver, and hence act more certainly and rapidly. Hypodermic injection is specially indicated — (1.) Where rapid energetic effects are required, as in poisoning, internal ha-morrhage, threatening col- lapse, paroxysms of acute pain, and convulsions. (2.) Where it is desired that the drug shall act promptly and directly on the diseased part, as in neuralgia, rheumatic pains, and mammitis in cows. (3.) Where local and general effects are desired to be conjoined, as in reflex spasms. (4.) Where administration by the mouth is difficult, impossible, or unadvisable. The druses thus used should be neutral, non-irritant, and soluble in alcohol, water, or glycerin. Many veterinarians now use morphine, atropine, ergotin, physostigmine, and other active drugs hypodermically for arresting or controlling the spasms of colic and chronic cough, the sharp twinges of rheumatism, the inflammatory pain of enteritis and pleurisy, as well as for combating the eftects of poisons. Where pain is to be counteracted, the injection is made deeply near the affected spot, or over the nerve which is believed to be con- veying the disordered impression. With active agents it is 152 HYPODERMIC INJECTION unwise, without careful trial, to inject subcutancously more than one-fourth of the dose Avhich would be given by the mouth. The drug is thoroughly dissolved in water, alcohol, or other perfectly bland fluid. There is less risk in veterinary than in human patients of subsequent local irritation, but intramuscular injection of ether and of other drugs occa- sionally causes temporary motor or sensory paralj^sis. The hypodermic syringe has a glass barrel, on the nozzle of which a hollow needle is fitted. It is essential that the syringe be perfectly clean, and the needle sharp. Hypo- dermic injection is very simple. Choice is generally made of a situation where the skin is thin, and the subcutaneous tissue loose, as behind the elbow, or at the lower part of the neck. A fold of loose skin is taken up between the finger and thumb of the left hand ; the needle, detached from the syringe, is passed through the skin, and carried about an inch obliquely under the surface. The nozzle of the filled syringe is then attached to the needle, the piston slowly pushed home, and the instrument cautiously with- drawn. The injection of air can be prevented by seeing that the packing of the piston is sufficient, or by arresting the piston before the contents of syringe have been wholly expelled. The puncture requires no plaster or dressing. Convenient tablets or pellets of the various drugs used hypodermically are now obtainable. Section II. Inorganic Materia Medica WATER Aqua. Hydrogen Oxide or Monoxide. HgO. Water exists in the solid, liquid, and gaseous forms. It is transparent, neutral, colourless, odourless, and tasteless. A minim weighs -91 grain ; a fluid ounce, 437'5 grains. It is the standard of comparison for specific gravities of liquids, its specific gravity being represented as 1 or 1000. It solidi- fies, freezes, or crystallises at 32° Fahr., expanding and giving out latent heat ; it reaches its greatest density at 39°'2 Fahr.; it slowly volatilises at all temperatures; at 212" Fahr. it boils, rising in steam, and increasing in bulk 1700 times. A cubic inch of water becomes a cubic foot of steam. When the solid ice melts, heat is absorbed or becomes latent ; when the liquid water boils, or gives off gas, still more heat is absorbed. A cubic foot of water exjjanding into steam renders latent 900° of heat. The melting ice and evaporating water, thus abstracting heat from bodies in contact with them, are valuable refrigerants. Water is a universal solvent; it readily dissolves many mineral matters, gases, and organic substances. From soils and rocks through which it passes it takes up salts, espe- cially of calcium, magnesium, and sodium, and occasionally of lead. It absorbs atmospheric air, carbonic acid, and other gases, some adding to its sparkling, refreshing, and palatable qualities, others rendering it disagreeable and unwholesome. Gases are more soluble in cold than in hot water; solids, conversely, are generally more quickly and freely dissolved by hot than by cold water. Organic matters are present, especially in river and marsh waters, causing them to spoil rapidly when kept, and sometimes to produce diarrhoea and dysentery in animals drinking them. Surface drainage and 154 HARD AND SOFT WATERS sewage are apt to introduce vegetable and animal parasites, spores and ova, which give rise to dangerous diseases in animals as well as in man. Even in potable waters the nature and proportion of the solid constituents differ materially. Glasgow derives from Loch Katrine the purest water supply of any large city in the world, containing only three- fourths of a grain of organic and one and a half grains of inorganic matters to the gallon. The water of the Thames, supplied to part of London, contains about three grains of organic and sixteen grains ot inorganic matters to the gallon. When the mineral constituents, consisting of salts of calcium and magnesium, exceed suVoth part, the water is said to be hard, and is un- suitable for many pharmaceutic and domestic purposes ; it curdles or precipitates soap, instead of forming with it a froth or lather ; it forms a brown encrustation on the kettles or furnaces in which it is boiled ; it is not so well liked by animals, and is apt to cause diarrhoea and other digestive derangements, especially in subjects unaccustomed to it. When the salts do not amount to -g-oW^^ P^^'' ^^^^ water is considered soft. The presence of the more dangerous organic and organ- ised impurities are discovered by several simple tests — (1) Half a pint of the water is well shaken in a clean, wide- mouthed bottle ; when sewage is present an offensive smell will be perceived on removal of the stopper or cork. (2) In a tumbler of water two or three drops of sulphuric acid are placed, and sufficient Condy's red fluid to render the water pink. When allowed to stand for fifteen minutes, the water, if containing organic impurity, will have become colourless. (3) Sewage contaminated water usually contains common salt, which may be discovered by silver nitrate producing milkiness (AgCl), which is not removed by a few drops of nitric acid. For purifying water various methods are adopted. Sub- sidence and dccantation get rid of grosser mechanical par- ticles. Filtration through sand, charcoal, gravel, or spongy iron removes coarse and organic impurities. Alum, even in minute amount, clears turbid water. Oxidation gradually WATER 156 destroys disagreeable or dangerous foulness ; hence a run- ning stream, contaminated even by sewage several hundred yards lower down, may again become clear and whole- some. Alkaline permanganates, by similar oxidation, promptly destroy organic contamination. Boiling destroys most noxious vegetable and animal matters, drives off car- bonic acid gas, and thus throws down calcium carbonate, the cause of temporary hardness. Sodium carbonate, or lime, as in Clarke's process, diffused through hard water, which is then allowed to settle, abstracts carbonic acid gas, and causes subsidence of calcium and magnesium carbonates, and also reduces the permanent hardness produced by calcium sulphate. For chemical and pharmaceutical jDurposes, aqua destillata is requisite, and distillation leaves behind all im- purities except a trace of organic matters, and one to two per cent, per volume of air. Such distilled or other pure water is understood to be used when ' water ' is ordered in pre- scriptions. Mineral waters are unfit for general use on account of their undue proportion of mineral matters or gases, or from their being at a higher temperature than that of the locality in which they are found. The most common mineral waters are those containing iron and salines. Sea water has a specific gravity of 1027 ; an imperial pint contains about 312 grains of solid matters, of which about 240 grains are common salt. Actions and Uses. — Water is nutrient, diluent, antipyretic, diuretic, and detergent. Introduced into the body in excess of its requirements, it is removed usually within six hours, chiefly by the kidneys, and in less amount by the skin and bowels. When given cold, the kidneys perform the main excretory office ; but when used hot, water is an adjuvant diaphoretic, cathartic, and, in dogs and other carnivora, an emetic. Water applied topically, as in the form of hot fomentation, or the familiar water-dressing, is emollient and anodyne, abates congestion of circumscribed inflamma- tion and wounds, and its beneficial effects are also reflexly propagated to adjacent parts. At high temperatures water is an irritant. But steam mixed with air is emollient and 156 NUTRIENT, DILUENT, AND ANTIPYRETIC soothing. Cold water is refrigerant and tonic. Ice is a prompt and effective refrigerant ; it controls congestion and inflainmation, especially of the throat, and arrests haemorrhage from the stomach, lungs, and other parts. Baths are used not only for comfort and cleanliness, but for the cure of disease. (See Pharmacy.) Water constitutes from fifty-five to eighty per cent, of the weight of the higher animals, and is essential for digestion, absorption, secretion, excretion, and indeed for every vital process. It is largely present in every kind of food, facili- tating its digestion and assimilation, and replacing the loss of fluid constantly taking place by the skin, lungs, and kidneys. Insufficient and excessive supplies are alike injuri- ous ; but animals in health, and with constant free access to water, rarely take more than is good for them. Excepting for a few hours previous to any great exertion, and when hungr}^, overheated, and prostrated, the horse in health should not be restricted in his water supply. Indeed, in many well-managed modern stables a limited amount of water is constantly at the horse's head, and the daily quan- tity thus drunk is actually less than when the animal is allowed to slake his thirst three or four times daily. Although a moderate amount of water is essential for digestion, an excessive quantity injuriously dilutes the intestinal contents, and favours acid fermentation. Horses, especially if tired and hungry, before having a little hay — which, being eaten slowly, is in such circum- stances preferable to grain — should receive some water, or, better still, a gallon of gruel. In some cab and carrying establishments, each hard- worked horse, on his return to the stable, is provided with a supply of oatmeal gruel, which is found not only to help condition, but to diminish attacks of colic and other gastro-intestinal derangements. A copious draught of Avater, taken immediately after a rapidly-eaten meal, hurries the imperfectly digested food too rapidly into the intestines, where it is apt to set up colic and inflamma- tion. Very cold water, freely drunk, especially by hungry, exhausted horses, is a frequent cause of gastro-intestinal disorder; and in many establishments throughout winter WATER 157 Steam or hot water is introduced into the horse-troughs, or the buckets are filled and brought into the stable several hours before they are required for use. Water, judiciously used, is a valuable diluent, febrifuge, and evacuant, serviceable in febrile and inflammatory diseases. When given moderately cold, it is more palatable and satisfying than in the tepid state in which it is some- times presented to sick horses. Rendered feebly bitter with a little cascarilla or quassia infosion, secretion is encouraged and thirst is more effectually quenched. Small portions of ice placed in the mouth are sucked by most animals, and promote secretion, abate thirst, and also relieve congestion and irritation. Horses greedy of water, and especially those with defective wind or liability to acidity or diarrhoea, should be supplied frequently with small quantities, while, further to relieve thirst, the food should be damped. After a cathartic dose, and until the physic has ceased to operate, even moderate draughts of cold water in many horses cause griping. Calves and lambs, feverish and purging, some- times die if they have free access to water. As a diluent, water mechanically relieves choking and coughing ; dilutes corrosive and irritant poisons ; assists the action of diaphoretics, diuretics, and purgatives. Tepid water is a convenient auxiliary emetic for dogs and pigs. Injected into the rectum, warm water allays irritabihty of the bowels and urino-genital organs, and promotes the action of the^ bowels. Water, whether cold or hot, checks bleeding ; but is most effectual at a temperature of about 120° Fahr. Injected into the vagina, it stays the discharge of leucorrha^a. A good scrubbing with tepid water and soap is a very essen- tial preliminar}^ to the successful treatment of mange or scab. It removes scales and dirt, abounding especiall}^ in inveterate cases, and hence facilitates access of the special dressings to the burrows of the parasites. Water is the important constituent of emollients (p. 58). Hot fomentations moisten, soften, and relax dry and irritable textures, and relieve tension, tenderness, and pain. Applied early, and continued for several hours, they control or relieve congestion and inflammation of strains and 158 DETERGENT, EMOLLIENT, AND COUNTER-IRRITANT contused wounds. Their external aj)plication, by reflex action, often soothes irritated or inflamed internal parts. In this way fomentations allay the pain of colic and inflamma- tion of the bowels. Steaming the head and throat in like manner often relieves catarrh, sore-throat, and strangles. Professor Williams insists on the value of steaming, and hot fomentations in laryngitis, and bronchitis, and prefers fomentations to counter-irritants in pneumonia and pleurisy. Soothing watery vapour, medicated, if need be, with laudanum, belladonna, ether, vinegar, sulphurous acid, or alkaline hypochlorites, is readily evolved from a steam-kettle, from a well-made bran-mash placed in a roomy nose-bag, or from a bucket containing freshly-steamed hay. Water-dressings, consisting of several folds of lint or tow, saturated with hot water, and covered with oiled skin or mackintosh cloth to retard evaporation, or a sheet of well- soaked spongio-piline, are frequently substituted for fomentations and poultices, and are usually preferable, especially to poultices, on account of their lightness and cleanliness. Water, nearly boiling, is a prompt and powerful counter- irritant, especially useful in cattle practice. When applied to the chest or abdomen of horses or cattle, several folds of thick woollen horse-rug are sometimes placed round the patient, and hot water from time to time poured on the folds. ,Counter-irritation thus rapidly developed, in careful hands, does not blemish, and frequently proves of service in the first stages of pneumonia and pleurisy, in colic, enteritis, peritonitis, and obstinate constipation, alike of horses and cattle. Cold water is a useful refrigerant. When the acute con- gestion, heat, and tenderness of bruises, strains, and wounds have been so far abated by hot applications, cold exerts wholesome refrigerant, tonic, and constringing effects. Linen bandages, constantly wotted, relieve chronic strains, jars, and windgalls of the legs of horses. Cold water is also service- able, after disinfection, in broken knees, synovitis and arthritis, open or closed, and other injuries of the Imibs. Continuous irrigation is readily effected through a small indiarubber pipe, connected with a water tap, or brought WATER — ICE 159 from a supply tank on a higher level. Cold water similarly supplied keeps at low temperature the swabs around the coronets and feet of horses suffering from laminitis. Rugs dipped in cold water and applied to the chest walls, are successfully employed in acute congestion of the lungs,, brought on by over-exertion, and especially in hot weather. Cold water dashed over the head and neck is a powerful stimulant, serviceable in megrims, sunstroke, phrenitis, con- vulsions, syncope, and the comatose stage of milk fever in cattle, as well as in poisoning with alcohol, chloroform, opium, and prussic acid. The shock is increased when very cold water is used, and when it falls on the patient from a height of several feet. Such cold affusion must not, however, be long continued, as it quickly abstracts animal heat. Equally effectual results are more safely attained by alternately douching with cold and warm water. Ice in small pieces, placed in the mouth, is readily sucked by most animals, and often relieves congestion of the throat, and irritability of the stomach, especially in dogs. Applied usually in a bag or bladder, it is serviceable in inflamed and prolapsed uterus and rectum, in piles, hernias, in haemorrhage, which sometimes occurs shortly after parturition, as well as in phrenitis and parturient ajDoplexy in cows. Two parts of ice mixed with one of salt form a powerful freezing mixture of the temperature of 4° Fahr. Snow or ice is applied to retard the sudden rise of temperature and con- sequent gangrene in frost-bite, to arrest circumscribed congestion and inflammation, to check bleeding: and convul- sions. Ice maintained in contact with the skin for six or eight minutes diminishes sensation, and facilitates the performance of a few minor operations; but for inducing local anaesthesia, cocaine is preferable. OXYGEN Oxygen is a colourless, odourless gas, slightly heavier than atmospheric air, and forming about one-fifth of its volume. Twenty-five volumes of water dissolve one volume of oxygen It has a wide ran^j^e of chemical afiinities. 1 60 OXYGEN— OZONE Actions and UsES.^Oxygen has slight effect on the unbroken skin, but stiniuLates denuded skin and mucous surfaces. Oxygenated solutions have been applied to atonic wounds and ulcers. Such solutions, when swallowed, aid oxidation of waste products in the alimentary canal. The breathing of the gas has been recommended in asthma, pneumonia, and various respiratory difficulties, as well as in cardiac failure. Six gallons inhaled by human patients have, however, no notable effect. Only limited quantities can be retained by the blood ; the serum, when saturated, retains one-fifteenth of the amount the red globules can take up, and hence it is very doubtful whether tissue oxidation can be effected by inhalation of oxygen. Dr. Lauder Brunton states that small animals confined in jars of oxygen become excited, tetanised, and die {Pharmacology). OZONE When electric sparks are passed through air, the molecules of oxygen, represented by two atoms (Og), are split up, and rearranged in triad atoms, constituting ozone (O3). It is also produced by the slow oxidation of phosphorus in the pre- sence of water, and by the action of protoplasm. It is unstable, being readily converted into oxygen. It is distin- guished by its peculiar smell, and by its decomposing potassium iodide solution, and when mixed with damp starch, producing the blue starch iodide. Actions and Uses. — It oxidises more actively than oxygen, destroys the coagulability of albumin, decomposes many organic substances, and kills micro-organisms. In virtue of its chemical actions it is a powerful irritant. When inhaled it induces excitement, succeeded by exhaustion and some- times by convulsions. It has been used for most of the cases in which oxygen has been given, notably for the de- struction of micro-parasites in diphtheria and other similar diseases (Brunton). AMMONIUM SALTS 161 AMMONIUM AND ITS MEDICINAL COMPOUNDS Ammonii Chloridum. Sal-ammoniac. Chloride of Am- monium. N H^ CI. This salt, from Avhich most ammonium compounds are derived, may be Ibrmed by neutralising crude solution of ammonia or ammonium carbonate with hydrochloric acid, and purifying the product (B.P.). The salt thus prepared occurs in inodorous colourless crystals, or in translucent, tough, fibrous masses. It has a saline, acid taste, a slightly acid reaction on colouring matter; is soluble in one part boiling, or three of cold water, and in 60 parts alcohol (90 per cent.). During solution it abstracts much heat, and is consequently an ingredient of many freezing mixtures. Heated it sublimes unchanged. Mixed with lime or potash it evolves ammonia. Actions and Uses. — Expectorant, cholagogue, diuretic and refrigerant. Large doses exhibit the stimulant and subse- quent paralysing effects of ammonium salts. Two ounces given to a horse caused muco-enteritis (Moiroud) ; two drachms destroyed a small dog in an hour. The alimentary mucous membrane was found congested and swollen (Orlila). The symptoms described as occurring in dogs are ' muscular weakness, slow breathing, violent action of the heart, and tetanic spasms ' (Christison). Medicinal Doses stimulate the alimentary and respiratory mucous membranes, promote their secretions, and relieve gastric as well as bronchial catarrh, especially in patients where pyrexia has not been serious, or has abated. They are also recommended in torpidity of the liver and in rheu- matism. Doses. — Horses, 5ij- to 5jv. ; cattle, 5jv. to §j. ; sheep and pigs, grs. XXX. to 5j-; (logs, grs. iii. to grs. x. In bolus, pill or drench. One part of chloride dissolved in ten to twenty parts of water or spirit is used as a stimulant gargle, and refrigerant lotion for inflammatory swellings, bruises, and sprains. A 162 LIQUOR AMMONIA coolino- mixture, stated to lower the thermometer from 50° to 10" Fahr. (Pereira), is made with four ounces each of sal- ammoniac and nitre, dissolved in eight ounces of water ; but for ordinary refrigerant purposes, six or eight times this amount of water may be used. Liquor Ammonia Fortis. Strong Solution of Ammonia. Caustic Ammonia. Hartshorn. An aqueous solution containing 32 '5 per cent, by weight of ammonia, NHg. It may be obtained by heating a mixture of ammonium chloride, and slaked lime, and passing the resulting ammonia into distilled water (B.P.). Traces of ammonia exist in the air, and in rain. It occurs in the excretions of living animals, from the breaking down of their nitrogenous tissues, and is evolved from the putrefaction and destructive distillation alike of vegetable and animal matters. But the coal beds are the great com- mercial source of ammonia and its compounds. Coal, when distilled in the making of gas, leaves a waste liquor, which if treated with hydrochloric acid, yields ammonium chloride or sal-ammoniac. Properties. — The liquor ammoniae fortis is colourless, pungent, and caustic. Specific gravity 0891. One fluid drachm contains 15'83 grains of gaseous ammonia. Purity is ensured when the sample, diluted with four times its volume of distilled water, gives no precipitate with solution of lime, ammonium sulphide, or copper ammonio-sulphate, and, when treated with an excess of nitric acid, it is not rendered turbid by silver nitrate or barium chloride. It is very strongly alkaline, and unites with fats and oils, form- ing soaps and liniments. For most medicinal and pharmaceutical purposes the liquor ammoniae fortis is too concentrated, and a diluted solution is made by adding to one measure of liq. ammon. fortis, two measures of distilled water. This medicinal solution is entitled liquor ammoniae, contains 10 per cent, by weight of ammonia NH3, and has the specific gravity 0.959. A spirit of ammonia of corresponding strength, contain- ACTION OF AMMONIUM SALTS 1G3 ing 10 per cent, of gas in rectified spirit, is recognised by the U.S.P. Aromatic spirit of ammonia, popularly known as sal- volatile, is a solution of liquor ammonias fortis and am- monium carbonate in rectified spirit and water, flavoured with oil of nutmeg and lemon. General Action of Ammonium Salts. — They resemble potas- sium and sodium salts, but being more volatile are more prompt and powerful. Unlike caustic potash and soda, liquor ammonias does not dissolve the epidermis, and consequently does not cauterise, but if evaporation be pre- vented, it passes through the epidermis, irritates the dermis and vesicates. Dr. Lauder Brunton thus describes their actions : — ' Am- monium is considerably modified by the acid radicle with which it is combined. All the ammonium salts have an action on the spinal cord, motor nerves, and muscles, and, in advanced poisoning, paralyse these structures. They do not, however, affect all these structures with equal readiness. The organ first affected, and consequently the symptoms of poisoning, vary with the salt employed. Some salts affect the spinal cord first, others the motor nerves. . . . They appear to form a series, at one end of which the members stimulate the spinal cord, and have no marked paralysing action on the motor nerves ; while those at the other end have no marked stimulating action on the cord, but, on the contrary, have a marked paralysing action both on the cord and on motor nerves. At the stimulating end of this series are ammonia and ammonium chloride, and at the paralysing end ammonium iodide ; whilst the bromide, phosphate, and sulphate lie between.' In their primary stimulation and secondary paresis, ammonium salts resemble the mono-hydric alcohols and ethers ; but they act more markedly on the cord and motor centres, and less on the higher cerebral centres. Their antidotes are dilute acids, milk, and oils. Ammonium salts increase the secretion of the bronchial and intestinal glands, and also of the sweat glands and kidneys, by which they are mainly excreted. In the blood of mammals ammonia is con- 164 AMMONT.K LIQUOR verted almost entirely into urea, in the blood of birds into uric acid. It increases the formation of glycogen in the liver, and of acidity in the urine (Brimton). Actions and Uses of Ammonia. — Ainmonia causes topical irritation. Tolerably concentrated solutions abstract water from the tissues, dissolve their epidermal or epithelial scales, liquefy their albumin, and saponify their fats. They hence act as caustics. Full doses stinuilate the spinal cord, motor nerves, and muscles, and subsequently paralyse the cord, but, unlike ammonium chloride, do not markedly paralyse motor nerves. Ammonia gas entering the air-passages causes suffocation. Strong solutions swallowed produce gastro- enteritis, while, from absorption, paralysis of the ])rain centres and coma occasionally ensue. Reflexly, when applied to the nostrils or stomach, it stimulates the vaso-motor centre, and raises blood-pressure, and, after absorption, directly stimu- lates the circulatory and respiratory nerve-centres, and promotes secretion alike from the mucous surface and skin. It is administered as an antacid, diffusible stimulant, and antispasmodic, and used externally as a stimulant and counter-irritant. Toxic Effects. — Hertwig found that half an ounce of the strong solution, given diluted, had no bad effects on horses, but that one ounce proved fatal in sixteen hours, and three ounces in fifty minutes, the latter quantity causing violent cramps and difficult breathing. Half a drachm introduced into the stomach, and retained by tying the oesophagus, destroyed a dog in twenty-four hours, causing much uneasi- ness, agitation, and stupor, and leaving after death slight redness of the mucous membrane of the stomach (Orfila). The most effectual antidotes are vinegar and other diluted acids, with diluents and demulcents. Medicinal Uses. — Its antacid and stimulant properties reconuncnd ammonia in indigesti(m, tympanites, and spas- modic colic in ruminants. Stimulating the vaso-motor and respiratory centres, it is valuable in antagonising syncope in intluenza and similar complaints. As in human practice, ammonia fumes are occasionally used to rouse animals from shock, collapse, or chloroform intoxication, but must be used MEDICINAL USES AND DOSES 165 cautiously, lest excessive irritation of the respiratory mucous membrane be produced. It is a promptly-acting antidote in poisoning by opium, aconite, digitalis, and other narcotic and sedative drugs. It may be administered much diluted in the usual way, injected subcutaneously and intravenously, and also applied externally in the treatment of snake-bites ; Init its success is uncertain, especially in the case of the cobra and other venomous snakes. On account of its promoting bron- chial secretion, and assisting in its expulsion, ammonia is serviceable as a stimulating" expectorant. To develop its more general effects, it is frequently prescribed with alcoholic stunulants, as in the convenient form of aromatic spirit of ammonia. External Uses. — In the form of liniment of ammonia, or of compound liniment of camphor, ammonia proves a useful counter-irritant for muscular strains and rheumatism, for stiff joints, for sore throat and bronchitis, for maintaining the stimulation provoked by mustard or cantharides in pneu- monia, pleurisy, and influenza, and for preventing the rapid chilling of fomented surfaces. A pledget of lint saturated with ammonia, applied to the skin and covered with oiled silk quickly vesicates. It relieves the irritation caused by nettles, and by bites and stings of insects. Doses, etc. — Of liquor ammonise as a diffusible stimulant and antispasmodic, horses take f5ij. to f5iv. ; cattle, f5iv. to fgi. ; sheep and pigs, f5ji-; and dogs, Til v. to Til ^- '^^^ aromatic spirit is given in proportionally larger doses. In order to sustain their transient effects they require to be repeated at intervals of two or three hours. On account of their pungency, they must be largely diluted with water, or, hetter still, with cold gruel or mucilage. A useful stimulant draught, either for horses or cattle, is made with half an ounce each of liquor ammonia9, sweet spirit of nitre, and tincture of gentian, given in a quart of ale or of cold gruel. For cohc and indigestion in horses, a draught composed of half an ounce of solution of ammonia, with four or five drachms of aloes, given in water, has been recommended. For external application the liquor ammoniae is gener- ally used, mixed with live to ten parts of oil. A convenient 166 AMMONIUM CARBONATE stimulating liniment is made with one part each of strong solution of ammonia, oil of turpentine, and water, mixed with four to six parts of linseed oil. A drachm of liquor ammonia) fortis, with half a pint of soap liniment, makes a useful stinuilaut embrocation for sore-throat. The B.P. liniment of ammonia consists of one part solution of ammonia (10 per cent.), one part of almond oil, and two parts of olive oil. The popular ' White Oil ' is made with one ounce of camphor, four ounces of rectified spirit, a pint of olive oil, and two ounces solution of ammonia. Ammonii Carbonate. Carbonate of Ammonia. Ammonium Carbonate. A variable mixture of Ammonium hydrogen carbonate, NH^ HCO3, with ammonium carbonate, NH^ NH., CO^, pro- duced on heating ammonium sulphate or chloride Avith calcium carbonate (B.P.). It occurs in colourless, translucent, fibrous, crj^stalline masses, with a pungent alkaline taste, and a strong am- moniacal odour. Soluble in four parts of cold water ; rather less of tepid water ; in two hundred of alcohol ; and in five of glycerin. Decomposes in boiling water, with evolution of ammonia and carbonic acid; sublimes when heated, and when exposed to the air becomes opaque, friable, and covered Avith a white efiiorescence. Actions and Uses. — The carbonate closely resembles liquor ammonise, but is less volatile, less powerful, and rather more permanent in its effects. Large doses produce, however, the same primary stimulation, and secondary paralysis of the spinal cord and motor centres. Orfila records that two and thalf drachms given to a dog caused gastric inflammation, aetanic convulsions, and death. Medicinal Uses. — It is given to all animals in atonic dyspepsia ; conjoins the actions of an antacid and diffusible stimulant; in small doses promotes secretionof gastric juice, and in larger relieves tlatulcnce and spasm. A few doses materially help the extra rug, warm bran mash, and other hygienic remedies in combating chill, blowing, and other AMMONIUM ACETATE 167 premonitory symptoms of disease of the air-passages in hard- worked horses. It stimulates both cardiac and respiratory functions, and hence is prescribed in influenza, and in the later stages of various acute debilitating inflammatory com- plaints, in many of which it may be substituted for or conjoined with alcoholic stimulants. In respiratory disease, while sustaining the action of the heart, it promotes secretion and expectoration, and hence relieves bronchial congestion, being especially serviceable when the lower bronchi are choked with tough mucus, and cardiac action is weak. It is sometimes given to dogs as a stimulant emetic ; acts without nausea, and usually promptly ; but as it is somewhat uncer- tain is best used in conjunction with ipecacuanha, or other emetic. It sometimes averts epileptic fits in weakly dogs. It neutralises the poison of wasps' stings and insects' bites. A useful dressing for removing the scales of psoriasis is made by adding one part to ten of unguentum simplex. Doses, etc. — Horses take 5\j- to 5iv. ; cattle 5iy- to 5vj. ; sheep and pigs, grs. xv. to grs. Ix. ; dogs, grs. iij. to grs. viij. It is given either in bolus with linseed meal, or dissolved in gruel, which, to prevent coughing from liberation of ammonia, must be used cold. Where prompt stimulant effects are required, ammonium carbonate is conjoined with alcohol or ether : where febrifuge and expectorant effects are sought, it is prescribed with spirit of nitrous ether, potassium chlorate, and camphor; while in chronic gastric derangements it is given with gentian, ginger, or cinchona bark. Smelling salts are prepared by adding to the carbonate half its weight of solution of ammonia, and mixing some bergamot, lavender, or other aromatic oil. Liquor Ammonii Acetatis. Solution of Ammonium Acetate. Mindererus Spirit. Is prepared by dissolving one ounce of ammonium car- bonate in ten times its weight of distilled water, neutralising with acetic acid, and adding sufficient distilled water to pro- duce one pint of the solution (B.P.). It is clear, colourless, and nearly odourless, but has a mawkish, unpleasant taste. 1(38 AMMONIUM ACETATE SOLUTION Incompatiblcs, potash, soda, and their carbonates, acids, lead and silver salts, and lirac water. Actions and Uses.— Aminoniiim acetate, although not so powerful a stimulant as liquor ainmonia? or the carbonate, is a valuable diaphoretic and antipyretic, and a mild diuretic and expectorant. It is much used in febrile and inflamma- tory attacks, especially aifecting the respiratory organs — catarrh, bronchitis, and pneuuionia, and in influenza, strangles, and purpura. In these and other cases it abates fever, promotes cutaneous and bronchial secretion, and helps to clean the tongue and improve the appetite. In the onset of local inflammation in horses, when pyrexia is considerable, two to four ounces of liquor ammonii acetatis are given, with a drachm of potassium nitrate or chlorate three or four times daily. When the bowels are confined and the urine high-coloured, two or three ounces of Epsom salt are added to the febrifuge mixture. When bronchial secretion is scanty the acetate is conjoined with ipecacuanha or potassium iodide, and itsbeneticial effects may be increased by inhalations of moist warm air and by hot applications to the chest. When the smaller bronchial tubes are choked with mucus, balsams, turpentine, and squill are useful addi- tions, along with moderate external stimulation. When there is sore throat and cough, belladonna extract and cam- phor are serviceable adjuncts. In many forms of troublesome cough opium is appropriate. In convalescence, when the appetite is indifferent, powdered gentian or cinchona bark may be combined or alternated with acetate and salines. When the patient is weak and exhausted, alcohol and ether are fitting additions. In cerebro-spinal fever Professor Robertson prescribed iodine and strychnine with the acetate of ammonia. For cattle similar prescriptions are suitable, given usually in somewhat larger doses. In dog's, the diuretic action of ammonium acetate is more notable than the diaphoretic. A convenient antipyretic and expectorant is made with liquor ammonii acetatis f§iv. ; spiritus oetheris nitrosi f^ij.; spiritus camphora3 fgi. For large dogs the dose is half a fluid ounce ; for small animals a fluid drachm, in either case given diluted POTASSIUM COMPOUNDS 169 with five or six parts of water. This mixture is adapted for special canine cases by additions similar to those indicated for horses. Doses, etc. — For horses ai^ cattle the dose of liquor ammonii acetatis is fgij. to fgiv. ; for dogs, f5ij. to f5iv., given in five or six parts of water, diluted spirit, or linseed tea. Many horses and cattle readily take it in their drinking water. Like the chloride, the solution of the acetate is sometimes used externally as a refrigerant discutient. POTASSIUM AND ITS MEDICINAL COMPOUNDS Potassium salts are obtained from (1) carnallite, a chloride of potassium and magnesium (KCl.MgCl2.6H2O) overlying the rock-salt in the mines of Stassfurt in Saxony ; (2) from the crude potashes got from wood ashes ; and (3) from the argol deposited during the fermentation of wine (p. 186). Most are soluble in water. They are identified in solution by their negative reaction with the several group tests for the metals, while moderately strong neutral solutions rather slowly form, with sodium hydrogen tartrate, a white crystal- line precipitate (KHC^H^Og), soluble in hydrochloric acid and in caustic potash. Evaporated to dryness, and ignited with alcohol, they produce a distinctive violet-coloured flame, which gives on the spectrum two lines — one intense on the red, the other transient on the violet. Actions and Uses. — The alkalies comprise salts of potas- sium, sodium, lithium, and ammonium. They are the opposites of the acids. They combine with acids, dissolve albumin, aijd saponify fats, and in virtue of these affinities are irritant and caustic. They are destitute of astringency, and in dilute solution relax and soothe the tissues with which they come into contact. They increase acid and diminish alkaline secretions, and are prescribed in cases of dyspepsia, ^eing given half an hour before feeding. They are also used to neutralise excessive acidity developed from undue fermentation, in which case being administered an hour after eating. They promote elimination of lactic acid in rheumatism, and to some extent prevent the pre- 170 POTASSIUM SALTS cipitation of uric acid in the bladder. The alkalies and their salts alter osmosis in animal membranes, and hence promote both catharsis and diuresis. When absorbed, they increase the alkalinity of the blood and urine, encourage oxidation processes, and promote other alterative effects. Potassium salts are protoplasmic poisons, and when applied sufficiently long, or in sufficiently strong solution, destroy muscles, nerve-centres, and nerves. They are more soluble, more readily absorbed and diffused, but are also more quickly excreted than most sodium salts. As muscle irritants they are more powerful. They paralyse the reflex centres of the cord, usually after transitory excitement. They paralyse the heart, especially when injected into the veins. On the cir- culation their action somewhat resembles that of digitalis. Large doses cause a rapid fall of blood-pressure and pulse rate. Small doses, after a slight fall, raise both pressure and pulse rate, depending, it is believed, on constriction of the arterioles (Brunton). They occur in plants and animals, and are essential con- stituents of the food of both. Their removal from the food of dogs impairs nutrition and growth more decidedly than deprivation of the corresponding sodium salts. In animal bodies potash salts occur chiefly in the solid textures, notably in the muscles; sodium salts in the nutrient fluids. Dr. Ringer teaches that potash salts have a high diffusive power, rapidly enter the blood, increase its alkalinity, promote oxidation and tissue metamorphosis, are solvents of albu- minoids, and in one or another of these ways help to abate febrile and inflammatory attacks. They are alteratives, and antidotes to poisoning by barium salts. They are quickly excreted, mainly by the kidneys; increase chiefly the watery parts of the urine, neutralise its acidity, and often exert soothing effects on the urino-gcnital mucous surfaces. In febrile complaints they are eliminated in amounts three or four times larger than in health, and in larger proportion than the soda salts, which are excreted more largely during convalescence. Recollection of the uses of the several potassium salts is facilitated by dividing them into three groups. First : CLA.SSIFIED IM THREE GROUPS 171 Salts which are corrosive, antacid, antihthic, and alterative — such as the hydrate and carbonates. The salts of the weaker vesretable acids — tartrates and citrates — in their passage through the body are decomposed into carbonates, renderino- the urine alkaline. Second : Salts which are o cathartic, diuretic, alterative, febrifuge, and refrigerant — such as the sulphate, acetate, tartrate, nitrate, chlorate, and permanganate. Third : Salts which exhibit prominently the actions of their acid or salt radical constituent — such as potassium sulphide, iodide, bromide, bichromate, and cyanide. Potassium Hydroxide. Potassa Caustica. Hydrate of Potash. Caustic Potash. KHO. Potassium Hydrate Solution. Liquor Potassa3. Caustic Potash Solution. When impure potassium carbonate is boiled with calcium hydrate, calcium carbonate (CaCOg) is precipitated, and potassium hydrate (KHO) remains in solution, twenty- seven grains being present in the fluid ounce of the liquor potassse. This is a dense, oily-like fluid, of specitic gravity 1"058, colourless and odourless, with an intensely acrid, alkaline, soapy taste, and an alkaline reaction. Boiled with oils and fats, it forms soaps; mixed with acids, it forms neutral, soluble, crystallisable salts. It softens and dissolves soft animal and vegetable tissues. Although little used in medicine, it is of much importance in chemistry and pharmacy. When boiled until a drop removed on a stirrer becomes hard on cooling, and poured into pencil-like moulds, there are formed the grey or white deliquescent, hard, crystalline sticks of caustic potash. Actions and Uses. — Full doses of potassium hydrate are actively dehydrating, irritant, and corrosive, and also cardiac sedatives. Medicinal doses are antacid, alterative, febrifuge, and diuretic. Externally, potassium hydrate, whether in sub- stance or in concentrated solution, is a penetrating caustic. Toxic Effects. — Large doses, when swallowed, soften, cor- rode, and inflame the oesophagus and stomach, sometimes so severely as to cause perforation; while great depression 172 POTASSIUM HYDRATE accoiiipaiiics the local lesions. Hertwig records that two drachms, dissolved in six ounces of water, killed a horse, with symptoms of colic, in thirty-two hours. Orfila gave ft dog thirty-two grains, which caused violent vomiting, restlessness, and death in three days. Post-mortem dis- covered the mucous coat of the oesophagus and stomach red and black from extravasation of blood, with a perfora- tion measuring three-quarters of an inch near the pylorus, surrounded by a hard thickened margin (Christison On Poisons). The blood is dark-coloured and generally fluid, owing to the solvent action of the alkali. Smaller or more diluted doses gradually impair digestion and assimilation, and destroy life by inanition. The antidotes are diluted acids which form mild salts, and oils which produce soaps — the latter serving as demulcents, and in men and dogs as auxiliary emetics. Irritation is also relieved by milk and gruel. Medicinal Uses. — Dr. John Shortt, Madras, used the diluted solution both internally and externally as an anti- dote for the poison of snakes. Half a drachm, repeated twice daily, has been prescribed for sheep affected with vesical and urethral calculi ; but the carbonate is milder and equally effectual. It is occasionally added to cough mixtures when bronchial secretion is scanty. Caustic potash is used for eradicating warts and fungous growths, and cauterising poisoned wounds. On account of its deliquescence and liability to spread, it must, however, be applied cautiously, and any excess of alkali neutralised by subsequent Avashing with a weak acid. Mixed with one- third lime, constituting Vienna paste, it is less deliquescent and more manageable. Potassium Carbonate. Potassii Carbonas. Carbonate of Potash. K,C03. Potassium Bicarbonate. Potassii Bicarbonas. Potassium Hydrogen Carbonate. KHCO3. Potassium carbonates are got by several processes — (1) the American pot or wood ashes, in their partially puritied condition of pearl ashes, contain about eighty per cent. CARBONATES OF POTASSIUM 173 of potassium carbonate, with twenty per cent, of potassium sulphate and chloride, which, being less soluble, are got rid of by dissolving the pearl ashes, with brisk agitation, in an equal weight of water, pouring off the solution, and evaporating it to dryness. (2) From the sulphate they are obtained by a process similar to that followed in making sodium carbonate. (3) A pure carbonate is got by burning potassium tartrate with charcoal. The carbonate occurs in crystals, as a crystalline powder, but more generally in grains. It is white, opaque, and inodorous, with a strong alkaline taste, and an alkaline reaction. It is soluble in its own weight of water at 60^" Falir., deliquesces rapidly in the air; but as it gradu- ally absorbs carbonic acid, it again slowly dries up. Ex- posed to a red heat, it loses water of crystallisation to the amount of sixteen per cent. Potassium bicarbonate, or acid carbonate of potash, is prepared by passing carbonic anhydride into a strong aqueous solution of the neutral carbonate. It occurs in transparent, colourless, right rhombic prisms; has a mild, saline, and slightly alkaline taste; dissolves in about four times its weight of water at 60° Fahr. ; when heated to redness, it gives off carbonic acid and water, and is con- verted into the neutral carbonate. It is distinguished from the neutral carbonate by its milder non-acrid taste, its less solubility in water, its more abundant effervescence with hydrochloric acid, its not deliquescing when exposed to the air, and by giving, in diluted solution, no precipitate with Epsom salt or corrosive sublimate. Actions and Uses. — The two carbonates have the potassium group actions and differ only in degree. Both resemble the hydrate, but have their activity tempered and diminished by combination with carbonic acid. The neutral carbonate, in concentrated solution, has much of the corrosiveness of the hvdrate. Two drachms oiven to a doff caused vomitinof, great agony, and death in twenty-five minutes (Orfila). Three ounces are said to be fatal to horses or cattle (Kauf- mann). Its antidotes are the same as those of caustic potash. The bicarbonate has no irritant or corrosive action, 174 POTASSIUM CARBONATES is preferable as an antacid, and, in virtue of its liberating carbonic acid, exerts soothing effects on the irritable gastric membrane. It is less of an alkali and more of a pure saline. Both carl)onatos are antacid antidotes for over- doses of acids, and are alterative and diuretic. Medicinal Uses. — rotassium bicarbonate is occasionally sub- stituted for sodium bicarbonate to aid the emulsionising of fats, and, on account of the evolution of carbonic acid, to soothe the irritable stomach. Prescribed usually with a bitter, and before meals, it increases secretion of gastric juice ; given after meals, it neutralises excess of acid' resulting from undue secretion of gastric fluid, or from such acid fermentation of starch, sugar, or fats as occurs among carelessly fed calves. In rheumatism, small repeated doses of alkaline bicarbonates sometimes prove beneficial, apparently by promoting metamorphosis of albuminoids, neutralising excess of sarco-lactic acid, and encouraging the action of the kidneys. In such cases it is conjoined, according to circumstances, with oil of turpentine, salicylic acid, quinine, or potassium iodide. Similar antacid treat- ment is also successful in nettle-rash, and occasionally in eczema, a diluted solution being also applied externally to raw, weeping, painful, or itching surfaces. Potassium bi- carbonate is specially suitable for preventing or removing uric acid deposits, which occasionally occur in dogs; and the potassium is much more soluble than the sodium urate. Calculi and deposits occur in the bladder and urethra of highly-fed rams and wethers. In the treatment of these cases, Mr. Litt, Shrewsbury, with exercise and laxative diet, recommends castor oil, fgij. to f§viij., with belladonna ex- tract, grs. viij. to grs. xvj., followed by potassium bicarbonate, 3ss. to 5j> repeated thrice daily, freely dissolved in water or other diluents. As diuretics, the carbonates are less certain than the nitrate or acetate. Both the carbonates and hydrate, as well as the corresponding sodium salts, increase the activity of aconite when given along with it (Walley). Externally, the carbonates are applied as stimulants and detergents. Used with soap and hot water, they soften and ANTACIDS, DIURETICS, AND DETERGENTS 175 remove skin incrustation whetlaer consisting of sebaceous matters, thickened scales, abnormal discharges, or dirt. Diluted Avith 100 to 200 parts of water, along with a little glycerin, the carbonate forms a soothing dressing lor the earlier weeping stages of eczema, especially in dogs. The itching parts should be kept continually wetted, while, to prevent evaporation, the wet lint should be covered with gutta-percha tissue. Cases of itching which are not relieved by alkaline lotions should be dressed with a dilute acid, and such alternation is sometimes successful, when neither the alkaline nor acid treatment alone succeeds. The bicarbonate proves a serviceable injection in leucorrhoea in all patients. In the Cape Colonies a ley made from wood ashes is used successfully as a remedy for scab, either alone or mixed with sulphur. Doses, etc. — Of either carbonate, horses and cattle take §ss. to ^. ; sheep and pigs, 5ss. to 5j- ; dogs, grs. x. to grs. xl., repeated several times a day, liberally diluted with water. For stimulating gastric secretion they are given half an hour before eating; but in most dyspeptic cases acids are more permanently effectual. PoTAssA SuLPHURATA. — Sulphurated Potash. Potassium Sulphide. A mixture of salts of potassium, of which the chief are sulphides. (B.P.) One part of sulphur and two of potassium carbonate are mixed and heated until fusion occurs, poured on a stone slab and cooled. There is produced a liver-brown, bitter, acrid, alkaline substance which is odourless when dry, but when moistened smells of hydrogen sulphide. It readily dissolves in water, forming a yellow solution. Actions and Uses. — It conjoins the action of a sulphide and a potassium salt. Large doses are irritant and narcotic. Medicinal doses are laxative, and, like other sulphides, stimulate the secretions of the skin and respiratory mucous membrane, and are alterative. Externally, it is occasion- ally applied as a substitute for sulphur in the treatment of chronic skin diseases, and as a rubefacient, resolvent, and antiparasitic. 176 POTASSA SULPHURATA Toxic Effects. — Two ounces are stated to have destroyed a horse (Boiichardat); six drachms and a half, introduced into the stomach of a dog, and retained by ligature on the (esophagus, occasioned death with tetanic symptoms in seven minutes ; a drachm and a half in small fragments, introduced into the subcutaneous areolar tissue of dogs, caused exten- sive inflammation, coma, and death in thirteen hours (Christison). It appears to act much in the same manner as sulphuretted hydrogen, decomposing the haemoglobin of the blood, and causing nervous and muscular paralysis. Medicinal Uses. — It has been used in chronic cough, rheumatism, and skin diseases, in doses of 5i- to 5iij-> for horses and cattle, and grs. ij. to grs. x. for dogs. Once a panacea for all kinds of poisoning, it is now used only in poisoning by lead, which it converts into a black, insoluble, and almost inert sulphide. Potassium Sulphate. Potassii Sulphas. Sulphate of Potash. K,SO,. Potassium Bisulphate. Bisulphate of Potash. KHSO^. Potassium sulphate is got from certain salt mines, and from the mineral kainite, which is a double sulphate of potassium and magnesium. It occurs in transparent, colour- less, rhombic prisms, which have a sharp, saline, bitter taste, are hard and difficult to powder, and dissolve in ten parts of cold water, and in four parts of boiling water. The bisulphate is the residue in the preparation of nitric acid from nitre and sulphuric acid. It is colourless, crystal- line, and soluble, with an acid taste, and an acid reaction. It is distinguished from the neutral sulphate by its small flat prisms, its greater fusibility and solubility in water, its acid taste and reaction, and its decomposing carbonates with effervescence — a property which has led to its being occasionally substituted for tartaric acid in making effer- vescent powders. Actions and Uses. — The sulphates are the most irritant of the potash salts. They arc cathartic, cholagogue, and diuretic. As cathartics they cause both hydragogue and peristaltic actions, while as diuretics they ar^ less certain POTASSIUM IODIDE 177 than tlie nitrate or acetate. Professor Eutherford found that potassium sulphate has a distinct stimulant effect on the liver, shared by sodium sulphate, but not by magnesium sulphate. On account of its hardness and inaptness to absorb moisture, it is used for facilitating trituration of such tough vegetable substances as opium, ipecacuanha, and jalap. Potassium Iodide. Potassii lodidum. Potassic Iodide. KI. The iodide is prepared by slowly adding iodine to a solu- tion of potash, until it acquires a brown colour, evaporating to dryness, mixing the residue with one- tenth of its weight of powdered charcoal, and fusing in a red-hot crucible. The fused mass is dissolved in hot water, filtered and evaporated until a film appears on the surface, when it is set aside to crystallise. Properties. ^Cubical crystals, colourless, generally opaque, with a faint odour of iodide, a saline taste, decrepitating when heated, fusing at a red-heat, at a higher temperature volatilising unchanged, soluble in two-thirds of its weight of cold water, in twelve parts of rectified spirit, and in three parts of glycerin. These agents dissolve iodine freely, and are hence useful vehicles for its exhibition. Actions and Uses. — Potassium iodide closely resembles iodine, but is less powerful and devoid of local irritant action. It stimulates the lymphatic system. Medicinal doses are antiseptic, alterative, deobstruent, expectorant, and diuretic. Sodium iodide has the same actions. It is readily soluble, and is quickly absorbed; in the tissues it undergoes decomposition ; the iodine, when liber- ated,apparently combines with albuminoids, and acts specially on lymphatic glands and vessels, modifying nutrition, hastening metabolism, and promoting absorption. It is doubtless in this way that it also unites with lead and mercury deposited in the tissues, renders them soluble, carries them into the circulation, and causes their elimina- tion. It is quickly excreted by the mucous and skin surfaces, and by the kidneys. Pull doses increase both the solids and fluids of the urine. Toxic Effects. — Large doses, such as three ounces in M 178 ALTERATIVE, DEOBSTRUENT, AND DIURETIC horses or cattle, or a drachm in dogs, enfeeble the heart, and also the spinal and cerebral functions. It causes iodism, especially when it is mixed with iodates ; but this chronic poisoning is much rarer in animals than in man. Dogs receiving two to three drachms dissolved in water vomited, showed great depression, and died in a few days; rabbits were similarly affected by one drachm ; three drachms, injected beneath the skin of the back of a dog, caused extensive subcutaneous inflammation, and death in three days. Iodine is detected after death in the blood and urine, in the brain and spinal cord, in most of the internal organs, and even in the muscles and bones (Cogswell). Medicinal Uses. — It is given, either alone or with iodine, to promote absorption of morbid products, as in lymphangitis in horses, pleuritic and other serous effusions, enlarged glands and lung consolidations in all animals. For such purposes full doses are generally prescribed twice or thrice daily for a fortnight, and, where the lesions are superficial, iodine and soap liniments are also used externally. M. Trasbot, from fourteen years' study of the action of potassium iodide, is satisfied that in bronchitis, pneumonia, and pulmonary congestion, especially in horses, a few doses diminish the frequency and force of the pulse, the difficulty and quick- ness of breathing, and the abnormal temperature. These benefits are ensured, and congestion and dryness of the bronchial membrane relieved, by conjoining the iodide with ammonium acetate solution. Trasbot further states that, like digitalis, potassium iodide is serviceable in troublesome cough and in chronic cardiac cases. These latter effects probably depend mainly upon its action as a potassium salt. In roaring. Professor liobertson prescribed potassium iodide and arsenic. Thomassen, of Utrecht, and Professor Nocard, after extensive experience, trust implicitly to the iodide in actinomycosis, especially in those hitherto unsatisfactory cases afiecting the tongue of cattle. Ninety grains in about a pint of water are given daily for eight or nine days ; within that period swelling and pain abate, the animal is able to eat, and the cure is 'always successful,' usually within a month. Similar treatment has proved beneficial in disco- POTASSIUM NITRATE 179 mycosis of the testicular cord, withers, and poll, and in oases of chronic abscess of the shoulder. Dieckerhoff recom- mends the intratracheal injection of dilute iodine solutions in equine purpura hsemorrhagica, and other German practi- tioners have approved of the treatment. The solution used consists of five parts potassium iodide, one part iodine, and 100 parts water. Five drachms of the solution are injected into the trachea with a hypodermic syringe. It constitutes the chief agent in Schmidt's treatment of parturient apo- plexy in cows. Grains 110 to 160 of the iodide are dissolved in 35 ounces of boiling water ; and a fourth part of the solu- tion, cooled to lilood heat, is injected into each teat. Asthma, rheumatism, and eczema are frequently benefited by a course of the iodide. In chronic poisoning with lead or mercury it removes the metal from the tissues and from the body. It should not be prescribed with bismuth subnitrate, liquorice, nitrous ether or any drug containing starch. Externally, usually with soap liniment and laudanimi, it is applied to painful, swollen rheumatic joints, and to inflamed udder in cows and ewes. A solution of five grains in one ounce of water is recommended as an application for recent corneal opacities. It is much used for increasing the solu- bility of iodine, both in water and alcohol. Doses, etc. — Horses and cattle take gij- to gvj. ; sheep and pigs, grs. XX. to grs. Ix. ; dogs, grs. v. to grs. xx., repeated tAvo or three times a day, and given either in bolus or solution, in water or spirit. Dr. Lauder Brunton suggests that its effects are increased when it is given with common salt, more iodine being thus liberated. A convenient solution for intra- tracheal use is made with 30 grains of iodine, 2i- drachms potassium iodide, dissolved in 4 ounces of distilled water. The dose is 111,30 to TltGO, mixed with an equal measure of water. P0TAS.SIUM Bromide. Potassii Bromidum. KBr. (See ' Bromine and Bromides.') Potassium Nitrate. Potassii Nitras. Nitrate of Potash. Nitre. Saltpetre. KNO3. In the East Indies, Persia, Egypt, Spain, and other dry climates, a brown incrustation, consisting largely of nitre, 180 ALTERATIVE, FEBRIFUGE, AND DIURETIC covers considerable tracts of country. It is dissolved in water, mixed with impure potassium carbonate, and purified by repeated solution and crystallisation. By decomposing sodium nitrate with potassium chloride, nitre is also prepared. Properties. — White, opaque, crystalline masses, or trans- parent, colourless, anhydrous, slender, six-sided prisms, with a sharp, cooling, saline taste, undergoing no alteration in the air, deflagrating when thrown on flame. It is soluble in 3i parts of cold water, and one-third of its weight of boiling water ; during solution much heat is abstracted ; it is in- soluble in alcohol. Warmed in a test-tube, with sulphuric acid and copper filings, it evolves ruddy fumes of nitric peroxide; heated to fusion, the melted mass forms, on cooling, the hard, white, fibrous sal-prunelle. None of its conunon impurities interfere with its medicinal actions. Actions and Uses. — Large doses irritate both the bowels and kidneys. IMedicinal doses are alterative, febrifuge, diur- etic, and feebly cathartic. It is excreted by the bronchial meml)rane, the skin and kidneys, increasing the secretions of these organs. Used externally, it is stinuilant and refrigerant. Toxic Effects. — Large doses cause, in man and carnivora, fatal gastro-enteritis, Avith vomiting, weakness, and arrest of circulation, partly depending on reflex action, partly on direct action on the heart (Brunton). Dr. Paul Guttmann, experimenting, chiefly upon dogs, states that, in common with other potash salts, poisonous doses, besides in-contact irritation, paralyse the spinal cord, cause dyspnwa, and occasionally convulsions and muscular weakness, first over- taking the hind extremities, and lessen the frequency and force of the heart-beat, which in fatal cases ceases in diastole. Although an ounce has proved fatal in human patients, two ounces have no permanent injurious eftect on horses or cattle. Mr. Morton, indeed, gave a healthy horse 2 pounds, dissolved in (3 pounds water, and found that it acted both on the kidneys and bowels, but that its eflects ceased in twenty-four hours {Vctermarian, 1837). Moiroud, however, reports that half a pound given to horses, and two or three rOTASSIUM NITRATE 181 drachms to dogs, inflame the alimentary canal and urinary organs, causing depression and death, usually within twenty- four hours. Kaufmann states six ounces as the toxic dose for horses and cattle, six drachms for sheep, and seventy-tive grains for dogs. Medicinal Uses. — It is soluble, diffusible, and quickly enters the blood ; but its action on living blood and on tissue metamorphosis has not been clearly explained. As a potash salt, and also as a nitrate, it reduces cardiac action. It promotes bronchial, cutaneous, and urinary secretion. Clinical experience accords it notaUe alterative and febri- fuge properties. In conjunction with ammonium acetate solution, it is prescribed in catarrhal disorders, in which it has the twofold advantage of promoting discharge from the dry respiratory membrane and abating fever. American practitioners use nitre freely in laminitis, which, owing to careless feeding and long fasts, is still common in America ; they give two ounces, dissolved in a pint of water, repeated thrice daily, and assure me that fever and pain are abated and exudation controlled. One fourth of this dose would be safer, and perhaps equally effectual. Repeated doses, conjoined with quinine, are given in purpura. It is service- able in rheumatism, being frequently prescribed with the carbonate or iodide, or with salicylic acid. Nitre, when dissolving in water, abstracts heat, and is hence sometimes used externally as a refrigerant ; its cooling effects are increased by admixture with sal-ammoniac. Five ounces each of nitre and sal-ammoniac, dissolved in sixteen of water, reduce the temperature from 50° to 10° Fahr. (Pereira). For such purposes ice, however, is cheaper, and more convenient. Doses, etc. — As a diuretic, horses take §ss. to §j. ; cattle, gj. to §ij. ; sheep, 5j. to gij. ; pigs, gss. to 5j. ; dogs, grs. x. to grs. XXX. Soap, resin, with other diuretics, and free solution in water, hasten and increase the action of nitre on the kidneys. A diuretic mass is thus made : — Take soap and nitre, of each lbs. ij. ; resin, lbs. iij. ; Venice turpentine, lbs. ij.; oil of turpentine, f§viij. Melt the soap and resin over a slow fire; 182 FEBRIFUGE PRESCRIPTIONS remove the mixture from the heat, and when it has some- what cooled stir in the other constituents. The dose of this mass is §ij. The balls are made up with a little linseed meal or flour. As an alterative and febrifuge nitre is given in about half the doses used to cause diuresis, is repeated several times a day, and is generally conjoined with other medicines. A febrifuge and la.xative ball for the horse is prepared with an ounce of nitre, a drachm of aloes, and twenty grains of calomel. For a horse with catarrh and impaired appetite, a useful draught is made with Epsom salt two ounces, and nitre and ammonia acetate solution, of each an ounce, dissolved in gruel or ale. Catarrhal symptoms and sore-throat are relieved by four drachms nitre and one drachm each of ipecacuanha, camphor, and belladonna ex- tract, made into bolus, and repeated every four or six hours. An ounce each of potassium nitrate and carbonate, with two drachms iodide, are useful in rheumatism. Amongst cattle similar combinations are serviceable. For them a convenient alterative is made with two ounces each of nitre, sulphur, and ginger, given in treacle and water, or in ale. For the dog a good febrifuge consists of five grains each of nitre and Dover's powder, and one grain calomel, placed upon the tongue, or bolted in a piece of meat, or made into a pill. Mr. Mayhew recommends three to eight grains nitre, one to four grains James's powder, and the same quantity of belladonna extract, made into pill with confection of roses. Cats take about half the dose requisite for dogs. Potassium Chlorate. Potassii Chloras. Chlorate of Potash. KCIO3. Chlorine gas is passed rapidly into a strong solution of potassium carbonate and calcium hydrate. The hypo- chlorate first formed is decomposed by the heat evolved. The mass, when charged with chlorine, as indicated by its acquiring a pink colour, is boiled, and the crystals formed in cooling are purified by re-solution in boiling water. They are colourless rhomboidal plates, have a cool saline taste, are POTASSIUM CHLORATE 183 soluble in sixteen parts of cold water, and in two parts at 212° Fahr. The salt readily parts with its oxygen; thrown on red-hot coal it deflagrates; triturated with sulphur or phosphorus it explodes. Explosive gases are also evolved when it is heated with sulphuric or hydrochloric acid. Actions and Uses. — Potassium chlorate is antiseptic, altera- tive, sialagogue, and diuretic; used externally, it is anti- septic, mildly stimulant, and refrigerant. It is less soluble than sodium chlorate, which it closely resembles. Medicinal Uses. — The chlorate does not exhibit the charac- teristic actions of potassium salts, but it readil}* parts with chloric acid and oxygen, and in some of its actions resembles the nitrites. Poisonous doses highly oxidise the hsemoglobin of the blood, converting it into methasmoglobin, which holds oxygen firmly, and thus interferes with aeration of blood in the remote capillaries. Resjiiration accordingly is impaired, blood-pressure falls, hsematuria and asphyxial convulsions precede death. A small quantit}" mixed with recently- drawn blood increases its coagulability and keeping pro- perties. Used as a wash or gargle, it stimulates the salivary and buccal glands, moistening the dry, parched mouth. It soothes and heals aphthous eruptions and ulcerations of the mouth and throat; while in catarrh, sore-throat, and bron- chitis it thins the secretions and promotes expectoration. It is readil}' absorbed, and in febrile and blood-poisoning cases is believed to exert antiseptic effects, depending upon its sahne properties, and on its readily parting with oxygen and chloric acid. But this explanation is not altogether satisfactory, for it is excreted in great part unchanged, small doses being removed by the kidneys, and larger by the bowels. Like other salines, in febrile and inflammatory cases, whether in horses or cattle, it is believed to lower pulse and temperature, clean the tongue, improve appetite, gently stimulate the bowels, and render the evacuations more natural and less coated with mucus. It is frequently prescribed with Epsom salt, gentian, or ether. Hard-worked horses, overdone or suffering from catarrh, are usually benefited by half an ounce, given night and morning, with gentian and ether. In the catarrhal epizootic of horses. 184 PERMANGANATE OF POTASH Principal Robertson ordered it with sweet spirit of nitre and camphor. In the treament of purpura, Professor Williams prescribes it usually Avitli iron salts, and believes that it increases— as it does outside the body — the coagulability of blood. He gives an ounce daily, divided into two or three doses, but after the second day finds that smaller doses suffice. It is rapidly eliminated in the urine — rendering it acid even in herbivora — and also in the sweat, bile, milk, and saliva. Solutions of six to twenty grains to tlic ounce of water and glycerin are used as antiseptic stimulants for unhealthy wounds. Doses, etc. — Horses take 5j- to 5iv.; cattle, 5ij. to 5yj.; sheep and pigs, grs. xx. to grs. Ix. ; dogs, grs. v. to grs. xv., repeated two or three times daily, given either in bolus or solution, alone or conjoined Avith other salines, bitters, tonics, or stimulants. Most horses of their own accord will take an ounce daily, dissolved in water or gruel. As a soothing electuary for sore-throat it is conjoined with camphor, bella- donna, and treacle. Potassium Permanganate. Potassii Permanganas. Condy's Red Fluid. (KgMngOg.) Potassium permanganate is obtained by the interaction of manganese dioxide, potassium hydrate, and potassium chlorate. In dark purple crystals, with a sweet, astringent, disagreeable taste. It is readily soluble in cold water, producing a deep-red solution. So readily does it part with oxygen that when mixed with such easily oxidised substances as sugar and glycerin it takes fire or explodes spontaneously. The solution also readily evolves oxgyen and hence is an effectual bleacher and deodoriser. Condy's red disinfecting fluid is a mixture of potassium and sodium permanganates, and is about half the strength of the B.P. liquor potassii permanganatis, which contains about one per cent, of the salt. Actions and Uses. — The permanganates, in virtue of their power of oxidation, are deodorisers, and also topical stimu- POTASSIUM PERMANGANATE 185 lants. Strong solutions are irritant and caustic. Their power of breaking up various unstable organic substances is further illustrated when they are mixed with the cobra poison, which, thus treated, loses its deadly power, and may with impunity be injected subcutaneously. When an animal, however, has been bitten by a cobra, the permanganate solu- tion, hypodermically injected, appears to be decomposed before it comes into contact with the poison, and has no antidotal effect. Fifteen minims of a one per cent, solution, injected into the bitten part, is more reliable. When swallowed it does not seem to exert the alterative or febrifuge effects of the nitrate or chlorate. It is an antidote to poisoning by opium. Potassium permanganate, although it has not the anti- septic power of corrosive sublimate, effectually destroys bacteria, and Koch found that a five per cent, solution arrested development of the spores of anthrax soaked in it for one day. It is used to deodorise and disinfect foetid wounds, the nostrils in ozena, the mouth in aphtha, the throat when ulcerated, the uterus in retention of the fcetal membranes, and also to cleanse hands and instruments that have been in contact with decomposing or contagious matters. Permanganate solutions, in the convenient form of Condy's fluid, are frequently placed in shallow vessels about build- ings to be deodorised : or cloths, saturated with one part of the fluid to fifty or sixty of water, are suspended. But for thorough disinfection such a non-volatile body is not so trustworthy as chlorine, sulphurous acid, or the volatile tar acids. Effectual results are, however, obtained when the permanganates are brought into immediate contact with the injurious organic particles. Thus, four ounces of Condy's red disinfecting fluid, added to 100 gallons of stale-smelling, unsightly rain-water left in a foul cistern, usually precipi- tates all impurities, and after some hours the clarified water becomes sweet and fit for use. The rapidity with which a known quantity of the permanganate solution parts with oxygen and loses its purple or pink colour, is a test of the amount of organic contamination in water, other fluids, or 186 POTASH ACETATE, CITRATE, AND TARTRATE even in air. Its expense, however, precludes its general use in veterinary practice. Doses, etc. — Potassium permanganate has been given to horses and cattle as an alterative and febrifuge in drachm doses ; but observation does not justify its preference to the nitrate or chlorate. For antiseptic and deodorant purposes Condy's red fluid is dissolved in 50 to 100 parts of water. Potassium Acetate. Potassii Acetas. Acetate of Potash. Potassium Citrate. Potassii Citras. Citrate of Potash. Potassium acetate is prepared by fusing the product of the interaction of acetic acid and potassium carbonate. In Avhite, foliaceous, satiny masses, or in granular particles, very deliquescent, and freely soluble in water and alcohol. In their actions and uses the acetate and citrate closely re- semble the nitrate. Without action on the gastric juice, they render the urine and other secretions strongly alkaline. Like other alkaline salts containing a vegetable acid, when they enter the body they are mainly converted into the carbonate, and are eliminated in the urine, producing diuresis. The acetate and citrate of potassium are the in- organic diuretics most frequently prescribed in human medicine. The doses for horses, cattle, etc. are the same as those of the nitrate. Acid Potassium Tartrate. Potassii Tartras Acidus. Cream of Tartar. KHC^H.O,. Potassium Tartrate. Potassii Tartras. KgC^H^Og.HgO. The crude tartar or argol, obtained from the interior of wine-casks, when purified by solution and crystallisation, occurs in white, hard, crystalline masses, with a sharp, acid taste. When administered it retains water with avidity, and is slowly absorbed ; although it does not cause intestinal irritation or peristalsis, doses of several ounces given to horses or cattle render the ftuces fluid, and arc mildly laxative. Smaller doses, like those of the alkaline salts of most organic acids, are converted in the body into the car- bonate, and excreted mostly in the urine, causing diuresis. SODIUM SALTS 187 The normal potassium tartrate is obtained by neutral- ising acid potassium tartrate with potassium carbonate. It occurs in small, colourless four- or six-sided prisms. It resembles the acetate and nitrate ; in small doses is diu- retic, in larger purgative. Professor Robertson used to recommend it witli magnesium or sodium sulphate for anremic young horses affected with congested liver. SODIUM AND ITS MEDICINAL COMPOUNDS Sodium salts abound in the ashes of marine and maritime plants. They occur native in the Chili nitre beds and in borax, but their chief commercial source is the chloride obtained from rock-salt deposits, or from the evaporation of sea-water. They are soluble, with the single exception of the antimoniate, which goes down very slowly from solution. They are distinguished by their negative reaction with the several group tests, and by their communicating to the flame of burning alcohol a bright yellow colour. Actions and Uses.— SodiuTn salts, chiefly as albuminates, chlorides, and phosphates, are constituents of the blood, bile, serous fluids, and indeed of all animal secretions and tex- tures. The more soluble salts, in small doses and diluted solution, are chiefly execreted by the kidneys ; while the less soluble, in larger doses and more concentrated solution, are removed by the bowels. Like potassium salts, they may be grouped as follows : — 1. The hydrate, carbonates, and salts of organic acids, which in the body are converted into carbonates, are antacid, alterative, and slightly diuretic. The hydrate and carbonate are caustics. Sodium ethylate solution contains 18 per cent, of the solid salt (NaC^H^O), is a colourless, syrupy liquid, becoming brown by keeping, and is used as a caustic. 2. The chloride, sulphate, and nitrate act as soluble crys- talloids, are antiseptic, febrifuge, and refrigerant ; small doses are slightly diuretic, while large doses are cathartic. 3. The borate, benzoate, hyposulphite, sulpho-carbolate chlorate, salicylate, and valerianate resemble their acid or salt radical rather than their base. 188 SODIUM CARBONATES Sodium Hydroxide. Sodium Hydrate. Caustic Soda. NaHO. Sodium Carbonate. Sodii (Jarbonas. Carbonate of Soda. Na,CO3.10Aq. Sodium Bicarbonate. Sodii Bicarbonas, Bicarbonate of Soda. NaHCOg. Sodium hydrate and solution of caustic soda resemble in their preparation and general properties the corresponding potassium compounds, but are little used in veterinary practice. The carbonate was formerly obtained by lixiviating the ashes of marine plants, and from the native sesqui-carbonate or natron found as an efflorescence on the margins of lakes in warm climates. It is now obtained from common salt, by heating it in furnaces with sulphuric acid ; the sulphate thus prepared is converted into sulphide, and thence into carbonate, by roasting with coal or slack and limestone ; lixiviating, calcining, and crystallising. From a saturated solution of this soda ash there separate large transparent, colourless, laminar, rhombic crystals of hydrated carbonate (Na.2CO3.lOAq.). The water may be driven off by heating to 120' Fahr., when the dried granular sodium carbonate remains. The carbonate in its several forms is alkaline to taste and reagents, efflorescent, and soluble in one to two parts of water. The bicarbonate produced by saturating the carbonate with carbonic anhydride occurs as a white crystalline powder, or aggregation of irregular opaque scales, has a saline, slightly alkaline, not unpleasant taste, is soluble in about ten parts of cold water, and is distinguished from the carbonate by its feeble alkalinity, and its giving a colourless instead of a coloured precipitate with corrosive sublimate. Soda water, as ordinarily sold, is simply aerated water, but it should contain in every pint thirty grains of bicarbonate, and be saturated with carbonic acid gas, dissolved under pressure of four atmospheres. Actions and Uses. — Sodium carbonate and bicarbonate are antacids and alteratives. They differ only in the degree of ANTACID AND ALTERATIVE 189 their action, and resemble the corresponding potassium salts. Medicdial Uses. — Small doses given a quarter to half an hour before meals increase secretion of gastric juice. Given with or after food, they aid the eraulsionising and digestion of fats, and neutralise the acid of the gastric juice, as well as any acid produced by excessive fermentation of food. They are hence sometimes serviceable in relieving indigestion and flatulence, their ethcacy being increased by administration with aromatics or stimulants. Young calves fed on stale skim milk, and suffering from atonic dyspepsia, are often relieved by one to two drachms of sodium bicarbonate and 30 grains of bismuth carbonate, dissolved in each meal of milk. Dieckerhoff and others have successfully treated hasmoglobinuria with half a pound to a pound daily given in doses of two ounces every hour. Xormal alkalinity of blood and muscle is believed to be secured, and further solution of ha?moglobin arrested {Veieriv avian, 1896). They are antidotes in poisoning by mineral and other acids; being less irritant than the corresponding potassium salts, they are preferred for stimulating secretion of gastric juice and neutralising acids in the alimentary canal, Avhile potassium carbonates are more effectual antacids in rheumatism or acidity of the urine, and are more active diuretics. Sodium carbonate solutions lessen irritation of urticaria, lichen, and other skin eruptions, but are not so effectual as potassium carbonates. In more chronic cases the alkaline dressings are alternated with tar or oil of cade. Leucorrhcea is usually arrested by two or three injections of diluted sodium bicarbonate. A stronger solution abates the pain of burns. Doses, etc. — Of the carbonate, horses and cattle take 5j- to 5ij. ; sheep and pigs, grs. x. to grs. 1. ; dogs, grs. v. to grs. xv. The bicarbonate, although less active than the carbonate, is more convenient for general use, and is given in double these doses, either in bolus or solution. It is frequently given dissolved in the drinking water to dyspeptic, diabetic, or febrile horses. 190 SODIUM BIBORATE Borax. Sodium Biborate. Sodium Pyroborate. NagB^O^. lOAq. Borax occurs native in certain Austrian mineral waters, as an incrustation on the cdf^es of various lakes in Thibet and Persia, and in streams in Southern California, As crude borax or tincal, it is imported from Calcutta in greenisli pieces, moistened with oil to prevent efHorescence. It is purified by calcining and recrystallising. Borax is now got by calcining together, in proper proportions, boric acid and sodium carbonate. In colourless crystals, with a saline, cooling taste, soluble in 25 parts of cold and two of hot water, and in one of glycerin ; insoluble in alcohol. Heated, it melts in its water of crystallisation, and swells into the porous borax usta; at a red-heat it becomes the transparent glass or anhydrous borax used as a flux. Actions and Uses. — Borax is antiseptic, parasiticide, slightly astringent, and alkaline, and is used to relieve irritation of the skin and mucous membranes. It has notable antiseptic powers ; one part in 100 of water arrests the action of emulsin, diastase, and ptyalin: while one part in 1000 of water prevents the action of rennet ; it requires, however, according to Koch, one part in forty-eight of water to kill developed bacteria. It has been prescribed in the same doses as the bicar- bonate in gastric irritation. It is a useful antiseptic in aphthous and ulcerated conditions of the mouth and fauces, is sometimes conjoined with potassium chlorate, and applied either in powder or with ' Sanitas,' or glycerin and water. It allays irritation and itching in many cases of erythema, intertrigo, eczema, and psoriasis. It is prefer- able to more active and poisonous remedies for dogs, which are apt to lick their dressings. In acute eczema one part each of borax and alum is used, dissolved in fifty parts of water. It is an elVcctual injection for leucorrha'a. In America it is used for the destruction of cockroaches. It is a good solvent for salicylic and benzoic acids. Glycerin of borax is made with one part of borax and six of glycerin. SODIUM SULPHATE 191 Mel Boracis is composed of 2 parts borax, 1 of glycerin, and 16 of honey. Sodium Sulphate. Sodii Sulphas. Sulphate of Soda. Glauber's Salt. Na.SO^.lOAq. The sulphate effloresces on the surface of the soil in various parts of India, occurs in masses in Spain, and is a constituent of sea-water, of many aperient mineral waters, of various plants, and of several animal secretions. When two parts sodium chloride are heated with one part sul- phuric acid, hydrochloric acid is evolved, and sodium sul- phate crystallises from the solution. It occurs in colourless, transparent, oblique prisms, which effloresce on exposure to air, have a saline, bitter taste, and at 60° Fahr. are soluble in less than their own weight of water. Actions and Uses. — It exhibits the typical actions of the alkaline group, is cathartic, slightly diuretic, febrifuge, and cholagogue. Unlike the magnesium sulphate, it has no toxic effect when injected into the circulation. Like other saline purga- tives, it has a low diffusive power ; it impedes absorption of fluids present in the intestines, increases both secretion and peristalsis, and thus augments the quantity and fluidity of the dejections. Not only does it carry away bile lodged in the duodenum, and thus prevent its reabsorption, but Pro- fessor Rutherford, experimenting on fasting dogs, found that, unlike the magnesium sulphate, it acts upon the hepatic cells and augments secretion of bile. The phosphate of soda has a similar moderate cholagogue action, and both are accordingly with reason used in congested conditions of the liver. While large doses of Glauber salt are removed b}^ the bowels, small doses, freely diluted, pass off, in great part unchanged, by the kidneys. Although little used for horses, it is still prescribed for cattle and sheep, for the same purposes as Epsom salt, with Avhich it is sometimes conjoined. Catharsis is seldom, however, produced within twenty-four hours. It is an antidote in poisoning by car- bolic acid and barium chloride. In dogs it acts both as an 192 SODIUM SULPHITES emetic and purgative. It abstracts heat when treated with a mineral acid. Doses, etc. — As a purgative cattle take lb. j. to lb. jss. ; sheep, ^^ij. to §iv., given with ginger and treacle, and suc- ceeded by liberal supplies of chilled water. As a febrifuge for horses §ij. to §jv. may be given. Sodium Sulphite. Normal Sulphite. Sodii Sulphis. Na^ SOg.TAq. Sodium Hyposulphite. Hyposulphite of Soda. Sodii Hyposulphis. NagSgOg.SAq. Sodium sulphite may be obtained by the interaction of sulphurous acid and sodium carbonate. In colourless crystals, efflorescent, inodorous, with a saline taste. Sodium hyposulphite may be prepared by dissolving sul- phur in a boiling solution of sodium sulphite and crystal- lising. The hyposulphite is very soluble in water, and fusible. It is more permanent than the sulphite. Actions and Uses. — The sulphite and hyposulphite are antiseptics, deodorisers, and insecticides. In the presence of acids, without and also within the body, they give off sulphurous acid, which they therefore resemble. They de- stroy ferments and bacteria, and remove offensive smells — properties greatly increased when they are used along with the tar acids. When standing long in contact with water the sulphite decomposes and gives off hydrogen sulphide. General Actions. — Sodium sulphite and hyposulphite, when swallowed, are absorbed, remove noisome smells and acridity from unhealthy secretions, and are excreted mostly as sulphates. Professor PoUi, of Milan, made upwards of three hundred experiments with acid sulphite, mostly upon dogs, and found that it materially diminished the effects of animal poisons. He gave dogs 225 grains daily for a fortnight ; very moderate doses were detectable in twenty- four hours in the blood, liver, and m-ine ; two ounces of blood drawn from dogs, which for five days had received daily with their food thirty grains of sulphite, kejjt fresh for three weeks ; while blood taken from dogs similarly SODIUM SULPHITE SOLUTION 193 fed, but receiving no sulphite, became putrid within a few days. Full doses, given previous to death, retarded or pre- vented putrefaction of the body. Professor Polli injected fifteen grains of foetid pus from an abscess into the thighs of two dogs, and next day re- peated the injection. Both dogs were stupefied, reeled, and tottered when made to walk, while their pulse and breathing were much quickened. For five days previously both dogs had been treated exactly alike, with this differ- ence only, that one had received daily thirty grains of sodium sulphite, which was continued throughout the experiment. In four days after the injection this dog was again eating, and the wound in his thigh healing. The other, receiving no sulphite, daily became worse, gangrene set in, and in ten days he died, exhausted. Similar results followed injection into the femoral vein of bullock's blood kept for four months, and offensively putrid. Dogs that had previously received the sulphite recovered their appe- tite, and were almost well in three days ; while those managed in the same manner, but not receiving sulphite, died comatose in five days, suffering from low fever and gangrene. Forty -five grains of the muco- purulent dis- charge from a glandered horse were injected into the femoral veins of two strong, healthy dogs, one of which for several daj-s had received two drachms daily of sodium sulphite, and although at first seeming to suffer most, in a few hours was able to eat, and was next day in tolerable health. The other, however, was fevered and prostrate, the limb became tender, oedematous, and gangrenous, a purulent discharge ran from the nose and eyes, and death occurred on the sixth day. Medicinal Uses. — These experiments held out great hopes that septicaemia might be prevented or cured by sulphites. But repeated careful clinical observation has not justified the high expectations formed of them, and their adminis- tration does not appear to arrest or materially alter the course of febrile, contagious, or zymotic diseases. Amongst horses they have been given in febrile e^ttacks, and in such cases many American practitioners have given me favourable N 194 SODIUM HYPOSULPHITE SOLUTION reports of them. Reasoning from their physiological actions, they should be serviceable in inveterate skin dis- orders, tedious cases of strangles, and rheumatism. They relieve acidity and flatulence occurring in badly-fed young calves. The sul})hitG, in ounce doses, given thrice daily, lowers temperature, and relieves the breathing in contagious pleuro- pneumonia of cattle. In cattle plague it has been given both by the mouth and injected into the veins, and although it did not cure, it abated fever, lowered excessive tempera- ture, and prolonged life. Mixed with treacle and placed within the lips, it diminishes irritation, smell, and acrid dischargee in foot-and-mouth disease. Used alone, and occasionally with potassium chlorate, it has been given to young cattle to prevent attacks of black-leg, half-ounce or ounce doses for this object being administered with the ordinary food for three or four days consecutively during every fortnight. It is difficult to estimate the precise value of such preventives, adopted, as they often are, in conjunction witli more careful feeding and management. In distemper in dogs, ten to twenty grains of sulphite, or hyposulphite, are given twice daily to regulate the bowels and abate the fever. Dr. A. J. Harrison, at the British Medical Association Meeting at Nottingham in 1892, reported the successful treatment, in the Clifton Zoological Gardens, of monkeys suffering' from lupus, by saturating the affected parts, daily or as required, with a solution of forty grains of sodium hyposulphite to the ounce of water, and subsequently apply- ing a solution of five drops of strong hydrochloric acid to the ounce of water. Hyposulphurous and sulphurous acid gases are thus produced. Their nascent condition, it is urged, increases their efficacy. The ulceration rapidly heals ; one serious case, which had gone too far for operation, cicatrised in six months ; ten consecutive cases were success- fully treated. Further experiments on these lines should be made not only in lupus, but in actinomycosis and other diseases depending upon micro-organisms. Other germicides besides sodium hyposulphite may, moreover, exhibit special potency when their active constituents exert their effects in ARRESTS LUPUS ULCERATION 195 a nascent state. A solution of ten grains hyposulphite to the ounce of water is an excellent aj^plication for corneal ulcers and recent opacities. Doses, etc. — Of the sulphite, horses and cattle take §ss. to §j.; sheep and pigs, 5ss. to 5ij- ; dogs, grs. xx. to grs. Ix. Of the hyposulphite, somewhat smaller doses suffice. Either drug is prescribed in powder or solution, and may be repeated several times daily. Having little taste, they may usually be taken mixed Avith the food. They may be conjoined with ginger, gentian, camphor, or ammonium carbonate. Sodium Chloride. Sodii chloridum. Chloride of Sodium. Common Salt. NaCl. Salt is found in extensive rock deposits in Poland, Spain, and other parts of Europe, and in this country in Cheshire and Worcestershire. It exists in variable amount in every soil, and hence in every water, is the largest saline con- stituent of the ocean, and abounds in the tissues and fluids of plants and animals. It is obtained for medicinal and domestic purposes by quarrying the solid beds of rock-salt, or by evaporating brine springs or sea- water. It forms crystals, which vary in size according to the rapidity of their formation. When pure, it occurs in small, white, crystalline grains, or transparent cubical crystals free from moisture, and has a purely saline taste. From the presence of magnesium and calcium chlorides, many samples are deliquescent. It is soluble in about two and three- quarter parts of water at all temperatures. It is rather more than twice as heavy as water. Actions and Uses. — Salt is an essential article of food; small doses are restorative, stomachic, and antiseptic ; larger doses are irritant, cathartic, and emetic ; it is used externally as a stimulant, antiseptic, and refrigerant. General Actions. — So essential is the regular or frequent use of salt for the maintenance of health, that animals, especially vegetable feeders, in a state of nature instinctively travel many miles to saline springs, the sea-shore, or incrus- tations or beds of salt. M. Boussingault, experimenting on 196 SODIUM CHLORIDE its dietetic value, selected six cattle, as equal as possible in weight and appearance, and fed them in exactly the same manner, except that three received each 12 ounce of salt daily, whilst the other three got none. In about six months the skin and hair of those without salt became rough, dry, and staring, presenting a striking contrast to the smooth, shining coats of the others, which, although little heavier than their neighbours, were more lively, and of so much better appearance that they brought a somewhat higher price. The cattle receiving salt exhibited throughout greater appetite and relish for their food, consumed it in a shorter time, and also drank larger quantities of water. A piece of rock salt should constantly lie in the horse's manger, the ox's crib, and the sheep's trough. It is specially necessary when the diet consists largely of cooked grains or roots, in the preparation of which part of the salt is apt to be dissolved out. The condiment not only gratifies the palate, but also, as indicated, serves important nutritive purposes. It increases secretion of saliva and gastric juice, furnishes hydrochloric acid for the gastric juice, and soda salts for the bile ; assists the diffusion of fluids through membranes, while four to six parts per 1000 are present in the blood serum, contributing to the solution of the globulins. Around an inflamed spot, notably in pneumonia, common salt accumulates, and its subsequent increase in the urine often marks the subsidence of the attack (Bartholow). During convalescence from acute disease the chloride and other sodium salts are removed from the body in unusual amount, and most animals then instinctively take salt freely. Besides furnishing an essential constituent of the animal fluids and solids, it appears to assist in the assimilation of nutritive matters. On the absorption of calcium salts it has a marked effect, for when withheld from dogs with fractured limbs repair and union are tardy. It is excreted by the kidneys and mucous membranes. In common with other cathartic salines, it exerts an excito-secretory action on the glands of the intestines ; it besides impedes absorption of fluid from the bowels, which thus become mechanically distended with fluid. Their con- ESSENTIAL TO HEALTHY NUTRITION 197 tents are softened and peristalsis is encouraged. The blood not only does not obtain from the bowels its usual supply of fluid, but pours serous secretion into the bowels. Within an hour or two after administration of a saline cathartic the blood becomes concentrated, and thereafter gradually recoups itself from the tissues, thus promoting absorption of fluid and waste materials. Professor Rutherford's experiments on fasting dogs indicate that common salt slightly increases secretion of bile, in this respect resembling sodium sulphate rather than magnesium sulphate. On horses the cathartic action of common salt is uncertain, often violent, and usually accompanied by considerable irritation of the kidneys. On dogs it usually operates both as an emetic and cathartic. Small and freely diluted doses increase the secretion of urine and the proportion of urinary solids. On pigs it acts as a purgative, but is scarcely so safe or certain as oil, jalap and calomel, or aloes. Toxic Effects. — In the Veterinarian for 1839 and 1862, cases are recorded of pigs eating about four and a half ounces, repeated during several days. They suffered from flatulence, diarrhoea, vertigo, convulsions, and paralysis, and died in eight to twenty-four hours. The mucous membrane of the stomach and bowels was found after death highly injected and inflamed. Sir Charles Cameron, Dublin, in 1871 reported the poisoning of thirty-one pigs conveyed by rail in a salt-truck, from the sides of which they had licked the salt. For many hours they had been deprived of water. They appeared in a state of asphyxia; emetics and sub- sequently stimulants were ordered, and eleven recovered. The carcases of those that died exhibited ' signs of gastro- intestinal inflammation; the brain was greatly congested, and there was considerable extravasation of blood in the cerebellum and medulla' {Veterinarian 1871). Even cattle and sheep, for which it is generally a suitable cathartic, occasionally suffer from overdoses. I have seen dangerous effects produced by several ounces given to young and delicate calves, for which oil is a more suitable purge. Mr. Dobson reports that one-pound doses given in four quarts of water to healthy yearlings in half an hour induced irritation, 198 SODIUM CfiLOETDE excitement, staggering, paralysed hind-quarters, and death ( Veterinarian, 1805). Nitrate of soda, much used as a manure, has irritant and cathartic properties, somewhat resembling those of common salt ; has sometimes killed both horses and cattle that have licked it, or eaten grass strongly saturated by a large, recently applied dressing {Veterinarian, 1876). A number of cattle died rather suddenly on a farm in South Lincolnshire, and an inquiry into the circumstances of the case left no doubt that death arose from nitrate of soda which the animals obtained from bags which had been used in conveying this fertiliser into the field, and had afterwards been left lying about. Recently, on a farm in Massachusetts, eleven cows out of a herd of fifteen died as a result of having had given to them nitrate of soda in mistake for common salt. The fifteen cows had been out at sfrass all day, and were driven to the stalls in the evening, when an attendant gave to all except two what he supposed to be common salt, thoroughly mixed with a small quantity of wheat bran. Apparently, all the animals ate heartily. Two hours later the cows attracted notice by the noise they were making, and when examined they were found to be uneasy and evidently in pain, and several died within an hour or two. The only skilled advice obtainable was that of a medical practitioner who, thinking the case was one of arsenic poisoning, prescribed accordingly, but before morning eleven of the cows were dead. An examination of samples of material collected from the mangers revealed the presence of large quantities of nitrate of soda, but no common salt. An analysis of the contents of the stomach failed to discover any trace of arsenic, lead, or other ujineral poison. Nearly twenty years ago somewhat similar cases were recorded in the Archives Veterinaires. A horse had drunk freely of a solution of nitrate of soda and exhibited many of the symptoms that were subsequent!}' noticed in the Massa- chusetts cattle ; the administration of strong infusions of coffee and alcohol and irritant clysters relieved the animal, which in a few days completely recovered. In another case four bags of nitrate of soda had been jjhiced on a grass field and CATHARTIC, STOMACHIC, AND ANTISEPTIC 199 allowed to remain some five hours before being applied. Meanwhile, some of the nitrate had become washed by rain from the bags upon the groimd. Three days later cows were turned into the pasture and obtained the salt by licking it from the herbage. They showed symptoms of poisoning, but ultimately recovered. One other case worth noticing is that in which two hundred bags which had contained nitrate of soda were washed in large tubs of water close to which the cattle passed on their way to the pasture. A few hours afterwards many of the cows were seen to be ill, and within eight hours two of them had died. These proved to be the first two that had left the stalls, and consequently had time to drink more of the solution than the others. Medicinal Uses. — For vigorous cattle and sheep common salt is a useful purgative, resembling in its effects Epsom and Glauber salts. It is, however, more soluble, moderate doses are more quickly absorbed, and hence it is frequently desirable to conjoin common and Epsom salts. Full doses of such salines cause thirst, induce the animal to drink water or other bland fluids freely, thus softening and carry- ing onwards the hard, dry, impacted food, which is apt to accumulate in the first and third stomachs of ruminants. For such patients salt is administered to unload the bowels in impaction of the rumen and omasum, as well as in the earlier stages of diarrhoea depending on over- feeding, or kept up by the presence of irritating matters in the canal. It is given to relieve irritation and inflammation of the eyes, brain, respiratory organs, or limbs; and in such cases not only beneficially empties the stomachs and bowels, but frees the blood of peccant matters. It controls excessive action of silver salts. Small and repeated doses are stomachic, are prescribed for all animals suffering from indigestion and irregular appetite, and may be conjoined with gentian, ginger, or spirits and water. It. obviates to some extent__the effects j of damp and badly kept fodder, and, given with nutritive / dry food, prevents or retards the progress of ascites in sheep. Systematically given salt lessens the liability to intestinal worms, and an injection of two or three ounces 200 SODIUM CHLORIDE SOLUTION to a pint of water often brings away ascarides from the rectum. It is frequently added to laxative clysters. A one per cent, aqueous solution is injected subcutaneously in collapse from hemorrhage, serious operation, or from exhausting disease. Injections of a quart or more may be made daily with marked benefit in many cases. Dissolved in ten to twenty parts of water, it proves a serviceable antiseptic and stimulant gargle in relaxed and ulcerated sore-throat of horses and other patients; such an application increases the activity of the cilia of the bronchial mucous membrane. Salt-water baths exert curative effects on animals as well as on man. For stuping or cleansing wounds, a one per cent, warm watery solution, in virtue of its stimulant and antiseptic properties, is preferable to plain water, and less apt to sodden the parts or weaken their vitality. Salt solutions are applied cold as stimulants and refrigerants for strains and chronic inflammation of the joints and feet, particularly amongst cattle and sheep. For a cooling mixture, one part each of salt, nitre, and sal ammoniac is dissolved in thirty to forty parts of water; or one part of salt is mixed with two of pounded ice. Such freezing mixtures require, hoAvever, to be used warily, for their prolonged application dangerously lowers vitality. For preventing and arresting putrefaction, salt is cheap and effectual. Dr. Angus Smith with two ounces of salt jire- served one hundredweight of night soil for thirty-four days, with scarcely any putrefaction. For antiseptic purposes salt is advantageously conjoined with carbolic acid. To disinfect skins and other such animal matters, a pound of salt and two ounces of carbolic acid are used, dissolved in a gallon of water. Waste chlorides, knoAvn as Cooper's salts, are used to preserve for manure the meat seized at markets as unfit for human food. Top dressings of pastures with salt have diminished cases of red water, louping-ill, and fluke disease. Doses, etc. — As a purgative the ox or cow takes lb. -^ to lb. j. ; sheep, §j. to giij. Instead of using comm.on salt by itself, I prefer — as inore prompt and effectual — half doses of common and Epsom salts, dissolving the mixture in CHLORINATED SODA 201 al)Out two quarts of tepid water, and adding two ounces of powdered ginger, anise, or other aromatic, and a pound of treacle. Some cattle readily drink the mixture thus sweetened, and the trouble of drenching may be saved. To hasten and increase the effects of salines other purga- tives are sometimes added. Along with half a pound each of common and Epsom salts, dissolved in water with aromatics and treacle, may be given ten or twenty croton beans in powder; or gamboge, §ss. to §i. Where such a dose fails to act in twenty or tw^enty-four hours, it may be repeated, or a pint or two of linseed oil may be sub- stituted for the salts. But large doses of drastic physic are, however, to be avoided, for they induce nausea and depression, which prevent purgation. When a patient has had tw^o full doses without effect, he should have frequent clysters, plenty of treacle, and as much salt and water, or simple w^ater, as he will drink of his own accord, but rarely any more cathartic medicine. As a stomachic and alterative for horses or cattle, tW'O or three ounces of salt are given, usually with aromatics, bitters, or vegetable tonics. As an emetic for the dog, the dose varies from one to four drachms, dissolved in tepid water. A still more effectual, readily-obtained emetic for a medium-sized dog consists of a tablespoonful of salt and half a teaspoonful of mustard flour, dissolved in three or four ounces of water. More prompt results are secured by adding a few grains of zinc or copper sulphate, or of tartar emetic. Liquor Sod^e Chlorinate. Solution of Chlorinated Soda. NaCl, NaClO. Admixture and subsequent filtration of solutions of sodium carbonate and chlorinated lime produce the B.P. liquor sodse chlorinatse, known also as Labarraque's disinfecting fluid. It is a colourless alkaline liquid, with an astringent taste, and a feeble odour of chlorine. Like the analogous solution of bleaching powder, it contains chlorides, chlorates, and 202 CALCIUM SALTS hypochlorites, and, acted on by air or acids, gives off chlorine and chlorine compounds. Actions and Uses. — It is antiseptic, stimulant, and antacid, and is also used as a disinfectant and deodorant. It is applicable to the same purposes as solution of chlorinated lime and liquor chlori. It arrests the action of yeast and other ferments, and kills bacteria. When administered internally, it has been credited with the power of oxidising urea and other pro- ducts of tissue metamorphosis, and of hastening their excretion; and outside the body it certainly oxidises such substances (Royle's Materia Medica). It has been prescribed in fever and purpura in horses, and as an antidote in poisoning by hydrogen sulphide, the hydro-sulphides, and prussic acid. It is chiefly serviceable as an external antiseptic for stimulating and deodorising foul wounds and ulcers, check- ing excessive noisome discharges from the skin or mucous surfaces, controlling the earlier stages of eczema, and for douching from an atomiser relaxed and irritable sore-throat. As an antiseptic, although more expensive, it is for some purposes preferable to chlorinated lime, inasmuch as, upon exposure, it becomes converted into common salt — itself a valuable antiseptic, and more permanent and convenient than the deliquescent, moist calcium chloride, which remains when bleaching powder is used. Doses, etc. — Of the B.P. solution, which contains about 2^ per cent, of available chlorine, horses and cattle take f^, to fgij. ; sheep and pigs, fgj. to f5ij. ; dogs, Tlixv. to ■n[xxx., dissolved in water. CALCIUM AND ITS MEDICINAL SALTS Calcium belongs to the group of alkaline earths, which includes also barium and strontium. Its salts resemble chemically and physiologically those of magnesium and aluminium. Carbonate of lime is the great source of the calcium salts. They are detectable in solution by their yielding no precipitate with hydrochloric acid, hydrogen QUICKLIME 203 sulphide, or ammonium hydro-sulphide : a white precipitate with an alkaline carbonate: an immediate and abundant white precipitate with oxalic acid, insoluble in acetic but soluble in h^-drochloric and nitric acids; but no precipi- tate with ammonia, which precipitates the compounds of aluminium and magnesium. Calcium salts give a reddish- yellow tinge to flame. Calcium compounds have little affinit}' for animal textures, and are slowly absorbed and diffused. As with other metals, the oxide and carbonate nearly resemble each other, and are antacid and desiccant. The phosphate is a restorative and tonic in some forms of malnutrition. The hypo-phos- phate is recommended in anaemia and debility. The chloride, persevered with for weeks or months, is said to reduce enlarged lymphatic glands and tubercular deposits, and promote the healing of ulcers. Given for a few days it increases the plasticity of the blood and thus lessens risk from ha?morrhage in operations. Calx chlorinata is stimulant, disinfectant, and deodorant. Calx sulphurata, consisting of calcium sulphide with calcium sulphate and carbon, has been credited with the power of checking formation of pus and hastening its discharge. Calcium sulphate rendered nearly anhydrous by heat, is employed in making plaster bandages for fractures. Calcium Oxide. Lime. Quick-lime. Calx. CaO. When limestone, chalk, marble, or other form of calcium carbonate is mixed wdth coal and thoroughly burned, its carbonic acid is driven off, and the metallic oxide or quicklime is left. It occurs in greyish-white irregular masses, has an alkaline, caustic taste, and gi-eat affinity for water. It combmes with about 24 per cent, of water, giving off much heat, and forming calcium hydroxide, or slaked lime, Ca(H0)2. A pint of water at 82° Fahr. dis- solves 13-25 grains of lime; a pint at 69° Fahr., 11-6 grains; a pint at 212^ Fahr., 67 grains. The presence of sugar increases fully twelve times the solubility of lime in water. Lime-water (aqua Calcis), is prepared by adding two ounces 204 LIME WATER, of washed Calcium hydroxide to one gallon of distilled water, agitating briskly, allowing undissolved matters to subside, and, after a few hours, syphoning off the clear solution. As it readily absorbs carbonic acid, it should be kept in closely-stoppered bottles. Actions and Uses. — Lime is irritant, astringent by contact antacid, and sedative. It is a natural constituent of the animal textures, in which it occurs mainly in combination with phosphoric and carbonic acids ; but, being present in most articles of food, extra supplies are seldom required. When swallowed, there is probably deposited on the gastric mucous membrane a film of carbonate, which is dissolved by hydrochloric or lactic acid, slowly absorbed as chloride or lactate, reconverted in the blood into carbonate, held in solution by the free carbonic acid, and ultimately excreted by the kidneys, increasing the alkalinity of the urine, diminishing its irritant qualities, and perhaps exerting astringent effects on the urinary mucous membrane. Lime, especially when unslaked, and in contact with mucous and abraded skin surfaces, attracts water, forms a coating of carbonate, and possibly combines with albumin, and, in considerable amount, it irritates and superficially corrodes. Orfila mentions that 1} drachms administered to a small dog caused vomiting and considerable irritation, which lasted for about a day; and that three drachms caused vomiting, pain, languor, and death in five days. Medicinal Uses. — Lime-water is used as an antacid and sedative in indigestion and diarrhoea in all classes of patients. Young animals, with Avhicli undiluted milk happens to dis- agree, are usually benefited by mixing the milk with one- fourth to one-half of lime water, which prevents acidity and coagulation of the casein in large tough masses. Lime- water is appropriate for gastric derangement, while the less soluble chalk, retaining longer its antacid and desiccant properties, is better adapted for intestinal acidity. When acidity concurs with constipation, sodium bicarbonate is preferable in the proportion of a drachm to the pint of milk. Lime-water is occasionally given as an antidote in poisoning by the mineral acids and by carbolic and oxalic ANTACID AND SEDATIVE 205 acids. By itself, but better still when conjoined with tur- pentine, it destroys bronchial filarise, often so troublesome in calves and lambs, and in the form of enema, brings away ascarides lodged in the lower bowels. Mixed with oil, glycerin, or vaseline, with a little boric or carbolic acid, it applied in aphtha, and is occasionally substituted for zinc oxide in cases of eczema. Scalds and burns are often treated with Carron oil which consists of lime-water mixed with an equal quantity of linseed oil. The more recent treatment consists in the immediate application of layers of cotton wadding, Avith gentle and equable pressure. Lime in solu- tion is used for cleansing and deodorising stables, cow-houses, and piggeries. Doses, etc. — Of quicklime, horses and cattle take 5i- to 3ij- ; sheep, grs. xx. to grs. xxx. ; dogs, grs. v. to grs. xx. Of lime- water the larger patients take f §iv: to f §v. ; and the smaller, f 5ij. to f §i., given alone, or with glycerin, oil, or milk. Two ounces each of lime-water and gentian infusion, repeated twice or thrice daily, often checks diarrhcea in feeble calves; half the dose answers for sheep. For calves and dogs, saccharated lime-water is used as an antacid and stomachic. It is made by rubbing an ounce of slaked lime with two ounces of sugar, transferring the mixture to a bottle containing a pint of water, shaking, and separating the clear solution with a syphon. It conveniently renders the milk alkaline, without diluting it as does lime-water. Calcium Carbonate. Calcii Carbonas. Carbonate of Lime. Chalk. CaCOg. Calcium carbonate occurs in the several forms of limestone, marble, calcareous spar, and chalk. When chalk is triturated with a little water, agitated with a larger quantity of water, and the mixture allowed to stand, the coarser fragments and foreign matters subside. The clear liquid is poured or syphoned oft', and slowly deposits an impalpable powder, which, when dried in blocks, constitutes whiting, and when in smaller conical rolls is creta praeparata. Precipitated chalk is obtained by the interaction of calcium chloride 206 CALCIUM CARBONATE and sodium carbonate. It is a dull- white, micro-crystalline, tasteless powder, adheres to the tongue, owing to its porosity and its affinity for water, and eftcrvesces with acids. Calcium carbonate is a constituent of the bones of animals, of shells, and of corals. It is the common source of hardness in drink- ing water, which, when pure, holds about two grains dissolved in the gallon ; but carbonic acid increases the solvent power of the water. Sixteen grains are sometimes taken up, and in chalk districts much more ; but when such hard waters are boiled, the carbonic anhydride is driven off, and calcium carbonate is deposited in the kettles and boilers. Actions and Uses. — Chalk is a cheap and convenient antacid, much used for the domesticated animals in the treatment of indigestion and chronic diarrhcua. It reseuibles lime, but is less irritant, and its effects extend beyond the stomach, throughout the intestines, neutralising acidity, and leaving a protecting film of carbonate. It is an antidote for oxalic, carbolic, and the mineral acids. In a dry and finely- divided state it is used as a desiccant and astringent for abraded skin surfaces, burns, and ulcers. Doses, etc. — For horses, §i. to §ij.; for cattle, §ij. to §iv, for sheep, 5ij- to 5iv. ; for pigs, 5i- to 5ij- ; for dogs, grs. viij. to grs. xij. It is conveniently given in bolus, or suspended in milk, gruel, or mucilage. When administered in large or frequently-repeated doses the bowels should be kept open, in order to prevent its accumulation in the intestines. It is frequently conjoined with catechu, kino, and other vegetable astringents to arrest excessive discharges ; with ginger and other carminatives, to control indigestion and diarrhea ; with opium or belladonna, to diminish irritability or pain; and with salicylic acid, or bismuth, in diarrhoea and hemorrhagic gastritis in dogs. The following formukc prove serviceable as antacids, carminatives, and mild astringents: — For horses, half an ounce each of chalk, gentian, and ginger is made up in the usual way with linseed meal and treacle, or with glycerin ; or chalk §i., opium 5i-. ^rid creosote ■n[x., are made into bolus; or, again, half an ounce each of chalk, catechu, and ginger are conjoined with one drachm of opium. For cattle, similar prescriptions are given, frequently in CALCIUM PHOSPHATE 207 draught. For sheep, the like combinations are used, in about one-fourth the dose. For dogs, a convenient pill is made with chalk and ginger, of each grs. x. ; with opium, grs. ij. ; and aromatic confection, q.s. A draught of similar action is made with chalk, grs. x., laudanum and ether, of each "n^xv., given in a little milk or soup. Any of these prescriptions may be repeated several times daily. Where it is sought to act chiefly upon the stomach, such medicines are fittingly given dissolved in starch solution as prepared by the laun- dress, or in spirits and water, administered, according to circumstances, either hot or cold. Where the effects are to be extended throughout the intestines, the drugs are gener- ally given in the solid form. For dyspeptic and diabetic horses suffering from acidity, a piece of chalk should be placed in the rack or manger, or in the drinking water. Calcium Phosphate. Calcii Phosphas. Phosphate of Lime. Ca3(PO,)2- Calcium phosphate is prepared by roasting bone ash until animal and carbonaceous matters are removed, dissolving the residue in diluted hydrochloric acid, precipitating the phosphates by ammonia solution, and washing. Thus puri- fied, it is a light, tasteless, white, amorphous powder, insoluble in water, but soluble without effervescence in hydrochloric and nitric acids. Actions and Uses. — Calcium phosphate is present in bones, nerves, and other animal textures ; occurs abundantly in the intercellular fluid, and wherever cell-crrowth is most active ; and is hence an essential constituent of food and a restora- tive. Its absence in the dietary is shown by M. Chossat to induce softening of the bones and general Avastiny-; it is deficient in the bones of pregnant animals. Milne-Edwards found that, when supplied to dogs whose bones had been intentionally fractured, more rapid union occurred. It conjoins the actions of calcium and phosphorus, is specially useful in chronic diarrhoea, amemia, and other forms of malnutrition, especially in young animals. It is serviceable for rapidly-growing, rickety subjects, and 208 CHLORINATED LTME conjoined with iron, for anaemic, badly-nourished, scouring animals, beneficially restoring the phosphates, which in such cases are sometimes too freely removed. For pregnant animals in a weakly state it is also prescribed. Bran and bruised oats owe in part their notable dietetic value for young stock to the large amount of calcium phosphate which they contain. Doses, etc. — Horses take 5ij- to ^iw; cattle, '^iv. to §ij.; sheep and pigs, 5j- to 5ij- ; dogs, grs.v. to grs, x. Small doses are preferable to large, which sometimes derange the bowels. They are conveniently given mixed with food, and in com- bination with an iron salt. Calx Chlorinata. Chlorinated Lime. Bleaching Powder. (CaCl2 O2, CaClg). Large quantities of this valuable bleaching agent are made in Glasgow, where it was first prepared by Messrs. Tennant and Mackintosh in 1798. It is obtained by exposing slaked lime to the action of chlorine gas until absorption ceases. Properties. — It is a dull-white powder, with a char- acteristic smell, and an acrid taste. When exposed to the air it becomes moist and gradually decomposes. When heated or mixed with an acid, chlorine is rapidly given off. It is partially soluble in water, a portion of the lime remain- ing undissolved. The solution evolves chlorine copiously upon the addition of an acid. The intensity of its odour and the degree of its solubility are simple approximative tests of its strength and purity, and a good specimen yields at least 33 per cent, of chlorine. Actions and Uses. — Bleaching powder is irritant, stimulant, astringent, antiseptic, and alterative ; it is seldom given in- ternally, but externally it is stimulant, antiseptic, deodorant, disinfectant, and parasiticide, and owes its several actions mainly to the hypochlorous acid and chlorine it so readily evolves. Toxic Effects. — 'Hertwig gave horses and cattle one ounce to two pounds ; sheep and goats one to eight drachms ; and dogs half a drachm to four drachms. The smaller quantities STIMULANT, ANTISEPTIC, AND DISINFECTANT 209 produced scarcely any effect : the larger, besides local irrita- tion, caused acceleration of the pulse, difficult breathing, increased warmth in the mouth, weeping eyes, abundant secretion of urine, having a curious odour of chlorine or prussic acid, and a white sediment, frequent copious alvine discharges, and in dogs, vomiting. In horses the effects usually began in twenty or thirty minutes, and lasted two to five hours. Considerable doses, given repeatedly, did not impair appetite, but caused thirst and gradual emaciation. Medicinal Uses. — Youatt recommended bleaching powder for hoven in cattle, and tympanites in horses, in doses vary- ing from two to four drachms, and ascribed its supposed good effects to its decomposing the gases evolved in the alimentary canal. But repeated careful trials made at the Edinburgh Veterinary College indicate that it is of little, if any, service in the majority of cases of hoven or tympanites, whether in cattle or horses. It is an antidote in poisoning by hydrogen sulphide and ammonium hydrosulphide ; and, with a respirator filled with bleaching powder, Mr. Roberts explored in safety the sewers of the Bastille, which had not been opened for thirty-seven years, and were full of hj-drogen sulphide and other noxious gases. Externally, it is used as a stimulant and deodorant for unhealthy wounds, for removing the foetor of foul discharges, and for destroying the fungus of ringworm, the parasites of mange, and for grease. Diluted solutions have been recom- mended for checking conjunctival ophthalmia, and other circumscribed and superficial inflammations; but are not so effectual as lead or zinc lotion. Although it does not arrest the action of enzymes, or prevent the reproduction of developed bacteria or their spores as promptly and effec- tually as corrosive sublimate, it is superior as an antiseptic to sulphurous acid, bromine, iodine, salicylic acid, and the permanganates (Wernitz and Koch). Its active gaseous products, moreover, readily attack and break up the products of putrefaction, and it hence proves an effectual deodoriser. Chlorinated lime, in powder or in 10 per cent, solution, is spread about cow-houses and premises where contagious or o 210 MAGNESIUM SALTS epi/ootic diseases prevail. When free and rapid evolution of the hypochlorous and chlorine gases is desired, vessels con- taining the powder are set about, and sulphuric acid poured over them ; a more gradual evolution is effected when cloths saturated with a strong solution are suspended inside the infected dwellings. Solutions varying from one to ten per cent, are emplo3'ed for disinfecting hides, flesh, or excreta of diseased animals. It has the disadvantage of a sickly smell, which is disliked both by horses and cattle ; it is gradually converted into calcium chloride, which, having great aflinity for water, leaves the floors, walls, and other surfaces to which the deodoriser has been applied in an unsatisfactorily moist state; whilst its decomposing ammonia, urea, and such other unstable nitrogen compounds, greatly diminishes the agricul- tural value of any manure to which it is added. Scattered about stables or cow-houses, it drives away flies ; while neither rats nor mice frequent places where it is sprinkled, especially when mixed with sulphur. Doses, etc. — Horses take 3'- to 5ij-; cattle, 5ij- to ^\v.; sheep, 5ss. to 5i-; dogs, grs. ii. to grs. v., given either in bolus, or with cold gruel, mucilage, or milk. MAGNESIUM AND ITS MEDICINAL SALTS Magnesium salts are obtained from dolomite or magnesian limestone, magnesite, a native carbonate, talc, meerschaum, and other silicates, and from sea-Avater. Magnesium salts when swallowed are not rapidly absorbed, and do not cause any toxic effects. The oxides and carbon- ates arc antacid and laxative; the sulphate is purgative and febrifuge. Magnesium Oxides. Magnesia. Calcined Magnesia. MgO. Light Calcined Magnesia. Magnesia levis. Heavy Calcined Magnesia. Magnesia ponderosa. (B.P.) Light Magnesium Oxide, ^IgO, is prepared l)y expos- ing liglit magnesium carbonate to a dull-red heat. Heavy magnesium oxide, MgO, is prepared by exposing heavy magnesium carbonate to a dull-red heat. Magnesium oxide MAGNESIUM OXIDES AND CARBONATES 211 is a bulky white powder differing from heavy magnesia only in its greater lightness, the volumes corresponding to the same weight being to each other in the ratio of three and a half to one (B.P.). Magnesia is odourless, with a slightly earthy taste; insoluble in water, but readily dissolved by acids. Magnesium Carbonates. SCMgCOg), Mg(HO)„ 4H,0. Light Magnesium Carbonate. Magnesii Carbonas Levis. Heavy Magnesium Carbonate. Magnesii Carbonas Pon- derosus. When sodium carbonate is mixed with a solution of mag- nesium sulphate, magnesium carbonate and magnesium hydrate are precipitated. The manner of preparation affects the weight, but not the other properties. Diluted solutions, boiled, yield the light carbonate. Tolerably concentrated solutions, mixed without heat, yield the heavy carbonate, which is three and a half times heavier than the other, more dense, loose, and granular; and, under the microscope, is found to be partly amorphous, with intermixture of numerous slender prisms. Both varieties are white, odourless, and tasteless, sparingly soluble in water, but readily dissolve in diluted mineral acids. Fluid magnesia usually contains in every ounce ten grains of carbonate, dissolved in water charged with carbonic acid gas. Actions and Uses. — ^tlagnesia is antacid and laxative. The oxide and carbonate are sparingly absorbed, chiefly as chlorides. They resemble potash, soda, and their carbonates, but lack their stimulating effect upon the mucous membrane, and their diffusive, solvent, and diuretic properties. Their laxative effect and absence of causticity distinguish them from corresponding lime salts. Magnesia does not purge either horses or cattle, but is a gentle laxative for dogs and cats, to vs-hich it is occasionally prescribed Avith calomel, jalap, or buckthorn. Its laxative effects are increased when the bowels contain acid secretions. For foals and calves suffering from acidity and flatulence, acids and bitters are usually the appropriate treatment ; magnesia, 212 MAGNESIUM SULPHATE however, is soTnotinies prescribed, but must not be too freely or continuously used, as it is apt to concrete and accunuilate in the bowels. It is an antidote in poisoning by oxalic and the mineral acids. It removes arsenic from solution, and for this purpose is most effective in the form of the gelatinous hydrate made by adding caustic potash to a solution of the sulphate. It is occasionally applied as a desiccant. Doses, etc. — Foals and. calves three or four months old take, as an antacid, 5ss. to gi- ; dogs and cats, grs. v. to 3ss. It is given suspended in milk or gruel, and conjoined with carminatives. Magnesium Sulphate. Magnesii Sulphas. Epsom Salt. MgS04.7H.p. Magnesium sulphate is present in various rocks and soils in the proportion of iifteen to twenty grains in the pint of sea-water, and in some mineral springs. It derives its ver- nacular name from the mineral springs of Epsom. It may be prepared by the interaction of the native magnesium carbonates and diluted sulphuric acid; or by purifying the native sulphate. (B. P.) Properties. — Epsom salt occurs in transparent, colourless, minute, rhombic prisms. It has a cooling, saline, nauseous, bitter taste; is insoluble in alcoliol, but soluble in its own weight of water. It resembles zinc sulphate, from which, however, it is distinguished by its saline, bitter taste, by absence of metallic astringency, and by its neutral solution giving no precipitate with hydrogen sulphide. Epsom salt is distinguished from Glauber salt by its neither efflorescing when exj)osed to air, nor comnmnicating any yellow colour to the flame of alcohol. From oxalic acid (for whicli it has been sometimes mistaken) it is distinguished by its finer and more needle-like crystals, its bitter taste, devoid of acidity, and its precipitating alkaline carbonates without effervescence. Actions. AND Uses. — Epsom salt is purgative, alterative, and febrifuge, and is also feebly diuretic and diaphoretic. As a purgative it resembles common and Glauber salts, and is uiore active than potassium bitartrate or sodium phosphate. PURGATIVE, ALTERATIVE, AND FEBRIFUGE 213 General Actions. — When swallowed, it causes outpouring of secretion from the walls of the small intestines, most quickly produced, and abundant when the bowels have been partially emptied by several hours' fasting. Neither pan- creatic tluid nor bile is materially increased. But Epsom salt has a low diffusing power. It is slowly absorbed, and, more- over, retards diffusion and absorption of fluid present in the canal. In this twofold manner — by increased secretion, and retarded absorption — the fluid contents of the bowels are increased, producing more or less mechanical distension, and provoking, like other salines, slight peristalsis. The retarded removal of accumulating liquid is apt to induce flatulence, which is relieved by conjoining carminatives; while eftectual removal of the intestinal fluids is attained by using with the saline some aloes, oil, or calomel. In the small intestine some of the magnesium sulphate is decomposed ; its acid portion is more readily absorbed than its basic ; part is returned into the intestine, but the greater part is excreted in the urine. Meanwhile, unchanged portions of the salt also undergo slow and gradual absorption; but this is checked when purgation occurs. After a few hours the free acid and undecomposed salt are excreted by the kidneys, and more or less diuresis ensues. A smaller amount is also removed by the skin, notably in men and horses, when the activity of this excretory channel is increased by warm clothing. Free secretion from the intestinal walls, and the sub- sequent more limited excretion from the kidneys, necessarily remove both fluid and saline matters from the blood, and within a few hours this loss is in great part made good by absorption of fluid from the tissues. Mainly in this manner result the febrifuge and alterative effects of salines, in reduc- . ing abnormal temperature, and removing dropsical effusions. Dr. Lauder Brunton demonstrated, experimentally, the effect of Epsom salt in causing outpouring of mucous fluid from the intestinal walls. He placed four ligatures round the intestines of a cat, so as to make three separate closed sacs from five to seven inches long. Into the two outside sacs water alone was introduced ; into the central one were 214 MAGNESIUM SULPHATE injected seven grains Epsom salt, dissolved in 105 minims of water. The cat was killed four hours later, and although the two outside sacs were quite empty, the middle one, into whicli the purgative had been injected, contained 820 minims ol pale amber Huid, of the nature of a secretion rather than an albuminous exudation. In two similar experiments, 425 and 250 minims of fluid were found, four and five hours after injection of 85 and 90 minims of saturated solution of Epsom salt. No congestion or inflammation was noticed. The loops on either side, which had been filled with the same quantity of water., were empty. Croton oil, elaterium, and gamboge, tested by like experiment, all caused similar secretion, but none so abundant as Epsom salt, which yielded 42 to 56 minims per square inch of intestine acted on by the purgative. Professor Rutherford's experiments on dogs demonstrate that magnesium sulphate, unlike sodium and potassium sul- phates, has no stimulant action on the liver. It nevertheless notably counteracts ' biliousness,' alike in men and animals, by sweeping away bile, which is generally present in the duodenum, and which, unless removed, becomes re-absorbed. Epsom salt injected into the circulation does not produce intestinal secretion, but five grains to the pound of body- weight were proved by Professor Matthew Hay to produce powerful toxic effects in cats and other animals, paralysing first the respiration and afterwards the heart, abolishing sensation, or paralysing the sensori-motor reflex centres {Lancet, 1883). The several domesticated animals are differently affected by Epsom salt. On horses, unless given in combination, it acts uncertainly. Full doses sometimes cause violent catharsis, and occasionally produce considerable diuresis; but two to three ounces, repeated daily, are laxative and febrifuge. On dogs the purgative effect is irregular, and often accompanied by vomiting. For cattle and sheep it is a convenient and effectual cathartic, inducing copious fluid evacuations, usually in twelve or fifteen hours. Medicinal Uses.— For ruminants Epsom salt is the purga- tive in general use. in indigestion, constipation, and in the A USEFUL PURGATIVE FOR RUMINANTS 215 earlier stages of many cases of diarrhoea, it clears the bowels of undigested, fermenting food, of irritant matters, and occasionally of worms. Horses liberally fed on cut, dry food, or tough, over-ripened green fodder, are subject to overloaded bowels, and in such cases, with restriction to fluid food, and in conjunction with one or two doses of linseed oil and copious clysters, two ounces Epsom salt, repeated twice daily, help to moisten, soften, and expel the dry, impacted ingesta. Emptying the bowels, and removing excrementi- tious products from the blood, it lowers abnormal tempera- ture and blood- pressure, and relieves febrile and inflammatory conditions. Although not a desirable purgative for horses, it is a useful febrifuge. One to three ounces given in influenza, pneu- monia, and indeed in most febrile and inflammatory disorders, improve the appetite, clean the buccal membrane, lessen fever, and help to establish and maintain a healthy and regular action of the bowels. For such febrifuge purposes, whether in horses or cattle, it is given once or twice daily, but should be withheld or diminished in amount, whenever the bowels become unduly relaxed, or where flatulence or spasm follows its use. It acts more certainly and regularly when given in solution than in bolus. It is often conjoined with nitre and other salines, and during convalescence from acute disorders with powdered gentian and other carmina- tives. Epsom salt is one of the best antidotes in poisoning by barium chloride, and salts of lead, it converts them into insoluble sulphates, and further evokes action of the bowels, which in lead- poisoning is apt to be impaired and tardy. In smaller and repeated doses it acts as a diuretic, but is seldom specially used for that purpose. It is frequently added to laxative clysters. Doses, etc. — As a cathartic, cattle take Ib.j. to Ib.jss. ; calves of two to three months, §iij. to §iv. ; sheep and pigs, giv. to §vi. ; dogs, 5ii- to 5iv. One-fifth to one-eighth of these doses is often eftectual in removing indigestion, keeping up the action of other cathartics, and as a febrifuge or alterative. Epsom salt is given dissolved in ten or fifteen parts of water. To conceal its nauseous, bitter taste it is administered with 216 BARIUM CHLORIDE treacle, or with sulphuric acid, in the proportion of about five drops to every ounce of salt. To expedite its purgative action and prevent nausea and griping, there is usually added some carminative, such as a drachm of ginger to the ounce of salt. To ensure prompt and full purgation in cattle or sheep, equal weights of Epsom and common salt are prefer- able to either given alone ; treacle and a full dose of ginger are added, and solution is effected in a liberal amount of tepid water. In impaction of the third stomach, and obstinate constipation of cattle, it is sometimes advisable to add to the saline mixture twelve or fifteen croton beans, a drachm of calomel, or half an ounce of gamboge, and to follow this with repeated doses of treacle and ginger. In torpidity of the bowels it is conjoined with half a dose of aloes and thirty grains of nux vomica. For febrifuge and alterative purposes, Epsom salt is conjoined with nitre, mineral acids, gentian and other bitters. BARIUM CHLORIDB-BARII CHLORIDUM Barium occurs in nature in combinations analogous to those of strontium ; as carbonate in the mineral witherite and as sulphate in barite or heavy spar. Barium Chloride. — ]jixC\.^2}I.fi, Terra ponderosa salita, discovered by Scheele, may be prepared by dissolving the native carbonate in hydrochloric acid. It occurs in flat or tabular crystals, colourless and transparent, with bevelled edges. Taste, acrid and bitter; reaction, neutral. Soluble in two-and-a-half parts of cold water, in 400 parts absolute alcohol, and slightly soluble in rectified spirit. The salt keeps well in substance or in aqueous solution. Actions and Uses. — Morton (Manual of FJiarmacy, 1868) states that occasionally barium salts are employed in veter- inary practice, but with doubtful efficacy. They are nearly all poisonous except the sulphate, which is harmless. The safest antidote is sulphate of soda. On horses aft'ected with glanders, Pcrcivall experimented with barium compounds, and placed most reliance on the chloride, which he ad- ministered, per orem, in doses oi 3^8. to 5'j- Poisoning ACTIONS AND USES 217 sometimes occurred. Barium chloride, in properly regulated doses, resembles digitalis in its action on the heart. Small doses stimulate the muscles of the intestine, uterus, and bladder, and increase peristalsis. Excessive doses induce general muscular spasms, dyspno-a, sweating, inco-ordination, and paralysis. Death may occur suddenly from spasm of the heart. The physiological effects of barium chloride have not been fully ascertained, but its action on the vascular system of animals and man has been investigated by Brunton, Ringer, Robert, Bartholow, and Hare. They agree in find- ing that barium slows the heart, steadies its rhythm, and increases the volume of blood forced from the ventricle. Blood pressure is raised, an effect which is due, according to Robert, to the action of the drug on the muscular coat of the vessels. In animals, large doses over-stimulate and arrest the heart in systole, and the strongest irritation of the pneu- mogastric nerves fails to relax the contraction (Hare, Practical Therapeutics). Dieckerhoff finds that barium chloride has little therapeutic effect on sheep, but on horses it increases the power of the muscular coat of the bowels. It causes no irritation of the gastric mucous membrane, exerts its action on the whole length of the gut, and acts very quickly, especi- ally when injected intravenously. As soon as the bowels have been evacuated the effects of the drug cease, and even during its operation there is little or no constitutional dis- turbance. Large doses may cause pain by exciting intestinal spasm. An underdose has no apparent effect ; but an over- dose may be followed by fatal spinal paralysis. The activity of the chloride depends on its mode of administration. Given intravenously in suitable dose, the bowels respond in a minute or two, and faeces may continue to be passed at intervals of fifteen minutes for five or six hours. Administered in drench or in bolus it is less active. In some horses it has a powerful action on the heart. It is a nerve poison, and a second dose administered within twelve hours of the first is not without danger {Veterinarian, 1895). Zschokke experimented with the drug on apparently healthy horses. He gave three horses, T1L150; two, llil05; one horse, T^yo ; and another, 11[225, of a ten per cent, aqueous 218 BARIUM CHLORIDE solution injected into the jugular vein. Within thirty seconds all the subjects exhibited masticatory movements of the jaws, and in less than three minutes and a half there was expulsion of gas followed by ftcces. The horse that received the largest dose groaned and strained. Roder injected into the jugular of a horse three grammes of the chloride dissolved in thirty grammes of water. In a minute loud borborygmus was heard, and in two minutes profuse sweating occurred, followed by defaecation, with violent straining. In half-an-hour the horse was all right (Veterinarian, 1896-97). Barium chloride, as a remedy for colic in horses, was intro- duced in 1895 by Dieckerhoff. In seven months he treated 400 cases, with only one death. Cadiot recommends the drug after an experience of its effects in 32 cases, with three deaths, two from gastric rupture, and one from volvulus. Mollereau used it successfully in 38 consecutive cases, and then lost three suddenly. Although not often followed by a fatal result, it should be noted that intravenous injection of barium chloride some- times produces symptoms of poisoning, and occasionally sudden death. Dieckerhoff attributes the single mishap in his 400 cases to barium poisoning. Rbder mentions the death of a horse in two minutes after an intravenous injec- tion of twelve grains ; and Mollereau has no doubt that the drug caused the immediate death of three of his patients. It gives unquestionably good results in many cases, but in others its effects are uncertain and unsafe. In most cases of abdominal pain the drug should be used cautiously, or as a last resort, after having exhausted other treatment, perhaps less active, but infinitely less dangerous. The toxic effects are salivation, champing of the jaws, dyspnoea, loss of pulse, distension of the superficial veins, sweating, tremors, muscular cramps, inco-ordination, and paralysis. In poisoning, the best antidote is magnesium sulphate, or sodium sulphate, which is given with the object of converting the poison into the insoluble and harmless barium sulphate. Doses, Intravenous. — Horses, according to size, grs. viii. to ALUM 219 grs. XX., in two and a half to six drachms of water. When the patient is Aveak, or his pulse is over 70, only half a dose should be given. Dieckerhoff recommends half a dose at the first injection, followed by two quarter doses at intervals of from eight to ten minutes. Administered in this way, the drug is quite as effective as when given in one dose. Mollereau prescribes 5j- of a one in fifteen aqueous solution; and Zschokke gives TT|,75 of a ten per cent, solution. Drench. — Horses, 5iss. to 5iij- in a quart of water. Bolus or Electuary.— Ponies, grs. xlviii. to grs. Ixxx. ; horses of full size, grs. Ixxx, to grs. clx. (Veterinarian, 1H96). ALUM. ALUMEN Potassium Alum (Aluminium and Potassium Sulphate). Al2(S04)3, K2SO4, 24H2O. Or — Ammonium Alum. Al2(SO,)3, (NHJ^SO^. 24H.,0. Produced by the combination of aluminium sulphate with potassium sulphate, or with ammonium sulphate (B.P.). The alums are a series of double salts in which aluminium sulphate is conjoined with potassium, sodium or ammonium sulphate. They are found in limited quantity on the surface of soils and rocks, especially in volcanic districts, and are largely prepared from aluminium clay, shale, or schist, which mainly consists of aluminous silicate and iron sulphide. Near Paisley, where alum is extensively manufactured, the schist lies between the coal and limestone strata. When slowly roasted it absorbs oxygen, and the sulphur is con- verted into sulphuric acid, which unites with the iron and aluminium. Water is added, and a large portion of the less soluble iron sulphate crystallises out. To make potash alum this residual solution is treated with potassium chloride, usually obtained as a bi-product from the soap-boilers, saltpetre refineries, and glass-houses ; double decomposition results. The remaining iron sulphate is converted into iron chloride, which continues in solution ; while potassium sulphate unites with aluminium sulphate 220 ALUM to form potash alum, which crystallises, and is further pnri- tied by repeated solution and crystallisation. Properties. -The alums occur in transparent, colourless cubes, or octahedral crystals, have a sweet, acidulous, astrin- gent taste, act like acids on colouring matter, and, when heated, fuse and part with their water of crystallisation. They are soluble in one-third of their own weight of water at 212° Fahr., and in seven parts of cold water. Freely soluble in glycerin : insoluble in alcohol. Actions and Uses. — Alum is slightly irritant, astringent, and antiseptic, and is chiefly used externally as an astringent styptic, desiccant, and caustic. Toxic Effects. — One or two ounces given to dogs cause vomiting. But when the esophagus was tied, and vomiting prevented, Orfila found that two ounces occasioned death in five hours, with great exhaustion ; the intestines were found extensively inflamed. Devergie (quoted by Pereira) found that four drachms of dried alum killed a dog when the gullet was tied. An ounce introduced into the areolar tissue of a dog's thigh caused excessive suppuration, and death in fifteen hours. Moiroud states that large doses given for some time exhaust the digestive organs, diminish cutaneous tran- spiration, and produce grave disorders. Bourgelat states that it causes chronic lung irritation in horses. Several ounces are occasionally given to cows to arrest lacteal secretion, and although continued for a week or two, do not produce any obvious bad eflects. Alum is decomposed in its passage through the intestines, rendering the fieces odourless and somewhat fiimer. Over-doses are decomposed and neutralised by small and repeated doses of sodium carbonate, followed by denudcents. Medicinal Uses. — Alum closely resembles copper and zinc sulphates, but is less active. It is occasionally given to the dog as an emetic. Applied in a dry state, it absorbs water from the tissues, and hence acts as a mild caustic. It has little or no effect upon the unbroken skin. It coagulates albumin and gelatin, and hence invests the abraded skin and mucous membranes with a protective film, diminishes their blood supply, aud thus relieves congestion, and lessens ACTIONS AND USES 221 secretion. In virtue of its astringent properties, it is used as a lotion for aphthous or ulcerated conditions of the mouth ; as a gargle and spray for sore-throat; as a dressing for blistered surfaces, as a stimulant injection for leucorrhoea ; and in many of these cases it may be conjoined with glycerin and borax. Alum is occasionally prescribed with opium in diarrhoea and dysentery, but vegetable astringents are prefer- able. In America, large doses have been given to horses infested with bots. With the object of precipitating lead salts in the intestine, it has been prescribed as an early antidote in lead-poisoning. When alum enters the blood it forms an albuminate, and hence loses its astringency. In the kidneys, however, the albuminate is redissolved, and thus alum may be valuable in hasmaturia. Alum was formerly given for polyuria in horses, but iodine and iron sulphate are more effectual remedies. To arrest the flow of synovia from open bursse or joints, finely powdered alum, mixed with two or three parts of wheat flour, or a powder composed of equal parts of dried alum, iron sulphate, and myrrh, is a valuable application. A saturated, aqueous solution is a useful styptic for haemorrhage. For simple conjunctivitis and keratitis, alum (5 grains) and morphine (2 grains), in an ounce of water, form an excellent coUyrium. An oint- ment, made with one part of alum to three or four of lard or vasehne, will be found useful as a dressing for ulcerated heels and slow-healing wounds. Glycerin of alum, composed of alum, ^., water, 5iij-, and glycerin, gyj., is used for chapped teats and eczema. Alumen exsiccatum, the dried alum of the B.P. is potash alum deprived of its water of crystal- lisation by heat. It is a white powder, forming spongy opaque masses on exposure to moisture. Slowly soluble in water, it should contain 45 to 46 per cent, less water than alum. It is a useful caustic and astringent for exuberant granulations, warts, and superficial sores. An albuminate, made by thoroughly mixing an ounce of dried alum with the whites of six eggs, is employed as an adhesive in setting fractures. Doses, etc. — Astringent for horses and cattle, 5ij- to 5jv. ; sheep and pigs, grs. xx. to 5ij- ; dogs, grs. x. to xx., given in 222 CHLORALUM bolus or in solution. Alum is incompatible with alkalies, and their carbonates, lime salts, phosphates, salts of lead and mercury, and tannin-containing bodies. Kaolin, and fullers' earth, both native aluminium silicates, are excellent desiccants, mild astringents and protectives, much used for chafed shoulders, harness-galls, and simple abrasions. Aluminium sulphate is occasionally used as a caustic, antiseptic, and astringent. Chloralum. Solution of Aluminium Chloride. When aluminium sulphate and calcium chloride are dis- solved together, double decomposition ensues, and there remains in solution an impure hydratod aluminium chloride — a colourless, oily fluid, with a sweet astringent taste, sold as chloralum. Actions and Uses. — Like many metallic chlorides, chlor- alum is corrosive, astringent, and antiseptic. It has been recommended in influenza in horses, in dysentery in cattle, and in distemper in dogs. Drachm doses suffice for horses or cattle, grs. v. to grs. x. for dogs. It may be admmistered either in bolus made with meal, or dissolved in water or gruel Externally it may be applied to the purposes for which alum or zinc sulphate is serviceable. As a disinfectant it has been more used on the Continent than in this country. Dr. Angus Smith, in his experiments undertaken for the Cattle Plague Commissioners, found that for the preservation of night-soil, chloralum proved inferior to common salt, car- bolic acid, and zinc and iron chlorides. As a deodoriser it proved more effectual than alum, but less eft'ectual than tar oils, sodium sulphite, or bleaching powder. Diluted solutions destroy the parasites of mange and scab, and kill fleas and ticks. BISMUTH AND ITS SALTS Bismuth and its salts belong to the group comprising phosphorus, and the salts of antimony, and arsenic. Formerly, BISMUTH SALTS 223 owing probably to defective preparation, and the presence of arsenic, their administration in full and continued doses pro- duced gastro-intestinal irritation, and fatty degeneration of the liver and other organs. But pure salts of bismuth, being sparingly soluble, have little, if an}^, toxic effect. Bismuth oxycarbonate, prepared by the interaction of bismuth nitrate and ammonium carbonate ; bismuth oxide, prepared by boiling the oxynitrate with solution of sodium hydroxide ; and bismuth oxynitrate, obtained by the inter- action of bismuth nitrate and water, have similar characters and reactions. The carbonate is whitish, the oxide is brownish- yellow, and the oxynitrate is white. They form heavy powders, are insoluble in Avater, but soluble in diluted nitric acid. Bismuth salicylate, prepared by the interaction of bisnuith nitrate and sodium salicylate, occurs as a white am.orphous powder, odourless and tasteless, insoluble in Avater, alcohol and glycerin, and containing about 65 per cent, of bismuth oxide (BigOg). Actions and Uses. — Externally, applied to wounds, bismuth salts are desiccant, protective, slightly astringent, and anti- septic. The salicylate has been used as a substitute for iodoform. With starch, boric acid, or iodoform, the oxy- nitrate is employed to relieve irritation and itching of the skin. The oxide, in ointment made with eight parts of vaseline, is sometimes applied after firing or blistering, but ointment of zinc oxide is quite as useful. Internally, the oxynitrate and carbonate are astringent, antiseptic, antacid, and absorbent. The subnitrate is a germicide of considerable value in bowel cases. It allays irritation in dyspepsia, vomiting, and in gastro-intestinal catarrh. It acts by its oxide and by its acid, Avhich is anti- septic. The salicylate is a more powerful antiseptic than the subnitrate. In the bowel it is rapidly split up into salicylic acid and bismuth oxide. But as free salicylic acid irritates the mucous membrane, bismuth benzoate, Avhich is not irritant, is usually preferred as an intestinal disinfectant. Doses, etc. — Oxynitrate, Horses, 5ij- to 5jv. or more; dogs, grs. V. to grs, xx., m mucilage, milk, or bolus. Salicylate or benzoate, foals and calves, grs. xv. to grs. xl. ; 224 DERMATOL, AIROL, ORPHOL doc^s, grs. V. to grs. xv. ; The B.P. liquor bismuthi et am- monii citratis, containing three grains of bismuth oxide in each drachm, is a convenient preparation for special cases. Bismuth benzoate, is obtained by heating the nitrate in glj^cerin and water, and adding a sokition of sodium benzo- ate, and washing and drying the precipitate. It is a white, insohible powder, employed externally as a desiccant, and internally as an intestinal disinfectant. Dermatol, or bismuth subgallate, prepared with bismuth trinitrate, glacial acetic acid, and gallic acid, is a bright yellow powder, odourless, tasteless, and insoluble. Dermatol is absorbent, astringent, and feebly antiseptic. It is employed externally as a dry dressing for wounds. Two parts each of dermatol and zinc oxide, and twenty parts of vaseline form an ointment which promotes cicatrisation of cracked heels. Internally, dermatol has been prescribed for diarrhea and gastro-intestinal catarrh. Doses, dogs, grs. v. to grs. x. ; calves and foals, grs. x. to grs. xx. Xeroform (bismuth tribromophenol) is a neutral, odourless, tasteless, and in- soluble yellow powder, containing about fifty per cent, of bismuth oxide. Is employed as a substitute for iodoform, and occasionally as an intestinal antiseptic. Airol (bismuth oxy-iodo-gallatc), a light-greyish, or yellow powder, tasteless, odourless, and insoluble in water, alcohol, or ether ; has been used as a substitute for iodoform, and by Frohner as a pig- ment, made with airol, glycerin, gum and talc, for dressing small surgical wounds. Orphol (bismuth beta-naphthol), a light-brown powder of agreeable taste, and containing about three per cent, of beta-naphthol. It is a useful astringent and antiseptic in intestinal catarrh of foals, calves, and dogs. Doses. — grs. x. to grs. xxx., in boiled milk, or in electuary. Thioform (bismuth dithio-salicylate) occurs as a bulky, yellow powder, odourless, tasteless, and insoluble. It is anti- septic and desiccant, and in the form of paste made with glycerin or vaseline is used in the treatment of wounds, eczema, and conjunctivitis {Newer Remedies, 1899). LEAD SALTS 226 LEAD AND ITS MEDICINAL SALTS Lead. Plumbum. Pb. Lead is chiefly obtained by roasting galena, the suljDhide (PbS). It has a blue-grey colour, and a peculiar odour when rubbed; is soft and fusible, melting at 617° Fahr. ; is readily cut and rolled into sheets or pipes. It has the specific gravity of 11 '4. Exposed to air it oxidises, loses its metallic lustre, and becomes dull and opaque. In contact with air and water a soluble basic carbonate is gradually formed, and water thus contaminated is dangerous. Actions and Uses. — The salts of lead resemble those of tin. Metallic lead is devoid of medicinal or poisonous action. Shot — an alloy of lead, with two per cent, of arsenic — is occasionally used by the lower order of dealers, temporarily and mechanically to relieve the distressed breathing of broken-winded horses. Four ounces of metallic lead were given to a dog at the Veterinary School of Ijyons without effect. Introduced into the animal body, in frequently repeated although small quantity, the metal is apt, how- ever, to become oxidised, and cause poisoning. Painters, plumbers, and other persons working with lead frequently suffer from lead-poisoning, and such poisoning also occa- sionally occurs in the domestic animals. The soluble salts — such as the nitrate and acetate, as well as the peptonates formed in the stomach — unite with albumin. Small to moderate diluted doses do not irritate either the skin or mucous membranes, but are astringent, desiccant, and analgesic. They have a sweet rather than a corrosive taste. When swallowed they act as gastro- intestinal astringents, are absorbed chiefly as albuminates, permeate the tissues, contract arterioles, raise blood-pressure, and slow the heart movements. Larger or continued doses irritate and then paralyse voluntary and involuntary muscles, and also the central nervous system. This two- fold irritant and paralysant action is illustrated by the vomiting induced in dogs and cats, the cramp of the intestinal and other muscles in man and animals, and 22G PLUMBISM — SYMrXOMS AND MORBID ArPEARAXCES the paresis developed subsequently by toxic doses. These effects appear to result from the deposition of the lead in the several textures affected. Hence arise, in chronic cases, degeneration of the implicated muscles and cirrhosis of the kidneys and other internal organs. Certain animals exhibit more prominently some of the actions of lead. Muscular weakness and paralysis are well marked in frogs and rabbits, are less pronounced in cats, and are absent in dogs. Elimination is slowly effected in the urine, bile, and intestinal mucus (Brunton). Lead-poisoning", or plumbism, in the lower animals ex- hibits symptoms analogous to those in man, and frequently continues, in more or less aggravated form, for several weeks, or even months. Digestion is impaired, ajjpetite becomes capricious and irregular; there are spasms and subsequently torpidity of the bowels. These symptoms simulate those of gastric distension in horses and impaction of the third stomach of cattle — disorders for Avhich lead- poisoning has been mistaken. Distinctive features shortly, however, present themselves. Along the margin of the gums appears a grey or blue line of lead deposited in the connective tissue, blackened by hydrogen sulj^hide present in the mouth, or by sulphur in the food. Colic and consti- pation are not so invariably present in the lower animals as in human patients. The extensor muscles of the limbs are cramped and paralysed earlier and more seriously than the flexors. The affected muscles gradually waste. The motor area of the central nervous system is more notably involved than the sensory, and choreic movements and convulsions are succeeded by paresis and amaurosis. In cattle lead- poisoning occasionally proves a cause of abortion. Mr. Shenton, a veterinary surgeon practising in Derby- shire, in 1861, had eleven horses poisoned, and several cattle, and thus described to me the conditions which came under his observation: — 'There was a rough, staring coat, a tucked-up appearance of the abdomen, and a slightly accelerated pulse ; in fact, symptoms of febrile excitement, Avhich usually, however, passed away in about a week. About LEAD POISONING 227 this time large quantities of grey- coloured mucus were discharged from the nostrils, and saliva from the mouth; but at no time was there any enlargement of the sub- maxillary, lymphatic, or salivary glands. Neither was there constipation of the bowels, which appears to be nearly always present in lead-poisoning in man. Fits and partial paralysis came on at intervals, and when the animals got down they often struggled, for a long time ineffectually, to get up again. Thx^ breathing up to this period was tranquil, but now became so difficult and laboured that the patients appeared in danger of suffocation. The pulse Avas in no case above sixty or seventy, and I ascribed the difficulty of respiration to a paralysed state of the respirator}^ apparatus. The animals did not live more than two or three days after these symptoms appeared. The post-mortem appearances varied little. The lungs and trachea were inflamed, the lungs engorged with large quantities of black blood, the trachea and bronchi filled with frothy spume. In all but two cases the villous portion of the stomach presented isolated j)atches of increased vascularity, and in all cases the intestines, and especially the large ones, were inflamed. The blind pouch of the caecum was nearly gangrenous. There was nothing remarkable about the liver, spleen, or kidneys, except that they were of a singularly blue appearance. The brain and spinal cord were not examined.' According to Mosselman and Hebrant, the effects of the poison in horses are especially manifested upon the vagus nerve, inducing roaring and dyspnoea {Veterinarian, 1899). Mr. Cartwright, Whitchurch, Salop, recorded {Edinburgh Veterinary Revieiu, 1863), three cases of milch cows poisoned by eating sheet lead, which had been used for lining tea- chests, and afterwards carelessly thrown on the manure heap, and thence spread on the pastures. Besides failure of milk and appetite, grinding of the teeth, and dulness, several curious symptoms are mentioned. The head was rested against any convenient object as if the animal were asleep, while the eyes were nearly closed, and Avere little sensitive to light or to movements of the finger. The gait was weak and tottering, while for an hour or two at a time 228 LEAD-POISONING tlio cows, although persistently staiuliDg on their hind limbs, went down on their knees, propping themselves against the wall. They survived four or five days. From the fourth stomach of one cow a pound of sheet lead was removed ; the lining membrane Avas thickened, and of a brown colour. The mucous membrane of the stomachs and bowels Avas abnormally vascular, and exhibited in places patches of ccchymosis. The liver was pale, cla3'-coloured, compact, and contained little blood. Mr. W. AVatson records the poisoning of three cows, which languished for several months, and died from eating grass on which bullet spray from the Rugby ride butts had fallen. Fragments of the lead were found adhering to the coats of the stomach, and the poison was also detected in the intes- tines, liver, and kidneys {Veterhiarian, 1864). Mr. Broad, of Bath, also records cases of cattle poisoned by picking up bullet spray. The animals were described as dull and tucked-up, the eyes staring, the gait unsteady, the appetite good, but the bowels constipated ; emaciation, with oedema under the jaw, made rapid progress. Portions of bullet spray were found in the second and third stomachs ; both large and small intestines were pale-blue and bloodless {Veterinarian, 1865). Professor Tuson recorded shnilar symptoms from licking red paint, which he found retained for twenty-eight weeks in a cow's stomach. Mr. Cox, of Hendon, had several sheep which became emaciated and paralysed from eating the splashes of lead bullets, which were found in the stomachs in thin flakes, readily soluble in the gastric fluids (Taylor On Poisons). Birds are occa- sionally poisoned by eating berries contaminated by the smoke of lead smelters. Mr. Herapath reported in The Chemist for 1855 interesting cases of load-poisoning which followed the erection of smelt- ing furnaces on the Mcndip hills in 1853. The injury appeared to commence half a mile from the chinmey, and to extend for half a mile farther. Lead oxides, carbonate, and sulphate were found on the herbage, hedges, and hay. On the live stock ' the effects of the metal were, stunted growth, lean- ness, shortness of breathing, paralysis of the extremities, parti- FROM BULLET-SPHAY AND SMELTER SMOKE 229 cularly the hinder ones ; the flexor muscles of the fore-legs affected, so that they stood upon their toes ; swelling of the knees ; but no constipation or colic, as in the human species; in a few months death followed. Injured beasts removed to another farm did not thrive. In the young the symptoms were more conspicuous and the mortality greater. Lambs Avere yeaned paralytic ; when three weeks old they could not stand, although they made great efforts to do so ; in attempt- ing to feed them from a bottle they were nearly suffocated from paralysis of the glottis ; twenty-one died early out of twenty-three. Colts also died, and those that lived could not be trotted 150 yards without distressed breathing. Pigs confined to the stye were not injured, but if allowed to roam were soon affected. The milk of cows and sheep Avas reduced in quality and quantity, and cheese made from the former had less fat in it. I found in the milk of both minute traces of lead. The dead subjects showed the mucous surfaces to be paler than natural; the lungs had large portions of a dark-red colour, with circumscribed edges, not like ordinary inflammation, but evidently surcharged with fluid. This accounted for the shortness of breathing, as only portions of the lungs were tit to perform their functions. In some parts there appeared bluish spots, where the powder had been stopped by the bifurcation of the air passages. A blue line appeared in the gum of the lower jaw, which Dr. Taylor said in court was not caused by lead poison, as it did not occur, as in the human subject, on the upper edge of the gum., but Avhere the gums first come into contact with the teeth, about three-sixteenths of an inch below the top edge. I therefore dissected out this line, which was about three-quarters of an inch in length, and the thickness of sewing cotton, and, by aid of carbonate of soda and the blow-pipe, reduced a spano-le of lead from it, quite visible to the jury without the aid of a microscope. I was agreeably surprised at this result, as I expected the mark arose only from altered blood; but it will now become, in the hands of a good blow-pipe manipu- lator, the most ready means of detecting lead in the dead subject. It will be observed that of the symptoms, those of emaciation, paralysis, and the blue line are similar to those 230 LEAD roiSONING of the human subject, that constipation and cohc are absent, and we get two new ones — shortness of breathing and swelled knees. I will merely add that the company agreed, without calling witnesses, to pay £500 damages, and to buy the estate at full value.' Lead is readily found in the bodies of animals thus poisoned. It Las been detected in the blood, the contents of the stomach and intestines, the brain and spinal cord, the nuiscles, lungs, spleen, and liver. Lead enters the bodies of animals in their food or water, portions of metal are picked up, or paint is licked. The poison is sometimes brought to the farm in street manure. Water is liable to contamination by conveyance through leaden pipes or storage in leaden cisterns. The hounds at the royal kennels at Ascot some years since suffered from paralysis from drinking water con- taminated by passing through new lead pipes. At Claremont the late Louis Philippe and his suite had symptoms of lead- poisoning, although the amount of lead did not reach half a grain to the gallon. But in some of the Yorkshire towns where lead-poisoning occurred from new pipes, the con- tamination did not exceed one twenty-fifth of a grain per gallon. On lead pipes or vessels the conjoined action of air and soft water is liable to produce a crust of carbonate (PbCOg), with variable proportions of hydrate Pb(OH).,. This crust crumbles away as a crystalline powder, partly dissolved and partly suspended in the fluid. Leaden vessels, or vessels soldered with lead, must therefore be used with caution for storage, especially for any length of time, of water, saccharine or acetic solutions, or other fkiids likely to dissolve the metal. This caution is especially applicable to soft waters and to those rich in chlorides, nitrites, nitrates, and nitro- genous matters yielding ammonia. Hard waters, abounding in carbonates, sulphates, or phosphates, are less liable to contamination, as their acid, uniting with the lead, forms an insoluble crust, which protects the metal from further action of air or water. But even such hard waters are not absolutely safe from lead contamination. A piece of iron, a patch of soft solder, or a few carbonaceous or other impurities in the lead, are liable to set up galvanic action, and thus dissolve LEAD OXIDES AND CARBONATE 231 the metal. Great care should therefore be taken to prevent lime, mortar, nails, or in fact any foreign body, getting into leaden cisterns, which should further be emptied and cleaned out frequently, especially when new. In acute poisoning an emetic or the stomach pump is promptly used, followed by appropriate antidotes. In chronic poisoning, the lead, whether deposited in the tissues or lodged in the digestive canal, should be rendered insoluble by ad- ministration of sulphur, potassium iodide, or magnesium sulphate. The two latter, which are most to be relied on, are given separately, at intervals of two hours, and repeated thrice daily, while a dose of oil is prescribed every third day to hasten the removal of the lead salts excreted into the bowels. Lead Oxide. Plumbi Oxidum. Litharge. Lead Carbonate. Plumbi Carbonas. White Lead. There are five oxides of lead. Litharge (PbO) is a yellowish- red, scaly powder, prepared by the action of air on melted lead. Soluble in three parts water, and in thirty of rectified spirit. Lead carbonate, or white lead, may be prepared by the interaction of lead, water, and carbonic anhydride, in the presence of vapours of acetic acid (B.P.). It is insoluble in water ; entirely soluble in diluted acetic acid. Actions and Uses.— Litharge and white lead are used topi- cally as desiccants and astringents. Mixed with linseed oil glycerin, or vaseline, they form antiseptic, astringent, pro- tective coverings, useful in burns, herpes, and moist eczema. Animals, however, are prone to eat or lick such dressino-s, and to obviate risk of poisoning, zinc oxide and carbonate are hence usually substituted. Lead Oleate. Lead Plaster. Emplastrum Plumbi The common sticking or diachylon plaster is prepared by boiling together gently, by the heat of a steam bath, one pound litharge, two pounds olive oil, and sixteen ounces of water, keeping them simmering for four or five hours, stirrin"- constantly until the product acquires a proper consistence 232 LEAD OLEATE AND IODIDE for a plaster, and adding more water if necessary (B.P.). In this process the oil is decomposed in the same manner as fats are acted upon by steam heat, or by alkalies in the preparation of soap ; lead oleate rises to the surface, and glj^cerin remains in solution. Lead plaster is sold in rolls, about a foot in length, of a yellow-white colour, and a faint, sweet, soapy odour. Although brittle when cold, it becomes soft and adhesive Avhcn heated. Actions and Uses. — Lead plaster is adhesive, free from irritant properties, and in this form the lead is not liable to absorption. For bringing together the edges of small incised wounds it is generally used spread on linen or calico, and thus applied it besides aifords protection and support. Lead plasters are rendered more adhesive, and consequently better adapted for most veterinary purposes, by melting with every pound four ounces of pitch or resin and two ounces of hard soap. Lead Iodide. Plumbi lodidum. Pblg. When equal parts of lead nitrate and potassium iodide are dissolved, and the solutions mixed, double decomposi- tion occurs, potassium nitrate remains in solution, and lead iodide is precipitated in brilliant, golden yellow, crystalline scales, or in a fine, bright yelloAv, heavy powder. It is taste- less, colourless, sparingly soluble in cold water, but readily dissolved by 200 parts boiling water, entirely soluble in solution of anunonium chloride. Actions and Uses. — It resembles other lead salts ; is occa- sionally prescribed as a gland stimulant, and applied as a dressing for ringworm and for indolent tumours, being used in the form of ointment or plaster. Emplastrum Plumbi lodidi is made with two ounces lead iodide, one pound load plaster, and two ounces of resin. Lead Acetate. Plumbi Acetas. Sugar of Lead. Neutral Acetate. Pb(C,H30.,).33Aq. Strong Solution of Lead Subacetate. Liquor Plumbi Subacetatis Fortis. Goulard's Extract. (B.P.) Two lead acetates are used in medicine — the neutral LEAD ACETATES 233 acetate or sugar of lead, and the tribasic, which occurs in Goulard's Extract. Sugar of lead is obtained by dissolving lead oxide or lead carbonate, in acetic acid. Lead acetate occurs in minute needle-like crystals, which are slightly efflorescent, have an acetous odour, and a sweet astringent taste. It is soluble in less than three parts of cold water, and in thirty parts of alcohol (90 per cent.). The liquor plumbi subacetatis, or Goulard's Extract, is prepared by boiling 5 ounces of lead acetate and 3J ounces lead oxide, in powder, in a pint of water, for half an hour, constantly stirring ; then filter, and, when the liquid is cold, add to it more distilled water, until the product measures 20 fluid ounces (B.P.). It is a colourless, transparent, alkaline liquid, with a sweet, astringent taste. It becomes turbid on exposure. From a solution of the neutral acetate it is distinguished by its alkalinity, and by its producing an opaque white jelly when mixed with mucilage of gum acacia. The diluted solution of lead subacetate, or Goulard's water, is made with 2 drachms of strong solution of lead subacetate, 2 drachms alcohol (90 per cent.), and 19| ounces of distilled water. Actions and Uses. — The acetates exhibit the physiological actions of other soluble lead salts. They are prescribed as astringents and styptics, and externally as astringents and analgesics. They are less corrosive and astringent, and more soothing, than zinc or copper acetates. The greater solubility of Goulard's Extract renders it more active than the sugar of lead, and it is preferable for external application on account of its not drying or crystallising. Toxic Effects. — Hertwig gave a pound of sugar of lead to horses, and observed nausea, colic, a quick, small, hard pulse, stiffness of the limbs, paralysis of the optic nerve, and sometimes of other parts, insensibility, and often death. Even more energetic effects occur in cattle. Prinz observed that half an ounce given daily for three days produced in cows fever, with a quick, throbbing pulse, colic, and other symptoms of abdominal pain; in one case mania, but in none death. Mecke found that eight ounces, dissolved in 234 LEAD ACETATE water, and given in divided doses during two days, destroyed nine cattle — the first on the second, the last on the four- teenth day after the poison had been given. Early in 1857 a farmer near Glasgow lost eight cows from their boiled food having been stored in a large tub obtained from a chemical manufactory, and impregnated with sugar of lead. The symptoms were similar to those above recorded. Dogs receiving half an ounce, retained by tying the oesophagus, suffered intense intestinal irritation, and died, occasionally in nine hours, but sometimes only after two or three days (Orfila). Owing to chemical action the membrane of the stomach is grey, of a macerated appear- ance, and sometimes very vascular, especially in lingering cases. Similar symptoms and appearances are observed when sugar of lead is absorbed from a wound, or injected into the veins. Medicinal Uses. — Lead acetate is administered to check haemorrhages, especially from the stomach and lungs. For- merly it was prescribed for purpura in horses and red-water in cattle; but other remedies are more effectual. Half- drachm doses of sugar of load and opium, given daily, sometimes check the dangerous diarrhoea and dysentery which attack badly-managed anaemic cattle in autumn and early winter. Scouring lambs are equally benefited by eight or ten grains each of lead acetate and opium. In many of these cases, besides being given by the mouth, it is also added to starch injections. Externally it is applied to check superficial, circumscribed inflammation ; to soothe and heal burns, bruises, and irritable moist ulcers; to cool and reheve strained, inflamed tendons and joints; in conjunction with a dose of physic, to abate the itching of nettle-rash and erythema; to remove the irritation and heal the excoriations of herpes ; to limit the surrounding inflammation of acne ; to arrest irritation and discharge in eczema, in such cases being advantageously alternated with dilute alkalies, sulphur or citrine ointment, or yellow wash. It is applied in mucous or catarrhal inflammation of the eye, but is unsuitable when there is abrasion or rupture of the cornea, as insoluble lead albumi- ZINC AND ITS MEDICINAL SALTS 235 nates and sulphates are formed, causing opacity, which is difficult to remove. Doses, etc. — Of the lead acetates, horses and cattle take 5ss. to 5i- ; calves and sheep, grs. x. to grs. xx. ; pigs, grs. ij. to grs. vj. ; dogs, grs. j. to grs. iv., given in bolus or solution, repeated once or twice daily. For external application, sugar of lead is used in powder, ointment, or dissolved in twenty to forty parts of water, with a little vinegar to in- crease its solubility. Goulard's Extract, diluted with four to six parts of linseed or olive oil, is a cooling application for blistered or contused surfaces. An equally serviceable astringent and anodyne is made with one part of extract to six or eight of vaseline or glycerin. Equal parts of extract and spirit, diluted with eight or ten parts of water, make a useful refrigerant astringent. One part of lead acetate and three-quarter part zinc sulphate, dissolved in thirty to forty of water, constitute the familiar white lotion, and although the preparation is not chemically a correct one, every-day experience proves it to be a serviceable astringent, analgesic, and antiseptic. ZINC AND ITS MEDICINAL COMPOUNDS Metallic zinc is obtained by roasting zinc blende, which is a native sulphide, or calamine, which is a native car- bonate. Zinc, alloyed with nickel and copper, yields German silver ; when alloyed with copper, it yields brass. A coating of zinc on iron prevents rusting, and constitutes galvanised iron. Zinc is a bluish-white metal, brittle at low and high temperatures, but between 212° and 300° Fahr. it is ductile and malleable. It is diatomic ; its salts are colourless. Actions and Uses. — Zinc salts coagulate albumin, and hence are astringent. As solids and concentrated solu- tions, several, moreover, unite with water, and hence are caustic. Although not affecting the unbroken skin, when applied to mucous membranes small doses are astringent, large doses are irritant. The chloride, nitrate, and iodide 236 ZINC OXIDE arc readily soluble and diftusible, and heneo are active and corrosive. The sulphate and acetate, although less energetic, have more activity than the less soluble oxide or carbonate. The sulphate and acetate arc prompt emetics for dogs and other animals that vomit; unlike tartariscd antimony, they cause little depression of the circulation, and produce emesis, partly by local action on the stomach and partly by stinui- lating the vomiting centre in the medulla. They are absorbed probably as albuminates, and act as nerve tonics, astringents, and anhydrotics, while continued full doses produce symptoms allied to those of poisoning by copper or lead. They are eliminated more rapidly than mercury, lead, or copper, in small quantity by the kidneys, but chiefly by the liver and intestinal glands (Bartholow). Zinc Oxide. Zinci Oxidum. Oxide of Zinc. ZnO Oxide of zinc may be prepared by exposing zinc carbonate to a dull red heat, or from metallic zinc by combustion. It is a soft, nearly colourless, tasteless, inodorous powder, in- soluble in water, but soluble without effervescence in acids and in alkalies. When heated it becomes yellow, but if free from iron ncarl}^ loses its colour on cooling. Actions and Uses. — It is a desiccant, protective, and ha3mo- static, but, being insoluble in water, it acts mechanically unless dissolved by an acid, when it is mildly astringent. It is occasionally prescribed in catarrh and bronchitis for the arrest of profuse secretion, is a nerve tonic, and is given to dogs in epilepsy. It relieves cutaneous tenderness and itching. In erythema, in which it is often desirable to avoid moist dressings, it is dusted over the tender surface mixed with four to six parts of kaolin, 'Sanitas' powder, or starch Hour. In many cases of erythema it is usefully conjoined with glycerin, vaseline, or soft soap. Acute vesicular eczema is often successfully treated by a thorough soaking with mercurous oxide wash and the subsequent in-rubbing of zinc oxide ointment or oleate. Where there is much tenderness or itching such ZINC SULPHATE 237 dressings are mixed with or followed by application of morphine oleate. After cleansing the meatus the ointment is useful in canker of the ear of dogs, and in diseases that simulate it. Doses etc. — Horses and cattle take 5ij- to 5iv. ; dogs, grs. ij. to grs. vj., given in bolus or solution. For external use aqueous solutions are made with equal parts of zinc oxide and borax or other alkaline salt or glycerin added to ensure solution, with ten to thirty parts of water. It is also used with subnitrate or oxide of bismuth. Liniments are prepared with one part of oxide to five or six of olive oil, or other fatty matter. Unguentum zinci is made Avith three parts of zinc oxide, and seventeen parts of benzoated lard. Some cutaneous complaints, in which ointments freely used are apt to impair secretion and excretion, and others which should not be wetted, are satisfactoril}- treated by pastes or powders. Zinc oxide suits well for such purposes, and may be applied mixed with kaolin, silicious earth, magnesium carbonate, starch, iodoform, or boracic acid. Zinc Carbonate. Zinci Carbonas. Carbonate of Zinc. Calamine, the native carbonate, is an important ore of zinc. The B.P. carbonate — white, tasteless, and insoluble in water — is prepared by the interaction of zinc sulphate and sodium carbonate, and is a mixture of carbonate and oxide with water of crystallisation, Zn C03(Zn H20o)2HoO. Its uses are identical with those of the oxide. Zinc Sulphate. Zinci Sulphas. Sulphate of Zinc. White Vitriol. ZnSO.TH^O. Zinc blende, the native sulphide when roasted, juelds a crude sulphate. The B.P. salt is formed by the interaction of diluted sulphuric acid and zinc. It occurs in colourless, transparent, tabular crystals, isomorphous with those of Epsom salt, Avith a styptic metallic taste, and efflorescent in dry air. It is soluble in 2-5 parts of alcohol (90 per cent.), and in two parts of water. Actions and Uses. — It is irritant, emetic, astringent, anti- 238 ZINC SULPHATE septic, and nerve tonic. It is used externally as a stimulant, astringent, and antisej^tic. Toxic Actions. — Powerful astringent effects are produced on horses by sixty to seventy-five grains; three to five drachms dry the buccal and gastro-intestinal secretions, and cause nausea, colic, and efforts to vomit (Tabourin). Two horses had each half an ounce daily for a fortnight without marked effect, but larger doses impaired appetite, and caused nausea and diuresis (Veterinarian, 1844). Somewhat larger doses produce similar effects on cattle. Dogs receiving seven to thirty grains promptly vomit; but the act is seldom accompanied by the nausea and depression produced by tartar emetic. Orfila found that seven and a half drachms were vomited by dogs in a few seconds, but produced no lasting bad effects. When vomiting, however, was prevented by ligature of the oesojAagus, much smaller quantities sufficed to destroy dogs, in about three days, from gastro-enteritis. Thirty grains in solution, injected into the veins, depressed the action of the heart and destroyed life in a few seconds (Christison On Poiso7is). Repeated doses are detected in the spleen, liver, faeces, and urine. Unlike lead or mercury, it exhibits no cumulative action. Medicinal Uses. — As a tonic it resembles, but is inferior to, iron and copper sulphates. As an astringent compared with lead or silver salts, it contracts capillary vessels more power- fully. It is sometimes prescribed with opium in diarrhoea and dysentery, but is less serviceable than copper sulphate or lead acetate. For arresting spasmodic diseases in the lower animals, it is not so effectual as copper sulphate, arsenic, or quinine. It checks acute chorea in dogs in good condition : but iron is better in chronic cases associated with debility. For drying excessive discharges, especially from the ali- mentary canal, and for checking undue perspiration and haemorrhage, frequent small doses are given with sulphuric acid and opium. As a safe and prompt emetic it is prescribed for dogs and |)igs to empty the stomach of undigested food, foreign bodies, and poisons. Externally, it is much used as a stimulant and astringent for wounds, foul ulcers, conjunctivitis, relaxed sore throat, ZINC CHLORIDE 239 irritable conditions of the mucous membrane of the uterus or vagina, vesicular and pustular skin eruptions, and inter- digital inflammation in sheep. Where powerful astringent and caustic effects are sought, the zinc sulphate is conjoined with that of copper or iron, or with both. Mr. Malcolm, of Birmingham, in his successful treatment of canker in the foot of the horse, uses a dressing of equal parts of zmc, copper, and iron sulphates, with carbolic acid, and sufficient vaseline to form a paste. Doses, etc. — As an emetic for dogs and pigs, grs. viij. to grs. XV. are given in two or three ounces of water. As an astringent for horses and cattle, 3ss- to 5ij- ; for sheep, grs. x. to grs. XX. ; for dogs, grs. j. to grs. iij. are given, either in the solid or fluid state. Externally, it is used in powder or solution, usually made with thirty to sixty parts of water. Three-quarters of an ounce of zinc sulphate and an ounce of lead acetate, with 80 to 40 ounces of water, constitute the white lotion so familiar in veterinary practice, but for some purposes this strong solution requires further dilution. Zinc sulpho-carbolate is sometimes used as an antiseptic and astringent, two to five grains being dissolved in an ounce of water. Zixc Chloride. Zinci Chloridum. Butter of Zinc. ZnClo. Chloride of zinc is produced by the interaction of hydro- chloric acid and zinc. It occurs in colourless, opaque rods or tablets, very deliquescent and caustic ; soluble in' water, alcohol, and ether. Actions and Uses. — It is an irritant and corrosive poison. Medicinal doses are antiseptic and astringent; but it is seldom given internally. Externally, it is applied as a stimulant, astringent, caustic, and parasiticide. It is also used as an antiseptic, disinfectant, and deodoriser. Surgical Uses. — From its strong attraction for water, and its coagulating albumin, it is an energetic caustic. It resembles mercuric and antimony chlorides. It is used to control luxuriant granulations, unhealthy ulceration, and foot-rot in sheep, and for such purposes is applied in substance. To remove malignant growths and to destroy 240 ZINC ACETATE the walls of sinuses, it is applied, usually mixed with two parts of flour made into a paste with glycerin and water. Unlike arsenic or mercury salts, it is not liable to undergo absorption and i)roduce constitutional mischief. Strong solutions, containing 10 per cent., secure the aseptic state of foul or envenomed wounds, and are serviceable where repeated dressings are inadmissible, and the volatile carbolic acid cannot be conveniently replaced. Socin's paste, consisting of five parts zinc chloride, thoroughly mixed with fifty parts each of zinc oxide and water, is used as an antiseptic protective for surgical wounds which cannot be bandaged. Solutions of two to three per cent, are used for ordinary astringent purposes and for the destruction of vermin. Like mercuric chloride, it is serviceable for keeping animal tissues for dissection. Its antiseptic effects are exerted even in the presence of considerable quantities of Avater, which interferes with the etticacy of the tar acids. Besides prevent- ing and arresting putrefaction, it also decomposes hydrogen sulphide, ammonia, and other offensive products of decay. Burnett's disinfecting and antiseptic fluid contains twenty- five grains zinc chloride in every fluid drachm, and is ordered to be used in the proportion of one pint to five gallons of water. Zinc Acetate. Zinci Acetas. Acetate of Zinc. Zn(C<,H302)2 3 HgO. Zinc acetate is prepared by neutralising acetic acid with zinc carbonate. It crystallises in colourless, odourless, pearly plates, which have a sharp, disagreeable, metallic taste, and are soluble in 2-5 parts of water. It is the active constituent of the white lotion so much used by the late Professor Dick. Actions and Uses. — The acetate closely resembles the sulphate. It is an emetic and nerve tonic, but is seldom used internally. Externally, as a stimulant and astringent it dries excessive serous discharges, relieves erythema, eczema, and impetigo, as well as conjunctivitis and other superticial inflammations. Professor Tuson recommended a solution COPPER SALTS 241 for saturating at short intervals the wash-leather bandages applied to the jarred, swollen legs of hunters. According to the purpose for which it is required, two to twenty grains are dissolved in the ounce of water. COPPER AND ITS MEDICINAL SALTS Copper (Cu) is a brilliant red metal, found native near Lake Superior in North America, crystallised in octahedrons or cubes. It has a specific gravity of 8-95, a nauseous styptic taste, and unpleasant odour, especially when rubbed. It is malleable and ductile, constitutes 95 per cent, of the material of our bronze coinage, which contains besides about four of tin and one of zinc. Brass consists of about two- thirds of copper and one-third of zinc. The principal copper ores are pyrites, which is a double sulphide of copper and iron, and the carbonate or malachite. Its chief officinal salts are the sulphate, nitrate, iodide, and acetate. Copper forms two series of salts, the cuprous and cupric, the latter the more stable, and, when hydrated, having a green or blue colour. Actions and Uses. — Salts of copper, like those of other heavy metals, form sparingly soluble albuminates. In virtue of their combining with the albumin of the tissues, they are antiseptic, astringent, irritant, and caustic. When they are absorbed, these topical effects are more widely extended, and more general astringent, antiseptic, tonic, or irritant effects are produced. Copper salts are allied to those of zinc and silver, and some of their actions also resemble those of iron, lead, and mercury. Like zinc and lead, they are muscle poisons, and hence weaken heart action. Acute copper poisoning in- flames the spinal cord, but not in so marked a degree as lead and mercury. The sulphate, nitrate, and other soluble salts have slight action on the unbroken skin, but combine with albumin, and hence constringe and irritate the abraded skin and mucous surfaces. When swallowed they irritate the stomach, in many animals producing emesis, Avhich, when the drug is absorbed, is also excited by irritation of the Q 242 COPPER SALTS vomiting centre. After exerting, according to dose or state of concentration, astringent or irritant etiects on the alimentary mucous membrane, they are slowly absorbed as albuminates, and as the still more soluble peptonatcs. They appear to remain in the plasma of the blood, but do not combine with the corpuscles, or only to a limited extent. They probably unite with various tissues, and modify their nutritive and functional activity. Like many other metal- lic salts, they are excreted slowly in the bile, in the mucus of the stomach and bowels, to a slight extent in the sweat, but mainly in the urine, and exert their special effects on the channels by which they are discharged. Copper in the metallic state is devoid of poisonous action. Drouard gave ounce doses finely divided to dogs of different sizes and ages, but none experienced any inconvenience (Pereira). Two drachms of oxide caused in dogs vomiting and diarrhosa. The more soluble salts are active irritants. Dogs tolerate for a week or two daily doses of 10 to 15 grains of the sulphate or acetate, but 40 to 60 grains induce loathing of food, diarrhoea, and in some instances death by collapse. Chronic poisoning occasionally occurs among animals depastured in the neighbourhood of copper-smelting works, but such effect may in part depend upon the arsenic present in copper ores. Cuprous poisoning also results in cows, pigs, and dogs, from the use of food or drink boiled in copper vessels, and allowed to remain in them while cooling. Acid and fatty matters are most apt thus to be con- taminated, especially if long in contact with copper, and exposed at the same time to air and moisture. The prominent symptoms are, impaired appetite, constipation, alternated with diarrhosa, colic, imperfect nutrition, mus- cular weakness and trembling, and occasionally ha^moglo- binuria or hosmaturia. The antidotes consist of white of esrsf, wasliinir out the stomach, administering demulcents, and allaying irritation and pain, if need be, by morphine. ASTRINGENT, IRRITANT, ANTISEPTIC, AND TONIC 243 Copper Sulphate. Cupri Sulphas. Cupric Sulphate. Blue Vitriol. Blue Stone. CuSO,.5H20. Copper sulphate is got by dissolving the black oxide in sulphuric acid, by boiling metallic copper with sulphuric acid, and on the large scale by roasting copper pyrites (CuFeS.,), when both the copper and iron are oxidised into sulphates ; at the red-heat used the iron sulphate is decom- posed, and the copper sulphate crystallised from a hot watery solution. Blue vitriol made from pyrites always contains iron, which does not, however, interfere with its medicinal uses. It occurs in large blue triclinic prisms, with a st3'j)tic metallic taste. Exposed to the air, it effloresces and becomes covered with a greenish-white powder of carbonate. It is almost insoluble in alcohol, but soluble in 3i parts of cold water, and in 2h of glycerin. Actions and Uses. — It combines with the albumin of the tissues with which it comes into contact, and in moderate doses or weak solutions is antiseptic, astringent, and tonic. Even small doses induce emesis in dogs and other carnivora. Large doses and concentrated solutions are irritant and caustic. Externally, it is used as a stimulant, astringent, and caustic. Like many other metallic salts, it arrests the action of enzymes and of organised ferments. Toxic Effects. — Hertwig records that large doses (above twelve drachms for horses and cattle, one drachm for sheep or swine, and half a drachm for dogs) cause indigestion and impaired appetite ; in carnivora, vomiting and diarrhoea ; the evacuations are tinged green or blue, and mixed with blood ; and fatal inflammation of the stomach and intestines usually follows. Drouard found that 60 grains retained in the stomach of a dog killed it in half an hour, but left little appearance of inflammation. Mitscherlich found that two drachms speedily killed dogs, leaving 'blueness of the villous coat of the stomach, mingled Avith brownness, the apparent effect of chemical action.' A drachm applied to a "wound caused in dogs rapid prostration, and death in four hours. Injected into the jugular vein, it speedily reduces and arrests the action of the heart, 15 grains pro vino- 244 COPPER SULPHATE fatal in twelve seconds (Christison On roisons). In poison- ing by copper salts, the appropriate antidotes are white of egg and milk, which form insoluble innocuous albuminates ; iron lilings, which attract and fix the copper; or potassium ferrocyanide, which produces a comparatively insoluble and harmless salt. Medicinal Uses. — Copper sulphate is given to dogs and cats as a promptly- acting effectual emetic, useful in narcotic poisoning. With phosphorus it forms a stable, inert com- pound. It acts both on the stomach and the vomiting centre. It is prescribed for all animals in atony and exces- sive catarrhal discharges, especially from the alimentary canal. In chronic diarrhoea and dysentery it is prescribed with opium. In nasal gleet it is sometimes conjoined with cantharides. In purpura and similar affections, it im- proves appetite and diminishes abnormal secretion. In grease it is used both internally and locally. Given in bolus, administered fasting, and repeated daily for a week, it is a useful general vermifuge for the horse. As a nerve tonic it is prescribed especially for weakly dogs affected with epilepsy and chorea, but for the latter it is not so effectual as arsenic. Externally, it is applied as a stimulant, astringent, and disinfectant. In ophthalmia, as an antiseptic stimulant ; as a spray and gargle for ulcerated sore-throat ; as an anti- septic stimulant and caustic for sluggish wounds, discharging and parasitic skin diseases, exuberant granulations, canker, cracked heels, sinuses, fistulce, and in foot-rot in sheep, and as a styptic for arresting haemorrhage from superficial vessels. Doses, etc. — As a tonic and astringent, horses take 5i- to 5ij. ; cattle 5i- to 5iv. ; sheep, grs. xx. to grs. xxx. ; pigs, grs. v. to grs. X. : and dogs, gr. \ to grs. ij. These doses repeated twice daily, are administered either in bolus or dissolved in some mucilaginous solution; and as tonics are best given along with food, or immediately after feeding. Unless in very small doses, it should not bo given for more than ten days, as it is apt to interfere with appetite, and even cause nausea. .As a prompt emetic for the dog, grains vi. to grains x. are ANTISEPTIC, ASTRINGENT, AND TONIC 245 given dissolved in water, and about double that amount for pigs of 100 lbs. weight. Externally, the powder or a watery solution is applied, and the crystals are used as an escharotic. A useful caustic injection for sinuous wounds, is made with two ounces each of copper and zinc sulphates, three ounces of lead acetate and a pint of vinegar. Shepherds mal^e an ointment for foot-rot with equal weights of powdered blue vitriol, gunpowder and lard. A more convenient and adhesive application is prepared by carefully jnixing over a slow fire one part of powdered blue vitriol with one of lard and two of tar. A resinate of copper may be made by boil- ing 12 parts of copper sulphate in 250 parts of water, and adding 25 parts of powdered resin. The solid resinate, dissolved as required in methylated alcohol and glycerin, is used as an injection for quitter and similar wounds. Copper Iodide. Cupri lodidum. Cuprous Iodide. Cu,l2. Although not recognised by the B.P., cuprous iodide is noticed in Morton's Veterinary Pharmacy and in Tuson's Veterinary Fharmacopaia. It is the by-product in one of the processes for iodine, and is also obtained by mixing solutions of cuprous sulphate and potassium iodide. It is a fawn- coloured salt, has a disagreeable, styptic, coppery taste, and evolves an odour of iodine. It was introduced in the belief that it conjoined the actions of its two constituents ; but large doses, in which its characteristic actions should be most obvious, produce the effects of other soluble copper salts. It has been recommended as a stimulatinsr tonic in chronic oedema of the legs, and as an astringent in ill- conditioned ulcers and inveterate grease. Copper Acetates. Cupri Acetas. Cupri subacetas. Verdi- gris. iErugo. Copper subacetate may be prepared by subjecting plates of copper to the vapour of acetic acid. It occurs either in amorphous masses or powder, is blue or green, according to the mode of preparation, and has the taste and odour of a copper salt. It remains unchanged in air; when heated, 246 COPPER ACETATES it gives off Avator, acetic acid, and acetone, leaving a residue of oxide and metal. Actions and Uses.— The acetates, like other copper salts, are irritant poisons, emetic, antiseptic, astringent, and tonic, but are rarely prescribed internally. They are used externally as caustics, stimulants, astringents, and antiseptics. Drouard exhibited 12 grains of the subacetate to a strong dog fasting, and observed aversion to food, efforts to vomit, diarrhd'a, listlessness, and death in twenty-two hours. Paralysis of the hind extremities was also observable in some cases, but in none was the stomach much inflamed. Cupric acetate is still more active. Orfila found that 12 to 15 grains given to dogs, produced besides gastric irritation, convulsions, tetanus, sometimes insensibility, and death within an hour (Christison On Foistons). Hertwig records that one ounce administered to a horse caused colic, with acceleration of the pulse ; and that two ounces, given some hours after, aggravated these symptoms, causing first acceleration and then depression of the pulse, debility, and, after six hours, convulsions and death. Prescribed internally, the doses of the acetates are the same as those of the sulphates. The external uses arc also the same. They are applied in the form of solution or ointment, the latter made with one part of the salt to eight or ten of lard or of resin ointment. A useful dressing for foot-rot in sheep is made with one part of acetate to three or four parts of lard, oil, or tar. Liniment of Verdigris, or Mel iEgyptiacum, is made with 9 ounces of verdigris, 6 ounces of alum, and li lbs. of honey or treacle, heated together over a water-bath until the mixture assumes a broAvn colour. It is employed as a dressing for open joint, for thrush, canker, and other foot cases. SILVER AND ITS MEDICINAL COMPOUNDS SiLVEii Nitrate. Argenti Nitras. Lunar Caustic. Lapis Infernalis. AgNOg. When metallic silver is gently heated with diluted nitric acid, and the solution evaporated, silver nitrate crystallises NITRATE OF SILVER 247 in colourless right rhombic prisms. To form the familiar sticks or pencils, the salt is fused and run into moulds. Toughened caustic is prepared by adding, before fusion, one part potassium nitrate to nineteen parts silver nitrate. Mitigated caustic is made by fusing together one part of silver nitrate, and two parts of potassium nitrate, and pouring into moulds. Argenti nitras is devoid of odour, has a disagreeable metallic taste, is permanent in air, but blackens on exposure to light or in contact with organic matters. It is soluble in its own weight of cold water, ether, and glycerin, and slightly soluble in rectified spirit. It blackens the cuticle, parts readily with oxygen, and thus corrodes soft animal tissues. Like other silver salts, it is distinguished by giving, with hydrochloric acid, a curdy- white precipitate of silver chloride (AgCl), insoluble in nitric acid, but soluble in ammonia, and darkened b}^ exposure to light. Actions and Uses. — It is antiseptic, astringent, irritant, and corrosive, is used as a caustic, and administered as an astrinofent and nerve tonic. It induces emesis in animals capable of vomiting. Large doses cause prostration and paralysis of the central nervous system. Toxic Effects. — Like iron, zinc, and copper salts, which it resembles, silver nitrate readily unites with albumin. It is absorbed slowly as an albuminate; and the astringent, irritant, and caustic actions of the solid nitrate or a strong solution, are confined to the parts with which it comes into contact. When vomiting is prevented, 30 to 60 grains given to dogs cause prostration, weakness of heart action, intestinal irritation, and sometimes convulsions and paralysis, indicating that, like lead and other heavy metals, it irritates and inflames the anterior cornu of the spinal cord. When administered for some time it is deposited in the skin and blackens it, and has also been detected in the liver, spleen, pancreas, and bones. As in the case of arsenic, antimony, and phosphorus, chronic poisoning is accompanied by fatty degeneration. Kosenstern, experimenting on the vessels of the mesentery of frogs, with weak solutions of various astringents, found silver nitrate most powerful ; lead acetate 248 SILVER NITRATE followed next in order, requiring for production of a given effect a solution live times as strong ; ferric chloride acted only feebly; alum caused dilatation. It is slowly excreted in the albuminous secretions and in the bile, mainly by the bowels, in limited amount by the kidneys. Undue irritation, produced whether internally or externally, is diminished by solution of common salt, which forms the insoluble and inert chloride. Medicinal Uses. — As a tonic it is prescribed in chronic nervous diseases, especially amongst dogs. Its action on the spinal cord indicates its use in chronic paralysis, for which potassium chromate and arsenic are also given. Like arsenic, it is sometimes used to check chronic gastric irrita- tion. Alone, or in combination with opium, it is given as an astringent in chronic diarrhoea and dysentery in dogs; while enemata of 2 to 5 grains to the ounce of distilled water or of starch gruel are occasionally also used. Applied to irritable, relaxed, discharging skin or mucous surfaces, it coagulates mucus, and albumin, constringes dilated vessels, produces a white film of chloride, which quickly deepens in colour, from the reduction of the salt to the conditions of sulphide and metal. The solid nitrate or strong solution rubbed into the skin raises blisters. The eschar remaining, after a free dressing, gradually cracks and peels off, leaving usually a healthy surface beneath. The solid nitrate acting superficially, and readily localised, is for many purjjoses preferable to fluid caustics, or to the delique- scent caustic potash. It is serviceable for destroying tinea, warts, and other neoplasms, and checking the progress of indolent boils. Silver nitrate rolled in a piece of tissue paper is sometimes substituted for corrosive sublimate in treating sinuses not easily reached with the knife, and a few days after its introduction causes sloughing of the hard walls of the canal, and leaves a health}^ granulating surface. It forms one of the most effectual remedies for the interdigital inflammation and discharge of the contagious form of foot- rot in sheep. A light dressing of the solid caustic, or of a weak solution, promotes a healthier condition of indolent wounds and TONIC, ASTRINGENT, AND CORROSIVE 249 ulcers, represses over-luxuriant granulations, often arrests the irritabilit}' of circumscribed attacks of erythema, eczema, or pruritus, and is an excellent dressing for chronic sore teats in cows. When painted around an erysipelatous spot it sometimes limits its spreading. Solutions of 10 to 20 grains to the ounce of water destroy the parasites of mange and scab. A solution containing half a grain to two grains to an ounce of distilled water abates the pain and congestion of con- junctivitis, and stimulates and heals the inflamed, suppurat- ing eyelids of weakly dogs. It removes speck and opacity of the cornea, if recent and produced by accident, but is of little avail in cloudiness of the cornea, resulting in horses from repeated attacks of periodic ophthalmia. Solutions of 10 to 30 grains to the ounce of water are sometimes used, with a spray producer, to control laryngeal ulceration, follicular tonsillitis, and pharyngitis. Doses, etc. — Of the nitrate horses and cattle take grs. v. to grs. XV.; sheep, gr. jj. to grs. iv. ; pigs, gr. j. to grs. jj. ; dogs, gr. I- to gr. ss. It may be repeated two or three times daily, and, on account of its disagreeable taste and active affinities, is given in bolus. When its astringent effects are to be directed upon an ulcerated or discharging portion of intestine, the bolus should be made Avith kaolin, and given coated with keratin. The oxide, having no topical irritant effect, is some- times substituted for the nitrate as a nerve tonic. For external purposes the sticks of nitrate are sometimes coated with wax to preserve them from the decomposing action of air and light ; and are held in quills or forceps to prevent their blackening the fingers. An ointment is occasionally made with grs. V. to grs. viij. to the ounce of vaseline. Solutions require to be protected from light, and kept in bottles with glass stoppers. Silver nitrate is incompatible with highly oxidised bodies, and forms explosive compounds with creo- sote and morphine. Argentum CoUoidale (Crede). Soluble metallic silver prepared from the directions of Dr. Crede, physician to the Carola Hospital, Dresden, by Heydens' Chemical Company. Silver colloid occurs in small hard masses of a greenish-grey 250 SILVER COMPOUNDS lustre. Reduced to powder, it is freely soluble in water and in albuminous fluids. It is antiseptic and, except in exces- sive doses, non-poisonous. This soluble silver is stated to be of great value in the treatment of septic diseases in man. In veterinary practice it was introduced by Dieckerhoti" as a remedy for equine purpura hasmorrhagica, with the object of destroying micro-organisms or their toxines in the blood and tissues. He obtained very satisfactory results in four cases treated by intravenous injection of a one per cent, aqueous solution in doses of 50 grammes. Further investigation is necessary to determine the proper dose and frequency of administration. To one patient, in ten hours, Diecker- hoff gave five injections of 1h grains silver colloid dissolved in water. The solution does not irritate the vein. It may be administered subcutaneously, or in pill or bolus mixed with sugar of milk and glycerin. A solution (one or two per cent.) may be used to spray or inject wounds. An ointment is employed for skin diseases, {Veterinarian, 1899). Actol, or silver lactate, is a white, tasteless, and odourless powder, soluble in twenty parts of water. An aqueous solu- tion of one in 800 forms an active microcide. Itrol, or silver citrate, occurs as a light powder, without odour or taste, slightly soluble in water (8800 parts). Less irritating than the lactate, it is employed as an antiseptic lotion (1 in 5000 of water), or ointment (1 to 50 of lanoline) for wounds and skin eruptions. Argentol, a compound of silver and quina- septol, is used as a substitute for iodoform. Protargol, a silver albumose, containing eight per cent, of silver, is a yellow powder, readily soluble in water. The solution is not affected by heat, albumin, sodium chloride, caustic soda, or hydrochloric acid. It is said to be absolutely non-irritating. An aqueous solution (1 to 5 per cent.) forms a penetrating antiseptic. Argonin, a combination of silver casein and alkali, containing 4 per cent, of silver, is a white powder, insoluble in cold water, but freely soluble in hot water. Solutions of one to seven parts in 1000 of water, are powerful microcides (Coblentz, Newer Remedies, 1899). IRON SALTS 261 IRON AND ITS MEDICINAL SALTS Ikon. Ferrum. Fcn-iiin redactuin. Fc. Iron is a lustrous grey metal, tenacious, malleable, ductile, the least fusible of the useful metals, but readily welded at a white heat. It is attracted by the magnet, and becomes itself magnetic. It is widely diffused in rocks and soils, and is present in the structures of plants and animals. Small quantities occur uncombined, probably of meteoric origin. Its chief ores are the oxides, comprising magnetic ore and haematites; the carbonates or clay ironstone, and blackband; and the bisulphide or pyrites. Iron forms three compounds with oxygen — FeO, FsgOg, and FcgO^ — the last being a compound of the other two. Iron forms two series of salts — the lower proto or ferrous salts, in which it is diatomic and magnetic ; and the higher per or ferric salts, in which it is triatomic and non-magnetic. The ferrous salts are reducing agents, are chiefly grey or green, and in solution give, with hydrochloric acid and sul- phuretted hydrogen, negative results ; with ammonium hydrosulphide, a black precipitate of hydrated sulphide (FeS.HgO) ; with caustic alkalies, white or grey precipitates of hydrated protoxide, FeO(HO)2, rapidly becoming green and then brown; with potassium ferrocyanide, a white precipitate (K^FeFCy), gradually becoming blue by oxida- tion ; with potassium ferricyanide, a precipitate dark-blue from the first (Fe,F Cyg). The ferric salts are oxidising agents, are mostly broAvn or red, and in solution exhibit, with hydrochloric acid, a nega- tive reaction; with sulphuretted hydrogen, give a white precipitate of sulphur ; with ammonium hydrosulphide, the black ferrous and ferric sulphides, together with sulphur ; with caustic alkalies, a brown-red precipitate of ferric hydrate ; with potassium ferrocyanide, a deep-blue precipi- tate of Prussian blue at once goes down; with potassium ferricyanide, no precipitate, but an olive or brown discoloura- tion ; with solution of galls, neutral solutions yield a blue- black precipitate— the basis of writing ink; with potassium sulphocyanide, an intense blood-red colour. 252 IRON A CARRIER OF OXYGEN Actions and Uses. — Iron and its salts were the first mineral substances employ cd in medicine; they have been used for three thousand years ; but although anciently and exten- sively prescribed, a good deal has still to be learned regarding them. In the economy of nature iron performs the part of a carrier of oxygen. The ferrous oxide being a strong base, has great affinity for all acids. In the soil it combines with carbonic acid, and thus becomes soluble and freely diffused. In contact with air it is further oxidised into ferric oxide, when carbonic acid is given off, to be used for plant nutrition and for solution of plant food. But the unstable ferric oxide in contact with organic matters, again gives up oxygen, forming more carbonic acid, and, reduced to the state of ferrous oxide, is ready again to begin the cycle. In the bodies of the higher animals iron occurs chiefly in the blood. About 15 grammes, or nearly half an ounce, is yielded from the blood of a horse or ox of about 1000 lbs. live-weight. In the ha3moglobin and oxyhpemoglobin the iron performs much the same functions as it does in the ferrous and ferric oxides in the soils. In the lungs, haemo- globin takes up oxygen, and becomes oxyhsemoglobin, Avhich readily parts with oxygen as it circulates through the capillary vessels. Thus maintaining the healthy activity of these blood constituents, iron is said to act as a haematinic or blood tonic. Its curative effects are specially manifested in anaemia, in which the number of red corpuscles and amount of haemoglobin are seriously reduced, sometimes to the amount of one-fifth of their normal proportion, impair- ing tissue oxidation and functional activity. Clinical observation testifies that full doses of iron restore the pallid soft textures to their normal colour and firmness, and improve general health. These curative results have hitherto been supposed to depend upon the medicine being absorbed, and directly furnishing iron to the haemoglobin, restoring its deficiency, and aiding the formation of red blood corpuscles from leucocytes. The recent investigations of Professor Bunge discredit this view. Dr. Stockman in an abstract of these researches, IRON SALTS PARTIALLY AND SLOWLY ABSORBED 253 published in Part iv. of the Journal of Comparative Pathology and Therapeutics, points out — (1) That the normal waste of iron and haemoglobin in the blood is proved to be small. (2) This waste is more than com- pensated by the ordinary food, which contains iron in an organic form, probably as hsematogen. (3) But although this form of iron present in food is soluble in alkaline solu- tions, and is readily absorbed from the intestines, ordinary iron salts, contrary to the views generally held, do not appear to be absorbed, or are absorbed only in minute quantity, and hence cannot, as has been hitherto supposed, directly restore iron to the blood. Professor Bunge and Dr. Stock- man believe that the primary factor in the production of anaemia and chlorosis ' is great poverty of the gastric juice, with attendant dyspepsia and formation of alkaline sulphides. These alkaline sulphides are capable of decomposing the absorbable albuminous iron compounds, and thereby render them, like ordinary iron salts, incapable of absorption. Hence the deficiency of haemoglobin.' Iron preparations are believed to cure anaemia by re- moving the dyspepsia which interferes with the assimilation of the soluble iron in the food. They are attacked by the excess of alkaline sulphides. ' In favour of this view,' con- tinues Dr. Stockman, ' is the fact that such enormous doses of iron require to be given to cure a case of chlorosis, small doses being of no value. In two or three days more iron may be given than is present in the whole body ; secondly, good hygienic measures and attention to diet frequently cure chlorosis without iron; thirdly, in a healthy subject con- tinued administration of iron does not raise the red cor- puscles and haemoglobin above the normal standard. In all forms of anaemia which have their origin outside the alimentary canal, iron must therefore be powerless.' Neither ferrous nor ferric salts dissolve or pass through the epidermis. Both coagulate albumin, and exert astringent effects on mucous and denuded skin surfaces, and also coagulate blood. Professor Bunge is very confident that iron salts, like those of manganese, howsoever administered, are not absorbed from the alimentary canal. They certainly 254 ACTIONS OF IRON SALTS do not directly iucrease the percentage of iron in the blood, nor the amonnt excreted hy the urine, or in the secretions poured into the intestines. Soluble iron salts, which do not coagulate albumin, when injected into the circulation pro- duce metallic poisoning, characterised by muscular and nervous depression, cardiac weakness, and renal inflamma- tion. But when iron salts are swallowed no such effects are produced, Avhich would certainly be the case if they were freely absorbed. Professor Bunge further states ' that all the iron salts — inorganic, organic, and albuminates — become in the stomach cither ferrous or ferric chlorides. In the intes- tine the sodium carljonate, which is always present, turns the ferric chloride into ferric oxide, which remains dissolved in the organic matters of the alimentary canal. On the other hand, the ferrous chloride is transformed into ferrous car- bonate, which also remains dissolved in the carbonic acid and organic matters. Both are finally converted into sulphide by the alkaline sulphides formed during digestion, and are so excreted in the faeces.' It would thus appear that iron salts are only partially and slowly absorbed from the alimentary tract; only infinitesimal proportions of the doses prescribed can be used by the red blood corpuscles ; the absorbed portions, as occur with so many other metallic salts, accumulate in the liver, spleen, bone marrow, and lymphatic glands, and arc again returned to the intestine. The numerous salts of iron possess much the same kind of action, but differ considerably in the degree of their activity. Comparing the ferrous with the ferric salts, the latter are darker coloured, more soluble and stable, as well as more irritant and astringent. Small dogs are injured by 4 or 5 grains of ferric chloride, but swallow without harm 40 grains of ferrous sulphate. The more soluble ferric salts are notably irritant, astringent, and corrosive. In the earlier stages of convalescence, where the stomach is irritable, in young patients, and especially in dogs, ferrous iodide or the carbonate, in the conveniently keeping saccharated form, is usually better borne than the ferric chloride, or even the ferrous sulphate. But in order to secure the full tonic IRON CITRATE AND PHOSPHATE 255 effects of iron it is essential that the bowels be inaintained in a natural state, and an occasional laxative should be given to clear away the excess of alkaline sulphides which charac- terise most cases of anaemia. "Where prompt astringent etiects are to be produced, full doses of the chloride or other soluble ferric salt are given. The salts of iron chiefly used in veterinary practice, and hence demanding special notice, are the saccharated car- bonate, ferrous sulphate, and iodide, Avith the ferric oxide and chloride. Metallic iron, as filings or pulvis ferri, is occasionally given in poisoning with salts of mercury and copper. Ferrum redactum, or reduced iron, is a greyish-black powder, con- taining 75 per cent, of metallic iron with iron oxide. Taste- less, and without astringency, it is frequently prescribed for young, unthrifty animals as a h?ematinic, which is less apt to derange digestion than the sulphate. Iron arsenate has been prescribed in squamous and herpetic skin diseases, in about the same doses as arsenic, and is also applied externall}^ Citrate of iron and quinine, conjoining the tonic properties of its components, and the less astringent citrate of iron and ammonium are occasionally used for dogs, in doses of 4 to 10 grains. Dialysed iron and amorphous quinine have been conjoined. The phosphate (FcgP^O^), recom- mended as beinof the form in which iron occurs in the blood, is sometimes prescribed in diseases of the bones, in diabetes, and in nervous exhaustion. It is occasionally given to delicate dogs and foals, along with other phosphates, in the form of Squire's Chemical Food, which contains the phos- phates of iron, calcium, sodium, and potassium, and in nervous depression with quinine and strychnine in the preparation known as Easton's Syrup. The acetate, lactate, citrate, and tartrate, are very soluble, readily absorbed, and only slightly astringent, are sometimes preferred to the le.ss expensive sulphate and carbonate. Ferratin, a brownish-red powder, prepared from alkaline solution of tartarated iron and albumin, and containinof 7 per cent, of iron, is prescribed as a tonic for dogs, in doses of grs. 5 to grs. 30. 256 IRON SULPHATE Iron Carbonate. Ferri Carbonas. Ferrous Carbonate. FeCOg. Saccharated Iron Carbonate. Ferri Carbonas Saccharatus. The ferrous carbonate occurs in clay iron ore and in many mineral waters. It is prepared by mixing solutions of iron sulphate and ammonium carbonate. It is greyish-green, has a chalybeate, inky-taste, and dissolves with brisk effervescence in hydrochloric acid. Exposed to the air, it rapidly absorbs oxygen, gives off carbonic anhydride, and becomes converted into ferric oxyhydrate — a change constantly taking place along the banks of chalybeate streams. The saccharated carbonate is greatly more stable. It is made by rubbing the freshly-prepared carbonate with sugar in a porcelain mortar. It occurs in small, coherent, grey lumps, has a sweet, feebly chalybeate taste, and should contain about 20 grains of ferrous carbonate in a drachm. It is readily soluble, is a mild chalybeate, especially con- venient in canine practice, and administered for the same purposes as the sulphate, in three times larger doses. Iron Sulphate. Ferri Sulphas. Ferrous Sulphate. Green Vitriol. Copperas. FeSO^.THgO. Iron sulphate may be prepared by the interaction of diluted sulphuric acid and iron. Ferrous sulphate occurs in bluish-green, oblique, rhombic prisms, which, exposed to the air, gradually oxidise, becom- ing opaque, and covered with a brown coating of the normal and basic ferric sulphate ; an excess of sulphuric acid retards this oxidation. It has an inky, styptic taste; is insoluble in rectified spirit, but soluble in less than two parts of cold water; exposed to a temperature of 212° F., until aqueous vapour ceases to be given off", it parts with six-sevenths of its water of crystallisation, and forms the exsiccated sulphate. The dried sulphate is a white poAvder, slowly but entirely soluble in water. Actions and Uses. — Topically applied, it is astringent and antiseptic. When swallowed it is a ha^matinic tonic, aslrin- u-ent, and, in large doses, irritant. It is twice as active as IRON SULPHATE 257 the oxides and carbonates, but it is not so astringent, cor- rosive, or irritant as the ferric chloride or nitrate. As an antiseptic it is not so powerful as the ferric chloride, but has about the same power as the sulphates of alumina and zinc. Professor Goliier administered 10^ ounces to a horse, 6 ounces to a donkey, and 3 ounces to a six-months foal. All were nauseated ; no appreciable increase of iron appeared in the excretions from either bowels or kidneys. The three subjects died the following day, and their intestines were found to be gangrenous (Kaufmann). Medicinal Uses. — Iron sulphate is administered to all veterinary patients in anaemia, and especially when it is con- nected with dyspepsia. It improves the appetite, diminishes exhausting discharges, and abates glandular enlargements. It is specially beneficial in anaemia occurring in young horses, cattle, or sheep, kept throughout the late autumn or winter on grass that has lost its nutritive value, or in young stock that have been reduced by restriction to indigestible, poor straw fodder. Along with concentrated, good food, the iron salt in many such cases is advantageously conjoined or alternated with quinine and other bitter tonics, nux vomica, acids, and occasionally with arsenic. In conjunction with nutritive and oleaginous diet, iron is given to horses and cattle in the earlier stages of tuber- culosis. It is said to abate nasal gleet and leucorrhcea. It is prescribed with aloes for atonic torpidity of the bowels, and for destroying intestinal worms. Combined with iodine, it arrests diabetes insipidus in horses. It is one of the remedies given to check the earlier progress of liver-rot in sheep. Chorea and epilep.sy, when connected, as they often are, with anaemia, are benefited by iron. In septicaemia, pyaemia, and other forms of blood-poisoning, the sulphate or other soluble salt is used. In haemorrhagic cases, as in pur- pura, it is prescribed with a mineral acid, and alternated with quinine. Given after a laxative, it aids recovery of cattle and sheep from red-water. In convalescence from debilitating disorders it is regarded as a valuable hsematinic. In the several forms of in- fluenza and bronchitis, Professor Robertson prescribed ferrous R 258 IRON SULPHATE sulphate and nux vomica, of each half a drachra, with four drachms of powdered gentian, in bolus. In irritability, chronic catarrh, or hsemorrhagic conditions of the urinary bladder, such as accompany or follow epizootic disorders in horses, it has been prescribed with sulphuric acid and alter- nated with salicylic acid. A like prescription, or a course of iron and quinine, is advised in convalescence from nephritis. Although itself devoid of purgative effect, iron sulphate is stated to increase the activity of most cathartics with which it is combined. The sulphate in solution, 2 to 10 per cent., is much used as an astringent antiseptic. Mixed with sulphates of lime and alumina, Tuson's disinfectant powder is formed, which, when moistened, gives off sulphurous anhydride. Doses, etc. — Horses take 5ss. to 5ij- 5 cattle, 5i- to ^\y. ; sheep, grs. x. to grs. xxx. ; pigs, grs. v. to grs. xx. ; dogs, grs. ij. to grs. x. The smaller doses are given as hoematinics and tonics, the larger as astringents. Two and a half parts of the dried sulphate are equal to four of the sulphate. The drug is administered in bolus, solution in water-gruel, infu- sion of calumba, or ale, or mixed with soft food, and repeated twice or thrice daily. As a tonic for horses and cattle, one to two drachms iron sulphate, and half an ounce each of gentian and ginger, are made into bolus, or dissolved in a pint of ale or gruel. Such proportions make three or four doses for sheep and eight or ten for dogs. Preparations of iron intended to act as tonics should be given during or shortly after meals. Full doses introduced into the empty stomach, especially of dogs, are apt to cause dyspepsia. To obviate gastric irritation or constipation, and maintain the continued good effects of iron tonics, after being used for a week or ten days they should for several days be withheld, or replaced by other tonics. Constipation and the dark colour and foitor communicated to the dejections are abated by appropriate diet, combination with Epsom or Glauber salt, or by an occasional laxative. IRON IODIDE 259 Iron Iodide. Ferri lodidiim. Fel24Aq. (Not official.) When iodine, iron wire, and distilled water are gradually heated together, combination occurs, and the solution, filtered and evaporated, yields tabular green crystals, which are in- odorous, have a styptic, metallic taste, and are soluble in about their own weight of water and alcohol. When heated, iron iodide gives off violet-coloured fumes of iodine, and, ex- posed to the air, it deliquesces and acquires a red-brown colour. This oxidation is retarded by keeping the solution in contact with fresh iron wire, in well -stoppered bottles, secluded from light, or by boiling the freshly-prepared solution in syrup. Actions, Uses, and Doses.— It is a hoematinic tonic, altera- tive, and astringent. Poisonous doses are irritant, and pro- duce the effects of iron rather than of iodine. Thus Dr. Cogswell found that three drachms caused in dogs vomiting and purging, while one drachm in concentrated solution killed a rabbit in three hours and a half, with the symptoms and post-mortem appearances of poisoning with other soluble salts of iron. Besides being used for the same hsematinic purposes as the sulphate, it is given to promote absorption of glandular en- largements, especially in young and weakly animals ; it is serviceable in swellings of joints, and was commended by Mr. Morton for its efficacy in polyuria and nasal gleet in horses. The doses are the same as those of the sulphate. It is prescribed in bolus, saccharated powder, and in the form of the official syrupus ferri iodidi. This syrup, containing about 5| grains of ferrous iodide in each drachm, is fre- quently given in bronchitis and canine distemper. Iron Peroxide Moist. Ferri Peroxidum humidum. Moist Ferric Oxide, Fe203.(H20), with about 86 per cent, of uncombined water. Red or ferric oxide is found native in the several varieties of hsematite, ochre, red chalk, and specular ore. The hydrate may be prepared by mixing together three ounces of liquor ferri perchloridi and one ounce of sodium carbonate diluted with water. This moist ferric oxide, freshly prepared, is the best antidote for arsenic. Twelve parts are stated to neutralise 260 CHLORIDE OF IRON SOLUTIONS one part of arsenious acid. It mechanically entangles the particles of the poison, and further converts it into an in- soluble arsenite. The antidote should be followed by a saline purgative. In human patients doses of a dessert- spoonful of the jDeroxide are given every five or ten minutes. Another arsenic antidote is tl^e ferri oxidum hydratum cum magnesia, made by mixing a solution of magnesia with a solution of iron tersulphate (U.S. P.). Iron Perchloride, Ferri Perchloridum. Ferri Chloride. Fe^Clg. Liquor Ferri Perchloridi Fortis. Iron perchloride is prepared by boiling the metal in hydro- chloric acid and water, and adding a little nitric acid to ensure production of the higher chloride. The green crystals, having a great affinity for water, quickly melt. The strong solution, liquor ferri perchloridi fortis, is orange-brown, odourless, with a styptic taste, and miscible with water and alcohol in all proportions. Specific gravity about 142 ; 110 minhns contain 22 J grains of iron. Diluted with three measures of distilled water, it constitutes the medicinal solution, liquor ferri perchloridi, which for ordinary pur- poses is as effectual as the tmcture. Tinctura ferri per- chloridi, known as tincture of steel, is made by mixing five ounces each of strong solution of ferric chloride and alcohol (90 per cent.) and adding ten ounces of distilled water. This tincture has a red-brown colour, an ethereal odour, and an acid, chalybeate taste. Actions and Uses. — Iron perchloride, whether in watery or alcoholic solution, is one of the most soluble, irritant, and corrosive preparations of iron. It is prescribed as a hrema- tinic tonic, antiseptic, astringent, and styptic, and is used topically as an antiseptic, astringent, and caustic. Medicinal Uses. — The solutions. of the chloride are service- able in most of the cases for which the sulphate has been recommended. They conjoin, with general tonic effects, marked astringent action. They are prescribed in atonic dyspepsia, and for the removal of intestinal worms. In relaxed throat, which accompanies and follows catarrhal fever in horses, half-drachm doses, with an equal quantity of ACTIONS AND USES 261 glycerin and six or eight ounces of water, are given every two hours, administered slowly, as a gargle, or applied as a spray. Solutions are used in anaemia and the several con- ditions connected with it. Professor Williams states : — ' When debility and ansemia are associated symptoms, I have found the salts of iron, more especially the tincture of the perchloride, to have a marked effect in promoting absorption of inflammatory products. I have a far higher opinion of the effects of iron salts than of iodine or of iodide of potas- sium. The practitioner, however, is at liberty to combine the iodine with the iron.' In influenza and purpura in horses the chloride improves the apjDctite, and is credited with tonic effects both on the blood and blood-vessels. In hsemorrhagic cases it is sometimes prescribed with turpen- tine, in purpura with quinine. Professor Robertson treated purpura with iron chloride and sulphuric acid, alternated with occasional doses of potassium chlorate. Liquor ferri pernitratis, containing 3 J grains of iron in 110 minims, is sometimes preferred to the chloride, in obstinate diarrhoea, dysentery and hsematuria. In rheumatism, especially in weakly subjects, it is useful, and may be alternated with salicylic acid. It is administered as an astringent and stimulant of the urino-genital mucous membranes, the tinc- ture, on account of its greater tendency to be excreted by the kidne3^s, in such cases being preferable to the watery solution. After the bowels have been freely opened it is serviceable in red- water in cattle. The chloride is particularly suitable in cases of distemper and rheumatic lameness in weakly dogs, and, with or with- out arsenic, benefits most attacks of chorea and many of epilepsy. In dogs, as in other animals, it promotes recovery from exhausting diseases. Externally, it is used as an antiseptic and astringent. It coagulates albumin, and hence is a valuable styptic. Tow or wool saturated with the liquor, and applied directly to the orifice of the bleeding vessel, is an effectual haemostatic. Diluted with six or eight parts of water the medicinal solution is injected into the uterus in cases of post-partum haemorrhage, and into the nose in epistaxis. Two drachms 262 ANTIMONY to a pint of water, injected into the rectum, destroy and bring away ascarides. The growths of actinomycosis, after scraping, are sometimes dressed with the strong liquor, and subsequently Avith weaker solutions. The strong solution has been applied, with beneficial results, in canker of the horse's foot. Although not so effectual an antiseptic as corrosive sub- limate, it readily yields part of its chlorine, and arrests the actions of ferments. A solution of five per cent, in water in two days retarded the growth of anthrax bacilli, and in six days effectually destroyed both bacilli and their spores, which was effected, however, in two days by corrosive sublimate (Koch). As caustics, the liquor ferri perchloridi fortis, and the chloride in substance, are sometimes used. Doses, etc, — Of the medicinal liquor and tincture, horses and cattle take fgss. to fgj.; sheep, TT^xx. to 'n[xxx. ; pigs, TT|,x. to 7I[xx. ; dogs, W. to 'tT[x. The smaller doses suffice for hcematinic or tonic purposes, arc repeated two or three times daily, are diluted with at least ten parts of w\ater, ale, or gruel; are sometimes conjoined with mineral acids, quassia, calumba, and other bitters, or with alcohol or ether. They are incompatible with ammonia, alkalies, or their carbonates, and with tannin-containing substances. The larger doses mentioned are given when powerful astringent effects are required. ANTIMONY AND ITS MEDICINAL SALTS The salts and preparations of antimony in their physio- logical as well as their chemical relations resemble those of arsenic and bismuth. They combine Avith albumin, are precipitated by acid solutions, and consequently exert their irritant effects on parts where they meet with acid secretions, as in the stomach and around the orifices of the sweat glands. With tlio exception of the chloride, Avhich is n pow^erful escharotic, antimony salts, locally applied, produce inflanunation of isolated spots, causing first papules, and subsequently pustules. The solubility of the several pre- parations mainly determines their activity. In animals that vomit they cause emcsis, cardiac and vascular depression, ANTIMONY OXIDE AND SULPHIDE 263 and increased secretion. Large doses produce gastro-enteritis, and paresis of the spinal cord. Given for a considerable period, they induce fatty degeneration. The geese in the Duchy of Brunswick, fed for their fatty livers, receive daily doses of antimonious oxide. Tartar emetic is almost the only antimonial prescribed internally. Antimoxious Oxide. Antimonii Oxidum. The medicinal oxide, also known as native white or flowers of antimony (Sb^Og), is often used as a paint instead of white lead. It is prepared, by direction of the B.P., by pouring solution of the chloride into water, and decomposing the precipitated antimony oxy- chloride with sodium carbonate. It is a greyish-white, tasteless, heavy, crystalline pow^der, insoluble in water, but soluble in hydrochloric, tartaric, and acetic acids and forms, by oxidation with nitric acid, anti- mony tetroxide, and antimony pentoxide. An imitation of the patent James's powder is made by thoroughly mixing one part of antimony oxide and two parts of calcium phosphate. Actions and Uses. — Antimony oxide is chiefly important on account of its employment in the prej^aration of tartar emetic, which it closely resembles in its actions and uses, Antimonious Sulphide. Antimonium Nigrum Purificatum. The native sulphide or stibnite (SbgSg), the most abun- dant ore of antimon}'-, when purified by fusion, washing and drying, occurs in dark-gre}^ metallic, heavy, brittle cakes, or as a heavy, greyish-black, crystalline powder, devoid of odour and taste, insoluble in water, and known as black antimony. The orange-red sulphurated antimony of the B.P. is obtained by boiling black antimony with sublimed sulphur and caustic soda, neutralising the solution with sul- phuric acid, and washing the precipitated mixture. The following sulphides are used in the arts, and have occasion- ally been employed in medicine : — Glass of antimony, a red, transparent body, consisting of about eight parts of oxide and one of sulphide; liver of antimony, a double sulj)hide of antimony and potassium ; and Kermes mineral, a red-brown 264 ANTIMONY CHLORIDE powder containing a variable proportion of oxide and sulphide. Actions and Uses. — Being uncertain, irregular, and often violent remedies, the antimony sulphides are now seldom used in either human or veterinary medicine. Their irregular action mainly depends on their variable composition and their insolubility in water. They once had the reputation of being alterative, expectorant, and anthelmintic, and were given to horses and cattle in doses of one to three drachms, usually along with sulphur or nitre. They cause emesis in dogs. Solution of Antimonious Chloride. Liquor Antimonii Chloridi. Butter of Antimony. SbClg. When native sulphide is boiled with about five times its weight of hydrochloric acid, hydrogen sulphide is evolved, and the chloride remains in solution — a transparent, yellow- red liquid, with a specific gravity of 1"47. The colour darkens by exposure, depending upon oxidation of the iron chloride, which is sometimes added intentionally. Containing excess of hydrochloric acid, it has an acid reaction, and fumes on exposure to air. Addition of water separates a white pre- cipitate of basic oxy-chloride (SbOCl), which, if persistently washed, yields the oxide. The true butter of antimony — a hard, while, crystalline, fusible solid — is got by evaporating and then distilling the commercial solution. Actions and Uses. — Although less used than formerly, the chloride in solution is still employed as a desiccating caustic for thrush, canker, and luxuriant granulations; and for wounds of the feet in cattle, and foot-rot in sheep. Its appli- cation causes little pain ; but, except in cautious hands, it is, however, too energetic for general use. As it cannot be diluted with water without undergoing decomposition, it should be mixed with three or four parts of tincture of myrrh. Antimonium Tautauatum. Potassio-tartrate of Antimony. Tartar Emetic. [K(SbO)C4H,Oe].,H20. Prepared by setting aside a mixture of antimonious oxide, and acid potassium tartrate, made into a paste with a little TARTAR EMETIC 265 ■water, until combination has taken place, and then purifying by crystallisation from water (B.P.). Properties. — Tartar emetic is sold as a white powder, and in colourless, transparent crystals, exhibiting triangular facets, becoming opaque when exposed to the air, and crepi- tating and blackening when heated. It is devoid of odour, has a sweet, metallic taste, is insoluble in strong alcohol, sparingly soluble in weak spirit ; dissolves in about seventeen parts of water, and in three parts boiling water. The watery solution is slightly acid ; is decomposed by strong acids, alkalies, alkaline earths and their carbonates, and by solution of tannic acid, but not by gallic acid. Iron oxide, the most common impurity, communicates to the salt a yellow or brown colour; cream of tartar diminishes its solubility. If purchased in crystals instead of powder, impurities are more readily discoverable. Actions and Uses. — Tartar emetic applied to the skin causes eruption of isolated papules, which shortly become pustules. Poisonous doses produce gastro-enteritis, nervous depression, and, when repeated, fatty degeneration. Medicinal doses given to dogs, cats, and pigs are emetic, expectorant, sedative, and antipyretic. Their physiological effects on horses, cattle, and sheep are not so well marked. It is occasionally used externally as a counter-irritant. General Actions. — Tartar emetic in substance or in con- centrated solution acts as an irritant upon the alimentary mucous membrane. In the stomach it is partly decomposed by the acid of the gastric juice, soluble chlorides of antimony and potassium being formed (Kaufmann). It probably com- bines with albumin. Horses and cattle when receiving even poisonous doses, do not vomit, and doses of one to four drachms sometimes given medicinally do not produce the nausea and depression which are the notable results of medicinal doses in man, dogs, cats, or pigs. Dogs receiving two to four grains are nauseated, and vomiting occurs usually within fifteen minutes. Emesis depends upon irritation both of the stomach and vomiting centre, but more especially of the latter. Magendie, after extirpation of the stomach, induced vomiting by intravenous injection of tartar emetic. 266 TARTAR EMETIC — TOXIC EFFECTS Reficxly, from the stomach, as well as by actinf^ directly on ' the heart aud vessels, it produces in men and carnivora cardiac and vascular depression, with lowered blood pressure; it slightly increases but subsequently diminishes the number of the respirations ; reduces temperature, relaxes voluntary and involuntary muscles ; and increases secretion from the skin, bronchial and gastro-intestinal membranes. Poisonous doses cause purging and gastro-enteritis, and when their action is very violent, after slightly exciting, they paralyse both the motor and sensory tracts of the spinal cord. In many of its actions it resembles phosphorus and arsenic notably in arresting the formation of glycogen, and in causing fatty degeneration of the liver and other organs. It is eliminated in the mucus of the stomach and bowels, and also in the bile and urine. It increases the excretion of urea. As with arsenic, animals receiving small doses acquire a condition of tolerance, and with impunity take doses which would otherwise prove dangerous. The Toxic Effects, like the general actions, are less marked in herbivora than in dogs, cats, and pigs, which are affected much in the same way as men. According to Kaufmann, dogs are poisoned by three to six grains. But these and even larger doses are apt to be speedily ejected by vomiting if the dogs are left by themselves. If the oesophagus, however, be tied so as to prevent vomiting, such doses, and sometimes even one grain, cause nausea, accelerated and difficult respira- tion, fluid dejections, gastro-intestinal inflammation, and death in a few hours. Dr. Alfred Taylor, in his volume On Poisons, records that three to six grains injected into the jugular vein of dogs caused death in eight or ten hours. Frohner states that half a grain to a grain injected intra- venously proves fatal in half an hour, while small quantities applied to the broken skin also kill. Pigs are not so susceptible. Hcrtwig {ArznciinUteUehre) mentions that ten to twenty grains cause nausea and vomit- ing, but act neither very rapidly nor very certainly; that one drachm in solution, given to a boar nine months old, caused vomiting, dulncss, and uneasiness, which continued for three days; but that two drachms given to a similar animal EXPERIMENTS 267 dissolved in half a litre of water, within an hour and a half caused vomiting five times, loss of appetite, thirst, spasms, pro- stration, and death the following day. Poultry swallowing one to three grains in bolus vomit freely. Horses take, per orem, Avithout injury, thirty to forty times the quantity of tartar emetic which would prove fatal to a man or dog. Without notable effect they may be given one to four drachms in bolus, and such doses may be repeated night and morning for several days without causing impaired appetite, nausea, or gastric derangement. This insuscepti- bility of horses to the action of tartar emetic was strongly impressed upon me by a number of experiments made many years ago at the Edinburgh (Dick's) Veterinary College by the late Mr. Barlow and myself. Notes of several of these experiments are subjoined: — Case I.— On 9th September 1852, about 10 a.m., a bro^\n mare, unfit for work on account of lameness, with the pulse 38 and respirations 7, got three drachms of tartar emetic in a ball made up with treacle and linseed meal. In the evening the pulse was unaffected, and the dose was repeated. lOth. — The pulse was 40, the respirations 7, appetite good, bowels and kidneys regular. A dose of four drachms was given morning and evening. 11th. — At 10 A.M., the pulse was 42, respirations 7, appetite and bowels quite normal. Got an ounce in a ball as before. In the evening the pulse was 40, no perceptible nausea, appetite good, bowels and kidneys regular. Dose of an ounce repeated. 12i/t. — In the morning the pulse was 37, somewhat weaker than yesterday, but still firm. The appetite was very good, and there was no change in the state of the kidneys or bowels. Got a dose of an ounce. In the evening the pulse was 40, and the patient in other respects as in the morning. Gave an ounce, being five ounces six drachms in four days. IZth. — At 10 A.M. the pulse was 35, the appetite good, and the bowels and kidneys normal. About 1 a.m. the animal had dropped or lain down, and while lying the pulse was somewhat irregular, varying between 60 and 70. The respu-ations were quiet. At 12 the animal was lifted, when the pulse fell in a few minutes to 55, and the respirations to 6. The appetite still remained very good. Gave ten drachms in the usual way. In the evening the pulse was 40, the respirations 6, the appetite and evacuations natural. Gave fourteen drachms. lUh. — 10 A.M. No change from last night. Got an ounce ; but when having it pxit over, the animal ran back and went down. At 1 she was raised, still continued to eat, and at 1.30 got another dose of an ounce. She remained down all day, and appeared nauseated. The pulse was not quite regular, probably owing to occasional struggling, but reached about 60 when at its maximum. Respirations about 12. At 6.30 the animal was still eating and drinking, but only sparingly ; was much nauseated and lying pretty quiet, with the lips much retracted, and the pulse 75 and weak. Ibth. — 10 A.M. Found dead, having taken ten ounces and six drachms of tartar emetic in six days. Mr. Barlow made the following notes of the 268 TARTAR EMETIC post-mortem examination : — The muscular tissue in every part of the V.ody was unusually tiaccid, althout/li rigor moi-tis Wiis well established. The right lung, which was lowermost as the animal lay, was much congested in its deeper and central parts ; the several margins were comparatively pale ; at the anterior part of the anterior lobe there was much emphysema. The left lung wiis perfectly healthy, and not at all emphysematous. The bronchial tubes and smaller bronchi in both lungs contained frothy mucus. The pleura and pericardium were in every way healthy. The heart was very large, its cavities being filled with firmly coagulated blood. At the junction of the villous and cuticular coats, the stomach was much con- tracted, and exhibited a slight blush, not amounting to redness. The cuticular coat was marked with several indentations, such as are produced by bots ; but in all other respects the stomach was perfectly healthy. The intestines were also perfectly healthy both within and without. The liver was in a state of cirrhosis, such as is often seen in old and worn-out horses. The organs of urination and generation were quite normal. The brain was healthy, but the sul)arachnoid spaces contained a considerable quantity of fluid. Case II. — A mare, about IG hands high, and in good health and condi- tion, got three drachms of tartar emetic daily, in bolus, for five days, and then four drachms daily for thirteen days — making in all ten ounces and three drachms in eighteen days — but without exhibiting any physiological effect. The animal was destroyed by cutting the carotid artery, but the post-mortem examination revealed nothing at all abnormal. It may be mentioned that, on the twelfth day of experiment, twenty ounces of urine were removed, and found to contain a perceptible but not very large quantity of antimony. Case III. — A black marc, of sound, healthy constitution, took ten ounces and a half of tartar emetic (in doses of four drachms, repeated twice and thrice a day) during ten consecutive days ; yet she was in no way affected by it : her pulse and respiration were scarcely at all altered ; her appetite throughout was voracious ; her evacuations natural in aii]3earance and quantity ; and her condition considerably improved. She was poisoned by a fluid drachm of P'leming's tincture of aconite. On dissection not a single morbid appearance referable to the tartar emetic was observed. The stomach and intestines were carefully examined, and found ' beautifully healthy.' Case IV. — A healthy, well-bred horse was given ten ounces of tartar emetic in solution, and after showing a good deal of nausea, uneasiness, and pain, died in about six hours. The only notable appearances on post- mortem examination were softness and increased vascularity of the intes- tines, analogous to what is seen in patients that have died while aifected by diarrhoea. Neither in this nor in any of the other cases were the lungs congested or inflamed, as is said to have occurred in Magendie's experi- ments. Frohner's recent experiments sliow similar results. Healthy horses, he states, take one to two drachms without causing any notable effect except increased dis- charge from the bowels ; but these doses if continued are said to sloAv the ]mi1sc and cause palpitation, lassitude, diarrhoea, polyuria, and, when further continued, great weakness. An ounce in pill or electuary was not fatal, but in solution caused spasms, and death in eight days ; while EFFECTS DIFFER IN DIFFERENT ANIMALS 269 sixty grammes (nearly two ounces) in solution proved fatal in two and a half hours (Lehrhuch de Arzneimittellehre filr Thierdrzte). Hertwig records that four drachms in solution in water induced colic, trembling, and acceleration of the pulse ; the symptoms after a few hours abated, but death resulted after six or eight days. Much greater activity is, however, observed when tartar emetic is administered to horses intravenously. One drachm thus given raised the pulse to 120 beats per minute, caused difficult breathing, purging, sweating, flow of tears and saliva, eructation, retching, and muscular spasms. Two drachms further pro- duced severe fits, vertigo, paralysis, and death in one and a half to three hours, but without action of the bowels, Kauf- mann states that horses receiving fifteen grains intravenously in a few minutes exhibited efforts to vomit, great inquietude, dilatation of the nostrils, and lowering of the neck, as if suffering abdominal pain. Cattle, like horses, take large doses with impunity. Hert- wig and Viborg gave quantities varying from two to ten drachms, and Gilbert gave ten drachms in solution — all without effect (Hertwig, ArzneiTnittellehre). I have re- peatedly administered an ounce twice a day to cattle, and, except in a few cases where purgation occurred, have not observed any evidence of its action. Mr. Balfour, Kirkcaldy, informed me that he has given half a pound in solution without any very obvious effects. Sheep exhibit similar in- susceptibility. Yiborg gave one drachm, and Gilbert three drachms in solution, and four in the solid state, without effect. But Gilbert found that four to six drachms in solu- tion destroyed one-year-old sheep. Intravenous injection of five to six grains produces, however, lassitude, small, frequent pulse, difficult breathing, and purgation (Frohner). No very satisfactory explanation has been given of this insusceptibility of horses, ruminants, and also of rabbits. It is evidently due in great part to imperfect development of the vomiting centre; but the gastric functions have also, doubtless, some connection with it, as is shown by the drug being about ten times more active when administered intra- venously than when given by the mouth. 270 TARTAR EMETIC A TOPICAL IRRITANT Antidotal treatment consists in the removal of any unabsorbcd poison by promoting vomiting or using the stomach pump, and subsequently giving large quantities ot tannic acid, or of tannin-containing solutions, which form an insoluble compound, and thus delay absorption. Denuilccnts abate gastric irritiition, which, with irritation of the vomiting centre, may also be relieved by morphine and chloral, while tendency to collapse is treated by stinuilants. Medicinal Uses. — As tartar emetic in safe doses produces no very marked physiological actions in horses and cattle, it can scarcely exert any marked curative effects on these animals. The febrifuge and sedative virtues formerly ascribed to it were doubtless the result of other medicinal or hygienic remedies with which it was used. As a vermi- fuge it is still occasionally given with aloes to horses, and with Epsom salt to cattle; but although increasing the activity of purgatives, it has no special anthelmintic action. When the stomach of the dog, cat, or pig is to be emptied of undigested food, irritants, or poisons, ipecacuanha, mustard, or zinc sulphate, being more prompt and less nauseating, is preferred. But tartarised antimony is occasionally used as a nauseating emetic for robust subjects at the outset of febrile and inflammatory complaints. It promotes bronchial and gastric secretion, and relieves engorgement of the stomach, liver, throat, and chest. It hence mitigates the early acute catarrhal symptoms of distemper, and relieves bilious attacks in pampered overfed dogs. As a counter-irritant, unless employed with much caution, it is apt to induce painful, deep-seated inflammation, slough- ing, and blemishing, and is consequently unsuitable either for horses or dogs. For cattle, however, it is sometimes applied in chest diseases and chronic rheumatism. Unlike cantharidcs, it does not irritate the kidneys; but if it be absorbed, it produces in dogs, cats, and pigs nauseating effects similar to those which follow its administration by the mouth. Doses, etc. — When given to horses or cattle with the view of producing sedative, alterative, or expectorant effects, 5i. to 3iv. are administered three or four times daily, in ARSENIC 271 either bolus or solution. It may be conjoined with nitre, camphor, Epsom salt, calomel, or aloes. As an emetic for dogs or cats, gr. i. to grs. iv., and for pigs, grs. iv. to grs. x. are given in bolus, rolled in a piece of meat, or dissolved in hot water. Two to four grains, with about half the quantity of calomel, or twenty grains of jalap, are some- times given to strong dogs at the outset of inflammatory complaints. Such a mixture causes vomiting, and subse- quently purging, accompanied by cardiac and vascular depression. Doses considerably less than one grain, con- joined with ipecacuanha, have been prescribed for carnivora as antipyretics and expectorants in acute attacks of bron- chitis and pneumonia. Externally it is occasionally used in the form of saturated watery solution or of ointment, which is made with one part of tartar emetic and four of lard. The ointment is some- times added to ordinary blisters to increase their activit}^ Antimonial wine, prepared by dissolving forty grains tartar emetic in an ounce of distilled water, and adding: sufficient sherry to form twenty ounces, is seldom used in veterinary practice. ARSENIC AciDUM Arseniosum. Arsenicum Album. Arsenious An- hydride. Arsenium. As^Og. Arsenic is abtained by roasting certain arsenical ores. The crude arsenious anhydride is conducted into condensing chambers, and purified by sublimation. Properties. — The anhydride or white arsenic, used in medicine, as well as in the manufacture of glass, colours, and shot, occurs as a heavy white powder, consisting of minute glassy fragments and octahedral crystals. It is odourless and tasteless, rough and gritty between the teeth, and if held in the mouth shortly causes irritation. When long kept it loses its transparency, and becomes opaque. At a temperature of 400° Fahr. it is volatilised. Sprinkled on ignited charcoal it emits a characteristic garlic odour. 272 ARSENIC Arsenic is soluble in one hundred parts cold, and in ten parts boiling water, and in live parts of glycerin. Moderately soluble in solutions of alkaline carbonates, and in diluted hydrochloric acid (B.P.). Boiled in water for two or three hours, the ordinary crystalline arsenic is converted into the vitreous form, and in each pint 219 grains are dissolved (Bloxam). Solubility is diminished by organic matters, but increased by acids, alkalies, and alkaline arsenites. Actions and Uses. — Arsenious acid is a corrosive irritant poison, killing either by gastro-enteritis or by nervous paresis. Continued doses cause fatty degeneration. It is prescribed as a gastro-intestinal stimulant and alterative, acting espe- cially on the digestive and respiratory mucous membranes and skin, as an antiperiodic, and tonic in nervous diseases. It is used externally as a stimulant, parasiticide, antiseptic, and caustic. General Actions. — Arsenic belongs to the triatomic group, which also comprises phosphorus, antimony, and bismuth. These agents diminish oxidation, decompose albuminoid tissues, produce fatty degeneration, and impair the glyco- genic functions of the liver. With the exception of bismuth, the members of this group are irritant, corrosive poisons. Their hydrogen compounds are specially active. Locally applied, arsenic causes congestion, heat, and pain, with destruction of tissue, but the slough is preserved by the antiseptic effect of the poison. It is absorbed from any mucous, serous, or skin-abraded surface, and exerts its effects by whatever channel it enters the body. Small medicinal doses stimulate the stomach and promote gastric secretion. Be with aloes 5iv. ; for cattle, 3i- to 5ij-. with Epsom or common salt, lb. 1, or oil, Oj. ; for dogs, grs. ij. to grs. iv., with jalap, grs. xx. to grs. xl. As a vermifuge for the horse, the following combination is given before feeding for three or four consecutive mornings : — One drachm each of calomel, extract of male fern, and aloes, with four drachms of ginger, made into bqlus with linseed meal and treacle. As an emetic for dogs or pigs, two or three grains are given, with an equal quantity of tartar emetic, or with grs. XV. to grs. xx. of ipecacuanha. To allay irritation, and promote healthy cutaneous action, or to destroy skin parasites, calomel is used in powder, or in ointment, 1 in 10 of vaseline, conjoined sometimes with iodine, boric acid, or wood-tar oils. Mercuric Chloride. Hydrargyri Perchloridum. Bichloride of Mercury. Corrosive Sublimate. HgClg. Corrosive sublimate and calomel are both chlorides of mer- cury ; corrosive sublimate contains twice as much chlorine as calomel, is the higher, per, or mercuric chloride (HgClg), and is a soluble and actively -corrosive poison; while calomel, the lower or mercurous chloride (HgjClg), is an insoluble, comparatively mild medicine. By using, in speakiug or writing, the vernacular names, risk of mistaking these chlorides is diminished. Corrosive sublimate may be prepared by heating a mixture of mercuric sulphate, sodiuui chloride, and a little black oxide of manganese. It occurs in heavy, colourless masses of prismatic crystals, devoid of odour, but with an acrid, metallic taste. When heated it sublimes without decomposition, leaving only a trace of tixed residue. It is soluble in about three parts of alcohol (90 per cent.), four parts of ether, two parts of glycerin, two of boiling water, and sixteen of cold water, or nearly four grains to the ounce. Its solubility is increased by the pre- sence of salts, such as the chlorides of sodium and ammo- nium. Its antiseptic properties recommend it for preserving wood, cordage, and anatomical preparations. It is not subject to intentional adulteration. AN IRRITANT CORROSIVE POISON 299 Actions and Uses. — It is a corrosive and irritant poison ; is occasionally prescribed as an alterative, antiseptic, and chola- gogue; repeated doses cause mercurialism. Externally, it is used as an antiseptic, astringent, caustic, and parasiticide. Corrosive sublimate precipitates albumin, and hence in powder or concentrated solution is irritant and corrosive. Dissolved in water, it is the most energetic antiseptic : one part in 25 '250 prevents the development of bacteria taken from meat infusion ; one part in 10250 prevents the develop- ment of spores in boiled meat infusion; one part in 6500 prevents reproduction of spores (Koch). Spores placed in one per thousand solution in Avater are effectually destroyed in one to two days. Solution of one to two grains to the ounce of water effectually destroys vegetable and animal parasites infesting the skin. It must, however, be used with caution, for it not only irritates and corrodes locally, but is readily absorbed, and hence liable to produce constitutional effects. Toxic Effects. — Swallowed in strong solution it is an irritant corrosive poison, producing gastro-enteritis and collapse. Smaller or more diluted doses produce mercurial- ism. Seven or eight grains destroyed dogs in seven to thirty hours ; four drachms dissolved in three pounds of water killed a horse in twelve hours ; two drachms caused in cattle great emaciation, and death in fourteen days ; one drachm proved fatal to a sheep within twelve hours (Hertwig). Larger quantities, however, appear to be tolerated when the poison is first given in small doses. Thus, Mr. Percivall, experimenting upon a horse, commenced with ten grains, and gradually increased the dose to live drachms before the appetite or pulse became affected. Injurious effects occur whatever the channel by which poisonous doses enter the body. Shepherds using strons: solutions for foot-rot or for scab have suiYered from its irritant and also from its constitutional effects. Dogs dressed with it for mange have occasionally died from gastro-enteritis and collapse. Compared with arsenical poisoning, the symptoms come on more rapidly ; there is more chemical and corrosive action, whilst in chronic cases salivation usually ensues. .'{00 MERCURIC CHLORIDE Post-mortem exainination discovers the mucous lining of the alimentary canal softened and bluish-grey ; where large iloses have been given it is disorganised by chemical action ; where death is postponed for a day, patches of inflammation and sloughing are found ; the kidneys and other urinary organs are congested; the lungs are usually spotted with effused blood. The treatment consists in the free use of albumin, which forms an insoluble mercuric albuminate. One cg<^ suffices to neutralise four cfrains of sublimate. When eg'ijs cannot be had, wheat or barley Hour, milk, or other albuminoids should be given, followed by astringent solutions. Unless the drug has caused vomiting, the stomach must be emptied cither by emetics, the stomach pump, or syphon. Medicinal Uses. — For internal use, milder mercurials are preferred, and it is dangerous to use it for the production of mercurialism. For horses it has been prescribed in chronic skin eruptions, and swollen, oederaatous legs resulting from repeated attacks of lymphangitis. Half or even a quarter of a grain, repeated every three hours, sometimes arrests the slimy, bloody, reducing discharges of persistent diarrhoea and dysentery in cattle. Professors Rutherford and Yignal found that ^V to ^ grain given to dogs, although not stimulating the duodenal glands, notably excites secretion of bile. Con- joined with opium, hemlock, and salines, it has been advised in rheumatism. As an effectual antiseptic it is used for many surgical purposes. Its antiseptic power is diminished or destroyed in presence of albumin, with which it forms an insoluble albuminate. To prevent this change Laplace suggested the addition of tartaric acid to sublimate lotions. Fifteen grains of corrosive sublimate, seventy-five grains of tartaric acid and thirty-five ounces of distilled water, form a useful antiseptic solution. Foul Avounds washed with one part mercuric chloride dissolved in 500 to 1000 of water, are rendered aseptic. Instruments, sponges, towels, ns well as the hands, are disinfected by washing in a one thousandth solution. But sublimate lotions damage most metal instruments, and irritate and roughen the operator's hands. Solutions of average MERCURIC CHLORIDE SOLUTIONS 301 Strength destroy the cryptogamic growths of ringworm, kill lice, and acari, and allay the itching- of pruritus and urticaria. Fur the last-named disease Professor Robertson prescribed niercuric chloride grs. xii., diluted hydrocyanic acid 5iv., glycerin 5ij-, and water §x. A solution of one part in 1000 or 2000 of water is injected into the uterus in metritis, and in cases of abortion. The spread of contagious abortion is prevented by washing with the solution, twice daily, the external genital organs and the tail. A similar washing of the in-calvers on premises Avhere abortion has appeared usually protects them from the mishap. Warm solutions are much more active than cold. An aqueous solution of 1 part in 500 is used to arrest necrosis in bone and cartilage, and 10 to 15 grains rolled in tissue paper (or a sublimate crayon), and introduced deeply into sinuses or fistuhe in four to eight da3's, slough out the fibrous walls. As a sj'^novial styptic, sublimate in fine powder, is applied to the Avound in cases of open joint. In conjunctivitis and keratitis a solution containing half a grain to an ounce of distilled water is used as an astringent antiseptic. For most external purposes the B.P. liquor hydrargyri perchloridi containing 10 grains in 20 ounces of distilled water, will be found convenient. Two parts of sublimate and four of glycerin form a ' stock solution,' which may be diluted as required. Van Swieten's solution is composed of one part mercuric chloride, 900 of water and 100 of alcohol. Lotio hydrargyri flava, or yellow wash, is made with 40 grains corrosive sublimate and a pint of lime water. To prevent accidents which sometimes attend the use of uncoloured lotions, pastils, lotiforms and compressed discs, containing mercuric chloride and sodium chloride and coloured with magenta or methyl- violet, may be used. Wool, lint, gauze, and other wound dressings impregnated with corrosive sub- limate dissolved in glycerin or water are frequently employed. With suitable precautions, watery solutions are used for disinfecting infected premises, and the carcases of animals which have died of anthrax or other contagious disease. Doses, etc. — Horses and cattle take grs. v. to grs. viij. ; sheep and large pigs, gr. j. ; dogs, gr. jL to gr. i It is best 302 MERCFROUS IODIDE given freelv dissolved in water or other simple fluid. To relieve itching, especially amongst dogs, one grain corrosive subhmute and one minim prnssie acid are dissolved in an ounce of water. An ointment containing one part of sublimate to twenty or thirty parts of fatty matters is sometimes used cautiously for skin complaints, and for destroying skin parasites. Ammoniated mercury, or white precipitate, is an opaque, Avhite, insoluble powder, made by mixing corrosive sublimate solution with excess of ammonia solution, and washing and drying the precipitate (XH.,HgCl). It is devoid of irritant action. An ointment, made of one part precipitate to nine of white paraffin ointment, is used as a parasiticide, and as a mild mercurial in skin diseases. Mercuro-zinc cyanide, a combination of mercuric cyanide and zinc cyanide, has been much used in human surgery. It is a white powder, recommended by Lord Lister as a non- irritating and very powerful antiseptic. Mercurous Iodide. Green Iodide. Hydrargyri lodidum viride Hgl. (Not official.) Mercuric Iodide. Red Iodide. -Hydrargyri lodidum rubrum. Biniodide of mercury. HgL. (B.P.) Mercurous iodide is an unstable salt, prepared by tritu- rating together iodine and an excess of mercury with a little alcohol, or by mixing solutions of mercurous nitrate and potassium iodide. Although not so active as the higher iodide, twenty grains destroyed a rabbit Avithin twenty-four hours, and a drachm a pointer dog in five days (Cogswell). Mercuric or red iodide, formed by the interaction of mercuric chloride and potassium iodide, is a vermilion- coloured, heavy, crystalline powder, with a disagreeable metallic taste. It is almost insoluble in water, sparingly soluble in cold alcohol, but soluble in ether, acids, solution of potassium iodide, and most saline fluids. Actions and Uses. — Mercuric iodide is as irritant as mercuric chloride or nitrate. But the presence of iodine increases the solubility of albuminates, and, compared with MERCURIC IODIDE 303 the chloride, the iodide is hence more quickly a,bsorbed and excreted. Twenty grains given to a rabbit induced gastro- enteritis, collapse, and death in twenty-four hours. It is used internally to arrest the growths of actinomycosis and scirrhous cord, and solutions are applied externally as antiseptics, and ointments as stimulants, counter-irritants, and caustics. The biniodide, dissolved in water, ether, and alcohol, is occasionally used for the same antiseptic and stimulant purposes as the perchloride. The B.P. ointment, of 20 grains iodide to 480 grains of benzoated lard, is not suffi- ciently strong for veterinary purposes, and a more effective preparation is made by mixing one part iodide with six or eight of lard. But Mr. William Dollar assures me that one part iodide dissolved in ten of vaseline makes an equally efficacious ointment, which has the further advantage, even when long kept, of neither changing colour nor becoming rancid. This ' red ointment ' is very effectual for condensing and reducing splints, spavins, ring-bones, and other bony exostoses. It penetrates deeply, arrests chronic inflammation, and aids removal of chronic enlargements and indurations of strained |,endons, bursie, and joints. It is occasionall}'^ used as a counter-irritant in sore-throat, chronic cough, and roaring, relieving cases that have resisted milder blisters. When effusion has occurred in pleuro-pneumonia in horses, and other irritants are ineffectual, an ounce of iodide ointment rubbed (if need be) into each side is stated sometimes to give relief It is frequently applied with advantage to the rheumatic joints of cattle. Repeated dressings are serviceable in arresting induration of the udder, lymphatic, and other glands. When absorbent and counter-irritant effects are to be produced, it is sometimes used diluted with iodine ointment. The strong red iodide ointment requires to be used with care, otherwise it destroys the hair-roots, causes sloughing and blemishing, and pro- duces constitutional efl^'ects. 304 PHOSPHORUS Mercuric Nitrate. Mercury Nitrate. 2Hg(N03)2. Un'GUENTUM Hydr.\rgyri Nitratis. Citrine Ointment. When Diercury is dissolved in diluted nitric acid, and the solution boiled gently for fifteen minutes, there is produced the B.P. hydrargyri nitratis liquor acidus, a colourless, strongly acid, caustic solution. The unguentum hydrargyri nitratis, or citrine ointment, is prepared by mixing a cold solution of mercury in nitric acid with lard and olive oil. It has a lemon-yellow colour, a nitrous acid odour, and is apt to spoil unless well made and kept in earthenware vessels secluded from light. One part of this ointment and four parts of soft yellow paraffin, constitute the B.P. diluted mercuric nitrate ointment. Actions and Uses. — The stronger mercuric nitrate solutions are caustics. They and the ointments are applicable for many of the purposes of corrosive sublimate, and used for reducing and destroying malignant growths, and stinmlating such specific sores as canker in the feet of horses and foot-rot in sheep. Milder solutions and citrine ointment are good remedies for eczema, especially after heat and pain have been subdued and desquamation has set in, and are usefully alternated with tar preparations. Along with good feeding and alkaline washes, they are applied in those cases of pityriasis not uncommon amongst cattle in poor condition. They destroy lice and other skin parasites, and the crypto- gamic growths of ringworm. Being easily absorbed, if too freely applied thc}^ induce the usual specific eft'ects of mercury. Diluted with olive or almond oil, or lard, citrine ointment relieves irritable, swollen, discharging conditions of the eyelids. PHOSPHORUS A solid non-metallic element obtained I'rom Calcium Phos- phate. (B.P.) Phosphorus is prepared by the digestion of bones in sulphuric acid; the acid calcium phosphate remaining in solution is evaporated, mixed with charcoal, and distilled, when phosphorus comes over, and is condensed under water. PHOSPHORUS 305 Two allotropic forms occur. The first is wax-like, easily cut with a knife, of a yellow-white colour, volatile, readily oxidisable and intiaruinable, luminous, and soluble in carbon disulphide, eighty parts of olive oil, twenty-five parts of chloroform, and in sixty of oil of turpentine. Tt is an irritant corrosive poison. The second — prepared by keeping the yellow phosphorus for a considerable period at a temperature of 450° Fahr. in an atmosphere of carbonic anhydride or nitrogen — is red, amorphous ; at ordinary temperatures has little aflSnity for oxygen ; is not volatile, luminous, or soluble in carbon disulphide ; heated to the boiling point it reverts to the vitreous form. It is innocuous. Actions and Uses. — Phosphorus is an active member of the group of pentad elements, comprising nitrogen, antimony, arsenic, and bismuth. They have a marked affinity for oxygen, modify tissue change, act especially on the glandular, nervous, respiratory, and cutaneous systems. Phosphorus is slowly dissolved and absorbed, stimulates growth of bones, and is occasionally prescribed as a nerve tonic, alterative, and aphrodisiac. Full doses when swallowed cause gastro- enteritis. Repeated doses break up the albuminoid textures and induce fatty degeneration. Toxic Effects. — A piece of yellow phosphorus, or a strong solution applied to the skin, abstracts oxygen and produces limited inflammation, sometimes terminating in gangrene. When swallowed it is oxidised, perhaps vaporised, and is slowly dissolved by the bile and any fatty matters with which it comes into contact. It exerts on the alimentary tract its local irritant effects; minute doses are gastro-intestinal tonics ; larger doses cause diarrhoea and emesis in animals that vomit; while fifteen grains cause gastro-enteritis in horses and cattle. When absorbed, minute doses promote development of bone and stimulate the central nervous system. Larger doses, such as thirty grains in horses or cattle, and half a grain to a grain in dogs or men, produce paresis, convulsions, coma, and death usually within two or three days. The paresis occasionally affects the heart, caus- ing sudden death. Moderate to full doses, repeated several times daily, withm a few days produce fatty degeneration of u nOG BROMIDES the aibuuiinoid tissues, hypertrophy of connective structures, and acute cirrhosis. It is excreted by the kidneys and hmgs, chieHy as phosphorous and phosphoric acids. But these acids and the salts they form have not, however, the specific action of phosphorus. The antidotes consist in emptying the stomach by emetics or the pump, administering mucilaginous fluids, but avoiding milk, oils, and eggs, which dissolve the poison, and pre- scribing frequently repeated doses of old turpentine and of copper sulphate. Medicinal Uses. — Small doses promote tissue growth, and replace spongy texture of bones with denser tissue. Plios- phorus is prescribed in rickets, bone softening, and chronic malnutrition. It has been substituted for arsenic in persistent skin disorders. It is empirically administered in epilepsy, chorea, and general paralysis, and in such cases it is some- times applied as a topical irritant. Doses, etc. — Horses and cattle take gr. ss. to grs. v. ; sheep and pigs, gr. ^ i-^ ; dogs, gr. .t^, given in pill or electuary, or dissolved in oil or vaseline. Phosphorus may be prescribed in the form of elixir phosphori, made with compound tinc- ture of phosphorus and glycerin, and containing gr. ^ in each drachm. For external purposes a liniment is made with one part phosphorus to one hundred parts olive, almond, or other oil. The paste for the destruction of rats usually consists of one part phosphorus to sixty each of water and flour. BROMINE AND BROMIDES Bromine. Bromum. A liquid, non-metallic element obtained from sea- water, and from some saline springs. (Not oflficial.) Bromide OF Potassium. Potassii Bromidum. KHr. (B.I\) Bromine, like its analogues chlorine and iodine, has a great affinity for hydrogen, removes it from its several com- binations, and hence is antiseptic and indirectly an oxidiser. It is very ditiusiblc. In point of activity it stands midway QUIET NERVOUS IRRITABILITY 307 between the more active chlorine and the weaker iodine. Ent this gradation of the halogens is reversed in their com- pounds, depending mainly upon the iodine holding its combinations more firmly than the bromine, and the bromine than the chlorine. This is well illustrated in their several alkaline salts. These three halogens are antiseptic, disin- fectant, and topically irritant and stimulant. Bromine is a dark, red-brown, volatile liquid, has a strong disagreeable odour and taste, and produces a yellow colour when added to cold solution of starch : soluble in thirty parts of water. It is occasionally used as a caustic in malignant and fungoid diseases, one part being dissolved in ten to fifteen parts of rectified spirit. Diluted Hydrobromic Acid contain- ing 10 per cent, by weight of hydrogen bromide, is devoid of irritant action, and is occasionally prescribed as a nerve seda- tive, but is not so convenient or eti'ectual as potassium bromide. The Bromides, including those of potassium, sodium, and ammonium, do not ditl'er materially in their action. They have very slight topical effect on the skin or mucous surfaces, but are rapidly absorbed, and readily decomposed, the potas- sium bromide forming in the stomach sodium bromide and potassium chloride. They are quickly eliminated by all the excreting channels, chiefly by the kidneys. Largo doses act as depressants of the spinal cord and reflex portions of the brain, impairing afferent conductivity of nerves. They weaken heart action and stop it in diastole. They contract arterioles, and thus reduce blood supply. They are hence antithermal. They are devoid of true hypnotic action, such as that of chloral hydrate, but diminish cerebral excitability by reducing the activity of the reflex parts of the brain. Potassium Bromide is the salt in general use. It is pre- pared by heating bromine and caustic potash with charcoal, and contains 67 per cent, of bromine. It occurs in colourless, cubical, odourless crystals, which have a pungent saline taste ; soluble in two parts cold water, and in two hundred parts of rectified spirit. Horses receiving about an ounce, or dogs 45 grains, become listless, exhibit muscular feebleness, unsteadiness of gait, impaired reflex movements ; the pulse is feeble, respmition slowed, rectal and cutaneous temperature 308 BROMIDES are diminished, and secretion of urine increased. Some of these effects, however, are due to the potassium rather than to the bromine. In animals receiving repeated full doses of bromides, mechanical irritation of the cortical sub- stance of the brain fails to produce epileptic convulsions (Brunton). Full doses continued for souie time induce bromism, a form of chronic poisoning, characterised by depression of the cerebral faculties, increased secretion from the mucous glands, feebleness, amemia, and wasting, dilatation of the pupils, and eczematous eruptions produced as portions of the drug are excreted through the skin. Toxic doses kill by asphyxia. I'otassium bromide is used in nervous disorders to allay excitement and relieve spasm, and thus indirectly may pro- duce sleep. Professor Robertson recommended both bromine and bromides in sclerosis of the spinal cord, combined or alternated with iodine, iron, arsenic, or mix vomica. It alleviates and wards off epileptic convulsions in dogs, whether connected with distemper or other causes, and is serviceable in violent cases of chorea. It has no constant or decided influence in controlling the spasms of tetanus in horses. Kaufmann records that Vogel of Stuttgart gave nine horses suffering from tetanus three to six ounces daily without moderating the spasms. It is of little use in asthma, sometimes checks persistent vomiting, and has considerable anaphrodisiac effect. It is occasionally used with digitalis to quiet cardiac excitement. Bromol, or Tribromophenol, a crystalline product of the action of bromine on phenol, is used as a caustic, disinfectant, and intestinal antiseptic. It is soluble in alcohol, ether, and glycerin, and not affected by the gastric secretion. Doses, etc. — Of potassium bromide horses and cattle take 5iv. to §i. ; dogs, grs. v. to grs. xx., in bolus, electuary, or watery solution, repeated three or four times daily. Where cerebral excitement is great, and sleep is sought, chloral or other hypnotics are conjoined with the bromide. Bromide of zinc has been introduced for epileptic cases in the belief that it imitcs the actions of bromine and zinc. CHLORINE 309 CHLORINE Chlorine may be obtained by the interaction of hydro- chloric acid and manganese peroxide. It is a yellow-green gas, with a peculiar sutlbcating odour and an astringent taste. Water charged with two volumes of chlorine gas constitutes the liquor chlori — a yellow-green, chlorine- smelling liquid, readily decomposed by air and sunshine. Actions and Uses. — Chlorine, whether as gas or in solution, is irritant, stimulant, antiseptic, deodorant, disinfectant, and j^arasiticide. One part in 8540 of a watery solution arrests the action of ptyalin on starch paste ; one in 7411 part arrests the action of diastase : one in 27167 part arrests the action of pepsin. Although not so active as corrosive sublimate, one 22768 part kills developed bacteria; but one 1431 part is required to prevent their reproduction, and 1008 to prevent reproduc- tion of spores. One part to 1500 prevents development oi anthrax bacilli. The bleaching, antiseptic, and other actions of chlorine result from the breaking up of coniplex organic substances by the chlorine seizing their hydrogen, while the nascent oxygen thus liberated exerts active oxidation. Applied to the skin or mucous surfaces, it causes irrita- tion, relieved by lime-water, white of egg, soap, or diluents. Irritation of the air-passages, induced by the insufficiently diluted gas, is counteracted by inhalation of ether, weak ammonia, or the vapour of warm water or of alcohol. Medicinal Uses. — Diluted chlorine gas is inhaled, or the freshly - prepared solution applied in spray, to increase bronchial secretion, to stimulate and disinfect ulcerated sore-throat in horses, and abate the discharge and fcetor from diseases of the facial and frontal sinuses. Both gas and solution are used for the destruction of strongyli infesting the air -passages of calves and lambs, and the liquor chlori, and the equally effectual but less irritant sulphurous acid solution, are frequently employed intra- tracheally, while stock-owners also continue to use turpentine drenches. It is recommended as an antidote in poisoning by hydrocyanic acid and strychnine, forming with the 310 IODINE alkaloid an insolnl»lc compound. The liquor clilori is used as a stimulant, antiseptic, and deodorant for the same ])ur- poses as chlorinated lime and soda. It relieves the itching of various skin diseases. For disinfecting or deodorising, the materials for evolving shlorine should be placed in earthenware vessels in the upper parts of the boxes or sheds in order to facilitate (lifl'usion of the heavy vapour. One part each of common salt and manganese black oxide, intimately mixed, are treated with two measures of oil of vitriol, diluted with two measures of water. For more gradual production of the gas, bleaching powder is mixed with potash alum. Where chlorine is used for thorough disinfection, the build- ings nnist be cleared of animals ; large volumes of gas liberated; sunlight admitted to intensify the action; the walls and woodwork washed Avith a strong Avatery solution. It may be fittingly used in conjunction Avith the tar acids, but is incompatible Avith sulphurous acid. IODINE loDUM. A solid non-metallic element, obtained from the ashes of seaweeds, and from natiA'e iodides and iodates. (B.P.) Iodine is present in sea-Avater, and is thence taken up by sea plants and animals. It is prepared from kelp, and from the mother-liquors of the Chili nitre mines iodine is also obtained. Properties. — Iodine occurs in soft, friable, black or blue- black, rhombic prisms or octahedrons of a metallic lustre. Its specific gravity is 4-95. It has an acrid, disagreeable taste, and a pungent, unpleasant odour, resembling that of chlorine or sea-Avater. Applied to the skin it produces a broAvn stain, readily removed by alkalies. At the tempera- ture of the atmosphere it slowly evaporates ; at 237° Fahr. it melts; at 392° Fahr. it boils, volatilising entirely in violet- coloured, irritating, antiseptic vapours, nine times as heavy as air. Willi Avater it forms a broAvnish - yelloAV solution, ANTISEPTIC, IRRITANT, AND AL1ERATIVE 311 containing, however, only -05 per cent. It is dissolved by twelve parts of rectified spirit, and still more readily by ether, volatile oils, chloroform, carbon disulphide, and also by solution of potassium iodide, and other salts. It readily unites with metals; the iodides of the alkalies closely resemble iodine in their actions ; the iodides of the heavy metals exhibit chiefly the properties of the base. Iodine is easily distinguished by its characteristic odour, by the brown stain it leaves on the fingers, by the violet- coloured vapour it evolves when heated, and by the blue colour it forms with a cold solution of starch. This starch test is inapplicable when iodine is in combination, from which, however, it is readily set free by a drop of weak chlorine solution, or of diluted nitric acid. Iodine is liable to intentional adulteration as well as accidental impurities. Actions and Uses. — Iodine resembles the other halogens, alike in chemical and physiological actions. Its notable affinity for hydrogen, and its combining with albumin, determine its stimulant, irritant, and caustic effects, as well as its antiseptic, alterative, and resolvent actions. It acts notably on mucous membranes, skin, and lymphatic glands. It is almost a specific for diabetes insipidus in horses. Full doses persisted with produce a state of debility and emacia- tion termed iodism. Externally, it is applied as an antiseptic, stimulant, counter-irritant, and parasiticide. It is employed for the several purposes of an antiseptic, deodorant, and disinfectant. General Actions. — It is an active antiseptic, whether used in the gaseous, fluid, or solid state. One part in 4125 parts of water arrests the action of diastase and ptyalin ; one part in 7817 arrests the action of pepsin; one part in 7000 destroys both bacilH and their spores (Wernitz and Koch). Iodine stains the skin yellow-brown, and is almost the only substance that penetrates the unbroken skin ; strong solu- tions cause hyper£emia, irritation, and desquamation of the cuticle; but the irritant action can readily be regulated. The skin and nutritive processes may be stimulated ; struc- tures, whether natural or morbid, may be gradually liquefied and absorbed; tissues may be more rapidly dissolved and 3 1 2 IODINE — lODISM cauterised. A like gradation of etiect is produced when iodine is brought into contact with mucous or other struc- tures. It is volatile, penetrating, and adherent for consider- able periods to parts with which it is j^laced in contact. Large doses if swallowed cause gastro-enteritis, and if inhaled produce rhinitis, laryngitis, and bronchitis. In the stomach it is converted into iodides and iodates. Medicinal doses are absorbed, stimulate glandular activity, and promote metabolism. In the tissues iodine may again be set free, and combine with serum albumin, but iodine albuminates are unstable, and hence readily removed. This appears to explain the action of iodine and its compounds in the liquefaction and absorption of pathological products. It combines with lead, mercury, or other metals present in the body, and hastens their removal. It is excreted by the mucous surfaces and glands, notably in the saliva, perspira- tion, and urine, while full doses during excretion irritate the excreting channels. Although the element itself is less active than chlorine or bromine, its compounds are more active, probably becanes they are more readily decomposed. The iodides of potas- sium, sodium, and ammonium conjoin the effects of their salt-radicle and base, but are less irritant, less active as gland stimulants, although more prone to affect the kidneys. The iodides of iron, copper, lead, and mercury mainly exhibit the actions of their powerful bases. In stimulating the skin and mucous surfaces iodine shows some resem- blance to arsenic and sulphur. Toxic Effects. — Hertwig gave horses forty to sixty grains of solid iodine twice daily for fourteen days, with the efl'ect of causing slight diarrhoea, with black evacuations and in- creasing emaciation. Professor Dick repeatedly gave larger quantities for several weeks, without observing any other symptom than the total refusal of water. To one horse he administered for three weeks doses of two drachms per day, and towards the end of the experiment doses amoimting to two ounces daily. Several ounces have also been given to cattle with the like negative results. In many of these cases the iodine, having been given in the solid form, must MEDICINAL USES 313 have been slowl}-, perhaps only partially, dissolved and absorbed, and, during tardy solution, may in great part have been neutralised b}- contact Avith starch food. Dogs receiving two or three drachms of solid iodine S2)eedily get rid of it by vomiting ; but when the cesophagus is tied such doses cause fatal gastro-enteritis in two to seven days, leaving numerous yellow spots and little ulcers in the stomach, and a peculiar rose tint of the liver (Cogswell). Hertwig found that such doses killed every dog to which they were given, inducing sero-sanguineous exudation and hsematuria. Fruhner states that intravenous injection causes solution of the red globules, inducing hajmoglobinuria, anaemia, lung oedema, hsemorrhagic inflammation of the pleura and peri- toneum, and bloody discharges from the bowels and kidneys. lodism, produced by prolonged administration of full doses, is characterised by loss of appetite, an irritable, catarrhal con- dition of the mucous membranes of the nostrils, eyes, throat, and digestive organs, a vesicular skin eruption, abstinence from water, diminution of the urinary secretion, languor, inaptitude for exertion, elevation of temperature and emacia- tion. Such effects are produced in some animals by full doses given for eight or ten days. But in ordinary practice iodism is exceedingly rare either in man or theloAver animals. Where it occurs, it is arrested by withholding the medicine, exhibiting starch, in order to convert any unabsorbed iodine into the innocuous starch iodide, and giving mineral tonics, bitters, and nutritive diet. Medicinal Uses. — Iodine is prescribed as an alterative and resolvent in enlargement of the liver and udder, in chronic rheumatism, especially involving the joints, in hydro thorax and ascites, and in persistent cases of psoriasis, in which Professor ^Villiams uses it both externally and internally in the form of liquor arsenii et hydrargyri iodidi. Some American practitioners conjoin iodine with carbolic acid in febrile attacks, especially when depending upon malaria. Dry, congested conditions of the respiratory mucous mem- brane are sometimes relieved, and secretion of mucus en- couraged, by inhalation of steam or warm air, medicated with a little iodine tincture. Similar inhalations are also beneficial 314 IODINE in checking muco-purulent discharges from the nostrils or sinuses of the head, and in putrid and infective sore-throat. In purpura haemorrhagica, Dieckerhoti" reconunends the intra-tracheal injection of eight to twelve drachms, twice daily, of a solution of one part iodine, five of potassium iodine, and one hundred of water. Injections carefully and slowly made are not followed by coughing. Many British veterinary surgeons testify to the value of this treatment in reducing the swellings of the disease. Iodine is pre-eminently useful in that variety of diabetes insipidus, or polyuria, atiecting horses in which twenty i)r thirty pints of urine are sometimes passed daily, thirst is insatiable, and strength and flesh are rapidly lost. Iodine given night and morning seldom fails to arrest this disease in two or three days. How it does so is not satisfactorily explained. It may exert some specific action on the lymphatic glands concerned in secondary digestion, or its antiseptic eflects may control excessive production of injurious enzymes. But neither quinine nor iron, although possessed of notable antiseptic properties, is as effectual as iodine in this form of diabetes. Neither potassium nor iron iodide is as trustworthy as the crude drug. Mr. Thomas Dollar, London, has experi- mented with various more correct chemical combinations, but finds none so reliable as iodine 5ss., iron sulphate 5ij-> ^^d powdered gentian ^iv., made into bolus with treacle, syrup, or meal and w- ater. This is repeated once, in bad cases twice, daily. Rarely are more than six doses required to eftect a' cure. Externally, iodine is used as a stinudant and resolvent for chronic synovitis, bursal swellings, muscular pains, slight strains of tendons, thickening of periosteum, and indurations of the udder and other glands. It is also used as a counter- irritant in sore throat in horses, in circumcribed lung con- solidation, especially in dogs, and in sub-acute attacks of pleurisy. It is a serviceable stimulant and deodoriser for unhealthy and malignant wounds. Indolent ulcers are some- times healed by application of a piece of lint, spread with simple cerate, sprinkled with one to five grains of iodine, and covered with a piece of oiled silk or tinfoil. But excess of iodine nuist be avoided, otherwise corrosive instead of healing IODINE SOLUTIOXS 315 effects are produced. Dilute iodine solutions are injected, as stimulating antiseptics and promoters of adhesion, into cysts and abscesses from which the contents have been with- drawn. Conjoined with iodide, and oil of turpentine, it is injected into the trachea in hoose in calves. A solution of one drachm in sixteen drachms of rectified spirit is employed as an injection for hydrocele. On account of its penetrat- ing the hair follicles aiid ducts, it is serviceable in per- sistent cases of mange, eczema, and psoriasis, in both the crj-ptogamic contagious and herpetic forms of ringworm, and in such cases is sometimes mixed or alternated with wood-tar oils, sulphur, or mercurials. Like most effectual antiseptics, it destroys skin parasites, bots, and entozoa. It is an effective but expensive deodoriser and disinfectant. Doses, etc. — For horses, grs. xx. to 5i- ; cattle, 5ss. to ^hs. ; sheep, grs. xv. to grs. xl.; pigs, grs. x. to grs. xx.; dogs, grs. iij. to grs. viij. Such doses are repeated once or twice daily, given a couple of hours after eating, in order to diminish the pro- portion otherwise converted into the mild, insoluble starch iodide, continued for a week qr ten days, withheld for a day or two, and, if necessary, again resumed. Larger doses, although they may be given with impunity, do not ensure better curative results. Iodine is administered in bolus ; but, handy although this form is for horses and dogs, it is less certain than a good aqueous solution, such as is obtained by mixing two parts iodine and one potassium iodide with six or eight of water. The potassium iodide ensures perfect solution and full action of the iodine. This concentrated solution is diluted with water as required, the dose is easily ascertained, for the iodide is about half as powerful as the iodine. For external purposes the tincture and compound aqueous solution are generally suitable. AYhen gentle stimulation and absorption of iodine are desired weak solutions are used. As a counter-irritant about two parts iodine and one potas- sium iodide are dissolved in sixteen of water or fatty matters. For reducing bony enlargements iodine ointment is some- times mixed in equal proportion with mercury biniodide ointment. For wounds ten strains each of iodine and 3 1 G SULPHUR potassium iodide to an ounce of water usually suffice. Two parts iodine, one part potassium iodide, four wood-tar oil, and thirty-two of lard or oil, make a serviceable mange dvcsswj;. Tincture of iodine is made with half an ounce each of iodine, potassium iodide, and water, and sufficient alcohol (90 per cent.) to produce twenty ounces of the tincture. Liquor iodi, or Lugol's solution, contains iodine two, potas- sium iodide three, and water forty parts. Unguentum iodi contains 20 grains each of iodine and potassium iodide, GO grains of glycerin, and 400 grains of lard. Glycerin of iodine contains 1 of iodine to 50 of glycerin. An injection for bursa) is made with 16 grains each of iodine and jwtas- sium iodide, dissolved in an ounce of pure glycerin or of distilled water. Tinctura iodi decolorata is made Avith 250 grains of iodine dissolved, with a gentle heat, in 5| ounces of rectified spirit; when cold, add 10 drachms of strong solution of ammonia; and, when decolorised, dilute with sufficient spirit to form 1 pint. Tinctura iodi oleosa is composed of iodine one, rectified spirit nine, and castor oil two parts. This tincture applied as a pigment does not crack the skin (Extra Pharmacopceia). Iodide of sulphur is a stimulant and parasiticide. It is prepared by mixing, in a Wedgwood or glass mortar, four parts iodine with one sublimed sulphur, and gently heating imtil the mixture liquefies. The red-brown liquid, as it cools, becomes a grey-black crystalline mass, insoluble in Avater and alcohol, but soluble in glycerin and fats, Avith eight or ten parts of Avhich it is mixed for liniments or ointments, Avhicli are suitable for chronic scaly skin complaints, ring- Avorm and mange. SULPHUR Sulphur, or brimstone, is one of the most ancient articles of the Materia Mcdica. It occurs in many animal substances as sulphates, and notably in bile and the albuminoids ; in the strong-smelling A'olatile oils of the Crucifera^ and Um- bellifera3; in various mineral Avaters as hydrogen sulphide, PREPARATIONS 317 and in the pyrites or metallic sulphides, from which it is extracted by roasting. The extensive supplies of sulphur required in the manufacture of sulphuric acid, sulphurous acid, gunpowder, lucifer matches, and vulcanised indiarubber, are, however, chiefly obtained froju the native sulphur, occurring as a product of volcanic action in beds of blue clay in Sicily and Italy. The crude sulphur is purified by distillation, and when run into wooden moulds forms the stick or roll sulphur, which is yellow, crystalline, and so bad a conductor of heat that it often cracks when held in the warm hand. Sublimed sulphur, also called flowers of sulphur, is prepared by distilling the crude sulphur, and conductiug it ij;i the state of vapour into large chambers, where it condenses in a fine yellow powder consisting of spherical granules. Precipitated sulphur, or milk of sulphur, is prepared by boiling sublimed sulphur with slaked lime, when calcium sulphide and thiosulphate are formed, and when treated with diluted hydrochloric acid are decomposed, sulphur being precipitated in a finely divided white powder. Sulphur vivum, caballum, or horse sulphur, the residue left in the subliming pots, must be used with caution, for, besides other impurities, it contains arsenic. Properties.^ — Sulphur occurs in six allotropic forms, mani- festing differences in physical condition, specific gravity, fusing point, solubility in carbon disulphide, and electric affinities. Most varieties have a yellow colour, a specific gravity of about 2-, have little or no taste, until heated are insoluble in water and cold alcohol, and are freely soluble in benzol, carbon disulphide, fixed and volatile oils. All varieties melt at 240° Fahr., are entirely volatilised by heat, inflame at 500° Fahr., burning with a pale blue flame, and giving off suffocating fumes of sulphurous anhydride (SOg). As it is raised from the melting to the boiling point it exhibits various curious changes. Actions and Uses. — Sulphur applied to skin or mucous surfaces is a feeble, mechanical stimulant, and hence relieves chronic passive congestion. It destroys parasites infesting 313 SULPHUR the skin. Administered internally it is laxative and alterative. General Actions. — It destroys fungi on vines, and kills similar parasites atiecting plants and animals. How much of this toxic effect depends on the stdphur acting as sulphur, and how much on the alkaline sulphides, sulphuretted hydrogen, and sulphurous acid, into which it is gradually converted, has not been determined. Sulphur when swallowed is slowly acted upon by the alkaline secretions of the intestines, and small quantities are converted into sulphides, which stimulate the intestinal mucous membrane. A further change liberates sulphuretted hydrogen, which imparts its disagreeable smell to the breath, secretions of the skin, and bowels. The nuitton of sheep receiving d^ily several ounces of sulphur is stated to acquire a distinct sulphurous flavour. The greater part of the sidphur swallowed is removed unchanged by the bowels, but a por- tion is excreted in the urine as sulphates. The alkaline sulphides are sometimes substituted for sulphur, and, like it, are laxative and parasiticide. Toxic Actions. — One pound given to horses causes colic, purging, prostration, and sometimes fatal gastro- enteritis (Moiroud). A horse aft'ected with glanders received doses beginning with an ounce, and gradually increased by addi- tion of an ounce daily until the sixteenth day, when he had got 136 ounces. Diarrhoea supervened on the seventh day; but appetite remained throughout unimpaired, the urinary secretion unaffected, the pulse and breathing normal. By the third day the perspiration had a sulphurous smell, and a piece of paper, moistened with load acetate and laid on the skin, became grey. The muco-purulent discharge from the nostrils increased daily; the patient, though well fed, became gradually emaciated, and so debilitated that by the seventh day he was unable to rise. After the tenth day, the blood, even in the arteries, became dark-coloured, thin, and slow to coagulate. On the seventeenth day the animal was destroyed. The mucous lining of the stomach, colon, and ciecum was reddish-blue, soft, and easily torn. The lungs, muscles, and intestinal contents smelt strongly of MEDICINAL USES 319 hydrogen suljihide, but the blood had no such odour (Hertwig). Medicinal Uses. — Sulphur is given to the several domestic animals as a laxative where more poAverful purgatives might irritate — as in pregnancy, convalescence from acute diseases in young animals, and in piles. Its alterative and stimulaiit eftects on the skin have led to its use in rheumatism, eczema, and cutaneous diseases. Some practi- tioners affirm that it benefits dry, congested conditions of the respiratory membrane by stimulating its epithelial cells and increasing movements of the cilia (Ringer). It has no special vermicide action. The piece of roll sulphur fre- quently placed in the dog's trough, being insoluble in water, has no effect in preventing, as is popularly believed, dis- temper and other canine disorders. Sulphur dusted on the skin slightly stimulates, but when dissolved by admixture with an alkali or oil, and smartly rubbed in, it more actively stimulates the cells of the rete Malpighii, and thus hastens desquamation; while it also increases contractility of the muscular textures, and hence overcomes passive cutaneous hypersemia (Practitioner 1881). It thus promotes a healthier action in chronic eczema and psoriasis, and in such cases sulphur dressings are with benefit conjoined or alternated with iodine or tar acids, and are aided by the internal use of sulphur and arsenic. Infriction of sulphur ointment is stated to relieve the pain of rheumatic muscles and joints. For the prompt and effectual cure of mange and scab it is essential to reach the female parasites in their burrows. Hair or wool must be closely clipped or shaved ; the affected parts freely rubbed with soft soap, allowed to remain on for twenty minutes or half an hour; crusts and scales are thus softened, and removed by subsequent thorough scrubbing with warm water. These preliminary measures are requisite to enable any parasiticide to reach the sarcoptes. Kiichen- meister demonstrated that the parasites, although they lived for several days in sulphur ointment, perished in fifteen minutes in mixtures of sulphur and potash solution. This combination quickly produces hydrogen and other toxic 320 SULPHUR sulphides. Numerous foruuibe iire iu use. Two parts sulphur and one part potassium carbonate are dissolved, with the aid of gentle heat, in ten or twelve of lard or oil. A still more effectual sarcopticide is made by addition of two parts of benzine. Sulphur iodide is very useful for such cases. In chronic mange and scab a second or third soaping, scrubbing, and dressing, at intervals of a week, may be requisite; and in inveterate cases some of the penetrating tar oils, or a mercurial, may be used. Doses, etc. — As a laxative, horses take §j. to §iv. ; cattle, giij. to gvi. ; sheep and pigs, 5iv. to §j. ; dogs, 3j- to 5iv. As an alterative, one-fourth of these doses may be given. The precipitated being more finely divided than the sublimed sulphur, is somewhat more certain and active as a laxative. Sulphur is conveniently administered suspended in gruel, or treacle and water, or dissolved in milk or oil, and is often conjoined with aromatics, salines, or mercurials. For horses or cattle a laxative mixture is made with one to two ounces each of sulphur and cream of tartar, dissolved in water, with half a pound of treacle; one-third of this dose suflices for sheep and pigs ; one-sixth part for dogs. A convenient alterative for horses or cattle consists of an ounce each of sulphur and ginger, and half an ounce of nitre, repeated once or twice daily. Tlic ointment usually consists of one part of sulphur and four of vaseline or lard ; one-fourth part mercury ointment is sometimes added. A liniment is made with one part of sulphur and six or eight of linseed or other fixed oil ; one part of tar oil or of Barbadoes tar is often added. Inveterate cases of grease have been treated with eight parts of sulphur, four of potassium carbonate, one of carbolic acid, with thirty- two each of lard and olive oil. The dress- ing is freely rubbed in, allowed to remain on for two or three days, and then washed oft* with soap and warm water. For itch papules and vesicles in human patients. Dr. Tilbury Fox recommends a drachm of sulphur, eight grains each of ammoniated mercury and creosote, twenty minims chamo- mile oil, thoroughly mixed with two ounces lard. This prescription answers well for sijnilar cases in dogs. ACIDS — ACIDA 321 A.CIDS-ACIDA The mineral acids, with acetic, tartaric, and oxalic acids, resemble each other in their actions and uses, and may be conveniently grouped together. Boric, sulphurous, carbolic, salicylic, tannic, and hydrocyanic acids differ chemically and physiologically, and Avill be dealt with separately. Acids are hydrogen salts which in presence of an alkali exchange for it their hydrogen, or a portion of it. They redden various blue and violet colouring matters, and most have a sour taste. In virtue of their affinity for basic sub- stances and for water, acids, especially when concentrated, form new compounds with the animal tissues. Their primary effects are (1) to unite with and neutralise the free alkali which is present in most normal tissues ; (2) the stronger often displace weaker acids ; (3) they precipitate albumin, while all the mineral acids, except nitric, again dissolve albumin. When introduced into the blood, they, moreover, decompose haemoglobin, forming a substance which parts with oxygen much less readily. They coagulate m3^osin, and hence cause muscular rigidity. The stronger acids, especially when con- centrated, are caustics and escharotics. Weaker and more diluted acids act as rubefacients, cause temporary congestion, and, if freely or continuously applied, inflame the dermis, producing vesication. They destroy enzymes and check proliferation of organised ferments. Acids, when swallowed, are corrosive, irritant poisons. As with other irritants, they are more active and fatal in horses and dogs than in cattle or sheep, in which their toxic effects are diminished by admixture with the bulky food usually present in the stomachs of these ruminants. ' In cases of acute poisoning, where death has not occurred too quickly, much albumin, hsematin, and indican have appeared in the urine, and fatty degeneration of the liver, umscles, and kidneys has been found ' (Dr. Lauder Brunton). Their appro- priate antidotes are alkaline bicarbonates, or calcium and magnesium carbonates, given with such diluents and demul- cents as milk, oil, and linseed gruel, and followed by opium and fluid nutrients. 322 GENERAL ACTION OF ACIDS Acids in the mouth increase the saliva from the parotid and submaxillary glands, have no effect on the sympathetic saliva, and effectually moisten the fauces and allay thirst (p. 93). As they are in part neutralised by the alkaline saliva, the resulting salts exert some astringent and antiseptic effects. If not neutralised before they reach the intestines, they increase their alkaline secretions, and also that of the alkaline bile. Dr. Sidney Ringer (Handbook of Thercq^eutics) believes that acids increase alkaline secretions, while, conversely, alkalies increase acid secretions. He, moreover, states that acids hinder acid secretion. Whether they do so merely by neutralising the alkalies which stimulate acid secretion, or by some further action, is not ascertained. Acids assist digestion in several ways. (1.) They furnish the gastric juice with its acid con- stituent, which, unlike the pepsin, is not capable of reproduction, and without which the digestive power of the gastric solvent is impaired. Hydrochloric acid, being the chief natural gastric acid, is generally prescribed when the acidity of the gastric fluid is believed to be deficient, as it sometimes is in yoimg animals living chiefly on milk, in febrile, enfeebled, or old subjects, or in those suffering from gastric catarrh. To aid digestion, acids are given shortly after food. Where there is Avant of appetite and irregular action of the bowels, acids are given conjoined with bitters. (2.) Acids check gastric secretion when excessive, as it appears to be in cases of indigestion, where the fluids in the mouth are sour, not only after, but before feeding, and where animals instinctively lick the walls, or eat alkaline earthy matters. In such cases the alkaline treatment frequently adopted affords temporary relief; but a laxative, followed by acids, generally removes the conditions on Avhich the dyspepsia depends. To such patients acids are given before feeding. (3.) Acids acting antiseptically check fermentation, and thus prevent formation of gases and irritating organic acids. In this way they are serviceable not only in indigestion, but in certain cases of diarrhoea. Before reaching the circulation, acids must pass through MINERAL ACIDS 323 the liver, where they appear to set free bihary acids (Ringer), stimulate expulsion of bile from the liver and gall-bladder, alter processes of tissue change, and check formation of urea (Brunton). As hepatic tonics and stinuilants, nitric and nitro-hydrochloric acids are preferred. When they enter the blood, their acidity must be con- siderably neutralised. They, nevertheless, still act specially as acids, for their alterative and tonic effects are not the same as those of the salts they form when fully neutralised. They are excreted from the body in part through the in- testinal glandular apparatus, but chiefly by the kidneys, in combination with ammonia and other bases. Full or repeated doses diminish, how^ever, the alkalinity, or increase the nor- mal acidity of the urine. Acetic, citric, and tartaric acids, being readily oxidised into carbonates, exert a primary acid, but a secondary alkaline effect, notably on the urine. On account of their diminishing secretion of gastric juice, acids should not be prescribed for more than a week or ten days at a time. They must be given freely diluted, and are often conjoined with bitters,ironsalts,and alcoholic stimulants. The several acids, although possessing properties in common, have distinguishing characteristics. Hydrochloric being volatile, and possessing, whether in the gaseous or fluid state, a strong affinity for water, is most destructive to vegetation, browning and shrivelling plant tissues. Nitro- hydrochloric, sulphuric, phosphoric, and hydrochloric acids are the most powerfully corrosive. Nitric acid does not so readily re-dissolve the precipitated albumin, and hence is scarcely so penetrating as other mineral acids. Sulphuric acid, when applied to the skin or swallowed, causes blacken- ing or browning of the parts with which it comes in contact ; nitric acid leaves a yellow stain ; hydrochloric, a white film of precipitated albumin. The special uses of the three important mineral acids are thus indicated by Dr. Bence Jones — ' Hydrochloric promotes digestion; nitric, secretion ; sulphuric, astringency.' Nitric and nitro-hydrochloric acids are chiefly useful as hepatic tonics and stimulants. Tartaric and citric acids and vinegar are much less powerful than the mineral acids. 324 SULPHURIC ACID Sulphurous, boric, benzoic, and salicylic acids, used for their antiseptic rather than for their special acid properties, with their salts, will be dealt with later. Carbolic acid is also an antiseptic, and an alcohol rather than an acid. Arsenious acid is not a true acid, but an anhydride. Tannic and gallic acids, although they have acid reactions, are glucosides. The striking actions of hydrocyanic acid distin- guish it from all other acids. These acids will accordingly receive separate notice under their English names. SULPHURIC ACID AciDUM SuLPHURicuM. Oil of vitriol. An acid produced by the combustion of sulphur or pyrites, and the oxida- tion and hydration of the resulting sul})hurous anhy- dride by means of nitrous and aqueous vapours. It should contain about 98 per cent., by weight, of hydrogen sulphate. H^SO,. (B.P.) Properties. — The strong acid of commerce is oily-looking, colourless, odourless, with an intensely acid and acrid taste. It freezes about 30° Fahr., boils at G40° Fahr., absorbs mois- ture from the air, and hence, if kept in unstoppered bottles, speedily becomes diluted. Specific gravity 1-843. It has great affinity for water, mixes with it in all proportions with evolution of much heat. Thus, combining with water and albumin, it decomposes and chars organic substances and soft animal tissues. When heated with charcoal, sul- phur, or metals, it rapidly parts with oxygen, and is converted into sulphurous acid. The acidum sulphuricum dilutum, or medicinal acid, should contain 13-65 per cent, of hydrogen sulphate. The acidum sulphnricum aromaticnm contains tincture of ginger 10 Fl. ounces; spirit of cinnamon half an ounce; alcohol (90 percent.), 29^ Fl. ounces; and sulphuric acid 3 Fl. ounces. Its impurities — nitric acid, lead, arsenic — seldom interfere with its medicinal uses. Incompatibles, alkalies, their carbonates, lead and calcium salts. TOXIC AND MEDICINAL ACTIONS 325 Actions and Uses. — Sulphuric acid is a corrosive, irritant poison ; is used medicinally as a refrigerant, antiseptic, tonic, and astringent ; and externally as a caustic, stimulant, and astringent. Toxic Effects. — Its local actions depend upon its affinity for water and bases, and its coagulating albumin. Swallowed in concentrated form, it almost immediately produces retching, with emesis in animals that vomit. The vomited matters stain and corrode, are acid, often dark, viscid, and bloody, and contain shreds of mucous membrane. The lips, mouth, and fauces are red, inflamed, and swollen. From irritation and swelling of the throat breathing is frequently difficult, and when a strong acid has been swallowed by human patients, or given to rabbits experi- mentally, death from suffocation has resulted in an hour, or even less time (Taylor On Poisons). In other cases there is great abdominal pain, rapidly increasing prostration, and death usually in twelve to twenty hours. The mouth, fauces, gullet, and stomach exhibit brown and black stains, and patches of corrosion, and there is sometimes perfora- tion of the stomach. When the acid has been diluted, and death does not occur for several hours, the digestive mucous membrane is softened, swollen, and intiamed, but not so blackened or charred as when the acid has been concentrated, and death more rapid. Injection into the veins proves fatal by coagulation of blood and thrombosis (Oriila). Sulphuric and other acids are sometimes given by grooms and carters, with the idea of improving the condition of horses. Acute poisoning occasionally occurs from overdoses, chronic irritation of the bowels not infrequently results ; and horses which for a season have thus been senselessly doctored, usually continue for months and even for years thriftless, and difficult to keep in health. The antidotes are alkaline bicarbonates, soap, chalk. or magnesia, given diluted in milk or water, in small quantity at short intervals. Demulcents as milk, oil, linseed tea, are subsequently administered. Where breath- ing is difficult, tracheotomy should be performed. 326 tJSES OP SULPHURIC ACID Medicinal Uses. — Sulphuric acid is prescribed as a tonic, astringent, and hsemostatic. It is given in chronic diarrhoea and dysentery, usually with laudanum in starch gruel or mucilage. In influenza in horses, with a tendency to adema or purpura, thirty drops of the medicinal acid are sometimes given in gruel or ale several times a day, with an ounce each of ether and powdered cinchona bark. In purpura Professor Robertson prescribed Tl^xx. to TT^xxx., with grs. xxx. iron sul- phate, in cold water thrice daily. In relaxed and ulcerated sore-throat, a diluted solution, slowly given, exerts the two- fold influence of a local astringent and general tonic. Sulphuric acid was prescribed in rinderpest and contagious pleuro-pneumonia of cattle, but was not more successful than iron sulphate or other tonics. It checks bleeding from the lungs and stomach, arrests excessive perspiration, and, correcting gastric derangement, abates the itching of nettle-rash and lichen. It is an antidote in poisoning by lead, carbolic acid, and alkalies. Externally it is used for cauterising irregular, sinuous, and poisoned wounds, and as a styptic and astringent. Three parts strong acid, thoroughly mixed with one of asbestos, and rubbed to fine powder, have been used in France for removing cancerous and other growths. For destruction of cancer Professor Syme made sulphuric acid into a thin pulp with sawdust, protecting the neighbouring tissues by a wall of guttapercha. It is used in like manner to destroy warts, which, from their shape or situation, cannot readily be removed by knife or ligature. It hastens disin- tegration of necrosed bone. Mixed with linseed oil, it is sometimes repeatedly applied to shrink the skin and reduce umbilical hernia ; but ligatures, clamps, or needles are safer and more effectual. It is occasionally added to blistering ointments, but, unless in small amount, is apt to cause blemishing. A weak solution is useful in the treatment of chronic pruritus of the tail. A few drops, given witli Epsom salt and other saline purgatives, diminish their disagreeable taste and rather increase their activity. Doses, etc. — Of the medicinal acid horses take fgj. to f5ij.; cattle, fgij. to f3iv. ; sheep, fSss. to f^j.; pigs, \\'. to SULPHUROUS ACID 327 IT^xx. ; dogs, T\\ij. to ll|^vi., repeated several times a day, given freely diluted, and often conjoined with aromatics and bitters. As an external astringent, ten to twenty drops of medicinal acid are mixed with an ounce of water. SULPHUROUS ACID AciDUM SuLPHUROSUM. An aqueous solution containing 6-4 per cent, hydrogen sulphite, HgSOg, corresponding to 5 per cent, by weight of sulphurous anhydride, SOg. (B.P.) Sulphurous anhydride may be prepared by burning sulphur in air or oxygen, or by boiling sul- phuric acid with carbon, mercury, or copper (B.P.). The aqueous solution is colourless, has a pungent sul- phurous odour, reddens litmus, bleaches colouring matter, leaves no residue when heated, and has the specific gravity 1-025. It is distinguished by its odour; when in combina- tion it is liberated by hydrochloric acid. Both the gaseous and liquid forms are us'ed as bleaching agents, especially for woollen and silk goods. Unlike chlorine, they do not destroy colouring matters, but form with them colourless compounds. They have a marked affinity for oxygen, undergoing conversion into sulphuric acid. Actions. — Sulphurous acid is antiseptic, disinfectant, and deodorant, and is used as a parasiticide. Concentrated doses, whether in the gaseous or liquid state, are irritant. General Actions. — Its value in medicine depends on its affinity for oxygen, and its arresting the growth of micro- organisms. A solution of one part in 8000 of water destroys diastase and pytalin ; but although smaller quan- tities arrest the action of emulsin and myrosin, one part in 1317 is required to destroy pepsin. Developed bacteria are killed by one part in 2000 of water ; but to prevent repro- duction of the spores one part in 325 is needful. Sir Robert Christison found that one-fifth of a cubic inch, diluted with 10,000 volumes of air, destroyed the leaves of plants in forty-eight hours. It prevents putrefaction of the gelatin used in paper-making, and destroys the effluvia of the 328 SULPHCTROUS ACID cochineal dye manufacture. Its antiseptic properties are shared by the sulphites and thiosulphates. Medicinal Uses. — Dr. Dewar, Kirkcaldy, greatly extended its application in human medicine and surgery. With solution, fumigation, and spray, he successfully treated nasal catarrh, sore-throat, bronchitis, typhoid fever, as well as wounds. In rheumatism he directed the bed-clothes to be exposed to the vapours of burning sulphur, and laid over the patient, when refreshing perspiration was evoked. In analogous cases amongst the lower animals, sulphurous acid has also proved useful. Professor Robertson employed it to check the muco-purulent discharge of equine influenza. Professor Williams recommends its inhalation in nasal gleet. It is serviceable in catarrh, pharyngitis and laryn- gitis in horses when the membrane is irritable and relaxed, and the discharges are profuse and noisome. It has been prescribed in hoven in cattle and tympanites in horses ; but two-ounce doses of the solution do not yield the prompt relief which usually follows ammonia or ether. In young calves, flatulent from hasty or careless feeding, ounce doses usually, however, arrest undue fermentation. For dogs, TT[xxx. to Tl[lx., in water, check gastric irritation and vomiting. In husk or hoosc of calves and lambs the para- sites are usually destroyed by two fumigations, at intervals of a few days. The affected subjects are placed in a loose box ; sulphur is burned six feet distant from them, to dilute the gas before it is breathed ; unless bronchial irritation is excessive, they may remain in the medicated atmosphere ten to fifteen minutes. The solution, used alone or with ' Sanitas ' fluid or glycerin, is a good antiseptic dressing for wounds. It is useful in the early irritable stage of eczema, especially in dogs. In mange and scab the solution is used as a parasiticide. Officers of health, both in Britain and America, bear testi- mony to the efficacy of sulphurous acid as a disinfectant. Outbreaks of foot-and-mouth disease are believed to have been arrested by it. The gas is readily evolved in the stable or premises to be disinfected by scattering flowers of sulphur over a few embers in a shovel, iron basin or brazier. It ACTIONS AND USES 329 burns best when previously mixed with about one-fourth part of finely-divided charcoal, or when each charge of one and a half pounds of sulphur is treated with an ounce of alcohol, which in burning furnishes a large amount of steam, and thus increases the penetrating and disinfectant power of the gas. Sulphurous acid in concentrated form causes irrita- tion and coughing when breathed either by men or animals, and consequently for thorough disinfection of infected pre- mises animals must be removed, doors and windows closed, and one and a half pounds sulphur burned for each thousand feet of cubic space. Articles of saddlery and clothing should be cleansed by steam-heat, or washed with corrosive sub- Hmate solution. Such articles, freely exposed to sulphurous gas, are bleached, and eventually damaged, from condensa- tion of sulphuric acid. During the prevalence of cattle plague, pleuro- pneumonia, or foot-and-mouth disease, of influenza or glanders in horses, or of distemper amongst dogs, healthy animals, in the same or adjacent premises, should daily breathe for half-an-hour the diluted acid, and be sponged with a weak solution, which will be rendered still more destructive to disease germs if mixed with a little carbolic acid. Doses, etc. — Of the B.P. solution horses and cattle take f§i. to fgij. ; sheep and pigs, f5ss. to j^j. ; dogs, ■lT[xx. to T^lx., given every three or four hours, diluted with water or other cold bland fluid. It may be continued until the system is saturated and the skin gives off its odour. It is conjoined as required with aromatics, alcohol, ether, or opium. Dr. Dewar believed it to be a more effectual antiseptic than either the sulphites or thiosulphates. But it must be freshly prepared and kept in well-stoppered bottles ; when exposed to the air it oxidises and becomes irritant from formation of sulphuric acid. For surgical purposes it is diluted usually with three or four parts of water ; with this the lint or other dressings are kept saturated; admixture with gl3'^cerin renders it more soothing. Baths are readily made by con- ducting the vapour of burning sulphur into water. In the treatment of mange and other skin complaints, baths or strong solutions are more effectual than fumigation. For 330 HYDROCHLORIC ACID disinfectant purposes it may be used with carbolic acid, but not with chlorine or bleaching powder, which neutralises it. HYDROCHLORIC ACID AciDUM Hydrochloricum. Muriatic Acid. Spirit of Salt. A liquid containing 31"79 per cent, of hydrogen chloride, HCl, and 68-21 per cent, of water (B.P.). Hydrochloric acid is obtained by dissolving in water the gas produced by the interaction of sulphuric acid and sodium chloride. It is colourless, intensely sour and acrid, emits white, pungent, fumes of the gas, and has the specific gravity 1-160. The B.P. acidum hydrochloricum dilutum is made by mixing six fluid ounces of the stronger acid with water until the mixture at 60° Fahr. measures twenty fluid ounces. It has the specific gravity 1052, and contains 1058 per cent, of hydrogen chloride. The test for hydrochloric acid is silver nitrate, with which it produces a curdy white precipitate, insoluble in nitric acid, but soluble in excess of ammonia. Its chief impurities arc sulphuric and sulphurous acids, nitrous compounds, chlorine, iron, and occasionally traces of arsenic. Actions and Uses. — Concentrated doses are corrosive and irritant ; medicinal doses are astringent, antiseptic, and tonic. Hydrochloric acid is excreted mainly in the urine, increasing its quantity and diminishing its alkalinity. Topically it is used as a caustic, stimulant, astringent, and antiseptic. Toxic Effects. — Concentrated solutions have a strong affinity for the water, bases and albuminoids of the tissues. They leave upon them a white film. When swallowed they cause gastro-enteritis. Independently of irritant or corrosive effects, they appear to destroy life by neutralising the alkali of the blood. Rabbits and herbivora are stated to suffer in this way more readily than dogs or other carnivora. Seven or eight grammes per kilogramme of body-weight may be given to rabbits in twenty-four hours without serious results, but nine grammes prove fatal in a few hours, causing frequent laboured breathing, quick pulse, imperfect power of moving, MEDICINAL USES 331 and death, depending upon fatal diminution of the alkali in the blood, determining tirst stimulation, and soon paresis of the respiratory centre. That these toxic effects directly depend upon neutralising of the alkali in the blood appears to be demonstrated by Mr. F. Walter's experiments, in which animals nearly dying from acid poisoning promptly revived when sodium carbonate was injected into the veins. The alkaline antidote proves effectual even when three times the ascertained fatal dose of acid has been administered (Phillip's Materia Medico). Medicinal Uses.— Hydrochloric acid, made into an electuary with glycerin, treacle, or honey, or diluted with water, while slowly swallowed, exerts stimulant, astringent, or antiseptic effects on irritable, relaxed, or ulcerated throats. Stimu- lating the mucous membrane of the mouth, it reflexly evokes secretion of saliva, moistening the parched mouth and abating thirst. Like other acids, it specially stimulates the intestinal, and other alkaline secretions. These effects are increased by combining the acid with gentian or other bitter. Hydrochloric acid is the special acid of the gastric juice ; in herbivora it amounts to -15, in dogs to -3 per cent. When the natural acid constituent of the fluid is deficient, digestion is performed tardily and imperfectly, the food .ferments and acrid acids are evolved. For obviating or removing such conditions, hydrochloric acid is specially suitable; it aids digestion, especially of albuminoids, controls acid fermenta- tion common in young animals, particularly when feeding on milk, and hence often checks diarrhoea. In young calves or foals, digesting their food indifferently, and scouring, a few drops of hydrochloric acid may be given with the milk ; and acids are usually preferable to alkalies, being given either immediately before or about an hour after feeding. Acids conjoined with bitters are also useful for convalescents from exhausting disease, for show beasts that have been systemati- cally over-fed, and for young and weakly, as well as for old, enfeebled subjects. The acid treatment is equally appropriate in the totally different gastric condition of undue acidity depending upon excessive secretion; but in such case the acid should be administered half an hour before feeding. 332 NITRIC ACID Given alone or with ferric chloride, it promotes a healthier state of the bowels in animals affected by intestinal worms, and sometimes expels ascarides. Like other mineral acids, it exerts soine unexplained alterative action as it passes through the liver, and during excretion acidifies the urine. Externally it is used to destroy warts, and, as a caustic and antiseptic for wounds, for foot-rot in sheep, and occa- sionally as a styptic. A tepid solution, diluted until only faintly acid to the tongue, is sometimes used, instead of vinegar and water, for rapidly sponging the skin of febrile patients. Doses, etc. — Of diluted or medicinal acid, horses take f^ss. to fgij. ; cattle, f5ij- to f5iv. ; sheep and pigs, TTLxv. to HIxx. ; dogs, Tl^iij. to n[x., usually prescribed with forty or fifty parts of water ; often given along with bitters and iron salts. NITRIC ACID AciDUM NiTRicuM. Aquafortis. A liquid containing 70 per cent, by weight of hydrogen nitrate, HNO3, and 30 per cent, of water. (B.P.) Nitric acid is prepared by the interaction of sulphuric acid and potassium or sodium nitrate. Specific gravity 1-42. The B.P. Acidum Nitricum Dilutum contains 17-44 per cent, of hydrogen nitrate. HNO3. Specific gravity 1101. Properties. — Nitric acid, in tolerably concentrated solu- tion, is colourless ; emits pungent, corrosive, suffocating fumes ; has an intensely sour taste ; oxidises, corrodes, and dissolves many organic substances; has great affinity for water ; in imperfectly stoppered bottles it quickly increases in quantity and diminishes in strength ; diluted with water it evolves much heat. Its tests are the production of an orange-red colour with a solution or crystal of morphine or brucine; copper, mercury, and some other metals deoxidise strong solutions, with evolution of ruddy nitric peroxide fumes (NO,,); it gives a yellow stain of picric acid to wool and to the skin — IRRITANT, CORROSIVE, AND HEPATIC STIMULANT 333 a discoloration deepened by alkalies, and removed from the skin only by its desquamation. With bases, nitric acid forms an extensive series of soluble salts, the nitrates, which deflagrate when heated, and give an oUve-brown or dark purple colour when a few crystals of ferrous sulphate are dropped into a cold solution in a test-tube, gently shaken, and eight or ten drops of strong sulphuric acid are added. Actions and Uses. — Nitric acid is irritant and corrosive, and especially destructive when in concentrated solution and containing the volatile nitrous acid. It leaves yellow or brown stains on the skin and throat, but in the stomach this discoloration is usually obscured by inflammation or extravasation of blood. Besides acting like the other mineral acids, it exerts oxidising effects, notably when used locally, and probably also when given internally. It is specially used as a hepatic stimulant and tonic, frequently indicated in horses recovering from influenza, jaundice, and other debilitating disorders, and, alternated with arsenic, in eczema and chronic skin diseases. Externally the medicinal acid is applied for extirpating warts, fungous and malignant growths which cannot be removed by the knife; for dissolving the hardened scurf, and promoting a healthier condition of skin in mallenders and chronic eczema ; and as a caustic in poisoned wounds, necrosis, canker, and foot-rot. As an escharotic it is generally applied on a glass rod or a splinter of soft wood ; surround- ing tissues are protected by lard or oil, and undue action arrested by subsequent washing with an alkaline solution. Freely diluted in hot water, it abates the itching of nettle- rash. Dissolved in two to three hundred parts of water, it is used for sponging the skin, and for relieving the tender- ness and tension of piles in dogs. Nitric acid preserves putrescible substances, and prevents evolution of hydrogen sulphide and other noisome gases more effectually than either hydrochloric or sulphuric acid ; but as a disinfectant, it cannot be recommended, owing to its action on organic and metallic substances, and the irritant effects of its fumes. Doses, etc. — Of the diluted medicinal acid, horses or cattle 334 PHOSPHORIC ACID take f5i. to f5ij. ; sheep and pigs, TI[x. to Tltxx. ; dogs, Tliij. to ■n[x. It must be largely diluted with water or other bland fluid, and is often conjoined with bitters. For external application, a drachm of strong acid in a pint of water suffices for all except escharotic purposes. An ointment is occasionally used, made by melting together in a glass vessel a pound of olive oil, four ounces of lard, and when the mixture is nearly concrete, adding six drachms of nitric acid, and stirring briskly with a glass rod till the whole solidifies. A paste made with sulphur and lard is used for extirpating warts, destroying acari, and stimulating patches of scurfy skin. DILUTED NITRO-HYDROCHLORIO ACID AciDUM Nitro-Hydrochloricum Dilutum. Nitro-Muriatic Acid. Aqua regia. An aqueous solution of free chlorine, hydrochloric, nitric and nitrous acids. The diluted nitro -hydrochloric acid of the B.P, is pre- pared by adding to twenty-five fluid ounces of distilled water in a glass- stoppered bottle three fluid ounces of nitric acid and four of hydrochloric, and allowing the mixture to stand for fourteen days before it is used. It contains free chlorine, and has the specific gravity 107. Action, Uses, and Doses. — The strong acid is very corrosive and irritant, but it is not used as a caustic. Medicinal doses exert special tonic and stimulant actions on the skin, liver, and intestinal glands, and are used in hepatic torpidity, chronic hepatitis, catarrhal jaundice, rickets, and occasionally in equine influenza. It is prescribed in the same doses as nitric acid, and with the same precautions as to dilution and avoidance of too frequent or prolonged use. CONCENTRATED PHOSPHORIC ACID Acidum phosphoricum concentratum, a liquid containing 66-3 per cent, of hydrogen orthophosphate H3PO4, with 38-7 per cent, of water. Prepared by treating, with water and nitric HYDROBROMIC ACID 335 acid, the residue left after burning phosphorus in air (B.P.). Specific gravity 1-5. It is a colourless, sour, syrupy liquid, with an acid reaction. In diluted solution it gives, with ammonia-silver nitrate, a canary-coloured precipitate, soluble in ammonia and dilute nitric acid. The acidum phos- phoricum dilutum contains 13-8 parts of hydrogen ortho- phosphate and 86 -2 parts of water. It is a colourless liquid of specific gravity 1"08. Compared with the other mineral acids it is less corrosive, but it may be used for many of the purposes for which nitric and hydrochloric acids are employed. Internally, phos- phoric acid is believed to be less apt to derange digestion when prescribed for a considerable time. It has some reputation for arresting the progress of tuberculosis and the growth of bony tumours. In human medicine it is given in diabetes; and in canine practice it is useful in the conva- lescent stage of distemper. CHROMIC ACID Chromic Anhydride (CrOg). Acidum chromicum produced by the interaction of sulphuric acid and potassium bichromate, occurs in crimson, deliquescent, needle-shaped crystals, and is very soluble in water and in ether. The liquor acidi chromici is made with one part of acid and three of water. It readily parts with oxygen, oxidises organic matter, coagulates albumin, destroys low organisms, and decomposes ammonia and sul- phuretted hydrogen, and though not prescribed internally, it is used as a caustic, antiseptic, deodoriser, and disinfec- tant, and to harden the replacing horn after operations on the horse's foot. HYDROBROMIC ACID Acidum Hydrobromicum Dilutum. Diluted hydrobromic acid is an aqueous solution contain- ing 10 per cent, by weight of hydrogen bromide (HBr). Prepared by the distillation of potassium bromide with 336 CARBONIC ACID concentrated phosphoric acid. A colourless, odourless acid liquid. Specific gravity 1077. It is occasionally employed in human medicine as a nerve sedative, and it has been recommended as an anodyne for nervous diseases of dogs in doses of TT[xx. to "FTj^lx. {Veterinariany 1888.) CARBONIC ACID AciDUM Carbonicum. Carbon Dioxide. Carbonic Anhy- dride. Choke Damp. After Damp. (CO.^). When air, containing more than -^ parts by volume of carbonic acid, is inhaled, by either man or the domestic animals, discomfort and languor are produced. An atmo- sphere containing yV promptly prevents removal of the car- bonic acid from the blood, interferes with oxidation of the tissues, and hence impairs their functions ; I- shortly causes unconsciousness and anaesthesia ; i does so more rapidly, renders the blood markedly venous, but if respiration of the mixture is continued only for a few minutes, recovery gradu- ally occurs. Equal parts of carbonic acid and air quickly produce death by asphyxia, exhibiting the three stages characteristic of such poisoning, namely — (1) dyspnoea, (2) convulsions, and (3) paralysis. Examination after death discovers general venous congestion, the blood dark-coloured, the risfht side of the heart much distended with blood, the brain congested, and sometimes exhibiting exudation and extravasation. In treating such cases, endeavour is made to oxygenate the stagnating venous blood by bringing the animal into a pure atmosphere, stimulating respiratory effort by dashing cold water over the head and neck, employing artificial respiration, and, if the action of the heart is failing, relieving its engorgement by drawing blood from the jugular vein. Carbonic acid in solution applied to the skin or stomach produces stinudation. Effervescent drinks increase gastric and intestinal secretion, hasten metabolism, and are excreted from the kidneys more rapidly than corresponding quantities of non-aerated water. ACETIC ACID 337 ACETIC ACID Glacial acetic acid is prepared by heating sodium acetate with sulphuric acid. One hundred parts by weight should contain ninety-nine parts of hydrogen acetate, CHg'COOH. Specitic gravity 1 058. The glacial acid is mobile, oily, and colourless, with a pungent acetous odour and taste, and a corrosive action upon organised tissues. It boils at 243" Fahr., distils unchanged, is combustible, miscible in all proportions with water and alcohol, cr3'stallises into radiating pearly plates when cooled, and remains crystalline until the temperature rises above 60° Fahr. Acetic acid (acetum aceticum) is a product of the destruc- tive distillation of wood, or of the oxidation of ethylic alcohol. One hundred parts by weight should contain thirty-three parts of hydrogen acetate, and sixty-seven of water. Specific gravity 104-1. It is colourless, strongly acid, with a pungent odour. Acetic acid is about one-third the strength of the glacial acid (B.P.). An imperfectly purified acid containing some residual tarry matters is sold as pyroligneous acid. The acidum aceticum dilutum is acetic acid diluted with distilled water until it has a specific gravity of 1-006. It should contain 4'27 per cent, hydrogen acetate. Acetic acid, even when considerably diluted, reddens litmus, dissolves volatile oils, resins, camphor, and most alkaloids, and unites with bases to form the crystallisable and soluble acetates, which are distinguished by the acetous odour they emit when heated with sulphuric acid; the pleasant odour of acetic ether they evolve when heated with alcohol and sulphuric acid ; and the red-brown colour they produce in neutral solution when treated with ferric chloride — a colour which changes on boiling to a brown precipitate of basic acetate of iron. Vinegar (acetum) is diluted acetic acid, sometimes con- taining traces of colouring matter, mucilage, alcohol, ethers, sulphuric acid, and calcium sulphate. Besides being got from the destructive distillation of wood, it is also obtained from the oxidation of impure alcohols, by exposing them to the air at a temperature of about SO' Fahr., and in contact Y 338 CORROSIVE, IRRITANT, AND VESICANT with a ferment. In this way vinegars are manufactured in this country from malt, grain, cider, or solutions of sugar or spirit ; in France, by exposing the poorer wines in half-filled casks ; and in Germany, by what is termed the quick vinegar process, from weak spirits mixed with about 1-lOOOth part of yeast, or beetroot juice, and allowed slowl}' to trickle at a temperature of from 75° to 80" Fahr. over a large surface of wood shavings previously soaked in vinegar. There is shortly formed on the surface of the shavings a gelatinous mould — the mycoderma aceti — which favours attraction of oxygen from the air, supplies it to the alcohol, and hastens its conversion into acetic acid. Actions and Uses. — Acetic acid is corrosive, irritant, and vesicant. It is seldom used internally. Diluted, usually in the form of vinegar, it is employed externally as. a stimulant and refrigerant, and in pharmacy as a solvent. Toxic Effects. — An ounce of acetic acid destroyed a medium-sized dog in an hour, with symptoms of uneasiness, abdominal pain, vomiting, and collapse; a quarter of an ounce was fatal in five to nine hours; four or five ounces of vinegar in ten to fifteen hours (Christison On Poisons). Horses take six to twelve oimces of vinegar, and cattle three or four pounds, without apparent injury (Hertwig). A goat weighing 44 lbs. got five ounces, and died in twenty-six hours, the lesions consisting of hyperaimia and redema of the lungs, and inflammation of the mucous lining of the digestive tract, the kidneys, and liver (Frohner). Antidotes. — Magnesia, soap and water, lime water, chalk and water. External Uses. — Rubbed into the skin, acetic acid speedily causes redness, and eruption of large blisters resembling those produced by boiling water ; but as a vesicant, mustard or cantharides is preferable. As an astringent or caustic it is rarely used. Dissolving albumin, fibrin, and gelatin, it removes warts as well as corns in the human subject, softens scurf, destroys cr3q3toganiic parasites and acari, and hence is sometimes found in prescriptions for mallendcrs, ringworm, scab, and mange. Along with either hot or cold water, vinegar is used for contusions and strains, and for TARTARIC AND LACTIC ACIDS 339 sponginw the skin and checking excessive perspiration in febrile disorders. For fumigating stables or cow-houses, it is not nearly so effectual as carbolic acid, sulphurous acid, or chlorine. It dissolves the active principles of various medicines, and enters into the composition ol aceta, or vinegars of cantharides, ipecacuanha, and squill. Oxymel is made by heating together forty ounces of sugar or honey, and live each of acetic acid and distilled water. The anti- septic properties of vinegar recommend it for preserving various vegetables. Once in high repute as an antidote for many poisons, vinegar is now employed only in poisoning by the alkalies and alkaline carbonates. TARTARIC ACID, H^C^H^g. Acidum tartaricum is prepared from acid potassium tar- trate. The crystals are colourless, monoclinic prisms, longer than those of citric acid, with an acid taste, soluble in less than their own weight of water, and less than three times their weight of alcohol (90 per cent.). Either watery or spirituous solution not too diluted, when stirred with potas- sium acetate, yields a white crystalline precipitate. Tartaric acid is devoid of irritant and poisonous properties. Christison gave drachm doses to cats without causing them apparent inconvenience. Like other organic acids, it is burnt within the body, and the resulting carbonates exert their usual alkaline effects. It closely resembles citric acid, and, like it, is used as a cooling antipyretic. LACTIC ACID. HC3CHOHCOOH. Acidum lacticum produced by the fermentation of lactose, is a colourless, syrupy liquid, which the B.P. states contains 75 per cent, of hydrogen lactate, with 25 per cent, of water. Specific gravity 1-21. It is miscible in all proportions with water, alcohol and ether. It is present in the gastric juice, while sarcolactic acid, which is isomeric with it, is found in the juice of flesh and in the bile. It has a special power of dissolving false membranes, 340 OXALIC ACID and ill liuinan patients has accordingly been used as spray or vapour in the treatment of croup and diphtheria. Diluted and sweetened, it is occasionally substituted for hydrochloric acid in dyspepsia. OXALIC ACID, H^CgO^, 2H2O. Acidum oxalicum occurs in rhubarb, sorrel, and other plants, is prepared on the small scale by oxidising sugar with nitric acid, and for commercial purposes by the oxidation of sawdust with potash. It forms monoclinic prisms resembling those of Epsom salt, for which it is sometimes mistaken ; is soluble in nine parts of water, and in alcohol, and is entirely dissipated by heat. It is an irritant, corrosive, and cardiac paralysant, and poisonous doses cause fatal collapse. Two drachms killed rabbits in fifteen minutes ; half a drachm in thirty minutes. Antidotes. — Chalk or lime in water, demulcents and stimulants. CITRIC ACID, C3H,OH(COOH)3-H20. Acidum citricum, or hydrogen citrate, obtained from the juice of the fruit of various species of citrus, occurs in large, colourless, trimctric prisms. Soluble in water, glycerin, alcohol, and ether. A solution of citric acid, thirty-five grains in an ounce of water, forms a convenient substitute for lemon-juice, which has been used as a refrigerant in canine distemper. Citric acid is employed in the prepara- tion of the granular effervescing citrates. OLEIC ACID, CH3(CH2)7CH: CH(CH,)7C00H. Acidum oleicum, or hydrogen oleate, is obtained by the saponifying action of alkalies and subsequent action of acids, or by the action of superheated steam upon the olein of fats. Usually not quite pure (B.P.). It is a straw-coloured liquid, occasionally with a faintly rancid smell, and a slight acid reaction. Becomes brown and more acid on exposure to the air. Insoluble in water ; readily soluble in alcohol (90 per BORACIC ACID 341 cent.), chlorofortn, or ether. Specific gravity, 0*890 to 0"910. Oleic acid is used in pharmacy for dissolving various metallic oxides and the alkaloids morphine, aconitine, atropine, vera- trine, and cocaine. It is used in the preparation of mercuric oleate and of various ointments (Squire's Companion to the B.P., 1899). BORIC ACID AciDUM BoRicuM. Hydrogen Borate. Boracic Acid. H3BO3 Boric acid is obtained from borax by the action of sulphuric acid. In volcanic regions in Italy and in the Lipari Islands, through natural fissures or holes bored in the earth, there issue vapours and jets of steam, which are passed through water, and the solution, subsequently evaporated, yields colourless, pearly, lamellar crystals of boric acid. They are feebly acid, and bitter, with a sweetish after-taste, and dis- solve in thirty parts of cold water, in three of boiling water, in thirty of rectified spirit, and four of glycerin, and com- municate a green colour to an alcohol flame. The addition of borax increases the solubility of boracic acid. Aiding the fusion of other bodies, it is much used as a blow-pipe test : mixed with seven parts of acid potassium tartrate, it con- stitutes the soluble cream of tartar of the shops. When heated, the three molecules of water of crystallisation are driven off, and anhydrous vitreous boric acid remains (B.^Og). Actions and Uses. — Boric acid is a non-volatile, unirritat- ing antiseptic, which has more effect on organised than on chemical ferments. It is occasionally prescribed in fermenta- tive diarrhoea in foals, calves, and dogs, usually conjoined with diluted spirit or ether. It is excreted in the urine, and hence exerts its antiseptic effects in cystic catarrh. As an antiseptic it is less powerful than carbolic acid. Koch found that one part in 1250 of water hindered, and one part in 800 prevented, development of anthrax bacillus. The carcase of a horse, which had lain four months in a Californian soil rich in borax, was completely preserved and free from odour (Robottom). Being non-poisonous, it is used for the preservation of milk, fish, and other articles of food. 342 BORIC ACID Being non-volatile, its effects arc confined to the parts with which it comes into actual contact. Even in concentrated form, it is not so irritant and caustic as carbolic acid, and hence is adapted for wounds which for some time have been treated with carbolic acid, and in which ufranulation has become tardy. A foul wound or ulcer of moderate size, after thorough washing with corrosive sublimate or zinc chloride, or repeated dressing with carbolic acid, may usually be kept aseptic by boric acid. A warm 3 per cent, solution has been used to irrigate the chest in septic pleurisy. In the form of lotion or ointment, it proves a soothing dressing for burns and blistered surfaces : as a spray, it relieves aphthous, irri- table, ulcerated throat, and, like borax, checks excessive sali- vary or pharyngeal secretion. Alternated with weak alkaline lotions or zinc oxide dressings, boric acid, conveniently mixed with six or eight parts of starch or of fullers' earth, abates the erythema and itching of the weeping stages of eczema rubrum in dogs, and is equally useful in similar eczematous conditions in horses. Catarrhal or purulent conjunctivitis is benefited by spraying the irritable surface three or four times daily with solution of three to six grains to the ounce of water, alternated with atropine lotions. Doses, etc. — Horses and cattle take 5ii- to 3v. ; foals and calves, grs. xx. to grs. xxx. ; dogs, to Avhich it is usefully given in distemper, grs. v. to grs. xx. A saturated solution is made with one part of acid to thirty of water, and for surgical purposes is used diluted as required. A few grains of salicylic acid are sometimes added. An ointment is prepared by melting nine parts white paraffin ointment, and adding one part boric acid in fine powder. Boric lint is made by soaking lint, cotton wool, or oakum in a saturated boiling watery solution, from which the acid crystallises, adhering to the fibrous material. Like carbolic lint, eight or ten folds are applied, either wet or dry, over the wound ; being unirritating, no protection is needed ; in order to prevent evaporation and access of ubiquitous micro-organ- isms, a piece of mackintosh is laid on with the oiled surface inwards ; unless the discharges are excessive, an ample and properly applied dressing does not require to be disturbed CARBON AND CARBON COMPOUNDS 343 for several days. A few folds of lint applied wet to a wound or ulcer, and covered with oiled silk or mackintosh, acts as an antiseptic poultice, and its effects may be kept up by pourini^ the lotion from time to tune between the folds of lint. Boric gauze is charged with 20 per cent, of boric acid. Boro - glyceride is made by heating ninety-two parts glycerin with sixty-two boric acid. Solutions of one to twenty of hot water are used as antiseptic gargles, lotions for purulent ophthalmia, urethritis, and dressings for wounds. CHARCOAL-CARBON Two varieties of charcoal, or carbon, are used in medicine and pharmacy— wood charcoal, or carbo ligni, and animal charcoal, or carbo animahs. The former is prepared by piling billets of hard wood into heaps, covering them with turf and sand, and leaving a few apertures for admission of air. The pile is ignited : after the flame has risen through the whole mass, the openings are closed, and combustion proceeds slowly, without access of air. The high temperature dissipates moisture, breaks up the complex vegetable matters into simpler forms, producing empyreumatic gases and tarry fluids, and leaving a charred residue of about one-fifth the weight of the original wood, and consisting of chemically pure carbon and ash, with oxygen, hydrogen, and traces of nitrogen retained in the porous mass. Oils or resins, Avhen burned in a deficiency of air, produce lamp black — a finely- divided, amorphous carbon. Animal charcoal, also known as bone or ivory black, is chiefly prepared from bones, which are boiled to separate fatty matters, and heated in close vessels until the ammonia- cal gases cease to be disengaged; The fixed residue contains about 10 per cent, of carbon, 88 per cent, of calcium phos- phate and carbonate, and 2 per cent, of iron carbide and silicide — mineral matters which separate the carbon particles and enhance their absorbent properties. Both vecretable and animal charcoal are remarkable for "to' 344 CHARCOAL their porosity, are brown-black, insoluble and inodorous, readily absorb moisture, gases, and most vegetable colouring matters. Animal charcoal is distinguished by its greater density, its incombustibility, its bitter taste, its large propor- tion of phosphates, and also by its greater absorbing power. Actions and Uses. — Charcoal is a desiccant, antiseptic, disinfectant, and deodorant, and is used as a decoloriser in pharmacy, sugar-refining, and other arts. One volume of good boxwood charcoal absorbs into its pores 100 volumes of ammonia gas, 50 of hydrogen sulphide, and 10 of oxygen. The oxygen thus retained decomposes and deodorises noxious gases which come into contact with the charcoal. Air laden with sewer gases is purified by passing it over charcoal. Brown sugar in solution filtered through animal charcoal is deprived of colouring matter; crude spirit is robbed of its fusel oil; foul water is cleansed of organic impurities. Urine heated with it parts with colouring matters, urea, and uric acid, but not with any sugar it may contain. Vegetable acids, alka- loids, and their salts are sometimes purified by charcoal ; but for these pharmaceutic purposes it has the disadvantage of retaining, not only colouring particles, but portions of the drugs — a property, however, which renders it serviceable as an antidote in poisoning with opium, aconite, strychnine, and even prussic acid. The charcoal mechanically envelops and holds the poisonous particles ; half an ounce, swallowed im- mediately after a grain of morphine or strychnine, is stated to prevent absorption. Sprinkled over meat or game, or placed in barrels of water intended for long keeping, it attracts and retains septic matters, and hence retards putrefaction. Unlike chlorides of mercury and zinc, or other powerful antiseptics, it does not, however, attack or destroy organised germs. Whilst passing through the alimentary canal, it checks fermentative changes, lessens acridity and foetor of the faeces ; probably also re- moves mucus, and exerts some degree of health}^ stimula- tion. As an absorbent and deodoriser, it is occasionally used as a poultice, and sprinkled over suppurating or foul wounds. Equal parts of charcoal, gum arable, and colophony constitute a useful haemostatic. Ethyl- .. C2H5.OH, Propyl- 1, CgHy.OH, Butyl- „ C,H,.OH, Amyl- » CgHj^.OH, ALCOHOL 345 Doses, etc. — For the horse, 5iv. to §i. ; for cattle, §i. ; for sheep and pigs, 51. to 5iy- ; and for dogs, gr. x. to grs. Ix. It is usually given suspended in gruel or other mucilaginous fluid. To preserve its activity charcoal must be kept dry and clean. Raised to a low red-heat shortly before it is used, gases and organic matters are burned out of its pores, and its efficacy is much increased. The charcoal fouled in sugar-refining and other processes is thus cleansed for re- peated use. ALCOHOL The more important mono-hydric alcohols used in medi- cine and pharmacy are : — Methyl-alcohol, CH3.OH, from distillation of wood. fermentation of grape sugar, grapes. „ beet, „ potatoes. These alcohols are hydrates of the radicles of the methane or marsh gas series (CH^). In their production the radicle has one of its atoms of hydrogen (H) displaced by an atom of the radicle hydroxyl (OH). Thus, methane (CH^), losing one atom of H, and assuming one of OH, becomes CH3.OH, or methyl-alcohol, popularly known as wood spirit. Ethane (CgHg), losing one atom of H, and taking up one of OH, becomes C.2H5.OH, ethyl- alcohol, or spirit of wine. Each of these alcohols, when oxidised by removal of Hg, in the form of a molecule of water (H^O), yields an aldehyd ; while by substitution of OH for H, the aldehydes are converted into acids. Thus, ethyl-alcohol (CHg.CH^.OH) is converted into aldehyd (CH3COH), and thence into acetic acid (CH3CO.OH). In each of the alcohols, moreover, the H in the OH can be replaced by an alcohol radicle, when an ether is formed; thus, ethyl-alcohol (C^Hg.OH) yields common ether (CgHg. O.C2H5). ■ Absolute alcohol. — Ethyl hydroxide (C2H5O.H), with not more than one per cent, by weight, of water; obtained by the removal of water from less strong ethylic alcohol and 346 ALCOHOL subsequent distillation. Specific gravity from 0"794 to 0"7969. Very volatile and hygroscopic at ordinary tempera- tures (B.P.). Absolute alcohol is a mobile, colourless fluid, with a spirituous odour, and an intensely fiery taste. It has great affinity for water, takes it from any substance with which it is in contact, and thus exerts its notable power of preserving both vegetable and animal matters. Ethyl bromide and ethyl chloride are occasionally used to produce local anesthesia. Rectified spirit (spiritus rectificatus), or alcohol (90 per cent.). A liquid containing ninety parts by volume of ethyl hydroxide, and ten parts by volume of water ; obtained by the distillation of fermented saccharine liquids. Specific gravity 08340. By weight it contains 14"35 per cent, of water, and 85-65 per cent, of ethylic alcohol. It burns with a blue, smokeless flame. Leaves no residue when evaporated, and remains clear when mixed with water (B.P.). It dissolves iodine, camphor, balsams, castor oil, most alkaloids, and deliquescent salts, but not the carbonates. It is used in the preparation of all the spirits, and a large number of the tinctures of the Pharmacopoeia, 1898. Diluted alcohol. — The four official li(|uids obtained by diluting alcohol (90 per cent.), or rectified spirit with distilled water, contain respectively 70, 60, 45, and 20 per cent, by volume of ethyl hydroxide (B.P.). They may be prepared as follows : — (1) Alcohol (70 per cent.).— With 100 fluid ounces of alcohol (90 per cent.) mix 31 05 fluid ounces of distilled water. Specific gravity 08900. (2) Alcohol (60 per cent.). — With 100 fluid ounces of alcohol (90 per cent.) mix 53§ (53-65) fluid ounces of distilled water. Specific gravity 09 135. (3) Alcohol (45 per cent.).— With 100 fluid ounces alcohol (90 per cent.) mix 105;^- (105-34) fluid ounces distilled water. Specific gravity 0-943(). (4) Alcohol (20 per cent.). — With 100 fluid ounces of alcohol (90 per cent.) mix 355f (3558) fluid ounces of distilled water. Specific gravity 09760. Proof spirit (spiritus tenuior) contains 6709 per cent, by WHISKY, BRANDY, WINES, RUM, GIN 347 volume of ethylic alcohol Specific gravity 0-920. In the B.P. 1898, proof spirit has been replaced by alcohol (60 per cent.). Methylic alcohol (CH3OH). — This spirit is obtained by the destructive distillation of wood. It is also prepared from beet sugar refuse. Methylic alcohol when pure has many of the properties, and is applied to many of the purposes of ethylic alcohol. It burns with a pale tlame, is not rendered turbid by Avater, boils at 140 Fahr., and has an empyreumatic odour depending upon the presence of acetone (di-meth3'l- ketone) and oily matters. Specific gravity '799 to -803. From ethylic alcohol it is distinguished by heating with sulphuric acid and potassium bichromate, when it yields formic acid ; ethylic alcohol, similarly treated, yields acetic acid. Methyl chloride, a gaseous compound, prepared from methylic alcohol and hydrochloric acid, is employed as a local anaesthetic. Methylated spirit (spiritus methylatus) is a mixture of nine parts alcohol (90 per cent.) with one part wood naphtha or methylic alcohol. The methylated spirit on sale in oil and other shops contains petroleum oil, which is added to render the mixture distasteful to drinkers. Whisky (sp. frumenti) is obtained from fermented grain by distillation. It contains from 50 to 58 per cent, by volume of ethylic alcohol. Brandy (sp. vini gallici), a liquid distilled from wine, should contain 43-0- per cent., by volume, of ethylic alcohol. Champagne, the fermented juice of the grape, contains from 10 to 13 per cent., by volume, of ethylic alcohol, and owes its peculiar bouquet to traces of fragrant ethers. Port contains 20 to 30 per cent. ; sherry, 16 to 22 per cent.; and claret, hock, and burgundy, 8 to 12 per cent, of ethylic alcohol. Rum, a spirit of about the same strength as brandy, is obtained by distillation of a fermented solution of molasses. Hollands, Geneva, and gin are prepared from fermented malt, with a small quantity of juniper berries. They contain from 51 to 59 per cent, of alcohol. 348 ALCOHOL Ales and porter are made by infusing malt in water, allowing it to stand until the starch is in great part converted into dextrin and sugar, boiling the solution with hops, and adding yeast to cause fermentation, which, however, must be carefully controlled. The dark colour of porter depends on a part of the malt being roasted. Stout, or porter and ales contain from 2 to 9 per cent, of ethylic alcohol. Amylic alcohol. — A liquid consisting principally of iso- primary amylic alcohol, and prepared by shaking commercial fusel oil with a saturated solution of common salt, separating the oily layer, distilling, and collecting the portion which distils between 257° and 289° Fahr. Fusel oil is present in all crude ethyl alcohols, is obtained from the distillation of potatoes, and is distinguished by its offensive flavour. It is sparingly soluble in water, but readily soluble in other alcohols, ether, and essential oils. Amylic alcohol when oxidised, yields valerianic acid. It is used for the manufac- ture of amyl-nitrite. Actions and Uses. — Alcohol, according to dose and concentration, is a local irritant, refrigerant, mild astringent, and antiseptic. It is diffusible, and readily absorbed, and its in-contact effects are produced on a wide range of organs. Large doses paralyse the nerve-centres, and kill by respiratory arrest. Full doses, especially when given repeatedly, impair the oxidising power of the blood, and hence diminish metabolism. Medicinal doses are diffusible stimulants, and are prescribed as carminatives, antispasmodics, and cardiac excitants. Diluted ethylic-alcohol is a readily assimilable food, and hence a restorative and tonic; it is antiseptic, diaphoretic, and antipyretic. Causing a fuller stream of blood to circulate through the glands, it increases their secretions, notably that of the kidneys, by which the unassimilated portions of the drug are chiefly excreted. Both ethylic and methylic alcohols are used as preservatives of vegetable substances, and pharinaceutically as solvents. General Actions. — Alcohol in tolerably concentrated solution withdraws water from albuminoid solutions, and precipitates them. Applied to a mucous surface, it precipi- tates a thin white pellicle of albumin, thus exerting irritant ACTIONS AND USES 349 and slight astringent effects. Owing to its evaporation, alcohol, when applied to the skin, causes a sensation of cold ; but if applied with friction, or if evaporation be prevented by a covering of oiled silk, it passes into the skin, inducing a sensation of warmth. When swallowed, a similar warming effect is produced in the stomach. Moderate doses dilate the vessels, redden the mucous membrane, and increase the secretion of gastric juice. If not too concentrated, alcohol is readily absorbed through any of the ordinary channels of administration. Orfila poisoned dogs by causing them to breathe air charged with it. Being highly diffusible, it quickly enters the blood. It appears to form with the hasmoglobin a compound of diminished capacity to take up and give off oxygen. Full or large doses, accordingly, interfere with oxidation of blood and tissue. Its effects vary considerably with the dose and its concentration. It quickens circulation, increasing the strength as well as the frequency of the pulse. The functions of nerve-centres generally are stimulated, causing sometimes a slight tem- porary rise of external temperature, seldom exceeding, either in man or animals, half a degree. Quickly, however, there follows dilatation of cutaneous vessels, with consequent lowering of temperature. Observations on various classes of animals demonstrate that alcohol in full doses lowers animal temperature. This mainly results from (1) lessened oxidation; (2) increased circulation, and consequent increased evolution of heat ; and (3) vaso-motor paresis. As with most of the other effects of alcohol, the lowered temperature is not, however, of long duration. Magnan has shown that puppies lose 3' to 7° Fahr. when alcohol is added to their food. ' The experi- ments of Binz and Bouvier on septicsemic fever in animals gave singular results. In rabbits, for instance, after injecting septic fluid, and inducing a febrile reaction ranging from 102° to 105° Fahr., about three drachms of alcohol diluted with water were introduced into the stomach by means of a tube ; fifteen minutes afterwards the temperature was 104*1°, in forty-five minutes 102'4'', in ninety minutes 100'9°, in two hours and a half 1006° Fahr. The following day the pyrexia 350 ALCOHOL returned, and increased till the death of the animal. Very large doses lower the temperature as much as 85° Cent., and if narcosis was induced before fever began, quite prevented its development ' (Phillip's Materia Medica). ])r. B. W. Richardson's experiments also show that doses sufficient to cause unconsciousness dangerously reduce temperature of birds to the amount of 5°, of dogs 3°, of rabbits 10", and of man himself 2° to 3° Fahr. (Cantor Lectures). Digestion and nutrition, although injured by large, are improved by small doses. Small or even moderate quanti- ties diminish the discharge of carbonic acid from the lungs, check metabolism, and increase secretion of urine. Mere traces are removed by the lungs, skin, and kidneys, but by far the larger proportion undergoes combustion in the body, and, like other hydrocarbons, and especially when used with suitable food, alcohol proves a source of heat and vital energy. Schulinus' experiments on these points are conclusive, and have been repeatedly verified. Animals receiving measured quantities of alcohol, so soon as full effects were produced, were killed by bleeding and insufflat- ins: air into the vessels. Fractional distillations of the blood and viscera were made separately, and repeated investigations have demonstrated — (1) that alcohol in small or moderate quantity does not localise itself in any particular organ, such as the brain or liver, but diffuses itself equally in the system; (2) that only the blood contains proportionately more than other tissues ; (3) of the alcohol taken, the greater part is decomposed within the organism, and the amount eliminated by the lungs, skin, and kidneys, is insignificant (Phillips). Professor Binz' experiments show that not quite three per cent, of moderate doses is excreted unchanged. Alcohol is a true food, rapidly assimilated, and yielding abundance of energy at little cost to the tissues, and it is in general use in fevers, although it is by no means an indispensable remedy (Dr. Mitchell Bruce). The dietetic value of alcohol has been the subject of nuich controversy. Its consumption in great part within the body explains how men and animals kept on somewhat deficient diet, on which weight would be lost, nevertheless maintain DIETETIC VALUE 351 their weight, when receiving, in addition, daily small doses of alcohol. But for ordinary nutrition it is a food which, although quickly assimilated, is rapidly used up, and, unless carefully employed, has the disadvantage of impairing oxidation and excretion. For permanent repair of waste, and maintenance of strength during severe continued exertion, it cannot compare Avitli suitable food. This was strikmgly illustrated in the Ashantee War, when soldiers, on exhausting marches, Avho received rations of rum, although temporarily improved in vigour soon flagged again; while those receiving beef-tea were equally refreshed in the first instance, and did not experience the secondary depression which overtook those who preferred the alcohol. Different classes of animals are somewhat differently affected by alcohol. Man, whose intellectual centres are about einlit times larsjer than his motor centres, has his intelligence quickly acted on by doses which are insufficient to impair his motor functions. Amounts corresponding to 0*4 to the 1000 of the total weight of the body disturb human intelligence ; while 240 per 1000 of weight are needed to impair motor functions. In dogs the cerebral are about five times the weight of the motor centres. Alcohol has no notable effect until 1"5 to the 1000 of body weight is taken, and the prominent results then occurring are disturbance not of intellicrence, but of motor function. Horses and cattle receiving full doses exhibit excitement and perversion of motor function; they prance, strike with the feet, are unsteady in their gait, and drag the hind limbs. Muscular twitching and convulsions occasional!}^ occur. Toxic Actions. — Large doses paralyse the nerve-centres in the inverse order of their development, the cerebral being first affected, the respiratory and cardiac last. Their effects are generally divided into four stages — (1) stimulant, (2) narcotic, (3) anaesthetic, and (4) paralytic. With ethyl- alcohol these stages are usually distinctly marked. With methyl-alcohol the excitement is more intense, the subsequent stages follow more rapidly ; but if the doses are not lethal the effects pass off more quickly. AVith cenanthic and caprylic, Avhich are non-fermented alcohols, the stages are 352 ALCOHOL less regular, and are marked by convulsions. Ethyl and methyl alcohols are not so deadly as most of the others. Their toxic dose is eight grammes to the kilogramme of the live weight of the animal. The toxic dose of any crude spirit is less than that of the same spirit after rectification, and the impure spirit produces greater excitement and heavier stupor. Large concentrated doses produce rapid narcosis with a minimum of preliminary excitement. Hertwig gave an old but serviceably sound horse eight ounces of ethyl-alcohol of specific gravity '825. He became much excited and uneasy, pranced, staggered, and after two minutes fell, struck out vehemently with his feet, rolled his eyes — the pupils at first were contracted, but afterwards were dilated. He rapidly became insensible, and died in about ten minutes. The heart continued to beat for several minutes after death. Four to six ounces produced similar motor excitability, but did not prove fatal {Arzneir)iittellehre). Dogs about twenty pounds weight, retaining four or five ounces of whisky, given quickly, soon, and without any appreciable excitement, become comatose, and die within a few minutes. Dr. Percy injected strong alcohol into the empty stomach in dogs, and they almost immediately fell over insensible ; respiratory and cardiac movements ceased within two minutes; the blood was found charged with alcohol. Similar sudden fatal paralysis occurs in men swallowing quickly full draughts of whisky (Christison On Poisons). Dogs receiving one to two ounces of rectified spirit, the oesophagus being afterwards ligatured, become uneasy, endea- vour to vomit, are unable to control their movements, become comatose, and die in a quarter to half an hour. One to two drachms induced in dogs reeling and stupor, w'hich continued for about half an hour. Dr. George Harley found that half an ounce of alcohol, with an equal quantity of water, injected into the portal vein of dogs, so seriously interfered Avith the glycogenic function of the liver that the urine within three hours became diabetic. Cattle and sheep, and indeed all ruminants, are less susceptible to the actions of alcohol than dogs or horses. POISONING 353 Hertwig mentions that when brandy is given to sheep and goats, they soon become fond of it, taking six or eight ounces at a time without exhibiting serious symptoms. Chronic poisoning' by alcohol, with impaired nervous power and fatty degeneration, common in human patients, is unknown in the lower animals; but Professor John Gamgee describes {Domestic Animals in Health and Disease) a form of encephalitis in cattle, resulting from alcoholism, due to the practice, ' prevalent in some parts of Scotland, of giving " burnt ale " to cows in the neighbourhood of distilleries. The ale is given by steeping straw in it, and the animals will also freely drink the ale. They often sleep soundly after such a beverage, and intoxication is not infrequent. The symptoms are as follows: — The head, slightly elevated, is turned singularly to the side. The pupils are widely dilated, and the eyes have a remarkably wild appearance. On approaching the animals they wink rapidly and tremble. There is marked heat of head, horns, and ears. When pressed with the finger in the axilla, they fall instantly, and when pulled by the head they incline to turn over. The pulse is about seventy or eighty per minute. After death all the organs are found healthy except the nervous centres, and both the brain and its membranes are found congested. This congestion often extends into the spinal canal, and the pia mater of both brain and cord is the seat of red spots. Clots of blood have been found in the lateral ventricles, and around the spinal marrow in the cervical region. There is evidently softening of the brain substance, as a direct result of this condition,' At distilleries, where the live stock are freely supplied with dregs or wash and other refuse containing spirit, pigs, as well as cattle, are frequently intoxicated, exhibit symptoms similar to those described, and are sometimes fatally affected. The antidotes are tea and coffee, cold douches, and other means of warding off the deadly stupor. Strychnine and alcohol are mutually antagonistic, and alcohol, used hypo- dermically, restores rabbits apparently dead from the alkaloid. Medicinal Uses. — Few remedies are more frequently and z 354 ALCOHOL extensively used than the various alcoholic liquids. They stimulate gastric secretion, and improve appetite in atonic indigestion ; they act as carminatives in flatulence ; control the spasms of intestinal colic ; and check persistent diarrha?a especially when they are conjoined with sodium benzoate or vegetable astringents. They equalise irregular circulation in chills, and antagonise cardiac feebleness, especially of a temporary character, such as results from debilitating disease, poisoning by sedatives, snake-bite, or shock. Many cases of milk fever in cows, when stupor is approaching, or even during the earlier excitable stages, are benefited by six to ten ounces of whisky, given at intervals of one to two hours. Where such draughts cannot be swallowed, they are some- times introduced into the rumen by the stomach pump ; but where coma has set in the stimulation needful to maintain heart and respiratory action is best effected by subcutaneous injection of ether. In epizootic catarrh amongst hard-worked horses, when the pulse is quick and weak, the breathing hurried and embarrassed, and the temperature above 102° Fahr., no treatment is more successful than a few ounces of Avhisky, diluted with gruel or water, repeated every two or three hours; a saline draught administered thrice daily; the body well clothed, and mustard, if need be, applied to the throat. Many cases of bronchitis and pneumonia, after a few days' illness, and especially during the period when inflammatory products are being removed, are benefited by moderate, frequently repeated doses of alcohol. The restorative sustain- ing power of alcohol in the second stage of such disorders is well attested and generally conceded. The antiseptic, antithermal, and antipyretic actions of alcohol are well exhibited in septicaemia. This is illustrated by an experiment of Professor Binz, who produced septic fever by injection of pus in two young healthy dogs of equal weight, one of which, treated with three doses of two drachms of alcohol introduced into the stomach, shortly recovered, while the other which remained without treatment, died on the second day. His experiments with rabbits, already quoted, also testify to the notable antipyretic eft'ects of ACTIONS AND FSES 855 alcohol. Xot only does it lower high temperature, but in such cases it also helps to maintain the failing cardiac action, and to surmount the critical nervous depression. It is ser- viceable in horses fevered and enfeebled with protracted strangles, or debilitated by purpura ; in all animals suffering from parturition metritis ; and in dogs exhausted from dis- temper; as well as in most other forms of systemic poisoning. During convalescence from enervating dis- orders, as well as in chronic cases connected with mal- assunilation, alcohol is beneticial in all classes of patients as a gastric tonic, general stimulant, and a readily assimilable food, Ana?mic subjects are frequently treated with sound ale or spirit and Avater, conjoined with iron salts and oleaginous food. The more important medicinal effects follow within ten or fifteen minutes after administration. As already indicated, the weak pulse should become stronger and lirmer, the quick pulse slower, breathing should be more natural, the skin more moist, and temperature lower — in a word, there should be remission of the more prominent morbid symptoms. If such favourable effects are not produced, alcohol is not a suitable remedy, or the dose has been wrongly estimated. When unsuitable, or given too fre- quently, or in quantity too large, whether in health or disease, alcohol hinders oxidation, retards excretion, impairs digestion, and causes dryness of skin and mucous surfaces. Alcohol resembles in its actions and uses the volatile oils, ethers, and ammonia, and is frequently prescribed with one or more of these allied remedies. External Uses. — In a state of concentration, alcohol, rubbed into the skin, acts as a rubefacient. Coagulating albumin, it is occasionally applied to arrest bleeding-. Beaten up with white of egg, it is used in veterinary as well as in human practice to harden the epidermis and prevent excoriation of parts exposed to pressure. Weak solutions, conjoined with a half to one per cent, of carbolic or salicylic acid, exert anodyne effects, relieving itching in erythematous and other skin diseases. Nettle-rash is often treated with dilute spirituous solutions, to which one per cent, of petroleum 356 ALCOHOL benzene may be added. For surgical purposes it is em- ployed as a refrigerant and antiseptic. Dr. Jonathan Hutchinson keeps amputations, compound fractures, and other wounds moist with six parts absolute alcohol, half a part liquor plumbi, and sixteen parts distilled water. As a stimulant and refrigerant for bruises, wounds, and strains, it is popularly used throughout Scotland in the familiar form of whisky and water. A cooling lotion is made with an ounce each of rectified spirit, vinegar, and ammonium chloride, dissolved in a quart of water. As a refrigerant, ice, however, is generally more convenient and effectual. A convenient solvent for the active principles of many drugs, alcohol is largely used for making tinctures and extracts. Doses, etc. — Of rectified spirit, horses and cattle, f§i. to §iv. ; sheep, f^. ; pigs, f5iv. ; and dogs, f5jj. or more, diluted with six or eight parts of water or other bland fluid. Whisky, gin, or brandy, in larger doses may be substituted for rectified spirit ; sherry, port, ale, or stout may be given during con- valescence. The suitable doses and the frequency of their repetition are mainly determined by the condition of the patient, and the purpose intended to be served. Alcohol acts promptly, but its effects are transient. It is less apt to excite or disagree when given with the food or drinking water. Mixed with oatmeal or linseed gruel, there is little risk of misappropriation. To intensify one or another of the effects of alcohol, it is often conjoined with other medicines — with ether or ammonia, when more prompt and powerful stimulation is desired; with opium or chloral hydrate, when anodyne effects are required, or spasms are to be combated ; with digitalis, when the full effects of a cardiac tonic and stimulant are sought ; with ammonium acetate, when diaphoresis is to be en- couraged ; with red cinchona or coto bark, creosote, or sodium benzoate, when antiseptic and astringent effects are to be produced in the intestine. ETHER 357 ETHER ^Ether. a volatile liquid, prepared from ethylic alcohol, by interaction with sulphuric acid, and containing not less than 92 per cent, by volume of ethyl oxide. (C^Hg),^ Formerly termed sulphuric ether. (B.P.) Ether is prepared by heating in a glass flask, connected with a Liebig's condenser, one part of sulphuric acid and five of rectified spirit, which is added gradually. Every alcohol, by substitution of an alcohol radicle for the H. in the hydroxyl (OH), forms a corresponding ether. Thus, methyl- alcohol (CH3OH) yields CH3.O.CH3, which, being considerably cheaper than ethyl-ether, is sometimes sub- stituted for it. The B.P. ether contains about eight per cent, of alcohol and water; is a colourless, very volatile, inflammable liquid, with a strong and characteristic odour. Specific gravity, 0-735. It should boil below 105° Fahr. ; yields a vapour two and a half times heavier than air, but half that of chloroform ; is miscible in all proportions with chloroform and alcohol (90 per cent.); and is soluble in ten volumes of water. It readily dissolves fats, volatile oils, balsams, resins, and, next after chloroform, is the best solvent for alkaloids. Purified ether is ether from which most of the ethylic alcohol and water have been removed by washing with distilled water, and subsequent distillation in the presence of calcium chloride and recently calcined lime. Specific gravity not below -720, and not exceeding -722. Actions and Uses. — Ether is an active member of the alcohol series. It is exceedingly volatile. Applied ex- ternally it is irritant, refrigerant, and a local ansesthetic. It is quickly absorbed; acts specially on the central nervous system, on nerve-centres and nerves generally; primarily, and in small doses, stimulating ; secondarily, and in larger doses, paralysing, and when inhaled producing anesthesia. Poisonous doses almost immediately cause inebriant nar- cosis, and kill by paralysis of respiration. It is prescribed as a general stimulant, carminative, and antispasmodic, and 358 ETHER is also expectorant, diaphoretic, diuretic, antiseptic, and parasiticide. N6xt to chloroform it is the most generally used anaesthetic. General Actions. — Applied to the skin, ether evaporates and abstracts heat. If evaporation be prevented, redness, irritation, and even desquamation occur. Continued or repeated application produces local anaesthesia, which, if maintained too long, the frozen part may be killed, and a slough formed. Swallowed in medicinal doses, it stimulates the mucous surfaces of the mouth and alimentary canal, increasing secretions and movements, and hence developing sialogogue, carminative, and antispasmodic actions. But full doses, especially if undiluted, are so rapidly vaporised and so irritant that they cause gastro-intestinal distension and nausea, occasionally with vomiting in carnivora, and in dogs and rabbits have produced rupture of the stomach. Ether is quickly absorbed from the intestines, and still more rapidly when introduced by inhalation into the lungs, and promptly acts upon the central nervous system, nerve centres, and nerve endings. Small doses stimulate ; larger doses, after brief stimulation, paralyse and anaesthetise the centres, first of the brain, next those of the spinal cord, and eventually those of the medulla, killing by respiratory arrest. The glycogenic functions of the liver are stimulated, rendering the animal temporarily diabetic. It is removed by all the secreting channels, stimulating them, and hence exerting expectorant, diaphoretic, and diuretic actions. General anaesthesia can be induced in the horse by administration of ether by the rectum, but is produced with less difficulty by inhalation. Cats are ana3sthetised more quickly than dogs or horses, which arc generally made insensible in eight or ten minutes. A donkey is stated to have been fully affected in four minutes, another in five minutes, and a third in three minutes and a half, the last remaining insensible to pain for about half an hour {Veterinarian, 1847). The effects may be safely main- tained for half an hour or longer. Compared with chloroform, ether has the disadvantage A DIFFUSIBLE STIMULANT AND ANESTHETIC 359 of having a more disagreeable taste. As it has to be given in more concentrated state, it is also more irritant. Larger doses have to be used. Its vajDour is dangerously in- flammable. On account of its extreme volatility it cannot be used in hot climates. It is, however, less liable to paralyse the heart or vaso-motor centre. Ether and chloroform may be used together, or the antesthesia produced by chloroform may be maintained by ether. But experiments show that respiration and heart action are more quickly arrested when ether is first given, and anaesthesia sub- sequently carried on by chloroform, than when chloroform alone is used. Ether is preferable when heart action is feeble, when anaesthesia has to be kept up for a considerable period, when operations likely to be attended with collapse are undertaken in pregnant animals, and in dogs, which, according to some authorities, are specially liable to cardiac failure during chloroform anaesthesia. Ether resembles most of the bodies of the alcohol series. Like alcohol, it has a twofold stimulant and paralysant action; but it acts more promptly, its effects pass away more quickly, and, in virtue of its volatility, it is markedly ansesthetic. It stimulates more powerfully than ethyl- acetate or spirit of nitrous ether, neither of which is used as an anaesthetic. Its stimulant properties ally it to tur- pentine and the other volatile oils. Medicinal Uses. — Ether, diluted with a little spirit and water, is a prompt and effectual carminative in indigestion in all animals. It checks undue gastric fermentation, expels flatus, and overcomes irregular, violent, gastro- intestinal movements. In colic in horses this antispas- modic action is frequently aided by conjoining the stimulant with such anodynes as opium, Indian hemp, and belladonna. Horses with gastric distension are frequently roused and the action of the bowels is promoted by ether, hypoder- mically injected. It is sometimes given for the expulsion of intestinal worms, and especially of ascarides, which, when in the rectum, are readily dislodged by enemata of diluted ether. Such enemata also relieve spasmodic affections of the intestines. 360 ETHER As a prompt and powerful diffusible stimulant ether is useful in collapse, whether caused by shock, hseraorrhage, or exhausting disease. Along with alcohol, it is used in par- turient apoplexy in cows, and in such cases, when the patient is unable to swallow, it is advantageously given hypodermically. Chills and shiverings, which usher in many attacks of disease, are sometimes checked by a dose or two of ether. It equalises irregular circulation, restores imperfect action of the skin and kidneys, and gives tone to the enfeebled heart. Hard-worked horses, especially in towns, prostrated by catarrhal fever, are thus benefited, even from the outset of the attack, by ether, given with alcohol and salines. In convalescence from inflammatory and exhausting diseases in all classes of patients, conjoined frequently with aromatics and bitters, it improves the appetite, strengthens the feeble pulse, and sometimes allays cough. As a stimulant it may be safely prescribed repeatedly wherever it reduces the number and increases the strength of the pulse, lowers excessive temperature, and promotes secretion. It should be avoided where there is much vas- cular excitement and inflammatory fever. As ether taints the carcase and spots the flesh its employment as a medicine for cattle should be guarded. As an anaesthetic it is used for the same purposes as chloroform, and is administered in the same manner and with similar precautions. Local anaesthesia is usually induced by applying the ether from a spray producer. For this purpose the ether must be tolerably pure, for water, if present, gets frozen and blocks the instrument. About an ounce usually suffices for the painless opening of abscesses and fistulas, or for tenotomy. The effects, however, are more superficial and transient than those of cocaine, and are more apt to be followed by irritation and reaction, which retard healing of surgical or other wounds. A minor degree of local anaesthesia sometimes allays neuralgic pains and those of toothache and earache. Doses, etc. — The B.F. ethyl -ether, containing eight per DOSES AND MEDICINAL FORMS 361 cent, of alcohol and water, is generally used for medicinal purposes ; but good methyl-ether, on account of its cheap- ness, is sometimes substituted. As a stimulant horses take f§i. to fgii. ; cattle, fgii. to f §iii. ; sheep and pigs, f^ii. to f5iv. ; dogs, f3ss. to f5i. It is administered in ten parts cold ivater or diluted spirit, is sometimes sweetened with sugar or treacle, or flavoured with aromatics. Combination with opium, Indian hemp, or belladonna, increases its anti- spasmodic and anodyne effects. Where immediate results are required, as in violent attacks of colic, or in collapse, tAvo to four drachms are injected hypodermically, or deeply in muscles. As an anaesthetic, ether made from ethyl-alcohol is gener- ally preferred. The larger animals take f§iii. to f§viii. : the smaller, f3iv. to fgi. Spirit of Ether, or spiritus getheris, is a mixture of ten ounces ether and twenty ounces of rectified spirit, and is used as a stimulant and antispasmodic. Ethereal Oil, oleum tethereum, or oil of wine, produced towards the close of the distillation of ether, is an oily, yellow, neutral liquid, containing ether mixed with various hydrocarbons, has a bitter taste and aromatic odour, is soluble in ether and alcohol, and possessed of anodyne and hypnotic properties. Spiritus .^theris Compositus, or Hoftman's anodyne, con- sists of oil of wine, ether, and alcohol (90 per cent). Acetic Ether, or ethyl-acetate (CoH-.CoHgO.,), is prepared by distilling rectified spirit with sodium acetate and sul- phuric acid. It is a colourless, neutral liquid, with a fragrant odour. Freely soluble in alcohol, ether, or chloroform. Specific gravity '900 to -905. Its actions nearly resemble those of ether. It is used as a stimulant, carminative, and antispasmodic, but is unsuitable as an anaesthetic. Contractile Collodion is prepared by mixing one part of gun-cotton with thirty-six of ether and twelve of rectified spirit. The solution, preserved in well-corked bottles, is clear, colourless, inflammable, evolves a strong ethereal odour, and on exposure to the air, dries rapidly, leaving a thin transparent film, insoluble in water or spirit. It is 362 SPIRIT OF NITROUS ETHER hence a useful substitute for sticking-plaster; repeated applications are laid on with a fine brush at intervals of a few seconds, and produce a protective coveriui(, holding together the edges of slight wounds. Flexible collodion adheres still more firmly, gives support without splitting or cracking ; is made by mixing forty-eight parts of collodion, two parts Canada balsam, and one part castor oil, and is kept in well-corked bottles. A styptic, antiseptic protective is made by thoroughly mixing with one hundred parts of collodion, five parts each of tannic and benzoic acids, and ten of carbolic acid. As a stimulating, antiseptic protective for abraded skin or mucous surfaces, and notably for sore teats in cows and ewes, one hundred parts of collodion are mixed with two of glycerin and one of carbolic acid. One part of iodoform or chinosol mixed with ten parts of collodion, has been strongly recommended as a protective adhesive for small wounds. Collodion is occasionally used for coating boluses. SPIRIT OF NITROUS ETHER Spiritus vEtheuis Nitrosi. Sweet Spirit of Nitre. An alcoholic solution containing ethyl nitrite, aldehyde, and other substances. (B.P.) An alcoholic solution of ethyl nitrite (CgH^.NOg), containing five per cent, of the crude ether. (U.S. P.) Liquor ethyl nitritis. Solution of ethyl nitrite. A mixture of ninety-five parts, by volume, of absolute alcohol, with five parts, by volume, of glycerin, containing, when freshly made, 3 per cent., by weight, of ethyl nitrite (B.P.). When rectified spirit, sulphuric and nitric acids, with various practical safeguards, are heated with copper wire, the nitric acid radicle (NO3) is deoxidised by the copper; the resulting nitric peroxide or nitrous acid radicle (NOo) displaces the hydroxyl in the alcohol (CoH-.OH), and there is formed ethyl nitrite (C.H^.NO.^), which distils over with a portion of the alcohol. This saline ether, when diluted wiih about three times its bulk of rectified spirit, constitutes sweet spirit of nitre. As usually prepared, it is unstable, and MEDICINAL USES 363 readily loses strength, but the B.V. solution of ethyl nitrite keeps well, and is easily prepared. Spirit of nitrous ether should be kept in a cool, dark place, and in small bottles. Properties and Tests. — Sweet spirit of nitre is a limpid liquid with a. very slight tinge of yellow ; it is inflammable, has a peculiar, penetrating, apple-like odour, and a sweetish, cooling, sharp taste. Specific gravity "SSS to "842. It should not effervesce, or only feebly, when shaken with sodium bicarbonate. A good, freshly-prepared specimen should yield seven volumes of nitric oxide gas, and, even when kept, should yield not less than five times its volume. It should contain between 2| and If per cent, of ethyl nitrite. Many veterinarians obtain from the wholesale chemist nitrous ether of guaranteed strength, and dilute it, as required, with spirit of such sort and strength as they desire. Actions and Uses. — Sweet spirit of nitre conjoins the actions of the alcohol and ethyl nitrite of which it consists. It is hence a general stimulant, and a relaxer and paralyser of non-striped muscle. It relieves acute fever, and the difficult breathing of bronchitis and asthma. It is anti- spasmodic, diaphoretic, and diuretic. Large doses are narcotic. Medicinal Uses. — Consisting of strong spirit and a saline ether, when swallowed it stimulates the stomach and intes- tines ; is hence stomachic, carminative, and antispasmodic, and is prescribed to animals in indigestion, tympanites, and colic. It is quickly absorbed, and proves a valuable cardiac and general stimulant, serviceable in cases of prostration and convalescence from debilitating disorders. But its pro- perties as a diffusible nitrite, relaxing spasm of involuntary muscles, also come into operation. It dilates arterioles, thus decreases arterial tension, and hence is of special value in the acute stages of fever, whether depending upon specific conditions or local inflammation. It relaxes the muscular fibres of the bronchial tubes, and thus relieves the spasmodic contraction and difficulty of breathing which characterise catarrh, bronchitis, and some forms of asthma. It is specially indicated when the heart action is weak and there is difficulty of breathing — conditions frequently concurring in influenza 364 SPIRIT OF NITROUS ETHER of horses. During excretion, notably by the skin and kidneys, its twofold constitution is further useful — the alcohol stimu- lates secretion, while the ethyl nitrite dilates the lumen ot contracted vessels, and thus diaphoresis and diuresis are promoted in fevers, local inflammations, rheumatism, and other disorders. Doses, etc. — As a stimulant and antispasmodic horses take fgj. to fgiij. ; cattle, fgj. to fgiv. ; sheep, f5ij. to f5iv. ; pigs, f5j. to f5ij ; dogs, TTLxv. to f5j. The special action depending on the costly nitrous ether, its percentage should be guaranteed in all purchases, and the drug should be pre- served in properly stoppered bottles. As it is readily decom- posed, even by water, it should be diluted or mixed with other medicines only immediately before it is administered. It is usually given in cold water, beer, or linseed tea. For antispasmodic purposes it is conjoined with opium, belladonna, hyoscyamus, or chloral hydrate. For colic in horses, two to four ounces are given with two or three drachms of aloes, one to tAvo ounces of laudanum in certain cases being added, and the whole dissolved in a pint of cold gruel, ale, or water. Two to four ounces of the spirit, with about half the dose of laudanum, repeated every hour, counteract the spasmodic pains Avhich occasionally follow parturition. As a general stimulant, and for reheving dyspnoea in inflammation of the respiratory passages, and in catarrhal fever in horses, two ounces each of sweet spirit of nitre and ammonium acetate solution are conjoined with a drachm of belladonna extract. The good effects are some- times maintained by the addition of two ounces of Avhisky or rectified spirit, and by repeating the draught at intervals of two or three hours. To combat serous exudation in horses or cattle, two or three ounces of spirit of nitrous ether are usefully conjoined Avith half a drachm each of iodine and potassium iodide. Diuresis is determined by combina- tion with nitre or oil of turpentine. Diaphoresis is developed when the patient is kept well clothed in tolerably warm quarters, and the medicine given in small and frequently repeated doses. For dogs with catarrh, sore-throat, or distemper, a soothing CHLOROFORM 366 febrifuge draught is made with two ounces spirit of nitrous ether, an ounce spirit of camphor, and three ounces cold linseed tea, treacle and water, or solution of liquorice extract, the dose ranging, according to the size and condition of the patient, from two to four fluid drachms. CHLOROFORM Chloroformum, or Trichloromethane, CHCL, to which has been added sufficient absolute alcohol to produce a liquid having a specific gravity not less than 1-490, and not more than 1-495. Trichloromethane may be pre- pared by distilling together ethylic alcohol, chlorinated lime, slaked lime and distilled water (B.P.). Chloroform was discovered in 1832, about the same time, by Soubeiran and Liebig: its effects on the lower animals were described by Dr. Glover in 1842 ; while its valuable anaesthetic properties were first discovered and aj^plied by the late Sir James Y. Simpson in 1847. Since then it has been largely and successfully used for the alleviation of human and animal suffering during surgical operations, jDarturition, and various diseases. Properties. — Chloroform is a Hmpid, colourless, neutral, pungent fluid, with a sweet taste, and a characteristic odour. At ordinary temperatures it entirel}' volatilises. It is slowly decomposed by sunlight, and hence must be kept in the dark. Its vapour is four times heavier than air. It should boil between 140° and 143' Fahr. Though not spontaneously inflammable, it can be burned aroimd a wick saturated with alcohol, forms a green, sooty flame, and evolves hydrochloric acid. It is soluble in two hundred parts of water, and in alcohol (90 per cent.), ether, oil of turpentine, olive oil, and carbon bisulphide ; insoluble in glycerin. It readdy dissolves iodine, bromine, volatile oUs, wax, resin, and many organic active principles. Impurfties. — Chloroform carelessly prepared or imperfectly purified contains volatile organic oils, which, if inhaled, induce nausea and headache. Such specimens have an 366 CHLOROFORM unpleasant, pungent odour when evaporated from the back of the hand, and are blackened by agitation with sulphuric acid. Samples containing more than the one per cent, of alcohol authorised to check decomposition have their specific gravity proportionally lowered, lose bulk, notably when shaken with water, and moreover become cloudy at tempera- tures approaching 32° Falir. Traces of sulphuric acid are discovered by the usual barium test ; chlorine and hydro- chloric acid by silver nitrate. The purity of chloroform is also judged by its odour when evaporated, its behaviour when agitated with sulphuric acid, its reaction on litmus, and its specific gravity, which is lowered by the ordinary adultera- tions. Actions and Uses. — Chloroform precipitates albumin, and is a topical irritant. It is antiseptic, and destro3^s the lower forms of plant and animal hfe, and hence is parasiticide. Small to moderate doses, swallowed or otherwise absorbed, produce slight and temporary stimulation, and hence are carminative, antispasmodic, and analgesic. Full doses quickly and powerfully paralyse the cerebro-spinal nervous system, causing muscular relaxation, insensibility to pain, and unconsciousness. It kills by respiratory and cardiac arrest. The paralysant and anaesthetic effects are most rapidly induced when the drug is inhaled. Chloroform is the aniesthetic most used in this country, alike for human and veterinary patients. Applied topically, it is rubefacient, refrigerant, anodyne, and a local anaesthetic. General Actions. — Chloroform is allied chemically and physiologically to alcohol, ether, and other bodies of the alcohol series. It dissolves protagon, the essential consti- tuent of nerve-centres, nerves, and red blood corpuscles, and retards oxidation of blood (Brunton). Applied to the skin, it evaporates, causing a sensation of cold ; but if evaporation be prevented, it irritates. Hence, when swallowed, it stimulates the flow of saliva, excites gastric secretion, in men and dogs occasionally causing emesis, and develops carminative and antispasmodic actions. By whatever channel it is absorbed, it acts on the nerve-centres some- what in the same manner as alcohol, but its stiuuilant action ANESTHESIA 367 is slight and brief. When the vapour is inhaled anaesthesia is quickly produced. Its effects are divisible into four stages — 1. Stimulant: 2. Narcotic; 3. Anaesthetic; 4. Paralytic. The vapour inhaled first stimulates and subsequently paralyses the parts with which it comes into contact. Acting on the nasal and laryngeal mucous membrane, it first slows the breathing, and also reflexly the pulse. As it passes down, it stimulates those branches of the vagus distributed to the lungs and heart, quickening respiration, and usually also circulation. As paresis of the vagus takes place, the respiratory movements are sustained steadily, as in the third stage of ansesthesia. Still fuller effects paralyse the medullar}' centres, respiration becomes slower and feebler, and stops, while pulsation and blood-pressure are lowered. 'The nervous system,' Dr. Lauder Brunton states, ' is paralysed in the following order — first, the cerebral hemispheres ; next, the grey matter of the cord ; next, the white matter ; next, the reflex power of the medulla oblongata ; next, the automatic power of the respiratory centre ; and, lastly, the cardiac ganglia.' Scottish medical men and veterinarians concur in the belief that chloroform is the most convenient and effectual anaesthetic, and these conclusions have been fully justified by two series of investigations undertaken at Hyderabad in 18SS and 1SS9, under the auspices of Surgeon-Major Lawrie and Dr. Lauder Brunton, and comprising upwards of seven hundred experiments, chiefly on dogs and monkeys, but also on horses, goats, and rabbits. Chloroform was the anaesthetic chiefl}' used, but ether and mixtures of cliloroform and ether were also given. Careful records of every experiment were made, and tracings of the pulse and blood-pressure, registered by a manometer, have been reproduced by photograph}^ The experiments were undertaken to make clear the manner in which chloroform acts, and especially to determine how overdoses kill. With these objects, the chloroform was administered in many different ways, and under very various conditions. Some of the animals were fasted for twenty-four hours ; others were fed with flesh or farinacea ; some had coffee, wine, or other stimulants shortly before inhalation; 368 CHLOROFORM most were healthy, a few had cardiac disease, and some had fatty degeneration of the heart, purposely produced by administration of phosphorus. Morphine, strychnine, and atropine, singly and in combination, were administered subcutaneously to various subjects before the chloroform was inhaled. The drug was given with and without an inhaler, and almost in every conceivable way. Notwithstanding these different conditions, the train of effects followed in regular order. Preliminary excitement, with more or less struggling, occupied from one to two minutes, but gradually gave place to increasing insensi- bility, unconsciousness, and muscular relaxation. Fuller ana3sthesia, suitable for the performance of operations, was reached in two or three minutes from the beginning of in- halation, breathing became quiet and regular, blood-pressure was increased, and reflex actions were impaired and abolished. When the effects were further pushed, respiration ceased in six or seven minutes from the commencement of the experi- ment. About one and a third minutes later, the pulse, after being greatly quickened, ceased ; while two or three minutes later the heart itself stopped. In no case did the heart stop before the breathing. Even when poisonous doses were used, two to six minutes elapsed between the time that respiration ceased and the heart stopped. A somewhat shorter interval occurred, however — in two cases, in which the inhalation was very slow and prolonged ; in four cases, complicated with asphyxia ; and in ten cases, in which morphine, atropine, or strychnine had been previously in- jected subcutaneously ; but even in these sixteen cases the heart continued to beat for one minute after respiration ceased. Even in those animals debilitated by twenty-four hours' fasting, by blood-letting, or by fatty degeneration of the heart caused by phosphorus, the pulse and heart con- tinued to beat after respiration ceased. Neither serious surgical operations nor bruising of delicate parts during full anaesthesia, or even while the animal was partially conscious, produced syncope or notable direct action on the heart. These experiments testify that chloroform may be admin- istered to animals with perfect safety, provided there is no INHALATION 369 interference with breathing. They further incUccate that the large projDortion, if not all, the fatalities from chloroform result from asphyxia, depending upon some fault in its ad- ministration. As Dr. Lauder Brunton has aptly observed, suffocation and anaesthesia are a deadly combination. Danger- ous restriction of air may result from the inhaling apparatus unduly closing the nostrils. Ingress of air may be arrested by pressure on the neck or chest, by the animal being placed in an awkward position, by the tongue dropping on to the larynx, or by vomited food entering the windpipe. In forcibly restraining the early struggling, breathing is some- times interfered with, and the deep inspirations which usually subsequently occur will convey into the lungs and distribute to the nerve centres unduly large quantities of the anaesthetic vapour. The experienced practitioner is always specially watchful of cases in which there is much struggling ; he pushes the administration rapidly, in order quickly to pro- duce perfect anaesthesia, but so soon as this is effected he allows several full draughts of air. At this stage the napkin, nose-bag, or inhaler may be removed, for so soon as full anaesthesia is produced, the insensibility is readily maintained by small quantities of the drug, given occasionally. The further precautions mainly consist in the chloro- formist bestowing undivided attention on two points : — (1) He must watch the breathing, in order that the patient's safety shall be maintained by fresh air entering the lungs, thus preventing any dangerous accumulation of the drug, and the arrest of natural respiration ; (2) he must maintain throughout the operation the requisite degree of anaes- thesia, and accordingly, from time to time, he should test the cornea, for returning reflex activity, which indicates that more chloroform should be given. With these pre- cautions, anaesthesia may be safely continued for an hour or more. Dogs, without harm, have been kept under chloro- form for two hours, and chloroformed deeply on consecutive days. Frohner mentions that sheep will stand two hours' anaesthesia, repeated daily for eight days, about an ounce of the drug being used each day. Whenever respiration is impaired, unduly slow, shallow, 2 A 370 CHLOROFORM or gasping, the administration of the drug should be stopped, fresh air freely allowed, the tongue drawn forward, and the head placed on a lower level than the rest of the body. But if natural respiration ceases, not a moment must be lost in adopting artificial respiration. The Hyderabad experiments show that every animal was revived, in Avhich artificial respir- ation was used within thirty seconds after natural respiration ceased, and in some cases in which it was used after fifty seconds, but in none in which the treatment was delayed for sixty seconds after respiration stopped. When the pulse and heart had ceased to beat, neither artificial respiration nor other remedies, however promptly used, were effectual in restoring life. In such emergencies, faradic stimulation of the phrenic nerve and inhalation of amyl-nitritc may aid in restoring respiratory movements. Compared with ether, chloroform has several advantages as an ana3sthetic : it is more agreeable to the taste, is less irritant, about one-fourth of the quantity suffices, it produces less preliminary excitement, the effects continue longer after inhalation ceases, and it is less inflammable. Many prac- titioners, however, prefer ether, as it does not so readily paralyse either the heart or the vaso-motor centre. In pro- tracted and serious operations, especially in dogs or cats, it is accordingly desirable to use either ether or a mixture of chloroform and ether. In some parts of the Continent the A.C.E. mixture of absolute alcohol one part, chloroform two, and pure ether three parts, is preferred. Medicinal Uses. — Chloroform is used to anaesthetise horses and other animals during castration, firing, and other painful operations. Parturition in the lower animals is usually j^er- formed so easily, and with so little apparent pain, that chloro- form, in the majority of cases, is unnecessary. Where false presentations have to be rectified in the mare, it is some- times, however, impossible, without anaesthesia, to keep the animal quiet, or to abate violent uterine throes; while in bitches it is also sometimes requisite when the pups have to be reduced before they can be extracted. Amongst cows and ewes, labour pains sometimes continue for hours, and other preparations for parturition appear to be complete ; but the MEDICINAL USES 371 neck of the uterus remains tirmly closed, sometimes in spite of medicines and manipulation. Chloroform inhaled in amount insufficient to produce complete amesthesia usually relaxes the rigid muscle. Partial anaesthesia generally con- trols labour pains occurring prematurely, moderates irregular, tumultuous contractions, such as are sometimes met with in first parturitions, and abates after-pains, the chloroform in- halation in some of these cases being advantageously aided by hypodermic injection of morphine. Inhalation of chloroform has been advised for relaxing intestinal spasm, and hence aiding reduction of herniae. It has been recommended in tetanus in horses, and relief is usually obtained so long as anaesthesia continues ; but the temporary benefit is more than counterbalanced by the dis- turbed and excited state caused by the administration of the drug and by the excitement which succeeds the ansesthesia. The shoeing of irritable and vicious horses is greatly facili- tated if chloroform be given so as to produce partial anses- thesia. Inhaled or swallowed, it is occasionally prescribed to check the symptoms of chorea and epilepsy in dogs. When swallowed, it relieves gastric irritation, spasm, and pain, and also exerts antiseptic effects on the contents of the canal. Chronic irritability of the bowels in weakly foals and calves, after removal of the irritant by castor oil, is usually benefited by a dose of chloroform or of spirit of chloroform and laudanum, repeated two or three times daily. Similar treatment is sometimes useful in removing worms. Horses affected with epizootic sore-throat and spasmodic cough are relieved by chloroform, conjoined with belladonna extract, or laudanum, dissolved in cold linseed gruel, and swallowed slowly, so as to ensure more prolonged anodyne effect on the irritable nerve-endings. As a local anaesthetic it has not such direct paralysing effects on sensory nerves as ether, cocaine, iodoform, or even as carbolic acid or cold. It is sometimes, however, applied to allay the pain of neuralgia, rheumatism, and local inflam- mation, and deep injection of chloroform is occasionally employed in muscular lameness of the shoulder and hip. Its anodyne and antiseptic properties have suggested its use, 372 CHLOROFORM with carbolic acid and vaseline in stomatitis and actinomy- cosis. Mixed with a little spirit, it is a cleanly means of destroying lice or Heas infesting dogs, cats, or fowls. As a liniment it is sometimes useful in mannnitis in cows. It is occasionally added to anodyne enemata for the relief of irri- tation of the lower bowel and urino-genital organs. Its high ditfusive power, which it retains when mixed with spirit, renders it a useful vehicle for the subcutaneous injection of morphine, atropine, and other alkaloids. It is a solvent for guttapercha, and the solution is occasionally employed as a substitute for collodion. Doses, etc. — To produce ana3sthesia in horses and cattle, fgjj. to f§jv. are required; f5iv. to fgj. for sheep and pigs; f5j. to f§j. for dogs. Anaesthesia is readily maintained by repeated small doses. The chloroform vapour may be given alone, without intentional admixture of air or diluted with from ten to thirty volumes of air. Horses can be chloroformed standing or after casting — the recumbent position being generally preferred. Adminis- tration may be effected by pouring chloroform — a drachm or two at a time — on a Avarm sponge, which is placed close to a nostril, and carefully covered with a large towel folded several times; or more conveniently by using one of the many special muzzles now on sale. Roalfc Cox's waterproof canvas bag is very simple, inexpensive, and efficient. The leather nuizzlc patented by Messrs. Carlisle and Bell is furnished with a perforated tin box to contain the saturated sponge, and provided with straps which allow of the adjust- ment of the muzzle to tit most horses. Gresswell's nose cap, Doweli's inhaler, and Krohne and Sesemann's modifica- tion of Junker's apparatus can be recommended. Inhalers properly used prevent waste of chloroform. The vapour being inhaled in tolerably concentrated form, the initial stage of excitement is shortened, the reduced quantity required to produce amesthesia diminishes risk from respira- tory and cardiac paralysis ; while the irritation and nausea apt to ensue from the use of larger doses are avoided. The subcutaneous injection of morphine or of a mixture of atropine and morphine, fifteen minutes before giving CHLORODYNE 373 chloroform, diminishes preliminary excitement and in- tensifies the anfesthesia. Partial or limited -ansesthesia induced by inhalation of minimum doses of chloroform is useful in difficult parturition, and as a means of restraint when firing, castrating, or performmg simple operations on horses standing. Dogs may be chloroformed by dropping the drug on cotton wool or a sponge placed over the nostrils, or by using an inhaler, which ought to cover only the upper jaw. During administration it is of utmost importance to keep the dog's mouth open, which can be effected without difficulty by a small gag. Cats, lap-dogs, and other small animals, may be chloroformed under a bell-jar or an in- verted box containing bits of blotting paper or cotton wool charged with chloroform. Administered by the mouth as a stimulant, antispasmodic, and analgesic, the dose for horses or cattle is f5i. to f5ij ; for sheep and swine, 1T[xx. to Tltxl. , and for dogs, Tr[v. to "FT^x. These doses are given Avith syrup, mucilage, whisked egg, or weak spirit, and repeated at intervals of two or three hours. Aqua-Chloroformi, consisting of one part chloroform to four hundred of water, is used as a carminative, antiseptic, and stimulant, and as a convenient medium for givino- un- palatable drugs. Spirit of Chloroform, also called chloric ether, is made by dissolving one fluid part of chloroform in nineteen fluid parts of alcohol (90 per cent.). It has the specific gravity •871, and a warm ethereal odour and taste. It is an effectual stimulant, antispasmodic, and anodyne, resembling ether and sweet spirit of nitre. Diluted with water, or any bland cold fluid, it is prescribed for horses in doses of fgi. ; for cattle, fgij, ; for sheep and pigs, fgij. to f^vi. ; and for dogs, f3i. to fSij. The B.P. Tinctura Chloroformi et Morphinae Composita, is composed of chloroform, tinctures of capsicum and Indian hemp, oil of peppermint, hydrocyanic acid, morphine hydro- chloride, glycerin and alcohol. Ten minims contain Jy grain of morphine, | minim diluted hydrocyanic acid, and | minim of chloroform. Chlorodyne, so popular an anodyne in human medicine, is 374 CHLORAL HYDRATE made from different formulae : Dr. Collis Browne's is stated to contain ten parts each of chloroform, ether, Indian hemp, and morphine, two parts capsicum tincture and prussic acid, three parts aconite and hyoscyamus tinctures, one part of oil of peppermint, five parts hydrochloric acid, and fifty of simple syrup (Xiu Remedies, 1877). It is an etiectual anodyne and antispasmodic, frequently pre- scribed to relieve especially gastro-intestinal and bronchial irritation. CHLORAL HYDRATE-CHLORAL HYDRAS Chloral hydrate, or trichlorethylidene glycol, CCl3CH(0H)o, is obtained by the addition of water to the liquid chloral produced by the action of dry chlorine gas on ethyhc alcohol. (B.P.). Chloral hydrate occurs in colourless crystals ; is neutral, aromatic, bitter, pungent, and permanent in air. It melts at about 133° Fahr., and boils at 205' Fahr. It is soluble in less than its own weight of water, alcohol, and ether, and in four parts of chloroform. Triturated with camphor it forms a liquid. The caustic alkalies, and, in less degree, the alkaline carbonates, decompose it into chloroform and an alkaline formiate. A hundred grains dissolved in an ounce of distilled water, and mixed with thirty grains of slaked lime submitted to careful distillation, should yield not less than seventy grains of pure chloroform. Inferior specimens, besides being of imperfect strength, are apt to contain chlorinated organic impurities, which render them yellow and cloudy, acrid and irritating, imperfectly soluble in water, on which they float as oily drops, while, instead of hj'pnosis, they produce nervous excitement. Actions and Uses. — Like other members of the alcohol group, chloral hydrate is antiseptic and a topical irritant. When absorbed it has a primary stimulant and secondary sedative action on the circulation and central nervous system. Toxic doses, after slight and ternporary stimula- tion, notably depress and paralyse the cerebro-spinal centres. Medicinal doses are hypnotic, analgesic, and feebly anaes- ACTIONS AND TOXIC EFFECTS 375 thetic. It is used topically as a stimulant, anodyne, and antiseptic. General Actions. — It destroys micro-organisms ; one part in a thousand hinders development of anthrax bacilli ; it has about the same antiseptic strength as carbolic acid. Per- sonne exhibited at the Academy of Sciences, Paris, the body of a dog perfectly preserved in chloral hydrate for fifty-five days. Solutions exceeding 20 per cent, are topical irritants, and hence when swallowed cause a burn- ing sensation in the throat, and sometimes vomiting and purging. Diluted solutions are readily absorbed. The drug acts apparently without undergoing decomposition into chloroform, which is not discovered in the blood, tissues, or expired air of animals receiving chloral, and only appears in the urine when that fluid contains sufficient free alkali to decompose the chloral. Small doses increase heart action, pulse rate, blood tension, and temperature. Fuller and repeated doses slow circulation and respiration, and produce sleep, usually natural and deep, from which the animal awakes without discomfort. Anodyne and antispasmodic actions are likewise produced. Anaesthesia cannot safely be produced by giving the drug by the mouth, but is caused by intravenous and rectal injections. Larger doses impair reflex irritability and sensibilit}', and lower temperature, sometimes to the extent of 6° or 8° Fahr. By moderate doses, and during safe anaesthesia, the pupil is contracted ; but it is dilated when the doses are dangerously large, or the anaesthesia deep or long continued. Death results from cardiac and respiratory paralysis. The heart is arrested in diastole, with the right cavities distended. There is no para- lysis of muscles or motor nerves. The drug is eliminated by the lungs, skin, and kidneys. Toxic Effects. — Dr. B. W. Richardson, in an extended series of experiments, found that fish and pigeons were nar- cotised by one and a half to two grains ; mice by one-third of a grain ; rabbits weighing eighty-five ounces, by thirty grains. One hundred and eighty grains produce fatal effects in man, but dangerous symptoms have occasionall}- been developed by one-fourth of that amount. Mr. T. A. Dollar gave a horse 376 CHLORAL HYDRATE suffering from spasmodic colic two ounces in water; the spasms were si^eedily reniuvcd, but for twelve hours the patient remained very dull and sleepy. Mr. F. J, Mavor gave a horse four ounces in water; in five minutes he fell insensible, sweated freel}^ his muscles relaxed, his pupils dilated; his pulse, at first accelerated, gradually became normal, respirations were quickened, until in an hour they numbered thirty-six. The temperature, from 100° Fahr., fell in two hours to 95^, but two hours later rose to 97]. In half an hour he was in a quiet sleep, lasting one and a half hours, when he attempted but failed to rise, and shortly again slept, the breathing being slow and heavy, the skin cold, the sphincters relaxed. Four hours after receiving the draught he w^as restless, shivering, but disposed to feed, continued in this state for several hours, and suffered next day from bronchitis, from which he gradually recovered. Mr. Mavor gave a healthy horse four ounces in ten ounces of water ; in half an hour he was restless but drowsy, passing faeces frequently ; his pupils dilated. He continued in this state for fully three hours, Avhen he was slightly delirious, but gradually became quiot. Eight hours later the effects had passed aAvay. Frohner records that horses receiving, by the mouth or rectum, three to four ounces, or intravenously six to ten drachms, became intoxicated, staggered, fell, and lay uncon- scious for several hours with the muscles relaxed. Sleep may be maintained by repeated doses, he states, for several days, or even weeks. Nocard kept a horse affected by tetanus under its influence for thirty days, administering daily one and a half to two ounces. The lethal dose is four to six ounces when given by the mouth or rectum, but one-third these quantities is fatal when introduced intravenously. Cattle are affected in much the same manner, and by similar doses. The lethal dose for dogs is two to six drachms. In them the preliminary excitement is more marked than in horses or cattle. The treatment of poisoning consists in maintaining the temperature by warm clothing, hot applications, stimulants, and hot coffee. Dr. Lauder Brunton and Professor Strieker QUIETS IRRITABILITY AND CAUSES SLEEP 377 found that animals which received lethal doses recovered it" wrajjped in cotton wool and kept in a warm atmosphere. Although chloral is an antidote to strychnine, the antagonism of strychnine to chloral is not so marked. Medicinal Actions. — Chloral hydrate quiets irritability and causes sleep. Conjoined with morphine, it is prescribed to relieve gastro-intestinal irritation and spasm, but as it is a topical irritant it must not be used where there is congestion or inflammation. Small doses are serviceable in canine asthma, and in violent paroxysmal coughing, both in dogs and horses. It quiets the excitability and spasms of chorea, epilepsy, and hysteria, and temporarily relieves those of tetanus and rabies. It antagonises the tetanic convulsions of strychnine. Administered to rabbits along with lethal doses of strychnine, sleep is produced, and the creature recovers. Chloral is also antagonistic to physostigmine and picrotoxine, but to act as an effectual antidote the slower- acting chloral must be given before, at the same time, or within two minutes after these quickly-acting convulsants (R€2Dort of the Edinburgh Commission of the British Association on the Antagonism of Medicines). Mr. Robert Littler gave it with benefit in the outset of those cases of parturient apoplexy in cows in which there is intense nervous excitement, and violent cramp of the muscles of the hind extremities. Conjoined with bromides, it is indicated in cases of phrenitis. A like combination abates the irritable cough and sleeplessness frequently occurring in canine distemper. Injections and suppositories, in which opium is frequently also used, allay irritability and straining in disorders of the intestines and urino-genital organs. French veterinarians use it as an ana3sthetic. Kaufmann declares that it yields to no other anaesthetic when injected intravenously. But intravenous injection is troublesome, and attended with considerable danger. Cagny anaesthetises horses by injecting hypodermically two to three grains of morphine with a half to one grain atropine, and shortly giving an enema containing eight drachms of chloral hydrate. Anesthesia occurs in about an hour, and is maintained durinsr operations by inhalation of ether or chloroform. But the 378 CHLORAL HYDRATE anaesthesia produced by chloral, however administered, is neither so complete nor lasting as that obtained by inhalation of chloroform. Equal parts of chloral and camphor, mixed with six or eight parts of vaseline or simple ointment, form an analgesic dressing which relieves the pain of neuralgia and the itching of various skin complaints. A diluted solution is sometimes applied as an antiseptic stimulant to foul wounds. It should not be prescribed where there is weak, irregular action of the heart or congested lungs. Chloral hydrate resembles various other drugs. As a hypnotic, it is allied to sulphonal, paraldehyde, and morphine. Like bromides, it quiets excited cerebral centres. Its anodyne and antisj)asmodic effects are limited compared with those of opium, but for the relief of pain and spasm it is usefully conjoined both with morphine and atropine. Although allied in composition to chloroform, it is not so cfitecLive as a local anaesthetic, and as it cannot be inhaled, general anaesthesia is produced only when full doses are swallowed or injected into the rectum or veins. In relieving spasm and lowering arterial pressure it bears some resemblance to amyl-nitrite. Doses, etc. — For horses and cattle, §i. to §ij. ; for sheep and pigs, '^ss. to 5^-; for dogs, grs. v. to grs. xx., repeated every two or three hours, administered in mucilage or syrup. Intratracheally, eight to thirty grains in water may be injected as an antispasmodic ; twenty to eighty grains in difficult parturition, and one hundred and sixty grains in tetanus (Levi). For enemata about half the dose, given by the mouth, usually suffices, and should first be tried. On account of its irritating in-contact cfl'ects, it should not be used hypodermically. Continued use of the drug does not establish tolerance, as in the case of alcohol or opium. For relief of general irritability it is prescribed with bromides, opium, or belladonna; for relief of pain, with opium, belladonna, or camphor. The B.P. syrupus chloral contains ten grains chloral hydrate in each drachm. Butyl-Chloral Hydrate, is obtained by the addition of water to the liquid butyl-chloral produced by the action of chlorine gas on aldehyde (CJT^ClyO.HoO). It forms pearly crystalline scales, which arc pungent, acid, and disagreeable SULPHONAL 379 to the taste. Soluble in fifty parts of water, in one of glycerin or alcohol, and in twenty of chloroform. It resembles chloral, but is less powerful, has less depressant cardiac action, paralyses specially the fifth nerve and parts supplied by it, and has been prescribed in human medicine in facial neuralgia, migraine, and as a hypnotic instead of chloral in weak heart (Brunton). Chloralamide has been obtained by the action of formamide on chloral. It occurs in colourless crystals, slightly bitter, soluble in twenty parts of water, and in two of alcohol. When administered it appears to be converted into chloral, which it resembles. It is a topical irritant, causing diarrhoea when full doses are swallowed. Dogs receiving seven to ten grains per kilogramme of body- weight in five minutes become restless, moan, and lose the power of movement. These symptoms continue about an hour, and are followed by drowsiness, and sometimes by sleep (Kaufmann). Neither as a hypnotic nor as an analgesic is it as effectual as chloral. Fruhner states that it is frequently substituted for chloral, but that it is milder, and does not act so notably on digestion or circulation. He prescribes it in cramps and excitement in dogs, and especially in distemper. The doses, which are frequently repeated, are one and a half times those of chloral. SULPHONAL Dimethyl - methane - diethylsulphone (0113)20 (SOoC2H5)2. A product of the oxidation of Mercaptol, obtained from Acetone and Mercaptan (B.P.). Sulphonal is a complex solid of the methane series, crystal- line, colourless, inodorous, nearly tasteless, neutral, melting at 258° Fahr., sparingly soluble in cold water, soluble in ninety parts of cold rectified spirit, in ether, and chloroform. Action and Uses. — In man it is ' a useful hypnotic, pro- ducing sleep, and in most cases having no disagreeable after effects, even when used continuously for a length of time ' (Brunton). In men and dogs it is more effectual as a sleep producer than paraldehyde, but less so than morphine. Dogs, 380 PARALDEHYDE whether healtliy or sick, receiving it either by the mouth or siibciitancously, sleep quietly for six to ten hours (Frohner). K.aufmanu hypoderjnically injected dogs weighing ten kilo- grammes with two grammes, and rej)orts ataxia, shortly followed by calm and profound sleep, and without any un- toward effects. He recommends it in canine subjects in neuroses characterised by agitation and hyper-excitability (Traite de ThSrapeutique). Horses and cattle resist its hypnotic action as they do that of opium. Instead of calm- ing and paralysing their higher cerebral centres, it primarily and prominently stimulates their motor centres, Frohner has given it to horses, cattle, and sheep Avithout observing any definite hypnotic effect. Large doses (150 to 200 grammes), he states, produce in horses excitement, muscular trembling, spasmodic movements, paresis of the spinal cord and muscles, and are excreted uncombined in the urine. Death is caused by ha3morrhagic ulcerous gastro-enteritis. He records that, while 0*5 gramme per kilogramme of body- weight killed horses and cattle, dogs stood one gramme per kilogramme of body-weight. Horses and cattle receiving 25 to 75 grammes suffered from weakness and trembling, but without narcosis ; sleepiness was apparent for a day, but was alternated with greatly increased reflex activity, and even with fits, while numbness sometimes lasted a week. Doses, etc. — Horses take 5jv. to §j. in electuary or in mash. A dose of sulphonal is sometimes given thirty minutes before casting a horse for operation. Dogs may be given grs. x. to grs. xl., in jDill, hot milk, or soup. To ensure hypnosis a couple of doses should be given, at intervals of two or three hours. PARALDEHYDE A polymeric modification of Aldeh3'de. CyHj.^Og. Paraldehyde is a body intermediate between an alcohol and an ether. It is a colourless fluid, soluble in ten parts of water, still more soluble in glycerin, and of a disagreeable, persistent, nitrous odour and taste. Actions and Doses.— It is antiseptic, hypnotic, and slightly ANTIPYRINE 381 diuretic. It hinders fermentation, and flesh placed in a two per cent, sohition has been kept fresh for two months. It is a more effectual hypnotic than hj^pnone or urethane, but does not produce sleep in man or dogs as readily as opium or chloral, while horses are brought under its soporific effects with still greater difficulty. Frohner, experimenting on horses, found that 200 grammes (about 7 fluid ounces) pro- duced only slight trembling, vertigo, and staggering; 450 grammes induced powerful trembling, yellow-red colouring of the visible mucous membranes, the presence of haemoglobin in the urine, but no sleep ; the effects passed off in an hour ; 500 grammes caused staggering, excitement, pawing, plung- ing, difficult breathing, dulness, diminished sensation, yellow membranes, solution of the red globules, with discharge of hfBinoglobin in the urine, great weakness continuing for twelve hours, while weariness, anaemia, and emaciation persisted for a week (Arziieimittellehre). Dogs receiving three to four grammes per kilogramme of body-weight had difficulty in balancing themselves, and cerebral narcosis followed later. Medicinal doses of fifteen to thirty minims, after brief excitement, cause sleep, lasting six or eight hours. But its efl^cts are by no means certain when the patient is excited or pained. In human practice it is prescribed in nervous insomnia, and as a hypnotic in cardiac cases. On account of its local irritant effects it is unsuitable for hypodermic injection. ANTIPYRINE Phenazone. Phenazonum. Commonly known as' an tipyrine.' Phenyl-dimethyl-iso-pyrazolone. CqH5(CH3).3C3HN.,0. Phenazone is obtainable from phenyl-hydrazine by inter- action with aceto-acetic ether, and the subsequent interaction of the resulting phenyl-methyl-iso-pyrazolone with methyl iodide (B.P.). It occurs in colourless, odourless, scaly crystals, with a bitter taste. Soluble in about one part and a half of water, alcohol, or chloroform, and in forty parts of ether. A one per cent, aqueous solution yields a white precipitate with tannin, and is coloured yellow by concentrated nitric acid, In- 382 ANTIPYRTNE compatibles — spirit of nitrous ether, nitrites, tannic acid, vege- table astringents, corrosive sublimate, chloral, and salicylates. Actions and Uses. — Antipyrine is an active member of the benzol or aromatic carbon group, and, like others of the scries, it is antiseptic, antipyretic, and analgesic. It diminishes metabolism. It is a local aniesthctic and hicmo- static. Strong doses irritate the mucous surfaces, and hence when swallowed sometimes cause vomiting and other evi- dences of gastro-intestinal disturbance in men and dogs. Frohncr reports that dogs receiving two drachms exhibited excitement, and subsequently paralysis of the central ner- vous centres, tetanic or epileptic convulsions, cyanosis, muscular weakness, paralysis beginning in the hind-quarters, with serious lowering of temperature. Although elimination by the kidneys begins within half an hour after administra- tion, it is slowly excreted. The urine of dogs receiving full doses, for several days contained the drug, as evidenced by its being coloured red-brown by ferric chloride solution. Frohner further states that, although medicinal doses have little effect in lowering the temperature of healthy animals, they reduce abnormal temperature usually within half an hour, and their effects continue two or more hours (Arzneimit- tellehre fur Thierdrzte). Kaufmann records that one gramme (15-4 grains) given hypodermically reduced the temperature of dogs from 38-9° to 38-2° Cent., of horses from 38-7° to 38-2° Cent., and of rabbits from 40° to 37° Cent. These anti- pyretic effects are ascribed to diminished production of heat. Observation shows that less oxygen is taken in, while less urea and carbonic acid are excreted. It produces its actions whether it is swallowed or introduced subcutaneously or intratracheally, and seems to develop no untoward effects, not even irritation at the point of injection. It has been prescribed for the several domestic animals to reduce fever and relieve pain. German veterinarians com- mend it for horses in influenza, as well as in muscular and articular rheumatism ; but as an antirheumatic it is not as effectual as the salicylates. In doses of four to six drachms, administered hypodermically, it has been employed with marked benefit in acute laminitis. Dogs are brought under ACETANILIDE 383 its antipyretic action more effectually than cattle or horses, and it deserves to be more generally used in canine practice. French veterinarians prescribe it as a carminative in irritable conditions of the central nervous system, and as a general analgesic as well as a local anaesthetic in neuralgic cases. A five per cent solution is frequently used to check capillary haemorrhages, and hypodermically for local pains. Its hicmo- static power is greatly increased by admixture with tannin solution. Doses, etc. — Horses take gij- to giv. ; cattle, 5iy- to 5vi; sheep, 5i- ; dogs, grs. x. to xx., given in bolus, drench, electu- ary, or in the drinking water, and repeated as may be re- quired. For hypodermic or intratracheal injection in horses the dose is 60 grains dissolved in four drachms of water. As some animals are very susceptible to its effects, it is well to begin with half doses, twice or thrice daily. ACETANILIDE OR ANTIFEBRIN AcETANiLiDUM CHg'CONHCgHg. Phenyl - AcETAMiDE. (Antifebrin is a registered name.) Acetanilide, one of the most serviceable of the benzol or aromatic carbon series, is a crystalline substance, prepared by the interaction of glacial acetic acid and aniline. It is colourless, odourless, with a slightly burning taste, oily to the touch, soluble in 190 parts of water, four parts rectified spirit, forty parts glycerin, freely soluble in ether, benzol, and chloroform. Actions and Uses, — It is antipyretic, sedative, diuretic, and feebly antiseptic. Very slightly toxic even in excessive doses, it is neither irritant nor nauseous, and has, moreover, the merit of cheapness. Compared with antipyrine, anti- febrin is more energetic and lasting in its effects. Given in large doses it depresses the heart, alters the colour of the blood to a brownish red, and to some extent reduces the haemoglobin to metha^moglobin. According to Lepine anti- febrin exerts a destructive action on the red corpuscles. Elimination of the drug by the kidneys occurs within twenty- four hours of its administration, and frequent large doses 384 AMYL-NITRITE darken the urine and increase the excretion of urea and uric acid. The diuretic action of antifebrin suggests its employ- ment in hiemoglobinnria. Major Nunn, A. V. Dep., has pre- scribed it for the continued fevers which aftect cattle in Natal; has given cattle drachm doses, and dogs five grains, dissolved in ether, every four hours, and reports marked lowering of temperature, unaccompanied by nausea or other untoward eftccts (Veterinary Journal, 1888). Frohner and other German authorities testify to its febrifuge effects both in horses and dogs, and prescribe it in febrile cases, cramps, neuralgia, and rheumatism. Ordinary doses have no appre- ciable action on temperature in health ; but rapidly lower the temperature in fevers, pneumonia, and influenza, probably by diminishing the production of heat and by increasing heat dispersion. For relieving pain acetanilide is less useful than opium, cocaine, or conium, and as an antiseptic it cannot be recommended. The doses for horses and cattle are grs. xxx. to5ij- ; sheep, grs. XV. to 5j- ; dogs, grs. ii. to x. ; given in powder, pill, or electuary, or in water containing alcohol, several times daily, in critical cases every second hour. AMYL-NITRITE Amyl-Nitris. Nitrite of Amyl. CgH^^NO.,. A liquid produced by the interaction of nitrous acid, and amylic alcohol which has been distilled between 262" and 270° Fahr. It consists chiefly of iso-amyl nitrite, CgH^^NO.,, but contains other nitrites of the homologous scries (B.P.). Amyl nitrite is a yellow, ethereal, limpid, volatile liquid, with a fragrant odour. Specific gravity, 0870 to 0'880. Nearly insoluble in water; soluble in rectified spirit, ether, and chloroform, and is itself a solvent for oils. It speedily deteriorates unless kept in Avell-stoppered bottles in a cool dark place. Actions and Uses. — It has in marked degree the actions of a nitrite, relaxing and paralysing non-striped muscle. It is hence an antispasmodic of involuntary muscle, dilates arterioles, and is prescribed chiefly in angina pectoris. PARALYSES INVOLUNTARY MUSCLES 385 General Actions. — Whether swallowed or inhaled, it quickly converts the haemoglobin of the blood into met- haemoglobin, which does not readily part with oxygen ; in- ternal respiration is accordingly interfered with ; convulsions and asphyxia ensue ; blood both arterial and venous acquires a chocolate hue. From paresis of their unstriped muscular wall the arterioles are rapidly and greatly relaxed and dilated, and blood pressure is diminished. Secretion of sweat and urine is increased, and the urine contains sugar. Human patients receiving one to two minims within a few minutes are flushed : perspiration overspreads the head and neck, extending sometimes over the body ; there is general vascular dilatation ; arterial pressure is reduced ; the tempera- ture falls, the pulse becomes soft, quickened, and dicrotic ; breathing, at first accelerated, becomes slower and shallower. Similar symptoms are produced in dogs, in which the tem- perature may be lowered 3^ or -1° Fahr. The antidotes are stimulants, alternate hot and cold douches, artificial respira- tion, and inhalation of oxygen. Medicinal Uses. — It has been successfully used by Pro- fessor "Williams in angina pectoris in horses, and by other practitioners in spasmodic breathing occasionally occurring as a sequel of sore-throat and bronchitis. In such asthmatic cases in horses and also in dogs it was used by Professor Robertson. Experiments on rabbits made artificially epileptic have shown that it not only prevents the impending fit, but arrests it when it has begun. It hence deserves more extended trial in epilepsy in dogs and young cattle. Dr. B. W. Richard- son found that amyl nitrite, promptly administered to rabbits and fi'ogs, which had received lethal doses of strychnine, re- lieved the tetanic spasms and generally ensured recovery. For tetanus in horses it has been frequently given, but seldom with lasting benefit. It is useful as an inhalation in bringing about recovery from deep chloroform anaesthesia. Doses, etc. — Horses and cattle take "H^iii. to TIl^x. ; dogs, ni^ss. to TT^ii. A minimum dose should first be tried. When given hypodermically half doses generally suflice. Repeated use does not interfere with its efficacy. It is inhaled, administered on a piece of sugar, or in draught with rectified 2 b 386 FORMALDEHYD spirit or ether. Ether, chloral, or full doses of alcohol in- tensify its effects. Sodium nitrite, obtained by fusing soiliuni nitrate with metallic lead, has the same actions as amyl nitrite, is given in the same doses, and is more stable and convenient. Its effects are not so rapidly produced, but persist longer, often continuing for half an hour. Trinitroglycerin, Nitro-glycerin, or glonoin, C3H5 (N02)3 prepared by dropping pure glycerin into a mixture of sul- phuric and nitric acids kept cool by ice, and washing it in water. Specific gravity, IQ. It is a colourless, transparent, explosive liquid, soluble in alcohol, ether, and oils. Its actions resemble those of amyl and sodium nitrites, but are more powerful and persistent, while full doses affect the voluntary as well as the involuntary muscles. It is used for the same purposes as amyl nitrite. The preparation gener- ally preferred is the B.P. alcoholic solution, liquor trinitrini, of which 110 minims contain one grain of nitroglycerin. The dose for human patients is a half to two minims. For dogs suffering from spasmodic asthma or epilepsy, a teaspoonful of a solution of TT[30 of liquor trinitrini in ten ounces of water may be given as required. Chocolate tablets contain- ing one-hundredth of a grain of nitroglycerin are now obtainable. FORMALDEHYD Formaldehyd (CHoO), is a gaseous body obtained by subjecting methyl alcohol to oxidation. It is a very power- ful disinfectant and germicide. A concentrated (35 to 40 per cent.), aqueous solution is known as formalin, a colour- less liquid, with a strong, pungent odour and neutral reaction, which is largely used as a disinfectant, deodorant, and preservative. Formalin is stated to retard the healing of surgical wounds. It is irritant and caustic to tissues, and corrosive to surgical instruments. Strong solutions applied to the skin may induce poisoning. A solution of one in five hundred may be used as an antiseptic wash for the hands, operation area, and accidental wounds. A 2 per cent. TANNOFORM 387 solution is recommended as an application for ringworm. Stronger solutions (5 to 10 per cent) are employed in the treatment of canker of tlie horses' feet; to preserve histo- logical, botanical, and pathological specimens, and to disinfect stables and cowsheds. Walter and Schlossmann having made critical tests of the efficiency of various methods of dis- infection, consider that formaldehyd in presence of sufficient water, deserves preference over other disinfectants. Rational and practical disinfection requires rapid action with thorough penetration, but without injury of the objects under treat- ment. To meet these conditions, glycoformal, a mixture of an aqueous solution of formaldehyd and glycerin, has been introduced. The glycerin, attracting moisture, ensures the effectiveness of every particle of formaldehyd. Glycoformal, applied by means of an atomiser, successfully disinfects stables in from half an hour to three hours {Newer Remedies, 1899). Tannoform, CH2(Ci^Hg09)3, is a condensation product of gallotannic acid and formaldehyd, obtained by adding formal- dehyd to an aqueous solution of tannin, and precipitating with hydrochloric acid. It occurs as a pale, rose-coloured powder, odourless, insoluble in water, soluble in alkaline solutions. Externally it has been used, mixed with two to five parts of starch, as a dry dressing for unbandaged operation wounds, cracked heels, collar sores, erythema, burns, etc. According to Frohner, tannoform disinfects, checks discharges, and promotes healing under a scab. Internally it has been prescribed as an astringent antiseptic for intestinal catarrh, diarrhoea, and dysentery in cattle, horses, and dogs. Doses, etc. — Horses and cattle, 5j- to 5iij- ; calves, grs. xxx. to 5j- ; dogs, grs. XV. to grs. xxx. ; twice a day, in linseed tea or in electuary. Formaldehyd forms an important constituent of the following powders: — glutol, a combination of gelatin and formaldehyd, dried and reduced to powder, and employed as an antiseptic dry dressing for wounds : amyloform, a condensation product of formaldehyd with starch, forming a non-poisonous, white, odourless, insoluble powder, intro- duced as a substitute for iodoform ; and amyloiodoform, a 388 BENZOL compound of starch, iodine, and formaldehyd, employed as an antiseptic dry dressing. BENZOL OR BENZENE SERIES OF AROMATIC CARBON COMPOUNDS The benzol, benzene, or aromatic series of carbon compounds includes a number of antiseptics and antipyretics. The lowest members of this series contain six carbon atoms, five of which have their affinities satisfied by hydrogen, constituting the organic radicle phenyl (CgH^). The hydride is benzene (CgHjH), Substitution of hydroxyl (OH) for the separate hydrogen atom produces the alcohol — carbolic acid (CgH^OH). A like substitution of one or more of the hydrogen atoms for other organic radicles forms other aromatic bodies. Further variety of constitution is determined according to which of the six atoms of carbon in the so-called carbon ring assume the hydroxyl or other radicle. Still further variety appears to result from fusion of molecules of the same or of different members of the group; two benzene molecules appear to form naphthalin (C^oHg) ; a benzene and p}T.-idine molecule chinoline (CqHk,), which is allied to quinine; indeed, it is generally believed that many of the organic alkaloids are closely related to this aromatic series (Dr. Lauder Brunton). The higher members appear to be the most active. Slight rearrangement of the atoms of these bodies, and substitution of various radicles, will doubtless produce other valuable substances. The lower members of the scries are the most useful medicinally. They are antiseptic, usually antipyretic, fre- quently analgesic. They chiefly affect the motor centres ; excessive doses cause tremors, convulsions, and paralysis. They exhibit a marked contrast to the lower members of the fatty carbon or marsh-gas series (CH^), which chiefly affect sensory nerve centres and are stimulants and anfesthetics. Benzol or Benzene, a mixture of homologous hydrocarbons, obtained from light coal tar oil. It contains about 70 per cent, of benzene, C,.H-H. and 20 to 30 per cent, of toluene, CgHgCHg. It is an ethereal, inflammable liquid, with the ANTISEPTIC AND ANTIPYRETIC 389 odour of coal-gas, and the specific gravity -888. It is in- soluble in water, soluble in alcohol and ether, and a useful solvent for sulphur, phosphorus, chlorine, iodine, alkaloids, fats, resins and caoutchouc. Benzene is a perfectly distinct body from benzin, petroleum benzin, or petroleum ether, which is a purified distillate obtained from American petro- leum— a paraffin of the marsh gas series, consisting chiefly of C-H^o, and sometimes used as an anaesthetic, anthelmintic, and parasiticide. Benzol or coal-tar benzene is antiseptic, irritant, and parasiticide. Its irritant effects are especially notable on mucous and skin-abraded surfaces, or when applied with friction. Moderate doses, when swallowed, produce slight temporary pyrexia. It is excreted in the urine, to which it imparts the odour of violets. Larger doses accelerate cardiac and respiratory movements, while toxic doses cause nervous depression, muscular trembling, convulsions, lowered tem- perature, and loss of sensibiHty. Benzene is an effectual poison for various skin parasites in all classes of patients, and is usually applied after a thorough wash with soap and water, either undiluted, or in young and delicate subjects, and in cats, dogs, and fowls, which are sensitive to its irritant effects, mixed with one to three parts of oil or vaseline. Weaker solutions are sometimes used to allay irritation in prurigo and urticaria, and as solvents for fats and resins. Benzoic Acid, obtained from benzoin, naphthaUn, and hippuric acid, is antiseptic, stimulant, and expectorant. It is as effectual as carboHc acid in arresting the action of enzymes and destroying bacteria. It appears to act on the proteids of the body, and diminishes excretion of urea. Professor Rutherford found that twenty grains increased the biliary secretion of dogs. It is eliminated chiefly by the skin and kidneys ; in the latter, uniting with glycocol, it is excreted as hippuric acid, exerting slight antisepsis in bladder catarrh, and also increasmg the quantity and acidity of the urine. Resorcin, a product of the distillation of galbanum, ammoniacum, asafcetida, or extract of Brazil wood, with caustic alkalies, is usually obtained from benzene or phenol 390 BENZOL SERIES OF CARBON COMROUNDS It occurs in colourless, crystalline plates, which become pink on exposure to the air. It has a harsh, sweet taste, and is freely soluble in Avater, alcohol, and oils. It coagulates albumin, and is an effectual antiseptic. Concentrated solutions irritate the skin and mucous surfaces, but it is not so irritant as its analogues, carbolic acid and creosote, while, like them, it has a slight topical, anaesthetic effect. Lethal doses, given to dogs and rabbits, cause clonic convulsions, dyspncea, and paralysis. Its antipyretic action is of short duration. As an intestinal antiseptic, calves and other young animals suffering from gastric catarrh receive thirty to sixty grains, while four times these doses are occasionally prescribed for horses. It is used as an antiseptic in surgical cases — in inflammation of the eyes, mammae, urino-genital organs, and other sensitive parts. Kaufmann commends it in erythema, herjoes, and eczema, especially of the seborrhoeal type, in dogs. The solutions and ointments applied contain one to ten parts per hundred. Hydroquinone is chemically para-di-hydroxy-benzene, re- sembles resorcin, but is about four times stronger, and is soluble in twenty parts of water, and in alcohol and ether. As it is excreted in the urine, it exerts a stimulant and antiseptic action on the urino-genital mucous membrane. Pyrocatechin, or ortho-di-hydroxy-benzene, resembles re- sorcin in its actions and uses, but is about three times stronger. Pyrogallic Acid, or tri-hydroxy-benzene, is obtained by heating gallic acid, and is readily soluble in water and alcohol. It is more irritant than most of the series, but is a doubtful antiseptic. A few grains produce in dogs, as well as in man, vomiting, purging, and collapse. It decomposes the red corpuscles. Mixed with fatty matters or starch, it is sometimes used as a caustic. A 15 per cent, ointment has been applied with good effect in psoriasis. Saccharin, glusidum, or benzoyl-sulphonimide, is deriv- able from toluene of coal-tar. It is a colourless, crystalline powder, two hundred and twenty times sweeter than sugar, soluble in four hundred parts of water, twcnly-five of alcohol, forty-eight of glycerin, and slightly in ether or chloroform. SACCHARIN AND SALOL 391 It is antiseptic, very stable, passes through the body unchanged, and is eliminated in the urine. As it is inconvertible into sugar, it is used in tablets for sweetening food, and flavouring the medicines of human patients suftering from diabetes, being given in quantities of one-fifth to half a grain. An elixir is made with saccharin, twenty- four grains, sodium bicarbonate, twelve grains, rectified spirit, one drachm, distilled water, seven drachms. Twenty mimims contain one grain of saccharin. Salol, or phenyl salicylate, is prejDared by the interaction of salicylic acid and phenol. It occurs as a crystalline white powder, with an aromatic smell and insipid taste. Insoluble in water, but soluble in ten parts alcohol, less than one of ether, chloroform, or benzene; and in the fixed oils. The actions and uses are those of its tw^o components. It is anti- septic, analgesic, antipyretic, and an intestinal disinfectant. It is not so irritant as salicylic acid. By the saliva, the pancreatic and intestinal juices, it is resolved into salicylic and carbolic acids, which, with their products, can be detected in the urine. It checks undue fermentation in the digestive canal, and is serviceable in diarrhoea. Frohner recommends it as an anti-rheumatic, especially in dogs ; but neither in muscular nor arthritic rheumatism does it appear to be so effectual as sodium salicylate. Kaufmann advises its use as a substitute for iodoform in surgical cases, notably in diseases of the urino-genital organs, and in otorrhoea. Horses take 5ij. to 5j^- ; dogs, grs. iii. to grs. xii., in pill or electuary. For the several purposes of a non-irritant antiseptic it is used as powder, liniment, or ointment. A useful dressing for catheters consists of one part salol, and fifteen parts each of castor oil and almond oil (G. B. Browne). Salacetol, a salicylic ester of acetone, introduced as a substitute for salol, which contains phenol. It contains about sevent3-five per cent, of salicylic acid, occurs in shining crystals, insoluble in Avater, freely soluble in alcohol, ether, and chloroform. It is emplojed as a disinfectant for the digestive and urinary tracts. Doses, horses, 5ii- to gvi. ; dogs, grs. iv. to grs. xx. Pyoktanin (methyl violet), is a powerful antiseptic, pro- 392 NAPTHALIN AND NAPTHOLS ducing little irritation. Soluble in seventy-five parts of water, and twelve of alcohol. A solution of one in one thousand, destroys the vitality of anthrax bacilli ; and a solution of one ill two thousand, arrests the development of pyogenic organisms. It is used as an injection (one in five hundred) for malignant growths, and, in powder, as a dry dressing for ulcers and superficial wounds {Extra PhamiacopcBia). Methylene Blue, a complex derivative of aniline, occurs in dark blue crystals or crystalline powder of a bronze-like tinge. Slightly soluble in water, alcohol and glycerin, it has been prescribed as an anodyne in painful nervous affections {Lancet, 1890), and as an antiseptic dressing for ulcers of the lips in dogs and cattle — for which purpose Professor Cadiot employs a solution of ten parts dissolved in fifty parts each of alcohol and glycerin. Naphthalin is prepared from tar and tar oils, and occurs in colourless, soft, peculiar-smelling, but tasteless crystals. Soluble in ether, alcohol, fats and oils. It is antiseptic, feebly antipyretic, and parasiticide. Moderate doses are non-poisonous, but when given for several months they cause wasting, with ulceration of the cornea, opacity of the lens, and spots on the retina (Kaufmann). It is used as an intes- tinal antiseptic, and vermicide, is serviceable in diarrhoea and dysentery, in protracted cases of influenza and purpura, and is prescribed either with mucilage or castor-oil. In the bowel it is decomposed into alpha- and beta-naphthols. Being excreted in part in the urine, it exerts antisepsis in diseases of the bladder. It is used for antiseptic dressings, and in all animals for the destruction of skin parasites. The dose for horses and cattle is 5i- to '^\\].\ for sheep and dogs, grs. ii, to grs. XV., administered in electuary or bolus. Externally it is applied with vaseline, or glycerin. The Naphthols are prepared from naphthalin. Alpha- naphthol is stated to be more active and less toxic than beta- naphthol. The /3 variety, which is chiefly used, is a colourless, crystalline, phenol-smelling powder, insoluble in water, but soluble in alcohol, ether, chloroform, olive oil, and vaseline. Its actions and uses are the same as those of naphthalin, and also closely resemble those of resorcin. It is antiseptic and NAPHTHALOL AND PHENACETIN 393 anti-parasitic. One part in 3000 prevents the development of the microbes of anthrax and glanders. For such anti- septic purpose it is five times more effectual than carbolic acid. Small doses stimulate the mucous and glandular secretions. Somewhat larger doses induce nausea, diarrhoea, and dysuria. Powerful doses, exceeding one gramme for every ten kilogrammes of body weight, cause epileptiform convulsions in cats and horses, but in dogs there occur instead coma and reduced temperature. All animals usually also exhibit nephritis, albuminuria, and hsemoglobinuria. Rabbits relatively to their weight will stand three times the dose borne by dogs and cats. Naphthol is administered in- ternally to destroy tape- and round-worms (Willenz), as well as putrefactive and infective materials lodged in the intestines. As it is not readily soluble, full doses exert antisepsis throughout the greater portion of the intestinal tract, lessen- ing the smell and irritant action of the faeces, and hence checking diarrhoea. Externally it is used as an antiseptic and parasiticide, one part being usually mixed with eight of oil or twenty of vaseline. One part mixed with two of camphor forms a viscid, non-toxic, antiseptic dressing for small wounds. Doses, horses, 5jss. to 5iij- ; dogs, grs. v. to grs. X. Sometimes conjoined with bismuth salicylate and given suspended in mucilage. Hydronaphthol is a useful antiseptic and g-ermicide, soluble in one hundred parts of water and twenty of oil, and often conveniently applied as a dry dressing, mixed with twenty to thirty parts of fullers' earth, Naphthalol (Betol), prepared from beta-naphthol-sodium, phosphorus oxychloride, and sodium salicylate ; and alphol, the salicylic ester of alpha-naphthol, are sometimes em- ployed as intestinal antiseptics. In the bowel betol and alphol are decomposed into salicylic acid and naphthol. Benzo-naphthol, the benzoate of /S naphthol, has been re- commended as a gastro-intestinal disinfectant. It is split up into naphthol and benzoic acid (Coblentz). Benzo-naj^hthol is very slightly toxic. Horses take grs. xxx. to grs. Ix. ; dogs, grs. iv. to grs. viii., in bolus, pill, or electuary. Phenacetin (para-acet-phenetidin) is produced by the 394 PIPERAZIN, CHINASEPTOL AND EXALGIN action of glacial acetic acid on para-phcnetidin, a body ob- tained from para-nitro-phenol (B.P.). It is white, tasteless, odourless, occurs in glistening, scaly crystals, sparingly soluble in cold water, soluble in twenty parts of alcohol, and in chloroform and glycerin ; insoluble in acid or alkaline solutions. Like antifcbrin and antipyrine, it lowers tempera- ture, diminishes pain, and depresses the heart. Although its action is less rapid, it is more prolonged, and less liable than either of these analogues to produce collapse, while in human patients it has also slight soporific effects (Brunton). Frohner and other German observers state that grs. iii. to grs. vii. given to dogs in a febrile condition lower the tem- perature 2" Fahr., also slow the pulse, and relievo respiratory difficulty. These effects continue for four hours. Horses and cattle take 3ij- to 5iv. ; dogs, grs. iii. to grs. xv., in bolus or electuary ; repeated at intervals of two or three hours. PiPERAZiN (C^HjoNg), an organic base allied to benzene, and produced by the interaction of sodium glycol and ethy- lene-diamine hydrochloride. It occurs in white deliquescent scales, very soluble in water. Outside the body it dissolves uric acid and insoluble urates ; but when administered its action is exceedingly doubtful. It is excreted unchanged or combined with uric acid in the urine. The granular citrate is generally used. Doses of five to fifteen grains in carbonated water, taken twice daily, are stated to break up cystic con- cretions in human patients (Braithwaitc's Retrospect, 1894). CHiNASEPTOL,diaphthol,orortho-oxy-chinolin-meta-sulphonic acid, occurs in yellowish crystals, which are soluble in water. Solutions of one or two per cent, are powerfully antiseptic, but their use in surgery is restricted owing to their etl'cct on instruments. It is rapidly absorbed, as an alkaline diaphtho- late, from the intestine and excreted by the kidneys — disin- fecting the urine and urinary passages. Medicinal doses are free from toxic effects. Horses take 3j- to gij- ; dogs, grs, x. to grs. XXX., in bolus or electuary. ExALGiN occurs in nearly colourless cr3'stals, is odourless, almost tasteless, slightly soluble in water and freely in alcohol. It is slightly antiseptic, distinctly antipyretic, and markedly analgesic. As an antipyretic it resembles antifcbrin; it im- CniNOLINE AND THALLIN 395 pairs perception of painful impressions ; Lut large doses are dangerous, and produce epileptiform convulsions, dyspnoea, stupor, and death. Small, perfectly safe doses, such as one or two grains in human patients, or half a grain in dogs, repeated hourly, relieve neuralgic pain ; but for the pain of muscular rheumatism it is not so effectual as salicylates. It does not appear to produce any disagreeable secondary symptoms. It has been used with benefit in epilepsy and chorea in man, and may be serviceable in such cases in dogs. It is generally administered dissolved in weak spirit. Chinoline is an oily liquid produced by oxidation of aniline and nitro-benzene. It is related to cinchonine and quinine, from which it may also be obtained. It is colourless or yellow, bitter and acrid, almost insoluble in water, but soluble in alcohol, ether, chloroform, and benzene. Chino- line and its salts, tartrate and salicylate, are antiseptic and antipyretic, but other drugs of this aromatic series are safer and more effectual. Dogs and cats, receiving three to six grains per kilogramme of body weight, exhibit increased secretion of saliva and bile, and suffer from vomiting and general enfeeblement. Thallin is a synthetically prepared base chemically known as tetra-hydro-para-methyl-oxy- chinoline. It is crystalline and colourless, has a piquant, bitter, anise-like taste, is soluble in seven parts of cold water and a hundred of alcohol. Both the watery and alcoholic solutions are inflammable. It combines with acids, and is used as a suljjhate or acetate. It is antiseptic and antipyretic. It resembles antifebrin, but Dr. Lauder Brunton considers it is less effectual. Pro- fessor Thomas Eraser regards it as probably the most trustworthy antipyretic of the series. Both Kaufmann and Friedberger testify to its febrifuge effects on veterinary patients, and state that it causes neither digestive nor nervous disturbance. Moderate doses given to horses and dogs, in one hour reduce abnormal temperature 3° Cent., and such reduction is stated to be maintained for several hours. It slows respiration, diminishes the number of the pulsations, and lessens arterial pressure. These effects appear to depend upon diminished oxidation, and consequent lessened elimi- 396 CHINOSOL nation of carbonic acid and urea. Thallin is stated to com- municate a dark-red colour to the blood, and sometimes causes a red eruption on the tongue (Kaufmann). It is slowly excreted in the urine, which acquires a greenish- brown hue, and is coloured purple by ferric chloride solution. Fried berger prescribes it in croupous and contagious pneu- monia in horses, both per orem and hypodermically. Horses take 5ii- to giii. ; cattle, 5ii- to 5iv. ; sheep and pigs, grs. xv. to grs. XXX, ; dogs, grs. ii. to grs. iv., given, as the sulphate, in bolus or solution. Hypodermically one-third to one-half of these doses may be given. Kairine is derived from chinoline. It is crystalline, greyish- white, with a bitter, nauseous taste and aromatic odour, soluble in six parts of water and in alcohol. It is slightly antiseptic, has no analgesic action, and is not a safe antipyretic. Frohner states that its antipyretic effects do not last more than fifteen minutes, and that the frequently repeated doses hence needful are apt to cause weakness, dangerous collapse, and sometimes hyper-excitability and convulsions, both clonic and tonic. Kaufmann states that a dog of three kilogrammes was killed by a hypodermic injection of fifteen grammes, while another of seven kilogrammes succumbed from the internal administration of forty-five grammes. The doses of the hydrochloride for horses are 5i- to 3ii-> a-iid for dogs grs. iii. to grs. xii. Pyridine (C5H5N) is obtained from the destructive distilla- tion of bones and other organic substances, and is one of the empyreiimatic constituents of tobacco smoke. It is a typical member of the alkali-like bases found in coal-tar, and from it various bodies of the aromatic series are prepared. It is a colourless, strong-smelling, volatile, antiseptic liquid. Soluble in water, alcohol, ether, and oils. It diminishes the reflex activity of the medulla and spinal cord, notably of the respiratory centre, and causes death by asphyxia; but is so rapidly eliminated by all the excretory channels that large doses are required to kill. As an inhalation it has been used in asthma and other cases of difficult breathing. Chinosol, or oxy-chinolin-sulphonate of potassium, is a derivative of coal-tar. It occurs as a yellow, crystalline CARBOLIC ACID 397 powder, with a faint odour, soluble in water, insoluble in alcoliol or etlier. Its solution is unaffected by albumin. Chinosol is antiseptic, antipyretic, styptic and disinfectant. A solution of one part in forty thousand prevents bacterial development, and a grain dissolved in six drachms of water is stated to be equal in antiseptic power to a one in forty solution of carbolic acid. Applied to wounds, the alkaline discharges decompose it and liberate oxychinoline, which oxidises and disinfects. In the treatment of surgical cases solutions varying from one in twelve hundred to one in sixty have given most satisfactory results. Mixed with boric acid, zinc oxide, or starch, it forms an excellent dry dressing, and with collodion it is used for sealing small wounds. Professor Hobday considers that its action is better marked when used in lotion than in powder, and that con- centrated solutions should not be used to disinfect instru- ments {British Medical Journal, 1898). Chinosol has been used as an udder injection in parturient apoplexy. For this purpose fifteen grains are dissolved in a pint of water, and a fourth part injected into each quarter (yeterinary Record, 1899). Chinosol can be obtained in tablets containing eight or fifteen grains. CARBOLIC ACID AciDUM Carbolicum. Phenol. CgHgOH. Carbolic acid is an occasional constituent of the urine of most animals, may be extracted from some plants, and is one of the many products of coal-tar. Cannel coal is its most prolific source ; but it also occurs in other coals, as well as in bitumen and petroleum. It is obtained from coal- tar oil by fractional distillation (B.P.). Carbolic acid occurs in small, colourless, deliquescent crystals, having a peculiar odour and sweetish pungent taste. Exposed to moist air it may acquire a pinkish tinge. Specific gravity 1060 to 1-066. It is devoid of acid reaction, is liquefied at 60^ Fahr. by ten parts of water, and completely dissolved by twelve hundred parts of cold water. It is freely soluble in glycerin, most volatile oils, alcohol, ether, alkaline 398 CARBOLIC ACID solutions, and acetic acid. It has a caustic action on the skin and mucous membranes, coagulates albumin, and liquefies camphor. It destroys the particulate cells which produce the several fermentations. With an equivalent of sulphuric acid, it forms sulpho-carbolic acid, which produces a series of definite, stable, soluble, crystallisable salts — the sulpho-carbolates, which have no action of carbolic acid. With nitric acid, it forms explosive compounds and picric acid (CyH2(NO.^)30H), an antiseptic, and much used as a yellow dye. When carbonic anhydride is passed through dry powdered phenol sodium, salicylic acid is produced. Carbolic acid is distinguished by its odour. Bromine water forms, even in very dilute aqueous solutions, pale- yellow crystalline needles of tribromo-phenol. An aqueous solution, even if containing t^^j^ part, when treated with a drop or two of ferric chloride solution, produces a purple colour. According to Martindale {Extra Pharmacopceia), there are seven commercial varieties in general use : — (a) Absolute phenol; (h) No. 1 carbolic acid, in crystals and in liquid, con- taining 10 per cent, of added water : the crystals are soluble in fourteen parts of water ; (c) No. 2 carbolic acid, also in crystals and in liquid, soluble in eighteen parts of water; (d) No. 4 carbolic acid, a pale straw-coloured liquid, con- taining about 10 per cent, of phenol, and nearly 90 per cent. of cresols ; (e) No. 5 carbolic acid, a dark-coloured liquid of uncertain strength. The B.P. acidum carbolicum liquefactum, or phenol, to which distilled water has been added in the proportion of ten parts of water to one hundred of phenol, is a colourless or slightly red liquid, with the taste, odour, and properties of the pure acid. The empyreumatic red-brown liquid commercial acid contains the uncrystallisable, acrid meth3'l- phenol or cresol (CeH^.(0H).CH3). Calvert's carbolic powders convsist of 20 to 30 per cent, of carbolic acid, in- corporated with refuse from the alum works. M'Dougall's disinfecting powders contain about 33 per cent, of calcium carbolate and 59 per cent, of magnesium sulphite. A mix- ture of carbolic acid and bleaching powder has been patented. COAGULATES ALBUMIN AND DESTROYS ORGANISMS 399 Blast furnace residual oils, produced largely in Scotland, consist of 20 to 35 per cent, of phenoloids, soluble in caustic soda, resemble wood- tar products, and are used for preserving timber. Actions and Uses. — Carbolic acid belongs to the benzol or aromatic series of carbon compounds, wliicli are notable for their antiseptic and antipyretic properties (p. 388). It closely resembles creosote and creolin. Large doses are irritant and narcotic poisons. It is used as an antiseptic, antiparasitic, and occasionally as a local anaesthetic, stimu- lant, rubefacient, and caustic. It is administered in various contagious and zymotic diseases, with a view to prevent or arrest the development of micro-organisms. It is employed as a disinfectant. General Actions. — It coagulates albumin and destroys micro-organisms. It is not nearly so active as corrosive sublimate, chlorine, iodine, or sulphurous acid in arresting the action of ptyalin, pe23sin, diastase, and other organic ferments, or in killing or preventing the development of bacteria ; but Koch's experiments show that about one part to 500 prevents the growth of anthrax and other bacilli. Oats, barley, beans, and lentils, soaked in a one per cent, solution, do not germinate. Milk is maintained unchanged by ^th part of acid. The bacilli of tuberculosis are killed in twenty-four hours by a 5 per cent, solution. The development of putrefactive organisms is arrested by a 4 per cent, solution which is also fatal to the organisms of pus. Aqueous solutions are more powerfully antiseptic than solutions in alcohol, oil, or glycerin. As carbolic acid gradually volatilises, not only may fresh infection occur, but spores and organisms, the development of which has been arrested, may regain activity. A strong solution applied to the skin, or to a mucous surface, coagulates albumin, acts as a topical irritant and slight caustic; anaesthetises not only the skin, but the underlying structures; causes a stain at first white, but shortly becoming brown ; and leaves a dry, roughened surface, from which the shrivelled epidermal scales sub- sequently peel oft'. 400 CARBOLIC ACID Full doses when swallowed, besides producing local effects, cause increased salivation, and in carnivora usually vomit- ing", with gastro-enteritis and collapse, which may end fatally. It is absorl)0(l, and, like other members of the alcohol series, it first stimulates and subsequently paralyses the medulla and spinal cord, and involves also the cerebral centres. The respiratory and vaso-niotor centres are first stimulated, quickening respiration, raising blood-pressure, and accelerating the pulse; but as paralysis is developed, respiration is slowed, and blood-pressure falls. Stimulation of the sweat-centre increases perspiration. Implication of the cerebral centres gives rise to restlessness, irregular movements, convulsions, and anaesthesia. Moderate doses kill by paralysis of respiration, but larger doses besides cause cardiac paralysis. It is excreted in part by the lungs and skin, mainly by the kidneys, and chiefly in the form of alkaline carbolates, detectable, two or three hours after administration, by bromine water or ferric-chloride. The urine has an olive-brown hue, and for a considerable time resists putrefaction ; but, if it stands long, it becomes amber- brown, depending upon hydro-quinone and other phenol products undergoing further oxidation. Excretion is tolerably rapid; carbolic acid can seldom be found in any notable amount in the urine either of men or animals twenty-four hours after the exhibition of the last dose. Toxic Effects. — Two drachms prove immediately fatal to dogs, and kill full-grown cats in two minutes (Dr. Sansom). Dr. Cullcn, of Calcutta, found that one drachm given to small dogs caused excitement, dilated pupils, shallow, stertorous breathing, convulsions, and death in ten minutes (Veterinarian, 1872). Friedberger found that fifteen grains killed dogs in a few hours. Three or four drops placed under the wings of sparrows caused excitement, restlessness, and death in half an hour; toads, earthworms, beetles, ants, and fleas were promptly poisoned (Lamaire). Two drachms repeatedly given by the late Mr. Romanes of Leith, to a donkey had no very notable effect. Half ounce doses are dangerous for horses ; ounce doses are fatal (Kaufmann), AN IRRITANT AND NARCOTIC POISON 401 Poisonous doses immediately cause dogs, rabbits, and other animals to reel, move in jumps, and fall as when in- toxicated by alcohol : they tremble and show muscular weakness, cough, and froth at mouth ; the pulse is small, quick, irregular, and intermittent; temperature is lowered; albuminuria and haematuria are occasionally present ; shallow, gasping, difficult breathirg, collapse, paralysis, more or less anaesthesia, and occasionally con- vulsions, precede death. By whatever channel it is introduced into the body, its characteristic effects are produced. Dressings used in human surgery sometimes cause nausea, vomiting, giddi- ness, high-coloured urine, and occasionally collapse, and even death. Scabby sheep too freely dressed may suffer from congested and inflamed lungs, linger for weeks, and even then die. Dogs and cats are particularly sus- ceptible ; even a single dressing, incautiously applied over a large surface, produces dulness, trembling, and disin- clination for food, which may coDtinue for several days. Stronger dressings within a few minutes cause excitement, blowing, unsteady gait, and occasionally fatal collapse. A considerable skin surface, freely wetted, is recorded by Professor Williams to have produced 'gradual failure of the heart's action ' ; whilst in other cases the dog has fallen into a state of marasmus, with sunken eyes, foetor of the breath, formation of sordes on the teeth, 'tarry' faeces, and total loss of appetite, followed by death in six to twelve days. The Post-Mortem Appearances are — brown discoloration and corrugation of the membrane of the mouth and fauces, and sometimes of the stomach; strong solutions leave patches of redness and inflammation in the stomach and small intestines. The kidneys are sometimes congested, occasionally inflamed. The blood is dark-coloured and feebly coagulated, but the corpuscles are unchanged. Chronic poisoning sometimes produces granular and fatty degeneration of the liver, heart, and kidneys (Mosselman). Where death has occurred within a day after the poison has been taken, a smoky phenol odour pervades the body, 2c 102 CARBOLIC ACID and the poison has been discovered in most of the internal organs ; but where hfe has bjeen jjrolonged beyond twenty- four hours, the volatile drug may not be discoverable. Dr. Cullen records that the vessels of the brain are full of fluid blood; while serous effusion is generally observable on the surface of the brain and within the ventricles. The lungs, in cases that have survived several da3's, are some- times ecchymosed. Antidotes. — Where the poison has been swallowed, any unabsorbed portion should be removed by the stomach- pump, or by an emetic. Pharyngeal and gastric irritation is allayed by alcohol, by inhalation of steam, medicated with laudanum, and by demulcent drinks, saccharated lime, oil, camphor, or vinegar. Neutralisation of the poison, by conversion into sulpho-carbolates, and excretion by the kidneys, are hastened by administration of sulphates, con- venientl}^ given in the form of sodium sulphate. The escha- rotic action of pure carbolic acid is quickly neutralised by alcohol. For Surgical Purposes carbolic acid is the antiseptic most frequently and generally used in this country. According to Lister, it has a powerful affinity for the epidermis. Car- bolic acid penetrates deeply into its substance, and mingles with fatty materials in any proportion. Corrosive subhmate solution, on the other hand, cannot penetrate in the slightest degree into anything greasy. Preparatory to an operation the parts, and the hands of the operator and his assistants, are w^ashed with a 5 per cent, warm, aqueous solution, and the instruments, sutures, and other appliances are placed in a solution of the same strength. During operation a one to forty solution is used for washing sponges, and rinsing instruments, and for irrigating the wound. Extensive wounds, likely to be irritated by continuous contact of considerable amounts of carbolic acid, are sometimes first covered by a protective of oiled silk varnished with copal and coated with dextrin, which allows the silk to be uniformly wetted with the antiseptic solution. Over this protective — or, in ordinary cases, directly upon the wound — are laid six or eight folds of freshly-prepared carbolised SURGICAL USES 403 gauze, made of unbleached muslin, which has been medicated with a mixture of one part of carbolic acid, four of resin, and four of paraffin. Through these dressings, the air, before reaching the abraded surface, is filtered and deprived of micro-organisms. With similar antiseptic precautions, human surgeons have reduced the mortality of capital operations by more than one-half, and equally favourable results have been obtained by veterinarians. To prevent and arrest attacks of micro-organisms, carbolic acid is applied, in all classes of patients, to most acci- dental or surgical wounds. Incised or lacerated wounds are washed, according to their condition, with a one to forty or one to twenty solution, before and after being secured with stitches or sutures. Broken knees and open joints are cleansed, and at intervals irrigated with carbolic lotions. "WTien wounds for several days have been treated with the stronger carbolic solutions, an aseptic condition may be main- tained, and healing usually hastened by milder dressings of boric, salicylic, or sulphurous acid. Added to Carron oil, it allays j^ain, and prevents or limits suppuration of burns and scalds. Over-reaches and other bruises, after being thoroughly cleansed, are dressed with a watery solution, and covered with a few folds of carbolised lint or oakum, secured by a bandage. Similar treatment is serviceable in necrosis of the coronary band, occurring in hard-worked horses in wet, cold weather. A saturated watery solution is used in foot-rot in sheep ; but in chronic cases, and where reparative power is deficient, it is usefully alternated with turpentine and oil, or where granulations are superabundant, with copper sulphate. Ulcers are stimulated, and their healing promoted, by thorough soaking with strong carbolic, and afterwards coating the sore with collodion. Sinuses of the poll, withers, or coronet, cleansed of micro-organisms by strong acid, and provided with a dependent opening, fre- quently heal if protected b}- carbolic gauze from fresh infection. Injuries of the uterus or vagina, resulting from parturi- tion, and metritis in all animals, are treated with carbolic solutions, with the effect of abating irritation, noisome dis- 404 CARBOLIC ACID charges, and straining. No treatment is so effectual in metritis in ewes, the prevalence of which might be materially abated if shc^jherds would observe greater cleanliness, and wash their hands with an antiseptic fluid before rendering assistance to lambing ewes. Such precautions are specially needful where post-mortem examinations have been engaged in, where dead lambs, which have lain about for some days, have been skinned, or where cases of metritis have been handled. No one who has been in contact with such a con- tagious complaint can enter the lambing pens without much risk of distributing the specific organisms. After washing with corrosive sublimate solution, a strong carbolic solution painted over the navel of foals and calves at birth, and repeated daily for a week, effectually prevents septic infec- tion, necrosis, and the ensuing pysemic extension to joints and other parts {Jour. Gomp. Path, and Therap., 1892), Carbolic acid is seldom used as a caustic. Concentrated solutions applied to boils frequently cause their abortion, and prevent their spreading, and arc sometimes injected into lymphatic glands, and into tuberculous, cancerous, and melanotic tumours. Injected into the swellings on cattle or horses, caused by oestridse, it kills the larvae. Painted over the skin, strong solutions cause superficial local anaesthesia, sufficient for the opening of abscesses, but insufficient for the painless insertion of setons, or for moderately deep firing. Eight or 10 per cent, solutions are occasionally applied as topical stimulants and rubefacients for sore- throat and rheumatic joints. Medicinal Uses. — Carbolic acid has been prescribed in most diseases produced by micro-organisms. In cattle- plague it appears to lower advancing temperature, and prolong even where it does not save life. Mr. William Crookes injected 105 grains in 6 ounces of water into the jugular of a cow suffering from cattle-plague, with little apparent injury beyond what might be expected from the injection of any simple fluid, and the patient gradually re- covered. Bouley reports that cattle inoculated with malignant pustule invariably died ; but when the inoculatctl subjects were promptly dosed with two or three drachms daily of MEDICINAL USES 405 carbolic acid, four out of five recovered. Similar results followed the use of the acid in horses and sheep inoculated with pustule. For Texas cattle-fever an approved remedy consists of twelve ounces each of carbolic acid and sodium bicarbonate, mixed with four fluid ounces of glycerin, two tablespoonfuls of the mixture being given thrice daily in a quart of water. In black-quarter, Professor Robertson advised half a drachm in a pint of water three or four times daily, conjoined with morphine when there was abdominal pain. For tetanus, Bacelli recommends subcutaneous injection of a 3 per cent, solution in distilled water. Mr. Priestman and other practitioners used carbolic acid with some benefit in the treatment of contagious pleuro-pneumonia in cattle. It has been administered in foot-and-mouth complaint, in which the glycerin of phenol and other solutions are also applied locally with zinc and lead lotions. The severity of catarrhal influenza amongst horses is materially abated, while its spread is checked by administration of antiseptics and by spraying the nostrils and throat with a one per cent, carbolic solution. In such cases, and also in chronic bron- chitis and pharyngitis, air or steam, medicated with carbohc acid, is used as an inhalation. In tedious cases of strangles and in purpura it is prescribed with iodine or iron, or both, and is also applied externally. Stomatitis and ulcerations about the mouth and throat are treated with the acid conjoined, sometimes with iodine, or with tannin and glycerin. Actinomycosis, after the diseased surface has been scraped, is dressed with four parts of carbolic acid and one of iodine, dissolved in six or eight parts of glycerin (Walley). Added to the ordinary prescrip- tions used in dyspepsia, diarrhoea, and dysentery, carbolic acid or creolin checks fermentative changes and lessens acridity and foetor of the excreta. With oil of turpentine and opium tincture, it is used for intratracheal injections in calves suffering from parasitic bronchitis. Foals and other animals infested with S. Tetracanthus have been suc- cessfully treated with carbolic acid conjoined with turpentine and dialysed iron. Carbolic solutions relieve the itching and swelling occasioned by bees, wasps, mosquitoes, and 406 CARBOLIC ACID ants, anrl, promptly used, prevent mischief from dissection wounds. (Jarbolic acid checks the ]xarasitic growth of ringworm, but is not so effectual as iodine or ferric-chloride dressings. Alternated with other remedies, it is often serviceable in that form of eczema popularly known as grease. In these and other cases where there are foul discharges, it proves a useful addition to lead, zinc, or other appropriate dressings. In eczema in dogs, attended with discharge, the acid is some- times applied mixed with starch powder or fullers' earth. For most eczema cases the wood-tar oils are, however, more suitable than those derived from coal-tar. Diluted solutions are used for destroying ticks, keds, lice, and the acari of scab and mange. The preparation known as M'Dougall's sheep-dipping composition vas favourably reported on by the Australian Government Commissioner appointed to in- quire into the spread and cure of scab in that colony. Folli- cular mange in dogs may be treated by shaving the hair, scrubbing thoroughly with soap and water, and painting the skin with a solution of one part of acid to twenty of water or glycerin, but to avoid dangerous absorption, too large a surface must not be dressed at a time. Carbolic acid is used for the disinfection of stables, kennels, cow-houses, piggeries, and poultry pens ; of railway horse- boxes, cattle-trucks, and loading-places, and of cattle vessels and landing-stages. Carbolic disinfecting powders are con- veniently sprinkled daily throughout the stables of many omnibus, cab, and carrying establishments of London, Liverpool, and other large towns, at an annual cost of about five shillings for each horse. Thus employed, carbolic acid is not injurious or distasteful either to the animals or their attendants. It drives away flies and vermin; arresting decomposition, it prevents unpleasant smells; fixing am- monia, it increases the value of manure with which it has been mixed. To ensure purification of infected premises, the antiseptic nuist be freely and frequently used in the condition of powder, fluid, spray, or vapour, or in several of these forms. Solutions of less than one per cent, are not to be relied on. The vapour is readily evolved by sprinkling AS A DISINFECTANT 407 the acid on live coals or on a hot metal plate. Besides smearing the walls and woodwork with the crude brown acid, during the prevalence of infectious and zymotic diseases, sheets wetted with it should be suspended here and there to catch floating germs. Along with carbolic acid, sulphurous acid or sulphites may be fittingly used. To destroy germs or limit their distribution, animals infected with contagious disorders shoidd receive antiseptics internally, and should be sponged daily with a one per cent, carbolic solution. Infectious germs may thus be prevented sjjreading to healthy subjects, which, by daily administration of antiseptics, may, moreover, be rendered less liable to suffer from disease. Doses, etc. — Horses and cattle take "ntxv. to Tf[xl. ; sheep and large pigs, Tliv. to Tllx. ; dogs, ITj^i. to 1T[ii. The crystallised acid is best for internal use. It may be made into bolus with meal, but is more readily absorbed, more regular in its effects, and less likely to develop local irritation, when given either in water or in glycerin and water. One part by weight of acid rubbed in a mortar with five of glycerin forms a convenient compound, readily miscible with water or other solvent. Brown discoloration of the urine need not prevent the continued use of the drug. Such discoloration results more frequently from external applications which favour rapid oxidation. An ointment is made by rubbing in a mortar about one part of acid with twenty of lard. The liniment usually contains one part of acid shaken up with twenty to forty of rapeseed oil, which is preferable to the drying linseed oil. It is occasionally mixed with soap. For dusting irritable surfaces it is mixed with starch, lycopodium, and occasionally with charcoal and plaster of Paris. Watery solutions are, however, most convenient and penetrating, and are best fitted for antiseptic purposes. Camphorated carbolic acid, used as a germicide dressing for sluggish sores, consists of twelve parts phenol, four of camphor, and one of water; liquefied by trituration. Carbolic oil, made with one of phenol, seven of castor oil, and eight of almond oil, is used for oiling catheters and instruments after they have been disinfected. Aseptic Chinese twist for sutures, is prepared for use by stretching the twist, boiling for ten 408 CREOSOTE minutes, rewinding on a glass slide, and preserving in 5 per cent, carbolic solution. Carbolised tow, contains tar, and 10 per cent, of phenol. Carbolised wool, contains 6 per cent, of phenol. Carbo-sapol, consists of fifty parts carbolic acid, twenty-five parts yellow hard soap, and twenty- five parts soft soap. The ingredients are heated together on a water bath until a clear solution is obtained. It readily mixes with water, and a one per cent, solution does not attack the hands. Its antiseptic power is nearly equal to that of corrosive sublimate {Neiver Reviedies, 1899). Sulpho-carbolic or sulpho-phenic acid (H.CgH^O.HSOg) is prej^ared by the action of strong sulphuric acid on phenol. It crystallises slowly, and forms colourless, deliquescent needles, having less odour than carbolic acid ; at 400° Fahr. it becomes red ; at 540° Fahr. it boils. It is antiseptic and disinfectant, and soluble in water, alcohol, ether, and glycerin. With the oxides or carbonates of the alkalies, earths, or metals, it forms crystalline, soluble, almost odourless, usually colourless, stable sulpho-carbolates, which do not give any evidence of the actions of carbolic acid. The sodium salt is not now trusted either as a surgical or medical antiseptic. The iron, zinc, and copper salts exhibit the actions of their bases. These sulpho-carbolates are excreted by the kidneys in great part unaltered, they probably do not readily give up their carbolic acid in the body, and certainly have not fulfilled the expectations formed of them when they were introduced thirty years ago as antiseptics. Sulpho-carbolic acid is stated to form 33J- per cent, of aseptol, an antiseptic which is soluble but inactive in glycerin, alcohol, or oil. A 10 per cent, aqueous solution is used as a dressing for wounds. CREOSOTE CilEOSOTUM. Creosote. A mixture of guaiacol, creosol, and other phenols, obtained in the distillation of wood-tar (B.P.). Tar obtained from hard woods yields 20 to 25 per cent, of creosote. The process of extraction is tedious and com- ACTIONS AND USES 409 plex, requiring repeated distillations and the removal of the lighter paraffin oils. It is a mixture of phenol, cresol, phlorol, guaiacol, and 20 to 50 per cent, of creosol. It yields creosotic acid, which in its properties and uses closely resembles salicylic acid. Creosote is a mobile, oily, neutral, or only faintly acid fluid, colourless and transparent when first prepared, but, unless very pure, soon becoming brown. Specific gravity 1-079. It has a strong, persistent, smoky odour, and a pungent, acrid taste, with a sweet after-taste. It requires for solution one hundred and fifty parts of water, but readily dissolves in alcohol, ether, acetic acid, and volatile oils. Dropped on white filtering paper, and ex230sed to a heat of 212' Fahr., it leaves no translucent stain (B.P.). Impure carbolic acid and other coal-tar oils, frequently mixed with or substituted for the more expensive wood creosote, are distinguished from it by their greater solubility in water; by their solidifying in acicular crystals at low temperatures ; by their not affecting a ray of polarised light, which creosote turns to the left ; by their producing a clear jelly when shaken with collodion, which does not affect wood creosote ; while their watery solution gives a blue colour, with a neutral iron perchloride solution, which gradually browns the watery solution of wood creosote. Actions and Uses. — Creosote belongs to the aromatic series of carbon compounds. Containing so many phenols and guaiacol, it has a complex action, but it resembles carbolic acid, and is a more active germicide. It is occasionally administered to arrest gastro-intestinal fermentation, and diminish foetor of the discharges. It is used as an anti- septic, hemostatic, and analgesic, and for the destruction of skin parasites and bacteria. In large doses it is an irritant poison and cardiac paralysant. General Actions. — When undiluted, it coagulates albumin and destroys the epithelium of mucous membranes, and even of the skin, producing corrugation and a white stain or scar. Diluted it is astringent and antiseptic, irritates slightly, and then causes analgesia and feeble anaesthesia. Althouo-h in saturated solution it has little effect on enzymes, one part in 4 1 0 CREOSOTE five hundred of water arrests the action of yeast, while one in one thousand kills bacteria (Bucholtz). It is absorbed, and communicates its odour to the various tissues. Large doses, given internally, cause nausea ; in carnivora, vomiting, colicky pains, and diarrhoea, with muscular paralysis, espe- cially involving the lieart, and depressing the central nervous system. It is excreted by the lungs, but chiefly by the kidneys. Toxic Effects. — Three drachms given to horses caused slight and temporary feverishness, and imparted to the breath a creosote odour (Hertwig). Tliirt}^ drops given to dogs caused uneasiness, copious salivation, vertigo, muscular twitching, enfeebled and fluttering action of the heart, laboured breathing, diminished sensibility, dulness, and stupor. The symptoms came on within a few minutes, and continued for two or three hours. For a day or two, however, irritability of the stomach, occasional vomiting, and dulness were still observable. Two dogs got two drachms each, and died within three hours, evincing, besides the symptoms above mentioned, violent convulsions and complete coma. A rabbit was thrown into convulsions, and died within a minute, from the effects of thirty drops {Treatise on Creosote, 183G). From the prominence of the convulsions in these cases, it is probable that the creosote was largely mixed with carbolic acid. The antidotes have been enumerated (p. 402). Medicinal Uses. — It is prescribed in some forms of in- digestion, to arrest undue fermentation, and is given to dogs in chronic vomiting. With chalk and catechu mixture, or a little laudanum and an aromatic, it helps to check diarrhoea and dysentery. A few drops inhaled with steam benefit chronic bronchitis and lung- complaints, when accompanied by excessive or fcetid discharges. Parasites lodged in the air-passages are destroyed by creosote, ad- ministered by the mouth, or, more effectually, by inhalation or intratracheally. In contagious pleuro- pneumonia in cattle, creosote was some years ago used at the Edinburgh (Dick's) Veterinary College with some advantage in re- lieving distressed breathing and irritable bowels. It has been tried in purpura in horses, but without any very ANTISEPTIC AND ANALGESIC 411 striking results. Nasal gleet, with enlarged glands and foetid discharge, is sometiines, however, benefited by a daily drachm of creosote, given with thirty minims sul- phuric acid, and made into bolus with linseed meal. For external purposes, carbolic acid has superseded creosote as an antiseptic for wounds, but as a stimulant and escharotic in caries, fistula, canker, thrush, and foot- rot, creosote with an equal part of tincture of iodine, is still used. Diluted with alcohol and water, or with vinesrar, it is occasionally used to relieve itching and remove scurf in chronic eczema, prurigo, and psoriasis. It destroys parasites infesting the skin. For mange and scab, Gerlach advised an ounce of creosote, dissolved in fifteen ounces of spirit and forty of water. For intractable follicular mange, after washing the dog with soap and water, or, better still, shaving him, Mr. Hunting advises inunction of a mixture of one part of creosote and fourteen of olive- oil, the penetrating power being increased by the addition of two parts solution of caustic potash. Human patients suffering from toothache depending on caries are often relieved by a drop of creosote cautiously placed in the hollow of the tooth. Doses, etc. — For horses, TT^xx. to 5j ; for cattle, f5ss. to f5jj. ; sheep, Tl[x. to TTixxx. ; pigs, TT^v. to TT[xv. ; dogs, Tq^i. to TIl^v. It is given in bolus with syrup; in solution, with mucilage, acetic acid, volatile oils, or alcohol; or con- veniently shaken up with milk. As a stimulant or escharotic, it is applied with a camel's -hair brush; is used in solution in spirit or acetic acid, or as an ointment, made with one part to eight of lard or simple ointment. For skin diseases, equal parts of creosote and sulphur may be made into an ointment with lard, or a liniment with oil. A few drops are sometimes added to turpentine, ammonia, or other embrocations. For intratracheal injection in parasitic bronchitis TT^S to TT^IO creosote are dissolved in TliGO to TTI^lOO of a mixture of equal parts of alcohol and water. Guaiacol (methyl-pyrocatechin), obtained by distillation from beech creosote, or from guaiacum resin, is closely 412 CRESOL — CREOLIN allied in antiseptic properties and general actions to creosote. Commercial guaiacol is an oily liquid containing about 90 per cent, of pure guaiacol, which is crystalline. It is soluble in eighty-five parts of water, and freely in alcohol, ether, oils, and glycerin. Applied to the skin in fever it lowers tem- perature, but for this purpose it has been little used. It is antipyretic, germicide, and a local anaesthetic. A one per cent, solution in castor oil is used as an anaesthetic instillation for the eye; and fifteen grains pure guaiacol dissolved in four or five drachms of glycerin form an anesthetic injection which is useful in minor surgery. It has been prescribed in phthisis and pneumonia of man, and in most cases the temperature was markedly reduced. It is excreted by skin and kidneys (Braithwaite's Retrospect, 1894). The carbonate (ductal), a neutral crystalline powder, is some- times prescribed as an intestinal antiseptic. It passes un- changed through the stomach into the bowel, where it is split up (Coblentz). CRBSOL-CREOLIN-JEYES' FLUID Cresol is a coal-tar product of complex composition, con- taining naphthalin, xylenol, phloral, leucoline, anthracene, paracresol, pyridine, with sodium carbonate, sulphate and chloride, and traces of carbolic acid. Creolin, Cresyl-Jeycs', or cresols and hydrocarbons saponi- fied with resin and alkalies, is one of the most useful of the benzol or aromatic carbon scries. It is a dark-brown, oily liquid, of a tar-like odour and an aromatic taste ; neutral or slightly alkaline ; soluble in ether, chloroform, and in ninety-five parts of strong alcohol; mixed with forty or more parts of water it forms an ojiaque milky emulsion. Actions and Uses. — -Creolin is antiseptic, disinfectant, de- odorant, parasiticide, astringent, and styptic. Its antiseptic power has been investigated by Nocard, Esmarch, Frohner, Albrecht, and Eisenberg. Bacteriological tests prove it to be more prompt and effective than carbolic acid in the destruction of the microbes of glanders, anthrax, fowl- cholera, etc. A one per 1000 solution is stated to kill ACTIONS AND USES 413 cholera bacteria in ten minutes, and arrest development of typhus bacilli in one hour; while a one per 1000 solution of carbolic acid requires four days to kill the microbes of cholera, and had no effect on those of typhus in twenty-six days (Esmarch, Frohner). In solutions of 3 to 5 per cent, creolin destroys nearly instantaneously the bacteria of glanders, anthrax, and mammitis, as well as pyogenic organisms (Nocard). The virulence of tubercle bacilli is destroyed in a few minutes by a 3 per cent, solution, while a 5 per cent, solution is fatal to anthrax spores in twenty-four hours. Kaufmann states that as a bactericide it is ten times as powerful as carbolic acid. It coagulates albumin, but, unlike carbolic acid and creosote, 10 per cent, solutions do not irritate the skin, even when abraded, or the mucous membranes. It is quickly absorbed, but large doses are given without causing intoxication or injury. It quickly impregnates with its empyreumatic phenol odour the sweat, milk, and urine, by which it is excreted, partly as naphthalin, partly^ as sulphuric acid. It usually colours the urine brown. Used with ordinary care it is not poisonous. Horses have received in emulsion from one and a half to three fluid drachms without effect, and cattle still larger doses. A medium-sized dog had a drachm and a half, and another thirty minims daily for four weeks without injury. Sheep and goats have taken with impunity two to six fluid drachms. Very large doses have been given by the mouth and by in- travenous injection without provoking serious symptoms. The in-rubbing even of concentrated solutions is well borne. Frohner records that at the Berlin Veterinary College upwards of 1000 mangy dogs have been treated with creolin lotions without a mishap. A thousand horses suffering from mange have been dressed with a 10 per cent, solution ; sheep suffering from scab have been dipped in a 2| per cent, solution; while 20,000 sheep are stated to have been washed with creolin dips in Prussia in 1888. Further testimony of its innocuous and non-irritant character is adduced by Professor Spath and two of his colleagues, who took daily from thirty minims to two fluid drachms without loss of appetite, nausea, or disturbance of 414 JEYES FLUID circulation or secretion. The larger doses diminished the amount of intestinal gas, the faeces lost their distinctive smell, and the urine contained less indican, and, although kept for several days in a warm room, did not decompose. Medicinal Uses. — At the several Continental veterinary schools Creolin-Pearson or Jeyes' Fluid, is much used, and is characterised as the cheapest and best antiseptic and disinfectant. It is not often prescribed internally, but, as already indicated, in gastro-intestinal derangements it is effectual in checking undue fermentation, and lessening the foetor and acridity of the excretions. As a surgical antiseptic, it has the merit of being non-irritant and non-poisonous. It does not dry or harden the operator's hands, or spoil the steel instruments, as carbolic acid does. AVith glycerin and water it is a serviceable gargle in aphthous ulcerated conditions of the mouth and throat. It is inhaled in ozojna, strangles, bronchitis, pneumonia, and purpura. In the form of injection it is useful in retention of the foetal membranes, metritis, cystitis, and otorrhoea. It destroys skin parasites, whether animal or vegetable, in all animals, and is recommended in chronic eczema. It is used for the several purposes of a dis- infectant. Jeyes' fluid or creolin has been thoroughly tested by Albrecht and Frohner, who report most favourably of its antiseptic value in the treatment of accidental and surgical wounds, skin affections, and diarrhoea. Doses, etc. — Creolin, horses and cattle, f5ij- to f5vi. ; dogs, TTIv. to fl^xx. Calves, sheep, and pigs, tl^xxx. to TTilx., in five to ten ounces of water. For external purposes, one to five parts are mixed with a hundred of water, solution being facilitated by addition of a little glycerin or soft soap. As a dry dressing it is used with boric acid, zinc oxide, or kaolin. Creolin solutions lose their efficacy when long kept, and hence should be made up fresh every week. For mange or scab Frohner advises the dressing of the worst parts with a lotion of one part each of creolin and methylated spirit and eight parts of soap, and subsequently placing the patient for two or three minutes in a bath of two or two and a half per cent, of creolin, and, if necessary, repeating the treatment in a week. IODOFORM 415 Lysol, stated to be the product of a solution of tar oils in a neutral soap — is a clear, brown, syrupy liquid, containing about 50 per cent, of cresols. Mixed with water it forms a clear, saponaceous liquid. As an antiseptic it is four or five times stronger than carbolic acid. A one or two per cent, aqueous solution is used as a wound dressing, as a bath for instruments and ligatures and for disinfection of the hands. A one per cent, solution has been prescribed as a vermicide, and as an udder injection in parturient apoplexy; and a three per cent, solution is serviceable as a dressing for parasitic affections of the skin. Izal, is said to consist of an emulsion containing about 30 per cent, of a new tar oil pro- duced by a special process in the manufacture of coke. It is used as a disinfectant and antiseptic. Solutol, an alkaline solution of sodium cresol, and Solveol, a solution of cresol in sodium cresotate, are used as disinfectants. Solutol is unsuitable for surgical uses because of its caustic alkalinity. Solveol is nearly odourless, and miscible with water in all proportions, forming a solution which is free from the greasiness of lysol and creolin. As a microcide, an aqueous solution of one part in two hundred, is stated to be equal to a 2 per cent, solution of carbolic acid (Coblentz). IODOFORM loDOFORMUM. Tri-iodomethaue. A product of the action of iodine on ethylic alcohol in the presence of solution of potassium carbonate. CHI3 (B.P.). It occurs in shining, lemon yellow, hexagonal cr3^stals; is volatile, has a persistent, disagreeable odour and taste ; is very slightly soluble in cold water, but is soluble in 10 of ether, 12 chloroform, 95 rectified spirit, 10 collodion, 60 vaseline, 14 eucalyptus oil, and in glycerin, fixed and volatile oils. Actions and Uses. — It contains 96 per cent, of iodine with which it readily parts, exerting antiseptic and parasiticide actions. It has only a very limited power of destrojdng bacteria which grow and multiply on media charged with 416 IODOFORM the drug. It, however, diminishes the virulence of micro- organisms by acting on their products which, according to Lister, it chemically alters or destroys. Local suppuration invariably produced by subcutaneous injection of cadaverin does not occur when iodoform is added to this toxine. Behring found that cultures of pyogenic organisms injected into the peritoneum caused death in twenty-four hours, but had no effect when the culture was mixed with a little iodoform. Although proved to be a feeble germicide, iodo- form has rendered excellent service in clinical practice. It is not so irritant as iodine. It resembles chloroform and bromoform, and, like them, is a local anaesthetic. Applied to a wound it remains long unconsumed ; and under the combined influence of heat, moisture, and fat it is slowly dissolved and decomposed with liberation of free iodine upon which its antiseptic power probably depends. It has little effect on the unbroken skin, but slightly irritates abraded skin and mucous surfaces. It is a more effectual local anaesthetic than chloroform or bromoform, inasmuch as it is neither so irritant nor so volatile. It is slowly absorbed, forms iodides and iodates, and produces many of the effects of iodine ; but when swallowed in large doses it is more lethal. In dogs and cats it induces gastric derangement, vomiting, muscular spasms, lowered tempera- ture, impaired heart action, albuminuria, and narcosis; but neither in rabbits nor in man is narcosis produced (Brunton). Frohner records that for each kilogramme of body-weight dogs are poisoned by fifteen grains given by the mouth, twenty to thirty grains given subcutaneously, or seven grains injected into a serous cavity. An old cow Avhich received an ounce and a half died in thirty-six hours, with spasms and narcosis. Chronic poisoning induces emaciation and fatty degeneration of muscles and glands. Iodoform is slowly excreted in the urine chiefly as sodium iodide. It is rarely prescribed internally. Its chief use is as an antiseptic dressing for unhealthy wounds, being especially useful when dressings cannot be conveniently changed, or where they cannot be properly applied, as in wounds of the rectum, bladder, and generative organs. It is used in burns, ACTIONS AND USES 417 eczema, canker in horses' feet, and fistulaa. Small doses maintain wounds in an aseptic state, promote granulation, and allay irritation. Wounds, after cleansing with carbolic or zinc chloride solution, are dusted with the j)owder, used alone or mixed with boric acid, and covered with iodoform or carbolic gauze, or moistened with an ethereal or oily solution. Oil of eucalyptus, and balsam of Peru or Tolu, are convenient solvents, which also cover the disagreeable smell and taste. As a parasiticide it is used for the same cases as iodine. Ethereal solutions are injected in ozoena and ulcerated sore-throat. Pencils made with 50 to 70 per cent, of iodoform, mixed with starch and gum, are used in Avooden holders for dressing wounds; while injections and suppositories made with eucalyptus oil and cacao butter, are serviceable as deodorisers and local antiseptics in painful conditions of the rectum and urino-genital organs. Although not liable to cause injury by absorption, dogs, unless muzzled, are prone to lick the dressed surfaces, and in this way are sometimes poisoned. Iodoform emulsion — containing one part iodoform moistened with alcohol, two parts boiling water, and seven of glycerin — is a valuable injection for sinuous wounds. lodol (tetra-iodopyrrol) (C^I^NH), containing 89 per cent. of iodine, is a light-brown, tasteless, crystalline powder, with a faint thymol-like smell, insoluble in water, but dissolved by three parts of alcohol, and also readily in ether, chloroform, glycerin, and collodion. It resembles iodoform, and being less irritant, is preferable for internal use. Horses and cattle take grs. xv. to grs. xxv. ; dogs, gr. i. to grs. iii. It may be given suspended in glycerin or mucilage. Aristol (di- thymol-iodide) is a compound of iodine and thymol, conjoins the properties of its two constituents, and resembles iodoform, but is devoid of its disagreeable taste and toxic effects. It is used for the same purposes as iodoform. It dries excessive skin secretions, and is useful for burns, and cracked heels. It is soluble in lixed oils, ether and collodion, but not in water, alcohol or glycerin. It contains 46 per cent, of iodine. Europhen, containing 28 per cent, of iodine, is a light 2 D 418 PRUSSIC ACID yellow powder, insoluble in water and glycerin, but soluble in alcohol, ether and oil. It is non-poisonous, has very little odour, and is used as a dry dressing in eczema and otorrhoea in dogs. lodo-salicylic acid, containing 50 per cent, of iodine, and di-iodo-salicylic acid, containing 66 per cent, of iodine, are anodyne, antipyretic and antiseptic, and are used internally as substitutes for salicylates in the treatment of rheumatism. Horses take 3j- to 5ij-> dissolved in alcohol, ether, or oil. Loretin, losophan, sanoform, sozoiodol, and periodate, are odourless iodoform substitutes. All contain iodine, and are used as antiseptics in powder, or solution, or mixed with vaseline or collodion. lodoformin, an odourless powder, con- taining 75 per cent, of iodoform ; and iodoformal, prepared by the action of ethyl iodide on iodoformin, having a strong odour of coumarin but no odour of iodoform, are sometimes employed in place of iodoform. lodoformogen, a new, odourless combination of iodoform and albumin ; is a light yellow powder which does not form lumps. It is an excellent substitute for iodoform {Newer Remedies^ 1899). PRUSSIC OR HYDROCYANIC ACID AciDUM Hydrocyanicum Dilutum. An aqueous solution containing 2 per cent, by weight of hydrogen cyanide, HCN. (B.P.) Prussic acid was so called from being first obtained from Prussian blue. Its title of hydrocyanic acid is derived from its being composed of hydrogen and the compound radicle cyanogen. It is one of the products of the distillation of coal, and traces are found in imperfectly purified coal-gas. The leaves and kernels of various stone fruits of the apple and almond natural orders, when crushed and moistened, undergo a species of fermentation, their albuminoid emulsin decomposing the glucoside am3'gdalin, and producing hydro- cyanic acid, a hydrocyanated oil, benzaldehyde, and glucose. Prussic Benzalde- Amygdaliii. Water. Acid. }iyde. Glucose. C^oH^^NO^ + 2H2O = HCN + C,H,0 + ^O.^i^.p,. A NERVE PARALYSANT 419 Medicinal hydrocyanic acid may be prepared by the inter- action of dikited sulphuric acid and potassium ferrocyanide. The anhydrous acid is obtained by cautiously distilling the medicinal acid, and collecting the vapour in a receiver kept cold by ice. It is a colourless, very volatile, inflammable liquid, and, alike in its gaseous and liquid form, is a most active, deadly poison. The medicinal acid, when freshly prepared, contains two per cent, of anhydrous acid, but on account of its volatility it is apt to lose strength. This may be obviated by keeping it in stoppered bottles, tied over with some impervious cover- ing, laid down inverted and in a dark place. It is colourless, with a diffusible, peculiar odour. Specific gravity, -997. It only slightly reddens litmus. Evaporated on a platinum capsule it leaves no residue. Scheele's acid contains four per cent, of hydrogen cyanide. Actions and Uses. — Prussic acid paralyses all nerve struc- tures with which it comes into contact. A few drops of the diluted acid applied to mucous or skin surfaces diminish or arrest sensation. It is hence used as an analgesic for relief of irritation and pain, especially of the skin, stomach, and throat. It is quickly absorbed. Full doses paralyse the cerebro-spinal axis, kill almost instantaneously by cardiac arrest, or somewhat less suddenly by respiratory arrest. General Actions. — It stops protoplasmic movements both in plants and animals, kills infusoria, checks oxidation, and arrests fermentation (Brunton). The anhydrous acid applied to the skin, after momentary irritation, paralyses and anaes- thetises. The diluted acid applied to the skin or mucous surfaces quickly penetrates and paralyses the nerve-endings, impairing and destroying tactile sensation and sensibility to pain. If the surfaces are freely moistened, these eftects usually continue for one or two hours. Its volatility and rapidity of diffusion ensure quick absorption, and poisonous doses promptly paralyse the central nervous system. The respiratory, vaso-motor, and spasm centres of the medulla, and the peripheral afferent nerves, are early and notably affected ; and in all mammalia death usually occurs within a few minutes. When poisoning is not immediate, it is, 420 PRUSSIC ACID according to Dr. Lauder Brunton, divisible into three stages — (1) The brain is affected ; there is giddiness, stag- gering movements, and a few slow inspirations, followed by rapid expirations and irregular heart action. (2) Convul- sions, both tonic and clonic, appear, depending upon paralysis of the cerebro-spinal axis, and hence diftering entirely from those of strychnine, which result from stimulation of the cerebro-spinal axis. (3) Coma, ana3sthesia, and paralysis of voluntary muscles supervene, with weak cardiac and respira- tory movements, and death from paralysis of the cardiac or respiratory centres. Concurrently Avitli these in-contact etfects on nervous tissues, and most notable where life is pro- longed, is the combination of the acid with the hannoglobin of the blood, forming cyan-ha3nioglobin, which parts slowly with its ox3'gen, and hence impairs internal respiration. Unlike other acids, prussic acid does not coagulate albumin or break down the formed elements of the blood. The potassium and other cyanides are soluble, readily yield their cyanogen, and are active poisons ; but the ferro-cyanides are insoluble, and greatly less active. Toxic Actions. — Horses have been poisoned in one or two minutes by ten to twenty minims of anhydrous acid, injected hypodermically. Trousseaux and Pidoux placed a piece of cotton wool, on which six minims of anhydrous acid had been dropped, in the nostrils of two horses. In ten seconds they dropped as if dead, and continued for an hour to exhibit grave nervous symptoms — convulsions, spasms, vertigo^ paralysis, and stupor {TraiU de Thenqyeutique). Horses swallowing four to five drachms of the two per cent, medi- cinal acid may die within an hour. Professor Coleman gave an aged horse repeatedly, at intervals of several days, one to three drachms of acid, containing about four per cent, of anhydrous acid, and noted nuicli excitement, the pulse raised to 100, and in one experiment to IGO, laboured breathing and tetanic contraction of the muscles ; but the effects gradually passed away. Six ounces of medicinal acid given to Wombwell's old elephant, killed at Birmingham in 1855, caused only slightly laboured breathing. Dogs, cats, and rabbits, which had one to four drops of KILLS BY CARDIAC OR RESPIRATORY ARREST 421 anhj'drous acid placed on the tongue or within the eyehds, in ten to thirty seconds made three or four hurried inspira- tions, a convulsive expiration, often a cry, had tetanic con- vulsions, and died in one to three minutes. Air saturated with the gas killed one dog in ten seconds, another in five, and a cat in two seconds. Guinea-pigs inhaling it for one second die in fifteen seconds. Strong rabbits inhaling it for three seconds die in thirty seconds : but birds are not susceptible, and frogs are still less so. Dogs and cats receiving forty to sixty minims of the two per cent, acid were sometimes poisoned almost as rapidly as with the anhydrous. More frequently, however, life is prolonged for several minutes, and death is preceded by giddiness, im]3aired voluntary movement, dilatation of the pupil, a slight rise and sub- sequent fall of blood-pressure, slowing of the pulse, rapid failure of respiration, and tetanic convulsions. The heart continues to beat for several minutes after respiration has ceased. In experiments made by direction of Messrs. Young, of Leith, two ounces were found to cause rapid death of Greenland whales, when discharged by an ingenious device into the wound Tiiade by the harpoon. Direct application of the acid to the medulla of an alligator, Avhich had been im- perfectly affected by doses administered internally, caused a long, deep expiration, tetanic spasm of the respiratory muscles, and death (Jones and Bartholow). Post-mortem discloses variable appearances. Animals dying almost instantaneously from cardiac arrest have the blood of an arterial hue, as if, from dilatation of the remote capillaries, it had passed through them without change. When the respiratory centre of the medulla has been paralysed, causing death somewhat more slowly by respi- ratory arrest, the appearances are those of suffocation. For some hours after death the blood remains fluid, of a blue colour, and occasionally evolves the peculiar odour of the acid. Antidotes. — Prussic acid is usually so rapidly fatal that the animal is often dead before any remedial measures can be adopted ; but so volatile is the poison, and so rapidly is it removed from the body, chiefly by the lungs, that if the animal lives for half an hour it will generally recover. 422 PRUSSIC ACID Artificial respiration, and subcutaneous injection of ether, sometimes save animals that have had letha] doses. Cautious hypodermic injection of small doses of atropine sulphate stimulates the cardiac and respiratory centres, and may thus avert mortal paralysis. Inhalation of ammonia and douch- ing alternately with cold and warm water applied to the head and neck, have also been advised. The chemical anti- dote is a mixture of a ferrous and ferric salt, administered with magnesia or potassium carbonate, and forming the in- soluble Prussian blue. But to be effectual the antidote must be swallowed before the rapidly-acting poison is absorbed. Medicinal Uses. — By paralysing the ends of the sensory nerves, the acid allays the irritation of urticaria, prurigo, and other itching skin complaints. In like manner it some- times relieves gastrodynia and chronic vomiting, being con- joined in such cases with ice, bismuth, and morphine ; while in irritable conditions of the throat it is prescribed with cocaine, chlorodyne, morphine, or atropine. In the symp- tomatic treatment of tetanus and nervous diseases it is given to allay excitement. For destroying the strongyles of hoose in calves, and soothing consequent irritation. Professor Williams prescribes "n^x. to IT^xx. of acid, conjoined with sodium car- bonate and gentian. Doses, etc. — Of the B.P. two per cent, acid, horses and cattle take TT[xx. to TlLlx ; sheep, Tl^x. to Tl^xv. : pigs, lltij. to IT^vij. ; dogs, Tl[ij. to fl^iv., given in water sweetened with syrup. As the soothing effects are transient, suitable doses may be repeated three or four times daily, but their effects should be carefully watched ; while, to prevent mistakes apt to occur with such a poisonous, colourless liquid, it is often made up with compound tincture of cardamoms. For ex- ternal use it is diluted Avith two hundred parts of water, a few drops of glycerin being added to retard evaporation. Lotions must be cautiously applied, especially where the skin is broken. But the potassium or other soluble cyanide being stable and not volatile, is more convenient for most external uses. PETROLEUMS 423 PETROLEUMS OR PARAFFINS Hard paraffin. Paraffinum durum. A mixture of several of the harder members of the paraffin series of hydro-carbons; obtained by distillation from shale (B.P.). Liquid paraffin. Paraffinum liquidum. A clear, oily liquid, obtained from petroleum, after the more volatile portions have been removed by distillation (B.P.). Soft paraffin. Paraffinum moUe. A semi-solid mixture containing soft members of the paraffin series of hydro- carbons ; obtained by purifying the volatile portions of petroleum (B.P.). The petroleums or paraffins are hydro-carbons, produced by the decomposition of vegetable matter. They are obtained from the destructive distillation of coal, from bituminous shales, and from the oil-wells found in various parts of the world. They occur as gases, fluids, and solids, and many are used in the arts and in medicine. The simplest of the series is marsh gas, methane, fire-damp, or light carburetted hydrogen (CHJ — the inflammable gas which causes coal-pit explosions. When rock-oil is distilled, ethane and other gaseous paraffins are first evolved, are collected, and in great part Hquefied by a condensing pump, and yield the liquid cymogene, which, on account of the cold produced by its rapid evaporation, is used in freezing machines. Proceeding with the fractional distillation, the products which come off" below 170° Fahr., and consist chiefly of pentane and hexane, are sold as petroleum spirit, or petroleum ether, and used for making varnishes, for dissolving indiarubber, and for singeing lamps. The next portion of the distillate, coming off about 212° Fahr., is heptane, and is used for illuminating purposes, under the names benzoline, paraffin oil, and mineral sperm oil. For safe use this oil, when placed in an open saucer at 100° Fahr., should not kindle when a light is brought near its surface. At higher temperatures there come off hexadecane and other paraffins, richer in carbon, constituting such soft solids as vaseline and the soft petro- leums, while still higher temperatures produce the hard 424 RANGOON PETROLEUM paraffins, cereses, or paraffin waxes. These soft and hard paraffins are also obtained by distillation from shale, the liquid portions being separated by refrigeration, and the solid products purified by melting and filtration. They are frequently substituted for oils, lard, and wax in the making of ointments. Rangoon petroleum, obtained from wells on the Caspian shores, and the analogous Barbados or mineral tar, found in the island of Barbados floating on the surface of springs or pools, and in Trinidad forming extensive beds or lakes, are of the consistence of treacle, of a dull green-brown colour, with a petroleum odour and a bitter taste. Actions and Uses. — The petroleums belong physiologically to the fatty or alcohol series of hydro-carbons. Methane, ethane, and the gases low in the series, and the more volatile liquids, are more easily absorbed and excreted than the heavier liquids and solids, and are stimulants, amesthetics, and inebriant narcotics. Petroleum benzin, or petroleum spirit, is a topical irritant, germicide and vermicide, a stimulant and antispasmodic, and is used for many of the purposes of oil of turpentine. It must be distinguished from benzine (CgH^H) obtained from the distillation of coal-tar, which has a higher specific gravity and a higher boiling-point. The dose for horses and cattle is fgss. to fgj. ; for dogs, f3j. to f5ij., given in milk or gruel. Animals are sometimes poisoned by the refuse oils from petroleum works contaminating the drinking water. Pro- fessor Williams records cases of cattle suffering from diarrhoea, wasting, and anremia, and their intestinal glands being found saturated and darkened with the oil. The petroleum spirit and other paraffin oils, in virtue of their diffusive, solvent, stimulant, and antiseptic actions, are applied in scaly skin complaints, as in old-standing cases of grease in horses, to remove scurf and dissolve accumulated sebaceous matters, to stimulate the dermis, and promote growth of hair. For such purposes they are frequently used in conjunction with alkalies, bland oils, or vaseline. In the treatment of ring-worm, mange, and scab, they arc VASELINE 425 united or alternated with sulphur, iodine, or solution of tobacco or stavesacre. Vaseline, the petrolatum of the U.S.P., is prepared by the Chesebrough Manufacturing Company, New York, by heating rock-oil in iron retorts, and filtering the residual heavier oils through animal charcoal. It is red, yellow, or white, accord- ing to the proportion of colouring matter retained. It has the consistence of summer butter, is tasteless, odourless, and neutral. It melts about 95° Fahr., and boils about 300° Fahr. It is insoluble in water, glycerin, cold alcohol, and ether, but is soluble in chloroform, carbon disulphide, and in fixed and volatile oils. A handy solvent is made of one part of castor oil and eight of water. Vaseline dissolves bromine, iodine, sulphur iodide, and carbolic acid, as well as fixed and volatile oils and alkaloids, and is a serviceable basis for ointments, liniments, and pomades. It has the advantage of being nearly free from greasiness ; it is not oxidisable, and hence does not become rancid. Ointments prepared with it accord- ingly keep better than those made with animal and vegetable fats. It is used as a lubricant and emollient for irritable, inflamed, or blistered mucous and skin surfaces. It is a convenient basis for electuaries. It is used for making up boluses, and as a protective for leather and cutlery. Rangoon and Barbados tars were at one time prescribed in chest diseases and as anti-emetics, but are not now used internally. Externally, they are applied for the sarae purposes as wood-tar, and particularly in the treatment of skin complaints, thrush, canker, and other diseases of the feet. Coal-tar differs from Barbados tar in having a stronger and more offensive sulphurous smell, but it deserves its popular credit as an antiseptic and stimulant adhesive for diseases of the feet. The alcoholic solution of coal-tar, sold as liquor carbonis detergens, is useful in eczema, one or two drachms in a pint of warm water being applied either alone or with liquor plumbi diacetatis. The B.P. liquor picis carbonis, prepared with two ounces of soap-bark, twenty ounces of rectified spirit, and four ounces of coal-tar, is also used for diseases of the skin. Section III Medicines derived from the Vegetable Kingdom ALOES Aloe. — Inspissated juice from the transversely- cut bases of the leaves of various species of Aloe, evaporated to dryness. Nat. Ord — Liliacese. Aloin, C^gH^yOySHgO. — A crystalline substance extracted from aloes by solvents and purified by recrystallisation. (B.P.) The several species of Aloe, which yield the various com- mercial aloes, are succulent liliaceous perennials, having short woody stems ; strong, thick, fleshy, amplexicaul light- green leaves, with sharp serrated edges, and a stout spine projecting at the apex; while on a slightly branched scape is carried a raceme of yellow, scarlet, or white tubular pendulous flowers. Underneath the leathery cuticle, and exterior to the loose mucilaginous pulp, lie elongated thin walled cells, which contain the yellow, bitter, purgative juice. Barbados Aloes. — Aloe Barbadensis, or Curayoa aloes, the product of the aloe vera, aloe chinensis, and probably other species, is the variety chiefly used in veterinary practice. Imported from Barbados and most of the West Indian islands. A dwarf variety is cultivated ; the leaves, measur- ing a foot to two feet in length, are chopped off close to the stem; are placed for twelve to twenty hours in tubs with their cut ends down ; from the longitudinal vessels the juice trickles, is collected in casks, and heated for four or five hours, sediment and impurities being carefully kept back. When sufficiently concentrated, the juice is poured into gourd shells, and the opening closed by a portion of shell let in, and secured in its place by a piece of coarse cloth nailed over 426 BARBADOS, SOCOTRINE, AND CAPE ALOES 427 it. The gourds, when filled, usually weigh from 10 to 40 lbs. Barbados aloes has a liver-brown colour ; a brown, opaque, earthy fracture ; a disagreeable, bitter, persistent taste, and a strong and disagreeable odour, especially when breathed upon — an odour generally likened to that of the human axilla. It is hard, tough, and difficult to pulverise ; small fragments are translucent, and of an orange-brown hue ; its powder is dull olive-yellow, and darker than that of other varieties. It is almost entirely soluble in alcohol (40 per cent.). SocoTRiNE (also known as East Indian, Bombay, or Zanzibar aloes) is chiefly imported from Bombay and other Indian ports. It is stated to be the product of the leaves of Aloe Perryi, and probably also of other species. It occurs in red- brown pieces of variable size ; darkens on exposure ; breaks usually with a smooth resinous fracture ; thin fragments are translucent and orange-red or orange-brown ; the odour, though strong, is somewhat agreeable ; the taste very bitter. Cape Aloes (brought from Cape Town and Natal) is chiefly got from the Aloe ferox, Alricana, or Spicata, or from hybrids obtained by crossing these with other varieties. The better qualities have a dark-brown or olive-green resinous appear- ance, a compact structure, a vitreous, conchoidal, dark-green fracture, and a strong and rather disagreeable sour odour. It is very brittle, and easily reduced to a gamboge-yellow powder. The better qualities of Cape are little, if at all, inferior to Barbados or to Socotrine aloes. Mr. Joseph Gamgee's experiments show that, compared with Barbados, Cape aloes causes equally copious but less watery discharges, while its action is sooner expended (Veterinarian, 1856). Caballine or Horse Aloes usually consists of the residue from the purification of more valuable sorts. It is black, vesicular, and bituminous, lacks the compact structure of the better kinds, usually contains such impurities as straw, bark, stones, and sand, and should be discarded from veterinary practice. Properties. — The several varieties have a specific gravity of 1-364, are resinoid, rather brittle, their external surface is duller and darker than a freshly-made fracture. The tern- 428 ALOES — ALOIN peratiire at Avhich the juice is concentrated accoimtis for such marked differences in opacity, as the dull opaque Barbados and the translucent East Indian. All have an intensely bitter and persistent taste, and a strong and more or less disagreeable odour, much increased when the specimen is breathed upon or heated. When held in the hand for a few minutes, aloes softens and becomes adhesive. At a low red- heat it is partially fused, froths up, chars, and burns. Tem- peratures exceeding 150° Fahr. alter its composition and impair its purgative property. Moistened with rectified spirit, a thin stratum, examined under the microscope, exhibits numerous crystals. It is almost entirely soluble in boiling water, which deposits. hoAvever, as it cools, 60 to SO per cent, of a broAvn resin. Good specimens are almost entirely soluble in alcohol (40 to 60 per cent.). The watery solution, when cold, reddens litmus, is deepened in colour by alkalies, blackened by ferric chloride, and yields a yellow- grey precipitate with lead acetate. Composition. — Messrs. T. and H. Smith, Edinburgh, have thoroughly investigated the composition of aloes, and isolated from 25 to 80 per cent, of an active yellow, crystalline, neutral bitter principle — aloin, which is noticed more in detail at the end of this article; and about the same proportion of an equally soluble, uncrystallisable aloin, into which the crys- tallisable form is convertible by heat, much in the same way as uncrystallisable treacle is formed during the careless manufacture of crystallisable cane-sugar. A pale-yellow, mobile, mint-flavoured volatile oil, of which only an ounce is obtained from 400 lbs. of aloes, imparts its characteristic odour. Besides mineral matters and albumin, aloes contains about 30 per cent, of a transparent brown resin, deposited from watery decoctions as they cool, almost entirely soluble in rectified spirit, occurring in large amount in inferior samples, in which it is formed at the expense of the aloin, usually by exposure of the juice to high temperatures during inspissari(»ii. This resin possesses little purgative activity. Actions and Uses. — Aloes is purgative ; a bitter tonic in small doses, insufficient to increase the action of the bowels; applied externally it is stimulant and desiccant. PURGATIVE AND TONIC 429 General Actions. — Given by the mouth, it is dissolved iu the gastric fluid, and emulsionised and saponified by the bile and pancreatic juice. Mr. Joseph Gamgee made seven drachms of Cape aloes into a ball with sixty minims of glycerin, rolled it in tissue paper, and gave it to a horse, which, in thirty-three minutes, was killed by dividing the carotid artery. An hour later the ball was found entirely dissolved : the distinct odour of aloes in the stomach and duodenum had not, however, extended to the larg-e intes- tines. Aloes enters the circulation, communicates its bitterness and purgative properties to the milk and other secretions, and is excreted chiefly by the intestinal glandular apparatus, and also in less amount by the kidneys, Avhen it causes diuresis. It is prone to cause hyperaemia of the kidneys, uterus, and pelvic organs. While in contact with the intestines it produces both peristalsis and increased secretion. It acts chiefly on the large intestine, which in part explains its rather slow effects. It causes copious evacuations, but not such fluid discharges as usually follow full doses of salines, gamboge, or croton. It is not so irritant as croton, colocynth, elaterium, or podophyllum. Even after repeated doses it is less liable than most other cathartics to lead to constipation. It increases the secretion of bile. Professor Rutherford introduced aloes into the duodenum of a fasting dog, and found that, although only slight purga- tion ensued, all the bile constituents were increased. It is said to produce evacuations which possess a peculiar dis- agr.eeable odour (Hertwig). Six drachms of Barbados aloes, dissolved in twenty-four ounces of water, and injected into the jugular vein of a horse, caused nausea, frequent straining, and colic — which, how- ever, was only of short duration — and, after twelve hours, purgation. Administered intravenously, it sometimes acts more powerfully on the kidneys than the bowels. Moiroud in- jected four drachms, dissolved in diluted alcohol, into a vein of a horse, and next day eight drachms, dissolved in a similar manner ; but instead of catharsis, observed only diuresis. The several varieties differ somewhat in the desfree of their action. Barbados, although not the most expensive, 430 ALOES is generally preferred by veterinarians. It is the most active and uniform in its effects, but not more drastic than Soco- trine, while it is certainly less liable than Cape aloes to pro- duce diuresis. Every sort is most effective when freshly powdered, and hence, except for immediate use, should be kept in pieces, preserved from moisture in oiled silk or in tin. A temperature approaching 150" Fahr. applied, whether in the extraction of the juice, or in making it up for use, impairs activity by converting the active aloin into inert resin. In the horse, a cathartic dose generally causes in a few hours dryness and increased warmth of the mouth ; a rise of one or even two degrees in temperature occasionally occurs ; the pulse is somewhat quickened ; nausea, colic, and copious secretion of urine may result. Such diuresis occurs sometimes with good Barbados aloes, especially when the bowels are constipated, and more commonly with inferior specimens of Cape and other kinds, in which the aloin has been converted into resin. Combination with jalap, calomel, or other purgatives, usually counteracts this diuretic ten- dency. Combination with ginger or other aromatic, or with hyoscyamus or belladonna, wards off nausea and straining. The purgative effect is usually accelerated and increased by giving the drug in solution, or conjoined with oil or calomel. The time required for the operation of aloes differs con- siderably in different horses, being modified by various cir- cumstances, especially by the previous feeding. Four to six drachms generally operate in sixteen to twenty-four hours. The degree and continuance of the action are also liable to variation ; in some horses purging is over in two or three hours ; in others it extends over twenty-four hours. When aloes fails to move the bowels it is seldom wise to prescribe another dose until forty-eight hours have elapsed. A second dose too closely following the first is liable to cause nausea or super-purgation. If more physic should be deemed absolutely necessary, oil and a little calomel may be given, and enemata .should be diligently used. In order to prevent superpurga- tion, which even ordinary doses of aloes and other cathartics MEDICINAL USES 431 occasionally produce in horses, it is important, until purging has ceased, that the quantity of cold water allowed be care- fully regulated, and that the animal, although at walking exercise, be not put to work. Neglect ot such precautions may lead not only to superpurgation but to enteritis and congestion of the feet. Ruminants are neither promptly nor powerfully purged by aloes alone. When given to cattle, even in the fluid state and in doses of several ounces, it fails to produce copious evacuations. Hertwig mentions that, in an experi- ment made at the Veterinary School of Lyons, a cow got six ounces of aloes, partly in solution, partly in electuary ; but although uneasiness and loss of appetite were observed, the bowels remained unmoved. Gilbert also gave six ounces, with an infusion of four ounces of senna leaves, without effect. Sheep and goats take doses varying from two drachms to an ounce without being speedily or effectively purged. This tardy and uncertain action has been attributed to the drug being delayed by the gastric contents and to peristalsis of the bowel being more difficult to excite in ruminants. For the dog, aloes, when given alone, is neither so speedy nor so safe a cathartic as calomel, jalap, buckthorn, or castor oil. It has also the disadvantage of occasionally producing irritation of the rectum ; but this may, in great part, be overcome by combining it with other purgatives. The dose required to purge a dog is large when compared with that administered either to man or to the horse. The doses of most medicines for men and dogs are very similar ; but man is purged by an eighth or tenth of the aloes requisite to physic the dog. Aloes is a good though slowly acting cathartic for swine. It operates usually in about twelve or fifteen hours. Medicinal Uses. — Aloes is the purgative in general use for horses. In dyspepsia, where the appetite is capricious, the bowels irregular, the coat staring, or where there is itching with swelling of the limbs, a dose of aloes is pre- scribed, and generally followed by salines, acids, or bitters. In torpidity of the bowels it is conjoined with nux vomica, which stimulates peristalsis. In flatulent or spasmodic colic 432 ALOES it is prescribed either in bolus or rubbed down with warm water, and followed with volatile oils, ethers, ammoniacal or other stimulants and antiseptics. Professor Dick recom- mended four or five drachms of aloes dissolved in a quart of hot water, with an ounce each of oil of turpentine and laudanum. Some colic cases are relieved by conjoining with the aloes twenty minims of tincture of aconite. In obstinate torpidity, eserine sulphate, conveniently given hypodermi- cally, promptly produces in most cases copious evacuations. When the bowels are overloaded with indii^cstible food, aloes is frequently given, but linseed oil and calomel are often preferable. Whatever physic is used, enemata of water should be thrown into the colon with an extra long tube, in quantities of six to eight gallons. In obstruction, obstinate torpidity, and severe colic, copious injections introduced into the large intestine are very important adjuncts. Aloes, in virtue of its bitterness and power of increasing peristalsis, is a useful anthelmintic. For entozoa it is administered with oil of turpentine, ether, santonin, sometimes with iron or copper sulphate. Although aloes is effectual in sweeping out excess of bile lodged in the intestines, it is unsuitable in jaundice or torpidity of the liver, in which the bile requisite for its solution is deficient. In such cases, salines, oils, and calomel are preferable, or the aloes may be prescribed with ox bile, which greatly assists its action. Aloes promotes excretion of wasce products, and hence usefully relieves febrile symptoms, rheumatic attacks, skin irritation, swollen limbs, and inflamed joints. It is effectual alike in preventing and curing lymphangitis; while it also hastens the removal of a'dematous swellings, when not de- pending upon debility or serious disease of internal organs. Removing excreta, and withdrawing, by derivation or counter- irritation, blood from congested or inflamed parts, it relieves congestion and inflammation of the brain and spinal cord, full doses being usually requisite ; while it is also serviceable in the onset of paralysis, especially in subjects in gross or high condition, or suft'erino: from sfastro-intestinal derangement. Repeated doses lessen the formation of superfluous blood and fat, are given both professionally and empirically to DOSES AND ADMINISTRATION 433 promote condition — an object usually, however, more safely and etiectually secured by judicious feeding and well-regu- lated exercise. To cattle and sheep, in constipation and indigestion, as well as in febrile and inflammatory complaints, aloes is occasionally giren ; but, as already stated, it is less reliable in ruminants than in horses. If used for cattle and sheep, it should be combined with salines, gamboge, or croton, and given in drench. For dogs it is sometimes prescribed in the same class of cases for which it is given to horses; but calomel and jalap, or some of the oils, act more promptly. Aloes should be avoided in irritation or inflammation of the alimentary canal, and in piles or haemorrhage from the rectum ; in bronchitis, inflammatory affections of mucous membranes or the skin, in inflammation of the kidneys, and in influenza. In such cases if used at all, it must be with great caution; for in these diseases the intestinal mucous membrane is unusually irritable, and superpurgation is readily induced. During pregnancy, both in the mare and bitch, the violent operation of aloes must be carefully avoided. Some practitioners give it both to foals and calves, but for these young animals linseed or castor oil, or a mixture of the two, is more suitable. As a bitter aloes is occasionally prescribed in enfeebled and relaxed conditions of the alimentary canal, and where there is suspicion of intestinal worms. It is sometimes applied externally, as a gentle stimulant and desiccant, and is an ingredient of the once famous friar's balsam. {See Benzoin.) Doses, etc. — Horses receive 5ij- to '5^iij., the dose depend- ing upon the rapidity and degree of catharsis required. For foals several months old, the dose may be readily ascertained by allowing grs. v. for every week of the patient's age. Cattle take §i. to §ij.; sheep, §ss. to §i. ; dogs, grs. xxx. to 3iss. : and swine, 3j- to 5iv. As a tonic, the dose of aloes for any of the domesticated animals is about an eighth or tenth of that given as a purgative. Tonic doses may be administered daily, or every second day, in combination with other bitters and aromatics. 2 E 434 ALOES — INFUSIONS, TINCTURES, EXTRACTS A convenient laxative for the horse is made with two drachms each of aloes, gentian, and ginger, made into a ball with treacle. Another is prepared with a drachm each of aloes and iron sulphate, and half an ounce of ginger, made up with treacle and linseed meal. Either of these may be repeated daily, or every second day. Aloes is generally administered in ball or in watery solution. A ball for immediate use is made with freshly- powdered aloes, mixed with about one-eighth of ginger, and made up with soft soap, lard, glycerin, or vaseline. The physic mass of the Edinburgh (Dick's) Veterinary College was composed of equal weights of Barbados aloes and treacle, with two ounces of ginger to every pound of aloes. The addition of ginger, or some such aromatic, hastens catharsis, and diminishes nausea and griping. The ingredients were mixed over a slow fire, and constantly stirred until properly melted, care being taken to prevent the temperature rising above 120° Fahr. The mass should be kept in air-tight jars the balls being made up as required. Another good and less bulky mass is prepared by adding to melted aloes about one-fourth of its weight of rectified spirit or oil of tur- pentine, which keeps the mass soft and moist. Aloetic balls made with lard, oils, or soap are only suitable for immediate use, and, if kept for several weeks, become dry and hard. Drying may, however, be retarded by adding a little glycerin and an ounce of potassium carbonate or acetate to every pound of the combination. Twenty grains each of powdered aloes, jalap, ginger, and soap, made into a pill, Avith glycerin or vaseline, is a good purge for a large dogf, and will make two doses for a small one. Watery infusions for immediate use are prepared byrubbing down the aloes in hot water, avoiding a temperature exceed- ing 120" Fahr. Tinctures made by macerating the drug in alcohol (60 per cent.) for seven days, and afterwards filtering, may be of such strength as suits the practitioner's conven- ience. The B.P. tincture is prepared with extract of Barbados aloes, liquid extract of liquorice, and alcohol (45 per cent). Extracts made with the view of removing a portion of the resin have nothing to recommend them. Aloes is slowly dis- ALOIX 435 solved when introduced into the rectum, and hence exerts little laxative effect ; but one or two drachms are occasionally ordered as an enema for the horse, dissolved, with soap and a drachm of potassium carbonate, in two quarts of warm water. Aloin. — In 1850, Messrs, T. and H. Smith, Edinburgh, discovered first in Barbados aloes, and subsequently in the other varieties, the active crystalline principle aloin. An analogous crystalline substance has been separated from Natal aloes, and named nataloin, while from Socotrine aloes socaloin has been obtained. These three aloins are generally believed to be isomeric, although some authorities resard them as a homologous series. Histed distinguishes them by the following tests : A drop of nitric acid produces with barbaloin a brilliant crimson, which rapidly fades; with nataloin a brilliant crimson, which is permanent unless heat be applied ; with socaloin little effect follows. A drop of sulphuric acid, similarly applied, and a rod dipped in nitric acid passed over the mixture, has no effect on barbaloin or socaloin, but develops with nataloin a tine blue. Pure barbaloin is odourless ; its taste, at first slightly sweet, soon becomes intensely and permanently bitter, and distinctly aloetic. It is entirely combustible, burning with a yellow flame and much smoke. It yields, by destructive distillation, an aromatic volatile oil, and a resinous residue. It is neutral to test paper, is soluble in rectified spirit, but less so in cold water, an ounce of which dissolves about a grain of aloin. The solvent power both of water and alcohol is greatly increased by heat. Barbaloin is also dissolved by acetic acid and alkalies, forming Avith the latter orange-yellow solutions, which deepen in colour by oxidation. It is insoluble in ether, oil of turpentine, and chloroform. Watery solutions rapidly darken by exposure to air and light ; and when heated above 150^ Fahr., the aloin is oxidised, decomposed, and converted into a resinous substance of little activity. Actions and Uses. — For twenty-five years aloin has been used with growing favour in medical practice, and with some practitioners it has entirely superseded aloes. The dose for an adult is from one to two grains, or about one- third of the quantity of Barbados aloes usually prescribed. Messrs. Smith having liberally supplied me with aloin, I administered drachm doses made up with Hour and glycerin to six three-parts-bred carriage horses, four and five j-ears old, 15 to 16 hands high, in good health and condition, and prepared with one bran mash given four hours previously 436 ALOIN — ACTION ON HORSES, No effect was observable on the pulse, temperature, appetite, or secretion of urine ; the bowels were relaxed to a shght extent in two of the animals, when they were exercised twenty-four hours after receiving their ball ; whilst in two of the subjects of experiment fulness and itching about the jomts disappeared, although no sensible effect was observed on the bowels. Drachm doses of aloin, conjoined with halt an ounce each of gentian and ginger, proved serviceable in abating" febrile symptoms, and removing heat and fulness of the liml)S in hard-worked or grossly-fed horses. Two drachms of aloin given to strong five and six years old hunters, well prepared by mashes for upwards of twenty-four hours, caused, in thirteen or fourteen hours, abundant fluid evacuations. Nothing notable was observed as to the pulse or temperature ; there was less dulness or loss of appetite than usually ac- companies the full action of the ordinary aloetic ball : there was no nausea or griping; the purging usually continued six or eight hours. In these horses, which were in the country, it will be noted that two drachms of aloin operated several hours earlier, without impairment of appetite or spirits, and with the certainty and effect usually following six drachms of Barbados aloes. Mr. Thomas A. Dollar, London, frequently prescribes aloin, and furnishes the following observations resfardin"' its efficacy: — London horses, he remarks, are generally more susceptible to the action of physic than country patients. Five carriage horses, 15^ to 16 hands high, prepared by mashes during two days, received two drachms of aloin, made up with ginger and treacle, and were purged with less dul- ness, nausea, and griping than attend the administration of full doses of aloes. In several cases the purging came on within twelve hours ; full and fluid evacuations occurred ; but there was less prostration or interference with appetite than usually attends the action of physic, and the horses were ready to return to work a day sooner. Three heavy cart horses received two and a half drachms of aloin, made up with ginger and treacle, and in eighteen hours were as fully purged as if they had got six drachms of good Barbados aloes. As in the better-bred animals, dulness, CATTLE, AND DOGS 437 nausea, loss of appetite, tenesmus, and diuresis were looked for in vain. From these and other observations Mr. Dollar concludes that, comparing aloin with the crude drug, a little less than half the quantity of aloin operates in horses with more certainty than aloes and with equal effect. ;Majors Fred. Smith and Charles Rutherford of the A.Y.D. recently made several experiments with aloin on healthy horses. Five grains were given hypodermically to one subject, and eight grains Avere injected into the right jugular of another. Neither case exhibited any evidence of gastro- intestinal disturbance. In a third case twelve grains were injected hypodermically; in three hours the animal lay down, apparently pained, and the bowels were moved. Dur- ing the next four hours were noted dulness, uneasiness, scraping, circling round the box, bowels repeatedly moved, but the droppings were hard and dark, and the effects gradually wore off. A fourth case received twenty-four grains injected hypodermically. In an hour and a half rumbling in the intestines was heard, and hard pellets were passed. To these symptoms were shortly added dulness, scraping, circling round the box, pain, exhaustion, and further passage of hard faeces. These effects continued for nine hours from the exhibition of the drug, but gradually passed away Avith- out the bowels being notably relaxed. A strong shorthorn cow received by the mouth two drachms dissolved in hot water, with an ounce of ginger; the bowels were only slightly relaxed; but three drachms operated tolerably freely in twenty hours. Two drachms, with half a pound Epsom salt, acted as rapidly and effectually as one and a quarter pounds Epsom salt. English terriers, twenty pounds weight, are little affected by doses of twenty grains given in bolus ; even drachm doses have scarcely any effect on pointers and setters ; but when two or three grains of calomel or twenty to thirty grains of jalap are added, full eifects occur in six or eight hours. Old and knowing horses, familiar with the smell of aloes, and induced to swallow it with diiSculty, show much less antipathy to the inodorous aloin. Definite and uniform in composition, more concentrated in form, and now offered by 438 BUCKTHORNS the discoverers, Messrs. Smith, at a reduced rate, which renders it scarcely more expensive than the best qualities of the crude drug, aloin should come into more general use as a cathartic for horses. BUCKTHORNS The recently-expressed juice of the ripe berries of Rhamnus catharticus, or purging buckthorn. The dried bark of Rhamnus frangula or Black Alder. (Not official.) The dried bark of Rhamnus purshianus or sacred bark (B.P.). Nat. OrrZ.— Rhamneae. The buckthorns are shrubby, spinous trees, eight or ten feet high. The berried fruit and barks contain a glucosidal body, three resins, one concentrating the activity of the drug, with mallic and tannic acids. The berries of the R. catharticus are about the size of black currants, contain an acrid, nauseous, bitter juice, which is evaporated, strained, and gently heated with sugar, ginger, and pimento, forming a mild cathartic syrup, of which dogs take fgi. to f^ij.; and cats, f5iv. to fgi. A little senna confection, jalap, or castor oil renders this syrup more prompt and certain. The bark of Black Alder, when fresh, acts as a gastro- intestinal irritant; but when dried and kept for twelve months, oxidation of the resinoid active 'matters appears to occur, and the thiid extract prepared from the bark may be used as a cholagogue laxative. Cascara Sagrada, or sacred bark, brought from the North Pacific coast. It has a persistent, nauseous, bitter taste; contains cascarin, a volatile oil, an acid, a glucoside, and several resins. It is useful in habitual constipation; it pro- duces peristalsis, especially of the large intestines, but, unless in very large doses, does not materially increase the glandular secretions. It is generally used as the liquid extract, which American practitioners prescribe for dogs as a stomachic bitter and tonic, in doses of 7l[v. to TT[x., and as a laxative in doses of about f3i. mixed with mucilage or syrup. Cascara in many respects resembles rhubarb. CASTOR OTL 439 CASTOR OIL Oleum Ricixi. The oil expressed from the seeds of Ricinus communis. (B.P.) Nat. Ord. — Euphorbiacese. The castor oil plant, or Palma Christi, is generallj'- con- sidered to be Jonah's gourd. Cultivated in the colder parts of Europe, it is an annual shrub, four or five feet high ; in Spain and Sicily it reaches a height of twenty feet ; in the southern latitudes of India, in Central Africa, and various parts of North and South America, it becomes a large tree. The natural order Euphorbiacese, besides the castor oil and croton, includes a tall Brazilian tree, the coco-purgatif, which yields the oil of Danda, or assu juice, resembling castor oil, but greatly more active. Of the seeds, which are contained in capsules, two varieties are met with, one the size of beans; the other, and com- moner, somewhat smaller. Both have the shining yellow- white epidermis, mottled with red-brown streaks and spots. The seeds comprise upwards of 25 per cent, of ligneous husk, 8 per cent, of moisture, and nearly 70 per cent, of kernel, containing about 50 per cent, of oil. Castor oil contains glyceryl ricinoleate, palmatin, stearin, cholesterin ; an alka- loid, ricmine, which is not purgative ; and a resin. Castor oil is manufactured in London, largely imported from the East Indies and America, and in smaller quantities from Italy, the West Indies, and Australia. Various modes of extraction and purification are employed. In London the carefully shelled seeds are crushed in a hydrauHc press, the oil purified by rest, filtration, and bleaching. In the East Indies mucilage and albumin are got rid of by heating the expressed oil with boiling water, and straining it through flannel. In America, the seeds, deprived of husk, are ex- posed to gentle heat, in order that the oil may be more readily expressed ; the crude oil is freed from mucilage and albumin by boiling with water until perfectly transparent when cool; 25 per cent, of best oil is thus got. In Jamaica the bruised seeds are boiled with water, and the oil skimmed oflf as it rises to the surface — -a process which yields, how- ever, an inferior and dark-coloured specimen. The Conti- 440 CASTOR OIL nental plan of extracting the oil by alcohol or carbon bisulphide is expensive and inconvenient. Properties. — Oil obtained by these various methods differs slightly in activity, but considerably in colour, flavour, solu- bility, and keeping properties. The English castor oil, pre- pared by expression alone, is usually rather dark ; the East Indian, principally imported from Calcutta, is of superior quality and moderate price ; the American or United States oil is very free of taste, but at low temperatures deposits margarin ; the Italian usually commands the highest price (Pereira). Cold-drawn castor oils, prepared by expression alone, or with only a very slight degree of heat, are generally preferred. Castor oil, when fresh and well prepared, is viscid, almost colourless, and of a faint oily odour and taste. Although lighter than water, it is one of the heaviest of the fixed oils, its specific gravity being 0950 to 0'970. Exposed in a thin layer it thickens, gets rancid, and after a time entirely dries into a varnish-like film. Castor oil and alcohol are mutual solvents ; the oil is soluble in one volume of absolute alcohol and five of alcohol (90 per cent.), and in ether; is easily miscible with other oils; saponifies with alkalies, yielding glycerin, palmitic, and other fatty acids, and the special ricinoleate. Such saponification caused by the alkaline secretions of the bowels is believed to develop, as in the case of croton oil, the active principle. Impurities. — Castor oil is adulterated with croton oil to increase its activity, with lard and bland oils to reduce its cost. Inferior sorts are dark-coloured, but become trans- lucent by exposure to sunlight and filtration through animal charcoal; while the disagreeable acrid taste and odour may in great part be removed by repeated agitation with water containing calcined magnesia and coarse animal charcoal. Actions and Uses. — Castor oil seeds are irritant and pur- gative, have caused fatal gastro-enteritis in human patients, and, containing a larger proportion of the purgative prin- ciple, are more irritant than the oil extracted from them. When crushed, they form an Indian cure for mange. A decoction of the leaves is applied by the women of South A MILD rURGATIVE 441 Africa to their breasts to increase the lacteal secretion. The oil is a mild purgative, closely resembling linseed and the other fixed oils. Medicinal Uses. — The oil, emulsionised mainly by the alkaline bile, is in part absorbed ; but the greater amount, little changed, passes through the bowels, increases both secretion and peristalsis, rarely causes griping, and imparts to the dejections a glazed appearance. For horses it is a mild cathartic, prescribed in diarrhcea, dysentery, enteritis, and peritonitis; in hernia, advanced pregnancy, affections of the kidneys and bladder; in pur- pura and bilious influenza, when more drastic purgatives might unduly irritate, or where repeated doses require to be given. It has no cholagogue action, nor is it a vermicide ; its occasional effect as a vermifuge depends upon its purgative action. Foals and calves, for several days after birth, some- times have no movement of the bowels, and the removal of obstructing masses of meconium, and a natural action of the intestine, are best secured by administration of castor oil and enemata. In cattle practice it is useful in diarrhcea and inflamma- tion of the digestive organs, and, united with Epsom salt, in doses of eight to twelve ounces of each, produces prompt and certain effects. For young calves it is the best of purgatives. In the dog it is more active than in man, and for delicate subjects a mixture of equal quantities of castor and olive oils is often used. It occasionally causes emesis, an effect which results from its nauseous oleaginous taste, and not from any specific emetic action. This may be obviated by giving oil of good quality and mixed with an egg, mucilage, and a little ether. It proves a safe and easy purge for pigs, and also for poultry. The bruised seeds are much used by native Indian farriers for the cure of mange ; and the late Thomas Pritchard, of Madras, informed me that two or three dressings usually suffice to remove the disease. For enemata it is generally superseded by rape or linseed oil. As an external demulcent it is unsuitable on account of its tendency to become rancid, 442 CROTON OIL A few drops applied to the conjunctiva lessen irritation after removal of a foreign body from the eye. Doses, etc. — Castor oil seeds are occasionally given to the dog or pig to the number of six or eight, triturated with linseed meal, made into bolus, or rolled in a piece of meat. The dose of oil for the larger quadrupeds is about a pint ; for sheep and pigs, fgij. to f §iv. ; for dogs, fgi. to f§ij. ; for cats, about f§i. ; for poultry, f5ss. to f5j. It may be given alone or mixed with linseed oil, with gruel, milk, or aro- matics ; to increase its activity it is combined with a small quantity of oil of turpentine or of croton ; to control undue irritation, as in diarrhoea and dysentery, it is prescribed with laudanum, or chloroform, and warm starch gruel. For deli- cate or pampered dogs, a palatable laxative emulsion is .made by shaking together equal parts of castor oil and syrup of buckthorn, with ten to twenty minims of spirit of nitrous ether. CROTON SEEDS AND OIL Croton Seeds. Semina Crotonis. The seeds of Croton Tiglium. (Not official.) Croton Oil. Oleum Crotonis. Oil expressed from the seeds of Croton Tiglium. (B.P.) Nat. Ord. — Euphorbiacea?. The Croton Tiglium is a tree growing on the Indian con- tinent, in Ceylon, and in many islands of the Indian Archi- pelago. Its oval-shaped fruit or nut is somewhat larger than a hazel, and contains three seeds about the size of French beans, resembling castor oil seeds, brown, but un- mottled, and when shelled weighing on an average three grains each. They are odourless, with a taste at first mild and mucilaginous, but soon becoming hot and acrid. When heated they yield irritating fumes. The thin, brittle, ex- ternal shell constitutes fully one - third of the weight of the seed. The seed kernel contains 50 to (JO per cent, of fixed oil. The oil is viscid, of a brownish-yellow colour, with a peculiar nauseous odour and a persistent acrid taste. It is ACTIONS AND USES 443 freely soluble in ether, chloroform, light petroleum spirit, and oils, fixed and volatile. Specific gravity, 0940 to 0-960. It contains crotonolic acid, crotonic, volatile, and various fatty acids; and a neutral glucoside, which, when the oil comes into contact with the alkaline intestinal secretions and the bile, is saponified, producing a drastic resinoid. The residual cake left after expression of the oil, owing to the variable amount of oil it contains, is dangerous, and should not be used. Actions and Uses. — Croton irritates the living textures with which it comes into contact. The oil, undiluted, and in various degrees of dilution, is occasionally used as a counter-irritant, and when rubbed into the skin produces an eruption which becomes pustular. It is a drastic, hydra- gogue cathartic. Full doses cause gastro-enteritis and much prostration. General Actions. — Croton oil, undiluted and freely used, seriously and deeply inflames the skin, leaving sometimes permanent blemishing, and causing besides pyrexia, some- times purgation. It resembles tartar emetic in its action on the skin. Used with an alkah, the irritant resin is more readily developed, and its effects intensified. Purgation is produced when the oil is freely applied to the skin, or enters the body by any other channel. When full doses are given, the active resin is excreted not only by the bowels, but by the kidneys, inducing diuresis, with much irritation. As a drastic and hydragogue cathartic, croton resembles gamboge and elateriura — a sediment from the juice of the fruit of the squirting cucumber (p. 446). It operates more speedily than aloes, and produces more frequent, full, and fluid dejections. For horses, croton is, however, too violent for general use. For cattle it is some- times valuable, operating with certainty when most other purgatives fail, and, if carefully used, is rarely attended with evil consequences. For sheep it is too irritating and de- pressing to be generally prescribed. For dogs and pigs it is an effectual drastic purge, requiring, however, as in other patients, to be used with much caution. Professors Ruther- ford and Vignal have shown that, althoudi causinp- oreat 444 CROTON OTL — A HYDRAGOOUE CATHARTTC dilatation of the vessels of the intestinal raucous membrane it has no special cholagogue action. Toxic Effects. — Forty seeds destroyed a horse in seven hours, with acute gastro-enteritis ; half that quantity usually produced fatal inflammation (Hertwig). Morton adminis- tered twenty bruised seeds to two horses and observed superpurgation, accelerated pulse and res]3iration, injected mucous membranes, collapse, and death in eighteen and twenty-four hours. Medicinal doses sometimes cause, alike in horses and dogs, unexpected and serious irritation. In India the seeds are occasionally used to poison horses. Orfila gave a dog three drachms, which killed him in three hours ; one drachm was also fatal ; while Hertwig found that ten or twelve grains induced violent purgation, gastro-enteritis, and death in four to seven hours, if vomiting was prevented by tying the cesophagus. About the same quantity of the bruised seed or oil, which proves fatal when given internally, has the like effect when placed in the areolar tissues, or applied to a wound. Hertwig states that eight drops in- jected into the jugular vein killed a horse, while two drops killed a dog. Moiroud records that twelve drops injected into the veins of a horse produced in a few minutes alvine evacuations, while thirty drops were quickly fatal. Fifty drops in alcoholic solution, applied to the bell}^ of a small horse, induced, for two days, alvine evacuations of normal consistence, but three or four times more abundant than usual. Thirty drops had similar effects on sheep, fifteen to twenty on dogs (Hertwig). Post-mortem discovers inflammation of the small and large intestines. In horses poisoned, the caecum and colon are especially affected, usually exhibiting much extravasa- tion of blood, and occasionally patches of erosion ; sometimes the lungs are congested, and occasionally they are inflamed (Hertwig, and Gamgee's Veterinarian's Vade Mecuin). Medicinal Uses. — Croton is used as an active hydragogue cathartic for cattle suffering from gastric impaction and other forms of constipation, and from indigestion associated with phrenitis or other disordered state of the nervous system. It is serviceable where bulky medicines are inadmis- AND COUNTER-IRRITANT 445 sible, where animals are unmanageable, or have difficulty in swallowing, where it is requisite promptly to produce copious fluid evacuations and extensive counter-irritation. It is contra-indicated in young and delicate subjects, in all debili- tating complaints, and wherever any portion of the alimentary canal is in an irritable or congested state. The effects of overdoses are abated by demulcents and opium, given by the mouth and rectum, by hot cloths to the abdomen, and, if need be, by stimulants to counteract depression. As a counter-irritant its effects may be regulated by dilutinof it. When undiluted it is too irritant either for horses or dogs ; but is less apt either to purge or blemish cattle, to which it is occasionally applied in laryngitis, chronic glandular enlargements, and articular rheumatism. Doses, etc. — Ten or twelve seeds, which, allowing three grains for each, weigh from thirty to thirty-six grains, form the dose for the horse, fifteen to twenty seeds for cattle, three or four for sheep, two or three for pigs, and one or two for dogs. The dose of croton oil for the horse is ll^x. to TIj^xx. ; for cattle, f5ss. to f5j. ; for sheep and swine, TT^v. to TItx. ; and for the dog, niii. to tH^iij. The bruised seeds and the oil are administered made into bolus with linseed meal, or dissolved in castor or linseed oil or mucilage. They are less irritating and more certain and regular when conjoined with other purgatives. In obstinate constipation or torpidity of the bowels of cattle, half doses are given, with twenty or thirty grains of calomel, a pound of salts, or a pint of linseed oil ; and few purgative mixtures are more effectual. The oil is sometimes dropped on the tongue, but, unless freely diluted, is apt to irritate both tongue and fauces. For external pur- poses it is dissolved in six or eight parts of bland oil or soap liniment. Small quantities added to blistering ointments promote their activity, but in horses also increase their tendency to blemish. Linimentum crotonis is made with one ounce croton oil, 3| ounces of oil of cajuput, and 3i ounces of alcohol (90 per cent.). A tincture — prepared with 1| ounce of bruised croton-seeds and 20 ounces of rectified spirits is occasionally used as a counter-irritant. 446 GAMBOGE ELATERIUM Elaterium. A sediment from the juice of the fruit of ecballiuiu elaterium, the squirting cucumber. Nat. Ord. — Cucurbitaceye. Elaterin. C.^oHggOg, the active principle of Elaterium. (B.P.) Elaterium occurs in light, friable, flat, or slightly curved opaque cakes, about one- tenth of an inch thick, pale green or greyish-green in colour, odour faint, taste bitter and acrid. It should contain 20 to 25 per cent, of the active principle elaterin, which is neutral, insoluble in water, soluble in 115 parts of alcohol (90 per cent.), in 220 of ether, and verv soluble in chloroform. Elaterium is a very active irritant on mucous membranes, large doses causing gastro-enteritis and haemorrhage, ]\Iedi- cinally it is a powerful drastic, hydragogue cathartic, much too energetic for general use. Its action is followed by depression. It has been prescribed in the treatment of abdominal dropsy in dogs. Its action on horses or cattle has not been ascertained. Doses, etc. — (Elaterium) for dogs, gr. -^-^ to gr. h ; (Elaterin) gr. gij- to gr. ^ in mucilage, milk, or pill (Kaufmann). To facilitate dispensing, the compound powder of elaterin, con- taining 5 grains of the active principle and 195 grains of milk sugar may be used. GAMBOGE Cambogia. a gum-resin obtained from Garcinia Hanburii (B.P.). Nat 0/r?.— Guttiferje. Gamboge is imported from Singapore, Siam, and Ceylon, is the produce of a moderate-sized dicjocious tropical tree, and is obtained from incisions into the middle layer of the bark, or by breaking the leaves and branchlets, when the yellow milky juice exuding is collected in leaves, in cocoa-nut shells, or in joints of bamboo, is transferred into flat earthen vessels, and dried in the sun. It occurs in cylindrical, solid or hollow rolls, four to eight inches long, two to three inches in dia- ACTIONS AND USES 447 meter, and in cakes ; breaks easily with a conchoidal reddish- yellow fracture ; powder bright yellow ; odourless, taste very acrid. It is feebly soluble in water, makes with it a yellow emulsion, and is soluble in alcohol and ether. It consists of 15 to 20 per cent, of soluble gum, about 70 of an active orange-yellow resin, gambogic acid. It is largely used as a pigment. Actions and Uses. — It is a powerful irritant and drastic hydragogue cathartic, inferior in activity only to croton and elaterium. Slightl}- diuretic, it colours the urine yellow. It undergoes solution in the alkaline intestinal juices, and in large doses causes gastro-enteritis. Moiroud gave horses six to twelve drachms, and found the dejections frequent and fluid, the pulse irregular, the animal shivering and anxious. Two drachms killed a sheep, two ounces and a half had little effect upon a cow, but five ounces caused dysentery, which continued for seventeen days. Gamboge is too drastic and uncertain to be safely given either to horses or dogs. It causes profuse watery discharges and increased peristalsis, and although Professor Ruther- ford's experiments demonstrate that it has no special stimu- lant action on the Hver, like all purgatives acting on the small intestines it is a cholagogue, in the sense that it promptly moves onwards the bile in the duodenum, and thus prevents its reabsorption. It has no direct vermicide effect, but produces diuresis, especially when given in small doses dissolved in alkalies. For ruminants it is safe, speedy, and manageable when in combination with other purgatives. Half a pound each of Epsom and common salt and an ounce of gamboge form a prompt and effectual purgative in indigestion, gastric impaction, and brain diseases of cattle. Although neither gamboge nor aloes is particularly certain when used alone, an ounce of each, rubbed down and given in solution, constitute an effectual purge for ordinary cattle cases. Applied to wounds it is said to promote healing (Rey). Doses, etc. — For cattle, §ss. to §j. : for sheep, grs. xx. to grs. XXX., given in combination with other purgatives, and in solution. 448 JALAP JALAP Jalapa. The dried tubercules of Ipomcea Purga (Hayne). (B.P.). N'at. Ord. — Convolvulacese. Jalaps Resina. Jalap resin, obtained from Jalap digested and percolated with alcohol (90 per cent.). Jalap derives its name from Xalapa or Jalapa, a town in Mexico, whence it was first obtained. The hardy climbers yielding it grow on the Andes 6000 feet above sea level, are cultivated in Southern India, and in sheltered spots in this country produce their salver-shaped crimson or light-red flowers. The perennial root-stock throws off underground shoots, which at intervals send down roots, gradually thicken- ing, becoming irregularly oblong or ovoid, ranging in size from a walnut to an orange, invested with a thin, brown, furrowed, wrinkled cuticle, and presenting within a dirty yellow colour, with dark-brown concentric circles. The larger roots, or tubercules, are divided into halves or quarters, or gashed to facilitate drying. They are tough, and difficult to reduce to powder, which has a pale-brown colour, a faint, disagreeable odour, and a taste at first sweet and mawkish, but afterwards acrid and nauseous. Water dissolves the sugar and mucilage without the cathartic, resinous principle, which is, however, readily soluble in rectified spirit. Along with starch, cellulose, uncrystallisable sugar, and gum, jalap contains 9 to 11 per cent, of the active resin, consisting chiefly of the glucoside convolvulin, which differs from the jalapin of scammony in being insoluble in ether. Jalap resin occurs in dark-brown fragments, readily reduced to powder, with a sweetish odour, and acrid taste. Soluble in rectified spirit, but not in water or in oil of turpentine. Actions and Uses. — Jalap is a hydragogue cathartic, a vermifuge, and cholagogue. The ordinary jalap closely re- sembles the larger-rooted male jalap, or orizaba root, the smaller paler tubercules of the tampico root, the dried root of Convolvulus scammonia, and the roots of Bryonia alba and B. dioica, as well as the Kaladana seeds used roasted as a PODOPHYLLUM 449 purgative by the nations of Hindustan. It is more active than senna, the leaves of Cassia acutifolia, but less powerful and irritant than gamboge, podophyllum, elaterium, or colocynth. Jalap has very gentle cathartic action on either horses or cattle. Two or three ounces given to the horse have slight effect on the bowels, but increase the activity of the kidneys (Moiroud). White reports administering half a pound to horses without causing purgation, I have repeatedly given cows four ounces without perceptible effect. Probably the B.P. jalap resin would be more energetic. For dogs and pigs it is, however, a good purgative, although full doses occasionally produce nausea and sometimes vomiting. It is prescribed for most purgative purposes, acts tolerably speedily and certainl}', produces fuU watery discharges, and is speci- ally effective when given with a grain or two of calomel. Professors Rutherford and Vignal, experimenting upon dogs, found that jalap stimulates secretion of bile, but still more notably the secretions from the intestinal glands. Doses, etc., of Jalap powder. — Dogs take 3i- to gij- ; cats, 5ss. ; pigs, 5i- to 5iv. It is best given in combination with calomel. Dogs, if fasted for six hours, are effectively purged in three or four hours by 5ss. to gi. of jalap, with two or three grains of calomel, made into bolus with any convenient excipient. PODOPHYLLUM The dried rhizome and roots of Podophyllum peltatum. Nat. Orel. — Berberidacege. The Podophyllum, May apple, or mandrake, is a perennial herbaceous plant, plentiful in the Northern States of America, where its subacid fruit is eaten under the name of wild lemons. The root is imported in flattened cylindrical pieces of variable lensrth, one-fifth to one-third of an inch thick; marked with irregular tuberosities giving ofi" brittle brown rootlets. It is reddish-brown externally, white within, and breaks with a short fracture. The powder has a yellow-grey 2 F 450 rODOPHYLLUM AN UNCERTAIN CATHARTIC colour, a narcotic, disagreeable odour, a bitter, sub-acrid, nauseous taste. Podophyllum resin, the active principle, is prepared from a strong tincture, made by exhausting the root with rectified spirit. It is a pale-brown amorphous powder, soluble in alcohol and ammonia, and consisting of an inert, fatty, resinous acid, and two amorphous, bitter, active resins — podophyllotoxin and picropodophyllin, the former being the more powerful. Actions and Uses. — Both root and resin are topical irritants and drastic purgatives. The resin is dissolved by the alkaline secretions of the duodenum ; stimulates glandular secretion and peristalsis, in full doses causing spasm ; carried into the liver, it increases secretion of bile. In dogs and cats, as in human patients, it is an emetic. In horses and dogs repeated doses reduce the force and frequency of the pulse, even when the bowels are only slightly affected. It is eliminated by the bowels, in smaller amount by the kidneys. General Actions. — The root has long been used by the American Indians as an emetic and anthelmintic. Its actions being supposed to resemble those of calomel, it has been styled vegetable mercury. The cholagogue action of podo- phyllum has been investigated by Professor Rutherford, Edinburgh. Moderate doses introduced into the duodenum, whether of fasting or recently-fed dogs, increase secretion both of the fluid and solid constituents of the bile. He be- lieves that it directly stimulates the hepatic cells, but does not increase the blood-supply of the liver. Excessive doses are imperfectly absorbed, and do not increase biliary secre- tion. This special stimulation of the liver by small but not by large doses has been observed to follow the administration of aloes, rhubarb, colchicum, croton oil, and other chola- gogues. In common with other purgatives acting upon the small intestine, it sweeps out food, which, when absorbed, stimulates the liver; while, moreover, it carries away bile poured into the canal, and thus prevents its reabsorption. In the domestic animals the cathartic effects of podo- phyllum are produced tardily, and moderate tloscs are apt AND CARDIAC SEDATIVE 451 to cause nausea and griping. The manner in which the force and frequency of the pulse are reduced requires investigation. Dr. F. G. Anstie, experimenting with alcoholic solutions containing one to two grains podophyllum, injected into the peritoneum of dogs, cats, and rats, produced in ten to fifteen hours vomiting, bloody foeces, hurried shallow breathing, and death from exhaustion (Medical Times and Gazette, 1863). Mr. D. B. Howell, Reading, reports podophyllum to be a prompt and effectual purgative for dogs, acting usually in four hours. One drachm to one drachm and a half, with two drachms ginger, moved the bowels of horses in six to eight hours. The action was prompt and effective, and un- attended with noticeable griping, even when the resin was given without preparation, and water was allowed ad lihitiim. About a drachm is stated to have purged a cow in nine hours {Veterinarian, 1865). I have not been able to obtain such marked results. Repeatedly I have given healthy horses, prepared by mashes, two drachms podophyllum without perceiving any increased action of the bowels. Two drachms resin, with one or two drachms of aloes, added to determine, if possible, its action on the bowels, produced little more softening of the dis- charges than might be expected from the aloes alone. To three healthy shorthorn cows I gave each three drachms, and to another cow half an ounce, without observing any laxative effect. Doses of one grain, given in pill or in meat, to English terriers weighing about twenty pounds, produced no notable effect upon the bowels ; while two grains acted as a gentle laxative, but only after six or eight hours. Mr. Thomas A. Dollar has used the drug frequently both in horses and dogs, and has kindly placed at my disposal his notes of the following cases : — A thoroughbred horse, well prepared by mashes, had two drachms podophyllum resin without its producing the slightest purgative effect. Two days later he again received two drachms, with a drachm of aloes, still without any noticeable action on the bowels. Four hours after the second dose the pulse, however, was observed to have fallen from 44 to 34. During three days this horse ate nothing but 452 PODOPHYLLUM bran ; getting tired of this, he had for two days hay and a httle corn ; for twenty-four hours he was again restricted to bran mashes, and then received two drachms each of podo- phyUum resin, and aloes, which, even after this careful preparation, only produced slight laxative effects. To a well-bred hunter, nearly 16 hands high, under treat- ment for injury of the psoaB muscles, and fed for twenty-four hours on bran, Mr. Dollar administered two drachms podo- phyllum in a ball, and two ounces Epsom salt in solution. Scarcely any j^erccptible action was observed on the bowels ; and two days later two drachms podophyllum and one drachm calomel wore given, also without purgative effect, but with a reduction in the pulse, as in the previous case, of nearly ten beats per minute. A powerful cart-horse, under treatment for sand-crack, and i^reviously restricted for twenty-four hours to a mash diet, received four drachms podophyllum resin in a ball. Although no purgation followed, there was nausea, and in two hours the pulse, soft and somewhat weakened, fell from 36 to 24, and did not recover its natural force or number until next day. The appetite continued impaired for a week. A thoroughbred mare, 14 i hands, under treatment for abscess from speedy-cut, was placed on mash diet for twenty- four hours, and then received two drachms of the resin in a ball, but showed no increased action of the bowels. For four consecutive days the mashes were continued, and two drachms of the drug repeated daily until ten drachms had been taken, still without purgative effect. The pulse, how- ever, which at first was 44, had gradually fallen a few beats daily, until on the fifth day it was 30. By the end of the experiment the coat stared, all food was refused during nearly two days, and a fortnight elapsed before the mare recovered her usual appetite and appearance. A Scotch terrier, eight months old, received half a grain of the resin in a pill, without apparent effect; and on the following day a grain, which in the course of an hour caused nausea and vomiting. Considerable dulncss remained for twenty-four hours. A bull terrier bitch, thirty-six pounds weight, received four MEDICINAL USES 453 grains in a pill, without showing any notable symptoms, and on the following day had a further dose of six grains, which in twelve hours produced great uneasiness and griping, and gentle catharsis. During the two following days the bitch refused food, and for a week continued dull and listless. A French poodle, suffering from mange and constipation, had a pill containing two grains podophyllum resin, half a grain calomel, and twenty grains jalap. No effect was observ- able at the end of twelve hours, when the dose was repeated, and after eight hours the dog was briskly purged. Half the above dose was repeated every second day for a fortnight, with the result of gently moving the bowels. In all these cases the pulse was reduced in number and in strength, the urinary secretion was unchanged, and the feeces were little altered in colour. Medicinal Uses. — Mr. Dollar's experiments demonstrate that for veterinary patients podophyllum resin is a tardy and uncertain purgative, especially when used alone. In combination, however, with aloes, jalap, or calomel, it re- lieves torpidity or congestion of the liver ; while its nauseant and sedative eff'ects may occasionally be used for lowering cardiac action in acute lymphangitis, rheumatism, and other inflammatory disorders in robust patients. Although possessed of vermifuge powers, depending upon its purgative effect, it does not appear to have any special vermicide action. For human patients it is prescribed, both in this country and America, in habitual constipation, hepatic con- gestion, in some forms of sick headache, and, in smaller doses, as an alterative in skin diseases and rheumatism. Half a grain to a grain of the resin slowly empties the bowels. Doses, etc. — For cholagogue or sedative purposes, horses and cattle take 5j- to gij- of podophyllum resin, with aloes, calomel, nitre, or Epsom salt. For dogs, gr. j. to grs. ij. ; with calomel, gr. j. to grs. ij., may be conjoined with half a dose of jalap or of oil. Nausea and griping are obviated by admixture of ginger or other carminative, and of henbane or cannabis indica. The B.P. tincture contains two grains of podophyllum resin in each fluid drachm. 454 RHUBARB RHUBARB Rhei Radix. The erect rhizome, or so-called root, deprived of more or less of its cortex, and dried, of Rheum Palmatiim, Rheuin officinale, and probably other species. Collected in China and Thibet (B.P.). Nat. Ord.— Polygonacese. The perennial, herbaceous rheums grow on the hill ranges of the interior of China and Thibet; the roots, after five years' growth, are collected in summer, are cleaned, peeled, cut into round or flat reddish-yellow pieces, and each piece is usually bored with a hole, through which a cord is run in order to dry it hanging in the sun. The powder is bright yellow-brown, has a strong, peculiar, aromatic odour, with a bitter astringent taste, and when chewed is gritty, from the presence of calcium oxalate crystals. It is dissolved by ether and rectified spirit, and less readily by cold and hot water, forming with the latter an orange-coloured solution. The East Indian rhubarb is coarser and less aromatic. English rhubarb, the produce of R. raponticum, generally cultivated for its familiar leaf-stalks, the pleasant acid taste of which is due to the presence of malic and oxalic acids, is grown extensively for its roots near Banbury, and is some- times mixed with or substituted for the Chinese; but it is softer and more mucilaginous, has less aroma and grittiness, contains fewer crystals of calcium oxalate, and is deficient in purgative power. Rhubarb contains (1) chrysophanic acid, in the proportion of about 2 per cent., extracted by ether or alcohol, in- soluble in water, and occurring, as its name indicates, in brilliant yellow crystals. It appears to have tonic proper- ties, and is one of the most cft'cctual remedies for ring-worm of the human scalp. (2) Chrysophan, a bitter soluble gluco- side, which, when boiled with sulphuric or hydrochloric acid, splits into chrysophanic acid and sugar. (8) Phseorretin and other resinous bodies appear to confer the carthartic pro- perties. (4) Rheotannic acid imparts astringency. (5) Mineral substances arc largely present, consisting chiefly of calcium oxalate, 35 per cent. STOMACHIC, TONIC, LAXATIVE, AND CHOLAGOGUE 455 Actions and Uses. — Rhubarb is stomachic, tonic, astringent, mildly cathartic, and cholagogue. Small and repeated doses improve the appetite, correct slight gastric derangement; in virtue of their tannin diminish secretion and peristalsis ; by their chrysophanic acid impart to the faeces a yellow-brown hue, and may be detected in the blood, urine, and occa- sionally in the milk. Larger doses, in dogs and cats, as in human patients, are mild cathartics, stimulate the secretions and movements, especially of the stomach and small intes- tine, and increase secretion of bile. Even small doses, insufficient to purge fasting dogs, slightly increase all the constituents of bile (Professor Rutherford). In horses and cattle it has scarcely any purgative effect; a pound has been given to cattle without moving the bowels, while half a pound to a pound caused in horses only slight laxative effects after thirty-six hours (Moiroud). On skin or mucous surfaces it acts as a mild astringent. Doses, etc. — As a stomachic, repeated several times a day, horses take §j. ; cattle, §ij. ; sheep, 5j- ; dogs and cats, grs. x. to grs. XX. As a laxative, dogs take 5j- to ^n]., usually combined with one or two grains of calomel, or with twenty grains of jalap. Rhubarb is used in powder, infusion, syrup, and tincture. The compound powder, or Gregory's mixture, prepared by mixing thoroughly six parts magnesia, one part ginger, and two parts rhubarb — all in fine powder — is an excellent stomachic and antacid, and is given in doses twice as large as those of the simple rhubarb. In diarrhoea in calves and foals it exerts carminative, laxative, and subse- quently astringent effects. When the bowels are persistently relaxed, two drachms each of rhubarb and magnesia, with half a drachm of opium, may be given night and morning in well-boiled wheat-flour gruel, with one or two table- spoonfuls of brandy or sweet spirit of nitre. One-third to one-half this quantity is prescribed for diarrhoea in lambs. Syrupus Rhei is made with two parts each of rhubarb and coriander, twenty-four of sugar, eight of alcohol (90 per cent.), and twenty-four of water; and the compound tincture with two parts of rhubarb, one-fourth part each of coriander and carda- moms, two of glycerin, and eighteen of alcohol (60 per cent.). 456 OPIUM OPIUM The juice obtained by incision from the unripe capsules oC Papaver Somniferum, inspissated by spontaneous evapo- ration (B.P.). Nat. Orel. — Papaveracese. Morphine. Morphia. Morphina. An alkaloid prepared from opium. Morphine Hydrochloride. Morphinie Hydrochloridum (B.P.). Morphine Acetate. Morphinge Acetas (B.P.). Codeine. Codeina. An alkaloid obtained from opium or morphine (B.P.). Apomorphine Hydrochloride. Apomorphinse Hydrochlo- ridum (B.P.). Opium, one of the most ancient articles of the Materia Medica, derives its name fi'om the Greek word otto? (opos), signifying juice. The stem, unripe capsules, and other suc- culent parts of any species of popp3^ contain a milk-white narcotic juice, which, as it dries, becomes darker in colour, and constitutes opium. The fresh purple petals of the Papaver rhoeas, or corn rose, which contains no morphine, and only minute traces of rhosadine, are used as colouring agents, but not medicinally. The roots of some species contain a cathartic principle. The nearly ripened poppy heads, or capsules, gathered about twelve days after the petals fall, when digested in hot water produce a nuicilage used for anodyne purposes; when dried they yield less morphine and codeine than when green, and besides contain the feebly alkaline crystalline rhreadine. Within the cap- sules are numerous white or brown reniform seeds, devoid of narcotism, but yielding a bland drying oil, similar to that of tlax or rape. The cake or residue left after expression of this oil is used for cattle food. The Papaver somniferum — the common white or garden poppy — is a native of the warmer parts of Asia, but it also thrives in this country. It floAvers from May to July, and the capsules ripen about two months later. It is two to four feet high ; has a round, smooth, erect stem, with a few hairs on the extremities and peduncles; large, sessile, glaucous VARIETIES 457 green leaves, with cut and wavy margins ; large terminal white, red, or purple flowers, drooping before they open; and globose capsules about the size of a duck's egg, and containing numerous kidney-shaped white or brown seeds. Of the several varieties the white-flowered have hitherto been preferred, but the darker-flowered, especially the purple, are now stated to yield a larger quantity and better quality of opium. The several varieties — of which the most notable are Turkey, East Indian, Egyptian, and European — owe their characteristics to difierences in soil and climate, and also to the time and manner of collecting and making up the iuice. Any suitable variety of opium may be employed as a source of tincture of opium and extract of opium of the respective alkaloidal strengths, provided that when dry it contains not less than 7| per cent, of anhydrous morphine ; but when otherwise used for officially recognised purposes, opium must be of such a strength that, when dried and powdered, it shall yield not less than 9'5 to lOo per cent, of morphine (B.P.). Turkey or Smyrna opium, mostly of fine quality, and highly prized in the English market, is chiefly collected in the north-western districts of Asia Minor. It occurs in round, flattened pieces, usually weighing from half a pound to two pounds, covered with poppy leaves and the chaffy seeds of the rumex. It is soft, moist, and ductile, and when minutely examined is seen to be made up of small tears. Its odour is pecuhar, but not disagreeable ; its taste bitter ; its recent fracture pale liver-brown. It readily yields its active principles to water, forming a red-brown solution, and to alcohol of- all strengths, forming darker-coloured tinctures. Good samples in a fresh state contain an average of 10 per cent, of morphine. East Indian opium, a large proportion of which is imported to China, is of uniform and good quality. Egyptian opium, being generally grown on moist soils and collected before the capsules are ripe, is inferior to the best Turkey opium, and contains on an average about 6 per cent, of morphine. 458 OPIUM European opium. Opium has been cultivated in France and Germany, and also in Great Britain. In 1818 Dr. Young grew poppies near Edinburgh, and obtained nearly six ounces of excellent opium from a fall of ground, being at the rate of 57| pounds per acre. A still more extensive trial was made in 1823 in Buckinghamshire, where twelve acres of poppies were grown with a return of 16 pounds per acre of opium, which realised the highest price in the London market. Characters. — Opium occurs in irregular, red-brown or red- black masses, which weigh from four ounces to two pounds, when fresh, plastic, and internally moist, coarsely granular or nearly smooth, and reddish- or chestnut- brown, but be- coming harder on keeping, and darkening to blackish-brown (B.P.). Odour strong and characteristic; taste bitter, per- sistent, and disagreeable. Turkey opium, recently imported, contains 10 to 15 per cent, of water, and is moist and plastic; when long kept, or artificially dried, it is hard, and easily reduced to a brown powder, which is apt, unless carefully preserved, to absorb moisture. When heated it softens, and at high temperatures burns with a strong, peculiar odour. Cold water dissolves about 60 per cent, of a good dried specimen, and forms a red-brown solution, in- cluding most of the active constituents. Rectified spirit dissolves about 80 per cent., and forms a dark-brown tincture, which includes all the active principles. Acids, when strong, disorganise opium, but when diluted are excellent solvents for it. The watery solution reddens litmus, owing to the presence of meconic and other acids, and is precipitated by vegetable astringents, salts of calcium, lead, copper, and other metals. Impurities. — Inferior specimens of opium are distinguished by narrowly examining their consistence, texture, colour, odour, and taste. They are sometimes dry, hard, and resinous, or oleaginous and waxy ; their fresh fracture devoid of the characteristic red tint and agreeable aromatic odour; while water and alcohol dissolve them imperfectly. Of the several substances used for adulterating, the most common are starch and molasses, the bruised leaves and chips of the poppy, the juice, pulp, or extract of the prickly pear, and opium from Composition 459 which the morphine has been extracted. Inorganic matters, such as sand, clay, and mud, may be detected by inspection, especially if the specimen be dried. But the official and most certain test of quality or purity is the proportion of morphine. One hundred grains of good opium should yield 9-5 to lO'o per cent, of anhydrous morphine; but picked specimens have produced 22 per cent. CoMPOsniON. — Opium is a complex substance. Besides 15 to 25 per cent, of water, it contains 50 of gum, pectine, wax, and albumin ; 2 to 6 of ash ; traces of an aromatic volatile oil ; while combined with meconic, thebolactic, phosphoric, and sulphuric acids are a number of alkaloids in variable proportions, together amounting to 20 per cent. The most important are morphine, codeine, narcotine, and thebaine. There are also two neutral bodies, meconin and meconiasin. Subjoined is a list of these opium alkaloids, arranged according to their chemical composition : — Hydroctarnine, . . C^ijHjjNOg Papaverine, . CoiH^iNO^ Morphine (12 per cent.), C^^H^^NOg Meconidine, . C.^iHggNO^ Oxymorphine, . . Cj^H^gNO^ Laudanosine, CoiH^^NO^ Codeine, . . . CigH^iNOg Cryptopine, . C21H23XO5 Thebaine (-3 per cent.), . C19H21NO3 Narcotine, . C.^HjgNO^ Laudanine, . . . C20H25XO4 Lanthoptine, C23H25NO4 Protopine, . . . CgoHjgNO^ Narceine, . C23H29NO9 Some of these alkaloids, such as codeine and oxymorphine, are derivatives of morphine. (1) The codeine series is pre- pared from morphine by the addition of alcohol radicles; others are got by (2) oxidation; (3) others by dehydration. Opium alkaloids differ greatly in their action. Morphine is analgesic, and more or less hypnotic. Thebaine is stimulant and convulsant, and allied to strychnine. The best known of the others — oxymorphine, papaverine, codeine, and nar- cotine— form a series, in which the first resembles the narcotic morphine, and the last the tetanising thebaine. Morphine and its salts are got by macerating opium in successive portions of water, which dissolve the morphine meconate ; calcium chloride is added to the solution ; calcium meconate precipitates, and morphine hydrochloride remains 460 MORPHINE SALTS in solution, which, when concentrated, the mor[)hine salt crystallises, is suhjectcd to pressure in flannel or stout calico, thus removing narcotine and colouring matter, and is redis • solved in hot water, and repeatedly crystallised. By the use of animal charcoal colouring matter is removed; while, to get rid of codeine, ammonia is added to the watery solution, when pure morphine is precipitated. Morphine crj^stallises in minute transparent right rhombic prisms, usually arranged in tufts. It has an intensely bitter taste and an alkaline reaction. It is soluble in ether, benzol, and chloroform ; dissolves in 1000 times its weight of cold water, in 400 of boiling water, and still more readily in oils, caustic alkalies, and weak acids, with which it forms crystal- lisable and usuall}' soluble salts. Morphine hydrochloride (Ci-Hi.^NOg.HCl.SHgO) is prefer- able to the alkaloid on account of its solubility, is the salt in common use, and is prepared by diffusing morphine in hot distilled water, gradually adding hydrochloric acid, and setting aside the solution to crystallise. It is a snow-white jDowder, consisting of broken-down crystals, which, when entire, are needle-like prisms clustering in radiated groups. It is without odour, but has the intensely bitter taste of morjDhine. It is soluble in twenty-four parts of cold water, one part of boiling water, eight parts or^lycerin, and in fifty parts of rectified spirit. Morphine acetate and tartrate are sometimes used, and are prepared in a similar manner to the hydrochloride. The acetate is a white powder, almost entirely soluble in two and a half parts of water, in five of glycerin, and in one hundred of rectified spirit. The tartrate is soluble in eleven parts of cold water, but not in alcohol. Codeine is methyl-morphine. Mori)liine = Ci7HisN02(OH) ; codeine = (C,7llisv*^'H3)N03H.p). It is present iu opium in the proportion of J to 1 per cent. It is a colourless, bitter alkaloid, crystallising in triinetric crystals, soluble in eighty parts cold water, in less than two parts of alcohol and chloro- form, in ammonia and dilute acids. Unlike morphine, it is insoluble in cold, weak, caustic potash, and is nnatl'ecterl by ferric chloride. Like the other opium alkaloids, it exhibits the twofold stimulant and hypnotic action, but its hypnotic power is slight, and, like methyl compounds of the alkaloids, it notably stimulates the motor centres, and full doses cause tetanic con- vulsions similar to those produced by strychnine or picrotoxin. It lessens irritability of the digestive tract. When given for several days to dogs, OPlUxM ALKALOIDS 461 cats, or rabbits, arsenic or other irritants administered cause neither vomit- ing nor purging. It also diminishes the production of hepatic sugar, and is hence prescribed in diabetes mellitus in human patients (Brunton). It is given in man to relieve irritable, spasmodic cough. Professor Thomas Fraser, as the result of various observations, states, however, that vk'hile it is more expensive, it is not so effectual as morphine. The dose is twelve to fifteen times greater than that of morphine. It is prescribed as the phosphate of codeine, Apomorphine hydrochloride, Ci^H^yNO.^.HCl, is the hydro- chloride of an alkaloid obtained by heating morphine hydro- chloride or codeine hydrochloride in sealed tubes with hydrochloric acid (B.P.). It occurs in small, greyish-white, shining, acicular crystals, soluble in lifty parts cold water, and more soluble in rectified spirit. It is neutral to litmus solution. It is a prompt and effectual emetic in animals that vomit, acting on the vomiting centre. When gr. |, dissolved in water, is swallowed by either men or dogs, repeated vomiting occurs, but is not followed by so much nausea as usually follows the usa of tartar emetic. In dogs and cats, freshly prepared solutions have the advantage of producing immediate emesis, when used hypodermically in doses of gr. i to ^V- It increases bronchial, intestinal, and pancreatic secretions. It appears to act specially on the basal ganglia, cerebellum, and corpora quadrigemina, first stimulating, and then paralysing them ; large doses in cats, dogs, as well as in rabbits, producing, besides vomiting, inco- ordinate manege movements, and subsequently difficult breathing, and muscular paralysis. It does not, like mor- phine, affect sensory or motor nerves (Brunton). Friedberger states that sucking lambs, suffering from gastric obstruction produced by wool, are reported to have been promptly relieved by 1 J- to 3 grains, given hypodermically. Major F. Smith, A. V. Dep. states that 2-grain doses given to horses produce intense delirium and nervousness, constant movement of the limbs, sweating, and every appearance of approach- ing dissolution. The B.P. Injectio Apomorphinse Hypo- dermica, contains 1 grain of apomorphine hydrochloride in 110 minims. Dose, as an emetic for the dog, gr. Jy to gr. i given subcutaneously. Thebaine or Paramorphine is present to the extent of h per cent., is obtained in minute, colourless, rectangular prisms, melting at 380° Fahr., 462 OPIUM — MORPHINE has an alkaline taate and reaction, is almost insoluble in water, but soluble in forty-five parts of rectified spirit, and still more so in ether and chloroform. With cold sulphuric acid it forms a blood-red solution. It has very slif^ht hypnotic action, prominently exhibits the excitant effects of opium, stimu- lates the motor tract of the spinal cord, and causes, like strychnine, muscular rigidity and convulsions. One to two grains, injected hypodeiniically, produce fatal tetanus in dogs (Dr. J. Harley). Narcotine exists in opium in quantities varying from 4 to 6 per cent,, and is got by treating the insoluble residue left in the preparation of mor- phine with diluted acetic acid, precipitating the solution with ammonia, and purifying with hot alcohol and animal charcoal. Its colourless rhombic prisms melt at 350' Fahr., have an insipid taste, and are soluble in ether, alcohol, and weak acids ; notably in chloroform, but not in cold water. It is a feeble base, and is distinguished from morphine by having no Ijitter taste, no reaction on vegetable colouring matter, and no efl'ect on forric- chloride. Inappropriately named, it is devoid of narcotism ; is tonic and antiperiodic ; and has been used in India as a substitute for quinine in the treatment of malarial fevers. Large doses are convulsant. Narceine occurs as ;i light, colourless, bitter, asbestos-like body, made up of soft, needle like crystals, melting at 293° Fahr., soluble in 100 parts of boiling water, 400 of cold, and rather more soluble in glycerin and diluted hydrochloric acid. Somewhat contradictory opinions are expressed regarding its actions. In dogs, grs. v., subcutaneously injected, produce calmative and hypnotic effects, similar, it is said, to those induced by a grain of morphine. Poisonous doses arrest respiratory movements, but do not cause convulsions (Dr. J. Harley). It resembles morphine in its anexosniotic actions. Actions and Uses. — Opium lias a complex and somewhat variable composition, and its alkaloids have different, and some of them opposite, effects ; hence its actions are liable to variation. Opium, morphine, and its salts, temporarily stimulate and subsequently paralyse the cutaneous and mucous structures and endings of sensory nerves with which they are brought into contact, and this twofold stimulation and paralysis are repeated when the drugs are absorbed. The effects differ in the same individual according to the dose, and in man and the lower animals according to the relative development of the several parts of the central nervous system. In man, the higher brain centres, on which the drug acts primarily and prominently, are paralysed, and the patient is usually calmed, sleeps, and, where large doses are given, becomes comatose. In the lower animals opiates stimulate the locomotor centres of the brain and the reflex centres of the cord, and instead of being quieted and hypno- tised, the subject at first is excited, and exhibits irregular, involuntary movements, tetanic convulsions, and, as death approaches, coma, from which, however, it can be readily GENERAL ACTIONS 463 roused. Opiates kill by respiratory arrest. Medicinal doses are analgesic and antispasmodic, diminish tlie several secre- tions, excepting those of the skin, and, in combination with other drugs, are sometimes used as calmatives for horses and dogs. They are applied locally to relieve irritability and pain. General Actions. — Opium, morphine, and its salts, applied to thin or denuded skin surfaces or mucous membranes, temporarily stimulate or irritate, and subsequently para- lyse, diminishing sensibility and motility. These twofold actions of stimulation and depression characterise in greater or less degree opium and morphine, howsoever administered. Sensory, and to a less extent motor, nerves have their irrita- bility first increased and then diminished. The in-contact paralysant eflfects, with relief of irritation and pain, are directly and quickly produced by hj-podermic injection of morphine. When administered by the mouth, opiates slightly augment the secretion of the salivary and gastro- intestinal glands with which they are brought into contact. Full doses cause some amount of gastric irritation, occa- sionally producing vomiting in man and dogs, but shortly, and more notably and permanently, they diminish gastro- intestinal secretion and movement. After absorption, full doses induce primary, usually brief, stimulation, followed by disorder and paresis of the central nervous system. In veterinary patients the prominent phenomena are agitation, unrest, inco-ordinate, generally manege, movements, diminished sensibility to pain, indis- position for voluntary movement, and, in toxic doses, con- vulsions, coma, and death by respiratory arrest. Moderate doses dilate the blood-vessels and quicken heart action, and this is more notable in horses than in man. But repeated full doses slow heart action in all animals. Moderate doses slow respiration and render it irregular. The rectal tem- perature is temporarily raised ; skin temperature from in- creased transpiration is reduced ; but lethal doses, depressing the heat-producing centres, eventually lower the general temperature. Opium, morphine, and narceine diminish all secretions excepting those of the skin and kidneys, their effect on the latter organs being variable. By lessening 464 OPIUM — EFFECTS ON HORSES, CATTLE, DOGS reflex activity, and paralysing both striped and unstriped muscles, they are notable antispasmodics. Full doses first contract and subsequentl3Mlilate the pupil, owing to paralysis of the brain centres, but the pupil is not affected by topical applications. Opiates are discoverable a few hours after administration in the secretions of the skin and intestines and still more notably in the urine, and when full doses have been given they continue to be excreted for several days. Different animals are somewhat differently affected by opiates, depending upon the relative development of different parts of their central nervous system. The higher the de- velopment, the greater is the susceptibility of an organ to the operation of the drugs which act upon it. Compared with the lower animals, the cerebrum of man is relatively heavier and more highly organised than the mesencephalon, the cerebellum, and the spinal cord ; and this explains why opiates given to man in relatively small doses quickly and without marked sthnulation paralyse the human cerebral centres, inducing sleep, and, in large doses, coma. Horses, with less development of these higher brain centres, have relatively more development of the locomotor centres and of the reflex centres of the spinal cord, and upon these lower centres opiates in equine subjects exert their primary stimu- lant effects. Full doses produce, at first, restless, involun- tary movements of the head and limbs, pawing, or walking continuously round the box; followed by sleepiness, dis- inclination to move, and when moved staggering. Excessive doses cause tetanic convulsions. Ruminants, like horses, are usually excited and restless. Cattle bellow, digestion is deranged, and tympanites fre- quently supervenes. Sleep is not quickly or readily induced, excepting by full and repeated doses. Dogs exhibit eftbcts intermediate between those observed in man and in horses. Relatively to their body-weight, they take eight or ten times the doses prescribed for man. They show more preliminary excitement than man, but less in- voluntary muscular movement than the horse, and during drowsiness and sleep muscular twitchings occur. Sleep, TOXIC EFFECTS 465 however, is never very profound ; the dogs are easily awakened; they dream, and have haUucinations, and after full doses remain stupid for a day. Although the skin is congested and hot, there is no notable increase of secretion such as occurs in man and occasionally in horses. Cats are as much excited as horses or cattle, more so than dogs, and hypnosis is produced with difficulty. Rabbits also have their motor and spinal centres promi- nently affected, and convulsions are more common than hypnotism. Mice receiving a fraction of a grain of morphine are restless, have spasms, breathe irregularly, but sleep only when dangerous doses are given. Birds are curiously in- susceptible; relatively to their weight they take three hundred times the dose given to man, do not sleep, or show any alteration of the pupil. Pigeons swallowing ten grains, or receiving hypodermically three grains, are seized with inco-ordinate movements, laboured breathing, and convul- sions ; the temperature falls sometimes five or six degrees, and they usually die. Mixed with the food of poultry, opium retards digestion, the crop remaining full for three times the normal period. Cold-blooded animals are even less susceptible than birds. In proportion to their weight, frogs take with impunity a thousand times the dose that would poison a man, and one or two grains cause convul- sions, paralysis, and respiratory arrest. Morphine is excreted in the sweat and urine. Toxic Effects. — Opium and its preparations annually destroy in Great Britain upwards of one hundred human lives, three-fourths being children under five years. In the domesticated animals accidental poisoning with opiates occurs occasionally, intentional poisoning very rarely. Horses with impunity take by the mouth about one hundred times as much opium as would poison a man. Hertwig mentions that two to four drachms produce slight stimulation, and that an ounce in solution caused first in- creased liveliness, and, after two hours, dulness, diminished sensibility, slower circulation, less frequent evacuations, and stupor — symptoms which continued for twelve hours, but entirely disappeared the following day. Two ounces and a 2g 4G6 OPIUM — MORPHINE half induced similar effects, with convulsions and death in about twenty hours. Four drachms powdered opium caused little effect for seven hours, and then only acceleration of the pulse. Even four ounces of laudanum are stated to have had little effect {Old Vegetable Neurotics). I gave a strong, healthy cart-horse one ounce powdered opium dissolved in water ; the pulse in eight minutes fell from 44 to 34 beats per minute ; the superficial muscles were relaxed, the nasal mucous membrane blanched, and the animal was dull and dejected. After half an hour four drachms were given, increasing the dulness and lowering the pulse to 32. Half an hour later the animal, continuing in the same state, was destroyed by cutting the carotid artery. A mare, aged and rather feeble, had drachm doses in solution thrice a day. She exhibited dulness, loss of appetite, torpidity of the bowels, diminished force of the pulse, and died on the fourth day, having received nine doses. One drachm, given thrice a day to a healthy donkey, induced after the sixth dose acceleration of the pulse to 88, restlessness, vertigo, nausea, champing of the teeth, and death on the third day. In horses, Dr. Harley and Messrs. Mavor hypodermically in- jected four grains of morphine acetate, and recorded marked acceleration of the pulse, increase alike of its force and volume, restlessness, pawing, augmented moisture of mouth and skin, elevation of temperature, and slight dilatation of the pupils. Twelve grains, dissolved in three drachms of water, injected by three punctures, produced light drowsi- ness, followed after three hours by excitement, restlessness, and slight delirium, continuing about six hours. Thirty-six grains, in seven drachms of water, introduced by three punctures into a seven-year-old hunter in good condition, caused drowsiness and stupor, coming on in fifteen minutes, and continuing for three hours, slight muscular tremors, awkward, staggering gait, leaning against the sides of his box, dilated and fixed pupils, blindness and insensibility to light ; the respiration, at first slow and sighing, gradually became accelerated. The dilatation of the pupil is opposed to the contraction so constantly seen in man. After the TOXIC EFFECTS 467 tliircl hour restlessness and delirium set in, continuing for seven hours; he walked rapidly, and even ran round his box; his pulse was 96, full and thrilling; the skin damp with perspiration; the membranes of the eyes, nose, and mouth intensely injected. For twenty-four hours the effects continued ; the secretions were, however, unaffected, but the horse was left exhausted. Mr. F. Mavor, experimenting with a well-bred three-year- old colt, injected subcutaneously four grains morphine ; in two hours the pulse had risen from 36 to 64 ; the tempera- ture advanced fully one degree ; two hours later the pulse was 57, the temperature remained the same, the pupils were dilated, the patient restless, the tongue moist ; the effects gradually abated, and disappeared in twenty-four hours {Veterinarian, 1874). Mr. A. E. Macgillivray, who has used morphine hydro- chloride hypodermically for years, states that in susceptible horses he has repeatedly found four to five grains induce staring eyes, restlessness, prancing round the box, increased rapidity and threadiness of the pulse — symptoms which sometimes continue three to five hours {Veterinariam., 1881). Majors Fred. Smith and C. Rutherford, of the A.V.D., made a series of experiments with alkaloids at Aldershot, and obligingly furnish me with the following notes : — A bay gelding had three grains morphine injected hypodermically, and in fifteen minutes had shaking of the head, which continued more or less for a couple of hours ; but there were no other appreciable symptoms. A bay gelding, fed on hay and grass, in October 1887 — during warm weather — with a pulse of 38, respirations 12, and pupil half an inch vertical diameter, had five grains morphine injected. In forty minutes the pulse was 42, respiration and pupils unchanged. He walked occasionally round his box, threw back his ears ; a patch of perspiration appeared on the breast, around the seat of injection; the head was frequently shaken; the animal was easily startled. The effects wore off in about an hour and a half In experiments with morphine and atropine injected 468 OPIUM — MORPHINE together, Major Rutherford records that the horses were more readily excited than when morphine was given alone. They moved ahnost constantly round the box, had rhythmical movements of the head, and dilated pupils. Morphine five grains, injected with fifteen minims atropine solution, caused, in fifteen minutes, uneasiness, walking round the box, throwing up and shaking of the head, slight pawing, dilated pupils, nervousness, and excitability. These symptoms continued for one and a half hour, when they gradually abated ; but the animal for six hours still remained easily excited, and a ' little on the move.' Twelve grains morphine acetate, dissolved in a pint of water and swallowed b}^ a horse, had no effect beyond increasing the pulsations eight beats. One hundred grains acetate, swallowed in solution, caused convulsions and killed the horse in three hours (Wood's Treatise on Therapeutics). Kaufmann states that forty-five to seventy-five grains of the hydrochloride, given hypodermically, poison horses. Ruminants are not so susceptible, especially to opiates given by the mouth. Cows and sheep, to which I gave re- spectively, an ounce and four drachms of opium, exhibited dryness of the mouth, occasional nausea and restlessness, acceleration, and subsequently slight slowing of the pulse. Frohner hypodermically injected a cow with fifteen grains morphine hydrochloride ; she lowed hoarsely, became excited, and tympanitic ; but the effects passed off in an hour. Kauf- mann gives one to two drachms as the toxic dose for cattle, and fifteen to thirty grains for sheep and goats. Swine, receiving one or two drachms of opium, become first lively and then dull and sleepy, with hot skin and constipated bowels. Dogs, swallowing moderate doses, usually become stupid and drowsy, but occasionally are rendered delirious, espe- cially by large doses. The pupil is not dilated, as is frequent in the horse and cat, nor continuously contracted, as in man, but is contracted while the dog is asleep or narcotised. Two to three drachms of opium cause, within a few minutes, increased force and frequency of the circulation ; followed by nausea, a staggering, unsteady gait, twitching of the limbs, ANTIDOTES 469 clonic spasms, stertorous breathing, drowsiness, stupor, and sometimes death. The symptoms continue from three to fifteen hours, and most animals surviving the latter period recover. Dr. Harley injected twenty minims laudanum under the skin of a bitch about 25 lbs. weight ; she was nauseated ; in fifteen minutes she vomited ; had spasms of the diaphragm, the bowels acted, mucus ran from the mouth ; within an hour the pulse had fallen from 120 to 78, and w^as irregular ; the animal lay quiet, but did not sleep or show narcotism. Twenty minims more Avere injected ; the pulse fell to 72, and was regular; respirations 16, and regular ; half an hour later she closed her eyes and was drowsy, continued so for an hour, but did not actually sleep. Morphine acetate, half a grain, subcutaneously injected by Dr. Harley into a bitch weighing 25 lbs., in a few minutes caused vomiting and urination. She lay motionless, her nose on the rug, her fore and hind limbs fully extended. For upwards of three hours she was so completely narcotised that the eyes were insensible to light, the pupils much contracted; the pulse fell from 120 to 50, and became irregular ; the respirations went down from 20 to 14, and were shallow ; the muscles were flaccid. Two to three grains, subcutaneously injected, killed dogs of 12 lbs. to 16 lbs. in ten or twelve hours ; doses insufficient to kill develop in most dogs excitant instead of soporific effects. The spinal cord is more notably affected than the brain ; vomiting, nausea, restlessness, and delirium are the usual symptoms. Post-mortem discovers the results of asphyxia. The blood is fluid and dark-coloured, but it does not yield on analysis any indications of the poison. There is general venous engorgement ; the lungs and brain are markedly congested. The ventricles of the brain and subarachnoid spaces contain more fluid than usual. Antidotes. — Opium is not very quickly absorbed ; when a poisonous dose has been swallowed, the stomach should be emptied as soon as possible, preferably by the stomach pump, and washed with solution of potassium permanganate. Administration of nitrites, and of small doses of atropine, 470 OPIUM — MORPHINE hypodermically, maintain cardiac action ; but the atropine must be used cautiously, as full doses are apt to intensify paralysis both of the heart and cord. The lethal tendency is further combated by strychnine, used hypodermically, and by artificial respiration. Coma is prevented by giving strong coffee and stimulant enomata, and keeping the patient moving. Tincture of galls and other chemical antidotes are of little avail. Medicinal Uses. — Opium and morphine are used to relieve symptoms rather than to remove the conditions on which they depend. Small doses are nerve stimulants, and retard digestion and metabolism. The Cutch horsemen share their opium with their jaded steeds, and increased capability of endurance is observed alike in man and beast. In the lower animals, as already indicated, they do not produce the general calmative and hypnotic effects which characterise their use in man, but applied topically they effectually allay pain and spasm. In human patients opiates cause notable vascular dilatation, and hence relieve congestion and inflammation. (Brunton). But in the lower animals vascular dilatation occurs only when toxic doses are used (Frohner), and accord- ingly the antipyretic and anti-inflammatory power of opiates must be considerably less than in man. Moreover, owing to the greater excitant action in veterinary patients, the admini- stration of opium does not blunt the perception of pain as effectually as it does in human patients. When, however, a morphine salt is injected hypodermically, fifteen to thirty minutes previous to the inhalation of chloroform or ether, anaesthesia is intensified and -prolonged, and the ana3Sthetic is economised. •In gastritis and gastro-enteritis, whether produced by disease or by swallowing acrid poisons, opiates are anodyne, astringent, and hii3mostatic. Obstinate chronic vomiting', in either dogs or pigs, whether depending upon irritation of the stomach or of the vomiting centre, is generally relieved by a few grains of opium, given with chloroform or chloral hydrate. In gastric irritability it is sometimes prescribed with bismuth. When, in weakly, young, growing animals, food is hurried too rapidly through the digestive canal, MEDICINAL USES 471 opium checks excessive secretion and peristalsis, and, con- joined with mineral acids or arsenic, should be given shortly before feeding. Diarrhoea, whether occurring from congestion of the alimentary mucous membrane, or as a symptom of other ailments, is often checked by a laxative, which carries away offending matters. Occasionally, however, the bowels continue irritable and relaxed ; opium in such cases abates irritability, diminishes excessive secretion, and is administered with well-boiled starch gruel, sometimes conjoined Avith an antacid, sometimes with acids, bitters, or vegetable astrin- gents. For such purposes the following recipes are used, alike in horses and cattle : — A drachm each of powdered opium, kino, gentian, and sodium carbonate ; or a drachm of opium, a drachm of catechu, or half a drachm of tannin, with half an ounce of chalk. These drugs may be made into bolus with treacle or meal and water, or dissolved in ale or gruel, and given twice daily, or as required. An ounce of laudanum, thirty drops sulphuric acid, two drachms powdered catechu, with an ounce of ginger, aniseed, or fenu- greek, make an astringent anodyne drench for diarrhoea in cattle, and may be given in gruel, ale, or spirits and water. Another useful prescription for relaxed bowels consists of an ounce each of laudanum, decoction of oak bark, sfingfer, and sodium carbonate, given several times daily in starch gruel. One-third of this dose suffices for calves of six months. For dogs, Stonehenge advises three to eight drachms laudanum, two to three drachms chalk, one drachm aromatic confection, and two drachms gum acacia, dissolved in seven ounces of water, and of this mixture prescribes one or two tablespoonfuls every time the bowels are relaxed. In dysentery, whether in horses, cattle, or dogs, opium is of service in allaying pain and straining, and may usually be freely given, along with antiseptics, both by the mouth and rectum. A drachm each of opium and tannin, with half a drachm powdered copper sulphate, may be repeated twice a day, for either horses or cattle. Whilst febrile symptoms continue, any such opium mixture must be used cautiously. In gastro-intestinal cases, opium is generally contra- indicated 472 OPIUM — MORPHINE when secretion is impaired, or the Hver and kidneys act imperfectly. In enteritis in horses, Professor Robertson used half a drachm each of powdered opium and camphor, with live minims Fleming's tincture of aconite, in a pint of gruel, with or without a dose of oil. In the rapidly fatal muco- enteritis amongst the heavier breeds of hard- worked horses, opium and calomel were prescribed in the earlier stages, and opium, belladonna, chloral hydrate, and ether in the second stages ; but more prompt measures are needful to avert the deadly passive haemorrhage, and morphine and atropine, sometimes used with ergotin, are hypodermically injected, and repeated every two hours. In peritonitis, and hernia, to arrest intestinal movements, full doses of opium are administered, and liniment of opium and camphor is rubbed into the abdominal walls. Obstruction of the bowels by concretions, strangulation of the intestine, or intussusception, is usually hopeless, but the most pro- mising treatment consists in full doses of opiates, which combat spasm, irritation, and pain, and in displacement of the bowels may facilitate return of the parts to their normal position. Antagonising muscular spasm, opium and morphine are valuable in spasmodic colic in horses, being usually con- joined with ether, sweet spirit of nitre, chloral hydrate, chloroform, spirit of ammonia, or oil of turpentine, and with laxatives as aloes, and linseed or castor oil. For general service four or five drachms of aloes are rubbed down in a quart of tepid water, and, when the solution is nearly cold, an ounce each of laudanum and ether is added; while in large horses the dose of the anodyne and stimulant may be doubled. If more convenient, the aloes may be given in bolus, the laudanum and ether in draught. As an antispasmodic for the dog, Stonehenge advises half a drachm to a drachm each of laudanum and ether, given in an ounce of camphor mixture. Major Fred. Smith, A.V.D., informs me of the following case, illustrating the powerful antispasmodic effect of morphine on the dog: — A collie poisoned with strychnine, and so convulsed that recovery ALLAY IRRITABILITY, PAIX, AND SPASM 473 seemed impossible, liad five grains morphine injected bypo- dermically ; the muscular spasms ceased, he slept for twenty- four hours, and recovered. Diseases of the respiratory organs, with shallow, embar- rassed breathing, are unsuitable cases for full doses of either opium or morphine, which are apt still further to depress respiratory function, and lead to death by apnoea. Pleurisy, however, may be treated by larger and more frequently repeated doses than bronchitis or pneumonia. Besides topical analgesic effects produced when slowly swallowed, opiates, when absorbed, diminish excitability of the respiratory centre, and thus relieve cough, and pain of the throat and chest. Belladonna and opium, although in large doses op- posed in their effects on the respiratory centre — the former acting as an excitant, the latter as a depressant — in medicinal doses are sometimes advantageously conjoined in allaying bronchial irritability. In the catarrhal epizootics of horses, after a few doses of salines, half a drachm each of opium and belladonna extract, conjoined with an ounce of spirit of chloroform, ether, or sweet spirit of nitre, and repeated two or three times daily, frequently abates vascular conges- tion and cough. A similar prescription answers in asthma — a common complaint in dogs ; but in this, as in other diseases, more prompt and certain effects are obtained by the hvpodermic injection of morphine and atropine. Rheumatism is sometimes advantageously treated with opium, prescribed in the earher and more acute stages with calomel and salines ; and in more chronic cases used both locally and generally, and along with turpentine and other stimulants, smart friction and warm clothing. Neuralgic pains occurring in horses, and causing puzzling — sometimes frequently shifting — lameness, are relieved, and occasionally cured, b}' morphine injected deeply into the atfected muscles. American practitioners prescribe opium and also morphine, by the mouth and hypodermically, in combating the rigidity and pain of spinal meningitis. Tetanus, occurring in young animals, is sometimes successfully treated by opium, especially when conjoined with antiseptics and chloral or conium ; while in the more serious cases amongst adults, spasms and 474 OPIUM — MORPHINE morbidly acute sensibility have been removed for several hours by the hypodermic injection of morphine, deeply inserted into the tetanised muscles. In hysteria it is prescribed with potassium bromide and camphor. Opiates are of service alike in mares, cows, and bitches, in allaying post-partum irritability, straining, and bleeding, for which they are sometimes conjoined with chloral or chloroform. Morphine, given either by the mouth or hypo- dermically, alone, or, better still, conjoined with atropine, is often effectual in arresting premature labour pains. Some practitioners recommend opiates in epilepsy and chorea, but they are of little use in either. They were formerly used in polyuria of horses, but are not so effectual as iodine. Although powerless to arrest tuberculosis, they are often serviceable in relieving the accompanying cough and diarrhoea. Opiates are contra-indicated in acute fever, in congestive and inflammatory diseases of the brain or kidneys, in obstinate constipation, and in patients in an excitable state. Full doses, depressing respiratory functions, prove injurious when there is a tendency to death by suffocation. Externally, opium is used to relieve the pain of wounds, bruises, boils, blistered and cauterised surfaces, and super- ficial inflammation of the eye, skin, or joints. For such purposes five to ten drops each of the tincture (or aqueous solution), and Goulard's extract, may be mixed with an ounce of water. As a topical anodyne its efficacy is often increased by combination with belladonna, chloral hydrate, or aconite. A dressing of soap liniment, mixed with opium tincture, often allays irritability and pain in bronchitis, pleurisy, and arthritis ; or in such cases a flannel, wrung out of hot water and moistened with the anodyne solution may be applied. Along with borax or alkaline carbonate, it is use- ful in abating the irritation of prurigo and acute eczema. Boils and carbuncles may sometimes be rendered less painful by freely saturating them with a strong opiate solution or liniment, covering Avitli a piece of oiled silk, and applying a bandage.. For haemorrhoids, opium is conjoined with gall ointment. It is the anodyne chiefly relied on for injcc- DOSES AND ADMINISTRATION 475 tions and suppositories in enteritis and dysentery, as well as in irritation and inflammation of the uterus, kidneys, bladder, and rectum. The uterus, vai^ina, and urinary bladder, when everted, should be washed with tepid water, moistened with a solution of opium and belladonna, care- . fully returned, and retained in position by appropriate measures. As a clyster, opium is used in about the same quantities as are given by the mouth. When the skin is tender or abraded, especially in small and young animals, opiates must be applied cautiously, lest they become absorbed, and produce undue constitutional effects. Doses, etc. — Of opium, horses take 5ss. to 5ij- 5 cattle, 5ij. to 5iv. ; sheep, grs. x. to grs. Ix. ; pigs, grs. v. to grs. xx. ; dogs, gr, i. to grs. vj. ; cats, gr. ss. to grs. ij. Of morphine salts, horses and cattle take grs. iii. to grs. x. ; sheep gr. ss. to grs. ii. ; pigs, gr. -jL to gr. ss. ; dogs, gr. -^ to gr. I, given in pill or dissolved in diluted spirit, slightl}- acidulated either with hydrochloric or acetic acid. In canine practice lozenges containing gr. -^ opium, or gr. -^ morphine hydrochloride, will be found convenient. For hypodermic and intra- tracheal injections, the B.P. Injectio Morphinae Hypoder- mica, containing 5 grains morphine tartrate in 110 minims, should be used. Stronger solutions of the acetate and hydrochloride are also prepared. Tablets, lamels, pellets, and discs, containing from gr. \ to several grains of a morphine salt are very convenient, especially for hypodermic use. Tolerance alike of opium and morphine is as quickly acquired in the lower animals as in man. It is increased not only by frequent use but by acute pain. Special suscep- tibility is observable in young animals, in which, accordingly, reduced doses must be used. Although oj^ium and morphine resemble each other, the crude drug is more apt to cause gastric disturbance and constipation, while the alkaloid is more effectual in arresting pain, esjDCcially when applied directly to the affected part, or used hypodermically or intratracheally. The several actions are altered, intensified, or repressed by combination with other drugs. Hypnosis and quieting 476 OPIUM PREPARATIONS of nervous excitability are determined by combining tlie opiate with cannabis indica, chloral hydrate, and bromides ; antispasmodic eft'ects, by conjunction with ethers or volatile oils; the checking of intestinal secretion, by prescription with lead acetate, tannic or sulphuric acid ; sudorific action is promoted by ipecacuanha, pilocarpine, ammonium acetate, solution, diluents, and Avarm clothing; anodyne properties are increased by combination with atropine, and occasionally with aconite or prussic acid; while in malarial fevers, Indian and American practitioners prescribe opiates with quinine. Veterinarians do not use so many preparations as are employed in human medicine. Crude opium is given to horses and dogs made into bolus or pill, and no other solid form is necessary. To reduce it to powder, it is first dried in a vapour bath, and its trituration is facilitated by mixture with potassium sulphate, or other hard salt. The extract, containing 20 per cent, of morphine, though somewhat less bulky than crude opium, is seldom prescribed. Dover's powder, the pulvis ipecacuanha? compositus, consists of one part each of powdered opium and ipecacuanha, and eight parts potassium sulphate, added to facilitate trituration and intermixture of the vegetable matters. It contains 10 per cent, of opium, and is given to dogs in doses of grs. v. to grs. XV. A watery solution, made by rubbing down opium in hot water, and giving both dissolved matters and residue, has the merit of being cheaper than the tincture, and is more prompt and effectual than the solid drug. The B.P. tincture of opium, popularly known as laudanum, is made with three ounces of opium and equal parts of distilled water and alcohol (90 per cent.). It is now standardised to contain 075 per cent, of anhydrous morphine. An ounce contains the soluble matter of nearly 33 grains of opium, or about one grain in 15 minims. For immediate effects laudanum is usually prefer- able to solid opium. The dose for horses and cattle is fgj. to f§iij.; for sheep and pigs, fgij. to f5vj. ; for dogs, TT[xv. to TIl^xl. The vinegar and wine of opium are seldom used in veterinary practice ; but the Ammoniated tincture. BELLADONNA 477 known as Scotch paregoric, containing one grain of opium in 96 minims is sometimes given. Tinctura cam- phorae composita or English paregoric, made with tinc- ture of opium, benzoic acid, camphor, oil of anise, and alcohol (60 per cent.), contams I grain opium in each fluid drachm. The liquid extract of opium contains gr. f of morphine in 110 minims ; or gr. i. of opium in 15 minims. Equal parts of laudanum and soap liniment make an excel- lent anodyne, much used externally. BELLADONNA Belladonna Folia. Belladonna Leaves. The fresh leaves and branches of Atropa Belladonna, collected when the plant is in flower. Deadly Nightshade. Nat. Ord. — Atropacese. Belladonn.^ Radix. The root of Atropa Belladonna, collected in the autumn and dried. Atropina. Atropine. An alkaloid obtained from bella- donna leaves or root. Cj^HggNOg. Homatropina Hydrobromidum. Homatropine Hydrobro- mide. CjgHgiNOg.HBr. The hydrobromide of an alkaloid prepared from tropine (B.P.). Belladonna grows wild in most parts of Great Britain, especially about old walls, edges of plantations, and shady places ; but the great demand for its preparations has led to its extensive cultivation. It has a fleshy, wrinkled, branch- ing, perennial root, a round, branched, reddish, downy, annual stem, three to five feet high; broadly ovate, acute, entire, smooth leaves, supported on short leaf-stalks of a sombre-green colour, and having a faint bitter taste ; pendu- lous, dark-purple, bell-shaped flowers, appearing in June or July ; a round, violet, berried, mawkish-tasted fruit, the size of a small cherry, and containing numerous kidney-shaped seeds. The plant has greatest activity towards the end of June and throughout July, when flowering is over, and before the fruit and seeds are ripe. The active alkaloid atropine occurs in the plant as a •178 BELLADONNA bimalate. The leaves contain 046 per cent., the younger roots as much as 060 per cent. It is prepared from a strong tincture. It occurs in colourless acicular crystals, is volatile, has a bitter taste, is soluble in 800 parts water, readily soluble in alcohol and ether, and in chloroform. The more soluble sulphate, obtained by neutralising atropine with diluted sulphuric acid, is used in preference to the alkaloid. It gives a citron-yellow precipitate with gold perchloride. An alcohol solution of mercuric chloride added to a crystal or strong solution of atropine causes a precipi- tate, which becomes red on standing or when boiled. It powerfully dilates the pupil. Atropine can be split up into tropic acid and tropine, and this base, reunited with other acids, forms tropeines. When combined with oxytoluylic acid, the crystalline homatropine is produced, and is used as the soluble hydrobromide. It is a weak atropine, and the solution is preferred by oculists, as its effects, although as promptly and effectually produced, are not so inconveniently jDersistent as those of atropine sulphate. Actions and Uses. — Belladonna and atropine, combined with glycerin, alcohol or chloroform, which promote pene- tration, and, applied topically, paralyse sensory nerves, and hence relieve irritability and pain. Mainly by paralysing the terminals of the third nerve, they dilate the pupil, and are serviceable in relieving congestion and inflammation of the eye, and in facilitating its examination. Atropine is readily absorbed by mucous surfaces, and exerts its physio- logical effects on the organs with which it is brought into contact. Toxic doses, after stimulating, paralyse the spinal cord, brain, and medullary centres, causing irregular move- ments and delirium, with coma from impaired respiration, and kill by asphyxia. Medicinal doses stimulate respiratory and cardiac action, and hence combat collapse, respiratory depression, and poisoning by ptomaines. They antagonise spasm, are used both topically and internally in cases of intestinal and urinary colic and in constipation. They diminish the secretion of the salivary, sweat, mucous and mammary glands, but not of the kidneys, by which atropine is quickly excreted unchanged. ATROPINE 479 General Actions. — Atropine depresses the functions of sensory nerves, and hence allays irritability and pain when applied to the itching, erythematous or erysipelatous skin, when injected subcutaneously into a tender muscle, or into the neighbourhood of an irritated nerve, and also when carried in large doses to internal organs. Moderate or large doses increase heart action, probably in two ways — (1) by paralysis of the vagus centrally and peripherally, and (2) by stimulation of the accelerator nerves. They powerfully stimulate the respiratory centre. These cardiac and respi- ratory actions explain the value of atropine in the treatment of collapse, difficult or impaired breathing, and weakness from ptomaines and other sedative poisons. Paralysing the special secretory ganglia and nerves of glands, atropine is a powerful antisecretory, diminishing or arresting secretion, and exerting this effect in whatever way it is used. Although devoid of action on voluntary muscles, moderate and large doses paralyse involuntary muscles, and thus relax spasm of the hollow organs. In almost all animals atropine dilates the pupil, renders the eye bright, dry, and injected, paralyses the power of accommodation, and increases intraocular tension. These effects result alike from the local and internal use of atropine, and depend upon its paralysing the third nerve, and perhaps stimulating the sympathetic. Dilatation of the pupil reaches its maximum in dogs in twenty to twenty-live minutes, in herbivora in thirty-five to forty-five minutes. The effects of full doses of atropine last several days, but those of homatropine, although as quickly produced, pass off more rapidly. Full doses cause dryness of the mouth, quickened pulse, delirium, with a tendency to irregular movements. The brain centres are stimulated, but the ends of motor nerves are paralysed, and hence result the concurrence of delirium, irregular movements, and lassitude. Like alcohol, atrof)ine exerts primary stimulant and secondary paralysant action. It stimulates, then depresses the respiratory centre and the motor nerves, supplying the muscles of respiration, and death results chiefly from paralysis of respiration. Small doses stimulate, but large paralyse the centres of the 480 BELLADONNA medulla. The vaso-motor medullary centres, as well as the peripheral vaso-motor ganglia, are stimulated by small, but paralysed by large doses. Small doses consequently raise blood-pressure and temperature. Continued use does not confer any tolerance as occurs with opium or arsenic. Belladonna resembles hyoscyamus and stramonium, but is more active. It is allied to opium in its antispasmodic and anodyne effects ; but the distinctions between the two are marked and various. Large but not lethal doses of belladonna or atropine paralyse the centres of the medulla and cord, and produce delirium, restlessness, and continued movements ; while similar doses of opium or morphine paralyse more particularly the brain centres and cause coma. Belladonna paralyses the vagus and inhibitory ganglia of the heart, and hence accelerates the pulse, while opium slows it. Atropine stimulates, while morphine de- presses the respiratory centre. Atropine dilates, morphine contracts the pupil. The secondary effects of belladonna ally it to hemlock, which it also resembles in dilating the pupil, and paralysing the ends of sensory nerves. Atropine has no direct physiological antagonist, but morphine, caffeine, Calabar bean, prussic acid, and pilocarpine oppose some of its actions. Methyl and ethyl atropine, although paralysing the ends of motor nerves and retaining the specific effects of atropine on the eye, heart, and respiratory centre, have no tendency to tetanise. Toxic Effects.— Horses were subjected to experiment by Hertwig. Twenty received four to six ounces of the dry pulverised herb, with meal and water, in four separate doses, at intervals varying from four to eight hours. In four or five hours, and on the succeeding day, he observed dulness, languor, uneasiness, dilated pupils, and a feverish mouth ; inappetence, impaired digestion, gas abundantly evolved from the stomach and intestines. The pulse about 90, was small, hard, and scarcely perceptible ; breathing was short, quick, and accompanied by flapping of the nostrils ; sensi- bility slightly diminished, but no drowsiness. Some of the cases exhibited abdominal pain ; others imperfect power in the hind extremities ; others terminated fatally in thirty to TOXIC EFFECTS 481 fifty hours after receiving the first dose ; but in most the syruptoms gradually subsided, and in thirty-six to forty-eight hours the animals were perfectly well. Two to three ounces of the dried root acted on horses in a similar manner, and six ounces usually proved fatal (Arzneimittellehre). With atropine sulphate, subcutaneously injected, Dr. John Harley and Messrs Mavor, London, made an extended series of experiments on a healthy six-year-old horse and a weakly two-year-old thoroughbred. One-twelfth of a grain dis- solved in water caused in about half an hour acceleration of the pulse from 32 to 42 beats ; half an hour later a further rise of ten beats was noted. The tongue and mouth were dry, and the temperature increased. The pupils began dilating after thirty-five minutes, and reached their maxi- mum in an hour, when the iris was scarcely visible. The symptoms gradually receded, and in two to three hours had disappeared. One-sixth of a grain caused restlessness and dryness of the mouth, and in thirty-five minutes an increase of 34 beats in the pulse, which was full, soft, and compressible, and only fell to its original number after six hours ; the dilated pupils returned to their normal state after three hours ; the secre- tions were unaffected. One-fourth of a grain in twelve minutes increased the pulsations from 38 to 56, producing also slight ii-regularity ; the pupils gradually dilated, and in an hour reached their fullest expansion. These effects on the pulse and pupil, with dryness of the mouth and lips, continued unabated during three hours. For eighteen hours the animal remained dull and quiet. Half a grain in twelve minutes fully dilated the pupils ; the pulse rose to 68 ; the mouth, tongue, and lips became dry ; the horse gaped occasionally, and stood perfectly quiet ; after three hours he showed considerable nervous- ness, and was restless when disturbed ; for six hours the pulse continued weak and compressible, but the effects gradually declined. Two grains, given subcutaneously, after fifteen minutes raised the pulse 35 beats, and weakened it, and caused 2 H 482 BELLADONNA AND ATROPINE dryness of the mouth, yawning, restlessness, and nervous- ness. The animal was confused, misjudged distances, and appeared under the influence of illusions ; the membrane of the eye was injected. Occasional hiccough, tremulousness, and twitching of the superficial muscles continued for four- teen hours, when the symptoms gradually declined ; but the pupils remained dilated for twent3^-four hours. Urine was frequently voided, and in increased amount ; the mucus of the bowels and the bile were slightly augmented, the skin and the respiratory functions were not disturbed. (Old Vegetable Neurotics, 1869.) These and other experiments by Dr. Harley demonstrate that the maximum stimulation of the heart results from doses insufficient to produce nervous excitement. Medicinal doses seem to dull the cerebro-spinal nervous system, but over-doses cause increased sensibility to external impres- sions, wakefulness, and, in extreme cases, delirium. Majors Fred. Smith and Charles Rutherford, of the A.V.D., experimenting on healthy horses with liquor atropinse sul- phatis, containing one grain of the alkaloid to 100 of water, injected into the chest quantities ranging from 15 to 30 minims without producing any notable effects. Injections of 30 to 60 minims reduced the pulse two or three beats, but had scarcely any effect on the pupil. Injections of 120 to 180 minims slightly slowed the pulse and rendered it softer, and increased the size of the pupil. Most of the sub- jects were quiet, some slightly sleepy, but all easily roused. Two experiments were made by introducing intratracheally ^ grain of atropine sulphate, which caused immediately a gulp and cough ; but the only further effects were, dryness of the mouth and slightly increased fulness and quickening of the pulse, which continued for about three-quarters of an hour. Cattle, according to Hertwig, are as susceptible to the action of belladonna as horses. He states that two to four ounces of the root caused in cows violent symptoms, lasting forty-eight hours, and that large doses arc dangerous. Dogs receiving full doses of belladonna exhibit less marked cerebral, but more pronounced and prolonged cardiac effects EXPERIMENTS 483 than horses. This apparently depends upon the heart in dogs being more under the regulating influence of the vagi and inhibitory ganglia, which the drug specially paralyses. Dr. John Harley found that while -^ grain of atropine sul- phate doubled the pulse-rate in horses, ^ grain trebled it in dogs. Doses of -^ to :| grain raised the dog's pulse in a few minutes from 120 to 400, the beats continu- ing strong and regular ; the pupils Avere so fully dilated that vision was confused ; the mouth and nose were dry and hot. The larger doses further caused slowness and unsteadiness of movement, but no loss of sense or intelli- gence, A Scotch terrier weighing 16 lbs. received Jg. grain atro- pine sulphate, injected under the skin ; in four minutes the pulse rose from IIS to 280 ; the respirations advanced from 19 to 30 ; the pupils dilated to their full extent, the mucous membranes were dry, the animal excited and whining ; these effects continued four hours. Dogs weighing 1,5 lbs. and 16 lbs. were killed in three hours by f grain, with symptoms of prostration, rapid and feeble pulse, irregular and shallow respiration, muscular twitchings, and paralysed sphincters, death occurring in convulsions {The Old Vegetable Neurotics). Hertwig found that 30 to 50 grains of the dried herb or root, given to dogs, in thirty minutes dilated the pupil, so that the iris was out of view, and rendered the eye insensible to bright light. Yomiting sometimes occurred, the nose became dry and hot, and the gait tottering from inability to move the hind extremities. In one to three hours the symptoms began to abate, but diminished irritability of the iris re- mained even after twenty-four hours. Orfila poisoned dogs with 15 grains of extract. Christison records that half an ounce of the watery extract given by the mouth killed dogs in about thirty hours, half that quantity introduced into a wound killed in twenty-four hours, while even smaller doses were more speedily fatal when injected into the jugular vein {On Poisons). Rodents, such as rabbits, guinea-pigs, and rats, as well as pigeons, do not exhibit the marked acceleration of the pulse 484 BELLADONNA AND ATROPINE SO remarkable in dogs and cats. Rabbits require 15 grains of green extract to poison them, pigeons 2 grains. The mydriatic action is much less marked in rabbits than in dogs or cats, and is scarcely noticeable in birds. The post-mortem appearances are those of asphyxia. The blood is dark- coloured, and coagulates slowly ; the ventricles are generally empty and firmly contracted. The antidotes consist of the administration of alcohol, ammonia, strong coffee, and morphine or pilocarpine. Sub- cutaneous injection of caffeine is recommended for human patients, with the cautious use of eserine, and artificial respiration (Brunton). Stupor, if impending, is combated by moving the animal about, or by the galvanic battery. As atropine is rapidly eliminated in the urine, recovery usually results if dangerous symptoms can be relieved, and life pre- served for a few hours. Where urination is difficult, the catheter should be used. Medicinal Uses. — Stimulating the respiratory centre, abating excessive mucous secretion, combating spasm of involuntary muscles, and soothing irritability, belladonna and atropine are serviceable in catarrh, pharyngitis, laryn- gitis, and bronchitis in all patients, and are used in the several forms of inhalation, spray, electuary, and hypodermic injection. In influenza in horses, they besides beneficially stimulate the weakened heart. Professor Robertson pre- scribed belladonna, with small doses of aconite, in the acute stages of respiratory diseases in horses; but it is chiefly indicated in the second stages, when secretion is over- abundant, swallowing difficult, and the throat irritable. The noisy respiration accompanying some cases of catarrh, and the loud, prolonged, spasmodic cough of laryngitis, are usually relieved by its use. Along with ether or ammonium carbonate, belladonna abates the distressed breathing and cough occurring in bronchitis, as well as in distemper of dogs. Paralysing involuntary muscles, belladonna and atropine control palpitation, especially when depending upon cardiac strain, and in such cases are given internally, while bella- donna plaster is applied externally. In cardiac syncope they MEDICINAL trSES 485 are also useful. Professor Robertson prescribed for spas- modic colic in horses half a drachm of belladonna extract in four ounces of liquor aramonii acetatis, sometimes adding 4 to 6 minims of Fleming's tincture of aconite. In colic cases, as well as in enteritis, belladonna is conjoined with opium, and is stated to be specially indicated when the glandular structures of the bowels are implicated (Equine Medicine). No antispasmodic or anodyne is more effectual in such cases than atropine and morphine used hypoder- mically. Belladonna is given in obstinate constipation and obstruction of the bowels, with the view of relieving griping, and aiding the action of laxatives ; and in irritable, spas- modic conditions of the rectum it is used in the form of suppository. For controlling the symptoms of tetanus in horses. Professor Robertson regarded it as the best agent, and prescribed 3^- to 5iij- of extract, placed within the teeth, several times a day. In cerebro-spinal meningitis, Professor Williams prescribes belladonna or atropine, with ergotin and the use of the spinal ice-bag; while Professor Robertson, after the application of rugs wrung out of hot water, applied a belladonna plaster to the spine. Neither the crude drug nor the alkaloid confers permanent benefit in epilepsy or chorea. Whether prescribed internally, or as an injection, bella- donna allays irritation of the bladder, rectum, and uterus. The extract is sometimes applied to the neck of the uterus to promote dilatation in cases of delayed parturition. In mammitis belladonna given internally, and applied locally, is a serviceable anodyne. By diminishing the activity of the secretory nerves, it checks the flow of milk, and alla3s con- gestion and inflammation. For such cases hypodermic injection of atropine is specially useful on account of its stimulating the heart and respiratory centre. Belladonna and atropine are antidotes in poisoning by opium, Calabar bean, pilocarpine, and anaesthetics. In examinations and diseases of the eye atropine sul- phate or homatropiue hydrobromide is used for dilating the pupil, assisting in the detection of cataract, and testing the condition of the refracting media. For ophthalmic purposes 486 BELLADONNA AND ATROPINE solutions containing grs. ij. to grs. iv. to the ounce of distilled water are employed, and are sometimes conjoined with cocaine. They prevent prolapse of the iris, or restore it to its normal position in lesions of the cornea, or in perforating ulcer, which is frequent in dogs. In iritis mydriatics relieve conges- tion, and prevent or break down adhesions between the iris and the capsule of the lens, in such cases being generally alternated with myotics. External topical applications often increase the effects produced by internal administration, belladonna plasters being applied to the spine in tetanus, to the loins in irritation of the kidneys or bladder, and to the throat in spasmodic cough. Belladonna and atropine diminish con- gestion, irritability, and pain in wounds, glandular swellings, and injuries of the oesophagus, in rheumatism, and in those hyper-sensitive conditions of the skin and muscles which sometimes occur in horses and hounds from severe exertion. To secure these results active preparations should be applied or deeply injected, as near as possible to the painful spot. For the removal of rheumatic and neuralgic pains and old- standing neuroses, in addition to local applications, one or two full doses are administered, and the occurrence of restlessness, dilatation of the pupil, or other slight symptoms of poisoning should cause no alarm. In many of these cases belladonna is conjoined with opium or chloral, occasionally with aconite. In cases of emergency atropine sulphate, administered hypodermically, is preferable to any belladonna preparation. Doses, etc. — Of the dried leaves horses and cattle take 5iv. to §j. ; dogs, grs. v. to grs. x. The plant is seldom, however, used in the crude form. An active green extract is made by the B.P. process, by which 100 lbs. fresh leaves and young branches yield 6 to 7 lbs. of extract. The dose for horses is 5j- to 5ij- ; for cattle, 5ij. to 5iv. ; for sheep, grs. x. to grs. xxx. ; for dogs, gr. i. to grs. V. In catarrhal and influenza cases the extract is frequently prescribed with alcohol, ether or camphor. A convenient electuary is made with liquor ammonii acetatis, camphor, and treacle. Professor Robertson used an electuary PREPARATIONS 487 containing belladonna, camphor, njyrrh, nitre, liquorice, and treacle. The liquid extract, made with belladonna root and rectified spirit, contains -f grain of alkaloids in 110 minims. The tincture is made with 2 ounces of liquid extract and suthcient alcohol (60 per cent.) to form 30 ounces. The B.P. tincture is now standardised to contain 005 per cent, of alka- loids. The succus is obtained by bruising the fresh leaves and young branches of belladonna, pressing out the juice, and adding to every three Yolumes of juice one of alcohol (90 per cent.). An ounce is the dose for the larger animals, TT[v. to TIl^xv. for the smaller. The tincture is given in similar doses. The linimentum belladonnse, prepared with liquid extract 10, rectified spirit 7, camphor 1, and water 2, contains 0'37 per cent, of alkaloids. Veterinarians frequently extemporise an ointment by melting over a water bath one part of extract and four of vaseline, and adding, as the mixture cools, half a part of camphor. ;Mr. Clark, Coupar- Angus, recommends for external application, equal parts of belladonna extract and glycerin. It mixes readily with water. Mr. Squire has introduced a soothing preparation, which is made by mixing with the lini- ment one-seventh part of chloroform of belladonna. The plaster is made by evaporating four ounces of the liquid extract until it is reduced in weight to one ounce, and add- ing five ounces of resin plaster previously melted (B.P.). Atropine, being sparingly soluble in water, the sulphate is generally used, and is about fifty times the strength of the green extract. The B.P. liquor atropinse sulphatis in general use, consists of grs. 17i of atropine sulphate, grs. 2 of salicylic acid, and §iv. of distilled water, and contains one grain of the salt in 110 minims. For horses and cattle the dose is f3i. to f5iij. ; for dogs, TT^i. to TT^v. When used hypodermically, the minimum or still smaller doses should be prescribed. Injectio atropinse hypodermica contains grs. jv. of atropine sulphate in ^. of water. Specially prompt and marked antispasmodic and anodyne effects are secured, as stated, by conjoining about equal proportions of atropine and morphine solutions. For ophthalmic and other purposes, tissue papers 488 CAFFEINE containing ^4^, and lamellae containing y^-^^ and ^-^-g- grain atropine sulphate are convenient. The ointment is composed of atropine, grs. 10, oleic acid, grs. 40, and lard, grs. 450. Homatropine hydrobromide, as already indicated, is sometimes substituted for atropine sulphate for internal administration, and still more frequently for eye cases. To dilate the pupil, a solution, containing grs, iv. homatropine hydrobromide, to the ounce of water or castor oil, is employed. CAFFEINE Caffeina. An alkaloid usually obtained from the dried leaves of tea. Camellia thea, or the dried seeds of Coff'ea arabica. C,HioN,0., H,0. (B.P.) Nat Ord— Ternstro- miaceae or Rubiacese. Caffeine and theine are now considered identical, and the same alkaloid is also got from the seeds of the Guarana or Paullinia Sorbilis, the leaves of Ilex paraguayensis, as well as from the Kola nut. Caffeine is homologous with theo- bromine, which is obtained from the nibs of the Theobroma cacao, and chemically is methyl- theobromine. Caffeine occurs in colourless, inodorous, acicular crystals, soluble in seventy parts cold water, in one of boiling water, seven of chloroform, and in forty of alcohol. Treated with a crystal of potassium chlorate, and a few drops of hydrochloric acid, and the mixture evaporated to dryness in a porcelain dish, a reddish residue results, which becomes purple when moistened with ammonia. Caffeine citrate, obtained by adding caffeine to a hot solution of citric acid, is a white, inodorous powder, with an acid taste and reaction. It is soluble in thirty-two parts of water, and in twenty-tAvo of alcohol. Actions and Uses. — Caffeine stimulates and subsequently paralyses the nerve-centres of the cerebrum, cord, and medulla. In dogs, cats, rabbits, and rats, full doses, hypo- dermically injected, do not, as in man, act prominently on the brain, but chiefly affect the spinal cord, exah reflex excitability, and cause muscular rigidity, convulsions and tetanus (Phi lips). Large doses swallowed by dogs, CANNABIS INDICA 489 moreover, sometimes cause vomiting, and gastro-intestinal irritation. Like theobromine, it exerts a restorative effect on both vohintary and invohintary muscles, enabhng them to perform increased work. On account of its stimulating the medulla and cardiac centres, moderate doses increase respiration and pulse rate, and raise blood-pressure, and, resembling strychnine and veratrine, antagonise heart and lung inability and paresis. They hence steady and strengthen the quick action of the weak heart in exhausting diseases, thus acting like digitalis, but more promptly and with more notable diuresis. As a nerve stimulant, caffeine has been given in indigestion in horses, milk-fever in cows, and to dogs prostrated with distemper. It is excreted in the urine, increasing alike the amount of the urinary solids and fluids. It is prescribed by German practitioners in cardiac, hepatic, and renal dropsies. It is used as an antidote for the cadaver alkaloids and ptomaines, for the paralysis of curare, and the neuroses of morphine, chloroform, and alcohol. Topically applied, it paralyses the peripheral endings of nerves. Coffee is not identical in action with caffeine, for besides 0'50 of the alkaloid, it contains aromatic oils and tannic acid. Tea, well diluted with milk, is sometimes serviceable for horses, and still more so for foals, calves,and dogs reduced by acute disease. Doses, etc. — For horses and cattle, grs. v. to grs. x. ; for dogs, according to size, gr. ss. to grs. ij. When swallowed, caffeine is liable to produce gastro-intestinal irritation, and hence should be given hypodermically in the minimum doses mentioned, dissolved in water containing half a grain of sodium benzoate or salicylate to each grain of caffeine. CANNABIS INDICA Indian Hemp. The dried, flowering, or fruiting tops of the female plant of Cannabis sativa, grown in India, from which the resin has not been removed. (B.P.) Nat. Ord. — Cannabinese. The Cannabis sativa cultivated in India, and also in the southern states of America, attains a height of four to tea 490 CANNABIS INDICA feet. The stalks, leaves, female tops, fruit, and exuding resin are used in making the extract, the preparation generally prescribed. The most active extract is stated to be obtained from the resinous juice, cannabin or churrus, which, although exuding from various parts of the plant, appears to be more potent when got from the female flowering tops. Churrus, mixed with tobacco and treacle, is smoked in the East as an intoxicant, producing dreamy narcosis. The larger leaves and fruit, with adhering resin, constitute bhang", which is sometimes given to horses on long journeys Gunjah consists of the leaf-stalks, with adhering brown leaves, dried, flowering, and fruiting tops and resinous exudate. Haschisch is an Arabian preparation obtained from the tops of the female plants after flowering. In India, bhang and gunjah are given to vicious horses when being shod, or when undergoing surgical operations. Indian hemp, for pharmaceutical use, occurs in compressed, rough, dusky green masses, consisting of the branched upper part of the stem bearing the leaves and pistillate flowers or fruits, matted together by a resinous secretion. The upper leaves are simple, alternate, 1-3-partite, the lower are opposite, and digitate. The fruit is one-seeded, and supported by an ovate-lanceolate bract (B.P.). The composition of cannabis indica is still uncertain, but the following constituents have been obtained : — Cannabin, a glucoside ; cannabinol, an oil which is said to be the active principle ; cannabene, a volatile oil ; tetano- cannabine, and a resinous body cannabinon, insoluble in water, soluble in alcohol, ether, chloroform, fats, and volatile oils. The extract is directed to be prepared by exhausting Indian hemp in coarse powder, with alcohol (90 per cent.), by percolation, and evaporating the percolate to the con- sistence of a soft extract (B.P.). Actions and Uses. — Indian hemp is a deliriant-narcotic, hypnotic, anodyne, and antispasmodic. Bhang is used in India by all classes as a pick-me-up, and in larger amount to induce pleasing, dreamy narcosis. Similar effects are stated to be produced in horses ; the flagging appetite is improved. ACTIONS AND USES 491 cajDacity for exertion increased, exhaustion and restlessness are overcome. Gimjah is a more active anodyne and narcotic. It has long been used in India to dull sensibility during surgical operations. Sir Robert Christison stated that for energy, certainty, and convenience, Indian hemp is the next anodyne to opium, and often equals it. Mr, Rutherford, Edinburgh, for several years in India used gunjah largely in the treatment of equine colic, and he informed me that it relieves spasm and pain as quickly as opium, and without arresting the action of the bowels or producing delirium. American practitioners sometimes prescribe it in diarrhoea, occasionally conjoining it with chloroform and aromatic ammonia. Veterinary- Major Smith prescribed the extract, in the treatment of colic, enteritis, laminitis, and other painful affections, with excellent results. In India Veterinary- Major Rutherford administered the extract in graduated doses of one drachm to an ounce, in bolus, to twenty-six geldings and mares of various stamps and temperaments. Eight animals received one drachm ; in about one to two hours, usually after a little preliminary excitement, they became sleepy, but were readily roused; there was no uniform eflect on the pulse or breathing. The appetite was not affected. In geldings the penis was drawn. A prominent feature was excitement when trotted, most moving as if drunk. Usually within six or eight hours the effects passed off. Two drachms administered caused no preliminary excite- ment. The temperature usually receded about one degree, the pulse fell in one subject 8 beats per minute, respira- tions were reduced about two movements. Food was neglected, trotting was very unsteady. Two hours later drowsiness appeared, the eyes were heavy, the lower lip pendulous, the penis drawn sometimes as much as four inches. The effects continued ten or twelve hours. Several animals receiving three drachms of cannabis extract, and others six drachms, manifested very similar symptoms. The dulness and sleepiness, however, came on more quickly, and were more marked, than when smaller doses had been given. When moved, the subjects showed 492 CANNABIS iNDlCA Unsteadiness on the fore-limbs, staggering, inability to trot straight, the penis protruding. The faeces were discharged at unduly long intervals, and in reduced amount. The etiects continued from twenty to twenty-six hours. Eight drachms in bolus with linseed meal were given to a nervous, kicking five-year-old. For two hours he tossed his head incessantly, subsequently stood very quiet, but when touched became excited, ate grass slowly, but left portions between the lips. By the seventh hour he became very sleepy, took no notice of any one, he Avas unsteady on his fore-legs, the body swayed backwards and forwards, the muscles about the elboAv and flank quivered, the penis was drawn about nine inches. There was no movement of the bowels for sixteen hours. By the twenty-fifth hour he brightened up ; and in thirty hours was again normal. A second horse received eight drachms cannabis extract; in three and a half hours he became sleepy, with penis drawn three to four inches. An hour later the head was down, the eyelids almost closed, the lower lip pendulous. He was unsteady on his legs, swayed backwards and forwards, took no notice of flies on face or body, Avhen trotted, did so sideways and very unsteadily, the pulse and respiration were lowered. For six hours he remained in the same quiescent sleepy state, noticing nothing, and did not lie down during the night. By the twenty-fourth hour he got brighter, but was still unsteady on his limbs. No dung was passed for thirty hours, when some dry, small pellets were discharged. Although continu- ing quiet, he gradually became lively, and in thirty-five hours was perfectly recovered. Professor Hobday states that doses of ten grains to two drachms of extract, adminis- tered to dogs, although quickly causing stupor, with paralysis of the hind-limbs — which might continue one or two days — had never proved fatal, these effects gradually passed off, and their removal was expedited by cocaine. Indian hemp has proved serviceable in abating the delirium occurring in some cases of parturient apoplexy, and in tranquillising the involuntary spasms of chorea in dogs. In the form of suppository it is sometimes substituted for opium in the treatment of irritable or painful conditions NUX-VOMICA 493 of the rectum and urino-genital organs. Major Smith and other practitioners bear evidence to the narcotic and analgesic effects of the thick, treacle-like, semi-solid extract obtainable in India. An ounce, it is stated, very shortly renders the horse so sleepy that he can be roused with difficulty, and may be severely pricked with a needle Avithout wincing. The Indian extract is devoid of the excitant effects which opium exerts on many horses. Doses, etc. — Of the extract, horses and cattle take 5j- to 5iv. ; dogs, gr. j. to grs. iij. in bolus or pill. Larger doses may be given without danger. Veterinary-Major Smith prescribed one ounce, sometimes two, three, or more ounces of the extract, for horses affected with colic, enteritis, or larainitis. It is often advantageously conjoined with chloral hydrate. The B.P. tincture is made with one ounce of the extract and a pint of alcohol (90 per cent.). It contains one grain of extract in twenty-two minims. The tincture is inconvenient to use, as water precipitates the resin. It may be given to horses in doses of §j. to §iv., or more, mixed with mucilage, a drachm to the ounce of tincture, before adding water or other vehicle. NUX-VOMICA Nux-VoMiCA. The dried ripe seeds of Strychnos Nux- Vomica. Nat. Ord. — Loganiacese. Strychnine. Strychnina. An alkaloid obtained from the dried ripe seeds of Strychnos Nux-Vomica, and other species of strychnos. (B.P.) The Strychnos nux-vomica grows on the southern coasts of India, in many islands of the Indian Archipelago, and in the northern parts of Australia. It is a moderate-sized tree, with crooked stem, irregular branches, tough white wood, known in commerce as snake-wood; grey or yellow bark — the poisonous, false Angustura bark ; a globular berry, about the size of an apple, containing, amid soft gelatinous pulp (which birds are said to eat with impunity), five round, disc- shaped, ash-grey seeds, about an inch in diameter. The 494 NUX- VOMICA, STRYCHNINE, AND BRUCINE seeds have a central scar or hilum on one surface, are covered with short satiny hairs, have an intensely bitter taste, and are tough and horny. Nux-voniica contains two poisonous alkaloids — strychnine and brucine — each present to the amount of about one per cent. ; the soluble, amorphous strychnic or igasuric acid, which is allied to malic acid; sugar, fat, loganin, and igasurine. Strychnine (C21H22O.2N2) is prepared by splitting the nux- vomica seeds, steaming and reducing them to powder, which is digested with spirit and water. The spirit is recovered by distillation. To the watery extract lead acetate is added, which precipitates acid and colouring matters. The filtered solution is treated with ammonia, Avhich precipitates the alkaloids. Strychnine occurs in trimetric prisms, is colourless and inodorous; it requires for solution 5760 parts of cold water and 2500 parts of hot water, but its intensely bitter taste is appreciable even when diluted with 30,000 parts of water. It is soluble in 150 parts of spirit, and in 6 parts of chloro- form, and nearly insoluble in ether. It is not coloured by nitric acid, and leaves no ash when burned with free access of air. It forms crystalline, colourless, intensely bitter salts, of which the hydrochloride is official. It is readily recognised. On a white plate a crystal is dissolved in pure sulphuric acid without change of colour, but when the dissolved alkaloid is made to mingle with a drop or two of an oxidising solution, such as that of potas- sium permanganate, there is produced a characteristic violet coloration. Its extreme bitterness, and the tetanic spasms produced in frogs and other small animals by solutions con- taining the 5 ^(, (, th part of a grain are valuable corroborative tests. Brucine or Brucia (C23H.2gN2O4.4H2O) is associated with strychnine in the seeds. It occurs in colourless prismatic crystals; is almost as bitter as strychnine, but is more soluble in water. It is reddened by nitric acid and chlorine. Strong sulphuric acid colours brucine a rich rose, but on adding potassium permanganate, the play of colours observed with strychnine is not produced. STIMULANTS OF MOTOR CENTRES 495 Actions and Uses. — Nux-vomica, strychnine, and brucine are stimulants of tho motor centres of the spinal cord, and of other motor centres. Full doses produce tetanic convul- sions, which cause death from asphyxia, or from subsequent paralysis and exhaustion. Medicinal doses are antiseptic, gastric, vascular, and nerve tonics, and anti-paralysants. They destroy enzymes and other vegetable and animal organisms. General Actions. — The alkaloids differ from each other and from nux-vomica mainly in the degree of their action. Strychnine is fully fifty times as active as the powdered nux, and nearly fifteen times as active as brucine. The St. Ignatius' bean yielded by the Strychnos Ignatia — a tree grown in the Philippine Islands — contains strychnine and brucine. Akazga, the ordeal plant of the West Coast of Africa, belongs to this order, and yields akazgine, which is analogous to strychnine. Other trees of the order also yield tetanising poisons. Allied to this group are thebaine and some other opium alkaloids ; gelsemine, the alkaloid obtained from the rhizome and rootlets of yellow jasmine; and pic- rotoxin, a neutral principle prepared from the seeds of Anamirta paniculata (Cocculus indicus). The methyl com- pounds of strychnine and brucine, instead of stimulating spinal and motor centres, and producing convulsions, re- semble curare, and paralyse the ends of motor nerves. Strychnine lessens oxidation of protoplasm and of blood, and checks fermentation, but not nearly so effectually as quinine. Low organisms, wetted with weak watery solutions, have their activity increased ; wetted with strong solutions, their activity is diminished and they are destroyed. It stimulates the grey matter of the spinal cord, exalting its reflex excitability, and also stimulates other reflex nerve centres (Brunton). Small to moderate doses promote secre- tion of saliva, improve appetite, stimulate the intestinal muscular coat and increase peristalsis, and hence assist in overcoming constipation. They stimulate the respiratory, cardiac, and vaso-motor centres, and hence increase the rapidity and depth of the respirations, the number and force of the pulsations and raise blood-pressure. Larger doses 496 NUX-VOMICA AND STRYCHNINE cause muscular twitching, hyperjBsthesia, greater acuteness of the special senses, and clonic convulsions. The extensor muscles usually overcome the flexor nuisclcs, producing opisthotonos. Death results from asphyxia, occurring during a spasm, or from paralysis and collapse, occurring (luring a period of relaxation. Strychnine is absorbed rapidly from the small intestine and rectum, and still more rapidly from the bronchi and cellular tissues. It has been detected in the spinal cord, brain, liver, spleen, and blood. It is tardily excreted unchanged, or as strychnic acid, in the urine, in which it has been found an hour after ad- ministration, and has also been detected forty-eight hours later. Owing to its slow elimination strychnine should be regarded as a cumulative medicine. Toxic Actions. — Poisonous doses within a few minutes produce in all animals trembling and twitching of voluntary and also of involuntary muscles, and violent spasms, usually lasting one to two minutes, gradually becoming more frequent and severe ; and from their involving the glottis, diaphragm, and other muscles of respiration, cause death, usually by asphyxia. The symptoms (and mode of death) resemble those of tetanus, but are suddenly developed, intermittent, and more raj^idly fatal. The temperature is raised some- times two degrees. The several classes of animals differ in their susceptibility to the actions of strychnine. Horses and cattle arc not so readily aflfected as men and dogs. Poultry are said to be less easily affected than other birds ; while guinea-pigs and some monkeys seem quite insusceptible to its action, at least so long as it is given by the mouth (Dr. H. C. Wood, Treatise on Therapeutics). Horses after swallowing six grains of strychnine had twitch- ing of the muscles, and were poisoned by twelve grains in about twelve minutes (Tabourin). Five grains in bolus pro- duced, after six hours, abdominal pain, laboured breathing, acceleration of the pulse from 42 to GO, excitement when touched, and tetanic spasms. Twelve hours later the pulse was 96, and subsequently rose to 120. Blood-letting and fomen- tations gave no relief, and in a convulsive paroxysm the horse TETANISING POISONS 497 died. The membranes of the brain and cord were injected, the lungs engorged (Veterinarian, 1856). Given hypoder- mically, the toxic dose is stated by Frohner and Kaiifmann to be three to six grains. Half a grain, given hypodermically, induced in half an hour general muscular rigidity. Ten drachms of nux-vomica in powder caused muscular tremors but in solution proved fatal in ten hours (Hertwig). Pro- fessor Coleman gave a mare two ounces in a drench ; within an hour, and after the animal had drunk some water, she had violent tetanic symptoms, and died half an hour later. Ounce doses, given a glandered horse, caused tetanic spasms, but were not fatal. Moiroud states that the fatal dose for a horse is one to two ounces. Cattle withstand larger doses than do horses when the poison is given by the mouth, whether in solution or bolus. Mr. Macgillivray, gave an old cow^ thirty grains strychnine, and, shortly after, sixty grains, both doses in solution, with the result of a few spasmodic tremors, which continued for about twenty minutes {Vete7'inarian, 1870). I gave a small red cow, affected with pleuro- pneumonia, grs. xv. strychnine, suspended in two ounces of oil, at 12 o'clock. At 12.30 the pulse had risen from 70 to 78, regurgitation was ob- servable in the jugular veins, quivering and twitching affected the facial muscles, particularly during inspiration. At 12.45 the pulse numbered 84, and the symptoms were aggravated. Grs. ij. were given, dissolved in diluted acetic acid ; and in a quarter of an hour the animal was very un- easy, and attempted to vomit; the pulse was 94, full and strong; the pupils much dilated. At 1.30 the nausea and efforts to vomit were much increased, the breathing more laboured ; the animal lay down, and the pulse shortly fell to 58. At 2.15 the nausea was diminished, and the pulse 92. Grs. XXX. were then given in acetic acid and water. At 2.20 the pulse was 100, sharp and distinct. The muscles were affected by frequent spasms. At 2.25 the pulse was 140, and the animal very sensitive to light, sound, and external impressions. It reeled and fell. At 2.30 the pulse had risen to 160, the limbs were very rigid, the eyes protruding, involuntary spasms more general, frequent, and severe. 2 I 498 NUX-VOMICA AND STRYCHNINE Two minutes later she died quietly. Much smaller doses are fatal when strychnine is quickly absorbed. When given hypodcrmically, Kanfmann states that the toxic dose for cattle is five or six grains. Tabourin records the death of a cow in twenty minutes from four grains placed in the areolar tissues. Sheep are destroyed by half an ounce nux-vomica in about thirty minutes, but goats appear to be less susceptible. Pigs were violently convulsed by fifty grains of nux-vomica (Tabourin), and poisoned by ^ to | grain of strychnine (Kaufmann). Dogs are destroyed in two minutes by gr. ^ strychnine, and in twelve minutes by gr. ^ (Christison). An English terrier was poisoned in twenty-four minutes by gr. i ; a greyhound in one hour and a half by grs. iij. ; another greyhound in thirty-three minutes by gr. ss, (Dr S. Macadam). Kaufmann fixes the toxic dose at ^ to ^ grain. Dogs have been poisoned with grs. viij. of nux- vomica, and cats with grs. v. Dogs moan and Avhinc, are uneasy, nauseated, sometimes vomit, tremble, have muscular twitchings and general spasms, during which the head is drawn upwards and backwards, and the rectal temperature is raised 2° to 4° Falir. The tetanic convulsions continue one to two minutes, cease for several minutes, but recur with increased force until death results. Post-mortem appearances vary Avith the severity and dura- tion of the case. Asphyxia renders the blood dark-coloured and unusually fluid ; there is venous engorgement ; congestion of the lungs and of the cerebral and spinal meninges ; dila- tation of the vessels of the medulla, and sanguineous extravasation into the grey matter. When the patient has survived for several hours, the intestines occasionally present patches of redness and congestion. Where spasms have been severe and rapidly fatal, the left side of the heart is firmly contracted, and contains little, if any, blood. The tetanised muscles quickly undergo rigor' mortis, which sometimes continues longer than usual. In dogs destroyed with \ grain of strychnine, I found the buccal mucous membrane blanched ; the left auricle, and also the intes- GASTRIC, VASCULAR, AND NERVE TONICS 499 tines, continued to contract for nearly an hour after death, while the cerebral and intestinal vessels were con- gested with dark venous blood. Antidotes. — The stomach should be emptied with as little delay as possible ; if convulsions have begun, the patient should be ana3sthetised, the stomach well washed out, and chloral hydrate given. Professor Hughes Bennett first shelved the antidotal power of chloral hydrate. He found that the minimum fatal dose of strychnine for rabbits was ■irl-ath gr. per pound of body-weight. Twenty rabbits received more than this poisonous dose ; fifteen of these, to whom chloral was given, recovered. But a few days later, on re- ceiving the dose previously given, without the chloral, all died. French authorities advise the chloral to be given intravenously. Strychnine tetanus is also antagonised by tobacco, and, less effectually, by such motor paralysers as curare, conium, opium, and calabar bean. Medicinal Uses. — As bitter tonics, nux-vomica and strych- nine are prescribed in atonic dyspepsia. Their good effects probably depend upon their checking irregular fermentation, diminishing excessive secretion, as in catarrhal conditions, and perfecting co-ordination between the several functions of digestion and assimilation (Brunton). It is probably mainly in this way that they relieve many cases of broken- wind. Small doses, especially when combined with acids, are often effectual in checking chronic relaxed and hyper- secreting conditions of the bowels, where these are not complicated with irritation. Larger doses, increasing peri- stalsis, overcome chronic constipation, whether connected with acute indigestion, inflammation, or febrile attacks, and are usually prescribed with aloes or salines. They are bene- ficial in weak, dilated conditions of the heart ; during their excretion they stimulate the urinary organs, while aphro- disias is occasionally produced. In convalescence from acute disease they improve appetite and general tone. Strychnine, subcutaneously injected, is sometimes serviceable in main- taining activity of the respiratory and heart centres in collapse and narcotic poisoning. 500 NUX-VOMICA AND STRYCHNINE Nux- vomica and strychnine are prescribed in paralysis, whether of the limbs, intestines, or bladder. They are most beneficial in chronic motor paralysis, caused by irritation or congestion, but are unsuitable in cases accompanied by luemorrhage and compression. They frequently relieve paresis resulting from falls or other injuries, from lead- poisoning, influenza, acute indigestion, or rheumatism. It has been stated that paraplegia, even when depending upon softening or wasting of nervous textures, may sometimes be arrested by strychnine dilating the capillaries, determining a fuller stream of blood, and promoting nutrition. Strych- nine, subcutaneously injected, has been recommended for roaring. French veterinarians prescribe it in amaurosis. Cerebro-spinal meningitis, probably from climatic pecu- liarities, is greatly more common in America than in Great Britain. Often it occurs as an epizootic. Mr. Alex. Lockhart, New York, informed me that he has seen two hundred horses almost simultaneously affected in one tram-car stud, and has had eighty patients in slings at one time. It attacks horses of all sorts, and under every description of manage- ment. Blood-letting and physic, he believes, hasten and increase mortality ; under such reducing treatment half the cases die. It is unsafe to give more than half a dose of physic ; oil is preferred to aloes. Although the cerebral form is very hopeless, Mr. Lockhart assures me that 95 per cent, of the patients able to stand recover if at once treated with a grain of strychnine, repeated twice or thrice a day. In these cases Professor Robertson recommended Eastons syrup. In cattle practice, nux- vomica and its alkaloids are used, in indigestion and in chronic paralysis. Mr. David Aitken, Loughborough, who prescribed them with success, informed me of several typical cases. Two bullocks suffered from chronic paralysis, one had to be carted home from the grass field. lie was dull ; his pulse 55, and rather weak ; his hind extremities and tail had lost their power of movement, their sensation was impaired; the sphincter ani was relaxed, and both faeces and urine were passed involuntarily. Purgative medicine was given, and operated next day, without, how- ANTT-PARALYSANTS 501 ever, any abatement of the paralysis. Two drachms nux- vomica Avere prescribed night and morning for ten days ; but little improvement being notable, the dose was increased to three drachms thrice a day. This treatment being con- tinued for ten days, the patient was able to walk round the house in which he was confined, and rapidly re- covered. The other bullock exhibited similar symptoms, was treated in the same manner, and with like satisfactory results. A week or two before parturition, cows, especially if in low condition, occasionally lose the power of their hind limbs, and are unable to stand. Little can then be done besides propping the patient in a suitable position, turning her several times daily, and allowing laxative, nutritive diet. Within two or three days after parturition, most of these cases orraduallv regain the use of their limbs : but when defective nervous power continues, nux-vomica or strych- nine is used with success. The pathology of milk fever is still uncertain, but death appears to result from respiratory or cardiac failure, which might be warded off by subcutaneous injections of strychnine. In canine practice, strychnine is a valuable tonic in atonic indigestion, in some cases of asthma and chronic bronchitis, in convalescence from exhausting disease, in chorea, and in paralysis resulting from distemper or other causes. It is frequently conjoined or alternated with iron salts, or pre- scribed in the form of Easton's Syrup, or syrup of phos- phate of iron, with quinine and strychnine: one drachm of which contains 1 gr. ferrous phosphate, 4 gr. of quinine sulphate, and -^ gr. of strychnine. Strychnine is used for the destruction of rats, mice, and other vermin, and for the poisoning of wolves and other wild animals. It constitutes the active ingredient of various "infallible " insect and vermin destroyers, which are usually made up with starch, sugar, and about ten per cent, of strychnine. Doses, &c. — Of the powdered nux vomica, horses take gss. to 5j. ; cattle, 3i. to 5ij. ; sheep, grs. x to grs. xl. ; pigs, grs. x. to grs. XX. ; dogs, gr. ss. to grs. ij. The powder has the dis- 502 CALABAR BEAN advantage of not being very soluble. The extract, contain- ing 5 per cent, of strychnine, is six to eight times as active as the powder. The B.P. standardised tincture is sometimes used. It contains | gr. strychnine in 110 minims. Strychnine is greatly more uniform and more readily absorbed than the crude drug, and is fift}' times more power- ful. The hydrochloride, on account of its solubility, in .35 of water or GO of alcohol, is preferable to the alkaloid. The dose for the horse, except in special cases — when much more may be given — is gr. i. to grs. ij. ; for cattle, grs. ij. to grs. v. ; for sheep, gr. i to gr, i. ; for dogs, gr. -^ to gr. ■^^. The B.P. Liquor Strychninae hydrochloridi contains one grain of strychnine hjdrochloridc in 110 minims. Strychnine, although conveniently given b}- the mouth, is more prompt and active when administered hypodermically, and when thus used the minimum doses, dissolved in about 100 parts of a mixture of distilled water and alcohol, should first be tried. Nux-vomica and strychnine are generally given twice a day, and as anti-paralysants the doses may be cautiously and gradually increased, until slight muscular twitchings are produced. Tablets and lamels containing -^th and T^th gr. of strychnine sulphate are convenient for hypo- dermic injections. Strychnine arsenite has been recom- mended in some of the Continental veterinary schools for the treatment of persistent nasal discharges. CALABAR BEAN Physostigmatis Semina. — The ripe seeds of Ph3'sostigma Venenosum. Nat. Ord. — Leguminosa3. Physostigmik^. Sulphas. — (Ci5H2iN30.2)o, H._,SO^, rrH.p. Eserine Sulphate. The sulphate of an alkaloid obtained from Calabar bean. Western Africa (B.P.). Calabar bean is a large reddish-brown, oblong, reniform seed, usually about an inch long, three-quarter inch broad, and half-an-inch thick. The testa, hard, thick, and rough, encloses two cotyledons, between which there is a large cavity. The bean has no characteristic taste, and no GENERAL ACTIONS 503 odour (B.P.). Tts activity depends upon the presence of two alkaloids— (1) Physostigmine or Eserine, occuring in colourless crystals, soluble in alcohol, benzol, chloroform, and diluted acids, and partially in water. It paralyses nerve centres, and stimulates muscular fibre. (2) Cala- barine, soluble in water and alcohol, but not in ether. It causes strychnine-like convulsions. Eserine Sulphate occurs in yellowish- white minute crystals, becoming red by exposure to air and light, having a bitter taste, highly deliquescent, very soluble in water and in alcohol (90 per cent.). The aqueous solution is neutral to litmus, and, applied to the eye, causes contraction of the pupil. - Eserine sulphate contains about 70 per cent, of the alkaloid. Solutions keep better when mixed with a grain or two of salicylic acid. General Actions. — Calabar bean and its chief alkaloid stimulate voluntary and involuntary muscles and paral3'Se nerve centres. Eserine exerts no topical action on the skin or mucous membranes. It relieves obstruction by stimulating the muscular coat of the stomach and intestines. Given by the mouth, or applied locally, it contracts the pupil and diminishes intraocular pressure — effects due to irritation of the third nerve, or of the circular fibres of the iris, or of both. This myosis results in horses in twenty-five to thirty minutes ; and in less than half that time in carnivora ; but is not produced, even by conjunctival injection, in birds, frosts, and fishes. Excessive doses paralyse muscular fibre, especially the unstriped variety, and also sensory and, later, motor nerves. Moderate doses have little effect on voluntary muscles, but full doses induce local twitching, best marked at the elbow and stifle, followed by general trembling and spasmodic contractions ; at the same time the animal sweats, salivates, blows,, strains, and discharges fa3ces and urine, and all his organs provided with unstriated muscle participate more or less in the clonic convulsions. Its stimulant effect on unstriped muscle in part explains its action on the circu- lation. Small to moderate doses contract minute blood- vessels, and reduce the force and frequency of the heart 504 CALABAR BEAN movements. Kaufinann mentions that a single full dose reduces the pulse of the dog from 100 to 40 beais per minute. Professor Thomas Fraser believes that its action on the heart is threefold — (1) it stimulates peripherally the cardio- inhibitory branches of the vagus ; (2) it depresses the cardiac motor ganglia ; and (3), in large doses, it paralyses the car- diac muscular fibres. Respiration is temporarily quickened, apparently from stimulation of the vagi in the lungs, but in fuller doses is slowed from paresis of the medullary respira- tory centre. Moderate doses stimulate the liver, the invol- untary muscles of the bronchial tubes, uterus, and bladder, and increase gastric and intestinal peristalsis, quickly causing free and fluid evacuations from the bowels, and besides, inducing in man and carnivora retching and vomit- ing. The secretion of saliva, sweat, and mucus is increased. Poisonous doses disturb voluntary motility and paralyse the spinal cord, the posterior column being affected earlier and more fully than the anterior. Hence results the char- acteristic curare-like paralysis affecting motor and reflex functions, which, involving the medulla, kills by respiratory arrest (Brunton). According to Professor Fraser, death sometimes results from cardiac paralysis, the heart stopping in diastole. Convulsions occasionally occurring from the use of the bean and commercial physostigmine are due to the presence of calabarine. The brain in most animals appears to be irritated, cats and guinea-pigs poisoned exhibiting cerebral excitement, becoming timid, and run- ning wildly about. It is rapidly absorbed and quickly excreted mainly in the bile, saliva, and gastro-intestinal fluids. Between physostigmine and its analogues interesting points of contrast are noted. It resembles pilocarpine in its action on the heart, eye, and glandular secretions, but it does not cause such profuse flow from either the salivary bronchial, skin, or intestinal glands. Physostigmine pro- bably induces secretion by acting on the secreting cells, Avhile pilocarpine, and also muscarine and nicotine, stimulate the peripheral endings of secretory nerves. While physo- stigmine causes intestinal movements by contracting the STIMULATES INTESTINAL MUSCULAR FIBRES 505 muscular fibres, muscarine does so b}^ stimulating the nerves. Atropine is its physiological antagonist, paralysing muscles, stimulating the respiratory and cardiac medullary centres, and dilating the pupil. Ph3'sostigmine, in virtue of its promptly and effectually stimulating the muscular fibres of the intestines, is of great value in the treatment of obstruction and obstinate constipation. This was first pointed out by Dieckerhoft", and has been fully demonstrated by Majors Fred. Smith and Charles Rutherford, of the Army Veterinary Department, ■who made an important series of observations on horses, using physostigmine freed from the convulsant calabarine. From the Veterinary Journal 1888, the following observa- tions are extracted : — ' The earliest indications we hare of the action of the drug are loud intestinal murmurs, passage of flatus, vrith. slight colicky pain ; shortly this is followed by evacuation of the contents of the rectum, and the motions then pass at intervals of a few minutes, each becoming gradually softer, more watery, less formed in balls, until we reach the stage when the evacuations are moist and fluid, exactly representing cows' fieces. All this time the abdominal disturbance has become greater, the anim;il lies down, but seldom rolls, the intestinal murmurs are louder, the passage of flatus almost continuous, straning marked, fceces are voided icith great rapidity, often ejected with force, and several ounces of a brown-coloured fluid will at this time accompany each motion. About two to two and a half hours from the time of injection the efi'ects are commencing to pass off, and during this short time an almost incredible amount of faeces will have been excreted. Details on this point will be given below. Those who have had no previous experience of the drug, and the results obtained, will regard it as magical and marvellous ' A horse received Ih grains of eserine (physostigmine), subcutaneously ; it acted in twenty-five minutes, and produced in the first hour seven evacuations, in the second hour seven, the eflfect passing off in two hours and ten minutes. 'A horse received 1^ grains of eserine, hypodermically, which took twelve minutes to act, producing seven evacuations in the first hour, and then terminating. ' Another horse received 1^ grains of salicylate of eserine, hypodermi- cally, producing a free action of the bowels in one hour. This case ter- minated fatally from ruptured stomach ; and thus it was demonstrated that eserine could act upon the large intestines, in spite of the shock to the abdominal nervous system which a ruptured stomach causes. ' A pony received 1 grain of eserine, hypodermically ; three evacuations were produced in fifty minutes, and in eighty minutes from the time of injection eight evacuations had occurred. The case was a fatal one, the cause of obstruction being due to a small diaphragmatic hernia. Had the gut not been nipped so tightly, there is reason to believe the increased peristalsis might have withdrawn it. 'A horse received a few drops of a solution of eserine into the con- 50G CALABAR BEAN SERVICEABLE IN junctival sac; it shortly pi'oduced contraction of the pupil, which lasted fully two days. 'A horse received ih grains of eserine liy injection into the trachea; it took seventeen minutes to act, and produced in the first hour twelve evacuations, weighinj^ 11 lb. 13 oz., and a considerable quantity of flatus. The action then passed oft'. ' A horse received 1 grain of eserine, hypodermically ; it took forty-two minutes to act, and ])rodiiced only one evacuation in one hour, accompanied hy a considerable quantity of flatus. 'The saM)e horse received 1 grain of eserine and 3 grains of pilocarpine by inje'-tion into the trachea ; it took twenty-one minutes to act. In the first hour, counting from time of injection, it produced fourteen evacua- tions, weighing 30 lbs. G oz. ; in the second hour four evacuations, weighing 7 lbs. 6j oz. ; and in the third hour two evacuations, weighing 2 lbs. 13^ oz. ; in three hours a total of 40 lbs. 10 oz. of ingest a. 'In comparing these two cases, the value of pilocarpine as an addition to eserine is clearly demonstrated. ' A horse received \h grains of eserine by the trachea ; it acted in forty- one minutes, and produced in the hour five evacuations ; during the second hour four evacuations. The weight was unfortunately not obtained, but the quantity of ingesta comjjletely filled a stable bucket. The case was one of most obstinate constipation, and had previously received 6 drachms of aloes, which acted at the expiration of the usual time. ' Another horse received by the trachea 1 grain of eserine with 3 grains of pilocarpine, and this combination acted in one and a half hours, producing, in two and a half hours from time of injection, eight evacuations, weighing 26 lbs., exclusive of loss. The pilocarpine produced its salivating eff"ects in four minutes from the time of injection.' Mr. R, Rutherford, Edinburgh, gave a horse, weighing about 950 lbs., 5 grains commercial eserine, which within half-an-hour caused profuse perspiration, convulsive breath- ing, with violent action of the diaphragm. About two hours later, when the symptoms were abating, he gave 3 grains more, and death followed in half-an-hour. Kaufmann records that on opening the abdomen of a horse which had received a full dose of physostigmine, energetic contractions of the large intestine were seen. Animals poisoned exhibit pallor, contraction, and hardness of the large intestine ; the urinary bladder is empty and contracted, and the uterus also contracted. Antidotes. — As the bean is not very soluble, the stomach should be evacuated either by an emetic or the stomach- pump. Ipecacuanha has been recommended as an antidote. Physostigmine is antagonised by moderate doses of atroj^ine. Professor Fraser found that rabbits, receiving one and a half the lethal dose, recovered, if atropine was given, simultane- ously in doses of gr. -^ to gr. i. While small doses act as INTESTINAL TORPIDITY AND IMPACTION 507 antidotes, larger hasten a fatal result. The atropine specially counteracts the cardiac paralysis. To a less extent physo- stigmine antagonises the poisonous action of atropine ; chloral also somewhat opposes physostigmine. Medicinal Uses. — Physostigmine is myotic, anodyne, expectorant, and a gastro-intestinal stimulant. The observa- tions of Majors Smith and Rutherford testify to its value in combating intestinal torpidity and impaction. They ad- minister physostigmine hypodermically and intratracheally, preferring the latter method on account of its enabling more fluid to be introduced, occasioning less loss of the drug, and causing less inconvenience to the patient. Cases of intestinal obstruction in all animals may be safely treated by eserine, conjoined with pilocarpine and anodynes, by enemata, and abstention from solid food. French and German practitioners have arrived at similar conclusions. Dieckerhoif, Nocard, and Kaufmann, recommend physostigmine as an ' intestinal ansemiant ' in congestion, atony, colic, and torpidity of the digestive tract, especially of the large intestine, and also for the expulsion of concretions and foreign bodies. They further note its use to determine contraction of the uterus. Eserine has been given, subcutaneously and intravenously, to cattle affected with gastric impaction, but although causing considerable, sometimes painful, disturbance of the bowels, it does not produce copious evacuations. It has been tried in tetanus, but the relief afforded is merely transient. Recoveries attributed to the use of eserine should only be accepted with reserve. The extract and eserine sulphate or salicylate have been prescribed in epilepsy, chorea, and other spasmodic nervous affections, and, as an antidote, in poisoning by strychnine and atropine. They should not, however, be given to pregnant animals, in which untimely stimulation of the uterus may lead to premature expulsion of its contents. In solution eserine is applied as a myotic to relieve congestion and inflammation of the conjunctiva and cornea, and, alternated with atropine, to prevent or break down ad- hesions caused by iritis. In chronic dropsical conditions of the joints and bursas of tendons in the horse, after 508 HEMLOCK evacuation of the fluid by an aspirator, or a trocar and canula, Stottraeister, instead of the iodine solutions frequently used, recommends injection of a grain to a grain and a half physo- stigmine dissolved in TT[80 to TTI^ 160 of distilled water, apply- ing subsequently, f'" two or three days, ice or refrigerant lotions to abate inflammation {Jour, of Co^nip. Patli. and Thernp., 1889). Doses, etc. — The bean is given to horses and cattle in doses of grs. xv. to grs. xxx. ; to dogs, gr. \ to gr. ^. As already indicated, the diverse character of the two alkaloids present in the extract, as well as in the bean, renders it desirable to use physostigmine, which is conveniently employed in the form of sulphate, of which the dose per oreDi for horses is grs. ii. to grs, iii., and for dogs, gr. -n^ to gr. ■^. Intratracheally, gr. ss., in m^ 1 to 'n[ Ix of water ; and subcutaneously, gr. j. to gr. jss., in 711, Ix to HI, Ixxx of water. In intestinal obstruction more prompt and certain eftects are obtained by addition of 2 to 3 grains of pilocarpine. The hydrobromide and salicylate of eserine are sometimes used. An anaesthetic collyrium may be made with cocaine hydro- chloride grs. iv., eserine sulphate grs. ii., and distilled water §j. Eseridine (Cj5Ho3N'303), an alkaloid obtained from Calabar bean, has similar properties to physostigmine, but only one- sixth its activity. HEMLOCK Hemlock Leaves. Conii Folia. The fresh leaves and young branches of Conium maculatum, collected when the fruit begins to form (B.P.). Nat. Ord. — IJmbelli- ferse. Hemlock Fruit. Conii Fructus. The dried, full-grown, unripe fruits of Conium maculatum (B.P.). Hemlock grows wild in hedges and waste places in most parts of Europe. The flowering stem is two to five feet high, round, hollow, jointed, smooth, branching towards the top, and covered with purple spots. The large bi- or tri-pinnate leaves are glabrous and dark-green, have clasping petioles of varying length, a nauseous, bitter taste, and a strong, CONINE 509 peculiar odour, which is characteristic of all parts of the plant, and aptly compared to that of mice or of cats' urine. The fruit resembles that of anise, is of a brown colour, about one-eighth of an inch in length, broadly ovate, the two mericarps, generally separated, each marked with five ribs. Nine pounds of fruit produce an ounce of conine, which, with a bitter oleo-resin and a non-poisonous volatile oil, is found stored chiefly in cubical cells in the endocarp. The leaves gathered in June, when the fruit begins to form, are rapidly dried in stoves at about 120° Fahr., and preserved in tins, bottles, or jars, excluded from light. By drying, they lose three-fourths of their weight, and one- half of their volatile principle, of which scarcely a trace remains after they are kept twelve months (Royle's Materia Medico). Long keeping of the fruit and leaves, and their exposure to temperatures exceeding 120° Fahr., account for the inertness of many hemlock preparations. In addition to the active principle, conine, hemlock contains varying proportions of methyl-conine, which acts on the spinal cord, paralysing reflex action, conhydrine, which is said to be inert, and coniic acid. Pure conine (CgH^gHN) may be obtained from the fruit or leaves by distillation with caustic potash. It is a yellowish, oily liquid, with an intense odour of mice, and a peculiar acrid taste. Specific gravity -885. Soluble in 100 parts of water ; and readily dissolved by alcohol or ether. Nitric acid dropped on conine produces a blood-red colour, sul- phuric acid a purple-red, passing to olive-green. Its chief salt is the hydrobromide, which contains about 60 per cent, of the alkaloid. It is soluble in two parts of water and in three of rectified spirit (Squire). Pure conine, like curare, paralyses the endings of motor nerves and of the vagus, and, later, the motor centres of the brain and cord. The leaves and fruit of hemlock are distinguished by their appearance, and, if triturated with diluted caustic potash solution, evolve the characteristic odour of mice. Fool's parsley (^Ethusa cynapium), water hemlock or cowbane (Cicuta virosa), the fine-leaved water hemlock (Phellandrium aquaticum), the water parsnip (Q^nanthe crocata), are 510 HEMLOCK — CONINE Umbelliferai with physiological actions similar to those of couiuin maciilatum, and when freely eaten have poisoned many of the domestic animals. Of wholesome dietetic Umbellifera3, parsley, parsnip, and celery are illustrations. The natural family is rich in aromatic carminative seeds. Actions and Uses. — Hemlock and its alkaloids, applied to mucous or denuded skin surfaces, diminish sensibility, and are analgesic. When absorbed they paralyse the endings of motor nerves and of the vagus, and are sometimes prescribed to quiet motor irritability. General Actions. — Hemlock was the state poison of the Athenians, the death-potion of Socrates. It has paralysant eifect on sensory nerves, as exhibited when applied to mucous and delicate skin membranes, and when absorbed paralyses (without the preliminary stimulation exerted by nicotine or pilocarpine) the extremities of motor nerves, and those vagus endings which inhibit the heart and lungs. It increases the secretion of the sweat, bronchial, and intestinal glands. Full doses paralyse the motor centres of the brain and spinal cord, and cause a weak and staggering gait, the hind extremities being first affected. Convulsions occasion- ally occur in warm-blooded animals, depending upon the presence of methyl-conine, which, as indicated, acts upon the spinal cord and paralyses reflex action. Death results from paralysis of the muscles of respiration. It is excreted mainly by the kidneys, possibly in part by the lungs, it acts more powerfully on man and carnivora than on grarainivora or herbivora. Goats with impunity eat con- siderable quantities of the fresh leaves (Kaufraann). Its physiological antagonists are nux-vomica, strychnine, and other tetanisers. Toxic Actions. — Dr. John Harley and Mr. Frederick Mavor gave a two-year-old thoroughbred colt six, eight, and twelve ounces of succus conii without appreciable effect. Sixteen ounces produced in twenty-five minutes dulncss and stu- pidity, drooping and swollen eyelids, but no change in the pulse or pupils. A few minutes later the colt went down upon his knees, appeared to require special eflbrts to keep himself on his legs, stumbled, and walked slowly when led ; TOXIC EFFECTS 511 but in two hours the symptoms had entirely disappeared (Old Vegetable Neurotics, 1869). Moiroud poisoned a horse with half a pound of the dried leaves given as a decoction, and observed nausea, spasmodic twitching of the muscles of the extremities, cold sweats, dilatation of the pupils, and dulness. In Italy asses eating hemlock have sometimes been so thoroughly paralysed that, supposing them to be dead, the peasants have begun to remove the skin (Matthiolus). Cattle poisoned lie as if lifeless, with slow, feeble pulse, cold extremities, and dilated pupils {Veterinarian's Vade Meciim). Sheep become giddy, listless, and sometimes die. When other food is scarce lambs will crop hemlock with fatal results, as noted in the Veterinary Record for July 1893. Fifteen grains of the succus injected into the blood- vessels of a full-grown mouse produced, in half an hour, paralysis, continuing for five hours. Christison found that an ounce of the extract swallowed by dogs proved fatal in forty-five minutes ; ninety grains applied to a wound had the same effect in an hour and a half; while tAventy-eight grains caused death in two minutes, when injected into the veins {On Poisons). Gerrard, of Market Deeping, records (Veterinarian, 1873) the poisoning of pigs which strayed into an orchard and ate growing hemlock. They lay prostrate and unable to rise, pulse imperceptible, the body cold, the eyes amaurotic, and when left alone they lapsed into a comatose state. There were no convulsions, and no pain was apparent when they were pricked with a pin. In fifteen hours two died, and two a few hours later. Examination discovered the blood throughout the body, and especially in the large organs, dark-coloured and fluid, the result of the fatal asphyxia; the intestines distended with gas; the mucous coat of the stomach, particularly its cardiac portion, much congested, while similar spots of congestion were observed throughout the intestines. Conine is generally used in the form of hydrobromide. One drop applied to the eye of a rabbit arrested respiration in nine minutes ; three drops in the eye of a cat killed it in a minute and a half; five drops swallowed by small dogs 512 HEMLOCK — CONINE began to operate in thirty seconds, and proved fatal in one minute. Still smaller quantities injected into, the veins poisoned with even greater rapidity (Christison On Poisons). The antidotes are tannic acid, the cautious administration of coffee, and other stimulants, ammonia to the nostrils, stimulating enemata, enforced exercise, and artificial respiration. Medicinal Uses. — Hemlock is occasionally given to relieve the muscular spasm of chorea. It is of no avail in tetanus in horses, nor, as demonstrated by experiment, in strychnine poisoning. Spasmodic cough connected with muscular irri- tability, such as occasionally occurs in epizootic sore-throat and bronchitis in horses, is sometimes relieved by inhalation of steam medicated with hemlock, or by swallowing slowly an electuary of succus conii, glycerin, and ammonium acetate. Injections and suppositories are applied in irritable, painful conditions of the urino-genital organs. Conium ointment, made with two ounces of succus conii and three-quarter ounce of lanoline, is applied as an anodyne in acute mammitis of the cow. Doses, etc. — Neither the dried leaves nor the fully-ripened dried fruit are to be depended upon. The fresh leaves and young branches, and preparations promptly obtained from them without heat, are, however, reliable, of which the best is the succus. Three parts of juice are mixed with one of recti- fied spirit, allowed to stand for seven days, and then filtered and bottled. This succus has a dark sherry colour, an agree- able odour, and acid reaction ; one fluid ounce yields thirty grains of soft extract. Horses and cattle take fgij. to f§iv. ; sheep and pigs, fgss. to f§j. ; dogs, f5ss. to f5j. Its analgesic and anti-spasmodic effects are increased by using it with opium or chloral-hydrate. Conine employed hypodermically by Dr. Harley and Mr. Mavor, frequently produced irritation, which hindered its absorption. For subcutaneous or intra- tracheal injection the hydrobromide, which contains 60 per cent, of coninc, should be used. Doses — horses, gr. i. to grs. ii. ; dogs, gr. ^\- to gr. ^, dissolved in 20 to 60 minims of water containing a few dro])s of alcohol. HENBANE 513 HYOSCYAMUS Hyoscyamus or Henbane Leaves. The fresh leaves and flowers, with the branches to which they are attached, of Hyoscyamus niger ; also the leaves and flowering tops, separated from the branches, and carefully dried. Collected from the flowering biennial plants (B.P.). Nat. Ord. — Solanaceae. Henbane grows wild in most parts of this country, and is cultivated at Mitcham and Hitchin. The large, sinuate, usually decurrent yellow-brown leaves are rough, hairy, and clammy, with a foetid, narcotic odour, and a nauseous, bitter taste. There are two varieties, an annual and a biennial; the latter alone recognised by the B.P., is larger, stronger, more branched, clammy, and active. One hundred pounds of the fresh plant when dried weigh 14 lbs., and yield about 4 lbs. of extract. The active principle, hyoscyamine (C^^HggNOg), in its im- pure form is an oily liquid, becoming brown on exposure, but it can be slowly crystallised into colourless, translucent needles. It is soluble in 120 of water, and readily dissolves in alcohol, chloroform, and dilute acids. It resembles daturine, the active principle of Datura stramonium, is identical with duboisine, the active alkaloid of Duboisia myoporoides, and is isomeric with atropine. It is decom- posed, and its physiological action neutralised by caustic alkalies. Henbane also contains hyoscine, which is a cere- bral and spinal sedative, and an oil. Actions and Uses. — Hyoscyamus closely resembles bella- donna and stramonium. Locally applied, it paralyses the endings of sensory nerves. It dilates the pupil, although not so certainly and fully as atropine. Full doses of the drug or its alkaloid stimulate the cerebral centres and paralyse the ends of motor nerves. There are produced dryness of the mouth, general convulsions, paralysis, and stupor, alternated with a peculiar form of delirium, in which a constant desire for action is accompanied by lassitude, failure of the action of the heart, and of breathing, and death from asphyxia (Brunton). 2 K 514 COCAINE Toxic Effects. — Horses receiving an infusion made with three to four ounces of the leaves have dilatation of the pui^ils, spasmodic movements of the lips, acceleration and subsequently depression of the heart-beats, but no symptoms of acute poisoning. Dogs are acted on exactly as by bella- donna. Cats become dull and drowsy, the mouth and nose dry, the pulse accelerated, the pupils dilated, and the power of walking or springing impaired (0/(i Vegetable Neurotics). Medicinal Uses. — Hyoscyamus is prescribed with cathartics to prevent their griping. It is mainly excreted by the kid- neys, and occasionally is used as an anodyne in irritable conditions of the kidneys and bladder. It is prescribed in human practice in cases of mania and nervous or muscular excitement, and has been used with some success in epilepsy and chorea in dogs. It is occasionally substituted for opium as a topical anodyne. Doses, etc. — Of the succus and tincture horses and cattle take fgj. ; dogs, TTLx. to TTj^xl. The extract is six times the strength of the succus or tincture. Hyoscyamine, usually prescribed as the sulphate, which is freely soluble in water, is one hundred times more active than the extract, and is sometimes used hypodermically. COCAINE CocAiNA. An alkaloid obtained from the leaves of Erythro- xylum Coca and its varieties. CocAiNiE Hydrochloridum. The hydrochloride of an alka- loid obtained from Coca leaves. Cj^HgiNO^.HCl. Nat. Ord. — Lineae. The alkaloid, of which the leaves yield 26 per cent., is pre- pared by agitating an acidulated alcoholic extract with ether. It occurs in colourless prisms, almost insoluble m water, insoluble in glycerin, soluble in ten parts rectified spirit, and in twelve of olive oil. The hydrochloride, in colourless acicular crystals, or crystalline powder, is readily soluble in water, alcohol, and glycerin. Insoluble in olive oil, and nearly insoluble in ether. Its watery solution has a bitter taste. ACTIONS AND USES 615 producing on the tongue a sensation of tingling, followed by numbness, and when applied to the eye dilates the pupil. It gives a yellow precipitate with gold chloride, and a white precipitate with ammonium carbonate, soluble in excess of the re-agent. Cocaine is associated in the plant with coca- tannic acid, and with two other alkaloids — cocamine and cinnamyl-cocaine — and a volatile constituent which gives aromatic fragrance to the fresh leaves. Actions and Uses. — Cocaine paralyses the sensory nerves with which it comes in contact, and is thus a local anaesthetic. It is also antiseptic. Small to moderate doses are stimulant and tonic, and diminish metabolism. The South American Indians, on long marches, not only chew coca leaves, but give them to their horses, with the effect of diminishino' thirst, hunger, and sense of fatigue. Although topically anaesthetic and anodyne, large doses, swallowed or injected subcutane- ously, paralyse the nerve-centres, impair co-ordination, causing aimless gyrating movements, muscular spasms, and death from respiratory failure. General Actions. — Solutions of 4 to 10 per cent., applied to a mucous surface, within one minute cause pallor and vascular contraction, and two or three minutes later local anaesthesia lasting ten minutes. A few drops of a 5 per cent, solution, placed within the eyelids, paralyse the conjunctiva and iris, and dilate the pupil. This dilatation is more notable in men and dogs than in horses and cattle (Frohner). When swallowed, it slightly stimulates the stomach. It diminishes the sensations of hunger and thirst. Large or repeated doses quicken circulation, increase blood-pressure, breathing, and temperature, and heighten reflex irritability. Still larger doses cause trembling and timidity, impair co- ordination and equilibrium; animals cannot walk straight, have muscular trembling and rotatory convulsions, and die from paralysis of respiration. It is excreted by the kidneys ; does not appear, however, to alter the proportion of the urinary constituents, but exerts antiseptic effects on the urine and other secretions. Applied to the mammary gland it diminishes secretion of milk. Horses receiving 60 to 80 grains injected subcutaneously. 51 G COCAINE or about '005 gramme per kilogramme of body-weight, according to Froliner, are restless, paw with the fore feet neigh, and exhibit tiniidity and excitement, the pulse rises to 90-96, temperature is increased, salivation occurs, the bowels are frequently moved, and the pupil dilated. After fifty minutes the animal is in a state of frenzied excitement, with greatly augmented reflex activity. Two hours elapse before these effects disappear. In cows like effects were produced by hypodermic injection of similar doses. One drachm is stated to have produced excitement bordering on madness, and continuing for four hours, but gradually pass- ing ofit", and leaving no injurious effects. In dogs, doses consisting of 'OlS to -02 gramme per kilogramme of live-weight produce psychical excitement, muscular spasms, rhythmical contractions of the skeletal muscules, tetanic and clonic spasms, epileptic fits, rolling, loss of co-ordination, and dyspnoea. The spasms and more prominent symj)toms do not, however, occur when potassium bromide, ether, or amyl-nitrite have previously been given. Large doses paralyse the central nervous system, implicating first the brain, then the corpora quadrigemina, the spinal cord, and lastly, the medulla. Injected hypodermically, twelve to fifteen grains kill small dogs in ten minutes (Hobday). Medicinal Uses. — Cocaine hydrochloride is a convenient and effectual local anaesthetic. Its effects are confined to the skin or mucous surfixce moistened with it, are more easily regulated than those of ether spray, are unaccompanied by pain, and may be kept up for considerable periods without injuriously affecting the nutrition of the parts. Anaesthesia may be produced within five minutes, and, Avhen insensibility is secured, it usually continues for twenty to thirty minutes. For application to the skin cocaine should be dissolved in oil of cloves which ensures deeper penetration. Twcnt}' minims of a 4 or 5 per cent, solution dropped into the eye within ten minutes diminish sensibilit}", so that a thorough examination can be made of the organ ; the irritabilit}' and pain of conjunctivitis, iritis, and ulceration of the cornea are abated; chaffer other foreign bodies imbedded in the cornea HOLOCAINE 617 can be removed without provoking pain or reflex movements : warts can be excised, torn lids stitched, and injuries of the eye painlessly treated. Indeed, after several applications of the cocaine solution, the eyeball of the horse has been removed, Avithout symptoms of pain, and without the necessity of casting the patient. In examinations and operations in con- nection with the larynx, cocaine is equally serviceable, and for such cases a stronger solution is generally used. Applied to the skin, along the course of the plantar nerves, and still more effectually when injected subcutaneously, it abolishes sensibility sufliciently for the painless performance of neurectomy. Mr, Richard Rutherford, Edinburgh, after closely clipping or shaving the hair, finds that half an ounce of a 20 per cent, solution, in fifteen or twenty minutes anaesthetises the limbs even of irritable horses sufficiently for the performance of firing Avithout casting, and for the painless insertion of setons. It is serviceable in the opening of abscesses, the removal of tumours, and in operations on the uterus, vagina, and rectum. Subcutaneously injected, it has been used to allay rheumatic and other irritative pain, and to assist in the diagnosis of lameness. In order to preserve cocaine hydrochloride solutions, Avhich, when long kept, are liable to spoil, l-200th part of boric acid should be added to them when freshly made. The B.P. injectio cocainse hypodermica, is made with 33 grains cocaine hydrochloride, h grain salicylic acid, and 6 drachms distilled water. One hundred and ten minims contain about 10 grains of cocaine. The ointment consists of 20 grains cocaine, 80 grains oleic acid, and 400 grains of lard. Tablets containing ^^ and ^ grain are now obtainable. Holocaine, a cocaine substitute, obtained by combination of phenacetin and paraphenetidin, is employed as the hydro- chloride, Avhich is soluble in one hundred parts of water. In ophthalmic practice a few drops of a 1 per cent, solution produce anaesthesia in fifty seconds, the effects lasting for five to fifteen minutes. The solution is antiseptic but does not dilate the pupil. Acoin, derived from guanin, is less poisonous and acts longer than cocaine. It is antiseptic as well as anaesthetic. A solution for hypodermic injection is 5 1 8 COCAINE composed of one part acoin, eight parts of sodium chloride, and a thousand parts of distilled water. Tropacocaine, employed as the hydrochloride, occurs with cocaine and other bases in Java coca leaves, and is prepared synthetically by Liebermann. It is a white crystalline powder readily soluble in water. Used in solution (2 to 3 per cent.) it is a powerful local anaesthetic, more rapid and less toxic than cocaine. The hydrochlorides of alpha-eucaine and beta- eucaine are also employed as substitutes for cocaine. Eucaine-a is soluble in ten parts of ^vater and is not decomposed on boiling. As a local anaesthetic it is seldom used in eye cases owing to its irritant action on tte conjunctiva. Eucaine-b is more active and much less toxic than cocaine. Readily soluble in water it is free of irritant action. Solutions can be sterilised by boiling without undergoing decomposition. A 2 per cent, solution is employed as a local anaesthetic for minor operations. Solutions of 5 and 10 per cent, have been used. A mixture of equal parts of eucaine-band cocaine ha ; been recom- mended as the best and safest local anaesthetic. Orthoform (methyl-para-amido-meta-oxybenzoate), another cocaine substitute, occurs as a white, odourless and tasteless powder, slightly soluble in water. According to Guinard and Souliere, Orthoform is more analgesic than anaesthetic. Applied to Avounds only a small part is dissolved by the discharge. Absorption does not occur or is exceedingly slow, so that local applications may be regarded as non- toxic. When swallowed, or injected subcutaneously, it is quickly absorbed and acts as a powerful nerve depressant, blood pressure being lowered and heart action and respiration much increased. Large doses given to dogs, hypodermically or by the mouth, cause nausea and vomiting. Orthoform is employed as a local antesthetic; and as an anodyne and antiseptic in powder or in ointment (10 to 20 per cent.) made with lanoline. Mixed with collodion it is used as an antiseptic adhesive protective for small wounds. The hydro- chloride (soluble in nine parts of water) is not generally applicable for ophthalmic or subcutaneous use {Newer Remedies, 1899). JABORANDI — PILOCARPINE 519 JABORANDI Jaborandi Folia. The died leaflets of Pilocarpus Jaborandi. (B.P.) Nat Ord. — Rutaceae. Pilocarpine Nitrate. PilocarpinseNitras (C^HijjNgOaHNOg). The nitrate of an alkaloid obtained from Jaborandi leaves (B.P.). The shrubs yielding jaborandi are natives of Brazil. The leaflets have a slightly aromatic odour and a bitter, pungent taste, and when chewed they increase secretion of saliva. The leaflets are about four inches long, and contain an acrid resin, an essential oil consisting in part of a dextrogyrate terpene (Cj^H^g), and an amorphous, liquid, colourless alkaloid, pilocarpine (CjjHigN20.2), which is soluble in alcohol, ether, chloroform, ammonia, and dilute acids, and forms crystal- lisable salts, the nitrate being chiefly used. Another alkaloid, jaborine, occurs in much smaller proportion, is stated to be a basic decomposition product of pilocarpine, and antagonistic to it in its actions. Pilocarpine nitrate, is a white, crystalline powder, soluble in nine parts of water, and in fifty parts of cold alcohol (90 per cent.). Actions and Uses. — Pilocarpine and jaborandi leaflets have no notable in-contact effect on the skin or mucous membranes, but when absorbed they stimulate glandular secretion more promptly, energetically, and generally than any other known drugs. The salivary, lachrymal, bronchial, intestinal, urinary, and mammary secretions are increased. The cutaneous per- spiratory glands are not so actively stimulated in the lower animals as in man. They, moreover, slightly and temporarily excite and then paralyse the efferent nerves of involuntary muscles, while large doses impair the irritability of voluntary muscles and motor nerves (Brunton). They are prescribed as eliminatives in catarrhal, pneumonic, and rheumatic cases, and in torpidity and obstruction of the bowels — in these being conjoined with physostigmine. Jaborine has actions entirely opposite to those of pilocarpine. It is an anti-secretory and a paralysant of involuntary muscles, thus closely resembling atropine. Its presence in jaborandi and in commercial 520 JABORANDI — PILOCARPINE specimens of pilocarpine hence interferes with their characteristic actions. General Actions. — Pilocarpine stimulates the peripheral terminations of efferent nerves going to glands and to involuntary muscles, and also excites the nerve centres presiding over secretion. In the lower animals secretion of saliva is early and prominently increased. Horses sub- cutaneously injected with three to four grains in two or three minutes are freely salivated ; within one hour three and a half pints of saliva have been collected ; during the next hour about half that quantity, but an hour later the secretion was nearly normal (Kaufmann). The nasal and lachrymal secretions are augmented. So nuich bronchial mucus is outpoured that a distinct rale is audible, and in poisonous doses the accumulation of fluid and oedema of the membrane cause dj^spncea, which is sometimes fatal. The intestinal glands are stimulated, rendering the dejections more abundant, soft, and shortly semi-fluid. Small and moderate doses increase the secretion of urine, and also of milk. In man pilocarpine produces profuse sweating, but in the lower animals even full doses only render the skin moist. By its stimulation of the skin growth of hair is said to be encouraged (Frolmer). Pilocarpine temporarily stimulates the peripheral termina- tions of the efferent nerves distributed to involuntary muscles, and secondarily, and especially in large doses, paralyses them. Given by the mouth, or injected locally, the circular fibres of the iris arc contracted, but frequently the pupil is sub- sequently dilated. The muscles of the stomach and intestines are in a state of active peristalsis, occasionally accompanied by vomiting, colic, and diarrhcea. The bladder contracts, and urine is passetl at short intervals. Contractions of the uterus and movements of the spleen arc also produced. After slight and temporary stimulation, heart action is slowed and blood-pressure lowered. The temperature, Avhich at first rises, subsequently falls several tenths of a degree. Frohner states that a single dose in from two to four hours will reduce the weight of a horse by forty to sixty pounds. Horses receiving two to four drachms of the leaves infused GLANDULAR STIMULANTS 521 in hot water, in fifteen to twenty minutes exhibited profuse salivation, continuing for three hours, but without notable diaphoresis, altered circulation, or increased temperature. Carriage horses to which I gave two to four drachms, in tifteen minutes salivated abundantly, and the discharge continued for two or three hours ; very slight diaphoresis occurred for twenty minutes ; no change was noticeable in the pulse, temperature, or quantity of urine excreted. Mr. WilUam Dollar injected hypodermically li grains pilocarpine in ten parts water into the shoulder of an aged horse 15:| hands; in six minutes marked saHvation set in, the saliva pouring out of the mouth; the secretion from the buccal glands also appeared to be augmented. These effects con- tinued for fully an hour and a half; the pulse was lowered in force, and was slowed two to three beats; the skin previously dry, became moist, but there was no distinct sweating. Major Fred. Smith of the A.V.D., reports that in horses, in about ten minutes after a subcutaneous injection of three grains, there is constant ' champing of the jaws, whilst saliva flows from the mouth, sometimes in quite a stream. There is no attempt at sweating; the sweat glands of the horse are perfectly insensible to the action of pilo- carpine. The involuntary muscles of the intestinal canal are stimulated, and the rectum is repeatedly emptied. . . . In one case I observed a gulping sound in the throat, resembling the effect produced by aconite ' ( Veterinary Journal, 1888). Horses are poisoned by the subcutaneous injection of live grains (Kaufmann). Cattle, however, tolerate much larger quantities. Feser subcutaneously injected a cow and a bull with doses ranging from three to eighteen grains. The larger doses produced abundant secretion of viscid saliva, frequent, short, laboured respiration, tympanites, intestinal irritation, colic, and profuse diarrhoea, but only slight and temporary diaphoresis. Still larger doses increased the cedema of the lung and paralytic tympany of the rumen, and also weakened heart action. But much larger doses, reaching to forty- tive grains, were tolerated when given by the mouth. Compared with physostigmine, pilocarpine, although stimulating more 522 JABORANDI — PILOCARPINE powerfully intestinal glandular secretion, had much less effect on intestinal muscular fibre, and two to four times the dose is stated to be required to produce purgation in cattle {Jour, of Covif). Path, and Therap., 1889). Dogs and cats are more sensitive to the drug than horses or cattle. A dog of 25 lbs. weight was prostrated for two days by three-quarters of a grain, and Frohner records that this dose killed by pulmonary oedema a dog weighing 132 lbs. Half a grain caused profuse salivation, continuing for six hours, and increased action of the bowels and kidneys. Half a drachm to a drachm of the leaves, infused in water, produced in English terriers, of 20 to 25 lbs. weight, abundant salivation, but no notable diaphoresis. The physiological antagonist of pilocarpine is atropine, which arrests glandular secretion and paralyses the nerve endings of involuntary muscles. It is hence the appropriate antidote in poisoning by pilocarpine. Medicinal Uses. — The prompt and general eliminative action of pilocarpine has suggested its use for the absorption of pleuritic and other effusions, and the removal of products of tissue waste. It has been prescribed for rheumatism, especially when affecting muscles, and in chronic eczema, Kaufmann testifies to its value as an expectorant in catarrh, pneumonia, and complaints resulting from exposure to cold. In such cases it may be usefully combined with other expectorants. Friedberger and Frohner advise its subcutaneous injection in acute brain inflammation, hydro- cephalus, and laminitis. In nephritis it beneficially removes by other channels the albuminoid waste usually got rid of by the kidneys. In virtue of its increasing alike intestinal secretion and peristalsis, it is serviceable in torpidity and obstruction of the bowels, and may even relieve volvulus and invagination. In these gastro-intestinal cases it is conjoined with pliysostigmine, which stimulates muscular contractions more powerfully than pilocarpine. Doses, etc. — Of the fresh leaves, horses or cattle take gij- to 3iv. ; sheep, pigs, or large dogs, 5^^- ^^ 5^-> given as an infusion. But pilocarpine nitrate or hydrochloride is more certain and effective, and is prescribed, hypodermically or CURARE 523 intratracheally, to horses and cattle in closes of grs. ij. to grs. iv.; to dogs, gr. ^ to gr.^, dissolved in Avater, 1 grain of the salt to 20 minims of water containing a drop or two of alcohol. CURARE CuRARA. Woiirara. Wourali. Urari. The South American arrow poison. An extract from one or more species of Strychnos, mixed with some mucilaginous juice, and owing its activity to an alkaloid, curarina (CjgHjgNg). (Not official.) Curare is a black-brown substance, with a very bitter taste, and imperfectly soluble in water. It appears to vary some- what in composition, and two varieties have been described. The drug, and its twenty- times more active alkaloid curarina, by whatever channel they enter the body, paralyse the peripheral endings of motor nerves. The nerves of the voluntary muscles of the limbs are first affected, then those of the trunk and head ; but later, and with large doses, they involve the endings of sensory nerves, and also of the vagus, enfeebling, and, it may be, arresting respiration. Intelligence and consciousness remain unimpaired. Horses are poisoned by 15 to 30 grains of curare, dogs by about one-tenth of these doses. Nikelski and Dogiel's investigations demon- strate that the poison affects the protoplasm both of nerves and muscles ; that paralysis is removed Avhen the drug is washed out of the muscle ; that it acts less powerfully on the vaso-motor system of rabbits and cats than of dogs; applied to the conjunctiva it dilates the pupil of birds, but not of mammals ; while the reverse obtains in the case of atropine. Although the blood becomes charged with car- bonic acid, the motor nerves are so paralysed that convulsions do not occur. The heart continues to beat after the breathing ceases, but the poison is quickly eliminated by the kidneys, and artificial respiration persisted with accordingly prevents death, even when lethal doses have been given. The rapid excretion of the poison, unchanged, by the kidneys is strikingly illustrated by the fact that the urine of a frog, puisoned by 524 DIGITALIS curare, injected subcutaneously into a second frog, paralyses it, and its urine will even paralyse a third (Brunton). It is allied to hemlock and conine, and to methyl- strychnine, methyl-brucine, and methyl-thebaine. Some of its effects are antagonised by strychnine. It has been given in chorea and epilepsy; but in neither of these has its efhcacy been established. In tetanus it deserves further trial. The doses for horses and cattle are from gr. ss. to gr. j. ; for dogs, gr. .Pg- to gr. i It acts much more powerfully when injected intravenously, hypodermically, or intratracheally, than when swallowed. Any considerable amount of food in the stomach retards and minimises its effect, when given •per orein. DIGITALIS Foxglove. The dried leaves of Digitalis purpurea. Col- lected from plants commencing to Hower (B.P.). Nat. Ord. — Scrophulariacese. Digitalis grows wild in this country and in many parts of the Continent, on gravelly, sandy soils, in young plantations, on hedge sides, and hill pastures. Other species have probably the same properties as the D. purpurea, recognised by the B.P. It is herbaceous, biennial or perennial, with numerous drooping, purple - spotted, occasionally white flowers, an erect stem one to five feet high, and large alter- nate ovate - lanceolate, crenatc, rugose leaves, downy, especially on their paler lower surfaces, and tapering into winsred foot-stalks. The leaves are dried in baskets, in darkness, over stoves, and are then of a dull-green colour, with little smell, but a nauseous, bitter, slightly astringent taste. They should be used when fresh; twelve months' keeping greatly diminishes their activity. Both the roots and seeds are bitter, and probably active. Digitalis yields several active principles: — (1) Digitalin, or digitalinum, a bitter glucoside, almost insoluble in water, but readily soluble in alcohol. Pure digitalin and the commercial variety are topical irritants and muscle poisons, and hence notable cardiac poisons. The DIGITALIS GLUCOSIDES 525 four undermentioned non-nitrogenous substances have also been isolated. (2) Digitoxin is a crystalline body, insoluble in water, but soluble in ether, chloroform, and alcohol. It is the most active of the several glucosides which constitute digitalin. (3) Digitalein is bitter and amorphous, and readily soluble both in water and alcohol. Insoluble in ether and chloroform. Digitoxin and digitalein act in the same manner as digitalin. (4) Digitonin is soluble in 600 parts of water, and in 50 parts dilute alcohol; resembles saponin, the active principle of quillaia, the Chili soap bark; is a powerful irritant, local anaesthetic, and muscular paral3^sant; and hence is in some degree antagonistic to digitalin, digitoxin, and digitalein. (5) Digitin appears to be physiologically inert. These five non-nitrogenous bodies, in variable proportion, are obtainable from the plant grown in different climates and circumstances, and also from dift'erent preparations, depending chiefly upon differences in their solubility in water and alcohol. The tincture contains the first three, and appears to be most suitable as a heart tonic, while the infusion, containing more digitoxin, is stated to be more active as a diuretic. They readily yield products of decom- position, especially when exposed to high temperatures, and several of these products are convulsants like picrotoxin. Actions and Uses. — Digitalis and digitalin are topical irritants and contractors of muscle, especially of the un- striped variety. Medicinal doses are vascular and cardiac stimulants and tonics, and are prescribed to increase the force and co-ordinating power of the heart, and relieve con- gestion of veins and capillaries. They are diuretic. Large doses are muscle poisons : they contract spasmodically and even tetanically the heart and other muscles, and kill usually by cardiac paralysis. General Actions. — Digitalis owes its action chiefly to digitalin, which, in contact with living tissues, is an irritant. Injected into the skin or trachea it irritates and inflames. Placed in the mouth, besides a sensation of bitter- 526 DIGITALIS ness, it causes salivation and redness. Introduced into the stomach and bowels, it induces irritation and nausea; in carnivora, vomiting, colic pains, and diarrhoea. It is absorbed slowly, and contracts muscular fibre, notably of the heart and arterioles. Properly regulated doses strengthen and prolong the cardiac diastole, both auricles and ventricles are more fully dilated, systole is more vigorous, and conse- quently the heart is more perfectly emptied. The muscular fibres of the arterioles have their tonicity increased. Blood- pressure accordingly is raised. Such doses, Avhile increasing the volume of the pulse, diminish the pulse-rate of health}' horses three to five beats, and of dogs ten to fifteen beats per minute, and these eftects last from six to twelve hours. The action on the heart is more notable on the dog and sheep than on the horse and ass. The action on the circulation is divided by Schmiede- berg into the following four stages, and this division has been adopted by Dr. Lauder Brunton : — (1) Medicinal doses cause a fuller stream of blood to be thrown into the circulation, blood-pressure rises, the pulse is usually slowed, but increased in volume. These effects, depending chiefly on contraction of muscular fibre, are intensified by stimulation of the vagus roots in the medulla, and of the nerve-endings in the heart itself. (2) Continued rise of blood-pressure. The pulse, pre- viously slowed from stimulation of the vagus roots and cardiac nerve-endings, owing to paralysis of the vagus end- ings, now becomes quickened. (3) Larger or more frequently repeated doses increase or maintain the high pressure, and gradually cause direct cardiac paralysis, inducing irregularity of the heart action and pulse rate. (4) Still larger doses produce rapid fall of blood-pressure, sudden stoppage of the heart, and death. The heart usually stops before the respiration. Neither digitalis nor digitalin has any direct action on the brain or spinal cord, nor any marked effect on sensory or motor nerves. They temporarily quicken, and more notably and permanently slow, respiration. By increasing general AND ITS ANALOGUES 527 blood-pressiire, a fuller stream of blood passes tlirough the kidneys, the renal as well as other arterioles are strengthened and contracted, and thus diuresis is tardily produced, usually with increase of the urinary solids. No direct irritation of the kidneys occurs ; but large doses, dilating arterioles, diminish renal excretion, and, the drug consequently being longer retained, its general effects are intensified, and its so-called cumulative action developed. The following drugs resemble digitalis, and, like it, most of them contain an active glucoside: — Liliacece. . . Urginea Scilla. Squill. Contains the active neutral body Scillitoxin. Convallaria majalis. Lily of the Valley. Convallamarin. Ranunculacece. Helleborus niger. Helleborein. Adonis vernalis. Adonidin. Leguminosce. . Erythrophloeum guineense, which yields the African poison casa, or doom, Erythrophloeine. Broom. Sparteine, ApocynacecB. . Strophanthus hispidus, and the variety S. Kombe. Strophanthin. Nerium odorum (oleander). Neriin. Apocynum cannabinum. Canadian hemp, Apocynin. Toxic Actions. — The toxic dose of the powdered leaves is thus stated by Kaufmann : — For horses, six to eight drachms ; for dogs, one to two drachms ; for cats, thirty grains. The toxic dose of amorphous digitalin for horses is one and a half grains ; for dogs, one quarter grain. A horse was poisoned in twelve hours by two ounces of dried powdered leaves (Moiroud). One ounce, and in some cases six drachms, given to horses in bolus, caused, in three to ten hours, loss of appetite, frequent urination, fluid fasces, sometimes tinged with blood, a pulse at first full and increased, but afterwards small, slow, and irregular, contrac- tion of the pupil, difficulty of breathing, languor, and, after twelve or sixteen hours, death (Hertwig). Messrs. Bouley and Reynal, administering large doses to horses, observed quickened circulation, abrupt and energetic heart - beats 528 DIGITALIS characterised by a vibratory thrill, and subsequently by a bellows murmur, with intermittence, the pulse, as death approached, numbering 120 to 140. Smaller doses, after slight acceleration, lowered pulsations 20 or 25 beats per minute, and rendered the several cardiac sounds particularly distinct. The following cases, in which I gave full medicinal doses of digitalis to healthy horses, illustrate its effects on the heart, its nauseating action, and its irritation of the digestive organs. lu February 1856, powdered digitalis was given to three horses in good health, and receiving daily 12 Ihs. hay, 5 lbs. oats, and 5i lbs. bran. On the 20th they each received a drachm of the ])owder at 12 noon, and another drachm at 6 P.M. ; on the 21st and 22nd one drachm at (! a.m., at 12 noon, and 6 p.m. ; and on the 23rd a drachm at 6 a.m. — in all, nine doses of a drachm each in three days. No. 1. Brown Mare, 3 years old : — Feb. 20, 12 noon, jiulse 38, respirations 8. » 21, „ „ 34, „ 6. „ 22, „ „ 28, „ t. „ 23, „ „ 28, „ 7. On the evening of the 22nd she became dull and refused her feed. 23rd, 10 A.M., still dull, without appetite, pupil contracted, passing flatus, with small quantities of Huid f;^ices : 4.30 p.m., pulse 32, more distinct than at noon, jjupil considerably contracted, ratlior less dulness. On the 25th, two days after the medicine was withdrawn, the mare was eating and perfectly well again. No. 2. Bay Gelding, 3 years old : — Feb. 20, 12 noon, pulse 36, respirations 7. „ 21, „ „ 36, „ 8. 2-'' 30 6 11 "-1 » 11 "") jj "• ,, 23, ,, „ 32, ,, 0. 23rd, 12 noon. — Pulse, both yesterday and to-day, slightly irregular ; no appetite, very dull and stupid, with the ])upil somewhat contracted. 4.30 P.M., pulse 34, tolerably firm, but unequal ; eating a little, and scarcely so dull. No more digitalis being given, the animal recovered its appetite, and by the 26th was well again. No. 3. Jjrown Mare, 3 years old : — Feb. 20, 12 noon, pulse 38, respirations 8. „ 21, „ „ 33, „ 7. 9-7 "XA 71 » ^"1 » )j ""*) >j ' i- „ 23, „ „ 120, „ 20. „ 24, „ „ 120, „ 25. Towards the evening of the 22nd the mare became dull and would not feed. 23rd, 10 a.m., very much nauseated ; nose, mouth, and ears cold ; abdomen tympanitic, with colicky pains, and occasional pawing ; pupil somewhat contracted ; pulse firm at axilla and heart, but not very perceptible at jaw. Had four di'achms of carbonate of ammonia and clysters occasionally, the stimulant being repeated at two o'clock and four. At 4.30 P.M. she was down, much pained, attempting to roll ; pulse 82, but unequal. 24th, 12 noon, pulse, imperceptible at jaw, about 120; respira- tions 25, and very much laboured ; lii)S retracted and saliva dripping MEDICINAL USES 529 from the mouth ; enormous abdominal tympanites and much pain ; rapid sinking ; died on 25th, at 11 a.m. Post-mortem examination made next morning at 9.30. Voluntary muscles unusually pale ; spots of ecchymosis found in the areolar textures, between the muscular fibres, and in places underneath the skin. Lunag and pleurae healthy ; anterior extremity of lungs contained more blood than posterior ; venaj cavae contained the usual amount of dark non-coagulated blood ; bronchial tubes inflamed for about six inches along their anterior ends ; windpipe inflamed half-way up the neck, and containing flakes of greenish pus mixed with mucus ; no froth here or in bronchi. Heart pale, friable, containing a small clot of blood in its left ventricle, and about five ounces of non-coagulated blood in the right ventricle. A rent of eight inches long was found in the inferior curvature of the stomach, through which food had passed into the omentum ; the mucous membrane of the stomach was quite healthy ; the organ itself very large, but col- lapsed, in consequence of the rupture ; the intestines were pale and flaccid, and contained enormous quantities of food and gas, but their mucous membrane was quite healthy. The kidneys and generative organa, with the brain and spinal cord, were perfectly healthy. Dogs receiving one or two drachms were nauseated, and, when vomiting was prevented, moaned and exhibited abdominal pain, green-coloured fluid dejections were passed, the pulse was feeble and indistinct, breathing irregular and distressed, spasmodic eflforts were made to empty the bladder, muscular debility preceded death (Tabourin). Pigs poisoned by decoction of the leaves are reported to be languid, attempt to vomit, strain, and pass small quantities of fa3ces ; whilst after death the mucous coat of the stomach and small intestine is inflamed, the kidneys slightly con- gested, the bladder empty {Veterinarian, 1872). In poison- ing with large doses the power of the muscles to lift weight is diminished, and their tetanic contractions persist until post-mortem decomposition sets in. Medicinal Uses. — Dr. Ringer believes that digitalis exerts its curative effects in one or more of the following ways first, by strengthening the action of the heart ; second, by reducing the strength of the beats of a heart acting too powerfully ; third, by lessening the frequency of the heart- beats ; fourth, by correcting irregular action of the heart. When the heart is enfeebled or acting irregularly, as in horses suffering from influenza or other exhausting disease, in cattle convalescing from pleuro-pneumonia or rheumatic fever, in dogs debilitated by distemper or over- work, digitahs imparts co-ordination and expulsive power to the heart, 2l 530 DIGITALIS and tone to relaxed capillaries, rendering the quick, weak irregular pulse-beat slower, stronger, and steadier. Diffi- culty of breathing and dropsical effusion resulting from imperfect action of the heart are usually relieved, and general as well as cardiac nutrition is improved. In such cases digitalis is usefully conjoined with potassium chlorate or nitrate, or with alcohol, or ether. Palpitation in horses resulting from unwonted over-exertion, or from fast work performed shortly after a full meal, occasionally persists for several days; the violent, irritable impulse of the heart, accompanied by lifting of the flanks, comes in paroxysms ; repeated doses usually control such inordinate, tumultuous, functional disturbance. In the more violent of these cases Professor Robertson conjoined with the digitalis small doses of aconite, and in other cases prescribed it with belladonna. In dilatation of the heart, with insufficiency of the mitral valves, carefully regulated doses of digitalis abate the dyspnoea, cold extremities, venous pulse, and oedema. In dilatation or hypertrophy of the left ventricle — common in hard-worked, aged horses — even when accompanied by slight valvular disease, the lull, strong, intermittent pulse is usually moderated, its unduly forcible impulse quieted, and the breathing relieved by digitalis. In such cases of hypertrophy, when the pulse is full and strong, one or two small doses of aconite may first be tried. In pericarditis, after the more acute symptoms have been subdued by salines, digitalis frequently lessens the embar- rassed breathing and the friction sound. In endocarditis, occurring occasionally in cattle, it renders the heart-beat more regular, and gives fulness to the small thready pulse. Quieting and regulating cardiac action, and contracting arterioles, it is recommended in haemorrhage, especially from the lungs and stomach. In equine pneumonia, especially in the second stages, digitalis frequently relieves engorgement, probably by pro- pelling blood in fuller stream into the abdominal and other vessels. Promoting circulation, it moreover aids arterialising of blood, and hence is also useful in congestion and purpura. It is a frequent constituent of cough mixtures. DOSES AND PKEPARATIONS 531 Professor Dick's recipe for thick and broken wind con- sists of thirty grains each of calomel, digitalis, opium, and camphor, and its efficacy in great part depends upon the calomel regulating the bowels, while the other drugs abate the cardiac irritability so notable in such cases. Where the medicine must be persisted with daily for a week, or longer, the professor advised omission of the calomel. Digitalis relieves many cases of dropsy by regulating faulty heart-action, stimulating dilated capillaries, as well as by inducing diuresis. In pleuritic eftusion, Professor Robertson gave horses digitalis, grs. xx, to grs. xxx. ; potassium nitrate, 5ij.; powdered cantharides, grs. iv. to grs. x., made into bolus, and repeated twice daily for a week. Diuresis is determined by prescribing digitahs with salines — a combination often useful in cardiac dropsy. The chief indications for the use of digitalis are an enfeebled, irritable, jerking, or irregular heart, deficient arterial pressure, venous engorgement, and scanty secretion of urine. It is more suitable for chronic than acute cases, for combating functional rather than organic mischief. As with other tonics, it is best tolerated in those ^veak and irritable states of the heart in w^hich it is most serviceable. It is of little use in difficulty of breathing or dropsical con- ditions chiefly dependent on lung disease. It does harm in aortic disease or in hypertrophy, where the pulse continues strong, firm, and regular; or in enfeebled circulation dependent on advanced fatty degeneration. Xausea or irritability of the digestive organs, coldness of the extremities, unwonted force of the pulse-beats, indicate that the medicine should be stopped, or given in reduced amount. The effects of over- doses are combated by alcohol or other stimulants, and by keeping the patient perfectly quiet. Doses, etc. — Of the powdered leaves, horses take grs. xv. to grs. xxx. ; cattle, 5ss. to 5j- ; sheep and pigs, grs. v. to grs. x. ; dogs, gr. i. to grs. iv., in bolus or pill. These doses may be administered daily for a week, and are advantageou.sly con- joined with potassium iodide, caffeine, or arsenic ; but digitalis is not very soluble or readily absorbed, and being moreover an in-contact irritant, should be used in a fluid form. 532 STROPHANTHUS The infusion is made by digesting for tifteen minutes 60 grains of dried leaves with 20 ounces of distilled water. The tincture is made by maceration and subsequent perco- lation of 2^ ounces dried leaves with one pint alcohol (60 per cent.), B.P. It contains 54| grains to the fluid ounce, is about sixteen times the strength of the infusion, and is the most suitable preparation for cardiac cases. Horses and cattle take f5ii. to f5iv. ; sheep, f5ss. to f5j. ; dogs, Tliij. to ITix. In commerce four varieties of digitalin are met with — (1) Homolle's, or French ; (2) the German ; (3) Nativelle's and (4) digitalin-kiliani. Digitalin is upwards of five hun- dred times the strength of the tincture, and the dose for the horse is gr. -^ to gr. i. The several preparations are adminis- tered 2)er orera. Even when diluted they are apt to irritate if given hypodermically or intratracheally. They are not always of uniform strength ; this depends upon the varying activity of the plants grown under ditt'erent conditions, pro- longed keeping, variations in the method of preparation, and differing proportions of the active constituents. It is hence desirable, when using unfamiliar specimens of the drug, or its preparations, to begin with moderate doses, and narrowly watch their eflfects. STROPHANTHUS The dried ripe seeds of Strophanthus kombe, freed from the awns (B.P.). Nat. Orel. — Apocynacete. The ripened follicles contain upAvards of a hundred oval acuminate seeds, about three-fifths of an inch long and one-sixth of an inch broad, covered Avith silky hairs ; odour characteristic, taste very bitter. They contain 8 to 10 per cent, of an active, bitter, crystalline glucoside, strophan- thin, which is soluble in water and rectified spirit, insoluble in chloroform, or ether. Similar seeds are got from the S. hispidus. A paste prepared from strophanthus seeds is used in Africa as an arrow poison. Actions and Uses. — The seeds and their active principle are muscle poisons. They augment the contractile power, MEDICINAL USES 633 especially of striated muscles. They resemble digitalis and the bodies of that group. They are prescribed as cardiac tonics and diuretics. Professor Thomas Fraser has carefully investigated the actions of strophanthus and digitalis. The former, he reports, is more soluble, and hence more rapid in its actions ; but it is also more quickly eliminated, and its effects are hence less durable, and the cumulative results credited to digitalis are not observed. Its efficacy does not, hoAvever, seem to be impaired by repetition. Full doses produce less gastro- intestinal disorder and less marked vascular contraction. Strophanthus acts more notably on striated muscle, digitalis on unstriated ; strophanthus has less diuretic action, and may with safety be given more frequently and in larger doses than digitalis. Both increase the length and power of the heart systole, and hence strengthen and co-ordinate enfeebled or irregular action. Comparing the active prin- ciples. Professor Fraser found that a solution of ^^Vo^th digitalin paralysed the heart of a frog, but e-.ow.oiroth stro- phanthin was equally powerful. Strophanthin is therefore the most potent known heart tonic. Frohner has experimented on various animals, and con- cludes that the lethal dose of strophanthus tincture is about half a gramme (7-| minims) per kilogramme of body- weight. Horses tolerate 100 grammes, dogs 10 to 20 minims of the tincture. Full doses, he states, are irritant, narcotic, pro- ducing hsemorrhagic gastro-enteritis, colic, diarrhoea, cramp, with some stupor. The cardiac action manifests two stages — (1) diminution of pulse-rate, with rise of temperature ; (2) increase of pulse-rate, with diminution of temperature. Medicinal Uses. — Strophanthus is prescribed to slow, strengthen, and steady feeble or faulty heart action. Com- bining cardiac tonic and diuretic effects, it is commended by Frohner in valvular disease, hydrothorax, hydropericarditis, ascites, and chronic nephritis. Doses. — Of the tincture, made with one part of seed to forty of alcohol (70 per cent.), horses and cattle take f^iv. to f5vi., and dogs TT^v. to flj^xv. 534 SQUILL — BROOM SQUILL SciLLA. The bulb of Urginea Scilla, divested of its dry, membranous, outer scales, cut into slices, and dried (B.R). Nat. Ord— Liliaceoe. The large bulbs of this Mediterranean plant, when sliced and dried, have a faint odour and disagreeable, mucilaginous, bitter, acrid taste. The slices are easily reduced to powder. The active principle is a glucoside — scillain or scillitoxin — which is soluble in water, acetic acid, and alcohol. Actions, Uses, and Doses. — Squill and its active principle, in full doscs,are irritants, causing vomiting and purging: absorbed into the blood, they lower the pulse-rate and raise blood- pressure ; they are expectorant and diuretic. They resemble digitalis in paralysing voluntary nmscle, acting as heart tonics, and producing diuresis. Large doses, or small doses too long continued, induce urinary irritation and ha3maturia. Squill is prescribed chiefly in those catarrhal and bronchial cases in which secretion is defective. Professor Robertson gave horses the syrup in f5iv. doses ; dogs take "n^x. to TI[xv., conjoined, as the exigencies of the case require, with digi- talis, ammonium acetate solution, or camphor electuary. The vinearar and tincture are used in about half the dose of the syrup. Powdered squill is sometimes added to electu- aries. Horses may be given 5iv. to §j. BROOM ScoPARii Cacumina. The fresh and dried tops of Cytisus scoparius (B.P.). Nat. Ord. — Leguminosse. The tops and other parts of the shrub contain a natural glucoside, scoparin ( CgiHoP^o), which has diuretic pro- perties and a volatile, oily, poisonous alkaloid, sparteine (Cj5H.,(.N.2), which resembles conine in some of its actions. Like digitalin and strophanthin it increases the force of the heart, and acts as a diuretic. Kaufmann states that it relieves inordinate heart action, regulates rhythm, and raises blood-pressure. The sulphate and periodide of sparteine, as well as the succus prepared from the fresh broom tops, are BUCHU — UVA URSI^PAREIRA 535 occasionally prescribed in dropsies connected with heart disease, the dose of the succiis for horses being fgj. ; for dogs, ■n[xx. to "n^xxx. BUCHU BucHU Folia. The dried leaves of Barosma betulina (B.P.). Nat Ore?.— Rutaceffi. Buchn is a shrub two to four feet high, and a native of the Cape of Good Hope. The leaves are smooth, dull yellow- green, with a strong, penetrating odour, a bitter aromatic taste, and varying in different species from half an inch to an inch and a half in length. Oil glands are distinctly visible in the leaves, especially near the margin. They con- tain a volatile oil, a bitter substance, and mucilage. Actions and Uses. — Buchu is a mild, stimulating bitter, expectorant, and diuretic, and a disinfectant of the urino- genital mucous membrane. The oil or active principle is excreted by the kidneys and bronchial mucous membrane. Professor Robertson gave it to allay irritability in cystitis, usinsf it either alone or alonsf with borax or benzoic acid. The tincture of buchu — made with one of buchu to five of alcohol (60 per cent.) — is seldom prescribed. The dose of the infusion for horses or cattle is §i. to §iv. ; for dogs, 5j- to 5ij- The infusion is made with one part leaves and twenty parts of boiling water. Animals readily take this infusion when it is mixed with linseed tea or barley water. It is sometimes advantageously conjoined with belladonna, opium, hyoscyamus, potassium bromide, or saline diuretics. Bearberry leaves — the leaves of Arctostaphylos Uva-ursi — contain the bitter neutral extractive arbutin, which within the body is in part converted into hydroquinone, and is employed as a diuretic astringent, and antiseptic, in chronic vesical irritation. Pareira — the root of chondrodendron tomentosum, con- taining the active principle buxine, although not very reliable, is also used for the same purposes as buchu and uva-ursi. 636 ACONITE The root of Collinsonia canadensis— stone or knob root — has been largely used in America as a remedy in inflam- mation of the urino-genital mucous membrane, and in spasniodic colic in men and animals; and Dr. T. Oliver, Newcastle-on-Tyne, with 15 grains of extract, repeated thrice daily, gradually reduced the pus in several cases of cystitis in man, which had defied other treatment {Lancet, 1888). ACONITE Aconite. — Monkshood. Wolfsbane. Blue Rocket. Aconi- tum. The root of Aconitum Napellus. Collected in the autumn from plants cultivated in Britain, and dried. Nat Ord. — Ranunculacese. AcoNiTiNA. — Aconitine. An alkaloid obtained from Aconite Root, and having the formula CggH^gNO^g- (B.P-) Botanists have numbered twenty-two species, and upwards of a hundred varieties of aconite, which are common throughout the cooler mountainous countries of both hemi- spheres. Some sj)ecies are eaten as vegetables, some are bitter tonics; but others, as the Aconitum ferox, Sinense, and Napellus, are sedative poisons. The last of these, the common officinal species, is a doubtful native of Britain, but often grown for its flowers in gardens and shrubberies. Its several varieties are herbaceous, with perennial, tapering, carrot-shaped, brown roots, with lateral rootlets, from which after the first year's growth, are formed one or more oval tubers, at first nourished by the decaying parent root ; several annual, erect, glabrous stems two to five feet high ; numerous alternate dark-green leaves ; long-stalked, helmet- shaped blue or purple flowers, which form loose terminal racemes, and appear in June or July ; and dry, black, angular seeds, which ripen about the end of August. Aconite root, from which the tincture, liniment, and alka- loid are prepared, varies from two to four inches long, and from half an inch to nearly an inch thick at the crown, which is knotty ; is brown externally, but pinky white within ; conical, rapidly tapering, prominently marked, with the bases of the rootlets, and of an earthy odour — characters which ACTIONS AND USES 537 distinguish it from the larger, longer, more uniformly cylindrical, -white, pungent, bitter root of horse-radish, for which aconite root has sometimes been fatally mistaken. According to Professor Schroff', Vienna, the root is six times as active as the other parts, and should be taken up after the plant has flowered in autumn, when it is in perfection, or before the new stem rises in spring, cut into small pieces, and dried at a low temperature. The leaves are less active than the root, but more so than the flowers, fruit, or stem. Any part of an active aconite, when slowly chewed, produces a peculiar sensation of tingling, and numbness of the lips and tongue. The chief active principle — aconitina (C33H45NO12) — is obtained by a tedious process from the powdered root. It occurs in colourless, hexagonal rhombic prisms, nearly in- soluble in water, but readily soluble in alcohol, chloroform, and ether. Its salts are crystalline. Two other alkaloids, Benzaconine and Aconine, have been obtained from aconite root. In the plants the alkaloids are united with aconitic acid (CgHgOg), and according to Cash and Dunstan neither the composition nor the constitution of the chief alkaloid, aconitine, can yet be regarded as settled. Actions and Uses. — Anodyne and sedative, acting specially on the peripheral endings of sensory nerves, on the heart, and on respiration. Aconite kills by respiratory arrest. Its physiological actions as a cardiac and respiratory sedative render it a febrifuge ; it is also diaphoretic and diuretic. It is prescribed in acute febrile conditions, and in the earlier stages of acute local inflammation. It is used topically to relieve pain. General Actions. — Locally applied, in virtue of its action on sensory nerves, aconite produces first irritation, tingling and twitching, and subsequently numbness and anaesthesia. Aconite tincture is rapidly absorbed and quickly passes into the tissues, as is shown by the blood of a poisoned dog, five minutes after the drug has been administered, being trans- ferable into the veins of another dog without producing the physiological action of the poison. Full medicinal doses administered by the mouth induce 538 ACONITE salivation, champing of the jaws, movements of swallowing, and nausea, and cause in dogs and cats vomiting, and in horses, ruminants, and rabliits retching and eructation of frothy mucus. The topical irritant action is exerted not only on the stomach, but sometimes on the bowels, which are affected by spasms and diarrhoea, while the secretions of the skin and kidneys are also increased. Within fifteen to twenty minutes the strength and frequency of the heart- beats are reduced, and blood-pressure is lowered. These effects on the circulation appear to depend upon paresis of the motor ganglia in the heart, as well as of the vagus roots in the medulla, and of the vaso-motor centres. From the impaired circulation, the skin secretion is increased, tempera- ture is lowered, and general muscular weakness ensues. Kaufmann records that subcutaneous injection of aconitina, in moderate doses in dogs, lowered the temperature from 38'5° Cent, to 36-7° Cent. ; while intravenous injection in horses reduced the temperature from 37*4° Cent, to 37'1° Cent. (Traite de Tlierapeiitique et de Maiiere Medicale Veterinaires). Partly from the reduced circulatory force, and partly from the drug directly depressing the respiratory centre, breathing is slow and deepened, and exhibits a dis- tinct expiratory effort. When large or repeated doses have been given, cardiac action becomes irregular, and often quickened, but tension remains low ; the breathing becomes still slower, shallower, and more laboured ; after every two or three respirations there is a distinct pause in expiration. Convulsions, mainly due to asphyxia, sometimes precede death, which generally results from failure of respiration. The brain and special senses are unaffected. The pupil, which in the earlier stages of poisoning is sometimes dilated and sometimes contracted, during the later stages remains dilated. Aconite is removed from the body chiefly in the urine, augmenting both its solid and fluid parts. Toxic Effects. — Aconite exerts tolerably uniform effects upon all animals, especially when injected hypodcrmically. Horses have been poisoned within two or three hours by 120 to 150 minims of Fleming's tincture, given by the mouth. Cattle, however, sometimes receive large .doses without fatal EXrERTMENTS 539 effects. Dogs weighing 40 lbs. are killed iisuall}^ within half an hour by 50 to 60 minims of Fleming's tincture ; cats by 10 minims. But half these doses are liable to produce alarming symptoms. Full medicinal doses sometimes leave untoward effects ; pulse, blood-pressure, and breathing may continue reduced for ten or twelve hours, while nausea and impaired appetite may remain for several days. The following experiments on horses were made at the Edinburgh Veterinary College many years ago by my lamented friend, Mr. Barlow , and myself : — A black mare, 15i hands high, previously used for slow work, and in good health, got, at 12.40 p.m., one fluid drachm of Fleming'.'^ tincture of aconit«. At 1 she was nauseated, had eructations of frothy mucus, with attempts to vomit, which increased till 1.30, when she went do^vn. The pulse, which was 35 before administration of the poison, was now 60, and very weak ; she continued down till 7 p.m., when she was destroyed, in consequence of being unable to stand. An aged chestnut cab horse, 16 hands high, and useless from quittor, was tied up for ten minutes, to ensure perfect quietude. The pulse was then found to be 56, and the respirations 12. The animal had a good appetite and regular evacuations. At 10 o'clock he got ninety minhns of Fleming's tincture of aconite in a linseed meal ball, the head being still kept tied up for tifteen minutes. In half an hour he fed greedily on potatoes and beans, but no change was observable. At 1 p.m. he got fifty minims of the same tincture in four ounces of water. At 1.15 he appeared to be making continual efforts to swallow something ; his mouth was closed ; and, after such attempts at swallowing, air and fluid were regurgitated up the gullet, causing a rattling noise, as of air-bubbles mixed with water. At 1.20 the pulse was 50 ; symptoms of actual nausea appeared ; the muscles on the side of the neck and throat were contracted, the muzzle brought near to the breast, the lips retracted, and the mouth slightly opened. Fits of retching came on every two minutes, and increased in violence during the next ten or fifteen minutes. 1.30. — During each paroxysm of retching the mouth was opened, the lips retracted, and four or five ounces of frothy mucus discharged on the gi-ound. The pulse had fallen to 40, and become weak. On account of the retching, the resi)ir;itions could not be counted. Sweating broke out over the body ; the mucous membranes of the mouth, nose, and eyes were pallid, and there were fibrillary twitchings of the muscles, especially about the head and neck. 2 p.m. — Pulse 38, and weak ; the respirations not easily counted, but probably about 9 ; in other respects no change. The animal passed faeces and urine freely ; and, shortly after taking a pint of cold water, lay down somewhat relieved, with the retching scarcely so frequent. At 2.30 the pulse was somewliat weaker ; the breathing irregular, interrupted, and sighing ; and the animal unable to rise. The labial and nasal muscles were contracted, causing retraction of the lips, and disclosing the gums blanched, and the teeth covered with frothy mucus. Two bottles of strong ale were given, with half an oxince of sjjirit of ammonia. At 3 p.m. the pulse was 35, and stiU weaker than before ; respiration was somewhat accelerated, probably owing to the animal being down ; profuse sweating continued and the retching, though somewhat subsided, still came on about every ten minutes. The animal remained down without much change until about 6, when the nausea was somewhat 540 ACONITE POISONING diminished, but the pnlse so weak as to be scarcely perceptible. He wns raised with difficulty, and stood, blowing mucli, for fifteen minutes. At 7 there was little.^ change ; the pulse remained iiiijieroeptible, the respirations about 20, and there wa.s no appetite for food or drink. He was left' with the expectation of finding htm dead next morning, but at 7 a.m. he was up and eating. His pulse was 65, his respirations 10, and his appearance very haggard and reduced. He continued in much the same state for a week, never regained his former look or ajjpetite, for two days was unable to rise or stand, and became much wasted. He was destroyed by six drachms of prussic acid ; but, on post-mortem examination, every part except the lungs seemed healthy. These organs, more especially the right one, were extensively studded with patches of extra vasated blood about the size of walnuts, Avhich, in those parts connected with the pulmonary tissue, were more or less softened, and emitted an odour characteristic of lieated, decomi)Osed blood. The rusty fluid produced from the softening had in various places passed into the bronchi, imparting to their frothy mucus a brown colour. The following experiments on cats and dogs were made at the Edinburgh Royal (Dick's) Veterinary College many years ago : — A cat of average size got seven minims of Fleming's tincture of aconite. In two minutes severe retching came on, with a copious supply of saliva, probably arising from paralysis of the fauces ; and in five minutes painful vomiting and involuntary muscular contractions of a most active kind, with perverted action of the voluntary muscles, causing the animal to leap up the wall and turn somersaults backwards. In this, as in most other cases, the pupil, at first somewhat contracted, ultimately became dilated. The pulse was reduced in volume and strength, shortly becoming very weak ; the breathing was gasping. The vomiting and inordinate muscular action continued until within two or three minut«s of death, which took place twenty minutes after the administration of the poison. No morbid or peculiar post-mortem appearances were observable. A medium-sized Scotch terrier got thirty minims of Fleming's tincture. In five minutes painful and active vomiting came on, which must have eflectually emptied the stomach. The retching and vomiting continued, however, for half an hour, when the animal was so exhausted and paralysed in its hind extremities as to be unable to walk, except by supporting itself on its fore-limbs and dragging the hind-quarters. It gradually recovered, however, in about two hours. In some cases a drachm of Fleming's tincture has destroyed dogs with as much rapidity as an equal quantity of prussic acid. After death the lungs are collapsed, and contain little blood ; the trachea and bronchi contain excess of frothy mucus, accumulating owing to paralysis of the respiratory muscles and glottis; the cavities of the right heart are greatly distended with blood ; the left heart is nearly empty ; there are ecchymoses of the lungs, pleura, and endocardium ; the digestive organs are normal. Antidotes. — If the patient is seen immediately after MEDICINAL USES 541 swallowing the poison, endeavour should be made to empty the stomach by an emetic or the stomach-pump. Alcoholic and ammoniacal stimulants are given. Ether, digitalis, or atropine should be used hypodermically to antagonise the sedative effects of aconite on the heart and breathing. Warmth, and infriction of the chest-walls with stimulating liniment also assist in maintaining cardiac and respiratory action. Medicinal Uses. — Aconite is more used by British than by German practitioners. Frohner states that there are other safer febrifuges. Cagny indicates its more general use in France, and characterises it as the grand vaso-motor sedative, slowing the circulation in acute fever. Kaufmann designates it a very precious febrifuge in the early stages of all internal inflammatory maladies, especially of the air-passages. Medi- cinal doses, as already stated, within ten or fifteen minutes reduce the number and lessen the force and tension of the pulsations, lower abnormal temperature, and relieve pain. The arteries being dilated, the capacity of the vascular system is increased, and, as Dr. Fothergill aptly puts it, ' the patient bleeds into his own vessels,' sometimes with conse- quent relief of limited inflammation. In virtue of these physiological actions, carefully regulated doses are beneficial in fever and acute inflammation in robust patients, as in the earlier stages of pleurisy, enteritis, peritonitis, mammitis, lymphangitis, laminitis, and acute rheumatism. Pharyngitis in horses, accompanied by high fever, is sometimes controlled by a moderate dose, followed at intervals of an hour by half- doses, repeated until five or six have been given. In the more common epizootic sore-throat of influenza, aconite is useless, and indeed injurious. Although serviceable in pharyngitis, laryngitis, and pleurisy, it is too reducing a remedy to be used in most cases of bronchitis or pneumonia. Professor Williams recommends it in equine pleurisy and pneumonia, where pyrexia is considerable, but does not find it so serviceable for these complaints in dogs (Principles and Practice of Veterinary Medicine). Conjoined with a purgative, aconite is sometimes prescribed in spasmodic colic. In enteritis in horses, Mr. Hill states 542 ACONITE that, within five minutes after aconite tincture is swallowed he has repeatedly found the pulse fall from 100 to 70 beats per minute, and this notable effect is usually succeeded by gradual abatement of fever and pain (Veter'hiarian, 1811). Professor Robertson prescribed in enteritis 111, v. Fleming's tincture, and 3ss. each of camphor and powdered opium in a pint of gruel (Equine Medicine). Mr. Richard Rutherford informs me that he finds aconite specially useful in laminitis. The patient, he urges, should be hobbled and thrown, especially when all four feet are affected. A full dose, followed by four or five half-doses, given at intervals of one to two hours, abates violent cardiac action, fever, and pain. In acute rheumatism it usually relieves both febrile symptoms and local pain. Mr. Connochie, Selkirk, in the treatment of acute rheumatism, after a dose of physic conjoined with opium, recommends thrice daily, for either horses or cattle, TlLx. Fleming's tincture and a drachm of nitre. Repeated small doses are beneficial in the outset of metro-peritonitis in cattle; and some flockmasters use aconite tincture with success during the lambing season, giving it with gruel to ewes which have a hard time, begin to bloAv, or show febrile symptoms. Conjoined with perfect quiet and a dose of physic, small doses of aconite have been used in the earlier stages of tetanus by Mr. Thomas Dollar and Mr. Macgillivray {Veterinarian, 1871). In small, frequently repeated doses, either alone or with hemlock, it usually controls and steadies tumultuous, excessive, or irregular action of the hypcrtrophied heart, especially in plethoric patients. Although administered for other pur- poses, it frequently leads to the expulsion of intestinal worms. Paralysing sensory nerves, aconite is used externally as a local anodyne in neuralgic and rheumatic affections, and for swollen and painful joints. As with other anodynes, it is more effective in combating irritative than inflammatory pain. It frequently relieves the itching of dermatitis and eczematous eruptions in horses and dogs. More rapid absorption and greater anodyne efi'cct are secured by adding a little chloroform to the aconite tincture or liniment. The DOSES AND ADMINISTRATION 543 external application of aconite, it must be remembered, demands, however, almost as much care as its internal use. Doses, etc. — The plant is not used in the crude state. The extract, unless very carefully made from an alcoholic solution, is apt to be of defective or irregular strength. The B.P. tincture (1 in 20), now made with two-fifths of the proportion of root ordered in the B.P. of 1885, is convenient alike for internal and external use. For horses, the dose varies from 1T[xxv. to 5j- ; for cattle, f 5ss. to f 5iss. ; for sheep and pigs, V{x. to TT[xx. ; for dogs, TlLij. to TI[x. Fleming's tincture (1 in 1|), still used in veterinary practice, is very much stronger than the B.P. tincture, and, on account of its concentration, requires to be used carefully. The dose for horses is from T^x. to fl^xx. ; for cattle, from 1T[x. to TT^^xx. ; for sheep, Tl[ij. or IT^iij. ; and for dogs, from TTLss. to TIjj. Either tincture should be given in several ounces of cold water. The etYects of full doses sometimes continue for twelve or fifteen hours. Small and repeated doses are preferable to larger doses at longer intervals. The first may be a full dose, and may be followed by five or six half-doses, repeated, as the case appears to require, at intervals of from half an hour to two hours. The antipj^retic effects which should thus be produced are usually kept up by salines and other treatment. Used hypodermically, less than half the above quantities suffice. Professor Walley taught that the activity of aconite is increased by giving it in combination with alkaline carbonates. The liniment of aconite (1 in 1|), made with powdered root, camphor and rectified spirit, is occasionally used. It should not be applied to a wound. Aconitine is one of the most potent of sedative poisons. Dr. Headland {TJie Action of Medicines) records that g^th of a grain in solution in water suffices to destroy a mouse ; y-^th of a grain kills a small bird after a few minutes, and Jg-th almost instantaneously; -^Vth to -ru^h. kills cats, the latter quantity in twenty minutes or half an hour. Half a grain, given to a shepherd's dog weighing 30 lbs., began to operate in three or four minutes, and proved fatal in sixty- five minutes. The lethal dose for an adult man is Jo^b grain. Mavor and Burness subcutaneously injected over the 544 IPECACUANHA scapula of a horse ..Vl^ grain, and noted in a few minutes champing of the teeth, salivation, fits of retching, and reduced number and force of the pulsations {Tlce Action of Medicines). Majors Smith and Rutherford, of the Army Veterinary Department, kindly placed at my disposal the unpublished notes of four experiments made on healthy horses with aconitina. One grain of the alkaloid was dissolved in one ounce of water, and 10 minims, containing -^^\h grain, were injected hypodermically into the anterior region of the chest of two geldings. Within ten minutes there were produced biting and licking at the site of puncture, persistent shaking of the head, yawning, pawing ; increase of pulse in one sub- ject to the number of ten beats, in the other of two beats ; no change of temperature occurred. The effects disappeared in one and a half hour. Two horses had injections of 15 minims of the above solu- tion with 15 minims of water, the dose containing -^nd grain aconitina. The same effects resulted ; but pawing and move- ments of the head were more marked ; both subjects coughed and sneezed; while one occasionally belched, ground its teeth, and showed indications of pain ; the pulse, previously 38 and soft, rose to 52 beats, and was firmer ; there Avas no change of temperature, and no increased secretion from skin, bowels, or kidneys, and in about two hours the symptoms passed off. These and other experiments indicate that for hypodermic use '-^th to ^th grain of aconitine is a sufficient dose for the horse. As with other preparations, administered either hypodermically or otherwise, the effects may be increased and maintained by repeating half the dose three or four times, at intervals of half an hour or an hour. IPECACUANHA Ipecacuanha. Ipecacuanhoa radix. The dried root of Psycho- tria Ipecacuanha (B.P.). Nat. Ord. — Rubiaceie. The Psychotria Ipecacuanha is a Brazilian shrub two or three feet high. The root, the only officinal part, occurs in MEDICINAL USES 545 twisted, knotted pieces, two to four inches in length, of the thickness of a quill. The tough, white, internal woody- matter is inert; the brittle brown bark, marked with un- equal rings, contains the active principle. The powder is grey-brown, has an acrid, bitter taste, a faint, nauseous odour, and communicates its properties to hot water, alcohol, and diluted acids. Besides other plant constituents, it con- tains an odorous volatile oil, the amorphous red-brown tannin called ipecacuanhic or cephaelic acid, and the alka- loids emetine (C3QH42O2N4) and cephaeline (CggHggNgO^). Emetine is a colourless powder, slightly bitter, soluble in ether, alcohol, and chloroform, but not in caustic potash. Neutralises acids, forming crystalline salts. A volatile alka- loid has also been isolated. Actions and Uses. — Ipecacuanha and emetine are topical irritants and emetics. When absorbed they dilate blood- vessels, reduce blood-pressure, increase secretion, notably from the bronchi, intestines, skin, and liver. They are used as expectorants and diaphoretics, and occasionally, in small doses, as stomachics. Ipecacuanha powder, and emetine, like tartar emetic, when applied locally, irritate the skin and mucous membranes. When swallowed by dogs or other carnivora, they produce similar in-contact irritation, stimulate the ends of the vagus, causing vomiting, and when absorbed into the blood like- wise produce emesis by irritation of the vomiting centre. Full doses induce gas tro- enteritis, with congestion, and oedema of the respiratory mucous membrane and lungs. Professor Rutherford found that 60 grains of ipecacuanha powerfully stimulated the liver of dogs ; 3 grains given to a dog weighing 17 lbs. produced no purgation, but increased the mucus secreted from the small intestine. Bracy Clark states that 3 ounces kill a horse. It is more active when given in solution than in bolus. It is eliminated by the kidneys, intestinal mucous surface, and the skin (Binz). Medicinal Uses. — As an emetic for dogs, cats, or pigs, it acts more slowly and gently than zinc or copper sulphates, and is less nauseating than tartar emetic. As an anti- emetic, drop doses of the vinum, conjoined with morphine 2 M .'546 IPECACUANHA — EMETINE or chlorodyne, are sometimes serviceable in dogs. Given in doses insufficient to cause emesis, or used in horses or other animals which do not vomit, it promotes secretion of bron- chial mucus, and hence is serviceable in the dry stages of catarrh and bronchitis. Mr. Thomas A. Dollar frequently gives a drachm of powdered ipecacuanha with an ounce of ammonia acetate solution, in ten ounces of water, repeating the dose several times daily. Following the practice of human medicine, American practitioners prescribe it as a remedy for dysentery, in half-drachm doses, for horses and cattle, and Professor Robertson also recommended it in these cases, in conjunction with opium. Doses, etc. — Of the powder, as an emetic, dogs take grs. xv. to grs. XXV. ; cats, grs. v. to grs. xii. ; pigs, grs. xx. to grs. xxx., given in tepid water, either alone or with half a grain to a grain of tartar emetic. Mr. Mayhew recommends for the dog, — ipecacuanha, grs. iv., tartar emetic, gr. ^, with anti- monial wine, f5j. to fSiJ-, dissolved in tepid water, fgj., and repeated every half-hour until vomiting takes place. Some practitioners use Dover's powder, or its pharmaceutical imitation, made by triturating together one part each ipeca- cuanha and opium, and eight parts potassium sulphate. Of this expectorant and diaphoretic, horses and cattle take 5i- to 5iij- ; sheep, grs. xxx. to 5i- ; dogs, grs. x, to grs. xv. ; cats, grs. ii. to grs. v., repeated several times daily, the patient supplied with plenty of diluents, and kept comfortably clothed, and in an atmosphere of about 60° Fahr. The wine is prepared with an ounce of the liquid extract of ipecacuanha and ten fluid ounces of sherry. Emetine, when inhaled even in minute amount, irritates the mucous membrane of the air-passages, and induces symptoms analogous to hay-fever. Two grains swallowed by a dog caused violent vomiting, increased secretion of mucus from the respiratory and alimentary membranes, in- flammation of the stomach and intestines, stupor, and death in twenty-four hours (Magcndie). It is eliminated by the mucous membranes and liver, increasing secretion of bile. Large doses lower temperature, relax voluntary nmscles, and kill by cardiac paralysis (Dr. A. Vl D. Ornellas, Phanna- VERATRINE 647 ceuticcd Journal, 1874). Emetine hydrochloride (or hydro- bromide) has been proscribed as a gastric stimulant for cattle and sheep, and as an emetic for dogs. Doses— Cattle, grs. iii. to grs. vi. ; sheep, gr. i. to grs. ij. ; dogs, gr. a to gr. i. Administered subcutaneously. For hypodermic use the emetine salt is dissolved in equal parts of water and alcohol VERATRINE Veratrina. An alkaloid, or mixture of alkaloids, obtained from Cevadilla, the dried ripe seeds of Schoenocaulon officinale (B.P.). Nat. 0/-(L— Liliacese. It is prepared from Cevadilla by precipitation with ammonia. It is pale grey, amorphous, odourless, bitter, and acrid, insoluble in water, but soluble in spirit, in ether, and in diluted acids. In nitric acid it dissolves, yielding a yellow solution, and, warmed with hydrochloric acid, pro- duces a blood-red colour. Commercial specimens are said to consist of veratrine and two other alkaloids, cevadine and cevadilline, resembling jervine, an alkaloid of green hellebore. Actions and Uses.— Veratrine is a topical irritant and subsequent paralysant, especially of the heart and other muscles, and is sometimes used to relieve rheumatic and neuralgic pains, and as a parasiticide and vermin-killer. General Actions.— Rubbed into the skin or placed upon a mucous surface, it causes irritation and then numbness, similar to that produced by aconite, and depending upon irritation, followed by paralysis of sensory nerve endings. When inhaled it induces violent sneezing ; when swallowed in considerable doses it causes gastro-enteritis, followed by col- lapse. It is a nervo-muscular poison, first exciting, afterwards depressing and paralysing the peripheral terminations of motor, sensory, and secretory nerves. It produces prolonged mus- cular contraction, followed by paralysis. Minimum doses increase muscular power. Its effect on the heart muscle is similar to that on voluntary nmscles. Under the influence of large doses the heart's action becomes slower and weaker, then irregular and intermittent, and finally arrested. Its actions closely resemble those of Vcratrum viride and V. album. 548 VERATRINE Toxic Effects. — Magendic found that one grain of veratrine acetate killed a dog in a few seconds when injected into the jugular vein, and in nine minutes when injected into the peritoneum. One or two grains swallowed by dogs caused great uneasiness, nausea, vomiting, violent purging, slow- ness of respiration, slowness and irregularity of circulation, extreme prostration of strength, spasmodic twitching, and subsequently paralysis of the voluntary muscles, especially those of the extremities, and death from respiratory arrest, usually amid convulsions. Horses SAvallowing five or six grains, or one-fifth of these doses hypodermically, are sali- vated, sweat profusely, have trembling of external muscles, and violent contractions of the gastro-intestinal muscles, with efforts to vomit. Similar doses in cattle produce cmesis (Kaufmann). The appropriate antidotes are stimulants, warm coffee, potassium carbonate solution, and perfect quiet; tannin, acetate of ammonia, and opium. Medicinal Uses. — For its febrifuge and analgesic actions it has been prescribed in such febrile diseases as acute pneu- monia, pleurisy, peritonitis, rheumatism, and laminitis ; but it must be used with extreme caution. In persistent cases of shoulder rheumatism in horses Friedberger recommends ^ to 1^ grains, dissolved in alcohol, to be deeply injected into the affected muscles daily, beginning with the smaller amount, and gradually increasing it, intermitting the treat- ment every fourth or fifth day, and walking the patient after each injection until the general excitement produced abates. Kaufmann prescribes it in muscular atony and in chronic intestinal catarrh. Mullcr recommends it hypo- dermically in locomotor paralysis ; and Berre considers it is the best gastric stimulant for cattle. Externally, the ointment, made with 1 of veratrine, 4 of oleic acid, and 45 of lard, is used to relieve rheumatic and neuralgic pains, and as an insecticide. Doses, etc. — Horses i^er orem take gr. i. to grs. ij., but hypodermically not more than gr. i., at least for a first dose; cattle (hypodermic injection), grs. 2^ to grs. 4 in 60 to 100 minims of alcohol. Dogs take ^^er orem gr. .}^t\\ ; hypoder- mically, not more than gr. /g^th, in weak spirit. VERATRUM (VIRIDE AND ALBUM) 549 VBRATRUM (VIRIDE AND ALBUM) Veratri Viridis Rhizoma. Green Hellebore Rhizome. The dried rhizome and rootlets of Yeratrum viride. (Not official.) Veratri Albi Rhizoma. "W^iite Hellebore Rhizome. Dried rhizome and rootlets of Yeratrum album. (Not official.) Nat. Ord. — Colchicacese or Melanthacese. The Yeratrum viride is a native of North America, the Y. album is indigenous in many parts of Continental Europe. Both have a bitter acrid taste, excoriate the mouth and fauces when chewed, and produce sneezing when the powder is inhaled. They contain about a half of one per cent, of the several alkaloids — ^jervine (CggHg-NOg), pseud o-jervine, cevadine, with traces of veratrine. Actions and Uses. — Both the viride and album are motor depressants, closely allied in physiological action to vera- trine, and resembling aconite and tobacco. They slow and weaken the action of the heart, and cause muscular weak- ness ; nausea, and in men and dogs vomiting. Fuller doses induce extreme rapidity, weakness, and imperceptibility of the pulse, partial unconsciousness, and collapse. The album is more powerful than the viride. Professor H. C. Wood states that jervine depresses the functions of the spinal cord and cardiac ganglia, producing muscular and cardiac weakness, while concurrently it irri- tates the motor centres of the brain, inducing convulsions. Death ensues from paralysis of respiration. Toxic Effects. — Waldinger states that two ounces vera- trum album caused in horses increased salivation, efforts to vomit, and relaxed bowels. Rytz declares that one ounce induces purgation and gastric derangement. Mr. Miller {Edinburgh Veterhiary Review, 1863) records that a three- year-old filly accidentally ate about two ounces of the powdered root, and in half an hour was in much pain, frothing at mouth, attempting to vomit, heaving at the flanks, with a full pulse, numbering 40 ; painful spasms, involving especially the muscles of the neck, injection of the 550 VERATRUM (VIRIDE AND ALBUm) mucous lucinbranes of the nostrils and eyes, stillness in walking, and, after a few hours, partial paralysis of the hind limbs. The filly was bled, and had drachm doses of tannin given in starch gruel. In three hours the symptoms abated, gradual recovery took place, and in four days she was again at work. Dogs are liable to suffer from absorption of strong dress- ings. Mr. Howard records that liberal application of vera- trum ointment causes nausea, sometimes vomiting, accelerated and weakened action of the heart, short, catching, and moan- ing respiration, prostration, with death sometimes in four hours. Congestion of the mucous membrane of the stomach, lungs, and heart was notable post-mortem {Veterinarian, 1873). The antidotes consist of demulcents, diffusible stimulants to counteract cardiac depression, and morphine to relieve nausea and gastric irritation. Infusions of tannin form insoluble compounds with the unabsorbed alkaloids. Medicinal Uses. — As a sedative in acute inflammatory diseases veratrum was highly spoken of by Percivall and Morton, who prescribed it for horses in doses of 20 to 30 grains, repeated every four or five hours. But its actions are irregular and uncertain. For neuralgic and rheumatic cases it has been superseded by tincture of aconite. For the destruction of lice, for setons, and as an addition to blisters — objects for which it is still occasionally used — there are more fitting agents. Active preparations have the disadvantage of sometimes being absorbed and producing untoward con- stitutional effects. Doses, etc. — Of the powdered rhizome horses and cattle take 5ss. to 5j. ; sheep and pigs, grs. xx. to grs. xxx. ; dogs, gr. -J^ to gr. I, given in bolus, or dissolved in dilute alcohol, and repeated at intervals of three or four hours. It is used externally in the several forms of powder, watery decoction improved by a little spirit, and ointment made with one part of veratrum to eight of vaseline or lard. It is occasionally applied with tar or sulphur dressings. CINCHONA BARKS , 551 CINCHONA Red Cinchona Bark. Cinchonse Riibrse Cortex. The dried bark of the stem and branches of cultivated plants of Cin- chona Succirubra. A^at. Orel. — Cinchonaceffi (Rubiacese). Quinine Sulphate. QuininjB Sulphas. The sulphate of an alkaloid obtained from the bark of various species of Cinchona and Remijia (B.P.). Quinine Hydrochloride. Quininse Hydrochloridum. The hydrochloride of an alkaloid obtained from the bark of various species of Cinchona and Remijia (B.R). The evergreen trees or tall shrubs which yield the medicinal barks were originally grown on the slopes and in the valleys of the Andes, but are now cultivated in British India, Ceylon, Java, and Jamaica. The bark, in 1639, was brought from Peru to Madrid, distributed by the Jesuits, and hence received the names of Peruvian and Jesuits' bark. Of thirty-six known species, there are many varieties, yielding barks distinguished as pale, yellow, and red. The pale cinchonas, some of which are got from the stem and branches of the Cinchona officinalis and C. condaminea, are usually in single and double rolls, and yield more cinchonine than quinine. The yellow barks yielded by the C. calisaya and other species are commonly met with in flat pieces, eight to fifteen inches long, two to three wide, and two to four lines thick. They consist mostly of liber, are furrowed and brownish- yellow externall}-, fibrous and yellow-orange within. The transverse fracture shows numerous short fibres ; the powder is cinnamon-brown; the odour aromatic; the taste bitter, without astringency. Good specimens yield 5 to 6 per cent. of quinine. The official or red bark is the produce of the C. suc- cirubra; imported in quilled or more or less in-curved pieces, two to twelve inches long, one- tenth to one-fourth inch thick. The pieces are red, rough, wrinkled, and coated with epiderm externally; finely fibrous, with granular fracture, and brick-red or deep red-brown internally; no marked 552 CINCHONA — QUININE odour; taste bitter and somewhat astringent. It yields 5 to 6 per cent, of alkaloids. The cuprea barks from the Remijia — a genus nearly allied to cinchona and cascarilla — arc now largely imported ; are dense, with a thin, longitudinally striated epidermis, and a smooth pale red inner surface ; and besides quinine and quinidine, contain a special alkaloid, cinchonamine, but no cinchonidine (Phillips). Properties. — The cinchona barks occur in quills, stripped from the smaller branches, and curled into single or double rolls, and in flat pieces from the larger branches or trunk. They are dried in the sun, or on hurdles over fires. Their colour varies from deep yellow to red-brown, and is deepened by moisture. They have a faint odour, and a bitter, usually astringent taste. They are soluble in cold and hot water, and in alcohol ; their best solvents are alcohol (70 per cent.), and diluted acids. The tests of quality and value are the general appearance, fracture, colour, odour, taste, and per- centage of the alkaloids, which are the active principles. Composition. — Besides ordinary plant constituents — lignin, starch, gum, resin, mineral matters, with traces of a volatile oil — cinchona bark contains (1) a series of active alkaloids ranging from 3 to 5 per cent. ; (2) chinic and chinovic acids, with which the alkaloids are naturally united, but which have no very marked physiological actions ; (3) tan- nins, recognised as cincho-tannic acid, constituting 1 to 3 per cent, of the bark, and conferring astringency; (4) a glucoside, chinovin ; (5) a colouring matter, cinchona red. Quinine (C2oH2^N.P2) is present in all the Cinchona and Remijia barks. It is in the form of sulphate that quinine is generally prescribed in this country. From a watery solution of the sulphate the alkaloid may be precipitated by ammonia. It occurs in delicate acicular crystals, inodorous and intensely bitter. It requires for solution 900 parts of cold water, but is readily soluble in alcohol, ether, chloroform, ammonia, and diluted acids. It forms colourless, bitter, crystallisable salts, remarkable, like the alkaloid, for tonic and febrifuge properties. Quinine and its salts turn a ray of polarised light to the left. Aqueous solutions, acidulated, ALKALOIDS AND SALTS 653 even when extremely diluted, exhibit blue fluorescence. Treated with chlorine or bromine solutions, and then with a drop of liquor ammoniaD, a green coloration is produced. QuiNiDiNE, is isomeric with quinine, but crystallises in larger prisms, is dextro-rotatory, and its salts are more soluble and of nearly the same activity. CiNCHONiNE (C20H24N2O), is present in the bark of various species of Cinchona and Remijia. It is obtained from the mother-liquors, after crystallisation of sulphate of quinine. Like quinine, it is used in the form of sulphate, which occurs in hard, colourless prisms, having a feebly bitter taste. It is anhydrous, dextro-rotatory ; soluble in alcohol, and in thirty parts of water ; its acidulated watery solution exhibits no fluorescence. It is the least active of the cinchona alkaloids, requiring to be given in double the dose of quinine, CiNCHONiDiNE, an alkaloid isomeric with cinchonine, is obtained from the mother-liquors of the crystallisation of sulphate of quinine. Like the other alkaloids, it is used as a sulphate, and is considerably more active than cinchonine. Quinine and cinchonine, when heated with excess of a mineral acid, are converted into amorphous isomeric alka- loids, termed respectively quinicine and cinchonicine. Quinine Sulphate [(C2oH2^N202)2, H2SOJ2, l.'iH20, contains 74i per cent, of the alkaloid. In filiform silky white crystals of an intensely bitter taste. Soluble in about 800 parts water, entirely soluble in water acidulated with a mineral acid, and in alcohol. Quinine Hydrochloride (C^qR^J^^O.^, HCl, 2H2O) contains 83 per cent, of the alkaloid. In crystals resembling those of the sulphate but somewhat larger. Soluble in thirty-five parts cold water, and in three parts cold alcohol (90 per cent.), and very soluble in boiling water. Acid Quinine Hydrochloride, is a white crystalline powder, soluble in less than its own weight of water, yielding a some- what acid liquid (B.P.). Actions and Uses. — Cinchona bark is astringent from the presence of tannin, and antiseptic, tonic, and antipyretic owing to its alkaloids. These alkaloids have in concentrated form the several actions of the crude drug, but not its 564 QUININE astrin^cncy. They differ only in the degree of their action. Quinine is the most powerful and most generally used. Small doses stimulate, large doses depress the functions of the organs with which they are brought into contact. General Actions. — (Quinine and its salts combine with albumin, and have antiseptic properties nearly as marked as those of carbolic, benzoic, and salicylic acids, camphor, eucalyptol, or chloral-hydrate. One part to 830 hinders, one part to 625 prevents, development of anthrax bacilli (Koch). It diminishes fermentation, especially when depending upon such organised ferments as the alcoholic, lactic, or butyric. It checks oxidation, and lessens protoplasmic and amoeboid movements. Similar antiseptic effects doubtless occur when quinine is administered, and afford explanation of most of its curative eff'ects. Quinine in the mouth, from its bitterness, reflexly in- creases the flow of saliva. Small or moderate doses stimulate the stomach and increase appetite ; but large doses impair appetite, and may induce nausea and vomiting. Its effects on intestinal secretion and movement are unknown ; but it does not increase secretion of bile. It is absorbed from mucous, serous, and areolar surfaces, especially when in perfect solution, and its effects are notable fifteen to twenty minutes later. Small doses stimulate, large doses depress. Small to moderate doses reduce the calibre of the blood-vessels, and increase the strength of the circulation, but large doses weaken cardiac action and diminish blood - pressure. Moderate doses quicken respiration, large doses slow and eventually paralyse it. Death results from respiratory failure. The brain functions are stimulated by small, but depressed by large doses. Sensory and motor nerves are affected only Avhen the drug is locally applied. Tissue change is diminished. Experiments on dogs have shown that less oxygen is taken up, while less carbonic acid and albuminoid waste materials arc excreted. Tem- perature, notably in febrile cases, is lowered. These effects may depend upon the antiseptic action of quinine, and may be connected with its property of increasing the size of the MEDICINAL USES 555 red globules while diminishing their capacity to give up oxygen, and on its diminishing the number, contractility, and movements of the white blood-corpuscles. It diminishes all secretions except the urinary, which is increased. Repeated full doses contract the spleen and also the uterus, sometimes exciting abortion. This may result from large quantities causing gastro-intestinal irritation. That the drug has no specific ecbolic action appears to be proved by Dr. H. C. Wood's experiments on healthy pregnant cats {Practitioner, 1879 and 1881). The headache, impaired sight and hearing, and other symptoms of cinchonism pro- duced in man by large or repeated doses, have not been distinctly recognised in the lower animals. Cinchona bark as a bitter tonic resembles cascarilla bark, calumba root, and hydrastis, the rhizome and rootlets of Hydrastis canadensis, or golden seal, which yields the alkaloids berberine and hydras tine. The antiseptic and febrifuge properties of quinine ally it to various substances of the aromatic carbon series, while the anti-malarial actions resemble those of arsenic. Medicinal Uses. — The bark and its alkaloids are prescribed for all classes of patients as bitter stomachics and tonics. They improve appetite, check abnormal gastro-intestinal fermentation, and counteract relaxed conditions of the intes- tine and accumulations of mucus, which prove favourable to the development of worms. In troublesome cases of atonic indigestion in horses, where alkaline treatment has failed. Professor Robertson frequently gave 20 to 30 grains of quinine sulphate, with half a drachm to a drachm of nitric or hydrochloric acid. Weakly foals and calves affected by relaxed bowels, after a dose of oil, are often much benefited by a few doses of cinchona bark, hydrochloric acid, and spirit. Few tonics are so effectual as bark or quinine in im- proving appetite and muscular strength, and hastening convalescence from debilitating disease. In anaemia they are advantageously joined with iron salts. They are service- able in the earlier stages of tuberculosis, in septicaemia, and pyajmia in all animals ; in influenza, protracted cases of strangles, purpura, and other similar diseases in horses, in 556 CINCHONA — QUININE septic metritis in cows and ewes, and in lingering cases of distemper in dogs — their beneficial effects in these and other diseases probably depending on the action of quinine on micro-organisms or their products. Drachm doses, con- joined with iron salts, repeated night and morning, are certainly the most effectual treatment for purpura. The sulphate, in doses of 240 to 350 grains, repeated if requisite, is strongly recommended as a remedy for red water in cattle (Veterinarian, 1900). In malarial diseases, Avhich in various regions attack the lower animals as well as man, no remedies prove so effectual. Not only do they mitigate the febrile symptoms and cut short the attack, but full doses, given one or two hours before a periodical seizure, frequently prevent it. The antiseptic pro- perties of the drug explain this remarkable power. Mr. R. W, Burke, A.V.D., has successfully used drachm doses of quinine in malarial and other fevers affecting horses and cattle in India, and, where febrile symptoms run high, reports that the medicine, within an hour after administration, reduces the temperature 1° to 8°, and when persisted Avith prevents its subsequent rise (Veterinarian, 1887). It is often useful in rheumatism, being given either by the mouth or hypoder- mically, frequently conjoined with salicylic acid or potas- sium iodide. Mr. T. A. Dollar has successfully treated cases of rheumatism and sciatica in horses, which have resisted other remedies, by hypodermic injection into the affected muscles of half a drachm of quinine sulphate in solution, and has not found undue irritation or abscess follow the operation. Like other bitters, when administered with cathartics, it generally increases their activity. Alternated with cod-liver oil and iron, quinine is the best tonic for weakly dogs and those suffering from chorea. The alkaloids are seldom used as antiseptics for wounds, but occasionally in the form of spray or gargle are applied to relaxed or sujij^urating throat. Doses, etc. — Cinchona bark is prescribed in the following doses : — For horses, 5ij- to ^iy. ; for cattle, §i. to §ij. ; for sheep and pigs, 5i- to 5iv. ; for dogs, grs. xx. to '^i., repeated twice or thrice daily for several days. If nausea or vomiting DOSES AND ADMINISTRATION 557 supervene, as occasionally happens in dogs, the dose should be considerably reduced or intermitted for a day or two. It is administered in bolus, pill, or solution, and is often con- ioined with camphor, gentian, ginger, spirit, or ether. The infusion is made by digesting one part red bark with one- fourth part aromatic sulphuric acid and twenty parts water, and straining. The tincture, now standardised, is made by maceration and percolation of 4 ounces red bark in one pint of alcohol (70 per cent.). It contains 1 per cent, of alkaloids. The compound tincture, made with tincture of cinchona, orange peel, serpentary, cochineal, saffron, and alcohol (70 per cent.), is standardised to contain a half of 1 per cent, of alkaloids. The liquid extract of cinchona, contains 5 per cent, of alkaloids. The salts of quinine are prescribed in the following doses :— Horses and cattle, grs. xx. to 5i.; sheep and pigs, grs. v. to grs. xx. ; dogs and cats, gr. i. to grs. viij. Cinchonine sulphate is given in double these quantities. These doses, in bolus, pill, or solution, are administered two or three times daily. Given in the fluid form, their solubility is increased and their bitterness diminished by prescribing them in an acidulated solution. They are also conveniently exhibited in milk. Any tendency to nausea or vomiting is abated by combination with hydro- bromic acid. Intratracheal injection, horses, grs. ii. to grs. viij. in two drachms distilled water. For hypodermic or intratracheal injection, a convenient solution of the sulphate (80 grains) is made with tartaric acid (40 grains) in 4 drachms of distilled water. Another equally useful hypodermic solu- tion is made with 15 grains quinine hydrochloride and 2| drachms distilled water, containing a minim of diluted hydrochloric acid. Quinine lactate, which is soluble in ten parts of water, is sometimes preferred for hypodermic administration. The cinchona alkaloids form comparatively insohible compounds with bile, and hence before their ad- ministration any excess of bile should be cleared away by a laxative. They are often conjoined with other bitter tonics, and with capsicum, camphor, valerian, or salts of iron. The citrate of iron and quinine is sometimes used in canine 558 SALICYLIC ACID practice, but it is better to prescribe a reliable quinine salt with a salt of iron. The tincture of quinine, made with the hydrochloride and the tincture of orange, contains one grain of the salt in 55 minims. The ammoniated tincture of quinine, made with the sulphate, solution of ammonia, and alcohol ((30 per cent.), contains about one grain in 55 minims. Quini-chloral, a thick oily mixture of quinine and chloral, soluble in water and in alcohol, is stated to be superior, as a microcide, to corrosive sublimate. SALICYLIC ACID-SALICIN AND SODIUM SALICYLATE AciDUM Salicylicum. a Crystalline Acid, CgH^-OH-COOH, obtained by the interaction of sodium carbolate and carbonic anhydride; or from natural salicjdates, such as the oils of winter-green (Gaultheria procumbens) and sweet birch (Betula lenta). (B.P.) Salicylic acid was originally prepared from salicin, a crystalline glucoside obtained from willow and poplar barks. It can also be extracted from the stems, leaves, and rhizomes of violets. In these plants, and in the volatile oils of the winter-green and various Spireas, it occurs as a methyl salicylate. But the commercial source is sodium phenol, through which carbonic acid gas is passed for several hours. The mixture is raised to 482° Fahr., the residue is dissolved in a limited quantity of water, and treated with hydrochloric acid, when salicylic acid is precipitated, and is subsequently crystallised. Com- mercial specimens frequently contain cresotic acid. Properties. — Salicylic acid, occurs as a soft, light, colour- less powder, consisting of minute acicular crystals ; but it may be crystallised in bold four-sided prisms. It is odour- less, but Avhen inhaled irritates the nostrils. It has a taste at first sweet, but subsequently bitter. It is soluble in 538 parts of water, 120 of olive oil, 200 of glycerin, 'Sh of rectified spirit, 2 of ether, and 8 of lard ; and its solubility is in- creased by admixture with sodium borate or phosphate. It fuses at 311" Fahr., volatilises without decomposition below ACTIONS AND USES f)59 392° Falir., but above that is decomposed into phenol and carbonic acid gas. Sodium salicylate may be obtained by the interaction of salicylic acid and sodium carbonate. In small, colourless scales, or in tabular crystals ; odourless, taste sweetish and saline ; soluble in water, and in 6 parts of rectified spirit. Actions and Uses. — Salicylic acid belongs to the benzene or aromatic series of carbon compounds, and in chemical constitution and physiological action is allied to benzoic acid. It is antiseptic, antiperiodic, antipyretic, irritant and astringent, and is specially useful in the treatment of rheu- matism. The acid, its alkaline salts, and salicin have similar actions, but salicin is now little used. General Actions. — Salicylic acid, as an antiseptic, is less penetrating, but rather more powerful than carbolic acid or creolin. It prevents fermentation and putrefaction. Watery solutions are more active germicides than the alcoholic or oily ; they have no appreciable action on the intact skin, but on a mucous membrane, or a wound, they irritate, and coagulate albumin. Full doses of the powder or concentrated solutions are in-contact irritants, provoking, when inhaled, sneezing and coughing, and when swallowed vomiting in carnivora and diarrhoea in all animals. Sodium salicylate, until the acid is liberated, is devoid of irritant action and also of antiseptic power. Although not very soluble, the acid and its salts are tolerably quickly absorbed. In the blood the acid occurs as an alkaline salt, and its antiseptic power must hence be neutralised. Both acid and salt slow the pulse and breathing, lower blood-pressure, and diminish excretion of urea. In most men and dogs full, continued doses further cause nausea, occasional vomiting, and giddi- ness— symptoms which resemble those of cinchonism. In healthy animals the temperature is not affected, but in rheumatic and malarial fevers abnormal temperature is reduced, sometimes to the extent of several degrees. This antipyretic effect Frohner ascribes to an excess of carbonic anhydride, liberating salicylic acid. Clinical experience, however, does not indicate that carbonic anhydride abounds in cases in which the salicylate treatment reduces temj^era- 560 SALICYLIC ACID ture. Professor Rutherford found that the acid and its soda salt, like benzoic acid and benzoates, are hepatic but not intestinal stimulants, and render the bile watery. They are eliminated more quickly in vegetable than in tlesh feeders (Frohner). 'I'hey are excreted in the perspiration, saliva, and urine, in which they appear as salicylates, and in com- bination with glycol, as salicyluric acid. They communicate to the urine a brown or green coloration, and retard its decomposition. Toxic doses are borne better by graminivora than grani- vora. Frohner records that a healthy horse, weighing 1000 lbs., received during three days 300 grammes (about 9^ ounces). Slight dyspepsia resulted from irritation of the alimentary mucous membrane, but no toxic symptoms. A healthy sheep of 70 lbs. during three days had 50 grammes (1| ounce), but remained perfectly healthy. The like negative results also occurred in the case of a sheep o 65 lbs., which received in three days 65 grammes (2 ounces) of sodium salicylate. Dogs are not so tolerant; toxic effects were produced by 1 gramme (IS'O'i grains) for each 5 kilogrammes of body-weight. A dog 10 lbs. weight received 08 gramme in repeated doses during six hours ; he vomited, had muscular trembling, and weakness of the hind limbs. A dog of 60 lbs., had 4 grammes, in divided doses, which caused weakness and cramp of the hind-quarters. A dog of 10 lbs. had 5 grammes sodium salicylate subcutaneously, and ex- hibited dyspncea, irregular pulse, dilated pupils, dulness, vomiting, lameness of the hind-quarters, convulsions, and fatal paresis. A dog of 18 lbs. was fatally asphyxiated by eight grammes injected into the rectum {ATzncimittel- lehre fiir Thierdrzte). Medicinal Uses. — The acid and its alkaline salts are service- able in arresting dyspeptic fermentation and diarrhoea in young animals. As bitters they are also gastric tonics. When administered in cases of gastro-intcstinal irritation, the sodium salicylate, not being irritant, is preferable to the acid. The salicylate treatment is almost a specific for acute rheumatism in human patients. It frequently relieves the pain before the temperature or fever is abated. The ACTIONS AND USES 561 beneficial results have been ascribed to the breaking up of lactic acid products. But British veterinarians have not found the treatment so effectual either in horses or cattle. In animals such attacks are chieliy of a chronic type, on which salicylic acid has not such marked effect as in the acute cases, and it may be that the doses prescribed have not been large enough, or given with sufficient frequency, or for a sufficient period. Mr. E. Price, Birmingham, is, however, satisfied with the effects on horses, and prescribes 10 grains, repeated every two hours, gradually increased to a drachm, and reports the disappearance of the rheumatic pains in forty-eight hours (Veterinarian, 1888). Frohner uses both the acid and the sodium salt in muscular and arthritic rheu- matism in all animals, and states that chronic cases are benefited by continued doses, that good results need not be despaired of until the drug has been persisted with for ten or fifteen days, while to prevent relapse the administration is continued for some days after the symptoms have been relieved. Dogs are benefited especially where the joints are prominently affected. Mr. J. Gresswell adopts similar treatment in rheumatic arthritis and bad cases of foot- and-mouth disease in sheep (Veterinary Pharmacology and Therapeutics). In horses, as in human patients, a few, frequently repeated doses arrest attacks of acute catarrh when given in the earher stages, and appear to have a similar power in gastro-intestinal and urinary catarrh. Frohner recommends it in cystitis. Professor Robertson used it in equine influenza accompanied with gastro-intestinal symptoms. Other practitioners testify to its value in purpura and also in strangles. In zymotic and malarial fevers it is not so effectual as quinine. Feser and Friedberger have shown that it exerts no antij^yretic effect in septic or pysemic fever. Conjoined with tannic acid it is prescribed for obstinate diarrhoea in calves. In antiseptic surgery, salicylic acid is sometimes substi- tuted for or alternated with carbolic acid or creolin. It is serviceable in the treatment of canker and open joint, for abating the itching and discharge of eczema, for dressing sores on the teats of cows, washing out the uterus in metritis, 2n 5G2 SALICYLIC ACID and witli alcohol as an injection in otorrhn^a. Its antiseptic effects are increased by admixture of boracic acid. Doses, etc. — Horses and cattle take 5^^'- to 5viij- ; sheep and goats, 5,1- ^ 3ij- ; swine, grs. xxx. to grs. Ix. ; dogs, grs. v. to grs. XV. of the acid, every two to four hours, mixed with an equal quantity of borax to ensure solubility, and administered with mucilage or glycerin, in bolus, electuary or drench. Sodium salicylate and salicin are used in similar amounts. The larger doses are given in fevers ; the smaller, repeated more frequently, in rheumatism, in the muscular form of which a solution may be injected deeply into the affected part. For surgical purposes convenient solutions are made by dissolving one part each of salicylic acid and borax in thirty to fifty parts of water. Ointments and liniments are prepared with one part acid, mixed in a heated mortar, with twenty to twenty-five of vaseline or bland oil. Salicylic cream, employed as a pigment for surgical wounds, is com- posed of two parts salicylic acid, and ten parts of glycerin. The B.P. ointment consists of one part acid, and forty-nine parts of white paraffin ointment. Lint, cotton- wool, or jute, soaked in 4 to 10 per cent, hot, watery solution, made with borax to ensure solubility, absorbs the acid, and is used as an antiseptic co\ering for wounds and burns in the same manner as carbolic, boric, or ' Sanitas ' lint. Being unirritat- ing, salicylic lint is applied directly to abraded surfaces without the intervention of any protective. Iron salicylate, is antiseptic and astringent. Dithion, or di-thio-salicylate of sodium, a greyish-white powder, freely soluble in water, is antiseptic and antipyretic. In foot-and-mouth disease it has been given internally, and applied externally as a dusting-powder, and as a lotion (2J to 5 per cent.) to the sores of the mouth, feet, and udder {Lancet, 1892). Aspirin, formed by the action of acetic anhydride on salicylic acid, is a crystalline powder, soluble in 100 parts water, and in dilute alkalies. It passes through the stoniach unchanged, and in the bowel is split up, salicylic acid being liberated. It is used as a substitute for sodium salicylate. GENTIAN 563 GENTIAN Gentian .€ Radix. The dried rhizome and roots of Gentiana lutea. (B.P.) Kat. Orel. — Gentianacefe. The Gentiana lutea, or yellow gentian, has a perennial, often forked root, and an annual herbaceous stem, which rises three or four feet, and bears axillary whorls of yellow flowers. It abounds in most parts of temperate Europe, thrives best between 8000 and 5000 feet above the sea-level, and is extensively cultivated in the mountainous districts of the Alps, Vosges, and Pyrenees. All parts of the plant are bitter and tonic, but only the rhizome is officinal. It occurs in cylindrical, usually more or less branched, often twisted, pieces, or in longitudinal slices, marked by transverse annular wrinkles and longitudinal furrows, and varying in length and thickness. It has a peculiar aromatic and rather disagreeable odour, and a taste at first sweet, but afterwards bitter. When moist, it is tough and flexible; when dry, brittle, and easily pulverised. The powder is yellow, with a shade of brown, and readily yields its bitterness to water, alcohol, and ether. Gentian root contains gentianose, a sugar, which, in Southern Bavaria and Switzerland, is fermented into a drinking spirit ; a large amount of pectin, a little volatile oil and fat, the yellow crystalline gentianin, or gentianic acid (Cj^HjoOg), which is inert; and about O'l per cent, of an intensely bitter glucoside, gentiopicrin (CooH3^0i2)' obtain- able in colourless crystals, which are soluble in water and alcohol. In its actions gentiopicrin is nearly allied to quinine. Roots of other Gentianacese are frequently mixed with those of G. lutea ; but this is not of much importance, since all are possessed of similar properties. Admixture, however, sometimes occurs of poisonous roots, such as monkshood, belladonna, and white hellebore, which may be distinguished by the absence of the pure bitter taste and bright yellow colour so characteristic of true gentian. Gentian powder, especially that met with abroad, is stated to be occasionally adulterated with yellow ochre, easily detected by heating the 564 GENTIAN suspected specimen with a little sulphuric acid, filtering, and testing for iron. Actions and Uses. — Gentian is a pure bitter, and is pre- scribed as a stomachic and tonic for all veterinary patients. It resembles calumba, chiretta, quassia, and hydrastis cana- densis, or golden seal. As a gastric tonic it has been considered little inferior to cinchona; it is devoid of astringency. Medicinal Uses. — Gentian improves the appetite and general tone. In atonic indigestion it is particularly use- ful amongst young animals, and in such cases is often conjoined with ginger and sodium bicarbonate. In relaxed and irritable states of the bowels, and where intestinal worms are suspected, after administration of a laxative, gentian and hydrochloric acid arc often serviceable. For horses suffering from simple catarrh few combinations are more effectual than an ounce of powdered gentian, two drachms nitre, with two ounces Epsom salt, dissolved in a pint of water, linseed tea, or ale, and repeated night and morning. In inflammatory complaints, after the acute stage is passed, such a prescription also proves serviceable. Where the bowels are constipated or irregular, or febrile symptoms are insufficiently subdued, two drachms of aloes are sometimes conjoined with the gentian. Where more general tonic effects are sought, iron sulphate is alternated with the gentian and salines. An ounce of gentian, with an ounce of ether or sweet spirit of nitre, given three or four times daily in a bottle of ale, proves an excellent stomachic and stimulating tonic in influenza and other epizootics, helps convalescence from exhausting disorders, and is a useful restorative for horses, jaded, overworked, or suffering from loss of appetite or slight cold. For cattle the above prescriptions are as serviceable as for horses, l)ut require to be given in somewhat larger doses. For sheep gentian is a very useful stomachic, and when prescribed with salt arrests for a time the progress of liver- rot. Next after quinine it is the best vegetable tonic for dogs [)rostrated by reducing disorders. Doses, etc.— For the horse, §ss. to §i. ; for cattle, §i. to §ij.; CALUMBA — CHIRETTA 565 for sheep, 5i to 5iij ; for pigs, 5ss. to 5i.; for dogs, grs. v. to grs. XX., repeated twice or thrice daily. The carefully-pre- pared PharmacopoBia extract, infusion, and tincture, flavoured with orange - peel and aromatics, are frequently used in veterinary practice. The powder is prescribed in bolus, prepared with treacle, glycerin, and meal, or in infusion, made by digesting the powder during several hours in hot water, and decanting off the clear fluid. A small addition of diluted alcohol ensures more thorough solution and better keeping. CALUMBA Calumb^ Kadix. — The dried sliced root of Jateorhiza Columba ; growing in Eastern Africa (B.P.). Nat. Orel. — Menispermaceoe. Calumba root occurs in irregular, flattish, circular or oval slices, with a yellow centre and a brownish-yellow cortex. The fracture is short, odour feeble, taste bitter (B.P.). It con- tains a crystalline, neutral, bitter principle, Calumbin ; an alkaloid, berberine ; Calumbic acid ; and 33 per cent of starch. Actions and Uses. — Calumba is a bitter, gastric stimulant and carminative. It promotes secretion of gastric juice and improves the appetite. As it contains no tannin it is devoid of astringency and may be prescribed with preparations of iron. Like quassia, calumba infusion may be used to destroy worms in the horse's rectum. Doses, etc. — Of the infusion (one of calumba to 20 of cold water) horses and cattle take §ij. to §iv. ; dogs 5y- to ^., twice or thrice daily. The tincture, made with one of calumba root to 10 of alcohol (60 per cent.) is also pre- scribed. The doses are about one-third of those of the infusion. Chiretta, the dried Indian plant, Swertia Chirata, collected when in flower, is closely allied in actions and uses to calumba. It contains an active bitter principle, chiratin, but no tannin. The infusion and tincture of chiretta are prescribed in the same doses as calumba or gentian. 566 CASCAEILLA — OAK BARK CASCARILLA CASCARTLLiE CoRTEX. The dried bark of Croton Eleuteria (B.P.). Nat. Ord. — Euphorbiacece. Cascarilla bark is principally imported from the Bahama Islands in quills about the size of a drawing pencil, and varying from two to four inches in length. Its outer surface is fissured, and usually covered with a light-coloured lichen ; its inner surface is smooth and light-brown. It has a strong, pungent, rather nauseous taste; its aromatic odour is increased by heat, and recommends it as a constituent of fumigatory pastilles. It contains the neutral crystalline bitter cascarillin (CjoH^gO^), 15 per cent, of two resins, tannin, and 1'5 of a pungent volatile oil, one portion of which is isomeric with oil of turpentine. Actions and Uses. — Cascarilla is an aromatic, bitter stomachic, and carminative, allied to cusparia (Augustura bark) and resembling cinchona, but less active, and occasion- ally used in indigestion, diarrhoea, and convalescence from exhausting diseases. Doses, etc. — For horses, 5ij- to 5^^. ; for cattle, §i. ; for sheep and swine, 5i- to 3ij- ; and for dogs, grs. x. to grs. xl, given in bolus, infusion, or tincture, which is made with one of cascarilla to five of alcohol (70 per cent.). OAK BARK QiTERCUS Cortex. The dried bark of the smaller branches and young stems of (^ucrcus robur (Q. pedunculata). Collected in early spring from trees growing in Britain. (Not official.) Nat. Ord. — Cupuliferae. Bark from smaller branches of young trees is more astringent than thicker pieces of older growth ; the interior finer fibrous portions than the external rougher cortical. Oak bark contains a bitter crystalline substance, quercin, and owes its astringency to 10 or 15 per cent, of querci- tannic acid, which differs somewhat from gallo-tannic acid, and does not, by oxidation, yield gallic acid. The infusion QUASSIA WOOD 567 has a powerful astringent taste, reddens litmus, gives a blue- black precipitate with ferric salts ; and with gelatin solution a white flocculent precipitate, which resists putrefaction better than that of gallo-tannic acid. Acorns — the fruit of the oak — are collected in many parts of England for feeding sheep and pigs, are credited with a nutritive value approach- ing that of beans, but on account of their astringency require to be used sparingly. Actions and Uses. — Oak bark is astringent, resembling galls and catechu. It is prescribed to check chronic otorrhoea, diarrhoea, dysentery, and other excessive mucous discharges. For weakly, scouring calves the infusion is given once or twice daily as required, with warm starch gruel, to which may be added aromatics, gentian, spirit, ether, or chloroform, or where there is grij)ing, laudanum. It lacks the tonic properties of cinchona and gentian, and constipates when given too frequently or freel}^ Infusions are applied to dry and constringe hyper-secreting and relaxed surfaces, and to relieve piles in dogs. Doses, etc. — Horses take 5ij- to ^iv.; cattle, §ss. to §ij.; sheep and pigs, '^ss. to 5ij- ; (^ogs, grs. x. to grs. xxx., administered in infusion made w^ith one or two ounces of bark to the pint of water. QUASSIA TVOOD QuASSLE LiGXUM. The wood of the trunk and branches of Picrsena excelsa (B.P.). Nat. Orel. — Simarubacete. The dense, tough, white quassia wood, the produce of a handsome tree, is imported from Jamaica and other West Indian islands in billets of varyins: lensfth, and is met with in yellow-white chips or raspings. Quassia has no odour, but an intensely bitter taste, dependent on a neutral crystalline principle, quassin (C^yH^.^Og). It contains no tannin. Actions and Uses. — Quassia is a bitter stomachic and tonic. It resembles gentian and calumba. It is prescribed for the several domestic animals in dyspepsia, loss of 568 TARAXACUM appetite, and convalescence from debilitating disorders. Although it has no appreciable vermicide effect when given per orem, when used as an enema it destroys both ascarides and lumbrici. Large doses are irritant. The infusion is a narcotic poison for flies and other insects, and is said also to kill fish. Doses, etc. — The B.P. infusion, prepared by macerating one part of chips for fifteen minutes with one hundred parts cold water, is administered alone, or with salines, acids, or iron salts, with which, unlike most vegetable bitters, it mixes without decomposition or discoloration. Of the infusion, horses and cattle take fgij. to f§iv. ; sheep and pigs, f 3iv. ; dogs, f 5j. The tincture is not used by veterinarians. TARAXACUM Taraxaci Radix. Dandelion Root. The fresh and dried roots of Taraxacum officinale, collected in the autumn (B.P.). Nat. Ord. — Compositae. The tap-shaped root is about six to twelve inches long, half an inch to an inch thick, is dark-brown externally and white within. It breaks with a short fracture ; from the fractured surface a milky juice exudes, which is inodorous, but has a bitter taste. Its active principle is the bitter taraxacin. Other constituents are, taraxacerin, inulin, asparagin, resins, and salts. Actions, Uses, and Doses. — Taraxacum has had a popular reputation as a blood purifier, liver stiuuilant, and remedy for jaundice. But Professor Rutherford's experiments accord to it only a very feeble power of stinuilating the liver. In virtue of its bitterness, it is a mild stomachic, although seldom so serviceable as either gentian or calumba, and it has also slight laxative and diuretic effects. The fresh succus is the best preparation, and the dose for the horse is about f§j.,and for dogs, fgss. to fgij- MUSTARD 569 MUSTARD SiNAPis, The dried ripe seeds of Brassica nigra and Brassica alba, powdered and mixed (B.P.). Nat. Ord. — Cruciferae. The mustard plants are annuals, one to two feet high, with yellow cruciform flowers, and pods containing several brown seeds. They are indigenous in most parts of Europe and extensively cultivated in Durham, Yorkshire, and Lin- colnshire. An abundant wild variety, familiarly known as charlock and kellocks, is sometimes used for adulterating the better sorts. The black mustard seeds are red or greyish-brown, about the size of millet ; the greenish-yellow powder has a pungent oily taste, and when triturated with water yields a pungent odour. The white mustard seeds are double the size of the black, and lighter in colour. Inodorous when entire or powdered, and almost inodorous when triturated. Black and white mustard seeds contain about 25 per cent, of a yellow, tasteless, non-drying fixed oil, similar to that of rape, and consisting of olein, stearin, and glyceride of erucic or brassic acid ; 20 per cent, of mucilage, chiefly found in the epidermis; 4 of inorganic matters, and 10 to 15 of myrosin, a ferment similar to diastase or the emulsin of bitter almonds, usually more abundant in white than in black mustard seeds, and coagulated and rendered inactive when heated above 140° Fahr. Black mustard, besides, contains about 2^ per cent, of the crystalline potassium myronate or sinigrin; white mustard contains an allied principle, sinalbin. ^\1ien dissolved in water, as in making mustard flour into paste, the fermentescible myrosin decom- poses the crystalloid bodies, and there are produced two acrid, irritant oils — the pungent volatile oil of mustard, allyl-isothiocyanate (H^CoNCS) from the black mustard, and the fixed oil — acrinyl-isothiocyanate — (CgH-NSO) from the white mustard. Actions and Uses. — Unbruised mustard-seeds, being only partially and gradually digested, have little effect when swallowed. When the ground seeds are mixed with water 570 MUSTARD the pungent, acrid oils are evolved ; large doses of the flonr arc accordingly irritant ; medicinal doses are stomachic, carminative, and stimulant. It is, however, rarely used internally, excepting as a local acting emetic for the dog, cat, or pig. For this purpose a dessert-spoonful of mustard flour is triven, dissolved in several ounces of water. It is slightly laxative and diuretic. As an external irritant, mustard is much used as a rubefacient and vesicant. The paste made with water, and rubbed into the skin of the horse, within twenty minutes causes congestion, heat, and tenderness, with subsequent swelling. Reflexly, the activity of conterminous and subjacent parts is roused. In two to six hours vesication occurs ; twenty- four hours later some of the vesicles will have run together, others being ruptured. From repeated, prolonged, or injudi- cious use in irritable states of the skin, there occasionally ensue active inflammation, sloughing, and destruction of the hair-roots. Compared with cantharides, mustard acts more promptly, but unless used freely or repeatedly it is less permanent. It is used to control functional disturbance rather than to repair structural damage; it causes more swelling of sur- rounding parts, but less exudation of serum ; applied re- peatedly, especially to the extremities of the horse, it is more apt to affect the skin deeply, and hence produce sloughing; unlike cantharides, it has no tendency to act upon the kidneys. It is almost as prompt, and is more manageable than very hot water. For horses it is less irri- tating and burning than oil of turpentine. It is not so severe or so apt to cause suppuration as euphorbium or croton oil. For cattle it is an excellent blister, often acting promptly when other agents have slight or tardy effect, and seldom causing injury or blemishing. On dogs and sheep it acts powerfully, and must be used with caution. Medicinal Uses. — In all veterinary patients suffering from catarrh, sore-throat, laryngitis, bronchitis, pneumonia, and pleurisy, mustard, applied in the early congestive stage, lessens pain and relieves difficult breathing-. It is more serviceable in chronic than acute bronchitis. In pleurisy, MUSTARD DRESSINGS 571 mustard liniments alternated with fomentations are often applied at intervals throughout the attack, but are specially indicated after the tenth day, when such counter-irritation seems to promote absorption of exudate. During the later stages of pneumonia mustard is of little use ; but occasional dressings are sometimes serviceable in sustaining the action of the heart and promoting absorption. It is frequently rubbed over a considerable area immediately external to the congested, painful, or inflamed parts ; in about fifteen minutes it is washed off, and in an hour or two, if required, another application may be made. Mustard dressings are serviceable in acute indigestion, colic, and enteritis, especially among horses. Mustard is of service in chronic rheumatism, especially amongst cattle, in the second stages of inflammation of joints and tendons, in enlargement of glands, and occasionally as a stimulant in chronic scurfy skin diseases. Flying blisters, applied over the chest or abdomen, or below the knees and hocks, especi- ally when the limbs are cold, arouse vitality and overcome congestion in the later stages of pneumonia, in parturient apoplexy of cattle, and in poisoning by narcotics. With stimulants administered internally, mustard is rubbed over the region of the heart to counteract syncope. Applied over the kidneys, it promotes diuresis. It is occasionally used for maintaining or increasing the effects of cantharides, but in horses considerable caution is necessary in applying the one irritant soon after the other. Mustard is specially indicated where extensive counter- irritation has to be speedily produced and stimulation of the kidneys avoided. Cantharides or mercuric iodide ointment is preferable in chronic diseases of joints, and where struc- tural changes have occurred in bone, cartilage, or tendon. Neither mustard, nor indeed any blister, can be directly applied to parts extensively or deeply inflamed without causing much irritation, and probably sloughing. Doses, etc. — If used as a stomachic, carminative, or mild stimulant, horses take '^iv. to 5^1. ; cattle, §ss. to §j. ; sheep and pigs, 5j- to 5i]- ; dogs, grs. x. to grs. xx. To prevent irritation of the fauces, it is given in the form of pill, 572 savary's liquid sinapism bolus, or electuary. Larger doses, especially in solution, act as emetics in clogs, cats, and pigs. Externally, it is used generally as a paste made as for the table, with tepid water. Hot water or admixture of spirit, acid, or alkali coagulates the ferment, or impairs its action. A nuistard paste made with water produced, in six minutes, effects similar to those produced in fifty minutes with mustard mixed with vinegar. Extra activity is secured by using black and white mustard seeds, in about equal amount, ground unmixed with bland ingredients, or by adding to the paste made from the mustard of the shops a little oil of turpentine. The freshly-made paste is usually applied directly to the skin, with friction; after fifteen or twenty minutes it may be washed off" with tepid water, and, if required, again applied three or four times. Such repeated moderate external warming is usually more serviceable than one violent dressing, whether for diminution of congestion, relief of pain, or even for removal of exudate. For veterinary patients little use is made of plasters prepared by spreading mustard upon calico or paper; of leaves consisting of powdered mustard seeds and gutta- percha solution spread upon cartridge paper and dried ; or of poultices usually made with equal parts of mustard and linseed meal, well stirred with four parts of hot water. A tincture of the essence, in the form of Savary's liquid sinapism, has been used hypodermically in France. In chest affections, 15 to 30 drops are injected at three or four points on each side of the chest. The resulting cedema appears within ten minutes, but is said to be less painful, and to cause the patient less disturbance than mustard in the usual form. No untoward local or general effects are observed. Such injections have also been used in the neck, in vertigo, and ophthalmia ; under the belly in the gastro- intestinal forms of influenza ; and also in colic, enteritis, and umbilical hernia. The ii.P. volatile oil of mustard, distilled from black mustard seeds after maceration with water, is antiseptic and antipyretic, and one of the most poisonous of the volatile oils. Soluble in alcohol, and in fifty parts of water. Rabbits MYRRH 573 are killed in two hours by a drachm, in fifteen minutes by- half an ounce, with symptoms of gastro-enteritis, loss of sensation and muscular power, difficult breathing, and collapse. Diluted and applied externally, it is a prompt and powerful vesicant. MYRRH Myrrha. a gum resin obtained from the stem of Bal- samodendron Myrrha and probably other species (B.P.). Nat. Orel. — Burseraceae. Myrrh is imported from the coasts of the Red Sea. With olibanum or frankincense it has long been used in making incense, perfumes, holy oils, and unguents for embalming. It exudes spontaneously, as a yellow-white oily substance, from perforations or cracks in the cortical layer of the trunk or branches of several species of the shrubby thorn- like balsamodendrons. The best sorts are in irregular- shaped, semi- translucent, red-brown tears, or masses of tears, which deepen in colour when breathed on. They are brittle, and easily powdered ; their fracture is irregular, shining, oily, and occasionally dotted with opaque white markings. Myrrh has a slightly bitter, acrid taste, and an asfreeable aromatic odour. When heated, it softens, froths up, and burns, leaving a dark spongy ash. Powdered with water, it forms an emulsion, but it readily dissolves in rectified spirit. It consists of 50 to 65 per cent, of soluble gum, chiefly arabin ; 23 per cent, of a resin, myrrhin, soluble in alcohol, ether, and acetic acid, and 2 per cent, of a pale yellow volatile oil, myrrhol (C\oH^^O), isomeric with thymol and carrol, and some bitter substances. Actions and Uses. — Its antiseptic volatile oil and slightly irritant resin render myrrh a topical stimulant. When swallowed it increases the secretions of the gastro-intestinal glands, producing stomachic, carminative, and mild laxative effects. During elimination it stimulates the mucous lining of the respiratory and urinary tracts, and is hence prescribed as a disinfectant, expectorant, and diuretic. It is sometimes 574 PEPPERS used as an antiseptic, mildly astringent vulnerary, and a flavouring agent. It resembles the fragrant gum resin oli- banum, produced by several species of Boswellia, and the concrete resin of the Elemi tree imported from Manilla. It is less stimulant than the balsams and foetid gum resins. Doses, etc. — Horses and cattle take 5ij- 5 sheep and pigs, 5ss. to 5i- ; dogs, grs. x. to grs. xx., repeated several times daily, in bolus, decoction, or tincture, used with vegetable tonics, or with aloes. The tincture of myrrh is thus pre- pared : — Macerate 4 ounces of myrrh in 16 ounces of alcohol (90 per cent.), for seven days in a closed vessel ; shake fre- quently, filter, and add sufficient alcohol to make one pint. PEPPERS The black and white peppers in daily domestic use are obtained from the brown wrinkled berries of an East Indian perennial climbing plant — the Piper nigrum, of the natural order Piperaceae. They are imported from the Malabar coast, the islands of the Indian Archipelago, and the West Indies. The pendulous spike, bearing twenty to thirty berries, is gathered as it begins to redden, shortly before ripening, and is dried in the sun. The berries rubbed off, and ground without separating their outer covering, yield black pepper. To prepare the milder white pepper, the best and soundest ripe berries are steeped in water, and stripped of their pungent outer covering before they are ground. Long pepper, the produce of Chavica Koxburghi, is brought from Singapore and Batavia, and consists of small, closely-attached berries, arranged on cylindrical grey spadices one or two inches long. The peppers when ground have a hot, pungent, spicy taste, and owe their properties to 1*6 to 2'2 per cent, of a volatile oil — isomeric with oil of turpentine (Cj^H^p), a soft, pungent resin, and 2 to 3 per cent, of the colourless, crystallisable, neutral piperine (Cj^Hj^NOg), which is isomeric with morphine, and when boiled with caustic potash yields an active oily alkaloid, piperidiuc (C^H^jN). ACTIONS AND USES 575 Cubebs, or Cubeba, is tlie dried, partially ripened fruit of the Piper Cubeba, cultivated in Java and other islands of the Indian Archipelago. The berries are stalked, and lighter coloured than those of common pepper, are globular, rough, and wrinkled, with a strong odour, and pungent, aromatic, bitter taste. They contain a volatile oil, a resin, and the neutral crystalline cubebin, which is devoid of any marked action. Piper angustifolium, a shrub found in moist regions throughout Brazil and Peru, yields matico leaves, much used in America as a styptic dressing, and also occasionally administered for the arrest of internal haemorrhage. Pimenta, pimento, Jamaica pepper, or allspice, closely resembles the true peppers; is the dried, unripe berry of Pimenta officinalis, an evergreen West Indian tree of the natural family Myrtace^e. The berries are about the size of those of the Piper nigrum, have the same penetrating aromatic odour, and hot, pungent taste, but are more truly aromatic and less acrid. They contain an acrid fixed oil, and about 6 per cent, of volatile oil, with traces of an alkaloid, having the odour of conine (Fliickiger). Oil of pimento contains about 70 per cent, of aphenol, eugenol, and is sometimes substituted for oil of cloves. Capsicum — the dried ripe fruit of Capsicum minimum — is also known as Chili pepper, chillies, Guinea or pod pepper. The red pods are tilled with numerous small round or ovoid red-brown seeds. Both pericarp and seeds are pungent, and when ground constitute the familiar Cayenne pepper, which owes its pungent acridity and irritant properties to an acrid volatile substance, capsaicin (C9Hi^02), and an alkaloid, capsicine, resembling conine in odour. Actions and Uses. — The peppers are irritants, stimulating' stomachics, carminatives, and rubefacients. Large doses, especiall}' in carnivora and omnivora, are irritant poisons, inflaming the alimentary and sometimes also the urino- genital mucous membranes. That they are especially poisonous to pigs is a popular error. ProjDerly regulated doses promote salivary and gastric secretions, are stomachic and carminative, and during their excretion stimulate the 576 GINGER urino-genital mucous membrane. Rubbed into the skin they cause redness, irritation, and swelling. The several peppers differ in the intensity of their action. The black is more active than the white and long peppers, which are of nearly equal strength. Pimento is less active, while capsicum is more irritant than black pepper. In virtue of its stimulant effect, and its rendering the urine anti- septic, cubebs checks irritation and discharges from the urino-genital mucous membrane. Black pepper (the variety chiefly used in veterinary prac- tice) is administered in simple indigestion, and for obviating the disagreeable taste and nauseating effects of various drugs. It is not now given as a sialogogue, nor for the object of increasing sexual appetite, which, when defective, may usually be restored, not by irritating drugs, but by measures which improve general vigour. It ought not to be used for blistering ointments, or for setons, nor introduced into the rectum of horses exposed for sale — a barbarous practice, apt to induce serious intestinal irritation. Doses, etc. — Of black pepper, as a stomachic, horses take about 5i- ; cattle, 5ij ; sheep and swine, grs. x. to 5ss. ; dogs, grs. V. to grs. x., repeated two or three times a day, given in bolus, dissolved in water or spirit, or suspended in well-boiled gruel. The tincture of capsicum is made with one of capsi- cum and twenty of alcohol (70 per cent.). GINGER Zingiber. The scraped and dried rhizome of Zingiber offici- nale (B.P.). Nat Orel. — Zingiberaceae. The Zingiber officinale, grown in many tropical countries, has a biennial, creeping, fleshy, and nodulous rhizome, which gives ofi' numerous descending short radicles, with several ascending annual leafy stems, reaching three or four feet in height, invested with alternate elliptical leaves, and termi- nated by spikes and racemes of purple flowers. For making green or preserved ginger, the rhizomes are gathered while still soft and juicy, and Avhen about three months old. For other purposes they are taken up when about a year old, AN AROMATIC STIMULANT 677 when the aerial stems have withered, but while the rhizome is still plump and soft. They are scalded to check vegeta- tion, usually scraped to remove the brown wrinkled epider- mis, and dried in the sun. Properties. — Several sorts are recognised. The Jamaica, in plump, flat, pale pieces or races, the bark stripped of epidermis, producing a light-coloured powder of superior quality; Malabar or Cochin China, a little darker, but usually good ; Bengal and African, imported both coated and uncoated, and generally cheap and excellent ; Barbados, in short thick races, retaining its brown corrugated epider- mis. The unstripped descriptions are sometimes termed black gingers. The several varieties are in flat, irregular- lobed, knotted, zigzag pieces, two to four inches in length, externally pale yellow, striated, and fibrous, breaking with a mealy, short, somewhat fibrous fracture, having a strong, agreeable, aromatic odour, a warm, pungent taste, and dis- solving in water and alcohol. Ginger owes its taste to a pungent resin, its aroma to a volatile oil, and its medicinal and flavouring properties to both constituents, which are chiefly found in the delicate felted layer of skin lying between the starchy, mealy paren- chyma and the brown, horny, external covering. As a condi- ment and medicine Great Britain annually imports about 800 tons of ginger. Actions and Uses. — Ginger is an aromatic stimulant, and is used as a stomachic and carminative for all patients, notably for cattle and sheep. Blown into the nostrils it increases nasal discharge; chewed, it reflexly augments the flow of saliva ; administered internally, it promotes gastric secretion, digestion, and appe- tite. It is prescribed in atonic dyspepsia, often along with antacids and laxatives. Conjoined with purgatives, it dimin- ishes their tendency to nauseate and gripe, and also somewhat hastens their effects. Doses, etc. — For the horse, 3iv. to §i ; for cattle, §i. to §ij ; for sheep, 3i. to 5ij. ; for pigs, 5ss. to 5i. ; for dogs, grs. x. to grs. XXX. A bolus is made with any suitable excipient ; an infusion is used sometimes sweetened with treacle or sugar; 2o 578 CINNAMOX the B.P. tincture is prepared with two ounces powdered ginger to a pint of rectified spirit by maceration and sub- sequent percolation. A syrup of ginger, made with a strong tincture and the B.P. simple syrup, is occasionally prescribed An oleo-resin, obtained from ginger, and known as gingerin may be substituted for ginger in dispensing purgatives. CINNAMON CiNNAMOMi Cortex. Cinnamon Bark. The dried inner bark of shoots from the truncated stocks of Cinna- momum zeylanicum. Imported from Ceylon, and dis- tinguished in commerce as Ceylon cinnamon (B.P.). Nat. Ord. — Laurineaj. CiNNAMOMi OleUxM. The oil distilled from cinnamon bark (B.P.). The bark occurs in rolled quills, is thin and brittle, yellow- brown externally, darker brown on its inner surface, with a fragrant odour, and a warm, sweet, aromatic taste. Besides mannite, resin, and other vegetable constituents, the bark contains tannic and cinnamic acids, but its aroma and medicinal properties depend upon the presence of about one per cent, of a volatile oil (CgH-OH), which, when fresh, is bright yellow, but becomes cherry- red when kept. Its constituents are eugenol (also found in cloves), cinnamic aldehyde, and a terpene. An inferior oil is extracted from the leaves. Actions and Uses. — Cinnamon bark is aromatic, carmina- tive, and astringent, and is used for flavouring. The oil resembles that of anise, caraway, coriander, pepper- mint, and of other Umbellifene and Labiatre. It is antiseptic, carminative, stimulant, and haemostatic, and is useful in all animals affected with indis^estion, flatulence, or diarrhoea. Mr. Richard W. Burke, A. V.D., thus testifies to its merits : 'After a long trial I have found there is no more efficacious remedy in the treatment of diarrhoea in the dog, especially in that form of the disease which is noticed during the rains in India. It will check diarrhoea when opium, chlorodyne, and other remedies ASAFCETIDA 579 usually employed have been found to produce no effect in allaying the symptoms. I have also employed the tincture of cinnamon in doses of one or two drachms for smaller animals. It is nearly, if not equally, as rapid in its effects as the oil of cinnamon bark ' (Veterinarian, February 1888), The tincture is made with 4 ounces of bark to a pint of alcohol (70 per cent). Doses, etc. — of the bark, horses take 5iv. to §i. ; dogs, 5ss. to 3i- Of the oil, horses take TT^xx. to fgi. ; dogs, TTii. to 71[iv, administered on sugar, or in syrup, mucilage, or spirit and water. ASAFCETIDA A Gum Resin obtained by incision from the root of Ferula foetida, and probably other species. Imported from Bombay (B.P.). JSfat. Ore?.— Umbellifera3. The Ferula foetida, or Narthex asafcetida, has a massive perennial root, black externally, white within. When the plant is four years old, the leaves and stems are removed, and, six weeks later, a slice is cut from the upper part of the root ; the slicing is repeated several times at intervals, when the plant is exhausted, after yielding from a half pound to two pounds of a foetid milky juice, which concretes. The yellow- brown tears are mixed with soft earth and made into irregular masses, which are red-brown externally, and within are opaque and milk-white, but gradually change to a dull yellow-brown. Asafcetida has a strong, persistent, alliaceous odour, and a bitter, acrid taste. It is pulverised with difficulty, forms an emulsion Avith water, is dissolved in rectified spirit, and also in potash and ammonia. Its active constituents are resin, gum, and about 5 per cent, of an acrid volatile oil containing allyl sulphide (03115)28. A good sample of asafcetida should contain about 65 per cent, of matter soluble in rectified spirit. Actions and Uses. — Asafcetida is a mild stimulant, expec- torant, carminative, antispasmodic, and vermifuge. It is speedily absorbed, its disagreeable odour indicating its general distribution; it is eliminated from the pulmonary 580 ARNICA mucous surface, the skin, and kidneys, gently stimulating their secretions. Professor Robertson used asafcetida, with aloes and nux vomica, in constipation and torpidity of the bowels in horses, and in flatulent colic prescribed the tinc- ture along with oil of linseed and of turpentine. The spiritus ammoniae foetidus, made with li ounce asafuetida, 2 ounces strong solution of anmionia, and sufficient alcohol (90 per cent.) to make one pint of the spirit ; and the tinc- ture of asafcetida, are sometimes prescribed in colic and chronic cough. Like other substances containing odorous volatile oils, asafcetida is a vermifuge, but its action is uncertain. It is allied in some of its actions to valerian, and to sumbul, and closely resembles the two gum-resins, ammoniacum and galbanum, which are scarcely so active, and are chiefly used for making charges and plasters. Doses, etc.^Horses take gij- to 5iv. ; cattle, §j. ; sheep, 5i- ; and dogs, grs. x. to grs. xx. It is given several times a day ; may be made into bolus with camphor and ammonium carbonate ; is frequently prescribed in draught with watery or alcoholic solution of ammonia ; and, to prevent their misappropriation, it may be added to alcoholic and ethereal preparations intended for veterinary patients. ARNICA Arnica Rhizoma. The dried rhizome and roots of Arnica montana (B.P.). Leopard's Bane. Mountain Tobacco. Nat. Ord. — Composita3. Arnica montana is a perennial, growing in the mountainous parts of Central and Southern Europe, and also in Asia and America. It has a hairy stem about one foot high, com- posite yellow flowers, used in America for making the tinc- ture, obovate leaves, and a cylindrical, contorted, brown root, one to three inches long, two or three lines thick, distin- guished by a peculiar, aromatic, offensive odour, and a bitter, peppery, acrid taste. It contains mucin, extractive matter, two volatile oils, and an active, bitter, yellow, amorphous principle, arnicin. ACTIONS AND USES 581 Actions and Uses. — Arnica is irritant and stimulant, has been credited with alterative properties, and is used exter- nally as a stimulant for strains, bruises, and wounds. Viborg gave a horse six drachms of the flowers in infusion, and records production of quickened circulation and diuresis. Professor Williams recommends one to two ounces of the tincture in congestion of the lungs and lymphangitis in horses, stating that it stimulates cutaneous circulation. Other practitioners have administered it in the second stages of pleurisy, in weakness of the loins, in muscular strains, and in rheumatism. Mr. Dollar, London, has, hoAv- ever, repeatedly tried it, without benefit, in horses suffering alike from acute and chronic rheumatism. In the several forms of rheumatic lameness in dogs, and in stiffness pro- duced from over-exertion, it has been employed empirically both externally and internally. It is a favourite homoeopathic remedy. Externally, arnica is a popular vulnerary for strains, bruises, and wounds, and especially for broken knees and sore shoulders. An ounce of the tincture is dissolved in twelve to twenty ounces of cold water. A more efficient lotion is made with a drachm of arnica tincture and one to two drachms of zinc sulphate or lead acetate, diluted with ten or twelve ounces of water. For painful or irritable wounds the tincture is employed with chloroform, bella- donna, or laudanum, diluted with water according to cir- cumstances. Along with liberal feeding and tonics, a drop of arnica tincture placed daily within the eyelids is one of the remedies for those troublesome ulcerations of the cornea which affect weakly dogs recovering from distemper. Amica has, however, been over-estimated ; the evidence of its value as an internal remedy requires confirmation, while the heal- ing properties ascribed to it appear to depend on the other drugs, spirit, or cold water with which it is generally used. Doses, etc. — Horses take f3iv. to fgi. of the tincture ; cattle, double that quantity ; dogs TTLv. to "n^viij., mixed with water, ale, or gruel. The flowers, leaves, and root are occasionally used powdered, especially in poultices ; the 582 ANISE tincture is made with au ounce of the root in powder (No. 40) to a pint of alcohol (70 per cent.). Watery infu- sions can be of little efficacy, for neither the arnicin nor volatile oil is soluble in water. Arnica opodeldoc consists of white soap four parts, rectified spirit ten ; tincture of arnica five and camphor one. It is used as a local stimulant. ANISE Anisi Fructus. Anise fruit. The dried ripe fruit of Pim- pinella Anisum. Nat. Ord. — Umbelliferse. Oleum Anisi. Oil of Anise. The oil distilled from anise fruit ; or from the fruit of the Star anise, lUicium Verum (B.P.). The natural order Umbelliferse yields many aromatic fruits, such as anise, caraway, coriander, dill, and fennel, as well as the aromatic gum-resins, asafoetida, galbanum, and ammoniacum. These aromatic umbelliferous fruits, like the fruits, leaves, and other parts of various plants of such orders as the Myrtacese, Labiates, and Coniferse, owe their medicinal value chiefly to their yielding volatile oils. These oils possess certain properties and actions in common, and the student should be familiar with their group characters. Volatile oils are readily diffusible ; their in-contact effects are produced, not only when they are applied topically, but when they are absorbed and distributed in the blood stream. When concentrated they are local irritants; Avhen diluted they paralyse peripheral nerve-endings, and hence are anodyne, carminative, and antispasmodic. They are also expectorant, antiseptic, and parasiticide. When absorbed they stimulate circulation and secretion. As wnth other stimulants largo doses paralyse the heart. They reduce inordinate reflex activity of the spinal cord. They are eliminated chiefly— (1) by the respirator}' mucous mem- brane, increasing bronchial secretion, and counteracting septic conditions of the membrane ; and (2) by the kidneys, in moderate doses producing diuresis and antisepsis through- MEDICINAL USES 583 out the urinary tract, but in large doses causing over- stimulation and strangury. Anise is chiefly imported from Spain, Germany, and Southern Russia. It is an ovoid, oblong, grey-brown fruit, one-fifth of an inch in length, and covered with minute hairs. Like other fruits of this order, it is separable into two symmetrical mericarps, each of which is encircled by five slender ridges, while its transverse section exhibits about fifteen vittse, which elaborate the oil. Both anise fruits yield about 5 per cent, of a mixture, in nearly equal proportions, of a fixed oil, and a volatile anethol or camphor-like body, common to the Umbelliferse, and some other plants, and having the formula C^qR^^O. It is believed to be a phenol derivative, with some of its hydrogen atoms displaced by methyl and allyl, and having the rational formula CgH^. C3H5. OCH3. It is colourless, but becomes yellow on keeping ; exhibits intensely the characteristic aromatic odour and taste of the fruit, and is soluble in alcohol and ether. The oil from the pimpinella solidifies at from 50° to 60° Fahr. ; that from the star-anise at about 36° Fahr. Actions and Uses. — Anise is an aromatic stimulant, stom- achic, and carminative. It is used to relieve indigestion and flatulence, to communicate an agreeable flavour to many medicines, and to diminish the griping of purgatives. Doses, etc. — Horses receive about §i. ; cattle, §i. to gij. ; sheep and swine, 5ij- to 5ii]-5 dogs, grs. xx. to grs. 1., given powdered, repeated several times a day, often conjoined with ginger or other aromatics, and conveniently administered in ale or in spirit and water. Oil of anise, like oil of caraway, or coriander, is a diffusible stimulant, antiseptic, carminative, and antispasmodic. For such purposes cheaper remedies are generally, however, employed ; but it is occasionally used as a flavouring ingredient, more especially for ball masses, and, mixed with a little spirit and bland oil, for the destruc- tion of lice in pet dogs and other small animals. Caraway, cardamoms, coriander, fennel, and fenugreek resemble anise in their actions and uses, and may be given in similar doses. These seeds are sometimes used by feeders 584 EUCALYPTUS of pigs, sheep, and cattle, and by waggoners and others, for improving the coat and condition of their charges. Fenu- greek especially is prized for such purposes, is a constituent of various 'drinks/ and, with ground peas, maize meal, locust bean, and linseed meal, forms several vaunted condiments or ' nourishing foods.' EUCALYPTUS Oleum Eucalypti. Oil of Eucalyptus. The oil distilled from the fresh leaves of Eucalyptus Globulus, and other species of Eucalyptus (B.P.). CjaHgoO. Eucalypti Gummi. Eucalyptus gum, a ruby - coloured exudation from the bark of Eucalyptus rostrata, and some other species of Eucalyptus. Imported from Australia (B.P.). Nat Ord. — Myrtaceaj. The leaves and flower-buds of various Myrtaceae, such as cloves, pimento, myrtle, and cajuput, as well as eucalyptus yield, when distilled, aromatic, antiseptic, volatile oils. The rapidly-growing eucalyptus trees, indigenous to the Australian colonies, are now largely cultivated in many temperate regions with the view of preventing malarial fevers. The dried leaves yield about 70 per cent, of eucalyptol, a colourless or pale, straw-coloured, liquid volatile oil, darken- ing by exposure, of an aromatic odour and spicy, pungent taste, and soluble in about its own weight of alcohol. Its antiseptic powers increase as it undergoes oxidation by keeping. Other constituents are a crystallisable resin, tannin, and an oil, cineol, which crystallises at 30° Fahr. Eucalyptus, or red gum, occurs in grains or masses. It is tough, and has a very astringent taste. Cold water dissolves 80 to 90 per cent., forming a neutral solution. It is soluble in alcohol (00 per cent.). Red gum contains kino-tannic acid, catechin, and catechol. It resembles kino, which is less soluble in water. Actions and Uses. — The oil possesses in marked degree the ACTIONS AND USES 585 group characters of volatile oils. When freely used in concentrated form it is an in-contact irritant. It is power- fully antiseptic and disinfectant, destroying the lower forms of animal life. Locally applied it impairs sensibility. It is readily absorbed, increasing cardiac action, and is hence a stimulant and antispasmodic ; and as it passes out of the body it increases the activity of the excreting channels, chiefly the respiratory mucous membrane and the kidneys. Its antiseptic properties confer some anti-malarial action; but it cannot, as has been suggested, take the place of the cinchona alkaloids. Eucalyptus oil is used as a stimulant and antiseptic gargle, inhalation, and spray to diminish excessive quantity and foetor of nasal, pharyngeal, and bronchial secretions. It is adminis- tered in protracted cases of strangles, influenza, and purpura in horses, septicaemia in all animals, and in distemper in dogs — in such cases being usefully combined with quinine, ether, and alcohol. Arloing and Thomas state that solu- tions containing one yw^h part destroy the virus of black- quarter. As an antiseptic it is three times as powerful as carbolic acid, for Avhich it is sometimes substituted in sur- gical cases. Eucalyptus gauze is unbleached cotton im- pregnated with one part oil of eucalyptus, three of dammar resin, and three of parafiin wax. Eucalyptus wool contains 5 per cent, of the oil. In foetid uterine discharges, eucalyptol injections or pessaries are useful. The gum is astringent, and styptic. As a desiccant, mixed with starch and zinc oxide, it is used for superficial wounds. Occasionally red gum is prescribed for diarrhoea in dogs. Doses, etc., of the oil. — Horses and cattle take fgi. to f5iv.; dogs, Tf[ii. to 7I[x., in diluted spirits, mucilage, or milk. For parasitic skin affections and other external purposes it is dissolved in oil or cocoa batter, and is often usefully con- joined with iodoform. Eulyptol, consisting of equal parts of eucalyptol, carbolic acid, and salicylic acid, has been recommended as an intestinal antiseptic. 586 JUNIPER JUNIPER Oleum Juniperi. Oil of juniper. The oil distilled from the full-grown, unripe, green fruit of Juniperus communis. Spiritus Juniperi. Spirit of Juniper. A solution of the oil in alcohol (90 per. cent.) (B.P.). Nat. OrcZ.— Coniferse. The junipers are shrubby evergreen trees, growing in most temperate countries. Their leaves are dark-green, linear and arranged three in a whorl. Juniper berries are bluish-purple, furrowed, of the size and appearance of currants; have an aromatic, terebinthinate odour, and a warm, sweet taste, followed by bitterness. For flavouring gin about two pounds of the berries are added to one hundred gallons of spirit. They owe their distinctive properties to about 2 per cent, of a mixture of two volatile oils, one of which is polymeric with terpene (CigH^g). The fresh and dried tops of Juniperus sabina yield oil of savin, which is sometimes used as an ecbolic. From the wood of the Juniperus oxycedrus, and occasionally from that of the communis, the brown empyreumatic oil of cade is got by dry distillation ; is used in France and other con- tinental countries for most of the purposes of oil of tar, and is recommended in scaly skin diseases. Actions and Uses. — The fruit, oil, and spirit of juniper are topical irritants, and when absorbed are stimulant, stomachic, carminative, and diuretic. They resemble the turpentines, and thuja, or arbor vita?. Two ounces of the berries given to horses and cattle have little notable effect; but three or four oimces induce diuresis. The fruit and oil are occasionally given as diuretics, stomachics, and carminatives in indigestion and flatulence, and are stated to diminish the evil ett'ects of bad fodder and marshy pastures, and to aid alike the prevention and cure of ascites in sheep. The oil mixed with lard and applied to exposed wounds, prevents irritation from flies. Doses, etc. — Of the fruit, as a stomachic, horses and cattle take §i. to §ij. ; sheep, 5ij- to 3iv. ; dogs, grs. xx. to grs. xL, PEPPERMINT — MENTHOL 587 repeated twice a day, in electuary or bolus. The fruit is readily eaten by most animals, especially by sheep. A decoction, made from the fruit, is occasionally prescribed, and also used as an external stimulant. As a diuretic the oil is the best form. Horses and cattle take 3i- to 5ij- ; dogs, ITLv. to TT[x., which may be repeated at intervals of three hours till diuresis is induced. Of the spirit, as a carminative and stomachic, cattle and horses take 5iv. to §j. ; sheep, 5ij- to 5iv. ; dogs, Tl^xx. to 5jv i^i oil, or mixed with other medicines. PEPPERMINT Oleum Mentha Piperita. Oil of Peppermint. The oil distilled from the fresh flowering peppermint, Mentha piperita (B.P.). Nat. Ord. — Labiatge. The natural family Labiatse furnishes peppermint, spear- mint, pennyroyal, lavender, rosemary, marjoram, and thyme ; and from these plants, when fresh flowering, aromatic, antiseptic, volatile oils are obtained. Similar oils are extracted from the leaves of various Myrtacese, from the petals of roses, from the flowers and fruit of various Rutacese, and from the seeds of various Umbelliferse. Of the Labiatse volatile oils peppermint is the most com- monly used. The fresh plant yields 1 to 1-25 per cent, of the colourless or pale yellow oil, characterised by its warm aromatic taste and subsequent sensation of coldness. It consists of two isomeric oils — the fluid menthene (C^^^Hj^), and the crystalline menthol (C\(jHjg-OH), which is homologous with thymol, obtained from the volatile oil of thyme. Actions and Uses. — Oil of peppermint is a typical volatile oil; it is an antiseptic, topical stimulant and anesthetic, carminative, antispasmodic, and parasiticide. It is more active than the oil from Mentha viridis, or spearmint, or M. pulegium, or pennyroyal. Diluted solutions arrest the de- velopment of bacilli as eftectually as carbolic acid, or euca- lyptus oil, and are hence used as dressings for wounds, and 588 CHAMOMILE FLOWERS as sprays or gargles for ulcerated throat. It destroys veget- able and animal parasites infesting the skin. After stimu- lating, it paralyses the ends of sensory nerves with which it is brought into contact, and hence relieves gastro-intestinal, neuralgic, and other pains. Painful surfaces are gently rubbed with a pencil of menthol, solution being promoted by wetting with a little spirit. Increased ansesthesia is secured by diluting the menthol with eight or ten parts of ether, or mixing it with an equal part of thymol, carbolic acid, or butyl chloral-hydrate. Peppermint oil is used to prevent the nausea and spasms sometimes produced by purgatives; to flavour medicinal preparations or cover their unpalatable taste. Doses, etc., of the oil — For horses and cattle, Tll^xx. to TT^xxx. ; for dogs, TTj^iii. to TH^v., given on a piece of sugar or in spirit and water. Peppermint water contains one of oil in one thousand of water. The spirit consists of one part of oil to nine of alcohol (90 per cent.). CHAMOMILE FLOWERS Anthemidis Flores. — The dried expanded flower-heads of Anthemis nobilis. Collected from cultivated plants (B.P.). Nat. Ord. — Compositse. Chamomile floAvers are extensively cultivated in the warmer parts of England, are gathered during dry weather, exposed for a short time on trays in the shade, and carefully stored and kept very dry. Both varieties, but especially the single, have a hot, bitter taste, and a strong aromatic odour. They contain bitter extractive matter, soluble both in water and alcohol ; a small quantity of tannin ; traces of the bitter anthemic acid; a crystallisable, soluble base, anthemine; and 060 to 080 per cent, of volatile oil, obtained by distillation. The oil is of a pale-blue or green colour, gradually becoming yellow-brown, and consisting of a mixture of esters, chiefly of the angelates and valerianates of butyl and amyL VALERIAN 689 Actions and Uses, — Chamomile flowers are mildly stimu- lant, aromatic, stomachic, and carminative ; full doses produce emesis in dogs. The infusion is sometimes given in atonic dyspepsia and diarrhrea. Horses and cattle take one to two ounces ; calves, sheep, and swine, a drachm or more. The flowers are occasionally used for fomentations and poultices. Like other volatile oils, that of chamomile lowers reflex irritability, and hence is useful in dyspepsia, diarrhoea, and spasmodic cough. VALERIAN Valeriana Rhizoma. The dried rhizome and roots of Valeriana ofticinalis. Collected in the autumn (B.P.). Nat. Ord. — Valerianacete. The officinal valerian consists of a short, yellow-brown, tuberous rhizome, about the thickness of the little finger, with attached radicles, shrivelled, brittle, and of an earthy- brown colour. It has a penetrating odour, becoming strong and even foetid by keeping, and a camphoraceous, unpleasant, rather bitter taste. It contains 1 to 2 per cent, of a strong- smelling, active volatile oil, isomeric with oil of turpentine (CioHjg), and the oily, acrid valerianic acid (C^Hg.COgH), which is also present in the berries of the guelder rose, in cod-liver oil, and decaying cheese, and may be obtained artificially by distilling amylic alcohol, and treating the distillate with caustic alkali. Actions and Uses, — Valerian and its volatile oil are topical irritants, stimulants, and antispasmodics. In large doses they paralyse the brain and spinal cord, lower blood- pressure, and slow the pulse. A'alerianic acid has no special stimulant action, but is said to resemble acetic acid. The valerianates accordingly do not exhibit the action of valerian or of the volatile oil. Medicinal Uses. — Valerian resembles asafoetida, the other gum-resins, camphor, and sumbul or musk-root imported from Russia and India, and produced by an umbelli- ferous plant. It has little effect on horses or cattle, even in 590 TURPENTINES doses of several ounces. It is occasionally given to dogs to allay nervous irritability, and relieve chorea and epilepsy ; but little dependence can be placed on it. It attracts and excites cats, developing by its suggestive odour their amatory propensities. The volatile oil abates the convul- sions of strychnine poisoning, is an anthelmintic, and is excreted by the lungs, skin, and kidneys. Doses, etc. — Used for horses or cattle, valerian may be given in quantities of §j. to §ij.; for dogs, grs. x. to 5j-; for cats, grs. V. to grs. xxx., given in powder or infusion several times daily, conjoined with ginger, gentian, or camphor, or dissolved in spirit of ammonia. The Valerianates, as above indicated, exhibit the actions of their bases, but not those of valerian. Where it is desired to conjoin the physiological action of valerian with iron, zinc, or other metallic salt, or with quinine, the oil of valerian should be prescribed with a suitable salt of the metallic or vegetable base. The valerianates have been used for dogs and cats in epilepsy, chorea, and nervous excitability, in doses of grs. ij. to grs. v. TURPENTINES Terebinthin^. Nat. Orel. — Coniferae. The Coniferae yield the following drugs — I. Oleo-resinous juices exuding spontaneously or from incisions made into the trunks or branches, consisting of common and Venice turpentines, Canada balsam, frankin- cense, and Burgundy pitch, II. Oil of turpentine (Ci^Hig) — the volatile or essential oil procured from turpentines by distillation. III. Hydrates of turpentine, — terebene, terpene, and ter- pinol, prepared by acting on oil of turpentine with acids. 1\ . Resins — the residue of the distillation of turpentine. V. Tar and black pitch — got by subjecting the roots and wood to destructive distillation. Wood wool prepared from pine wood. BORDEAUX AND VENICE TURPENTINES 591 I. The Turpentines or Coniferous Oleo-resins. The terebinthinate juices while recently exuded are fluid, or nearly so ; but exposure to the air volatilises and oxidises their essential oil, and they solidify. They have a peculiar, pungent, bitter taste and odour, are scarcely soluble in water, partially soluble in rectified spirit, dissolving readil}^ in oils, ether, and alkaline solutions; are inflammable, and leave, when burnt, a finely-divided residue of carbon or lamp black. Several of the more important varieties demand notice. Common Turpentine is obtained throughout the Southern States of America, from Virginia to the Gulf of Mexico, chiefly from the Pinus Tseda and P. palustris, australis, or swamp pine, a tree sixty or seventy feet high, having bright green linear leaves about a foot in length, and collected into bundles like those of the Pinus sylvestris, or Scotch fir, from which, throughout Northern Europe, turpentine is also procured. Bordeaux Turpentine, chiefly produced in the south-west of France, from Pinus maritima and P. pinaster, is got by bleeding or hacking the bark, and conducting the juice into suitable vessels placed at the foot of the tree. TurjDentine from different sources differs somewhat in appearance; the American is dextro-rotatory, the French Isevo-rotatory ; it is semi-fluid, its consistence varies with the temperature ; it gradually solidifies from escape and oxidation of the volatile oil ; it has a yellow colour, an aromatic odour, and a warm, pungent taste. Unless melted and strained, it usually contains impurities. Water acquires its flavour, but separates only traces of its active principles. Rectified spirit and ether dissolve it; eggs and mucilage form with it emulsions convenient for administration. The crude American variety, when recent, yields 15 to 25 per cent, of volatile oil. Venice Turpentine (Terebinthina Veneta) is chiefly ob- tained in the Tyrol, Switzerland, and Piedmont, from the common larch, Larix Europgea — a lofty tree with graceful 592 TURPENTINES drooping branches, and leaves at tirst in fasciculpp, like the pine tribe, but afterwards becoming solitary by elongation of the twigs. Venice turpentine is tenacious, rather opaque, and fluorescent; less apt than common turpentine to concrete with keeping ; has a pale yellow colour, an acrid, bitter taste, a disagreeable terebinthinate odour, and contains 15 per cent, of oil of turpentine. The Venice turpentine of the shops almost invariably consists of about three parts of common resin dissolved in one part of oil of turpentine, This artificial mixture is distinguished by its strong odour, and its more quickly evaporating, and leaving a varnish on a sheet of paper, on which the natural Venice turpentine remains viscid. Canada Balsam, chiefly brought from Lower Canada, is obtained by puncturing the vesicles lying between the bark and wood of Abies balsamea. It is a pale, greenish-yellow oleo-resin of the consistence of thin honey, has an agreeable terebinthinate odour, and a slightly bitter, feebly acrid taste. On exposure it dries slowly into a transparent adhesive varnish, and solidifies when mixed with one-sixth of its weight of magnesia and water. It contains 15 to 18 per cent, of oil, is much used by varnish-makers, opticians, and microscopists, and, with collodion and castor oil, constitutes flexible collodion. It is sometimes improperly termed Balm of Gilead, which, however, is derived from an Arabian balsamodendron. Strasburg turpentine is a fluid, citron- smelling oleo-resin obtained in the vicinity of the Alps from Abies picea. Chian or Cyprus turpentine, from the island of Scio, nearly resembles Canada balsam in its properties and uses ; it is a greenish-yellow, liquid oleo-resin from the Pistacia terebinthus, a tree of the mastic order. Frankincense, or Thus Americanum, is the semi-opaque, soft, concrete turpentine scraped ofl' the trunks of Pinus palustris, P. Tseda, and other American Coniferae. On keep- ing it becomes dry, brittle, and darker in colour. A similar concrete turpentine comes from the south of France under the name of gallipot or barras. Burgundy PncH is the resinous exudation from the stem of Picea excelsa, or spruce fir, melted and strained. It IRRITANTS, STIMULANTS, AND ANTHELMINTICS 593 consists of an amorphous resin, oil of turpentine, and other isomeric oils, and abietic acid. It occurs in semi-opaque red-brown masses, breaks with a shining conchoidal fracture, and has an empyreumatic turpentine odour and aromatic taste. The substance sold as Burgundy pitch is generally made by melting resin and palm oil and stirring in some water. True Burgundy pitch and its imitations spread upon leather are used for stimulant and adhesive plasters, applied in swellings of joints, chest affections, and rheumatism. Actions and Uses. — The turpentines are topical irritants. When swallowed they are speedily absorbed, act as general stimulants, and are discharged by the kidneys, bronchial membrane, and skin, stimulating these channels of excretion. Their uses resemble those of their more active constituent, oil of turpentine. In percentage of oil, and hence in activity, they stand as foUows : Canada balsam, Venice turpentine, common turpentine, and frankincense. They are occasionally used as stimulants in indigestion, colic, and general debility; as laxatives, especially when in combination ; and as anthelmintics, diuretics, and expectorants. Externally applied, they are stimulants, astringents, and- ' antiseptics, and are used for making up diuretic and stimulant balls. In the south of France the resinous vapours of the Conifera3 have been employed for the relief of bron- chitis, phthisis, and rheumatism in human patients. The growing pine forests, and the oleo-resins extracted from them in presence of oxygen, evolve antiseptic camphoraceous oils and peroxide of hydrogen, which purify the air and destroy disease germs. Doses, etc. — Horses and cattle take §j. to giij. ; sheep, 5j. to 5iij.; pigs, 5j. to 5ij. ; dogs, grs. xx. to grs. Ix. The maximum doses are stimulant and antispasmodic; the minimum, frequently repeated, are diuretic and expectorant They are administered with milk, oils, linseed gruel, mucilage eggs, or about aV^^ P^^t of magnesia. For external purposes they are made into liniments and ointments. 2p 594 TEREBINTfllN^ OLEUM II. Oil of Turpentine. Oleum TerebiuLliinsB. The oil distilled from the oleo-resin, obtained from Pinus sylvestris, and other species of pinus. The crude turpentines when heated, as they usually are, by steam, yield 15 to 25 per cent, of oil of turpentine, sometimes improperly called spirit of turpentine. It is a mixture of several hydrocarbons having the composition Cio^ie- It is limpid, with a strong, peculiar odour and a pungent, bitter taste. It commences to boil at about 320° Fahr. According to its source, it varies in its odour, specific gravity, boiling point, and effect on polarised light. It is very inflammable, burning with a heavy yellow flame and producing much smoke. It is insoluble in water, soluble in 6^ of alcohol, and readily dissolved in ether, chloroform, glacial acetic acid, fixed and volatile oils. It is a valuable solvent for wax, resins, fats, many alkaloids, iodine, and phosphorus. It is the representative of a large group of terpenes, including the volatile oils of chamomile, caraway, juniper, lemons, pepper, savin, thyme, tolu, and valerian — all of which have the formula C^,^Hjg. In common Avith other terpenes, it is convertible into isomerides, oxidises on exposure to air, forming camphoric peroxide ; with water produces crystalline hydrates; and with hydrochloric acid forms crystalline compounds. By this action of hydrochloric acid on turpentine artificial camphor is produced. Terebene (CioHig2H20), a mixture of dipentene and other hydrocarbons, obtained by agitating oil of turpentine with successive quantities of sulphuric acid, and then distilling in a current of steam; is less disagreeable and acrid to the taste, and optically inactive. It has the same medicinal properties. Actions and Uses. — Oil of turpentine has the group actions of a volatile oil. It is an antiseptic topical irritant and disinfectant, and is used as a rubefacient and vesicant. Larsre doses are irritant and narcotic. Medicinal doses are antiseptic, stimulant, especially of mucous and skin surfaces, antispasmodic, hemostatic, anthelmintic, and antiparasitic. It is also prescribed as an adjuvant cathartic, diaphoretic, and diuretic. ANTISEPTIC AND GENERAL STIMULANT 595 General Actions. — Like other volatile oils, it is an active antiseptic. In destroying bacteria spores, Koch found it more effective than alcohol, ether, chloroform, or benzol. It poisons lice, acari, entozoa, and other parasites, whether lodged in the skin, bronchial tubes, or bowels. Applied to the skin it irritates, and, if evaporation be prevented, vesicates, and even ulcerates. When swallowed it is rapidly absorbed, diffused, and excreted, and may be speedily detected in the sweat, breath, and milk, and in the urine, to which it imparts the odour of violets. Small doses stimulate, large doses weaken heart action ; and according to Binz the white corpuscles of the blood are increased in number. Full doses first stimulate and then paralyse vaso-motor centres. According to dosage and stage of action, it thus produces a rise or fall of blood- pressure, quickening or slowing of the pulse, rise or fall of temperature; but respiration throughout is generally quickened. It is eliminated by the lungs, acting as a stimulating antiseptic expectorant ; by the skin, promoting diaphoresis; by the kidneys, inducing diuresis; while full doses, especially in combination with laxatives, are cathartic. Toxic Effects. — Large doses when inhaled irritate the respiratory mucous membrane, and reflexly cause difficult breathing. Large doses when swallowed cause irritation, and occasionally ulceration of the bowels. A large dose quickly swallowed, as in the case of alcohol, produces brief primary stimulation and prolonged subsequent paralysis of the central nervous system. Rabbits and kittens were paralysed by in- jection of turpentine emulsion into the stomach. The motor centres are implicated in the sam.e order as in poisoning with members of the alcohol series, those of the brain being first affected, those of the cord later, and those of the medulla last. A dog receiving two drachms, intravenously, staggered, was convulsed, circulation and respiration failed, and death occurred in three minutes (Christison On Poisons). During excretion large doses cause congestion of the urino- genital organs, diminish or arrest secretion of urine, and induce strangury and sometimes hsematuria. Medicinal Uses. — In indigestion, flatulence, and atonic 596 TEREBINTHIN^ OLEUM diarrhfoa, it checks undue fermentation and acts as a car- minative and gastro-intestinal stimulant and astringent. Although an uncertain cathartic Avhen given alone, like many other volatile oils it promotes the action of cathartics, with which it is usefully conjoined in flatulent colic, and in such cases it is also used in enemata. Alike in flatulent and spasmodic colic in horses, it is frequently given combined either with linseed oil or with mucilage and aloes, and in spasmodic cases is conjoined with opium. As a cardiac and general stimulant it is not so effective as alcohol or ether. But stimulating vaso-motor centres and contracting arterioles, it checks excessive or faulty mucous discharges. Thus, in chronic bronchitis and nasal gleet, terebene gargles and turpentine emulsions and inhala- tions prove useful, especially when seconded by turpentine liniments applied externally. The astringent haemostatic effects are also serviceable in purpura, and in passive hiemorrhage from the lungs, stomach, or bowels, as Avell as froui the kidneys, although in renal cases the drug must be used cautiously and in small doses. In purpura in horses, ounce doses are prescribed, with the same quantity of ferric chloride tincture, in milk, twice or thrice daily. This prescription, Avith two drachms potassium chlorate, is useful in many cases of hasmoglobinuria. Chronic rheu- matism in all classes of patients is frequently relieved by conjoining turpentine with salines, and in such cases it is also usefully applied externally. Turpentine, well kept and fully oxidised, as the French variety generally is, contains formic, acetic, and carbonic acids, and is an antidote in poisoning with phosphorus. Phosphorus in repeated doses produces in animals fatty degeneration; but neither this nor other forms of phos- phorus poisoning occurred when the drug was given with French turpentine (Kiihler). Personne gave phosphorus to five dogs, and all died. To five others, an hour or two after similar lethal doses, he gave turpentine, and only one died. Of five dogs to which he gave turpentine iuniicdiately after deadly doses of phosphorus, only one died (Dr. Ringer's Handbook of Therapeutics). ANTHELMINTIC AND PAEASITICIDE 597 In cattle practice full closes are valuable in lioven. Chronic diarrhoea and dysentery, especially when accom- panied by flatulence, are usually benefited by small doses conjoined with lime-water, aromatics, or opium. When contagious pleuro-pneumonia was subjected to curative treatment, two ounces were sometimes prescribed several times daily. In parturient apoplexy it is given with ammonium carbonate ; in peritonitis with laudanum, and in such cases it is also applied as an external stimulant. Mr. A. G. Macgillivray, Banff, in post-partum haemorrhage in cows, gives three to Ave ounces, with eggs and ginger (Veterinary Journal, 1888). Frequently repeated doses, conjoined with iron salts, check that form of hematuria in cattle popularly known as red-water. For the destruction of intestinal worms oil of turpentine is generally conjoined with a laxative, and given after the bowels have been emptied by a cathartic, and the patient has been fasted. Although it removes round Avorms, it is not in horses a certain remedy for tape-worms, but its efficacy is increased by combination with male fern. A tolerably good tseniacide for the horse consists of two ounces of turpentine and one ounce of male fern extract, dissolved in a pint of linseed oil. For tape- worms in dogs, areca nut, male fern, and cusso are more effectual than turpentine. For destroying strongyles infesting the air-passages of calves and lambs, turpentine has been widely used. In some sheep-breeding districts of England, thriftless, cough- ing lambs, throughout the summer months, at intervals of a week or ten days are given turpentine drenches, with the view of killing both thread and tape worms : and such treatment certainly greatly diminishes the scouring and mortality to which lambs in some localities are liable. Six-month calves take half an ounce, lambs of the like age a drachm, of oil of turpentine, conveniently mixed with milk, and administered by the mouth. Two or three doses, at intervals of two or three days, usually effect a cure. Turpentine inhalations, although fairly effectual, are troublesome to manage. For calves intratracheal injection of turpentine has been introduced by Mr. J. Hutton, of 598 OIL OF TURPENTINE Kelso, who makes a small incision in the skin, half-way down the neck, and between two rings of the trachea, and with a suitable syringe injects f5i- to f^ij- oil of turpentine, with f5ss, each of carbolic acid, chloroform, and glycerin, which ensures solution of the carbolic acid. No serious irritation results. A few paroxysms of coughing occasion- ally occur. Brought into actual contact with the parasites, the vermicide promptly destroys them {Vetermarian, 1885). Gapes in poultry, caused by the Syngamus trachealis, is successfully treated by a similar mixture, used diluted with four or five parts of milk or bland oil, two or three drops being placed in the mouth of the ailing fowl. A similar dressing is sometimes applied around the throat, but, al- though in part absorbed, is not so effectual as when swallowed. Externally, oil of turpentine is used as an antiseptic, stimulant, and counter-irritant. Rubbed undiluted into the skin of horses, it quickly causes topical irritation, restless- ness, and much excitement, continuing for twenty or thirty minutes, and, if used largely and repeatedly, it vesicates, and may blemish. Cattle are not so sensitive to its irritant effect, and for them it is sometimes employed to increase the activity of other vesicants. A piece of flannel wrung out of hot water, and sprinkled with turpentine oil, is frequently applied as a counter-irritant. A continuous moderate action is more serviceable than a single violent effect. For inveterate eczema and psoriasis, after removal of the scales with soft soap and water or alkaline dressings, turpentine, diluted with one or two parts of oil or glycerin and water, sometimes beneficially stimulates the hyper- trophied, weakened skin, and promotes cure. It is used as a stimulant for rheumatic swellings, more particularly of cattle and sheep ; for sprains and bruises after the first pain and tenderness have been subdued by fomentation ; for controlling congestion arising from frost- bite, which is not uncommon in the limbs of horses used for night work ; for promoting absorption of small cysts ; for healing the troublesome chronic sores occurring about the heels of draught-horses ; for arresting necrosis of dogs' ears ; DOSES AND ADMINISTRATION 599 and for relieving tedious foot-rot in sheep. For such cases it is usually mixed with two or three parts of vaseline, oil, or glycerin. A similar mixture destroys lice and other skin vermin, as well as the fungus of ringworm. An occasional sprinkling over dogs' beds keeps them free of fleas. It is often added to stavesacre, tobacco, and other antiparasitic dressings. It enters into the composition of various mix- tures used by shepherds to protect their flocks from flies, and to kill maggots. For such purposes three ounces oil of turpentine, one ounce each of sweet oil, common salt, and mucilage, and half a drachm corrosive sublimate, are mixed in a quart of water. Doses, etc. — For horses and cattle, as a stimulant and anti-spasmodic, the dose is fgj. to f§ij. ; as a diuretic, fgss. to f§j. As an adjuvant cathartic or anthelmintic the dose is about f§ij., combined with aloes in solution, with castor or linseed oil, with iron salts, quassia, gentian, or other bitters. Full-grown cattle take double these doses. Sheep and pigs receive f5j. to f5iv- ; dogs, TI[xx. to f5j. It is administered dissolved in bland oils, shaken up with linseed gruel or milk, or made into an emulsion with mucilage or eggs. Aromatics, bitters, or ethers are sometimes added. Intratracheally, 5j- to 5ij-, mixed with an equal measure of olive oil, may be administered to horses affected with catarrh. For inhalation half a bucket of boiling water is placed under the patient's nostrils, and an ounce of turpentine placed in it ; or it may be introduced into the steam-kettle, which is almost as serviceable in the treatment of bronchitis in animals as in man. For enemata, turpentine is usually diluted with fifty or sixty parts of oil; or it is mixed with two or three parts of oil or mucilage to ensure solution, and then added to the soap and water. In diarrhcea or dj'sentery it is conjoined with laudanum and starch gruel. For external purposes it is usually applied with linseed oil, soft soap, or ammonia liniment. Convenient stimulant dressings are made with equal quantities of oil of turpentine, bland oil, and soft soap, or two to three ounces of oil of turpentine are added to a pint of soap liniment. As a stimulant for rheumatism, equal parts of oil of turpentine 600 OIL OF PINE — TEREBENE — TERPENE-HYDRATE and laudanum are mixed with two or three parts of linseed oil or soft soap. For dogs, an active embrocation is prepared with an ounce each of oil of turpentine and medicinal ammonia, and six to ten ounces of olive oil. Oil of Scotch Fir (oleum pini sylvestris) is prepared by distilling the fresh leaves of the Scotch fir or Pinus syl- vestris. It has most of the properties, and is applied to many of the uses of oil of turpentine. Terebene being less acrid than oil of turpentine, and less liable to act on the kidneys, is sometimes substituted for it, especially as an internal stimulant and antiseptic in excessive mucous discharges, and for relieving flatulence. Externally, it is applied as a stimulant, antiseptic, and deodoriser. Oil of Pine, oleum pini (pinol or pumuline), the oil dis- tilled from the fresh leaves of Pinus Pumilio, is used as an inhalation in bronchial catarrh and in laryngitis. Terpene Hydrate (C^^Hgg'iHO), prepared by passing a current of air through a mixture of four parts oil of tur- pentine, one part nitric acid, and three parts rectified spirit. It is crystalline, has an agreeable balsamic odour and taste ; is soluble in 220 parts of cold water, twenty-two parts of warm water, and very soluble in alcohol, ether, turpentine, and oils. Its general actions resemble those of oil of turpentine. One to two drachms may be swallowed by small dogs with- out causing gastric derangement; two to three drachms, quickly produce intoxication with restlessness, uncertain gait, impaired vision, and dreaming, followed in a few hours by sound sleep. It has been prescribed in bronchitis, especially in dogs, to stimulate secretion in the earlier stages, and in the later chronic stages to liquefy and diminish excessive discharges. The doses for horses or cattle are grs. xxx. to 5ij- ; for dogs, grs. x. to grs. Ix., re- peated two or three times daily, and given with alcohol, glycerin, or syrup, in drench or in the patient's food. Terpinol, prepared by boiling terpene in water acidulated with sulphuric acid, is a mobile liquid, with a strong aromatic odour: insoluble in water, but soluble in alcohol and ether. Its actions are similar to those of terpene. RESIN 601 III. Resin, Rosin, Resin a. The crude turpentines contain 75 to 90 per cent, of resin or colophony, developed by a process of oxidation. Crude turpentine, when distilled with a little water, which the resin retains, leaves a residue of yellow or white resin. When the water is removed, the resin becomes transparent, and when more strongly heated is still clearer, and is known as black or fiddler's resin. These turpentine resins are types of a considerable group of resins, derived chiefly from the vege- table kingdom, distinguished by their appearance, fusibility, inflammability, acidity to test-paper ; burning with a smoky flame ; insoluble in water, and soluble in alcohol, volatile oils, and alkalies. They unite with fats, wax, and spermaceti, and are largely used in the manufacture of yellow soap. Resin has the formula C^JUqoO^. Coarsely powdered, and shaken with warm dilute alcohol, it undergoes hydration, and yields 80 to 90 per cent, of abietic or sylvic acid (C^^Hg^Of;). Bor- deaux resin or gallipot contains, besides the isomeric, pimaric acid. Actions and Uses. — Resin is a gentle stimulant, astringent, and diuretic. Two to four ounces, swallowed by horses or cattle, cause diuresis. It is added to diuretic masses to increase their consistence. Externally, it is used as a stimu- lant, astringent, and styptic. In castration, a pinch applied to the severed cord, and melted by the hot iron, helps to seal bleeding vessels. It is largely used to impart firmness and adhesiveness to stimulant plasters. Resin ointment is made with eight parts each of resm, yellow wax, and olive oil, and six of lard, melted with gentle heat, strained while hot through flannel, and stirred constantly while it cools. This simple ointment is much used as a lubricant, and mild stimulant for wounds, ulcers, blistered surfaces, and for giving bulk and consistence to other ointments. IV. Tar, Oil of Tar, and Pitch. Tar, or Fix liquida, is a thick, viscid, brown-black, aromatic liquid, obtained from the wood of Pinus sylvestris and other pines by destructive distillation. Mineral or Barbados tar 602 TAR, OIL OF TAR, AND PITCH has already been noticed. Coal tar, obtained from the destructive distillation of coal, is a by-product in the manu- facture of gas. Two descrijJtions of wood tar are in use — one got from hard exogens, such as oak, birch, and ash, as a residual product in the making of charcoal for gunpowder ; and the other an empyreumatic variety imported from Stockholm, Archangel, and America, is got by roasting billets of the roots, branches, and refuse coniferous timber stacked in shallow pits dug on a bank or inclined plane. This old process is now superseded by distillation of the refuse wood in cast-iron stills, whereby nearly double the yield of tar is obtained ; 14 per cent, is got from air-dried stems, 16 to 20 per cent, from roots. When wood is thus distilled the con- densed products separate into two layers, the upper a mixture of methyl-alcohol, pyroligneous acid, acetone, etc., in water ; the lower wood tar. Tar is soluble in alcohol, ether, oils, and alkaline solutions, but not in water, which, agitated with it, acquires, however, its odour, taste, and brown colour, and constitutes tar water, once regarded as a valuable medicine. Tar consists of pyro- ligneous acid, methyl-alcohol, creosote, and various phenols, with toluene, xylene, and other hydrocarbons. Tar when distilled yields oil of tar (oleum picis liquidoe), an empyreumatic acid liquid, which, although colourless when first distilled, speedily becomes yellow or brown, and is soluble in alcohol. It contains the more volatile hydro- carbons of the tar. There remains in the retorts pitch, or pix nigra, a black, bituminous substance, solid and brittle, with a shining fracture, dissolved by the same solvents as tar, and consisting of modified resin, and a colourless, in- odorous,^ crystalline substance, melting at 194° Fahr., called retinc (CjgHjg) (Fliickiger), Actions and Uses. — Tar is antiseptic, stimulant, diuretic, diaphoretic, expectorant, and parasiticide. Its active prin- ciples being diffusible phenols, it acts not only when applied externally, but produces most of its effects when given inter- nally. The urine of horses receiving tar water keeps un- changed for several days. It is still occasionally prescribed for horses with chronic cough and bronchitis, where the TAR AN ANTISEPTIC STIMULANT 603 discharges are copious. It is used both internally and exter- nally as a cutaneous stimulant and antiseptic in the squam- ous stages of grease and other forms of eczema, in psoriasis, and in pityriasis, the scaly surfaces being coated daily with undiluted tar, the dressing after several days washed off with soft soap and water, and any refractory spots dressed Avith mercurial ointment. In chronic eczema one part of tar is usefully added to four of zinc oxide ointment. Tar water is a popular but serviceable lotion for indolent ulcera- tions and haemorrhoids. For thrush and canker of the horse's foot tar is used either alone or with copper sulphate, sulphuric or nitric acid, and other agents. Mixed with equal parts of fatty matters or soft soap, to impart proper consistence, it forms an excellent stopping for horses' feet, keeping the hoof moist and soft. As a hoof dressing, Mr. Miles, in his useful pamphlet on the Foot of the Horse, recommends a quarter of a pound each of tar, bees- wax, and honey, a pound and a half of lard, and three ounces of glycerin ; the lard and bees-wax are melted together, the lard, tar, and glycerin stirred in, and stirring continued until the mass begins to set. For foot-rot in sheep, tar has the several advantages of stimulating healthy growth of horn, deodorising, and preventing attacks of flies. It is used in securing wounds, binding broken horns, and making adhesive plasters. Oil of tar is sometimes used instead of oil of turpentine. Its empyreumatic constituents confer antiseptic properties ; it cures mange and scab, destroys other parasites, is some- times added to sheep dips, but has the disadvantage of discolouring the wool, does not mix well with the other ingredients, while large doses or strong solutions are apt to poison. It is applied in both varieties of ringworm, but is seldom so successful as iodine. Pitch is used as a mild stimulant in thrush, canker, and sand-crack in horses ; in foot-rot in sheep ; and to give adhesiveness to plasters and charges. 604 ARECA — ARECOLINE ARBCA Arec^ Semina. The seed of Areca Catechu. Betel-Nut. Nat. Ord. — Palmacse. (Not official.) The catechu or betel- nut palm is a straight, slender tree, forty or lifty feet high, growing on the Cororaandcl and Malabar coasts, and throughout the warmer parts of Asia. Within a fibrous fruit lies the hard, ovoid, red-brown seed, of the size and appearance of a nutmeg. When ground, the powder is brown, astringent, and partially soluble in hot Avater and spirit. It contains besides tannin, the alkaloids, arecoline, arecaine, arecaidine, and guvacine. Arecoline (Cgll^gNOg), the chief alkaloid, is strongly alkaline, liquid, colourless, and volatile, soluble in water, alcohol, ether, and chloroform. With acids it forms salts, of which the most important is the hydrobromide. Actions and Uses. — Arecoline is a powerful sialogogue, dia- phoretic, intestinal stimulant and vermifuge. In physio- logical actions it is allied to eserine, pilocarpine, and pelletierine. Like eserine it contracts the pupil and stimulates peristalsis. Exerting more energy than pilo- carpine it stimulates the secretory nerves of glands, and under its influence the salivar}', skin, and intestinal secre- tions are much increased. It stimulates unstriped muscle and promotes the discharge of urine. Large doses act on striated muscle, causing twitching and spasm, followed by partial paralysis. Medicinal doses diminish the force and number of the pulsations, and excessive doses paralyse the heart. In horses respiration is increased by small doses, while large and repeated doses lessen the activity of the respiratory nervous centre inducing dyspnoea and suftbca- tion. "Arecoline has been used with excellent results in the treatment of acute laminitis and colic in horses and of constipation in cattle. Its value as a remedy for laminitis — first ascertained by Frohner — has been well attested by Schumacher, Paimans, Gobbels, and others. Frohner con- siders that it produces a true deviation of the blood and promotes resorption of the inflammatory redema, and Schumacher asserts that it shortens the duration of the ARTEMISIA 605 disease. In colic and foecal impaction it is almost as power- ful as eserine, and stronger and more rapid than pilocarpine though not so lasting in its effects {Veterinarian, 1896-98). Areca nut is an astringent resembling catechu, and, when freshly powdered, an effective vermicide, especially for dogs, proving destructive alike to tape- and round-worms. Its effects on horses and cattle are less satisfactory. Mr. Hanley {Veterinarian, 1862) records the case of a greyhound bitch, which passed in fifteen minutes, after a dose of the nut, a tapeworm 13 yards and 2 feet long. Such rapid expulsion of tapeworms is not, however, always attainable, and it is usually desirable to conjoin with the areca flix. to Tlixv. of male fern extract. This combination Professor Williams states is the most effectual remedy for tapeworm in dogs. If the parasites are not removed a second dose of the mixture should be given two or three days later. Tsenaline, a registered liquid preparation containing the tseniafuge prin- ciples of freshly ground areca nut, is a convenient and efficient vermicide. Doses, etc.— Areca nut. Dogs, grs. x. to 5ij.; horses, 5iv. to 5vi. The dose of the powder for the dog is about 2 grains for every pound of the animal's weight (Mayhew). It is administered in linseed oil, soup, mucilage, or milk. Arecoline hydrobromide. Horses, gr. f to grs. 1| ; dissolved in T\[QO to 71[90 of distilled water, and injected subcutaneously or into the jugular vein. In laminitis the dose is repeated daily for four or five days. In coHc a single injection may suffice. To contract the pupil a 1 per cent, solution of the hydrobromide may be employed. ARTEMISIA Artemisia Absinthium. Wormwood. (Not official.) Artemisia Maritima. Santonica. Nat. OrcZ.— Compositse. Santonin. A crystalline principle prepared from Santonica. (B.P.) The Artemisia are low shrubby plants, characterised by their aroma and bitterness. They belong to the natural order Compositse, which comprises the familiar southern- 606 SANTONIN wood and tansy, the mildly anodyne lettuce, and the harm- less dandelion. The dried Artemisia absinthium contains a volatile cam- phoraceous oil, absinthol, and a bitter extract, yielding the neutral crystalline absinthin, which is a narcotic poison and spinal stimulant, causing in dogs and rabbits trembling, stupor, and epileptiform convulsions, which may prove fatal. In medicinal doses, it is an aromatic bitter tonic, and a popular remedy for worms. It is the chief active constituent of the liqueur absinthe. Santonin. The unexpanded minute flower-heads of Artemisia maritima contain a volatile oil, a resin, and about two per cent, of a crystalline neutral principle, san- tonin (CjjHjyOg). It is almost insoluble in cold water, soluble in four parts chloroform, in boiling alcohol, fixed oils, and alkaline solutions, and hence in the intestinal juices. It is rendered yellow by sunlight, and gives a violet colour when added to a warm alcoholic solution of potassium. It imparts a blood-red colour to the urine. Large doses cause in dogs giddiness, vomiting, and convulsions. It is a vermi- cide, without effect on taeniae, but destructive to round and thread worms — given for the former by the mouth, for the latter by enemata, and most active when combined with castor oil. It is less effective in horses than in pigs and dogs, for which the dose is 3 to 10 grains, conjoined with aloes or jalap. Half an ounce mixed with the food serves as a vermicide for fifteen young pigs. As in human practice, it is effectual in checking incontinence of urine in young patients, for this purpose being equal to belladonna and superior to nux- vomica. The B.P. santonin lozenge containing 1 grain of the drug, forms a very convenient worm medicine for some canine patients. Santoninoxim is derived from santonin, for which it is sometimes substituted, as larger doses may be given without nuich risk of poisoning. It is said to kill the worms outright. STAVESACRE — CUSSO 607 STAVESACRE SEEDS Staphisagrle Semina. The dried ripe seeds of Delphinium Staphisagria (B.P.). JVaf. Orel. — Ranimculacefe. Stavesacre, or larkspur, is a stout biennial herb, two to four feet high, growing throughout the south of Europe. Its officinal oily seeds are brown, wrinkled, irregularly triangular, about a quarter of an inch long and scarcely so broad, and have a bitter, acrid, and nauseous taste. They contain about one per cent, of several alkaloids, soluble in ether and acetic acid, the most important being delphinine, which resembles aconitine and veratrine, slows the pulse and respiration, and paralyses the spinal cord ; and staphis- agrine, resembling curare, paralysing the motor nerves and arresting respiration. Actions and Uses. — The seeds are used for the destruction of lice, and hence have been popularly termed louse seeds. Their action is also exerted on the acari of mange and scab. For such purposes one part of bruised seeds is boiled for two hours with twenty to thirty parts of water, making up the water to the quantity originally used. Such a solution rubbed into the skin not only kills pediculi, but also destroys their eggs. Ointments and liniments are made with one part of powdered seeds heated with six or eight of vaseline or oil. Strong preparations too freely applied, absorbed from denuded surfaces or licked, as they are apt to be by dogs, are liable to nauseate and prostrate. Occasionally they are conjoined with sulphur and tar. CUSSO K0U.SS0. Brayera. The dried pannicles of pistillate flowers of Brayera anthelmintica (B.P.). Nat. Orel. — Rosaceae. Kousso consists of bundles, rolls, or clusters of pannicles of small reddish-brown flowers. Its active principle is koussin — a neutral crystalline glucoside, with a bitter taste, insoluble in water, but soluble in alcohol and alkaline solutions. It also contains resin, gum, tannic acid, and a volatile oil. 608 MALE FERN Actions and Uses. — It narcotises and kills intestinal worms, and in fasting dogs, two consecutive doses, given with an interval of two hours, and followed by a purgative, bring away tape-worms. Although it scarcely causes catharsis, full doses nauseate dogs and cats, and sometimes excite colic. Doses — sheep, 3j"^'- to §j. ; lambs, grs. Ixxx. to grs. cl. ; dogs, according to their size, take grs. xl. to to 3iy-> usually given in infusion, most effectually used unstrained, sweetened with honey or treacle, and the taste veiled by a little peppermint water. Koussin is occasionally given to dogs in doses of grs. V. to grs. xx. MALE PERN FiLix Mas. The rhizome of Aspidium Filix-mas. Collected late in the autumn, divested of its roots, leaves, and dead portions, and carefully dried. Should not be kept more than a year (B.F.). Nat. Orel. — Filicinse. The male fern grows wild throughout most temperate regions, on the sides of roads and in open woods, especially where the soil is light. Its root stock is perennial, about a foot long and two inches thick ; is scaly, tufted, greenish- brown, and firmly fixed in the ground by numerous black root fibres. The dried root has a disagreeable odour, and a sweet, astringent, nauseous taste. Besides the usual plant constituents, it contains about 4 per cent, of resin, 6 of a green fixed oil, a small amount of volatile oil, Avith 8 per cent, of the crystalline filicic acid (C^^Hj^O^), which is its most active constituent. The root is preserved in stoppered bottles, and the supply renewed annually. Deterioration from keeping, and the substitution of the roots of inactive ferns, in great part explain the depreciatory accounts sometimes given of its efficacy. The green parts are most active, and should alone be used. Actions and Uses. — Male fern is irritant, vermicide, laxative, and in large doses causes hiemorrhagic gastro- enteritis. It is one of the most effectual remedies for tape- worm, especially in dogs, and Kuchenmeister considers it quite as poisonous to the genus Bothriocephalus. Dr. John EUPHORBIUM 609 Harley believes that, like ergot, it stimulates the involuntary muscular fibres of any hollow viscus in which it is placed, and thus explains the vomiting and intestinal peristalsis which full doses produce when swallowed, and the contrac- tions induced when it is injected into the urinary bladder. Professor Frohner made various experiments with the ethereal extract. He poisoned a small dog with TTI^ xxx., a dog of 40 lbs. with f5v., a sheep of 88 lbs. with f5vi., a cow of 660 lbs. with about fgiij. Doses, etc. — The powdered male fern rhizome is given to horses and cattle in doses of §iv. to §vi. ; sheep, §j. to §iv. ; dogs and cats, §i. to §ii. But the powder is inconveniently bulky, and less certain than the B.P. ethereal or liquid extract. The dose of the extract for horses or cattle is f5ij. to f5vi. ; for sheep and pigs, f5i. to f5ij. ; for dogs or cats, fH^x. to f5j. It is given sometimes with half a dose of turpentine in a little oil, milk, or gruel, flavoured with ginger or pepper- mint, when the bowels have been emptied by a laxative and several hours' fasting. Professor Williams states that the extract, with half a dose of areca-nut, constitutes the most effectual remedy for tape-worm in dogs. If the parasite is not expelled, the medicine may be repeated in three days. Kaufmann recommends doses to be given in the morning, at noon, and at night. The worms narcotised, relinquish their hold, and are swept out by a laxative, administered a few hours after the last dose of extract. EUPHORBIUM An acrid resin obtained from Euphorbia resinifera (Berg.). Nat. Orel. — Euphorbiaceae. (Not official.) The Euphorbiacese include the shrubs yielding croton and castor oil, the Brazilian tree producing danda or assu juice, and cascarilla bark. The cactus-like plants yielding medi- cinal euphorbium grow in the kingdom of Morocco and in the region skirting the Atlas range. From incisions made into their angular, jointed, prickly stems and branches, an acrid, milky, resinous juice exudes, and concretes in irregular, 2q 610 HELLEBORE dull-yellow tears, which are gathered in September, are about the size of large peas, often hollow, and perforated with little holes. Euphorbiiini has an acrid, persistent taste, is without odour, but is so irritant that a mere trace of the powder in contact with the nostrils provokes immediate violent sneezing. The powder is grey, and insoluble m water ; but its active resinous principle dissolves in alcohol, ether, and oil of turpentine. When heated it melts, swells up, and burns with a pale flame and an agreeable odour. It contains 38 per cent, of an amorphous, acrid resin (CgoHgoO^), 22 of the colourless, tasteless euphorbon, allied to lactucerin, a constituent of lettuce (Fliickiger and Hanbury). Actions and Uses. — Euphorbium is an energetic irritant, vesicant, and pustulant. Introduced into the stomach or areolar tissues, rubbed into the skin, or inhaled into the nostrils, it causes violent and sometimes fatal inflammation. Two ounces given internally caused fatal gastro-enteritis in a horse ; four drachms retained in the stomach of a large dog had the like effect in twenty-six hours (Orfila). So intensely irritating is euphorbium, that the Avorkmen employed in grinding it, although wearing masks or handkerchiefs over their faces, often suffer severely from headache, inflamma- tion of the eyes, and sometimes even delirium. It is occasionally added to blisters, but the ordinary ointment made with fatty matters is apt, especially in horses and dogs, to inflame the deeper layers of the skin, destroy the hair roots, and induce sloughing and blemishing. Kaufmann states that a tincture containing one part to sixteen of spirit may, however, be used as an energetic vesicant for horses without injuring the hair roots. Unlike cantharides, it has no tendency to act on the kidneys. HELLEBORE Black Hellebore. Dried rhizome and rootlets of Hclleborus niger. Nat Ord. — Ranunculacese. (Not oflicial.) The Helleborus niger, Christmas rose, or bear's foot, is cultivated in this country, and is indigenous to many parts of Continental Europe; the chief supplies come from (Jermany. KAMALA 611 It has a perennial, black, knotted, scaly rhizome, one to three inches long and scarcely half an inch thick, from which descend numerous dark-coloured rootlets, having: a faint, unpleasant odour, and an acrid, bitter taste. The plant generally is acrid, but the rhizome and rootlets are most active. The rhizomes of Helleborus viridis and foetidus, often mixed with those of the niger, are very similar in action. Hellebore contains a bitter, neutral, non-volatile, irritant glucoside, helleborin (C3gH^.30g); a slightly acid, irritant glucoside, helleborein (C^gH^^O^j) ; other crystalline principles, and an organic acid, probably equisetic (Fllickiger). Actions and Uses. — Black hellebore is an acrid irritant, but scarcely so active as veratrum album, or white hellebore. It is emetic, drastic purgative, anthelmintic, and parasiticide. Full doses produce in all animals gastro-enteritis, with cardiac depression. Two drachms swallowed by a medium-sized dog killed him in a few hours, and smaller quantities have proved fatal in a shorter time when applied to wounds (Christison). Two or three drachms produce in horses colic and enteritis ; two or three ounces cause death in forty to fifty hours ; one to three drachms induce similar effects among sheep and goats (Hertwig). It is not prescribed in regular practice. Even as a constituent of blistering ointments, it must be used with caution, as it is Hable to act with unexpected violence. An ounce of powdered hellebore and two ounces of alum, dissolved in a gallon of hot water, are used to destroy caterpillars infesting gooseberry, rose, or other trees. KAMALA A powder consisting of the minute glands and hairs obtained from the surface of the fruits of Mallotus philippinensis. Nat. Ord. — Euphorbiacese. (Not official.) The granular, brick-red, resinous powder, which constitutes kamala, is obtained from the capsules of an evergreen small tree indigenous to Australia, India, and Abyssinia. It yields an active yellow crystalline substance — rottlerin. Actions and Uses. — It is a drastic purgative and vermi- cide. For the destruction of tape- worm it is nearly as active 812 ERGOT OF RYE as areca-nut and male shield fern. The dose for a dog is 5ss. to 3i., administered in thick gruel, treacle, or linseed oil. ERGOT OF RYE Ergota. Spurred or Horned Rye. Ergot. The sclerotium of Claviceps purpurea, originating in the ovary of Secale cereale (B.P.). Nat. Ord. — Graminacese. Ergot attacks not only rye, but the other Graminaceai, the Cyperacea3, and palms. The earliest symptoms occur about the time of blooming, when the ears of the rye exhibit drops of yellow, sweet, fungous slime, called honey-dew, which attracts ants and beetles, and which after a few days dries up. The soft ovaries of the grains attacked are meanwhile covered and filled by white, spongy, felted-together cells — the mycelium (or spawn) of the Claviceps purpurea. The grain is disintegrated ; at its base the mycelium cells separate, swell, solidify, and form a compact, dark violet body, which, as it grows in a curved, horn-like shape, protrudes from the pales, and constitutes the ergot. The further history of this biennial fungus, investigated by Tulasne, shows that it reaches its fully-developed sclerotium or ergot state in July ; it should be gathered in August or September, before any putrefaction appears ; it usually remains in a quiescent state during winter ; on moist mould, in March or April, it pro- duces fruit heads of the perfect fungus, the Claviceps purpurea, which, after a few weeks, is again ready to distri- bute its earlier spores. Close, damp weather and undrained soils favour development and distribution of these ergot spores as of other fungi. The injury done to the rye crop by ergot varies much ; sometimes only a few grains in each head are diseased, sometimes scarcely one is altogether sound; five to ten on an average are affected. It abounds both in grain and grasses in various parts of the United States of America, where it is stated that as much as 1 lb. has been got from 100 lbs. of hay. It should be collected before the plants are cut. Properties. — Ergot of rye is cylindrical, or somewhat triangular, curved, resembling a cock's spur tapering towards STIMULATES AND CONTRACTS MUSCULAR FIBRE 613 the ends; it varies in length from one- third of an inch to an inch and a half, and in breadth from one to four lines ; is marked by a longitudinal furrow on each side, often irregularly cracked; has at one end a pale-grey, fragile excrescence, the shrivelled remains of the style, and is covered by the grey, powdery conidia or spores. It is dark violet- black externally and pinkish- white within. Its odour is peculiar and disagreeable ; its taste, at first sweet, becomes bitter and shghtly acrid. When dry it is inflammable, hard, and brittle ; when moist, or long exposed, it becomes soft, darker in colour, and covered with acari. Its structure is made up of felted thread-like cells, amidst which lie drops of oil. Ergot should be free from mustiness ; it deteriorates by keeping, and by exposure to damp (B.P.). Infused in boiling water, it forms a claret-coloured solution, retaining the odour, taste, and actions of ergot. Ergot consists of about 30 per cent, of a non-drying fixed oil, which has no special action; a peculiar sugar termed mycose ; lactic, acetic, and formic acids ; colouring matters ; and, according to Kobert, of Strasburg, three active principles —an alkaloid, cornutine, and sphacelinic and ergotinic acids. Another base, ergotinin, has been described: but is inert. Amine and ammonia bases are formed normally, and are also produced by decomposition. Actions and Uses. — Ergot, cornutine, and sphacelinic acid stimulate and contract involuntary muscular fibre, and hence diminish the blood-stream passing through the arterioles. Large or continued doses thus produce ergotism. Medicinal doses are given to contract the uterus, and also the blood-vessels in cases of haemorrhage. General Actions.— The physiological effects of the three active principles of ergot are thus described by Dr. Lauder Brunton : — Cornutine causes spastic rigidity in frogs, lasting many days, even when given in very minute doses (J, of a milli- gramme). In warm-blooded animals half a milligramme causes salivation, vomiting, diarrhoea, and active movements of the uterus, which are clonic and not tonic. The vessels are contracted and blood-pressure raised. 614 ERGOTISM Sphacelinic acid causes at first great spasmoclic contrac- tion of the blood-vessels, with rise of blood-pressure, and subsequently gangrene. The heart is unaffected. Tetanus of the uterus is produced. Cornutine and sphacelinic acid are evidently the principles which cause uterine contraction (Robert). Ergotinic acid causes ascending paralysis of the spinal cord and brain both in frogs and mammals, Avith loss of voluntary motion, paralysis of the vaso-motor centre, and fall of blood-pressure, while respiration and reflex irritability continue. It does not appear to have the power of increasing uterine contractions, and hence cannot be regarded as the most important constituent of ergot. The fresh extract, injected into animals, causes inco- ordination, cutaneous ana)mia, anaesthesia, and paralysis, and in large doses death due to paralysis of respiration. The voluntary muscles are unaffected ; the motor nerves are not paralysed, but, on the contrary, have their power some- what increased ; the sensory nerves are paralysed; but it is uncertain whether this action is central or perijiheral. The spinal cord is paralysed (Brunton). The action of the heart is weakened ; the pulse-rate slowed. Blood-pressure is first lowered and then raised. Respiration in dogs is first quickened, but in most animals it is slowed from the beginning. All unstriped muscular fibre is contracted; the calibre of blood-vessels is hence diminished, as may be readily seen in the web of the frog's foot; the iris is contracted; intestinal peristalsis is increased; the urinary bladder is emptied, and the contents of the pregnant uterus expelled. The contractions of the uterus are continuous and tetanic, are usually produced in fifteen or twenty minutes, and last about an hour. They result mainly from general contraction of unstriped muscular fibre, but are also believed to be in part determined by stimulation of the uterine centre in the spinal cord. Ergot, given experimentally in large or continued doses, or the protracted use of ergoted grain, causes ergotism, which is characterised by gastro-intcstinal derangement, nausea, diarrhaa and vomiting in animals capable of emesis, CHRONIC POISONING 615 and from the impaired circulation and nutrition affecting different areas, subsequently assumes two forms — (1) dry gangrene, chiefly involving the extremities, ears, and tail; (2) inco-ordinate spasms, and sometimes epileptiform con- vulsions. This latter form is believed to result from irritation and paralysis of the sensory centres of the spinal cord. Ergot of rye, resembles maize ergot — a fungus occurring on Indian corn, recognised by the U.S.A. Phar., and probably containing the same active principles as ergot. Savin and thuja also cause uterine contractions. Digitalis and its analogues contract the involuntary fibres of arterioles. The physiological antagonists of ergot are ethers and amyl-nitrite. Toxic Effects are not so marked on horses, cattle, sheep, and rabbits as on men and dogs. Thirty cows amongst them took daily with impunity 37 lbs. for three months ; two milk cows had between them 9 lbs. daily, with no further evil effect than that the butter was badly tasted. Twenty sheep amongst them ate daily for four weeks 9 lbs. without injury (Phcebus and Pereira). Dogs receiving six to twelve drachms suffered from vomiting, tenesmus, pro- stration of muscular power, enfeebled pulse, convulsive twitchings, spasms, and coma (Tabourin). Three ounces proved fatal to a terrier bitch in twenty hours. Chronic poisoning occurs especially in patients placed in unfavourable sanitary surroundings. Dr. Samuel Wright (Edinhurgh Medical and Surgical Journal, vols. Hi., liii., and liv.) found that ergot, given for several weeks to dogs and rabbits, caused nausea, impaired appetite, a weak, irregular pulse, soon becoming intermittent, diarrhoea; excessive foetor of the secretions and excretions, paralysis, particularly of the hind extremities, enlargement of the liver, contraction of the spleen, impairment of the special senses, wasting, and general debility. Gangrene of the extremities is not, however, produced so readily as in man. Dogs, cats, and rabbits showed great aversion to it, even when it was mixed with sound grain, or considerably diluted with water; and, although pressed by hunger, would scarcely eat it of their own accord. Ergot of maize, according to 616 ERGOT AN ECBOLIO Roulin, is common in Columbia, and its continued use is stated to cause shedding of tlie hair, and even of the teeth, both of man and beast. Mules freely fed on it lose their hoofs, and fowls lay eggs without shells. Abortion attributed to ergoted grasses occurs amongst cows, ewes, and deer in many grass districts of England and Ireland, especially in wet seasons. The hay from pastures subject to ergot is seldom, however, so injurious as the grass, for it is generally cut before the fungus is matured. Cows abort from this cause more frequently than ewes or deer ; for they are more prone to eat the coarser, longer ergoted grasses, and, moreover, are often pregnant in the later months of summer, when ergot occurs. Experi- mentally, abortion has been produced in guinea-pigs, sows, bitches, cats, cows, and ewes, rabbits, and poultry (Stille, Therapeutics). Youatt declared that he had never knoAvn ergot fail in its action on the pregnant uterus either of monogastrics or ruminants. The negative results obtained by some experimenters may be explained by their having used ergot which had been too long kept. Medicinal Uses. — As a parturient, ergot is seldom needed in the lower animals. The foal or calf, coming naturally at the full period, if assistance is requisite, is generally brought away by judicious traction. It is sometimes useful in uterine inertia, where the throes are languid and occurring at long intervals, where the animal has been in labour for some considerable time, where no obstruction is present, and where the os uteri is considerably dilated. It is un- suitable where there is malformation either of the mother or foetus, where the position of the fretus prevents its ready expulsion, and sometimes also in first pregnancies, where the uterus, roused to continuous tetanic contractions, is more liable to be injured or torn. After parturition, if the uterus remain flaccid, and especially if haemorrhage occur, as occasionally happens both in coavs and ewes, ergot eti'ectually contracts the organ, and thus arrests the bleeding. In such cases it may be given by the mouth, or, where prompt effects are sought, it is injected subcutaneously, or into the substance of a muscle. It is sometimes prescribed to remove SAVIN 617 uterine cysts and hasten expulsion of the fcetal membranes, which in the lower animals may usually, however, be readily removed by the hand. Given either by the mouth or injec- tion, it is useful in all animals in haemoptysis, and sometimes in hasmatemesis and other hsemorrhages. It is of no avail in purpura. Professor Robertson recommended it in cerebro- spinal meningitis in horses ; and several practitioners have tried it, but without much success, in parturient apoplexy in cows. The reduction of fibroid and other tumours has sometimes been effected by injecting them with ergot. In addition to the powdered drug the following official preparations are used : — Extractum Ergotse (Ergotin) ; Ex- tractum Ergotfe Liquidum ; Infusum Ergota3 (1 to 20 of boiling water) ; Tinctura Ergotte Ammoniata ; and Injectio Ergotse Hypodermica (made with ergot-extract). Doses, etc. — Ergot freshly powdered, as an ecbolic for the mare or cow, §ss. to §ij. ; for sheep about 5ij- ; for swine and bitches 5ss. to 5j-; Extract of Ergot (Ergotin), horses and cattle, grs. xxx. to grs. Ixxx. ; dogs, grs. v. to grs. x. ; in drench or electuary, and repeated as may be required. The liquid extract may be prescribed for horses and cattle in doses of 1T|_lx. to 5ij ; for dogs IT^x. to TT^xxx. Of the tincture horses and cattle may be given 5iv. to §j. or more. The B.P. hypo- dermic injection of ergot contains 33 grains of the extract in 110 minims. For the mare or cow the dose is "nj^GO to TT^lOO injected subcutaneously or into the substance of the gluteal muscles. The smaller dose should first be tried. SAVIN Sabine Cacumina. Fresh and dried tops of Juniperus Sabina, collected in spring from plants cultivated in Britain. Nat. Ord. — Coniferpe. (Not official.) .Juniperus Sabina is an evergreen shrub, common through- out Middle and Southern Europe, and cultivated in this country. The tops or young branches, with their attached leaves, when fresh are green, but become yellow when kept; 618 SAVIN have a strong, heavy, disagreeable odour, and a bitter, acrid, resinous taste. They communicate their properties to water, spirit, and the fixed oils, and owe their activity to about three per cent, of a colourless or pale yellow volatile oil, prepared from the fresh tops by distillation, isomeric with oil of turpentine (C^oHjg), and associated, as constantly occurs in plants, with a more oxidised oil (Cj^H^gO). From the berries ten per cent, of these oils is said to be obtained (Phillips). Actions and Uses. — Savin is a topical irritant, antiseptic, rubefacient and vesicant. Administered internally, moderate doses are anthelmintic, and diuretic ; they increase appetite, promote digestion, and stimulate the urino-genital organs. Large doses produce gastro-enteritis. Excretion occurs by the skin, pulmonary membrane, and kidneys. Savin re- sembles the turpentine yielding coniferse, and especially the other junipers. Toxic Effects. — Hertwig gave horses half a pound twice daily for six or eight days without effect; Professor Sick administered small doses for half a year without notable symptoms; but these observations probably underrate its activity. Mr. Rose records the poisoning of five horses, of which one died immediately, and two after five days ; the others recovered, after sufi'ering from diarrhoea, intense thirst, quickened pulse and breathing, with great prostration (Veterinary Record, 1850). Two drachms kill rabbits in a few hours, producing extreme congestion of the intestines, kidneys, and bladder. Orfila records that four drachms destroyed dogs in thirteen hours, when the gullet was tied to prevent vomiting; and similar effects followed when powdered savin was applied to a wound or introduced under the skin. Vomiting, purging, gastro-intestinal inflamma- tion, and collapse Avere produced. The kidneys and bladder were irritated, usually causing copious discliarge of bloody urine. The uterus is also irritated, and savin has been ignorantly used to produce abortion and hasten parturition. Two cases of abortion in mares heavy in foal are recorded in the VeteriTiarian for 1855. In these cases the continued use COLCHICUM 619 of savin destroyed both foals, and, being still persevered with, caused their expulsion apparently ten or twelve days later. Medicinal Uses. — Savin cannot be safely used to produce abortion or hasten parturition. Unlike ergot, it does not directly contract the muscular fibres of the uterus. It stimulates the uterus, and expels its contents only as a result of irritation of the intestines and urinary organs. It is occasionally used chopped with fodder for the destruction of intestinal worms ; but other remedies are safer and more cer*-ain. If used at all, the best form is the essential oil. Infusions of the tops in an alkaline ley, and the essential oil, are occasionally applied as antiseptics and stimulants to warts and mdolent wounds. Doses, etc. — Of the volatile oil as an anthelmintic — the only purpose for which savin is administered — horses or cattle, f5iij- to f5iv; dogs, Tliiii. to T\[y. dissolved in any mild fixed oil or in mucilage. For external application, infusions and ointments are used. Equal parts of savin and verdigris ointments form a popular stimulant dressing for foot-rot in sheep. An infusion, one of savin to one hundred of water, is sometimes injected into the uterus to promote expulsion of retained foetal membranes. COLCHICUM CoLCHici CoRMUS. Colcliicum Corm. The fresh corm of Colchicum autumnale. Meadow Safiron. Collected in early summer; and the same, stripped of its coats, sliced transversely, and dried at a temperature not exceeding^ 150° Fahr. CoLCHici Semina. The dried, ripe seeds of C. autumnale (B.P.). Kat Ord.—Cohhicacesd. The meadow saffron grows wild throughout Middle and Southern Europe, and on English lawns and coarse, wet pastures, in mild, moist localities, and is cultivated in gardens. It has an annual stem ; lilac or purple flowers, numerous round, red-brown, bitter, acrid seeds about the size of millet ; 620 COLCHICUM and a bulbous root, which when about a year old, reaches the size of a walnut, and matures in July. The conns arc used both fresh and dried. Dried slices are kidney-slia])ed, about one and a half inch lone;', and an inch broad, are greyish-white, dry, firm, and starchy, with a bitter, acrid taste. They yield their active principles to alcohol and vinegar. They contain about 70 per cent, of water, and 18 of starch and gum, with jVtli of 1 per cent, of a bitter, crystallisable, poisonous alkaloid, colchicine (C^-H^j^NO-). It is conjoined with gallic acid, is present in other parts of the plant, and is nearly a hundred times more active than the fresh bulbs. Soluble in water and alcohol, slightly soluble in glycerin; with acids, forms crystalline salts. Sulphuric acid colours it yellow-brown, nitric acid dyes it violet, passing through various hues to yellow. The corms also contain traces of the allied alkaloid veratrine. Actions and Uses. — Colchicum irritates most textures with which it comes into contact. Large doses are gastro- intestinal irritants and cardiac depressants. Medicinal doses are emetic, cathartic, and cholagogue. Its diuretic and diaphoretic actions are uncertain. It resembles Veratrum album, V. viride, and cevadilla. Toxic Effects. — The corm, whether used green or dry, the seed, any active preparation, and still more notably colchicine, are in-contact irritants. Owing to the active principle being slightly soluble they have little action on the sound skin. When swallowed, a sense of acridity is produced in the mouth and throat, and the flow of saliva is increased. Passing into the stomach and bowels they cause colic, tenesmus, and diarrhoea, and in carnivora nausea and vomit- ing. Absorption, however, is slow. The gastro-intestinal irritation is succeeded by cardiac depression, resembling that caused by veratrine and aconite, while full or frequently repeated doses induce collapse. The brain, motor nerves, and mu.scles are unaffected; the spinal cord and sensory nerves are paralysed. Mr. Broad in the Veteritiarian, 185G, records two cases of horses dying from eating with their hay the stalks, leaves, and seeds of colchicum. Colic, tympanites, and great dulness AN IN-CONTACT IRRITANT 621 supervened, with death in twenty-four hours, and on post- mortem examination 'inflammation and patches of erosion' were found in the mucous membrane of the stomach. Mr. Broad also mentions the poisoning- of eight two-year-old in- calf heifers, which suftered from hoven, purging, feeble pulse and coma. Three died in about twenty hours, and the mucous membrane of the stomachs exhibited patches of inflammation and erosion. M. Barry (Rccueil de Medicine VeUrinaire, 1862) records the case of a cow and heifer in Aisne, which ate some cut grass containing a considerable amount of meadow safiron. In a few hours they had violent colic, profuse and bloody diarrhoea, tenderness of the abdomen, coldness of the surface, and prostration. The cow recovered ; the heifer died from irritation and exhaustion in three days. A number of cows ate small quantities of colchicum, suffered from colic and diarrha?a, but recovered when treated with emollient drenches and mild saline mixtures. Three cattle having eaten colchicum are reported {Veterinarian, 1864) to have suftered from dulness, stupor, grinding of the teeth, dilated pupils, imperceptible pulse, relaxed bowels, cold extremities, and thirst, but no griping pains, or quickened breathing. They were successfully treated by laxatives and stimulants. Dogs and cats are more susceptible than horses or ruminants. Two drachms of the dried bulb caused in doo-s vomiting, bloody evacuations, diuresis, tremors of the limbs, depression of the heart action, and death in five hours. A tenth of a grain of colchicine given to a cat occasioned saliva- tion, vomiting, purging, staggering, extreme languor, colic, and death in twelve hours. Rabbits, as well as frogs and other cold-blooded animals, are stated to be less susceptible to the drug. As antidotes the stomach must be emptied ; full doses of tannin form an insoluble compound with the colchicine; white of egg and other demulcents are freely given, and stimulants if there be collapse. Medicinal Uses. — The fresh corm given in large doses by Professor Rutherford to fasting dogs, and its expulsion by vomiting prevented, increased secretion of bile, and also 622 CAMPHOR purged powerfully. But action on the liver and gastro- intestinal membrane is more safely effected by other medicines. Small doses, conjoined witli alkalies or salines, are occasionally given to horses in rheumatism and influ- enza, especially in subacute cases in which the inflammation appears to move from joint to joint. Foreign authorities prescribe it in constitutional ophthalmia. Professor Williams has used it, conjoined with potassium iodide, in pleurisy, in rheumatic pericarditis, and sometimes in pneumonia when the kidneys were torpid. It is excreted in great part by the kidneys, and when not quickly removed by the bowels it increases, alike in health and disease, both the organic and inorganic constituents of the urine. Doses, etc. — The powdered corm or seed as a diuretic for horses, 5ss. to 3j.; for cattle, 5j- to 5ij. ; for sheep, grs. x. to grs. XXV.; for dogs and pigs, grs. ij. to grs. viij., given with salines. A convenient solution is made with one part of colchicum, six or eight of vinegar, and a little spirit. Col- chicine dissolved in 100 parts of water and alcohol may be given hypodermically or intratracheally in doses of gr. i. to gr. ij. to horses, and gr. -j-Vth to gr. ^th to dogs. The tincture is made with four ounces of colchicum seeds to the pint of alcohol (45 per cent). CAMPHOR Camphora. a white crystalline substance obtained from Cinnamomum camphora, purified by sublimation (B.P.). Nat. Ord. — Laurineaj. The camphor laurel is a tall, handsome evergreen, cultivated in Japan and China, and in many European conservatories. Its wood and leaves evolve a characteristic odour when bruised, and yield about ^^th of their weight of camphor, which is sometimes extracted by dry distillation. In Formosa, whence comes most of the camphor imported to this country, the branches are cut into chips and boiled with water in wooden troughs; along with the steam the volatile camphor rises and condenses in earthen pots placed ANTISEPTIC, STIMULANT, AND ANALGESIC 623 over the troughs, and on reaching this country is purified by mixing with a little charcoal, sand, lime, and iron filings, and re-subliming. Properties. — Camphor occurs in solid, colourless, trans- parent, crystalline pieces, of tough consistence ; also in rectangular tablets or pulverulent masses known as ' flowers of camphor ' (B.P.). It has a bitter, pungent, cooling taste, and a strong, peculiar, aromatic odour. It floats on water, its specific gravity, varying with the temperature, is about 0'995. Exposed to the air, it volatilises; heated, it subHmes without residue, and burns readily with a bright but smoky flame. It is diflicult to powder, unless when mixed with alcohol, ether, or chloroform. It dissolves readily in ether, in about its own weight of rectified spirit, in one-fourth part of chloroform, four parts olive oil, two parts oil of turpentine, eight times its weis^ht of milk, and in 700 times its weie'ht of water. Camphor (C^oH^gO) is an oxide of terpene (C^oH^g) — the chief constituent of oil of turpentine, chamomile, carda- moms, cloves, hops, juniper, savin, or valerian. Associated with the terpene in these oils is an oxidised product or stearoptine corresponding with the colophony of turpentine. Continuously heated with nitric acid, camphor oxidises, and is converted into camphoric acid (Cj^^H-^gO^). Triturated with chloral hydrate, menthol, phenol, or thymol, it forms a liquid. Borneo camphor (C^QH^gO) is an alcohol derived from the wood of Dryobalanops aromatica, and is distinguished from laurel camphor by its softness, friability, and opacity, its higher density, and its somewhat alliaceous odour. From Borneo, Formosa and other parts of China, fluid camphor oils are obtained from several different trees. Artificial camphor (C^oH^gHCL) is got by the action of hydrochloric acid on oil of turpentine. Camphora monobromata (C\,^HjgBrO) resembles bromine rather than camphor in its actions, is sometimes used instead of the bromides, but is not so efficient. Actions and Uses. — The camphors in large doses are irritant and narcotic. Medicinal doses are antiseptic, stimulant, antispasmodic, anodyne, aphrodisiac, and dia- 624 CAMPHOR phoretic. Externally, they are occasionally employed as antiseptics, parasiticides, counter - irritants, and to relieve itching in various skin diseases. General and Toxic Effects. — The camphors, physiologi- cally, are volatile oils. Like other bodies of the group they are topical irritants, and large doses stimulate and sub- sequently narcotise the central nervous system. They frequently produce convulsions. Those which contain the most hydrogen, as the Borneo, the monobromata, as well as menthol (C\oH2(,0), are least convulsant. In fine powder or solution they are quickly absorbed ; are oxidised in great part into camphoric acid ; stimulate the brain, spinal cord, heart, and respiratory functions: and are excreted by the skin and bronchial membrane, and in less amount by the kidneys (Bartholow). Moiroud records that two ounces pro- duced in horses convulsive movements and acceleration of the pulse, unaccompanied, however, by fatal results. Hert- wig mentions that two to four ounces given to horses and cattlC; two to four drachms to sheep, and one to three drachms to dogs, accelerate respiration and pulsation, communicate a camphoraceous odour to the breath, heighten sensibility, and occasionally induce convulsions. Dogs, besides, exhibit imperfect power of controlling the movements of their limbs, and when the doses amount to three or four drachms in- sensibility and death ensue. The vapour of camphor destroys fleas, bugs, moths, and spiders, exciting, enfeebling, and stupefying them. It has considerable antiseptic power. Koch found that one part to 2500 of water hindered development of anthrax bacilli. Medicinal Uses. — Camphor is a nervine stimulant, and hence usefully controls reflex excitability in gastro-intestinal, respiratory, urino-genital, and cutaneous irritability. It is used, especially in young animals, as a gastric stimulant and antiseptic. In diarrhoea it is given with aroinatics and a few drops of hydrochloric acid, or with ether and laudanum. Professor Robertson prescribed it with opium in enteritis in horses. Many veterinarians give it freely in catarrhal cases presenting increased secretion and dyspnoea, conjoining it with salines, ammonia salts, or belladonna. A NERVE AND GASTRIC STIMULANT 625 In chronic bronchitis in horses, Professor Eobertson pre- scribed it with squill, and in convalescence from catarrhal complaints used a bolus consisting of a drachm each of camphor, gentian, ginger, and myrrh. For influenza and other exhausting diseases, whether in horses or cattle, a stimulating draught is often made with two drachms each of camphor and ammonium carbonate, and an ounce of ether, given in ale or cold gruel. Sore-throat and irritable, spasmodic cough are relieved by placing on the tongue, at intervals of two or three hours, or as required, an electuary made with equal parts of belladonna extract, borax, and camphor, reduced to a paste with ammonium acetate solu- tion, and mixed with eight or ten parts of honey or treacle. Small doses prescribed with belladonna lessen urino-genital irritability, resulting from cantharides or other causes. Its aphrodisiac effects are not very notable in veterinary patients. It does not, as has been popularly believed, diminish the lacteal secretion. For dogs, a mixture containing grs. v. each of camphor and belladonna extract, with fgj. of ammonium acetate solu- tion, in two ounces of water, is prescribed to relieve cough and bronchial irritation. Professor Williams recommends camphor and sweet spirit of nitre for allaying the restless- ness and convulsions of chorea. Externally, it is applied either in oil,or weak spirituous solu- tion, to allay itching in chronic eczema and urticaria. Dissolved in oil or mixed with vaseline, it is used to destroyskin parasites, and to prevent attacksof flies. It is aconstituentof soap, opium, belladonna, chloroform, turpentine, and other liniments. Aqua Camphorae is made with 70 grains of camphor dissolved in four drachms of alcohol (90 per cent.), and added to one gallon of water. Camphorated oil consists of one part of camphor in four of olive oil. Compound liniment of Camphor is made with twenty parts camphor, forty strong solution of ammonia, one of oil of lavender, and 120 of rectified spirit. Spirit of Camphor consists of one part camphor dissolved in nine parts alcohol (90 per cent.). 2 R 626 S ANITAS Doses, etc. — For horses, 5j- to 5ij-; for cattle, 3ij- to 5^v. ; for sheep and pigs, grs. xx. to grs. xl. ; and for dogs, grs. v. to grs. X. When used for anodyne purposes, it is con- veniently made into an emulsion with eggs, or dissolved in milk or oil. For external use, it is dissolved in ten parts of alcohol, in diluted acetic acid, linseed oil, or oil of turpentine. SANITAS Sanitas occurs in the form of oily and Avatery fluids, pre- pared by oxidation of oil of turpentine, and containing camphoraceous bodies and hydrogen peroxide. A current of air is driven by an engine, for about 120 hours, through a series of Doulton's stoneware receivers, surrounded by vats of water, maintained by steam at a temperature of 140° Fahr. In each receiver are placed thirty gallons of American, Russian, or Swedish oil of turpentine, and about double that amount of water. The oil gradually becomes darker in colour, its specific gravity and boiling point are raised, and it acquires a balsamic odour resoTiibling camphor and peppermint. As the process continues, the turpentine (Ci(,H^(.) is oxidised, producing camphoric peroxide (CjoHjg03), which is gradually converted into another antiseptic camphoric substance (C-^oH-y^O.,), and the soluble hydrogen peroxide which passes into solution in the water. The several essential oils of the terpene series (Cj^H^g), as Avell as cymene (Cj^H^^) and menthene (C^qH^j,), undergo similar oxidation, and give rise to the same products. In this way pine forests, especially during sunshine following rain, render the atmosphere not only pleasantly balsamic but antiseptic, more highly ox3^genated, and curative for throat and lung complaints. The Eucalyptus globulus in like manner pours forth these antiseptic and highly oxy- genated volatile products, which are antidotes to malaria, and sometimes, it is said, even arrest the progress of pul- monary consumption ; while, on a smaller scale, every plant or flower producing an essential oil exerts similar oxygenat- SANITAS AND HYDROGEN PEROXIDE 627 ing and purifying effects (Nature's Hygiene, by C. T. King- zett, F.I.C, F.C.S.). When the manufacture of Sanitas is completed, there floats on the surface of the aqueous solution a yellow-brown, dense, oxidised oil of turpentine, consisting chiefly of cam- phoric peroxide, which is stated to have an oxidising strength equal to that of a ten volume solution of hydrogen peroxide. This Sanitas oil, mixed with a suitable mineral or other basis, constitutes a useful disinfecting and deodorant powder. It is introduced into various soaps, conferring disinfectant properties, and, mixed wdth vaseline, oils, or fats, forms serviceable antiseptic liniments and ointments. Melted with Dammar resin and parafiin wax, a mixture is obtained which is used to impregnate muslin, forming an antiseptic gauze. Disinfectant desiccants are prepared by admixture wdth chalk or starch. The watery solution, cleared by filtration, and known as Sanitas fluid, consists chiefly of thymol, a proportion of the camphoraceous constituents which characterise the oil, and hydrogen peroxide. The B.P. Solution of Hydrogen Peroxide is a clear, odour- less liquid, with a bitter taste. It is readily soluble in water, and should contain from nine to eleven volumes of available oxygen. It is a powerful oxidising agent, and a valuable antiseptic for abscess cavities, ulcers, and suppurating wounds. A five to ten per cent, solution in water has been employed to disinfect the facial sinuses after trephining, and to irrigate the uterus after extraction of retained foital membranes. Actions and Uses. — Sanitas oil and fluid are volatile, oxidis- ing, non-poisonous antiseptics, disinfectants, and deodorants. Their several constituents in various ways attack and destroy organised ferments, and the lower forms of vege- table and animal life. Sanitas preparations have an agree- able aromatic odour, are not corrosive, and do not stain or injure clothing or other textile fabrics. Their power of checking fermentation has led to the administration of the fluid to calves fed on milk, and suflering from dyspepsia or diarrhoea ; an ounce is prescribed with six ounces of water, and may be conjoined with spirit, ether, or chloroform. 628 SANITAS OIL AND FLUID Useful antiseptic lotions for wounds, ulcers, and bruises are prepared with one part of the fluid, diluted, according to circumstances, with four to ten parts of water. Ointments and liniments arc prepared with about the same proportions of oils and fats. When wounds, for ten days or longer, have been treated with carbolic or other irritant dressings, granula- tion and skin growth often proceed more satisfactorily with the substitution of the milder Sanitas. In sore-throat, catarrh of the sinuses of the head, aphtha, and foot-and- mouth complaint, solutions and sprays are often useful, and, being devoid of irritant efi[ects, are also serviceable for rectal, uterine, and vesical injections. Sanitas solutions and soaps not only cleanse and disinfect, but gently stimulate the skin, abate itching, remove scurf, and promote healing in prurigo, chronic eczema, and similar skin complaints. Sanitas fluid, diluted with twenty to fifty parts of tepid water, is serviceable for sponging febrile patients, and for disinfecting animals affected with contagious disease. In canine practice, the fluid diluted with four to six parts of water, is used in canker of the ear, ulceration of the mouth, eczema, and as a uterine injection after parturition. Sanitas oil destroys the parasites of scab and mange, as well as lice, fleas, and maggot's, and arrests the cryptogamic growth of ringworm. Even in con- centrated form, there is no risk of its exciting uadue irrita- tion, or inducing from its absorption injurious constitutional effects, such as are apt to follow the free use of strong carbolic preparations. Sanitas powder and sawdust are used with good effect for disinfecting and deodorising stables, kennels, cow- sheds, and piggeries. Sprinkled upon the floors, they also purify the air of slaughter-houses, menageries, manufactories, and exhibitions ; while on shipboard they destroy unpleasant odours, and substitute their own camphoric aroma. These preparations are largely used in hospitals and by medical officers of health. THYMOL THYMOL 629 Thymol— a crystalline substance, obtained from tlie volatile oils of Thymus Vulgaris and Carum Copticura. Purified by recrystallisation from alcohol (B.P.). Thymus vulgaris {Nat OnZ.— Labiate) is a bushy ever- green shrub found in dry situations throughout Southern Europe. It derives its aroma from an essential oil separable into two parts— (1) the fluid thymene, which is isomeric with oil of turpentine (CioH,,); and (2) the solid thymol (CcH3.C3H,.CH3.0H). Thymol occurs in large oblique prisms, with a pungent, aromatic taste. It requires for solution 1500 parts of water, 190 of glycerin or two of olive oil; and is freely soluble in alcohol, ether, and chloroform. It sinks in cold water, but heated to 110' to 125' Fahr., it melts and floats on the surface. Actions and Uses. — Thymol is antiseptic, disinfectant, diaphoretic, diuretic, and vermicide. Large doses paralyse the nerve centres of the cord and medulla. It has most of the characteristic properties of a volatile oil. Dr. Lauder Brunton states that its physiological actions place it between oil of turpentine and carbolic acid. Solutions of one per cent, destroy bacteria and prevent reproduction of their spores. Applied to the skin or mucous surfaces it causes irritation, followed by anaesthesia. When swallowed it is slowly absorbed. Dogs weighing 20 pounds and rabbits weighing 7 pounds, receiving respectively 60 and 30 grains injected hypodermically, exhibited lowered blood- pressure and muscular weakness, paralysis of respiration, and coma ; but the fatal eff'ect of full doses was frequently averted by artificial respiration. The respiratory mucous membrane was congested, the lungs were congested and sometimes consolidated, the kidneys inflamed, the urine albuminous, occasionally bloody. In chronic poisoning tissue metabolism appears to be impaired, and there is fatty de- generation of the liver, as in phosphorus poisoning. It is excreted chiefly by the lungs and kidneys, imparting to the urine a green colour by direct, a brown by transmitted light. 630 TOBACCO Compared with carbolic acid, thymol is not so irritant, caustic, or poisonous ; when absorbed it does not cause preliminary excitement, but from the first paralyses the nerve centres ; as an antiseptic it is stated to be more power- ful and permanent. Its high price precludes its use as an ordinary antiseptic. Concentrated solutions damage in- struments. Medicinal Uses. — It has been prescribed in vesical catarrh, horses taking grs. x. to grs. xxx. ; dogs, gr. ss. to grs. v. As a vermicide in strongylosis of foals, grs. 10 to grs. 15, dissolved ' in glycerin and alcohol, suspended in milk or mucilage, or made into a bolus coated with keratin, are given daily for four or five consecutive days, and followed by a laxative. But its chief use is in antiseptic surgery. Notwithstanding its greater cost, it is sometimes substituted for carbolic, salicylic, and boric acids. For allaying irritation and remov- ing scales in chronic eczema and lichen, 1 to 2 grains are dissolved in an ounce of diluted spirit, or of potassium car- bonate solution. For such purposes an ointment is also used, made with 10 to 40 grains to the ounce of vaseline. As a stimulating antiseptic in sore-throat and ozfena, it is used in the form of gargle, spray, or inhalation. It is the active constituent of Volckmann's antiseptic fluid, which, with one part thymol, contains 20 of alcohol, 20 of glycerin, and 960 of water. This solution prevents the development of pyogenic organisms. TOBACCO Tai?aci Folia, Tobacco Leaves. The dried leaves of Nico- tiana Tabacum. Nat. Ord. — Solanaceas. (Not official.) Tobacco derives its name from tabac, the instrument used by the American aborigines for smoking the leaf, from the island of Tobago, or from the town of Tobasco in New Spain. It appears to have been cultivated from time immemorial in America, and is now grown largely in the region watered by the Orinoco, in the United States, and in many temperate and sub-tropical countries of both hemispheres. It was unknown in the Old World — at all events in Europe— until TOBACCO AND NICOTINE 631 after the discoveries of Columbus ; and was first introduced into England by Sir Francis Drake in 1586. The Nicotiana Tabacum, which yields the Virginian and several commercial tobaccos, is an herbaceous plant, three to six feet in height, with a branching fibrous root, a tall annual stem, funnel-shaped, rose-coloured flowers, and large, moist, clammy, brown leaves, mottled with yellow spots, covered with glandular hairs, and distinguished by a strong, peculiar, narcotic odour, and a nauseous, bitter, acrid taste. The leaves readily communicate their properties to hot water and alcohol. The plant is cut down in August, and the leaves dried, twisted, and carefully packed, with great compression, in hogsheads. For many purposes the n:iidrib is removed, and occasionally the leaf is fermented, in order to remove albuminoids, which, when smoked, give rise to oils and unpleasant products. Sugar and liquorice are sometimes added to impart mellowTiess and pliability. Commercial tobaccos contain about 12 per cent, of mois- ture, 20 to 25 of lignin, and about the same amount of inorganic matters, chiefly salts of potassium and calcium. The chief active principle is nicotine (C^^Hj^N.^) — a colour- less, volatile, inflammable, oity alkaloid, with an acrid odour and taste. It occurs in combination with malic and citric acids, constituting 5 to 7 per cent, of the dried leaf. It is soluble in water, alcohol, ether, the fixed and volatile oils. Tobacco also yields, when distilled with water, a crystalline volatile oil — nicotianin, or tobacco camphor — produced from oxidation of the nicotine. Tobacco slowly burned, as when smoked, is decomposed, and the smoke contains volatile fatty acids and ethers, traces of hydrocyanic acid and am- monia, while the nicotine in great part is converted into alkaloids of the benzine series — pyridine (C^H^N), collidine (C^H^.N), picoline (CgH^N), and lutidine (CVHgN.). Actions and Uses. — Tobacco and nicotine are in-contact irritants. They stimulate and then paralyse the spinal cord, the motor nerves of muscles, especially of involuntary muscles, and the nerves of secreting glands. They enfeeble circulation, cause trembling, staggering gait, convulsions, and death from respiratory failure. Tobacco is rarely pre- 632 TOBACCO AND NICOTINE scribed internally, but is used externally as an antiparasitic. Nicotine and Nicotianin are antiseptic. General Actions. — Stroni,' solutions are in-contact irri- tants of mucous and denuded skin surfaces. Partly from this topical irritant action and partly from stimulating motor nerves they cause vomiting in carnivora. Large doses in all animals induce gastro-enteritis with collapse. Nicotine is quickly taken up from absorbing surfaces. Dogs dressed with concentrated decoctions frequently suffer from nausea and vomiting, while human patients have been poisoned by enemata. Small doses cause muscular tremors ; larger, produce strychnine-like clonic spasms, affecting espe- cially the involuntary muscles of the intestines, bladder, and uterus ; still larger doses are followed by muscular paralysis ; death results from paralytic asphyxia. Small doses stimulate the sensitive fibres of the vagus roots, and also its endings in the heart and lungs, slowing the pulse, reducing blood- pressure, and causing dyspnoea. But larger doses both peripherally and centrally paralyse the vagus, quickening . the pulse, and increasing blood-pressure. The cardiac gan- glia, however, are not paralysed as by atropine. Twofold stimulant and paralysant effects are likewise exerted on the vaso-motor and secretory systems. Small to moderate doses increase the secretions of the skin, bowels, and kidneys. Toxic Effects are produced in horses by 9 ounces of tobacco ; in cattle by 1 lb. ; in sheep by 1 ounce ; in dogs by 1 to 2 drachms. The poisonous dose of nicotine for horses and cattle is 5 to 6 minims, for dogs 1 to 3 minims. One- tenth part of those doses used hypodermically is dangerous (Frohner and Kaufmann). Hertwig gave horses half an ounce to an ounce of the powdered leaves, with the eft'ect of lowering the pulse three to ten beats per minute, and render- ing it irregular and intermittent; while a repetition of such doses increased evacuation both of faeces and urine. Large doses, especially intravenously injected, accelerated the pulse, increased the action of the bowels and kidneys, and caused irritability and restlessness. A healthy middle-aged cow received two ounces dissolved in water, in divided doses, but given within two and a half hours. The temperature of the MOTOR PARALYSANTS AND PARASITICIDES 633 skin was heightened : the pulse raised from 65 to VO ; the breathing quickened and somewhat oppressed ; the pupil dilated, while perspiration was abundant. Next day the animal continued dull, but by the third day she was per- fectly well. An ox consumed about four pounds of tobacco leaves, and speedily became very restive, ground his teeth and groaned, lay with outstretched limbs and distended rumen, passed quantities of thin foetid faeces, and died in eleven hours in convulsions. The leaves were found in the alimentary canal, and the mucous membrane, especially of the fourth stomach, was red and eroded, particularly where in contact with the tobacco. Hertwig further mentions that goats are similarly affected by one or two ounces, and generally die in about ten hours. Orfila administered to a dog five and a half drachms powdered tobacco (rappee), ensuring its retention by ligature of the oesophagus. There ensued violent efforts to vomit, nausea, purging, tremors of the extremities, giddiness, accelerated respiration, quickened pulse, convulsions, stupor interrupted by spasms, and dependent on imperfect oxygena- tion of the blood, and in nine hours death. A decoction containing half a drachm, injected into the rectum of a dog, produced similar symptoms, but was not fatal. Two and a half drachms, applied to a wound, destroyed a dog in an hour. The pupils are contracted, and in fatal cases are insensible to light. A single drop of nicotine destroys small dogs and rabbits in five minutes, producing convulsions and general paralysis. Post-mortem discloses appearances of asphyxia; and in cases where the crude drug has been swallowed, and has not been immediately fatal, the gastro-intestinal tract exhibits evidences of irritation. The treatment of poisoning, when the crude drug has been swallowed, consists in the use of the stomach-pump or emetics. Tannin renders nicotine insoluble. Keeping the patient warm, and the cautious administration of stimulants, antagonise nausea and depression; while artificial respiration, and the careful hypodermic injection of strychnine, overcome the tendency to death by asphyxia. 634 TOBACCO AND NICOTINE Tobacco is allied to several other motor depressors of the Solanaceae, notably to dulcamara and belladonna; but it does not produce that peculiar disturbance of the locomotor centres, and consequent irregular movements, which char- acterise belladonna, while it increases, instead of diminish- ing, cutaneous and other secretions, and contracts instead of dilating the pupil. It resembles lobelia or Indian tobacco — the dried flowering herb of Lobelia inflata, which is some- times prescribed for the relief of spasmodic asthma in dogs as well as in human patients. Tobacco is more limited in its paralysant effects than hemlock, prussic acid, or physostigmine. Medicinal Uses. — Tobacco is now seldom administered in- ternally. There are many much better emetics than the quid of tobacco sometimes given to the dog, and numerous more effectual remedies for intestinal worms. Tobacco smoke enemas were formerly used to relieve the spasms of colic; but chloroform, chloral hydrate, opium, and other anodynes are more effectual. A one to two per cent, decoc- tion, used as an enema, brings away ascarides lodged in the rectum. An infusion made with four ounces black tobacco and a pint of boiling water, strained and cooled, has been used successfully as an antidote in strychnine poisoning. Externally, it is used to kill the acari of mange and scab, and also lice, fleas, and ticks, but it does not effectually destroy the ova of these parasites. Strong solutions, liberally applied, are apt to cause nausea, trembling, spasms, and sometimes death, but there is no danger in the careful use of decoctions made with thirty or sixty parts of water. For such purposes the leaves are boiled for half an hour with a limited quantity of water, and the decoction diluted as required. For sheep dips and washes two to five per cent, solutions are used, their efficacy being increased by addition of soft soap, potash, tar oils, and occasionally arsenic or corrosive sublimate. Unless, however, the refuse juice of the manufactory can be procured, tobacco is too costly for sheep dips. Law's sheep dip is made with tobacco, 16 lbs., oil of tar 3 pints, soda ash 20 lbs., soft soap 4 lbs., water 60 gallons. Macerate the tobacco in three successive portions of water and add the other agents to the fluid. CATECHU 635 CATECHU Pale Catechu. Catechu pallidum. An extract of the leaves and young shoots of Uncaria Gambler (B.P.). Nat. Ord. — Rubiace?e. Black or Brown Catechu. Catechu nigrum. The aqueous extract of the wood of Acacia Catechu, of Acacia Suma, of other Leguminosse, and of plants of other natural orders. (Not official.) The Uncaria Gambler, producing the pale catechu (cafe, a tree; chu, juice), is a stout climbing shrub, inhabiting the islands of the Indian Archipelago, and cultivated for its astringent juice. A. decoction made of the leaves and young shoots is evaporated, worked into red-brown, earthy-looking masses or cubes, with surfaces about an inch square. The black or brown catechu, chiefly brought from Bengal and Burmah, is derived from several trees, largely from the Acacia Catechu, a native of India and Africa. The Acacia Suma, a large tree gi'owing in Bengal, Burmah, and Southern India, has a white bark used for tanning, and red heart- wood, from which catechu is also made. The wood of these and of other trees is cut into chips and boiled with water, the decoction concentrated either by fire or the heat of the sun, and the extract cut or moulded into square cakes or masses. The pale and black catechus are very similar in com- position and properties ; are porous and opaque ; brittle, breaking with a granular fracture; under the microscope exhibit minute, needle-like crystals ; are without odour, but have a sweet astringent taste. They are soluble in alcohol and ether, partially soluble in cold water, entirely dissolved by boiling water, with which they form red-brown solutions. They consist of about 40 per cent, of catechu-tannic acid, which is soluble in cold water ; and of catechin or catechuic acid (CjgHj^Oj), which is also a modification of tannic acid, deposits in acicular crystals from boiling watery solutions of catechu, and is soluble in alcohol and ether. They further contain the yellow colouring matter quercitin. Actions and Uses. — Catechu is astringent, acting by 636 CATECHU contact only. It forms insoluble compounds with albumin and gelatin, and, like other tannin-containing substances, is used in making leather. It is less astringent than oak hark or galls, but more astringent than kino, the ins[)issate(l juice obtained from incisions made in the trunk of Pterocarpus Marsupium; than rhatany, the dried root of Krameria Triandra or of K. Argentea ; than logwood, the sliced heart- wood of Haematoxylon Campechianum ; or than bearberry or uva-ursi leaves (p. 535). Catechu is administered to the several domestic animals for the arrest of chronic catarrhal discharges and haemor- rhage, especially from the throat and alimentary canal. The insoluble catechin beneficially exerts its astringency on the relaxed, over-secreting surfaces alike of the small and large intestines. In persistent diarrhoea and in dysentery it is conjoined with aromatics to allay flatulence ; with opium to relieve irritability and spasm; with alkalies, magnesia, or chalk, to counteract acidity. A convenient prescription for such cases consists of three ounces each of catechu, prepared chalk, and ginger, and six drachms of opium, made, as is most suitable, into either mass or draught. This will make eight doses for a horse, six for a cow, and eight or ten for a calf or sheep. For the horse the dose is given in bolus ; for the ruminant, suspended in starch gruel. Catechu is occasionally applied to sluggish wounds and ulcers, to excoriations on the udder of cattle, and for the several purposes of a vegetable astringent. Doses, etc. — For horses, 5i- to 5iij- ; for cattle, 5ij- to 5vi. ; for sheep and swine, 5i- to 5ij-; ^'^nd for dogs, grs. iv. to grs. XX. These doses are administered three or four times a day, with sufficient mucilage or gruel to cover their astringent taste. An infusion is readily prepared for veterinary purposes by pouring boiling water over coarsely-powdered catechu, digesting by the fire for an hour, and straining. Flavouring ingredients may be added as required. The B.P. orders the tincture to be made with catechu, in coarse powder, four ounces ; cinnamon bark bruised, one ounce ; alcohol (60 per cent.), one pint. Compound powder of catechu, is composed of catechu, 4 ounces; kino, 2 ounces; GALLS 637 krameria root, 2 ounces ; cinnamon, 1 ounce ; and nutmeg, 1 ounce. All powdered and mixed. For external purposes the powder, infusion, and an ointment are used. GALLS Galla. Oak Galls. Excrescences on Quercus infectoria resulting from the puncture and deposition of an egg or eggs of Cynips Galke tinctorise (B.P.). Nat. Ord. — Cupuliferse. Home-grown galls from the common oak (Quercus robur) are in some seasons abundant throughout the southern and midland counties of England, but seldom contain more than half the tannic acid found in the foreign. The best commercial variety, known as Levant galls, is imported from Syria, Smyrna, and Constantinople; the light, hollow Chinese, Japanese, or East Indian galls, are yielded by the Rhus semialata; large Mecca galls, called Dead Sea apples, are imported from Bussorah. Galls var}^ from the size of a bean to that of a hazel-nut, are round, hard, and studded with tubercles ; of a bluish- grey colour externally, and yellow within. An inferior variety, from which the larva has escaped, are smoother, of lighter colour, lower density, and less astringency. Galls are easily reduced to a yellow-grey powder, devoid of odour, but having an intensely astringent taste. The active principles are dissolved by forty parts of boiling water and still less of diluted alcohol. Ferric salts, added to a watery solution, slowly precipitate the dark-blue or black iron tannate, the basis of writing ink. An aqueous solution of gelatin throws down a grey flocculent precipitate of tanno-gelatin. These reactions, and other important properties, depend on the presence of tannin or tannic acid, which, according to the quality of the galls, ranges from 15 to 70 per cent., and is associated with about 3 per cent, of gallic acid. Tannic Acid, or tannin (Ci^H^/)9.2H20), is the glucoside to which oak bark, galls, logwood, and many vegetable astrin- gents owe their properties. The tannic acid from these several sources has, however, somewhat different charac- 638 TANNIC AND GALLIC ACIDS teristics, and generally receives such special designations as gallo-tannic, cincho-tannic, catcchu-tannic acids. Gallo- tannic acid is prepared by softening powdered galls by keeping them for two days in a damp place, digesting them for several hours simultaneously with water, which dissolves the tannic acid, and with ether, which dissolves colouring matter and gallic acid. The mixture, filtered and allowed to stand, forms into two layers, and the lower, carefully evaporated, yields tannic acid. It occurs in pale yellow vesicular masses, or thin glistening scales ; has a strongly astringent taste and an acid reaction ; is readily soluble in water, dilute alcohol, and slowly in glycerin ; very sparingly soluble in ether. The aqueous solution gives an olive-brown precipitate with ferric- chloride, a yellow-white precipitate with gelatin, and a red coloration having a blue fluorescence with alkalies. It is also precipitated by, and hence is incompatible with, most metallic salts, the mineral acids, and the vegetable alkaloids. In several ways tannic acid may be decomposed, yielding gallic acid and glucose, and hence is termed a glucoside. Gallic Acid, or tri-hydroxy- benzoic Jicid (Cj;H2(0H)y C02H,H20), may be prepared by the action of diluted sul- phuric acid on tannic acid or powdered galls. It occurs in acicular prisms, or silky needles, which are colourless or pale fawn. It requires for solution about one hundred parts of cold water, three of boiling water, and twelve of gl3^cerin ; but is more soluble than tannic acid in alcohol and ether. Its aqueous solution gives a blue-black j^recipitate Avith ferric salts. Unlike tannic acid, it is not precipitated by isinglass, albumin, hydrochloric, or sulphuric acid. Lime water browns tannic acid slowly, browns gallic acid immediately, and with pyrogallic acid yields a purple red, which becomes brown as it absorbs oxygen (Attfield). Actions and Uses. — Galls and tannic acid differ only in the degree of their action. They are astringent and antiseptic. Galls have about one half the activity of tannic acid. As gallic acid does not coagulate either gelatin or albumin, it is scarcely entitled to be considered an astringent. Tannic acid may be taken as the type of the group which ACTIONS AND USES 639 includes galls, oak bark, catechu, kino, and rhatany. It has little effect on the unbroken skin ; but on abraded, atonic, and hypersecreting skin and mucous surfaces it coagulates albumin, causes dryness and tanning, with some contraction of the soft textures. But, unlike salts of lead, silver, or other mineral astringents, it does not contract capillary vessels. It paralyses sensory nerves, and diluted solutions hence relieve irritation. It coagulates blood and arrests bleeding. In the digestive canal it combines with albuminoids and alkalies, jDrecipitates pepsin, and neutralises bacterial secre- tions and toxines. It is slowly and partially absorbed, as gallic acid or as an alkaline tannate, but when thus neutral- ised it can have little astringent or ha3mostatic power. It is excreted as gallic acid, or as some oxidised product thereof Medicinal Uses. — Tannic acid and galls, in j^owder, solution, or spray, are applied in stomatitis, and relaxed conditions of the pharynx and nasal passages. In diarrhcea and dysentery the slowly dissolving catechus and kino are sometimes pre- ferred to tannic acid, as they reach the intestines and exert their in-contact effects before they are neutralised. They are frequently prescribed with chalk, acids, aromatics, and opium, and given either in bolus or mucilage. For arrest of internal ha3morrhage, neither tannic nor gallic acid is so effectual as ergot, ferric-chloride, or lead acetate and opium. Dr. Stock- man's investigations, reported in the British Medical Journal, 1886, show that gallic acid, even in full doses, has no special general astringent action. Both tannic and gallic acids are used as antidotes in poisoning by alkaloids; but in combating metallic poisoning they are not so serviceable as eggs, or suitable chemical antidotes. Externally, tannic acid is used with glycerin and water in the weeping stages of eczema ; as an astringent wash with opium in prolapsus of the uterus and rectum ; while it also checks the discharge and allays the irritability of otorrhoea, which is common in dogs. Tannic acid and antipyrine, ten parts of each, with 100 of alcohol, form an excellent applica- tion for soft, ulcerating, bleeding surfaces. For piles in dogs, gallic acid is used in substance, or as an ointment, opium being added if there is much irritability ; and such applica- 640 TANNIC ACID, PHEPARATIONS AND DOSES tions arc often advantageously alternated with calomel ointment. Tannic acid is useful for burns mixed with boric ointment and sometimes with opium. For nasal catarrh it may be used mixed with starch, or iodoform, as an insuftia- tion. Doses, etc. — Of tannic acid horses take grs. xxx. to 5y'> cattle, 5iij ; sheep and large pigs, grs. xv. to 5ij- ; dogs, grs. ij. to grs. X. Gallic acid is used in the same doses ; powdered galls in about double these doses. Glycerin of tannic acid, made l)y stirring one part of acid Avith five of glycerin, is a soothing antiseptic astringent, used diluted with water as required. Gall and Opium ointment is made with 87 grains powdered galls, 15 grains opium, and 148 grains of benzoated lard, or with vaseline. A styptic colloid may be prepared with one of timnin and eight of alcohol, mixed with four of collodion. Pyrogallic acid is an antiseptic, astringent, and caustic, recommended in cases of psoriasis and ringworm, and for tanning and shrivelling carcinomatous growths. Jarisch's ointment for psoriasis consists of 60 grains pyrogallic acidj^ 1 ounce of lard. Tannalbin, a dried albuminate of tannin, has been much used in the treatment of diarrhoea and dysentery in young animals. It is a light brownish poAvder, without odour or taste, insoluble in water and unaffected by the gastric juice. In the intestine it is slowly dissolved, exerting an astrinsrent-disinfectant action on the mucous membrane. It contains about 50 per cent, of tannin. Doses, — horses and cattle, 5j- to 3iv. ; foals and calves, grs. xx. to grs, xl. ; three times daily, in gruel, milk, or electuary. Tannigen (di-acetyl- tanuin), prepared by the action of acetic anhydride on tannin, dissolved in glacial acetic acid, is a yellowish-grey powder, odourless and tasteless, insoluble in water, freely soluble in alcohol. Passes through the stomach unchanged and acts as an intestinal astringent. Recommended as a remedy for parasitic intestinal catarrh in foals. Doses, — grs. xx. to 5j., in boiled milk or linseed tea. BENZOIN 641 CHRYSAROBIN Araroba. Crude Clirysarobin. Goa powder. A substance found .in cavities in the trunk of Andira araroba, dried and powdered, and imported from Brazil. Nat. Ord. — Leguminosffi (B.P.). Chrysarobin, obtained from Araroba by extracting with hot chloroform, evaporating and powdering, occurs as a crystalline, brownish-yellow powder, insoluble in water, but soluble in chloroform, and slightly soluble in alcohol. By oxidation it yields chrysophanic acid, Oj^HgOg, which is a constituent of rhubarb, stains yellow, and is less irritant than chrysarobin. Both chrysarobin and chrysophanic acid are irritant and parasiticide, are seldom given internally, but are applied, usually in the form ot a 2 to 5 per cent, ointment, in the second squamous stages of eczema, and in psoriasis and ringworm. BENZOIN Benzoinum. a balsamic resin obtained from Styrax Benzoin and probably from other species of Styrax (B.P.). Nat. OrcZ.^Styracese. The styrax benzoin abounds in Siam, Sumatra, and Borneo, Incisions are made into the bark, when the thick, white, resinous juice exudes, and concretes in tears, which are subsequently made into larger masses, and imported in wooden cases. The colourless or reddish tears are imbedded in an amber-brown transparent resin. Inferior qualities are dark-brown or nearly black, and devoid of amygdaloid structure. Benzoin is brittle and easily pulverised, softens readily when warmed, and when further heated yields fumes of benzoic acid. It is slightly heavier than water; soluble in alcohol and in solution of potassium hydroxide. Besides traces of volatile oil, benzoin contains about 80 per cent, of three resins, distinguished by differences of solubility, and from 14 to 20 of the acrid, crystalline, benzoic 2s 642 BENZOIN — BENZOIC ACID — BENZOATES acid, HC7H5O2. Some samples contain as much as 10 per cent, of the allied cinnaniic acid. Benzoic acid is obtained from benzoin by sublimation. It may also be obtained from toluene, from hippuric acid, and from other organic compounds (B.P.). It occurs in light, feathery crystals, which are soluble in 400 parts of cold or seventeen parts of boiling water, in three parts alcohol (90 per cent.), five parts glycerin, seven of chloroform, and in the fixed and volatile oils ; also in solution of the alkalies and of calcium hydroxide forming benzoates. Ammonii benzoas is a crystalline salt produced by neutralising benzoic acid with solution of ammonia. Soluble in six parts of water, twenty-two of rectified spirit, and in eight of glycerin. Sodii benzoas, obtained by neutralising benzoic acid with sodium carbonate, is soluble in two parts cold water, and in twenty four of rectified spirit. Actions and Uses. — Benzoin, benzoic acid, and its salts are stimulant, expectorant, diuretic, antiseptic, and anti- pyretic. Benzoin, although less frequently employed now than formerly in the treatment of disease of the air passages, is still useful as an antiseptic expectorant in bronchitis and especially in chronic catarrh of aged dogs. It may be administered by the mouth or added to the steam-kettle and used as an inhalation. It is excreted mainly in the urine, part of the benzoic acid being converted in the kidneys into hippuric acid. Freely applied to recent bleeding wounds, it forms an antiseptic coagulum and serves the purpose of a temporary styptic dressing. Benzoin is extensively used in the form of Friar's balsam, or its pharmaceutical imitation, tinctura benzoini composita, which is thus prepared : — Take of benzoin, 2 ounces, storax, 1^ ounces, balsam of tolu, ^ ounce, socotrine aloes, 160 grains, alcohol (90 per cent.), 16 ounces: macerate for two days, filter, and add sufficient alcohol to produce one pint. This tincture is an excellent stimulant and antiseptic for wounds, simple ulcers, and various skin complaints in all classes of patients. Benzoated lard is made with 210 grains of benzoin to each pound of lard. STYRAX TOLU AND PERU BALSAMS 643 Benzoic acid lowers abnormal temperature, promotes the elimination of incompletely oxidised matters, renders alkaline urine acid and disinfects the urinary tract. It is used in the treatment of influenza and similar conditions, and as an antiseptic diuretic in cystitis. Sodium benzoate is less irritating and more soluble than the acid, for which it is sometimes substituted. Commended as a remedy for joint disease in foals, it abates the fever, and reduces the swelling of the limbs in strangles and pneumonia. According to Dr. Rutherford, it is a powerful hepatic stimulant. It is excreted in the urine as a soluble hippurate. A 2 per cent, solution is a good preservative for scalpels, forceps, needles, etc., in daily use. Instruments may be kept in the solution for months without oxidising. Doses, etc. — of benzoin for horses and cattle, 3iv. or more ; dogs, grs. V. to grs. x, ; in bolus or electuary. Benzoic acid, horses and cattle, grs. xxx. to grs. Ix., dogs, gr. i. to grs. v., in bolus, pill, or drench. Hypodermically, horses may be given grs. vi. benzoic acid dissolved in two drachms of a solution of equal parts of alcohol and w\ater. Intratracheally, two drachms to half an ounce of a one per cent, aqueous solution may be used. Benzoate of sodium is prescribed in considerably larger doses, and generally in drench. Styrax or Prepared Storax, a balsam obtained from the trunk of liquidambar orientalis, and purified by solution in alcohol, filtration and evaporation. Contains styrol, cinnamic acid, styracin and various resins. Storax is a constituent of the compound tincture of benzoin, and is occasionally employed as a mild stimulant, expectorant and parasiticide. For mange, lice, or fleas in dogs, it is used mixed with an equal part of sweet oil. Balsam of Tolu. — The product of the myroxylon toluifera, contains a volatile oil, various resins, benzoic and cinnamic acids. Soluble in alcohol, benzol and chloroform. It is stimulant and expectorant. Balsam of Peru, obtained from myroxylon Pereirte, contains about 60 per cent, of a volatile oil, various resins and acids. It is insoluble in water and olive oil ; soluble in alcohol and in chloroform. It is an expectorant and G44 BARLEY parasiticide. The volatile oil is toxic to the acari of mange for which a dressing is made with one part balsam of Peru and eight of lard, MARSH MALLOW ROOT ALTHiEA Radix. Dried root of Althaea officinal is. Nat. Orel. — Malvaceae. (Not official.) The Malvaceae are rich in mucilage, and several yield tenacious fibres, from which cordage is obtained. The species Gossypium have their seeds surrounded by delicate, flattened, twisted hairs, Avhich constitute raw cotton, and the seeds by expression yield the bland cotton seed oil often substituted for olive oil. The marsh mallow grows both in this country and on the Continent, generally in the neighbourhood of rivers and salt marshes. Mucilage is yielded by most parts of the plant, notably by the two and three year old roots, which contain about 35 per cent, each of mucin and starch, and a little uncrystallisable sugar. Actions and Uses. — Marsh, and also common mallow roots, are digested with boiling water, and the mucilage thus extracted, which resembles that of linseed, is used as a demulcent. BARLEY HoRDEUM. Pearl Barley. Malt. Yeast. Nat Ord. — Graminacese. Barley (Hordeum distichon) is used as food for most of the domesticated animals ; and, when stripped of its outer husk, is recognised as pearl barley. Ground to meal, it is used for making poultices and infusions. Good barley-meal contains 68 per cent, of starch, 14 glutin and albumin, 2 fatty matter, 2 saline matter, and 14 water. When moistened and exposed to a temperature of about 100° Fahr., barley ger- minates, the starch in great part being converted into dextrin and sugar, and, if the process be arrested by drying, malt is formed. Decoctum Hordei, may be made by boiling one part of washed pearl barley with 15 parts water for twenty minutes, and straining. It is nutrient and demulcent. GUM ACACIA — TRAGACANTH 645 Malt — a sweet, mucilaginous substance, which is more easily digested, but weight for weight is rather less nutritive than barley — forms a palatable and digestible article of diet for sick or convalescent horses, and is used for making poultices and demulcent laxative drinks. Barley-water, infusions of malt, and soft mashes prove especially serviceable in febrile cases, both in horses and cattle. Malt extracts are occasionally prescribed for dyspeptic calves and foals, and when well prepared are rich in diastase, and hence useful in aiding digestion of starch. When a solution of malt is fermented, as in the prepara- tion of beer, ale, or porter, there rises to the surface of the liquor a yellow-brown frothy scum, known as yeast or barm, readily putrefying when moist, but when carefully dried remaining for a long time unchanged, and owing its repro- ductive properties, and its characteristic power of converting cane into grape sugar, and thence into alcohol, to the presence of ovoid, confervoid cells of Torula cerevisia;. Yeast is occasionally used as a purgative, especially for cattle, and is given in quantities of about a pint. Antiseptic and deodorising poultices are made by stirring together one part each of boiling water and yeast with two parts of bran 9*^ linseed meal, and allowing the mixture to stand near a fire until it rises, when it is fit to use. GUM ACACIA-TRAGACANTH Acacia Gummi. A gummy exudation from the stem and branches of Acacia Senegal, and of other species of Acacia (B.P.). Tragacantha. Tragacanth. A gummy exudation obtained by incision from Astragalus gummifer, and some other species of Astragalus (B.P.), Nat Ord. — Leguminosee. Gum is obtained from many plants, notably from various species of Acacia. These are stunted, withered-looking trees, occurring in tropical countries, most prolific when old and stunted, and during dry, hot seasons. In June and July, from natural cracks or artificial incisions in the bark, a viscid juice exudes, and concretes into round masses or tears vary- 646 GUM ACACIA — TRAGACANTH ing in size from a pea to a walnut, brittle, usually shining, colourless, yellow or brown, odourless, and of a bland, sweet taste. Gum dissolves in water, forming an adhesive, viscid fluid or uuicilage. Gum acacia, or gum arable is chiefly collected in Kor- dofan, in Eastern Africa, and forwarded from Alexandria. When imported, it is picked and sorted, usually into three dift'erent qualities, distinguished by the size, colour, and transparency of the tears. It is soluble in about its own weight alike of hot and cold water, is insoluble in and incom- patible with alcohol, ether, and oils. Boiled with dilute sulphuric acid, it is converted into gum sugar ; oxidised by nitric acid, it is converted into mucic acid. It consists of arabin, or arable acid (C^.^Ho^On), which occurs in gum as arabate of calcium, magnesium, and potassium. Gum Senegal is similar to gum arable, but less brittle, and requires four or five parts of water to dissolve it. The East Indian gums are generally dark-coloured, more difficult of solution, and less valuable. The gums of Australia and the Cape, now imported in considerable quantity, are also inferior to gum arable. Tragacanth is collected in Asia Minor, mostly exported from Smyrna, and occurs in thin, semi-transparent, tough, horny, white-grey or yellow lamelke or plates, and marked with arched or concentric ridges. It is tasteless and odour- less. Although readily soluble in boiling water, it is sparingly soluble in cold water, which swells it into a jelly containing starch, as is indicated by the iodine test. Tragacanth con- tains a neutral gum, bassorin, which, gelatin-like, swells up, is not dissolved either by hot or cold water, but is soluble in alcohol. British gum or dextrin (C,.Hn^05) much used in calico printing, is made by treating starch with dilute nitric acid, drying it, and heating it to about 240° Fahr. Actions and Uses. — Gums are the least nutritive of the carbo-hydrates; when swallowed, they are dissolved by the alimentary secretions, and in part converted into sugar. They are occasionally prescribed for eusheathing the mucous surfaces in catarrh and diarrhcea, and as demulcent injec- OLIVE OIL 647 tions in inflammation of the bowels and bladder, but for veterinary purposes are usually superseded by well-boiled linseed or starch gruels. For making emulsions, electuaries, and boluses, gums have the disadvantage of speedily drying and hardening. Doses, etc. — Gums may be taken almost ad libitum. Horses and cattle may have gij. to giij ; foals, calves, and sheep, §i. ; and dogs, grs. xx. to grs. xl. An ensheathing mucilage is made with one part gum to six of water. OLIVE OIL Oleum Oliv.e. The oil expressed from the ripe fruit of Olea Europsea (B.P.). Nat. Ord. — Oleacese. Several varieties of the evergreen Olea Europsea grow abundantly in the countries bordering the Levant and Mediterranean. From the stem a resinous juice once used in medicine can be got ; the leaves are bitter, astringent, and tonic; the olives are oval, succulent, purple drupes, about the size of damsons, and containing a single seed. The ripe pericarp yields about 70 per cent, of oil, of which the finest, imported from Provence and Florence, is obtained by mode- rate pressure of the freshly-gathered fruit. Inferior qualities are got from stale or damaged fruit, or by extra pressure of the pulp. Properties. — Olive oil is one of the fixed, fatty, or expressed oils which produce on paper or linen a greasy stain, not removed by heat, and are glycerides of an acidulous radical, oleic, palmitic, or stearic acid, and the basylous glyceryl or propenyl. Olive oil contains about 72 per cent, of fluid olein or tri- olein, 03115(0^3113302)3, holding in solution about 28 of palmitin and allied fatty matters. It is of the consistence of syrup, unctuous, transparent, odourless, and of a bland taste. When pure it is pale greenish-yellow ; when impure, yellow or brown. Specific gravity 0-914 to 0-919. At 50° Fahr. it is liable to become of a pasty consistence ; and at 32" Fahr. to form a solid granular mass. It is not miscible with water, is scarcely soluble in alcohol, but dissolves in one 648 LINSEED and a half parts of ether. It is a capital solvent for cantha- ridin, atropine, and morphine. Exposed to air, it oxidises, thickens, and slowly becomes rancid, but does not dry up. Actions and Uses. — Olive oil is nutrient, laxative, and emollient. Like other bland oils, small quantities are easily digested and assimilated, aid cell development, and by oxi- dation support animal heat. Larger quantities, such as one to two pints for horses or cattle, and two to three ounces for dogs, are laxative. An ounce each of olive oil and castor oil form a mild laxative for the dog. Like other fluid fats, when injected into the veins, it fatally obstructs capillary circulation. Half an ounce injected into the jugular speedily destroys a dog. As a demulcent and emollient, it is used in poisoning by irritants and corrosives; it antagonises the action of alkalies by forming soaps, and retards solution and absorption of arsenic. Small doses are occasionally given to horses and other animals to soothe the irritable mucous membrane in chronic catarrh and bronchitis, and to dissolve the cholesterin of gall-stones. Not drying or readily becoming rancid, it is a soothing protective for irritable or abraded surfaces, but for such purposes the cheaper rape, lard, or linseed oil, and vaseline, are usually substituted. LINSEED LiNUM. Flax or Lint Seeds. The dried ripe seeds of Linum usitatissimum (B.P.). Nat. Ord. — Linaccio. LiNUM CoNTUsuM. Crushed linseed. Linseed reduced to a coarse powder (B.P.). Linseed Oil. Oleum Lini. The oil expressed from linseed at ordinary temperatures (B.P.). Linseed Cake. The residue left after expression of the oil. Linseed Meal. Farina Lini. The Linum usitatissimum, or common flax, cultivated in Britain and other European countries, yields several im- portant articles. The stem affords lint and tow ; the seeds, crushed, and subjected to hydraulic pressure, yield linseed LINSEED OIL 649 oil ; the residual cake is a valuable feeding stuff, and when reduced to powder constitutes linseed meal. The fibrous stem is utilised by steeping in water, generally used hot ; starch and cellulose are got rid of by scutching ; the fibres are hackled and carded — the shorter, coarser portions forming tow; the liner, when bleached, are made into linen. Soft, loosely woven linen, when scarified, and the cut fibres scraped into gauzy down, constitutes surgeons' lint. Both lint and tow, as well as jute (the prepared fibre of hemp), are employed as protectives for wounds. When saturated with hot or cold water they prove cleanly sub- stitutes for poultices. For cleansing wounds they are pre- ferable to sponges, which are apt to retain and distribute septic germs, while the rag, lint, or tow is thrown away after use. These fibrous materials, saturated with carbolic or other antiseptic solutions, are used for antiseptic dressings. Oakum, consisting of detached fibres of old ropes, when treated with Stockholm tar, is also a cheap antiseptic dressing. Lint seeds are about two lines long, smooth, and shining, of a brown colour and oval shape, flattened laterally, and pointed at one extremity. They are inodorous, but have an oily, mucilaginous taste. They consist of about 20 per cent, of mucilage, wholly present in the envelope of the seed, and hence only properly extracted by prolonged steeping or slow boiling ; 20 of albuminoids, a little sugar, 25 to 30 of oil, contained in the albumen and embryo ; 5 to 6 of mineral matters, chiefly phosphates, mostly stored in the husks ; 5 to 8 of fibre, and 8 to 10 of water. Crushed linseed should yield not less than 30 per cent, of oil when exhausted by carbon bisulphide. The seeds, ground and pressed without the aid of heat, produce about 25 per cent, of oil of the best quality ; steam heat extracts 25 to 35 per cent. The residual linseed cake, or oilcake, con- tains 10 to 13 per cent, of oil. Linseed oil is viscid, has a pale-yellow colour, a faint but distinct odour, and a bland taste. Specific gravity 0930 to 0"940. It consists largely of olein, or of a variety recognised as linolein. Although it does not solidify until 650 LINSEED cooled to —15° or —20° Falir., at ordinary temperatures it oxidises and becomes viscous, hence receiving the title of a drying oil. This drying property is much increased by boiling, or heating it with litharge or black oxide of manganese. It is insoluble in water, soluble in ten parts alcohol (90 per cent.), in one and a half of ether, and in oil of turpentine. Boiled with alkaline solutions it forms soaps. Mixed with an equal quantity of lime Avater it forms Carron oil, a useful dressing for burns and scalds. Exposed for some time to a high temperature it becomes a dark, tenacious mass, which, when mixed with lamp-black con- stitutes printers' ink. It is sometimes adulterated with rapeseed oil, but is more commonly of inferior quality from rancidity, from preparation at a high temperature, or from presence of impurities. Actions and Uses. — Linseed and linseed cakes are valuable feeding stufts for cattle and sheep, and, in restricted amount, for horses. As fat producers they represent about two and a half times the value of starch or sugar. They are emul- sionised mainly by the pancreatic and biliary fluids; they are absorbed chiefly by the lacteals, and their combustion develops heat and force. In moderate amount they favour assimilation alike of carbohydrates and proteids, with which they are generally given. Well- boiled linseed gruel, or crushed linseed cake digested in hot water, is a palatable, digestible nutrient for horses, cattle, and sheep, not only in health, but notably in catarrhal and other inflammatory attacks, in tuberculosis, rheumatism, chronic skin complaints, and during convalescence from re- ducing disorders. In such cases it proves both food and medicine. In febrile cases many horses will sip cold linseed tea when they will scarcely eat or drink anything else. Where the patient is exhausted, the linseed tea is given with milk, eggs, or beef-tea, or with alcoholic or other stimulants. Horses that are bad feeders, with unthrifty coats, and horses affected with roaring or thick wind, are usually nmch benefited, especially while living mostly on oats . and hay, by about a pound daily of broken linseed cake. For healthy hunters and carriage horses the con- NUTRIENT, MUCILAGINOUS DEMULCENT 651 tinned use of linseed cake proves, however, too fattening and often causes itching. Young herbivora reared on skim milk frequently have linseed gruel mixed with it to furnish requisite fatty matters, and also to prevent the formation of tough, indigestible curd. Linseed gruel, or a few ounces of crushed cake given daily to calves or lambs, as soon as they will eat it, not only economically favours growth and early maturity, but is tolerably effectual in warding off attacks of diarrhoea, dysentery, and anaemia. A mucilaginous, demulcent decoction, made with about one part of steeped seed to fifteen or twenty parts boiling water, is useful in irritable conditions of the throat, respir- atory passages, bowels, kidneys, and bladder; in poisoning with irritants and corrosives; and as a convenient vehicle for the administration of nauseous or acrid medicines. Crushed linseed makes good poultices, especially when mixed with an equal quantity of bran or oatmeal ; but the bruised linseed cake is cheaper, less apt to become rancid, and equally effectual in retaining heat and moisture. The common mass employed for making up balls and pills usually consists of equal quantities of linseed meal and treacle. Linseed Oil has been used dietetically; but neither for cattle nor sheep does it serve so well as properly prepared linseed or linseed cake. It has the disadvantage of being too laxative, and it increases rather than diminishes the quantity of ordinary food consumed. As an adjuvant feed- ing stuff for animals in health, I have found it inferior to linseed cake, beans, or oats. One to two ounces repeated daily are, however, often beneficial, in sore-throat and bronchitis in horses, and especially for subjects that will not take linseed gruel or mashes. Linseed oil, in quantity too large to be digested, acts as a cathartic ; it is also emollient. It closely resembles rape- seed, almond, and other fixed oils ; but is scarcely so actively cathartic as castor oil. As a laxative it usually produces tolerably full and softened evacuations, without nausea, griping, or super- purgation. It is prescribed for young and delicate horses, 652 LINSEED OIL LAXATIVE AND EMOLLIENT and pregnant mares, and for all subjects in influenza, pur- pura, and other debilitating disorders ; in diarrhcea, hernia, and irritable states of the intestine, as well as in over- loaded, torpid bowels, where aloes and other active purga- tives, especially if repeated, might cause dangerous symptoms. It is serviceable in warding off attacks of lymphangitis, hsemoglobinuria, cedema and itching of the limbs, which are liable to occur when hard-worked horses have several days' rest. In the treatment of colic it is generally com- bined with a stinuilant and anodyne. A draught in common use consists of one pint of linseed oil with an ounce each of ether and laudanui% both being doubled in acute cases and in large horses. In colic, aloes, however, generally acts better than linseed oil; but for laxative enemas the oil is preferable. Two or three ounces of linseed oil, or of a mixture of equal parts of linseed and olive oils, given daily in mash, often suffice, with the use of encmata, to maintain the bowels of horses in a sufficiently relaxed state throughout catarrhal and other febrile attacks. This treatment is also specially suitable in inflammation of the kidneys and bladder, when it is desirable to rest these organs, and promote excretion by the bowels and skin. An ounce or two of oil combined with lime-water given daily to broken-winded subjects often advantageously relieves the distressing breathing. In cattle and canine practice linseed oil is much used as a purgative, especially for young and weakly patients, in advanced pregnancy, in gastro-intestinal derangements, in irritant poisoning, where saline or other active purgatives have been given, and their repetition is inexpedient, and as a convenient menstruum for the administration of croton oil and oil of turpentine. For calves and lambs it is milder and safer than salts. For dogs, especially when young, when the dicjestive ort^ans are in an irritable state, and exhaustinij disease has reduced strength, it is a suitable laxative, and more effectual when mixed with an equal amount of castor oil. As a lubricant and emollient linseed oil is useful in choking; mixed with well-boiled starch gruel, and injected into the rectum, it allays irritation; softening the hard, LIQUORICE ROOT 653 cracked, or scaly skin, it is applied, with an alkaline solution, in psoriasis, impetigo, and eczema. Its analgesic effects are increased by admixture with lead acetate solution. For emollient dressings, to be used for a considerable time, vase- line and benzoated almond, or cocoa-nut, oil are, however, preferable, as they are not drying or prone to rancidity. The drying properties, possessed in common Avitli poppy and cod- liver oils, render linseed oil less suitable than lard or olive, almond, rape, or colza oil, for making ointments and lini- ments. Friction with oil often reduces swollen joints and bursas. Flannel, soaked in hot linseed oil, is sometimes applied for the relief of rheumatism.. The ' black oil ' used in many parts of England for bruises, strains, and wounds, is made with a pint of linseed or other oil, two ounces oil of turpentine, adding six drachms diluted sulphuric acid, and leaving the bottle unstoppered until the heat evolved by admixture of the acid has passed away. Doses, etc. — As a cathartic, horses take Oss. to Oj.; cattle, Oj. to Oij.; sheep and pigs, fgvi. to fgx. ; dogs, fgi. to fgij.; cats, f5i. ; administered shaken up with linseed gruel, mucil- age, milk, treacle, lirae-water, or spirit and water. For horses or cattle it is sometimes mixed with a well-made bran mash. LIQUORICE ROOT Glycyrrhiz^ Radix. The peeled root and peeled subter- ranean stem of Glycyrrhiza glabra and other species. (B.P.). Nat. Ord. — Leguminosse. The perennial herbaceous plants yielding liquorice grow in the temperate countries of Continental Europe. Their roots and underground stems arrive at perfection about the third year, and produce a yellow powder having a sweet taste, and soluble in water, and, to a less extent, in alcohol. Besides asparagin, gum, starch, sugar, malic acid, and a resinous oil, to which it owes its sub-acrid taste, liquorice contains about G per cent, of a sweet, yellow glucoside, termed glycyrrhizin. The natural juice or watery infusion, concentrated until it becomes solid, forms the extract or black sugar. 654 STARCH Actions and Uses. — Liquorice resembles sugar and treacle in its dietetic and medicinal uses. Powdered, it is oc- casionally used as as a demulcent in irritation of the pul- monar}^ mucous membrane, for making up boluses and covering the disagreeable taste and odour of various drugs. The laxative compound liquorice powder, composed of senna, liquorice root, fennel, sulphur, and sugar, is some- times prescribed for calves, lambs, and dogs. The dose is 5j. to 5iv. STARCH Amylum. The starch procured from the grains of common wheat, Triticum sativum ; maize, Zea Mays ; and rice, Oryza sativa (B.P.). Nat. Ord. — Graminaceae. Starch is an important member of that dietetic series of carbo-hydrates, including gums and sugars, which contains at least six carbon atoms with hydrogen and oxygen in the proportion to form water. Starch is largely present in the cereal grains, in the stems of man}^ plants, and in tubers, being stored in the seeds and tubers for the nourishment of the young plants. Wheat flour contains about 70 per cent, of carbo-hydrates, chiefly starch, which receives the special title of amylum, 10 of proteids with water, and ash. Oat- meal contains 63 of starch and about 12*6 of proteids, with traces of a bitter amor]3hous alkaloid ; barley, C4 starch, 12 proteids ; rice, 83 starch, 5 proteids ; potatoes, 21 starch, 2-8 proteids. From any of these sources pure starch is got by fine division of the grain or root ; sometimes facilitating separation of other plant constituents by fermenting; wash- ing the starch granules from fibrous matters, straining, and drying. The white starch used for medicinal and dietetic purposes is dried in powder or granules. The blue preferred for the laundry is in blocks, splits as it dries into colunmar masses, is coloured by addition of a little indigo, and generally contains about 18 per cent, of water. Arrowroot is the starch of the Maranta arundinacea; sago, the granular starch from the sago palm ; tous-les-mois, the large ovular granules from the rhizomes of several A NUTRITIVE CARBO-HYDRATE 655 species of Canna ; tapioca or cassava is prepared from the expressed juice of the roots of Manihot utilissima. Corn flour or Oswego is the flour of Indian corn deprived of gluten by a weak sohition of soda. Starch consists of round or oval granules comprising a cell-wall enclosing concentric layers of graniilose. The large grains from potatoes are about -^^th of an inch in their long diameter, the small rounded grains of rice measure ■;; ^\ 0 th of an inch. Starch grains from various sources differ in appearance when examined under the microscope. Wheat starch presents a mixture of large and small granules, which are lenticular in form, and marked with faint concentric strioe surrounding a nearly central hilum. The maize granules are more uniform in size, frequently polygonal, smaller than those of wheat, having a very distinct hilum, but without evident concentric striae. Rice granules are extremely minute, and nearly uniform in size, polygonal, the hilum small and without stride (B.P.). Starch is insoluble in cold water, has the specific gravity 1-5, and hence is deposited when mixed with water. The cell- wall consisting of cellulose and the contained granulose are isomeric, having the formula usually given as CgH^^iOg. When mixed with water above 120° Fahr., the starch grains burst; the granulose, escaping, occupies twenty to thirty times its previous volume, and forms the viscid gelatinous mucilage used by the laundress. A solution of starch Avhen cold gives the characteristic blue compound with solution of iodine. Starch, Avhen boiled with diluted sulphuric or nitric acid, is converted into the isomeric but more soluble dextrin or British gum, one variety of which is coloured red by iodine. With further action of a weak acid and heat, dextrin takes up water and is converted into maltose (Cj^H^g Ojj.HoO), and eventually into dextrose (CgH^oOg). When starch foods are eaten the salivary and intestinal ferments graduall}- crack the granules, and quickly convert the starch through several forms of dextrin into maltose, and eventually into dextrose. These changes are also readily produced by mixing starch paste with crushed malt, the diastase of which develops the fermentative changes. C56 STARCH DEMULCENT AND EMOLLIENT Animal starch, or glycogen (CgHjoOg), present in the liver, in blood, and in muscle, exhibits most of the characters of vegetable starch. Actions and Uses. — Starch foods are rapidly digested, especially when cooking or fermentation has cracked the starch cells, or when they have been thoroughly insalivated. Like other such proximate principles, pure starch cannot, however, alone support life for any lengthened period. A properly balanced dietary for horses or cattle should con- tain one part of proteids and five to eight parts of starch or other carbo-hydrates. Active exertion, as in the case of hard- worked horses, or abnormal secretion, as of heavily- milking cows, causes great expenditure of albuminoids, which must be replaced by the food. Growing animals, in order to build up their tissues, require relatively larger supplies of albuminoids than suffice for adults. The starches — mostly converted into sugar — are consumed in the body more quickly and fully than fats. During their oxidation they are the great source of animal heat, especially in herbivora. They prevent wasteful consumption of the more costly albuminoids and fats. Under favourable conditions, carbo- hydrates, in excess, are also believed to be directly concerned in the formation of fat, and Pasteur states that they furnish glycerin — the basis of neutral fats. For nutritive purposes seventeen parts (Voit) to twenty-three parts (Rubner) of carbo-hydrates are equivalent to ten parts of fat. As a demulcent and emollient, starch mucilage protects and softens irritable surfaces. In diarrhoea and dysentery it is used about the consistence of cream, at the temperature of 100" Fahr., either alone or with laudanum, sugar of lead, or other astringent, and is given both by the mouth and rectum. It is an antidote to excessive doses of iodine. Dry starch readily absorbs water, and hence is a desiccant for wounds, forming a protective covering. Mixed with equal parts of zinc oxide, it dries and soothes the weeping earlier stages of eczema. Conjoined with carbolic acid, or boric acid and iodoform, it forms a convenient desiccant antiseptic. One part of starch, heated with five of glycerin and three of water, make a soothing denmlcent. Starch is used for mix- SUGAR 657 ing and subdividing medicines, and as a vehicle for their administration. It is employed to stiffen bandages for fractures and other surgical purposes. SUGAR Sugar exists in many plants ; is prepared in France and Germany from white beet, in Asia from various palms, and in America from sugar maple (Sorghum saccharatum), and maize. The sugar used in this country is chiefly got from the sugar-cane (Saccharum officinarum), which is extensively cultivated in the West Indies, has a perennial root, and a jointed annual stem six to twelve feet high. These canes are crushed between heavy rollers; the pale green expressed juice, which contains nearly twenty per cent, of sugar, is mixed with a little slaked lime to neutralise acids and precipitate albuminoids, and concentrated in shallow vacuum pans at a temperature not exceeding 140° Fahr. ; the coagulating albumin, entangling impurities, is skimmed off; the syrup is cooled in wooden vats, and dried in the sun, yellow dark-brown crystals of raw sugar are formed, and there drains away a variable quantity of brown uncrystallised molasses. A hundredweight of raw sugar yields about 80 pounds refined sugar and 16 pounds treacle. There are two classes of sugars — (1) the Sucroses or Sac- charoses, which, when dry, have the formula C12H22O1P and (2) the Glucroses, with the formula CgH^g^e- Sucrose, saccharose, or cane sugar {C^.2^.220^j), like sulphur and arsenious acid, has an amorphous and a crystalline form, its crystals are monoclinic prisms; specific gravity 1606; it phosphoresces in the dark, and is dextro-rotatory. It is hydroscopic, soluble in one-third of its weight of water at 60° Fahr., but insoluble in absolute alcohol. A strong solution, evaporated and heated to 320° Fahr., fuses, and the vitreous mass can be moulded into barley-sugar. Between 356° and 374)° Fahr. sucrose parts with two molecules of water, loses its sweet taste, acquires a dark colour, and becomes caramel, which is used by confectioners and distillers as a colouring agent. 2t ti58 SUGARS Sucrose in plants is gradually built up from the simpler glucose (CgH^.^Oy), and, conversely, when acted on by dilute acids or by ferments, such as diastase or yeast, it is again converted into glucose. Sucrose undergoes this change before it yields alcohol. Maltose (CjgHgoO^j.HgO) is prepared by grinding starch with water, warming it until it gelatinises, and heating with crushed malt, the diastase of which sets up fermentation, causing three molecules of starch to appropriate one of water, and yield one molecule of maltose and one of dextrin. Maltose is also formed during the digestion of starch by the ferments of the salivary, intestinal, and pancreatic juices. It is soluble and readily fermented. Lactose, or milk sugar (C^.^HaaO^pHgO), is prepared by evaporating whey to a syrup, and crystallising. It occurs in translucent, greyish-white, hard cylindrical masses of rhombic prisms. It is gritty, and, being less soluble, is not so sweet as the vegetable sugars. It is not directly fermentable. Homoeopathic chemists use it for subdividing medicines. Glucose, dextrose, or grape sugar (Cj;H^.,0(.), is the variety present in grapes and other fruit, and in honey. It is obtained by boiling cane sugar, or acting upon it with alcoholic solution of hydrochloric acid, is formed when starch is boiled with water acidulated with sulphuric acid, and is the variety occurring in blood and urine. It is produced when glucosides, such as salicin, amygdalin, digi- talin, etc., are boiled with diluted acid. It is neither so sweet nor so soluble as sucrose, crystallises in six-sided scales, is not charred by sulphuric acid, but forms with it sulphosaccharic acid. It produces a readily crystallisable compound with common salt. Laevulose, also termed fructose, is isomeric with dextrose, and is associated with it in most fruits. By keeping, and especially by exposure to light, the more soluble Isevulose in fruits and syrups is gradually converted into the more crystalline dextrose. These two sugars are distinguished by the manner in which they turn a ray of polarised light. Laivulose is sweeter than dextrose, and less fermentable. Molasses, treacle, theriaca, or sacchari fa3x, is the un- NUTRITIVE, LAXATIVE, DEMULCENT, ANTISEPTIC 659 crystallised, fermentable, syrupy residue from the prepara- tion and refining of sugar. It has a brown colour, a pleasant sweet taste, and a specific gravity of about I'i. Molasses is the drainings from the raw sugar ; treacle the darker, thicker residue from the moulding process. Honey or mel, the saccharine secretion deposited in the honeycomb by the hive bee, when first collected is yellow, translucent, and viscid, and consists of variable proportions of sucrose and Isevulose. The popular household expectorant oxymel is made of eight parts of honey, liquefied by heat, and mixed with one part each of acetic acid and water. Actions and Uses. — The sugars are members of the carbo- hydrate series of dietetic substances, are digestible and nutritive ; their important function in all the higher animals is the support of animal heat ; they moreover economise the proteids and fats, and directly contribute to the deposit of fat. They are laxatives, demulcents, and antiseptics, and used pharmaceutically as excipients. One or two pounds given to horses or cattle, eight to twelve ounces to sheep or dogs, eight to ten drachms to poultry, increase the amount and fluidity of the faeces, and usually also augment secretion of urme. As a demulcent sugar is used in the dry stages of catarrh, in poisoning with salts of mercury and copper, and as a domestic remedy for wounds, and for removing specks from the cornea. Its antiseptic properties recommend it for pre- serving many vegetable and some soft animal substances, and for making up various medicines. It increases the solubility of calcium salts and retards oxidation of ferrous compounds. The syrupus of the B.P, used for flavouring, preserving, and suspending medicines, is made by dissolving, with the aid of heat, five pounds refined sugar in two pints distilled water, and adding after cooling, sufiicient water to make the weight of the product 7i lbs. Specific gravity 1-330. Molasses and treacle are often substituted for sugar. They are palatable, digestible, laxative articles of diet, useful for sick and convalescent animals. They are con- venient auxiliary purgatives, and valuable for hastening the action, preventing the nausea, and covering the disagree- able flavour of active cathartics. When fuU doses of physic 660 PETANELLT? have been given, and their repetition is inexpedient, large and repeated doses of treacle encourage the action of the purgative, especially in cattle and sheep. As a soothing antiseptic gargle for horses, three or four ounces of treacle and an ounce of borax or of potassium nitrate or chlorate are dissolved in a pint of water, and a few ounces slowly administered every hour or two. When cough is trouble- some an ounce of belladonna extract may be added. Treacle is a convenient antiseptic excipient for ball masses, impart- ing a proper consistence, and preventing their becoming dry, hard, or mouldy. The common mass, so largely used as an excipient, is made by thoroughly mixing with gentle heat equal weights of treacle and linseed flour. Doses, etc. — Of sugar and treacle, as laxatives, horses and cattle take Ib.i. ; sheep, §v. or §vi. ; pigs, §ij. to §vi. ; dogs, §i. to §ij., administered with aromatics and salines, usually dissolved in water, milk, or gruel, or mixed with a mash. PETANELLB Petanelle wool fibre, powder, and hygienic clothing, for veterinary use, are manufactured by Messrs. Pat^, Burke & Co., London, Paris, and Elieims. The fibre extracted by a patented process from red or moss peat, is sterilised, under pressure, by means of moist heat at a temperature of 134° Cent., and then dried. It is aseptic, antiseptic, and deodorant, and is used as a wound-dressing in place of carbolised tow or other similar absorbent. The fibre is eminently porous, very compressible and elastic, and a powerful absorbent of liquids and gases. It is not putres- cible ; and it is said to undergo no change in whatever medium it may be placed. Applied to wounds it promotes healing, and frequent renewal of the dressing is unnecessary. Petanelle powder is disinfectant and, according to Professor Bayne, Royal Veterinary College, London, it is especially useful as a deodorant. The rugs, saddle-cloths, and bandages for horses, and the blankets and cushions for dogs remain free from offensive odour after long use (see Veterinary Record, 1900). SUBSTANCES DERIVED FROM THE ANIMAL KINGDOM 6C1 CANTHARIDES Cantharis. Blistering or Spanish Fly. The dried beetle — Cantharis vesicatoria. Class — Insecta. Order — Coleoptera. Cantharides flies are found in most parts of Southern Europe, Germany, and Russia, and occasionally along the south coast of England. They settle on such trees and shrubs as the olive, lilac, privet, ash, elder, honeysuckle, and rose. During May and June, after nightfall or before dawn, the collectors, with their faces protected by masks and their hands by gloves, shake or beat the insects from the trees on which they feed, kill them by exposure to the fumes of oil of turpentine, or by immersion in boiling water or vinegar, and quickly dry them in the sun or by artificial heat. The flies used in this country were formerly brought from Spain (and hence their vernacular name of Spanish flies), but are now chiefly imported from Hungary, St. Petersburg, and Messina, usually packed in barrels or cases containing from 100 to 200 lbs. Properties, etc. — The insect is from three quarters of an inch to an inch long, and a quarter of an inch broad, with two long elytra or wing-sheaths of a shining coppery-green colour, under which are two thin, brownish, gauze-like, membranous wings. The body, especially along its under surface, is covered with grey- white hairs; the head is large; the antennae or horns are black and thread-like. The insect, which lives eight to ten days, deposits its larvse in the earth, leaving them to be hatched by the heat of the sun. It has a resinous, acrid taste, and a disagreeable, penetrating, foetid odour. Powdered cantharides is freely soluble in boiling water, alcohol, ether, acetic acid, and fixed and A^olatile oils. The active principle being volatile, no cantharides prepara- tion should be heated beyond 200° Fahr. Its distinguishing tests are its vesicant action, and the brilliant green appear- ance of the wing-sheaths. Cantharides, besides animal matters, acetic and uric acids, contains a bland oil, a foetid, acrid, volatile oil, and about C62 CANTHARTDES 2 per cent, of a fatty crystallisable principle cantharidin (CjoHjoO^), which is confined to the soft parts of the body, and is present particularly in the blood and female sexual organs. It is slowly deposited, when an alcoholic solution of cantharides is concentrated. When pure, it crystallises in colourless scales or prisms, melts at 482° Fahr., is in- soluble in water, but soluble in alcohol, acetic acid, ether, chloroform, and oils ; y^ of a grain suffices to blister. Impurities. — As the powdered cantharides sold in the shops sometimes contains euphorbium and various cheap irritants, it is advised that the flies be purchased entire. Other insects are sometimes mixed with them. The species of mylabris sold as Chinese blistering flies have two orange- coloured bands and spots on the wing-covers. Activity is sometimes impaired by damp, long-keeping, and attacks of mites, moths, and beetles — parasitic attacks which are pre- vented by keeping the fresh flies in closely-stoppered bottles, with a few drops of acetic acid, or a few grains of camphor or ammonium carbonate. Actions and Uses. — Cantharides is an irritant, and pro- duces its effects on any part with which the free cantharidin is brought into contact. Applied externally, it stimulates and vesicates, and is used as a counter-irritant. When swallowed it irritates the digestive mucous membrane ; large doses produce gastro-enteritis. The active cantharidin is absorbed, and in the blood forms a non-irritant albuminoid, but in the kidneys is again liberated, developing its charac- teristic irritation — small doses stimulating the urino-genital tract, causing diuresis, and in some animals increased sexual desire; full doses inducing inflammation, strangury, and hicmaturia. General Actions. — According to the strength of the pre- paration, or the period during which it is apj^lied, cantharides produces redness, vesication, or sloughing of the skin or mucous surfaces. An ordinary vesicant dressing causes con- gestion, elevation of local temperature, and, usually within three to twelve hours, formation of blisters, which, after a variable but generally short time, burst, and discharge a yellow, serous fluid, which dries into scurfy cicatrices. When AN IRRTTAN.T POISON 663 freely or continuously used, the deeper-seated skin tissues are inflamed, and ulceration, and sloughing with suppura- tion ensue. When the true skin has thus been seriously inflamed, the hair bulbs are injured; the hair is removed, and permanent baldness and blemishing may result. As a vesicant it is most powerful on horses and dogs, and less powerful on cattle, swine, and poultry. Toxic Effects. — Orfila found that ' three drachms of the tincture, with eight grains of powder suspended in it, caused the death of a dog in twenty-four hours, if retained in the stomach by a ligature on the gullet, insensibility being the chief symptom ; and that forty grains of the powder killed another dog in four hours and a half, although he was allowed to vomit. When administered by the stomach, that organ was found much inflamed after death ; and if given in the form of powder, fragments of the poison were generally discernible. When applied to a wound, the powder excites surrounding inflammation ; and a drachm will, in this way, prove fatal in thirty-two hours, without any constitutional symptom except languor ' (Christison On Poisons). An ounce of powdered cantharides administered to a horse caused death in eighteen hours; and fatal efl^ects are reported to have occurred where only one drachm was given (Morton). The treatment of the gastro-intestinal or urinary irritation consists in the free use of mucilaginous drinks with opiates. Oils and fats are inadmissible on account of their favouring solution of any unabsorbed poison. When constitutional irritation has resulted from absorption of the cantharidin from a blistered surface, this should be dressed with soothing remedies. Medicinal Uses. — Small, repeated doses are occasionally prescribed in chronic catarrh. In such cases Professor Robertson gave it with copaiba. It is sometimes serviceable in chronic cystitis ; while giving tone to the bladder, small doses prevent involuntary escape of urine. In some parts of Germany it is given to cows which are tardy in coming to service; but its aphrodisiac effects on either sex are un- certain, and seldom produced except by dangerously large doses. When administered for some time, small vesicles 064 CANTHARTDES sometimes appear on the skin, depending on the excretion of cantharidin cutaneously. External Applications. — Cantharides, in small amount and diluted, stimulates the capillaries and trophic nerves of the part to which it is applied, and thus increases the blood supply and functional activity of the skin and hair bulbs. It hence induces a healthier condition of the dermis in some chronic scaly diseases, and promotes growth of hair ; ulcers and tardily -healing wounds are stimulated, and their repair encouraged. Inflammatory products are liquefied and absorbed — an effect familiarly illustrated by the action of a blister on the swelling remaining around a bruise, or on the fulness and thickening resulting from a strain. The bene- ficial effects of a cantharides blister in arresting inflam- mation and removing effusion were often exhibited when blood-letting was the rule, and phlebitis of the jugular vein of the horse was not infrequent. Blistering ointment, well rubbed in along the course of the vessel, removed the tense, corded, inflammatory swelling. Cantharides blister is usefully applied in cases of open joint or bursa, where the wound is small, to prevent escape of synovia. It is also applied in umbilical hernia in foals and calves; and while it mechanically prevents the descent of the intestine, it gradually obliterates the opening in the abdominal wall. Similar effects are sometimes obtained by moistening the adjacent skin with sulphuric acid. Cantharides is much used as a counter-irritant. The external irritation reflexly relieves tension, inflammation, and pain of adjacent or deep-seated parts. Blisters applied experimentally to the chest or loins of dogs and rabbits, while producing external congestion, cause anaemia of the pleura and lungs, or of the deeper-seated muscles of the back. Professor Robertson has recorded that in pleuritic and other cases a blister so notably modifies morbid action, and relieves painful tension, that temperature is reduced 2° to 3° Fa.hr., and the pulse ten beats per minute. He preferred cantharides to mustard, believing it to cause less irritation and pain, and to produce more permanent curative effects. Professor Williams, however, maintains that cantharides USES AS A COUNTER-IRRITANT 665 and other blisters unnecessarily irritate most horses, and, in acute diseases of the respiratory organs, are neither so certain nor so satisfactory as hot fomentations (p. 700). In many cases of catarrh and sore-throat, heat and moisture are certainly more effectual than blisters ; but tedious, irri- table conditions of the larynx, inducing coughing, are often relieved by a cantharides dressing. In the outset of roaring, counter-irritation is often useful. In acute bronchitis, when mainly affecting the larger tubes, it is serviceable, in con- junction with inhalation of steam, and after stuping the parts with hot water. But Professor Robertson also speaks favourably of fly blisters in cases where considerable exuda- tion blocks the smaller tubes. Their efficacy is seldom so obvious in pneumonia, especially when involving a consider- able area. In pleurodynia and most stages of pleurisy, cantharides is specially useful; in the earlier stages it moderates acute inflammation, while later it checks or removes effusion. It is the counter-irritant usually applied in inflammation ot the pericardium. Although occasionally used, it is never of much value, in either colic or enteritis. In peritonitis it is seldom so effectual as in pleurisy, but was advised by Professor Robertson in chronic cases. Where acute inflammation extends over a considerable area of the peritoneum, it is desirable that the blister be applied some little distance to the side of and not directly over the closely underlying inflamed spot. Professor Williams and other good authorities recommend cantharides blisters in encephalitis and myelitis, as well as in chronic paralysis. Cases of paralysis in cows depending upon parturient apo- plexy are usually benefited by moderate counter-irritation, maintained for a week or ten days. In rheumatism, in all patients, advantage frequently results from a fly blister which is maintained active by repeated application. Irritation and inflammation of joints, bursas, ligaments, tendons, and bones are combated, and effused products removed by blisters properly used. When external surfaces or comparatively superficial textures are to be directly stimulated, the cantharides application must be mild, and not too long applied. When deeper-seated parts are to be 666 CANTHARIDES acted on, more powerful preparations are needful, and their eflfects may be maintained by repetition. It is seldom advisable to apply cautharides directly to any part which is hot, tender, or inflamed. In applying blisters to inflamed joints or bursas, it is judicious to place them, not immediately upon, but somewhat above or below, the affected spot. Where continued eft'ects are desired, mercury biniodide ointment is alternated with cantharides, or substituted for it, or the actual cautery is used instead of blisters. Owing to its liability to become absorbed and irritate the kidneys, it is an unsuitable counter-irritant in inflamma- tion of the urinary organs. In common with all other causes of irritation, it must be avoided in tetanus. Unless on a very limited surface, and freely diluted, cantharides nmst not be used in weakl}^, exhausted subjects. It should not be applied to any portion of the skin in a highly vascular or sensitive condition, or where there is tendency to erysipelas. In dogs, special caution is required, as they are apt to rub the blistered parts, and cause sloughing. Cantharides some- times acts with unexpected violence on the skin of well-bred horses, and for such subjects strong blisters are not advisable, and their application over considerable surfaces should be avoided. No horse should have all four legs blistered at one time. In some excitable subjects even a moderate blister causes much constitutional disturbance. Doses, etc. — For horses, grs. iv. to grs. xx. ; for cattle, grs. X. to grs. XX.; for sheep and swine, grs. ij. to grs. viij.; for dogs, gr. ss. to grs. ij., repeated once or twice a day, usually siven with aromatics and bitters, in the form of bolus or tincture; administration suspended if urinary irritation or any untoward eft'ects occur. Cantharides is used externally in the form of powder tincture, vinegar, ointment, liniment, and plaster. Powdered cantharides is principally used for maintaining irritation, and for scattering over mustard poultices and other stimulant applications to increase their activity. Tinctures of cantharides are made of varying strength. The B.P. tincture (1 in 80), and other alcoholic preparations, used in human medicine are too weak for most veterinary PHARMACEUTICAL PREPARATIONS G67 purposes. One ounce of coarsel3'-powdered flies, macerated for seven days with fifteen or twenty ounces of alcohol, 60 per cent., forms a useful tincture of medium strength. The activity is augmented by addition of liquor ammonise, or oil of turpentine. The tinctures in common use act speedily, but their effects are less powerful and permanent than those of the ointments. Though producing considerable irritation, they seldom cause blistering, unless applied repeatedly at short intervals. In using them, it is not essential that the hair be removed, nor even that the animal be kept idle. They may be applied repeatedly to the same spot without fear of blemishing. Vinegar of cantharides made with one part of powdered flies and ten of acetic acid — forms a prompt counter-irritant. The B.P. Acetum Cantharidis is prepared with two parts cantharides, and 10 parts each of glacial acetic acid and water. Ointments of cantharides are much used. Their olea- ginous constituents ensure solution of the cantharidin, and render them easy of application. Many contain a number of ingredients, but the simplest are usually the best. A useful ointment of medium strength consists of one part of powdered cantharides to six of benzoated lard, palm oil, or vaseline. A stronger ointment is made with one ounce each of mercury biniodide and cantharides, and eight ounces of vaseline or benzoated lard. Such an ointment, when well made and applied with smart friction, acts effectually. Another excellent ointment is made with one part each of powdered cantharides, Venice turpentine, and resin, with four parts of vaseline, palm oil, or lard. The powdered flies are digested with the oily matters in a covered vessel, over a slow fire or a water- bath, for twelve hours, and the vessel placed in boiling water for fifteen minutes ; any wax or resinous matters used to give consistence are then melted and stirred in, any volatile flavouring oil added, and the mixture, if required, strained through muslin. French, German, and Belgian practitioners frequent!}-, however, add other irritants to their cantharides blisters. 668 CANTHARIDES Degive, of the Veterinary College, Brussels, states that numerous experiments convince him that the best vesicant is made of ten to fifteen parts each of cantharides and corrosive sublimate dissolved in one hundred parts ot vaseline. The part is prepared by clipping the hair, and washing with soap and water. The ointment is rubbed in for ten minutes, and, if needful, six hours later the surface may be simply anointed. Swelling and vesicles appear usually within a few hours; the vesicles are as large as pigeons' eggs ; but by the second day inflammation subsides, and blemishing, it is said, does not occur {Jour. Conij). Path, and TherajJ., 1890). In cattle practice, counter-irritation is generally produced with mustard paste or blister, but some powder, or strong ointment, of cantharides, mixed with the mustard, greatly increases its effects. For dogs, a convenient ointment is made with an ounce each of powdered cantharides and oil of turpentine, and twelve to twenty ounces of lard. To ensure full vesication, the hair should be removed, the skin washed with soap and water and dried, and the ointment then well rubbed in. The extent of surface to be covered must obviously depend upon the nature, seat, and extent of the malady. To prevent the blister, when liberally applied, from spreading beyond the desired limits, the blistered area may be surrounded with an edging ot resin ointment. The blister, while acting, often causes considerable irritation, and the animal, if permitted, will rub or bite the blistered part. In the horse this should be prevented by securing the head to the rack, putting on a cradle, or, when required, tying up the tail ; in the dog, by the use of the muzzle. On the next, second, or third day, the blistered part should be dressed with zinc oxide ointment, oil, lard, vaseline, or Carron oil. If sufficient effect has not been produced, a little more of the blister may then be applied. Liniments of cantharides are merely liquefied ointments, and, in respect of activity, usually occupy a place between ointments and tinctures. They generally consist of one part of cantharides and six to ten parts of rape or linseed oil. COD-LIVER OIL 669 Oil of turpentine is sometimes added. The B.P. Liquor epispasticus is made Avith ten of cantharides and twenty of acetic etlier. Plasters of cantharides are made in the same manner as ointments, but rendered more strongly adhesive by the addition of yellow wax, soap plaster, and resin or pitch. To prevent displacement they are usually applied in the melted state, immediately covered by a little tow or teased lint, and enveloped in a suitable bandage. COD-LIVER OIL Oleum Morrhu^. The oil extracted from the fresh liver of the cod, Gadus morrhua, by the application of a temperature not exceeding 180° Fahr. ; and from which solid fat has been separated by filtration at about 23° Fahr. (B.P.). The chief supplies of cod-liver oil come from Newfound- land. An oil called candle- oil, prized by the Indians as a tonic, and used along the Pacific coasts, is obtained from the oslachan or boulican, which inhabits the waters of British Columbia and Vancouver's Island. Good samples of cod-liver oil have a pale yellow colour, and an oily, fishy taste, which becomes, however, less obvious to those accustomed to take it. The dark colour and nauseous flavour of indifferent specimens result from exposure to high temperatures, or from the oil being extracted from stale, putrid livers. Specific gravity, 0-920 to 0930 ; ether dissolves it readily ; cold alcohol dissolves 2 to 3 per cent. ; hot alcohol, 3 to 7 per cent. It consists of olein (85 per cent.), varying proportions of palmitin, myristin, and stearin; traces of four volatile and two fixed alkaloids, morrhuic acid, with biliary and other organic bodies containing phosphorus, iodine, bromine, and chlorine. A drop of sulphuric acid, added to a few drops of cod-liver oil in a porcelain cup, develops a violet colour, which passes to yellow or brown-red, depends upon the presence of bihary 670 COD-LIVER OIL matters, and indicates the source, but not the purity or goodness of the oil. Actions and Uses. — Cod-liver oil is nutrient, tonic, and alterative. Like other fixed oils, large doses cause derange- ment of the bowels and purgation. For lubricant purposes, vegetable and mineral oils are more convenient and less liable to rancidit}''. Dr. Pollock published in the Lancet (1853) some experi- ments with cod-liver oil, made by an Essex agriculturist, on pigs, sheep, and cattle. Twenty pigs, separated from a lot of three hundred, averaging from five to fifteen stones, received two ounces of oil daily, with as much meal as they cleared up. The rest of the lot were treated in exactly the same manner, but got no oil. Those receiving the oil are stated to have consumed less food, and when killed ' weighed the heaviest and made the most money in the London market, the fat being firm and white. When the daily allowance of oil was increased to four ounces per day, the fat became yellow, and the flesh acquired a fishy taste.' For small pigs, an ounce daily was found the most economical quantity. An ounce given daily to sheep improved the quality both of the fat and flesh ; while cattle receiving about half a pint daily are stated to have eaten less food, and paid better, than when treated in the usual way. The oil, it is mentioned, cost from 2s. 8d. to 3s. per gallon, and in some comparative experiments it is said to Jiave .proved superior to sperm oil. These experiments confirm the recognised fact that oleagin- ous materials are essential to speedy and economical fatten- ing; they do not, however, establish the individual superiority of cod-liver oil. In healthy animals equally satisfactory results would probably be obtained from the use of linseed, lard, rape, or other mild fixed oil. Medicinal Uses. — The biliary constituents of cod-liver oil facilitate its emulsion and digestion. Experiments show that admixture of a little bile hastens absorption of any bland oil included in a loop of intestine. Cod-liver oil is also very readily oxidised. This ready absorption and assimilation render it specially useful not only for children, but for young animals, in cases of malnutrition and convalescence from LARD 671 exhausting disease. Although it has no specific action on any particular organ, it improves general nutrition. Tavo- ounce doses, given twice daily, I have found benefit delicate horses, thriving badly after strangles and influenza. ' In chronic catarrh and bronchitis, it Appears to furnish suit- able material for the formation of mucous cells and the repair of the inflamed mucous membrane ' (Brunton). Like other oils, it materially relieves horses suftering from broken wind. It helps recovery of cattle reduced by diarrhoea, anaemia, or rheumatism, but for many such cases in horses, cattle, and sheep, linseed or linseed cake is preferred. For dogs and cats it is useful in protracted cases of distemper, eczema, and other inveterate skin diseases ; in epilepsy, chorea, rickets, and in chronic rheumatism, especially that variety known as kennel lameness, and depending upon damp, bad feeding, and faulty nutrition. Doses, etc. — Horses take fgij.; cattle, fgij. to fgiv.; sheep, about fgj. ; pigs, fgiv. to f§i. ; dogs, f5i. to f5iv. ; cats, about f5i. The doses may be repeated twice daily, and persevered with, if required, for weeks; but if diarrhoea result, they must be reduced or discontinued for a day or two. To remove disagreeable flavour, and prevent nausea or vomiting, it is given mixed with eggs in milk, mucilage, or gruel, conjoined with some aromatic, malt extract, or with ether, and is best digested along with or immediately after other food. LARD Adeps. Adeps Preparatus. Axunge. The purified fat of the hog — Sus Scrofa. To prepare purified lard, the fat from the hog's internal organs is cut into small pieces, triturated in a stone mortar, washed with cold water, drained, melted over a slow fire, strained through flannel or coarse cheese-cloth; is kept stirred in a steam-heated pan at about 130" Fahr. until it is clear and free from water, strained again through flannel, and preserved in casks, pots, or bladders. When pure, it is white or yellowish-white, granular, neutral to litmus with- 672 LARD AND ANIMAL FATS out rancid odour, but with a sweet taste. It melts at about 100" Fahr., forming a clear, transparent fluid, Avhich is a good solvent for wax and resin, and when boiled with alkalies forms soaps. Like other fats and oils, lard is insoluble in water, slightly soluble in alcohol, but perfectly soluble in ether. Exposed to the air, it becomes rancid, and in this state is unfit for emollient purposes. It contains about 02 per cent, of olein and 38 of palmitin and stearin. Distilled Avater, in which purified lard has been boiled, when cooled and filtered, gives no precipitate with silver nitrate, indicat- ing absence of common salt ; and no blue coloration with iodine solution, proving freedom from starch, of Avhich about 20 per cent, is found in some inferior samples ; 10 per cent, of water is sometimes incorporated; alum and lime are occasionally added to secure whiteness and increase Aveight ; Avhile many brands of American lard are largely mixed with cotton-seed oil. Benzoated lard, preferable on account of its agreeable odour and diminished liability to rancidity, is made by melting one pound of purified lard over a Avater-bath, stirring in two hundred and ten grains of benzoin and afterwards straining. Suet — the fat around the kidneys of sheep or oxen — differs from lard chiefly in being firmer, harder, and more difficult to melt. Horse fat is more easily melted, but firmer than that of swine. Goose grease, much used as a popular remedy for sprains and bruises, is more fluid, from its greater percentage of olein. Actions and Uses. — Fats and mild fixed oils, Avhen given Avithout other food, are inadequate to support life; thus, dogs, receiving only butter and olive oil, Avith distilled Avater to drink, died in about thirty-six days. In a well-regulated system of diet, fats serve, hoAvever, important purposes; along Avith albuminoids they form cells ; they build up the nervous structures, so largely composed of fatty matters; are consumed in the body for the evolution of nervous, muscular, or digestive force, and for the support of animal heat, or, if in excess of these constant requirements, are stored aAvay, investing and protecting internal organs. Fats are emulsionised by the alkaline intestinal secretions, more MEDICINAL USES 673 thoroughly dissolved by the bile, and absorbed mainly through the lacteals. Although small doses are easily assimilated, large quantities disorder digestion and cause diarrhoea. Hog's lard is occasionall}' used as an internal demulcent, as an antidote for poisoning with alkalies, and as a laxative clyster. It is applied as a lubricant in exploration of the rectum or uterus, and in cases of difficult parturition. In reducing enlarged joints or bursas by vigorous rubbing, the hand is occasionally moistened with lard to prevent undue skin irritation. Wlien the skin is congested, inflamed, thickened, or indurated, the sebaceous and sudoriparous glands being impaired, the application of lard, bland oil, or vaseline usefully replaces the deficient natural oil, and protects abraded surfaces from the action of air or of acrid discharges. Most animal and vegetable fats, freely used, and remaining long in contact with the warm skin, oxidise and become rancid and irritatins:. Such results are retarded by addition of a little benzoin, and are obviated by the substitution of the mineral vasehne. Lard is occasionally employed as a dressing in mange and scab, but is ineffectual in destroying the acari. Adeps Lanae or wool-fat, the purified cholesterin-fat of sheep's wool; and Adeps Lanae Hydrosus, hj-drous wool- fat or ' Lanoline,' promote the absorption of remedies applied to the skin. The official hydrous wool-fat is prepared by melting seven ounces of wool-fat and adding three ounces of distilled water. It is little liable to rancidity, stable, and unirritating, and accordingly makes a good protecting lubricant. It mixes readily wdth other fats and oils, with starch, bismuth, zinc oxide, creolin, iodine, salicylic acid and many other antiseptics, and more w^ater may be added without affecting its use as a basis for ointments and liniments. For stock ointments a good combination consists of sixty-five parts hydrous wool-fat, thirty of liquid paraffin, and five of ceresin. Adeps Induratus, or lard deprived of a portion of its oil by pressure, is employed as a substitute for ordinary lard in hot climates (B.P.). 2u 674 GELATIN GELATIN Gelatinum. — The air-dried product of the action of boih'ng water on such animal tissues as skin, tendons, ligaments, and bones (B.P.). Gelatin is made from damaged hides and skins, and their parings; also from bones, limed, cleaned, and boiled, to remove fatty matters, and then crushed and steamed in a partial vacuum. Glue, a coarse variety of gelatin, is made from similar materials, less carefully purified; size is an inferior, weaker variety of glue ; isinglass, a natural colour- less gelatin, is prepared from the air-bladder of the sturgeon, and various species of Acipenser ; chondrin is the gelatinous matter extracted from cartilage; ossein, the title given to that obtained from bones. Gelatin, when dried, is hard and tough; varies in colour according to its purity; forms a viscid, trenuilous mass, even when one per cent, is dissolved in Avater and allowed to cool ; and is precipitated from watery solutions by tannic acid. Gelatin is insoluble in alcohol, and ether. It dissolves in acetic acid. Actions and Uses. — Gelatin, although a product of the disintegration of albuminoid tissues, does not build up the albuminoid or even the gelatinous tissues; but being tolerably easily digested, it appears to economise the more valuable albuminoids. Men, dogs, and even horses, re- covering from exhausting disease, in which disintegration and excretion of proteids is great, exhibit the dietetic value of gelatin when it is given as soup, and along with fats or hydrocarbons. As a demulcent it has the disadvantage of becoming hard and dry, and hence is not very suitable as a permanent sheathing for irritable surfaces. Glue is employed for securing the broken horns of cattle, and occasionally for making adhesive plasters. For closing wounds, where sutures cannot be used, two pieces of stout cloth are cut so as to leave a number of tails with uncut margins of several inches, and are smeared with melted glue, usually mixed with pitch, and applied, one on either side of the wound, with the uncut margins towards each other. GLYCERIN 675 When the plaster is Jry, the imciit margins are sewed together, Avhile, to prevent displacement from movement of the skin, narrow strips of calico moistened with glue are applied in various directions over the injured spot. Such plasters are sometimes useful in keeping sutured wounds in position, giving support, and preventing annoyance of flies. They are sometimes effectual in the treatment of umbilical hernia in calves and foals. Gelatin solutions make useful temporary protectives for limited abraded surfaces ; hold well for a da}' or more if applied dry ; are readily washed off with hot water, without irritating the skin, and can be medicated with antiseptics, stimulants, or analgesics. The familiar court sticking plaster consists of a strong solution of isinglass j^ainted over thin silk. In pharmacy gelatin is used for clarifying or fining ; as a neat and cleanly capsule for pills and boluses ; and along with glycerin forms lamellae or thin discs for enveloping the alkaloids and other active principles used for eye cases and hypodermic injections. GLYCERIN Glycerinum, or Glycerol, is a trihydric alcohol, C3H5 (0H)3, associated with a small percentage of water ; it is obtained by the interaction of alkalies, or of superheated steam, with fats and fixed oils (B.P.). Glycerin was discovered in 1789, by Scheele, as a product in the manufacture of lead plaster ; it occurs in small amount during the fermentation of sugar, and as a by-product in the manufacture of soap and stearin candles. Properties. — It is a clear, colourless, syrupy liquid, devoid of odour, sweet to the taste, oily to the touch, with a specific gravity of 1260. It has a strong affinity for water, and is freely soluble in water and alcohol. Insoluble in ether, chloroform, and fixed oils. It dissolves most substances which are soluble in water, as well as metallic oxides, and alkaloids. It burns with a luminous flame, giving off irritat- ing vapours of acrolein. Cautiously added to a mixture of 676 GLYCERIN equal measures of nitric and sulphuric acids it produces nitro-gl3'ccrin — C.5H.(N03)3. Actions and Uses. — Glycerin undiluted irritates the mucous membranes, and even the skin by abstracting water. Hence its laxative effect, whether when swallowed or used as an enema. Dogs are purged by li ounces. Large doses break down the red globules and cause hsemoglobinuria (Kauf- mann). It is antiseptic, and destroys fleas and other skin parasites. Mixed with water, starch, or other bland materials, it is demulcent and emollient. It is the basis of the emol- lient, antiseptic, and astringent group of glycerina. It is a solvent for fixed alkalies, for alkaloids and their salts, vegetable acids, iodine, bromine, salicin, etc., a frequent constituent of ointments and lotions, and a convenient men- struum for the administration of nauseous medicines. It is slowly and partially absorbed, but is not nutrient. Small doses are eliminated by the kidneys, larger by the bowels, producing slight laxative effects, increased by com- bination with castor oil. As a laxative enema it is not more effectual than oil, or soap and water; indeed, Friedberger states that it has no effect on dogs. Given shortly before meals it has been prescribed to check undue gastric fermentation, acidity, and flatulence, both in calves and dogs. It neither evaporates, nor becomes rancid, and is readily miscible with water, spirit, oils, and other drugs, forming with them emollient, antiseptic, or astringent dressings, used to soften, supple, or soothe dry, rough, scurfy, or irritated skin surfaces. It is the basis of many applications for blisters and burns, for cracked heels, and various forms and stages of eczema. Glycerin of starch is made by stirring and heating gently one of starch, one and a half of water, and six and a half of glycerin, and is used for aphthous and other eruptions about the mouth, nostrils and udder, and as a soothing and drying dressing for er3^thema and the early weeping stages of eczema, especially in dogs. The glycerina of carbolic and tannic acids are prepared with one part of the acid and five of glycerin. Glycerin of alum is made with one of alum, three of distilled water, and six of glycerin. Similar antiseptic SOAPS 677 and astringent preparations are made with, glycerin and borax, and also with glycerin and acetate and oxide of lead, and water to effect thorough solution. A handy antiseptic and astringent application is extemporised by mixing equal parts of glycerin and Goulard's Extract. It is diluted as required, and used for erythematous and eczematous con- ditions of the skin. Boro-glyceride, prepared by heating ninety-two parts glycerin and sixty-two boric acid, and used diluted with twenty to forty parts water, is an effectual non- poisonous antiseptic, useful for relaxed conditions of the throat, as a dressing for wounds, for the preservation of food, and as a vehicle for applying carbolic acid, iodine, iodoform, and belladonna. For various itching, erythematous, and eczematous diseases, a soothing, drying protective is prepared by mixing, with the aid of gentle heat, three parts each of glycerin, gelatin, and water, with one of zinc oxide ; and with such a mixture may be incorporated, as required, creosote, carbolic acid, resorcin, naphthol, or dermatol. SOAPS Sodium or Hard Soap. Sapo durus. Sodium Oleate. Potassium or Soft Soap. Sapo mollis. Potassium Oleate. Curd Soap. Sapo Animalis. Sodium Stearate, with about 30 per cent, of water. (B.P.) Soaps consist of fatty acids in combination with an alkaline base. Hard soaps are made by boiling palm or cocoanut oil or tallow with sodium hydroxide or carbonate, when the alkali unites with the fatty acids, displacing the basic glyceryl. Common salt added to the gelatinous boil- ing ley separates the soap in flakes, which are collected, run into moulds, and dried. Such soaps are a mixture of sodium stearate, with about one-third of oleate, and thirty to sixty per cent, of water. To make yellow soap, the ley, while being concentrated, is treated with considerable quantities of resin. Many soaps are now made with a large percentage of silicates. Mottled and marbled soaps owe their colour G78 SOAPS to the presence of a little iron. Glycerin soap, prepared by heating the soap ley with water for two or three hours at 400" Fahr., contains a mixture of soap and glycerin. The costly Castile and some Pharmacopoeia soaps are made Avith purified animal fat, or olive oil, and sodium or potassium hydroxide. Soft or potash soaps are made by boiling seal or whale oil with potassium hydroxide or carbonate, and gradually evaporating to the required consistence. Soaps for medicinal purposes are now made superfatted, neutral, or alkaline, in cake and powder, Avith admixture of carbolic acid, creolin, resorcin, sulphur, menthol, eucalyptus, balsams, camphor, sanitas, etc. Soaps have an alkaline, acrid taste, dissolve readily in water and spirit, but should not impart an oily stain to paper. When heated, they fuse, swell up, and leave charcoal and carbonate of their alkali. Calcium and magnesium salts, such as occur in hard waters, decompose soap; the fatty acids form insoluble Hakes of s tear ate and oleate of calcium and magnesium ; while the solubility of the alkali is also diminished by its conversion into carbonate or sulphate. Soap is hence used as a test for the hardness of water. Actions and Uses. — Soaps contain some free alkali, and hence are slightly irritant. They are mildly laxative, diuretic, emetic, and antacid. They form convenient ad- juncts to more active laxatives or diuretics, and are service- able additions to laxative clysters. Externally, they are used as stimulants, detergents, and lubricants, and in pharmacy as excipients. Soap and warm water are in every-day use for cleansing the skin, removing scurf, neutralising acrid fatty matters, keeping open the orifices of sebaceous glands, promoting growth of hair, as well as preparing the skin for operations, blisters, and parasiticides. When erythema is produced by badly-fitting harness or other causes, irritation is abated by rubbing the parts with a neutral soap, and subsequently dressing with vaseline, or sugar of lead lotion, or with ' Sanitas ' or other soothing antiseptic powder. Gently rubbed over slight burns or scalds, soap prevents access of air and relieves irritation. In chronic eczema, soft KERATIN 679 soap, from its lubricant and alkaline properties, is often useful. For such cases a convenient dressing is made with equal parts soft soap and glycerin, half a part of zinc oxide, and six or eight parts water. For eczema and other itching skin diseases, Dr. M'Call Anderson prescribes equal parts of soft soap, oil of cade, and rectified spirit. As a stimulant for bruises and strains, for warming horses' chilled legs, or for producing counter-irritation in sore- throat, six ounces of hard soap, cut into small pieces, are macerated with six fluid ounces of dilute liquor ammonias and one pint each of alcohol (60 per cent.), and linseed oil ; two or three oimces of camphor are sometimes added. Soap and water is much used for clysters. As internal antacids, soaps are less effectual than alkaline carbonates or bicarbonates, but are occasionally administered in poison- ing by acids and metallic salts. Soap and water causes emesis in dogs. Soaps are used as excipients for boluses, and as constituents of liniments and plasters. KERATIN A mucilaszinous solution which, when dry. is a yellow orum- like substance, insoluble in gastric juice, but soluble in the intestinal juices, and used for coating boluses or pills which are required to pass through the stomach without acting upon it, and to undergo solution in the intestines. Keratin is prepared by digesting horn-turnings with acidi- fied pepsin solution, so long as they yield any soluble matters. The residue is then digested in solution of am- monia or acetic acid, and eyaporated. Keratin requires to be redissolved before use. The ammonia solution is generally used, but the acetic acid solution is suitable for those drugs which might be decomposed by ammonia. The medicines, made into bolus in the usual way, are generally thinly covered with cacoa butter, and then coated twice with keratin. This method of dispensing is useful — (1) For drugs which irritate the gastric mucous membrane G80 PEPSIN — such as anthelmintics, arsenic, creosote, salicylic acid, phosphorus, and the ni ore soluble iron salts. (2) For such substances as impair digestion in the stomach by precipitating pepsin and peptones — e.g., tannic acid, alum, lead acetate, silver nitrate, corrosive sublimate, etc. (3) For such substances as are rendered inert by the gastric juice, or are undesirably acted upon by it — e.g., alkalies, soaps, bile, silver nitrate, iodides, intestinal antiseptics, etc. (4) For medicines which it is desired to introduce into the bowel in as concentrated a form as possible — e.g., kousso, male fern extract, santonin, bile, alkalies, and silver nitrate, lead acetate, or tannin, when their local action is sought to be applied in ulceration or haimorrhage of the intestines (Dr. Lauder Brunton). PEPSIN Pepsinum. An enzyme obtained from the mucous lining of the fresh and healthy stomach of the pig, sheep, or calf. It should dissolve 2500 times its weight of hard-boiled white of eggs (B.P.). Pepsin is prepared by several processes. The stomach is digested in water acidulated with hydrochloric acid, and the pepsin thus extracted is precipitated by sodium chloride. More commonly the mucous surface is cleansed, slightly washed, the surface scraped with a blunt knife, and the viscid pulp thus obtained dried at a temperature not ex- ceeding 100" Fahr. Pepsin occurs as a light yellowish brown or white powder or in grains or scales, having a faint odour and a saline taste. Soluble in water and in 100 parts of rectified spirit. Actions and Uses. — Pepsin dissolves proteids and converts them into peptones, but does not affect fats or starch. Its therapeutic value is hence limited to young herbivora while receiving milk, and to dogs living chiefly on animal food. In such patients it is given along with or immediately after meals. When gastric secretion in the domestic animals is at fault, it is more probably from deficiency of the acid ICHTHYOL 681 than the pepsin, and such a condition is appropriately treated by hydrochloric acid, administered with or after meals. Pepsin is sometimes used to dissolve fatty and malignant tumours, into which it is injected along with a few drops of hydrochloric acid. The B.P. Liquor Pancreatis, containing the digestive principles of the fresh pancreas of the pig, is sometimes given instead of pepsin. A vegetable pepsin is obtained from the unripe fruit and leaves of Carica Papaya, a plant found in the East and West Indies. Although the animal pepsin acts only in acid solu- tions, the vegetable is equally effectual in acid, neutral, and alkaline solutions. A five per cent, solution is said to dis- solve false membranes and soft tumours. Doses, etc. — Foals, calves, and dogs take grs. ij. to grs. x., of either pepsin, usually given in water, with a few drops of hydrochloric acid. The pepsin wines and essences seldom contain much of the ferment. The glycerin of pepsin con- tains five grains of pepsin in each drachm. ICHTHYOL Ichthyol (Ammonium-sulpho-ichthyolate) is a reddish- brown, tarry liquid, obtained from a Tyrolese bituminous shale — the fossil remains of decomposed aquatic animals, by distillation, and by treating the product with sulphuric acid and ammonia. It is soluble in water, glycerin, alcohol, benzol, and fixed oils. Purified, it yields a clear oil with a strong em- pyreumatic smell It.is antiseptic, a topical vascular sedative, and parasiticide. Its properties ally it to the phenols. It has been used by French and German veterinarians for the destruc- tion of the parasites of scab and mange ; and as a stimulant and resolvent for swollen joints, strains, and contusions. For such purposes one part is dissolved in ten of oil or lanoline, and rubbed in daily for several days. Ichthyol liniment is made with ten parts dissolved in thirty parts each of alcohol, ether, and distilled water. Thiol is a synthetic preparation of hydrocarbons obtained in a similar manner to ichthyol, for which, in the treatment of skin diseases, it is sometimes 682 SPERMACETI substituted. Thiol occurs in powder and in liquid, and is employed in the form of ointment (containing 10 to 50 per cent.), and of dusting powder with starch or other desiccant. The powder is soluble in water and in alcohol. Tumenol (sulphotumenolic acid) is obtained from mineral oils by treating the unsaturated hydrocarbons with sulphuric acid and sodium chloride. The resulting tumenol-sulphonic acid on being further treated yields tumenol-sulphone or tumenol oil, from which is prepared the pharmaceutical powder. Tumenol is dark, odourless, slightly bitter, and soluble in water. In pruritus, eczema, and other skin diseases it is employed in the forms of ointment, dusting powder, and lotion (5 to 10 per cent.). The solution may be made with water, glycerin, or alcohol {Newer Remedies, 1899). SPERMACETI Cetaceum. a concrete, fatty substance obtained, mixed with oil, from the head of the sperm whale (Physeter macro-cephalus). It is separated from the oil by filtra- tion and pressure, and afterwards purified (B.P.). Spermaceti is found in the cells of the large quadrangular head of the sperm whale, which inhabits the Pacific and Indian Oceans. It is extracted by openings made through the skull, and occasionally by boiling the cellular and adipose tissues. When jjurified, it is a translucent, pearly- white, crystalline fat, tasteless, odourless, tough, and difticult to powder, unless moistened with a few drops of rectified spirit. It is insoluble in water, sparingly soluble in cold alcohol, readily soluble in hot alcohol, chloroform, and oils, and melts at 114° to 122° Fahr. Along with a little sperm oil, it consists of cetyl palmitatc, which, unlike ordinary fats, is saponified Avith some difiiculty, does not yield glycerin, but forms, when heated with an alkali, the crystalline cetyl alcohol (C„,H.,.,OH), and an alkaline pahnitato. Actions AND Uses. — It is emollient and denuilcent, resembles wax, is rarely given internally, but is used for imparting con- sistence to ointments and plasters. WAX 683 WAX Cera Flava. Yellow Beeswax. Cera Alba. White Beeswax. Prepared from the honeycomb of the hive bee, Apis mellifica). Order. — Hymenoptera. Beeswax is furnished from the glands on the ventral scales of the bee. After removal of the honey, the comb, pressed, fused in boiling water, strained, and poured into moulds, constitutes yellow wax, which has a dull yellow colour, a granular fracture, a slightly sweet and pleasant taste and odour ; it should be free from greasiness ; it is insoluble in alcohol, but entirely soluble in oil of turpentine. White wax is made by melting yellow wax with steam, straining, and decolorising it by exposure in thin ribbons to air and sun- shine, or by boiling with nitrate of soda and sulphuric acid. Wax has the specific gravity -960 to -965, is tough and solid, insoluble in water, soluble in fixed and volatile oils, melts at about 145° Fahr., and readily unites with fat and resins. It consists of nearly two- thirds of cerin, an im- perfectly saponifiable waxy substance; about one-third of myricin or myricyl palmitate, a body analogous to spermaceti, and about 5 per cent, of cerolein, a soft acid fat. Chinese wax is the product of an insect of the cochineal tribe. Wax is also produced by several plants. Actions and Uses. — Wax, although allied to the fats, is much more difficult of digestion, less nutritive, and less demulcent and emollient. Melted with egg or mucilage, it is occasionally prescribed to check diarrhosa. Its chief use, however, is to increase the consistence and prevent rancidity of ointments, cerates, and plasters. Yellow wax, mixed with hogs' lard, or any of the bland fixed oils, is much used for investing abraded or irritable surfaces, protecting the sound skin from acrid discharges, and preventing cor- rosives or blisters extending their effects beyond the parts to which their action is to be limited. Unguentum simplex is usually made with one part of yellow wax to four of pre- pared lard, or one part of wax to one and a half each of almond oil and benzoated lard. 684 MALLEIN MALLEIN Mallein employed for the diagnosis of glanders in animals, is the sterilised and filtered liquid-culture of Gflanders bacilli. Mallein therefore does not contain even dead bacilli, but it has in solution certain substances which are added to the liquid by the bacilli during their growth (Professor M'Fadyean). Directions for using Mallein, as prepared and supplied by the Royal Veterinary College, London : — 1. While uader the malleia test horses ought to be left at rest in the stable and protected from draughts. The rectal teraperatui'e ought to be taken once or twice on the day before the test is apiDlied. 2. The dose of mallein for a horse is one cubic centimetre, or 18 minims. It ought to be injected about the middle of the side of the neck, with a clean hypodermic syringe. The best form of syringe is one with an asbestos piston, as the whole instrument may then be sterilised by boiling it in water for five minutes before use. 3. The mallein must be injected into the subcutaneous connective tissue, and care must be taken that the whole dose is actually introduced. 4. The temperature must be taken at the time of injection, and at the 9th, 12th, and 15th hours afterwards. 5. Provided the temperature was normal (under 101° F.) before the in- jection, it will rise 2° or more (103° — 105") during the next fifteen hours if the horse is glandered, but it will remain practically unaffected (under 102°) if the horse is not glandered. 6. Attention must also be paid to the swelling that forms at the seat of injection. When the horse is glandered this goes on increasing in size during the second twenty-four hours after the injection, and it seldom declines before the third or fourth day. The maximum diameter of this swelling in glandered horses varies from 5 to 10 inches. 7. In horses that are not glandered the local swelling attains its maximum size during the first fifteen hours, and by the twenty-fourth hour it has almost entirely disappeared. Its maximum diameter is usually about 3 or 4 inches. 8. When the temperature gradually rises from the normal to 104° during the first fifteen hours, and a large slowly disappearing swelling forms at the seat of injection, the horse may confidently be declared glandered. 9. If, with a normal temperature at the time of injection, a horse displays only the temperature reaction, or only the local reaction, the case must be considered doubtful, and the test repeated after the lapse of a week. 10. When the temperature is 102° or more, at the time of injection, the temperature reaction is unreliable, but in such a case the diagnosis may be based on the characters of the local swelling. 11. The mallein shuuld be kept in a cool place, and protected from light. Should it lose its transparency, or become cloudy, it must not be used. BLACK QUARTER VACCINE 685 TUBERCULIN Tuberculin employed for the diagnosis of tuberculosis in animals, is the sterilised and filtered liquid- culture of tubercle bacilli (see Mallein), Directions for using tuberculin as prepared and supplied by the Royal Veterinary College, London : — 1. While under the tuberculin test cattle ongHt to be kept in the shed, fed on their usual food, and protected from draughts. They ought not to be allowed to drink large quantities of cold water between the sixth and fifteenth hours after injection. It is well to take their temperature at least once on the day preceding the test. 2. The dose of tuberculin for a medium-sized cow is 3 cubic centimetres, or 50 minims, and it may be varied above or below that according to the size of the animal. Large bulls ought to receive 4 c.c. 3. It ought to be injected under the skin with a clean hypodermic syringe. The most convenient points are in front of the shoulder, or on the chest wall behind the point of the elbow. The best form of syringe is one with an asbestos piston, as the whole instrument may be sterilised by boiling it in water for five minutes before use. 4. The tuberculin must be injected into the subcutaneous connective tissue, and care must be taken that the whole dose is introduced. 5. The temperature must be taken at the time of injection, and at the 9th, 12th, and 15th hours afterwards. 6. Animals in which the temperature during the fifteen hours following the injection rises gradually to 104° or more may be classed as hibemdoiis, and those in which it remains under 103° as not tuberculous. When the maximum temperature attained is under 104° but over 103° the case must be considered doubtful, and the animal may be re-tested after a month. 7. The test is not reliable in the case of animals in the last stage of the disease, or in those in which the temperature is over 103° before injection. 8. The tuberculin should be kept in a cool place, and protected from light. Should it become turbid or cloudy it must not be used. 9. The tuberculin test does not render the milk in any way injurious. BLACK QUARTER VACCINE Directions for using Black Quarter Vaccine, as prepared and supplied by the Royal Veterinary College, London : — Two vaccines are employed, viz., 1st and 2nd. The 1st vaccine is put up in the tubes without a black ring. The 2nd vaccine is put up in the tubes with a black ring. Each tube contains vaccine sufficient for at least ten animals. An interval of eight to ten days ought to be allowed between the first and the second vaccination. The apparatus necessary for the operation is : — (1) A small mortar and pestle. (2.) A graduated hypodermic syringe with a capacity often c.c. The needle of the syringe ought to be about as thick as an ordinary knitting needle, and have a proportional bore, 686 BLACK QUARTER VACCINE (3) A small pointed trocar or exploring needle, which ought to be a little thicker than the needle of the syringe. Mixing of the vaccine. — Immerse the mortar and pestle for ten minutes in water near the boiling point ; have at hand a quantity of water recently boiled and allowed to cool. Einse out the syringe first with five per cent, carbolic solution (in water), and then two or three times with boiled water. Drain the mortar and pestle dry, and then turn into the former the contents of one of the small tubes (first vaccine for ten animals). Fill the syringe (ten c.c.) with boiled (and now cold) water. Eject a few drops of this into the mortar, and triturate the powder with it so as to form an uniform paste. Continue the rubbing, and gradually add the whole of the water in the syringe. When the powder has thus been uniformly mixed with the water, suck the whole back into the syringe. The operation. — Clip the hair from the under aspect of the tail for about six inches extending upwards from the tip. Wash this part vigorously with five per cent, carbolic lotion. Take the small trocar, previously purified in boiling water, and bury it under the skin on the under surfoce of the tail, entering it on the middle line about a handbreadth above the tip, and pushing it vertically upwards for three inches. Give the handle of the trocar a side-to-side movement so as to enlarge the gallery at its upper end. Now gently shake the .syringe, insert the hypodermic needle, and inject one-tenth of the contents of the syringe ( = 1 c.c). Withdraw needle and syringe together, at the same time pressing firmly on the puncture in the sicin. The dose mentioned (1 c.c. or 18 drops) is sufficient for an animal over one year old. For calves of six months the dose is 12 drops, and for nine months 15 drops. The second vaccination is carried out after eight or ten days in the same manner, the vaccine being injected under the skin of the tail immediately above the seat of the first operation. After all the animals of one lot have been operated on, the syringe ought to be rinsed out with five per cent, carbolic solution. The operation ought not to be performed when the weather is very hot or very cold. Every care is taken in the preparation of the vaccine, but no guarantee is given regarding its safety or efficiency. Section IV Veterinary Pharmacy This section presents a brief notice of the art of prescribing, and of such important preparations and curative agents as alkaloids, baths, boluses, drenches, tinctures, etc., arranged for convenience of reference in alphabetical order, according to their English names; while appended are the tables of the Pharmacopceia, and of metric weights and measures. THE ART OF PRESCRIBING Successful prescribing obviously necessitates a competent knowledge of the chemical and physiological actions of the drugs used. Those only can be properly conjoined which are chemically, pharmaceutically, and physiologically com- patible. Text-books contain lists of medicines which may fittingly be used together under the title of synergists ; while lists are given of substances chemically incompatible or physiologically antagonistic. The prescription should be as brief and simple as possible. It should be explicit and clearly written. It may be ex- pressed either in Latin or in English. The manner in which the medicine is to be used should be specified. Important instructions as to the regimen or diet of the patient are sometimes appended. Prescriptions usually contain two or more of the following four representative constituents : — (a) The basis or active ingredients. The practice of conjoining several active drugs has wisely been abandoned. Occasionally, however, it may be advantageous to give together two drugs producing their effects in somewhat different ways. Thus, spasms of the bowels are more often effectually controlled by the conjunc- 687 688 ALKALOIDS tion of a stimulant like ether, and an anodyne like opium, than by either given alone. Pain which is not alleviated by either morphine or atropine is sometimes abated by giving them together, (b) The adjuvant is introduced in order to increase, moderate or modify the action of the basis. Fre- quently its chief object is to ensure solubility and ready absorption, (c) A corrective is occasionally required to temper the effects of the basis. Thus, a small dose of laudanum is prescribed Avith oil or other laxative in cases of diarrhoea ; ginger is generally added to the aloetic mass for horses, (d) The vehicle generally consists of some com- paratively inert substance, added to facilitate administration, such as the treacle, linseed meal, or liquorice powder used as excipients for boluses and pills, the benzoated lard or vaseline used for making ointments, and the water given in drenches. The prescriber's aphorism, ' Curare cito, tute, et jocunde' is more easily fulfilled now than formerly. With a widening choice of carefully-prepared drugs, the effects of which are becoming more fully known, the practitioner is better able to cure quickly, safely, and pleasantly. Instead of crude vegetable drugs, often inconveniently bulky, and containing useless and even injurious constituents, extracts, infusions, and tinctures have long been used. But concentration and simplification are being carried still further. Active alkaloids and neutral proximate principles are now prepared, and possess the advantage not only of concentrated form, but usually also of more uniform quality and less liability to spoil. To guard against impurities and adulterations, the British Pharmacopoeia, under the head of each drug, gives characters and tests which enable purchasers to satisfy themselves of the quality and purity of the articles used. ALKALOIDS These alkali-like organic bases are found in various plants, some of which, like the opium poppy, cinchona bark, and jaborandi, contain more than one alkaloid. They probably result from the metamorphosis of albuminoid plant consti- ALKALOIDS ARE AMMONIA DERIVATIVES 689 tuents. They constitute the active principles of vegetable drugs, and are generally powerful poisons or active medicines. Those chiefly used are morphine, atropine, quinine, cocaine, physostigmine, pilocarpine, and strychnine. Most alkaloids contain the four organic elements; all contain nitrogen. But although the molecule may contain twenty or thirty carbon or hydrogen atoms, there are seldom more than two atoms of nitrogen. They are generally crystallisable solids. Three of the natural alkaloids, conine, nicotine, and sparteine, contain, however, no oxygen, and are volatile liquids. Alkaloids are ammonia derivatives, but their sparing solubility in water renders it unlikely that they are ammonium bases ; their not subliming without some decomposition distinguishes them from the amines; their feebly basic character and other properties more nearly ally with them the amides (Bloxam). They may otherwise be defined as substituted ammonias, capable of forming salts by direct addition of acids. Many are closely related to pyridine, and a few may be prepared synthetically from pyridine bases. Most are soluble in alcohol, ether, benzine, and carbon disulphide, and usually in chloroform, which does not, however, dissolve morphine. Most are sparingly soluble in water. Alkaloids readily unite with acids, forming salts, soluble in water ; and with radicles such as ethyl and methyl, forming combinations which greatly modify their actions, as is strikingly illustrated in the differ- ence between conine and methyl-conine. Their chemical composition affords no clue to their physiological action. Those of diverse composition have sometimes similar actions ; those apparently of like composition differ in their actions. Between the anodyne soporific morphine, and the emetic apomorphine, the formulae show a difference of only two atoms of hydrogen. Plants of the same genus usually yield the same or similar alkaloids; thus the atropacese yield atropine, the strychnos strychnine. Alkaloids are often associated in plants with some special acid, in combination with which, or with a diluted acid added to the plant juices, they are dissolved out, usually by water, and from such solution the alkaloid may be precipitated by ammonia. 2x GOO BATHS The neutral organic principles are another group of concentrated active vegetable drugs. They contain carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, and comport themselves sometimes as bases, sometimes as acids. Under the influence of acids and organic ferments nearly all split up, yielding glucose, and hence are called glucosides. They are represented by aloin, digitalin, santonin, and salicin, and it will be observed have the terminal ' in,' which distinguishes them from the alkaloids, to which the termination ' ine ' or ' ina,' or, in the older works, ' ia,' is given. The organic animal extracts, prepared from bono marrow, heart muscle, brain, spinal cord, testicle, liver, thyroid, and other glands, and occasionally prescribed for the human subject, are seldom employed in veterinary medicine. BATHS Baths are important, alike for the preservation of health and for the cure of disease amongst the domestic animals. They are used in various ways, at ditt'erent temperatures, and for the treatment of medical and surgical cases. Cold baths arc of a lower temperature than 70° Fahr. Judiciously used, they act reflexly on nerve centres, stinuilat- ing respiration, circulation, and metabolism. Similar stimu- lant action is exerted on the sympathetic nervous system, the skin functions are promoted, waste products removed, and abnormal temperature reduced. Owing to its saline ingredients, and the constant movement of the waves, a sea bath is more exhilarating than fresh water at rest. Health- ful reaction is encouraged by thorough drying, hand-rubbing, clothing, and, if need be, by subsequent administration of stimulants. Cold baths are sometimes used for reducing excessive temperature. The patient may be placed in water at 80° or 90° Fahr., and the temperature reduced to 60° Fahr., or even lower; or he may be placed at once in a bath of 60° to 50° Fahr. ; or he may have cold water dashed over him. Such baths reduce abnormal temperature from 1° to 4° Fahr., and accordingly diminish excessive and dangerous tissue change. TURKISH AND VAPOUR BATHS 691 Tepid baths range from 65° to 85° Fahr. They cleanse the skhi, promote perspiration, allay thirst, and are grateful to heated and overtaxed horses. They are useful not only in promoting comfort, but in removing stiffness alike in horses and dogs after hard work. Warm baths range from 85° to 97° Fahr. They soften the epidermis, and hence relieve erythematous and chronic skin disorders. They dilate cutaneous vessels, promote sweating, and thus antagonise internal congestion. It is forty years since Professor John Gamgee thus testified to the benefit of warm baths : ' I unhesitatingly say that we have in the thermffi the most effectual means of inducing a healthy reaction that we have as yet had at our disposal. It is a great addition to our therapeutic means. We needed a satisfactory means of acting on the skin of the lower animals in febrile and other diseases, and we here have it.' Hot baths range from 97° Fahr. upwards, and, if the temperature be gradually increased, may be raised to 110° Fahr. Hot baths elevate the temperature of the body, quicken the pulse and respiration, dilate the skin capillaries, and hasten excretion of waste. They soothe animals which have been subjected to severe muscular exertion, relieve cramps and colic, benefit chronic skin disorders, and check catarrh, rheumatism, and lymphangitis. Baths are sometimes medicated. Salt or mustard is added to increase skin stimulation ; alkaline carbonate or potassa sulphurata is used in some chronic skin disorders; solutions of arsenious acid, tobacco juice, carbolic acid, creolin, and other antiseptics are introduced when skin parasites are to be destroyed. Turkish, vapour, steam, and Russian baths are not used for the lower animals as frequently and systematically as for man; but the stables of many trainers, jobmasters, and veterinarians have capital washrooms provided with steam, hot and cold water-pipes, where horses after severe exertion are conveniently washed and dressed ; where chronic coughs, chills, rheumatism, dyspepsia, and other ailments are hydro- pathically treated, and where sprains and enlarged joints can be successfully douched. 692 BALLS Without expensive or special appliances, many of the sanitary and curative advantages of baths can be secured by sponging horses, as their condition or ailment suggests, with tepid, hot, or cold water. Cleansing, tonic, or anti- pyretic eft'ects may thus be readily obtained. Irritating or noxious matters are removed from the skin, circulation is equalised, and excessive temperature reduced. In acute febrile cases, whether in horses or cattle, the temperature of the water used should not at first be lower than 85° or 80^ Fahr. A little acid may be advantageously added. The sponging should not occupy more than three or four minutes. The animal should be wisped dry and immediately clothed. Within three or four hours the operation, if necessary, may be repeated, especially if the temperature reduced by the first sponging again rises. After the first or second sponging water at 65° or 60° Fahr. may be used. Concurrently with such treatment, antiseptic salines or stimulants may be prescribed. In chorea, especially in tolerably vigorous and short-haired dogs, sponging with cold water is serviceable. Enveloping the patient in a sheet wetted with either tepid or cold water, and covering with two or three blankets, con- stituting what is entitled the ' wet pack,' is not generally so serviceable in veterinary practice as either sponging or the douche. BALLS-BOLUSES-PILUL^ Balls correspond in veterinary practice with the pills used in human medicine. Extracts are conveniently moulded into cylindrical balls. Drugs in powder or concentrated solution may be enclosed in gelatin capsules, or made into mass or bolus with such excipients as linseed meal and water, oil, lard, soap, mucilage, liquorice, and powdered gentian, treacle, syrup, glycerin, vaseline, and confection of roses, the choice being determined by the nature of the active ingredients. The excipients first mentioned are chiefly used when the bolus or mass is intended for immediate use ; when it is to be kept for any considerable time some of the others are more suitable. To keep a mass in a moist, soft-solid state, PREPARATION 693 it is often advisable to add to it a small quantity of such a deliquescent alkaline salt as potassium acetate, wliicli serves especially well for most diuretic masses. When the active principles are resinous, a little alcohol, glycerin, or oil of turpentine is a useful addition, as in making aloetic masses. In preparing a ball mass, the various ingredients are sometimes mixed in a mortar or on a slab ; but when the materials are waxy or resinous, the aid of heat is necessary. A good ball mass must be soft, and yet possessed of proper consistence and cohesion, must retain these properties although kept for a considerable time, and must further be so prepared that each dose shall make a proper-sized ball, which for the horse usually weighs one to two ounces. The ball mass should be preserved in jars covered with moistened bladder and stout paper, and be made into doses only as required; for when balls are long kept they are apt to become hard, and in this state act slowly and sometimes pass through the alimentary canal unchanged. To prevent spoiling, as well as for cleanliness and to facilitate administration, balls are rolled up in oiled paper, or are coated with keratin, or a solution of one part of gelatin and twenty of water. The bolus is given to horses with a balling-gun or with the fingers ; and the later method is preferable, except in animals in which the mouth cannot be sufficiently opened. The operation, with a little practice and dexterity, is easily performed. The ball is held by one end between the thumb (which supports it below) and the fingers of the right hand. The patient's tongue is gently drawn out a little way by the left hand, and the ball passed rapidly along the roof of the mouth, and dropped on the back of the tongue, which is at once released, the mouth closed, and the head kept slightly elevated for a few seconds. In a similar way balls may be administered to cattle. To dogs pills may be given enclosed in a piece of meat, or the pill may be carried by forcejDS to the back of the mouth. 694 DEENCIIES DECOCTIONS Decoctions arc solutions prepared by boiling the drug in distilled water. To ensure perfect solution, the substance is bruised or cut into small pieces, and boiled in a glass or earthenware vessel for five to ten minutes. Any insoluble residue is subsequently separated by straining through muslin or calico, or by allowing the solution to settle, and pouring ofi" the supernatant fluid. Decoctions intended to be kept beyond a week or two, should be preserved by adding a little spirit or about one part of benzoic acid to 200 of decoction. DRAUGHTS-DRENCHES-DRINKS Drenches are generally extemporaneous fluid prepara- tions used in a single dose. Bulky substances which cannot be administered in bolus are necessarily given in draught. They are prescribed for cattle and sheep, horses and dogs, especially when a speedy effect is desired. In ruminants, medicines in the solid state mix with the food always found in the rumen, and thus act tardily and imperfectly. Medi- cines in liquid form, however, come more immediately into contact with the mucous surface, and pass on more rapidly to the abomasum and intestine. Saline, febrifuge, and tonic draughts, made fairly palatable, are often readily taken by patients in gruel or water, without the trouble of forcible administration. In preparing drenches, care should be taken that the several ingredients are not incompatible, decomposing, or injuriously reacting on each other; and further, that their quantity is not so great as unnecessarily to increase the trouble of administration. Before being given, drenches ought to be thoroughly mixed and Avell shaken, in order to prevent ether, ammonia, turpentine, or other light constituent floating to the surface, or heavy, partially dissolved sub- stances falling to the bottom. In giving drenches, the head should be slightly raised, which in horses is conveniently done with the aid of a ENEMATA 695 moiith-twitcli, tlie noose of which is placed over the animal's upper jaw within the incisor teeth, and the stick held by an assistant, standing on the left side of the patient. In cattle, the head should be steadied by an assistant, who holds either the horns or ears. In dogs, the jaws may be kept sufficiently apart by an assistant, or a finger may be placed within the cheek which is then raised to form a pouch into which the medicine can be readily poured. Small dogs are most con- veniently dosed when placed on their hind-quarters on a table or bench; but larger dogs should be backed into a corner, and their head held between the operator's knees. Cats can be drenched w^ithout doing damage with their claws if rolled in a stout rug or dropped into a capacious top-boot, the head being left out, and the jaws held apart with pieces of tape ; or the cheek may be pouched with forceps. In all animals the nostrils must be unobstructed, and the tongue loose, or only gently held down. Drenches should be care- fully and slowly given; and if coughing occur, the opera- tion should be stopped, and the animal's head released. Drenches are occasionally given by syringe or by the stomach pump. Glass bottles, often used for the administration of drenches, are dangerous, when they break they may injure the mouth of the patient, or the hands of the operator. Veterinarians, and even agriculturists, should therefore only use stout tin drenching bottles. The old-fashioned horn is now generally superseded by the tin bottle. ENEMAS— ENEMATA— CLYSTERS-SUPPOSITORIES -INJECTIONS Enemas are liquid injections into the rectum, and are employed to effect several useful purposes. They soften and remove hard faeces lodged in the rectum, and do so without unnecessarily exciting other parts of the intestine. They accelerate, increase, and maintain the action of purgatives. They destroy and remove worms infesting the posterior part of the canal. They may exert either soothing or stimulating eliects ; and, reflexly, such effects may be propagated to 696 ENEMATA adjacent and even to remote organs. They besides prove convenient vehicles for introducing into the body food and medicines, in sore-throat, gastritis, tetanus, apoplexy, and other conditions, in which administration by the mouth is contra-indicated or impracticable. For maintaining the regular action of the bowels, no remedies are so safe and effectual, and when properly used they sometimes supersede the necessity for purgatives. In constipation and torpidity, after hardened, impacted, ob- structing foecal masses have been broken down and removed, laxative enemata are advantageously injected, intermitting the operation whenever straining occurs, raising the hind parts, and by external pressure from behind increasing the retaining capacity of the sphincter. A gallon and a half to five gallons of tepid water may thus be slowly introduced into the rectum of a draught horse ; half a pint to a pint into the rectum of a dog 40 lbs. weight. When the posterior gut is thus distended, not only is mechanical facility given for the outward movement of the contents of the canal, but by reflex action peristalsis is encouraged far beyond the surface reached by the injection. The efl^ects of tepid water are increased by the addition of soap, bland oil, salines, oil of turpentine, or solution of aloes. These copious injections, and the administration of full doses of opium, Indian hemp or atropine, relievo intestinal spasm, and prove beneficial in cases of invagination and strangulation of the intestines whether in horses or dogs. Obstinate torpidity of the bowels in horses, depending on impaction of ingesta, or obstruction from earthy deposits in the colon, may frequently be relieved or removed by the free use of enemata introduced into the large intestines by a special apparatus, an adaptation of O'Beirne's tube. Major Fred Smith, of the Army Veterinary Department, has devised and successfully used an apparatus, consisting of six feet of elastic tubing, of the same calibre as that of Read's pump, to which it is attached. It is provided with a rounded nozzle, with side perforations. The tubing can be passed into the single colon of the horse. Any difficulty in introducing it is overcome, not by force, but by injection of a gallon of water, LAXATIVE AND NUTRIENT 697 which, dilating the bowel in advance, facilitates further passage of the tube. Major Smith throws up from five to fifteen gallons of cold water ; has in some cases injected at a time as much as twenty-seven gallons ; and repeats the in- jection at intervals of three or four hours. Unlike ordinary enemata discharged into the rectum, these large quantities of fluid are in great part retained, with the effect of softening and mechanically removing obstructions. Tolerably copious clysters of tepid water or other bland fluid exert local soothing effects, not only on the intestines, but they also reflexly allay irritability, spasm, and pain of the urino-genital organs, and frequently relieve suppression of urine. Their efficacy is sometimes increased by addition of opium and sedatives, which are used in about the same doses as are given by the mouth. By reflex action the kidneys, bladder, and uterus are also sometimes beneficially acted upon by stimulant enemata. For destroying and dis- lodging the oxyuris curvula, clysters of turpentine and lime water, and of solution of aloes, quassia, ferric chloride, or common salt, are effectual. In house dogs, troubled with constipation and haemorrhoids, the cautious daily injection of two or three ounces of cold water proves serviceable. Kectal injections of salt and water, given slowly, frequently arrest post-partum haemorrhage. When intended to be retained and absorbed, enemas should be limited in amount. To allay irritation and spasm in troublesome diarrhoea and dysentery, vegetable astringents, opium, and lead acetate are given, usually with well-boiled tepid starch gruel. In such cases the injection may be repeated every hour or two, so long as straining or diarrhoea continues. Kectal injections intended to produce general effects should be warm and concentrated. Nutrient clysters, useful in tetanus, sore throat, and debilitating complaints, when patients will not or cannot eat, usually consist of a pint or two of linseed tea, with milk and eggs, or of strong beef tea introduced at a temperature of 100° Fahr., and repeated not oftener than four or five times in the twenty-four hours. In cases of influenza in horses and distemper in dogs, a little wine or whisky is sometimes added to the nutrient enema. 698 SUPPOSITORIES The apparatus for giving eneraata are — Higginson's rubber syringe ; Read's patent clyster syringe, improved by Arnold, which is also available as a stomach pump ; the far-reaching Read's apparatus, with six feet of extra tubing, already described ; Gamgee's block- tin funnel, which tills the rectum by gravitation, and obviates the necessity of pumping ; and the common barrel syringe, of tinned copper, with a nozzle which screws out at pleasure, and can be carried in the interior of the instrument. The female catheter may be used for the administration of medicinal injections. In the horse the rectum is generally cleared by the hand before any of these articles are used ; and in all animals the part of the apparatus which enters the gut should be smeared with lard or oil, and introduced slowly and carefully. Suppositories of raw or cooked meat are readily absorbed from the rectum, especially if they are previously moistened with diluted hydrochloric acid and pepsin. Drugs in the form of suppository, usually made up with cocoa-butter and a little wax, are occasionally introduced into the rectum, vagina, and uterus. A cylinder of soap introduced within the anus, and held for a minute or two, conveniently encour- ages the action of the bowels, especially in dogs and cats, and in foals and calves. Injections are made into the nostrils, urethra, bladder, and uterus, and also into the trachea, for the destruction of pyogenic organisms and worms. Hypodermic injections have already been noticed (p. l.^l). Medicated spray thrown from a caoutchouc ball and tube, or from a steam spray- producer, is used for irrigating irritable, relaxed throats, especially in horses. . EXTRACTS-FLUID EXTRACTS-FRESH OR GREEN EXTRACTS-SUCCI Extracts consist of the soluble, active principles of plants reduced to a semi-solid paste by evaporation of the natural expressed juices, or of decoctions, infusions, or tinctures. Selection is made of the solvent — water, alcohol, or ether — which most readily removes the active principles. Where EXTRACTS 699 two active principles, soluble in different media, are to be dissolved out, the drug is acted upon by tlie two solvents in succession, and the solutions mixed and evaporated. It is important that evaporation be effected at low temperatures ; heat above 150' Fahr. is apt to injure or decompose many active prmciples. Well-made extracts keep for a consider- able time without change, especially in a cool, dry place, and if occasionally moistened with rectified spirit : but when twelve months old they should be regarded with suspicion. Of the thirty-nine B.P. extracts, veterinarians chiefly use those of belladonna, hemlock, ergot, and Indian hemp. The liquid extracts are prepared from infusions, decoc- tions, or weak tinctures, in the same manner as the semi- soUd extracts. Most liquid extracts are of such a strength that one fluid ounce represents an ounce of the drug em- ployed. Those chiefly used in veterinary practice are licpiid extract of cinchona, ergot, male fern, and opium. Green extracts, as Extractum belladonnae viride or hyos- cyami viride, are prepared from fresh plants, the leaves and tender stems bemg generally preferred. They are bruised, the juice expressed, and gently heated to about 130' Fahr. The green colourmg matter is separated by tiltration, the strained juice is heated to 200' Fahr. to coagulate albumin, ac^ain filtered, and the filtrate evaporated in a water bath to the consistence of a thin syrup. The green colouring matter previously separated is then added, and evaporation con- ■ tinned, until a suitable consistence is attained. Abstracts are concentrated extracts, about twice the strength of the corresponding fluid extract, and occur in dry powder mixed with milk-sugar. Eleven of these figure in' the U.S.P., including those of aconite, belladonna, hem- lock, and digitahs. Succi are expressed juices of fresh medicinal plants (belladonna, hemlock, henbane, and taraxacum), preserved with one-third of their bulk of rectified spirit. 700 FOMENTATIONS FOMENTATIONS Fomentations or topical baths, usually consist of water alone, but vinegar, salines, and other substances are some- times added. Unless otherwise specified, they are applied hot. The temperature at which they are used must be determined by the purpose to be served, by the nature and extent of the malady, and the part of the body to which they are applied. For the eye, they should not exceed 100° Fahr. ; for contusions, abscesses, strains, and lymphangitis, they should be as hot as the hand can bear. Up to 110° Fahr. they generally soften and soothe. At higher tempera- tures they irritate. To produce active counter-irritation, as in bronchitis, pleurisy, or enteritis, they are used at tem- peratures ranging from 120° Fahr. upwards. For such cases, pieces of flannel or horse-cloth saturated with boiling water, are partially dried by a wringer, or by being rolled and pressed between dry coarse towels, and are laid over a con- siderable extent of surface contiguous to the parts affected. The hot, wet woollen article should be covered with oilskin or a piece of mackintosh to retard evaporation and cooling. The pained part to be soothed, or the surface to be stimulated is sometimes covered with several folds of woollen cloth on which hot water is poured at short intervals. Jets of steam mixed with air, to prevent scalding, used either plain or medicated, may be substituted for the ordinary stuping with water. Fomentations are generally made with a sponge, tow or lint. When there are foul discharges, sponges should not be used, as they are apt to retain and convey septic germs, while the piece of lint or tow is thrown away as soon as done with. Fomentations are used to cleanse wounds and soften hard skin or encrusted discharges. They relax and soothe irri- tated, congested, inflamed parts to which they are applied, and thus lessen tension and pain. When freely employed for some considerable time, they dilate the capillaries of collateral areas of circulation, withdraw blood from adjacent inflamed parts, and act as mild counter-irritants. To obtain their full benefits, they should be continued during several GLYCERIN A 701 hours ; fresh supplies of water, of the requisite temperature, being had in abundance. After the operation is finished, the parts should be dried and well covered, in order to prevent the rapid diminution of temperature which otherwise ensues from evaporation. Further, to prevent chilling, the fomented surface is sometimes stimulated with a weak mustard paste. Heat applied to the spine, usually in the form of the hot-water bag, at a temperature of 120° Fahr., as shown by Dr. Chapman, stimulates the cord and sympathetic ganglia, contracts the involuntary muscular fibres of arterioles, and thus lessens the volume and rapidity of blood passing through them. The spinal hot-bag is hence used to arrest haemorrhage. The ice-bag applied to the spine, on the other hand, is a sedative to the cord and nerve-centres brought under its paralysing influences, and hence lowers muscular tone, sensi- bility, and secretion. Applied in the cervical region, it in- creases afflux of blood to the head ; applied over the anterior dorsal region, blood is driven to the chest and anterior extremities ; applied over the posterior dorsal and lumbar regions, blood is moved in larger amount through the abdo- minal and pelvic organs, and the posterior extremities. Acting upon the spinal and sympathetic centres, the ice-bag controls remote morbid processes ; cramps and spasms are stated to be abated; pains of neuralgia and rheumatism are sometimes arrested; while inordinate discharges, and even haemorrhages from the lungs, bowels, or kidneys, are sometimes checked (Ringer's Therapeutics). GLYCERINA Glycerina are solutions of soothing astringent or anti- septic substances in glycerin. They are applied locally to the skin and mucous surfaces. Those of carbolic and tannic acids contain one ounce by weight of the acid, mixed and gently heated with five fluid ounces of glycerin. Glycerinum boracis contains one of acid and six of the solvent. Glycerinum amyli is made with one ounce by weight of 702 INFUSIONS^LIQUORS starch, six and a half fluid ounces of glycerin, and one and a half of water. Glycerina of lead subacetate, tragacaiith, boric acid, and salicylic acid are also used. INFUSIONS Infusions are solutions prepared by digesting vegetable substances in hot water. Fourteen of the twenty-two officinal infusions are made with one part of the poAvdered or cut drug, to twenty of water. To prevent solution of the starch of the root, infusion of calumba is made with cold water. The process is generally conducted in stoneware jars, provided with a cup having perforated sides and bottom, fitting into the top of the jar, extending about half- way down, and containing the solid matters to be infused. Digestion is effected on a stove, and is continued for fifteen minutes to half an hour. The infusion, when cool, is generally strained, but for veterinary purposes and for immediate use decanting is often sufficient. Unless care- fully bottled and corked while hot, infusions soon spoil, especially in warm weather. Their keeping is sometimes improved by concentration, by evaporation, or by addition of alcohol, or about a quarter grain of benzoic acid to the ounce. Examples — infusion of quassia, gentian, ergot, and calumba. LIQUORS-SOLUTIONS-LOTIONS The B.P. enumerates fifty- three liquors or solutions, nearly all containing inorganic bodies or alkaloids, dissolved in water alone, or with other solvents. They vary greatly in strength and dose. The B.P. Liquor Hydrargyri l^crchloridi contains gr. -x^th in a fluid drachm. Those containing arsenic, atropine, morphine, and strychnine have about 4^ grains of the poison in the fluid ounce, or one grain in 110 minims. The liquors chiefly used by veterinarians are liquor ammonia?, liquor ammonii acetatis, or Mindererus spirit, liquor iodi, liquor arsenicalis, liquor fcrri perchloridi, liquor potassa\ liquor calcis, and liquor zinci chloridi. Solutions of cocaine, MIXTURES — OILS 703 ergot, morphine, and apomorphine, for hypodermic injection, are now inckided in the Pharmacopoeia. Lotions are water}'^ sokitions intended for external use. Those for the eye are usually called collyria ; those for the mouth, coUutoria ; and nasal lotions are known as collun- aria. MIXTURES-MUCILAGES-EMULSIONS Mixtures or misturae are preparations usually containing insoluble drugs suspended in mucilage or other viscid sub- stances. They are exemplified by camphor, chalk, and catechu mixtures. Insoluble heavy powders, mixed with dis- solved gum or starch, are sometimes also termed mucilages. Emulsions are opalescent mixtures of oil or resin, sus- pended in aqueous solution of gum, soap, alkali, or white of egg. OILS, FIXED, VOLATILE, AND MINERAL Fixed oils and fats occur in many plants, usually in the seeds or fleshy pulp, frequently associated with mucilage, and are also present in animal bodies. Besides lard, almond, olive, castor, croton, cocoa-nut, linseed, and cod-liver oils, enumerated in the Pharmacopoeia, palm, rape, and cotton- seed oils are also used in veterinary practice. The fixed oils are obtained by expression. They consist of two or more fatty acids — oleic, margaric, palmitic, and stearic — in com- bination with the sweet basic principle glycerin. They contain 76-79 parts of carbon, with 11-13 of hydrogen, and 10-12 of oxygen. Their consistence varies according to the proportion of the fluid olein. When fresh, they are gener- ally almost colourless, and are inodorous and tasteless. When exposed to the air, the traces of albuminoids which they contain oxidise, a species of fermentation ensues, as in saponification, resulting in the breaking up of the neutral fatty matters, with the production of disagreeable rancidity, which may, however, be removed by boiling the faulty oil Avith water, and subsequently washing it with a weak soda solution. Oils and Avater are mutually but very slightly soluble, but oils and fats are readily dissolved by carbon 704 VOLATILE OILS disulphide, benzine, oil of turpentine, ether, and chloroform. They are misciblc, and hence sometimes conveniently ad- ministered, in milk. Castor and croton oils are soluble in absolute alcohol. They vary in their combustibility and their melting and freezing points. Their specific gravity ranges from 900-970. The bland oils — such as olive, linseed, palm, and cod-liver — in small quantities arc nutrients, but ad- ministered in large doses they are purgatives. Croton oil is irritant, whether applied to a mucous surface or to the skin. The volatile or essential oils are mostly of vegetable origin, being found generally in the flowers, leaves, fruit, or seeds of plants, but they occur in all parts of the coni- ferae. The several volatile animal odorous principles — am- bergris— from the sperm whale, civet, musk, and castoreum are occasionally used. The chemical constitution of the volatile oils differs from that of the fixed oils; most are pure hydrocarbons, with the molecular formula of oil of turpentine (C^qH^c), and are termed terpenes. With this terpene is generally associated an oxidised product, analogous to the colophony or resin (C^qU^qO^) of turpentine. Some, such as oil of garlic, contain sulphur (CgHi^S). They pro- duce no permanent grease stain. Unlike the fat oils, they are not unctuous, but make the skin rough or brittle. They are mostly colourless, but have a powerful odour, and dis- tinctive— often aromatic — taste. They are insoluble, or only slightly soluble, in water, but are readily soluble in alcohol, ether, fatty and mineral oils. They are mostly lighter than water. Most boil between 302-382° Fahr., but the boihng point of camphors is about 372° Fahr. All are acted upon by oxygen, and distil unchanged. They are obtained by distillation, or by extraction. The volatile oils are anti- septic and stimulant, and are used as carminatives, anti- spasmodics, and parasiticides, and for flavouring. The Camphors, thymol, menthol, and common camphor are the oxides of volatile hydrocarbons. In physiological action they arc allied to the volatile oils. Oleo-resins, such as crude turpentine, Canada balsam, and Frankincense, are natural mixtures of volatile oil and resin. OINTMENTS— OLE ATES 705 Balsams are vegetable exudations consisting of resins with benzoic or cinnamic acid, dissolved in volatile oils. Mineral, paraffin, or petroleum oils are a series of paraffin hydrocarbons, obtained from the distillation of shale, coal, and other geological deposits, and having the formula CnH2nx2- (^^^ Petrolcums.) The several members dift'er in their boiling point, and are separable by distillation. Methane, or marsh gas (CH^), and several of the simpler members are gaseous, and used for heating and illumination. Others, such as pentane (CgH^.,), and hexane (CgHj^), are known as petroleum spirit, are solvents for fats, resins, and indiarubber, and are used for making varnishes. Heptane (C-Hjg), known as benzoline, paraffin oil, or mineral sperm oil, is used for burning. Nonane and dodecane are em- plo3'ed as lubricants. Hexdecane (C^gHgJ is the chief constituent of vaseline and other soft paraffins. It is used as a bland protective, and for the making of ointments. The solid, hard, or wax paraffins, melting at 110-145° Fahr., are substituted for wax in the makinof of ointments. OINTMENTS-OLEATES-LINIMBNTS-CERATES- PASTES Ointments or unguenta are semi-solid mixtures of drugs with fatty matters, and are used externally. The excipients generally employed are lard and oils ; greater consistence and adhesion are conferred by addition of paraffin wax or resin : rancidity is checked by admixture of benzoin, or by substituting mineral for animal or vegetable oils. By using hydrous wool fat, or oleic acid as the basis, absorption through the skin is said to be facilitated. When lard or oil is the excipient, the ointment may generally be prepared in a suitable mortar ; but when wax or resin is used, it must be melted over a slow fire, the other constituents added, and the mass stirred until it has acquired proper consistence. Ointments, of which forty-four are enumerated in the B.P., should be kept in well-closed pots or jars, which (except when in daily use) should be covered with moistened bladder and strong paper. They are generally dispensed 2 Y 706 PLASTERS either in chip boxes or earthenware pots, of which the practitioner should have several sizes. In dispensing these and other officinal preparations, spatiihe of steel, bone, wood or horn are essential articles of the pharmacy. Oleates are solutions of active principles in oleic acid. The B.P. contains directions for making mercuric oleate and the ointments of mercuric and zinc oleates. Oleic acid is used in the preparation of the ointments of cocaine, atropine, aconitine, and veratrine. Oleates are sometimes preferred to the corresponding ointments, on account of their being more readily absorbed. The smart friction employed in the in-rubbing of this class of remedies is itself of considerable therapeutic value. It causes dilatation of cutaneous capillaries, and hence promotes increased circula- tion through superficial blood and lymph vessels. Liniments or embrocations are solutions of active prin- ciples in oil or spirit ; some, besides, contain camphor, several have soap added, to increase their lubricant properties ; all are intended for external use. The B.P. enumerates fifteen liniments. Pastes are topical applications, of which the basis consists wholly or partially of fine silica, magnesium carbonate, or siliceous earths. Zinc oxide and other ointments are some- times united with ten per cent, of such siliceous matters. The term 'paste' is occasionally also applied to mixtures of farina or flour with such drugs as borax, alum, or zinc oxide. The siliceous pastes do not impair skin secretion as fatty bodies do, and, moreover, leave a protective powdery coating on the skin. They are hence indicated in some cases of moist eczema and other irritable conditions of the skin. Cerates are stiff' ointments containing wax. PLASTERS-BMPLASTRA Plasters are adhesive substances, usually containing lead oxide, conjoined with resui, wax, soap, fats, tar, or pitch ; are conveniently kept in rolls ; and are prepared for use by being melted and spread on calico, linen, or leather. The equable pressure of a well-applied plaster gives support and POULTICES 707 protection; retards evaporation, and hence raises topical temperature ; increases glandular activity ; and sometimes also hastens removal of inflammatory products. Plasters are rendered more stimulating by addition of mustard or can- tharides ; more soothing or anodyne by addition of opium or belladonna. Ordinary plasters are less useful in veterinary than in human practice ; for in the lower animals they are apt to be displaced by movements, the action of the panniculus car- nosus, and by the patient rubbing or gnawing them. Where they are to remain on for several days or weeks, the melted ingredients are applied directly to the skin, and covered first with finely teased toAV or lint, and then with a linen or leather bandage. Plasters of this kind are popularly known as charges, and were formerly much used in some forms of lameness. They are serviceable when properly applied in preventing undue motion of injured parts. For open joints a useful plaster is made by shaking together 1 lb. shellac and 1 pint methylated spirit. The hair around the wound is clipped, a small piece of oiled silk is laid on, and the adhesive solution painted on with a camel's hair brush until a firm shield is formed. POULTICES-CATAPLASMATA Poultices are local baths or semi-solid packs, used for the topical application of heat and moisture. They closely resemble fomentations. They constitute an important form of emollient. They are made of such farinaceous substances as linseed meal, bran, or oatmeal, stirred into boiling water until the fitting consistence is reached; or of carrots or turnips, either steamed or boiled. Bread and starch make bland porous poultices, and spent hops are indicated where the poultice should be light. Unless nicely prepared, soft, fresh, and changed every two or three hours, they merit Liston's condemnation that they are associated ' with putre- faction and nastiness.' In order to secure softening of the skin, as well as the soothing of peripheral nerve-endings, medicated poultices are generally laid directly on wounds 708 SUBSTITUTES FOR POULTICES or contusions, or with only a very thin substance interven- ing. When used, however, either directly or reflexly, to relieve congestion or pain, they are placed in a well- warmed flannel bag, or in folds of flannel, which, conducting heat slowly, justifies their application at a higher temperature than could otherwise be borne, and, moreover, preserves heat longer. Poultices arrest superficial and circumscribed inflammation in the early stages; and in more advanced stages, when white corpuscles have escaped through the vessels, or pus has begun to form, they promote maturation of the abscess. They are, however, unsuitable for many wounds, which, if kept dry or treated antiseptically, will heal by first intention or adhesion, and for chronic inflam- mation where the parts have become relaxed and deficient in tone. In such cases cold applications are indicated. Heat, without moisture, may be applied by the agency of hot bricks, salt, bran, or sand, of hot-water bags, of well- warmed rugs or flannels, or of the smoothing-iron. A piece of flannel, thoroughly wrung out of boiling water, applied hot, its several folds covered with thin mackintosh, and kept in place by a bandage, in virtue of the heat and equable pressure, relieves strains, and diminishes swelling and pain of the legs of horses worn by much work on hard roads. Poultices, to be properly and securely applied, require some ingenuity and mechanical tact. To prevent unpleasant sticking, the skin is sometimes covered with a piece of muslin, or moistened with vaseline, oil, or solution of glycerin. Before application of the poultice, the irritable inflamed surface is sometimes dressed with equal parts of belladonna extract, glycerin and Avater, or other anodyne. To keep the poultice as long as possible at a uniform temperature, it should be of considerable bulk, and usually several inches thick ; hot water is poured over the mass every hour or two, or, better still, fresh poultices are supplied as the old ones become dry, lower in temperature, or foul. Such changes should be quickly effected, for exposure chills the moist, warm surface. When the poulticing is done Avith, the surface should bo enveloped in flannel, or in a woollen rug covered with oil- skin. In cases of chest or bowel inflammation, dogs, like POWDERS — PULVERES 709 children, are advantageously placed in jacket or saddle poultices. Poultices are rendered more soothing by addition of opiates or anodynes ; more stimulating by sprinkling with mustard or turpentine ; more antiseptic by admixture with boric acid, chlorinated soda, carbolic or salicylic acid, or charcoal. Poultices too long continued are apt to soften and sodden the skin, and to hinder reparative power. Unwieldy to apply, and troublesome to regulate as to temperature, they are often superseded by fomentations, by antiseptic dressings, by water dressings of moistened and medicated lint or tow, from which evaporation is retarded by a covering of oiled silk or waterproof cloth, or by spongiopiline — a felted wool and sponge, coated on one surface with guttapercha, and when soaked with hot water proving a cleanly, handy substitute for a small poultice. POWDERS-PULVERES Many medicines may be reduced to a rough powder in a hand-mill such as that used for grinding coffee or pepper ; or in an iron mortar (which should be fixed into a block of wood), with a large, heavy, iron pestle, which ought to be suspended from one end of a flexible rod running along the ceiling, and fixed into the opposite wall. Preparatory to further reduction, many roots and barks are pounded or cut. To effect minuter subdivision, small quantities of the coarse powders are reduced in hand mortars, of marble, or Wedgwood ware, the latter being cheap, easily cleaned, and little affected by acids. When a fine state of division is required, the powder is put through wire-gauze or horse- hair sieves, the meshes of which are made of suitable close- ness. For light, pungent, or irritant powders, compound sieves, closed in above and below, are used. To facilitate reduction of tough vegetable drugs such as opium, they are sometimes mixed with a hard salt, such as potassium sulphate. To avoid tedious trituration, powders, like calomel and flowers of sulphur, are conveniently obtained by sublimation ; others, like magnesium carbonate or mer- 710 RESINS— SYRUPS ciiry red oxide, by precipitation ; other insoluble substances, like prepared chalk, by stirring in water, allowing the coarser particles to settle, and pouring off the solution from which the finely-divided powder is gradually deposited and dried. Nauseous, deliquescent, efflorescent, and volatile substances, and those given in large doses, cannot be conveniently administered in powder. Active drugs are prescribed with such inert substances as starch, gum, liquorice, or sugar of milk. Powders, when not too bulky, are occasionally dropped upon the patient's tongue, or introduced into the mouth or nostrils by insufflation. When free of disagreeable flavour, they are sometimes scattered upon or mixed with the food, RESINS Resins are amorphous solids consisting of acids formed from the oxidation of terpenes (CioH^g). They are insoluble in water, soluble in spirit, and melt when heated. They dissolve in alkalies, forming soaps. They are frequently found in plants conjoined with volatile oil, constituting an oleo-resin, such as that of copaiba or of cubebs. Occasionally they are associated with gum, as in the gum-resins, asafoetida, ammoniacum, myrrh, and gamboge. The resins proper are only sparingly soluble in the animal secretions, but they irritate by contact, and hence, when swallowed, are cathartic and diuretic. The oleo-resins are more active ; they stimulate mucous surfaces, from which they are absorbed or excreted. Gums or exudations from the stems of plants contain arabin or soluble gum (acacia), bassorin or less soluble gum, and cerasin or insoluble gum. Alcohol precipitates solution of gum. SYRUPS-CONFECTIONS-BLECTUARIBS Syrups are saccharine solutions, usually containing flavouring or medicinal substances. Their specific gravity ranges from l.SOO and 1"400. Their consistence is important. If too thin and weak, they become mouldy, and are apt to ferment ; if too thick and strong, the sugar crystallises out. But the B.P. ensures uniformity and good keeping by definite TINCTURES —ESSENCES 711 instructions as to the proportion of refined sugar and other constituents in the twenty-two syrups. Americans, fond of sweets even with their physic, have introduced thirty-three syrups into the U.S.P. Simple syrup is prepared by dissolv- ing, by the aid of heat, five pounds of refined sugar in two pints of distilled water, and adding sufficient water to make 7 1 lbs. of syrup. The syrups chiefly used in veterinary practice are those of buckthorn, squill, rhubarb, chloral, ginger, and iron iodide, in which the sugar prevents oxida- tion. Electuaries are made with sugar, mucilage or treacle. Confections or conserves are soft pastes, largely composed of sugar or honey, and, like syrups and electuaries, are chiefly used as vehicles for administering powders, or disagreeably tasted drugs. TINCTURES-SPIRITS-WINBS Tinctures are spirituous solutions of active principles. The usual solvent is ethylic alcohol (45 to 90 per cent.). Spirit of ether is used in the preparation of tincture of lobelia, and solution of ammonia, in making the ammoniated tinctures of guaiacum, valerian, ergot, opium, and quinine. Tinctures are prepared without heat by simple solution, by maceration, or by displacement, or sometimes by a combina- tion of these processes. The materials, first reduced by cutting or bruising, are placed with the spirit in a suitable vessel, and usually remain from two to seven days; the solution is poured off, the residue pressed, and the tincture, when filtered, is ready for use. Sometimes the materials, in a state of moderately fine division, are packed in a percolator or cylindrical vessel of glass, earthenware, or metal; the spirit passes gradually through them, displaces and dissolves out their soluble parts, filters through the linen or calico, which is usually stretched across the lower part of the cylinder, and passes off by the stop-cock, which should be attached to the apparatus. Some tinctures are made by macerating the materials in water for a couple of days, obtaining the remaining active principles by percolation with spirit, and mixing the two solutions. More thorough and 712 VAPOURS — INHALATIONS rapid extraction of active principles is obtained by Burton's process. The drug and solvent are packed in the percolator, on the neck of which an elastic cap is fixed; with an exhausting syringe a partial vacuum is created ; and air being subsequently admitted, the spirit penetrates the drug, and more effectually extracts its active principles. Tinctures are clear, of a yellow, red, or brown colour, and generally keep well. A few have been standardised, which means that, in accordance with the B.P. 1898, the tincture shall be made to contain a fixed percentage of the chief active principle of the drug. The tinctures of cinchona, jalap, and opium are now standardised, and others are directed to be prepared from standardised extracts. The revisers of the B.P. have endeavoured to reduce dubiety and risk of accident by so adjusting the strength of the tinctures that, for an adult human patient, the average dose of the more potent tinctures is from five to fifteen minims and of the less potent, from half a drachm to a drachm, while four to eight drachms of the stronger, and one to two ounces of the weaker tinctures may be pre- scribed for the horse. — The ofiicial tinctures of aconite, digitalis, nux-vomica, cantharides and iron perchloride, and a few unofficial tinctures are sufficiently concentrated to require special care in their administration. Medicated Spirits, are solutions of volatile oils, ethers or other substances in alcohol (90 per cent.). The average strength is one in ten. The simple spirits are represented- by those of peppermint, anise, camphor (1 in 10), juniper, chloroform (1 in 20) and ether. The official compound spirits (nitrous ether, sal volatile, etc.) are five in number. Medicated wines, such as vinum antimoniale and vinum ipecacuanhse, made with sherry or orange wine, are merely weak tinctures. Elixirs are tinctures mixed with aromatics and syrup. VAPOURS-INHALATIONS Vapours are volatilised applications used for soothing, stimulating, deodorising, or disinfecting the air-passages, or for destroying parasites lodged therein. The inhalation WEIGHTS AND MEASURES ^13 most frequently used is moist, warm air, produced from a steam kettle, or, in the treatment of horses, from a hot mash, placed in a capacious nose-bag, or in a large bucket brought under the nostrils, the animal's head and the bucket being covered with light waterproof sheeting. Such in- halations are serviceable in catarrh and bronchial conges- tion, and may be rendered more soothing by mixing with the moist, warm air a little chloroform, laudanum, eucalyptus oil, or conium. Antiseptic properties are conferred by impregnating the air with chlorine or sulphurous acid, or by the use of creosote, iodine, or iodoform. As in the administration of chloroform for production of ansesthesia, volatile drugs may be conveniently inhaled from a sponge placed in one nostril. Irritability of the larynx and violent coughing are sometimes relieved by the cautious vaporising of hydrocyanic acid and conium, or by spraying the throat with cocaine. Chlorine, or sulphurous acid inhalations, twice or thrice repeated at intervals of three or four days, are usually effectual in destroying bronchial filarise in calves and lambs. Fumigations are used to disinfect stables and other premises. WEIGHTS AND MEASURES, IMPERIAL AND METRIC Two systems of weights — the imperial and the apothe- caries'— were formerly employed by medical men, veter- inarians, and chemists. The avoirdupois or imperial weight was used by wholesale druggists, and also by retailers in buying their drugs, and usually in selling quantities amounting to or exceeding an ounce. In dealing with smaller quantities, and in making up prescriptions, apothe- caries' weight was employed. To avoid the ambiguity occurring from the use of these two systems, the framers of the B.P. in 1864 aboHshed the apothecaries' weight, adopted the avoirdupois ounce as the standard, divided it into 437-5 grains, and ignored entirely drachms and scruples. But so great is the inconvenience arising from the want of some 714 WEIGHTS AND MEASURES denomination between the grain and the ounce, that medical and veterinary authorities still use the symbols 9 (scruple) and 3 (drachm), the former representing 20 and the latter 60 grains. APOTHECARIES' MEASURES OP WEIGHT 1 grain, gr.j. 1 scruple, 9j =20 grains. 1 drachm, 5j =3 scruples = 60 grs. 1 ounce, §j = 8 drachms = 480 „ 1 pound, Ib.j =12 ounces =5760 „ PHARMACOPCE3IA MEASURES OP MASS 1 grain, gr.j. 1 ounce, oz.j. ^ =437 "5 grains. 1 pound, Ib.j =16 ounces = 7000 grains. MEASURES OP CAPACITY 1 minim, min. ITIj. 1 fluid drachm, f5j =60 minims. 1 fluid ounce, f§j =8 fluid drachms. 1 pint, Oj = 20 fluid ounces. 1 gallon, C.j =8 pints. It is often useful to recollect the weight of diiferent measures. Of water, one minim (Hlj.) weighs nine-tenths of a grain; a fluid ounce at 62° Fahr. weighs exactly 437*5 grains, or an ounce avoirdupois ; hence a pint is equal to a pound and a quarter, and a gallon to ten pounds imperial weight. Practitioners require proper balances of different sizes, legibly marked weights of different denominations, and graduated measures, which, for the sake of cleanliness, should be made of glass or earthenware rather than of metal. Much time is saved by having the bottles in which medicines are dispensed graduated to ounces ; and such bottles may be purchased at very moderate prices. To THE CAPACITY OF DOMESTIC UTENSILS 715 prevent mistakes, medicines for external and internal use should be sent out in diiferently shaped and differently coloured bottles, properly labelled; while all potent pre- parations should further be labelled ' Poison.' When standard measures cannot be obtained, the practi- tioner has often occasion to use some of the ordinary domestic utensils, with the capacity of which he ought therefore to be familiar. Common tumblers contain from eight to ten fluid ounces ; teacups, five to seven fluid ounces ; breakfast cups, about eight to ten fluid ounces ; wine-glasses, two to two and a half fluid ounces ; tablespoons, half a fluid ounce ; dessert- spoons, two fluid drachms ; and teaspoons, one fluid drachm of sixty minims. Such measurements, however, are merely approximative. The pint and quart bottles, subdivisions of the old wine measure, contain respectively about 13 and 27 fluid ounces, and not, as their names might indicate, 20 and 40 fluid ounces. A Scotch pint contains 60 fluid ounces. Medicines are sometimes measured by the drop, which varies, however, exceedingly with the density and viscidity of the fluid, and the form and size of the vessel from which it falls. The metric system of weights and measures, now legaHsed in this country, is everywhere extensively used in scientific observations, and, from the simplicity of its decimal grada- tions, is certain to become general. The metric tables of weight, capacity, and length, with their relations to the corresponding English tables, are appended : — MEASURES OP MASS 1 milligramme = O'OOl gramme = 0-015432 grain. 1 centigramme = 001 „ =0-15432 „ 1 decigramme = 0-1 „ =1*5432 grains. 1 gramme = I'O „ =15'432 „ ldekagramme= 100 „ =0022040 lb. 1 hectogramme = 100-0 „ =022046 1 kilogramme =10000 „ =2-2046, or 2 lbs., 3 oz., and 120 grains nearly. The gramme, taken as the unit of weight, is a cubic centi- metre of water at 4° C. or 39-2° Fahr. 716 METRIC WEIGHTS AND MEASURES MEASURES OF CAPACITY 1 millitre = 1 gramme of water = 00610 cubic in. 1 centilitre = 10 „ „ = 0610 1 decilitre = 100 „ „ = 610 1 litre = 1000 „ „ = 61-0 1 cubic centimetre=16'9 minims nearly. A litre is equal to 175980 pint, or 1 pint, 15 ounces, 1 drachm, and 34 minims nearly. MEASURES OP LENGTH 1 millimetre =0001 metre = 0039370 English inch. 1 centimetre = 001 „ = 0-39370 1 decimetre =01 „ = 3-9370 „ inches. 1 metre =1-0 „ =39370113, or 1 yard, 337 inches nearly. A metre is equal to the ten-millionth part of a quarter of the meridian of the earth. The Fahrenheit thermometer, the measure of tem- perature still retained by the B.P., and in many Avorks on human materia medica, is the measure again adopted in this book. The Centigrade scale, however, is also extensively used. It is often requisite to ascertain the corresponding numbers on each scale, and for this purpose the following rule is useful. To convert any number of Centigrade into Fahrenheit degrees, nudtiply by 9, divide by 5, and add 32. For the converse process, subtract 32, multiply by 5, and divide by 9. INDEXES INDEX OF DISEASES AND REMEDIES Abortion. Slipping ; Premature birth— (1) Accidental cases caused by rough treatment, falls, railroad journeys, acute indigestion, ergotised food ; occiu- in all domestic animals. (2) Epizootic cases depending upon a microbe present in the uterine discharges and amnial fluid of animals which abort ; chiefly occur in cows and ewes. Isolate aborting from pregnant animals. Burn, thoroughly disinfect, or deeply bury fcetus and its membranes- Cleanse and thoroughly disinfect premises in which animal has aborted. Irrigate, with efl'ectual germicides, uterus, vagina, external organs, and tail root of every animal aborting. One part corrosive sublimate, 40 common salt, 4000 clean rain-water, or one part each mercuric iodide and pot. iodide in 1000 water, safe and efifectual. With this solution irrigate vagina, external genitals, and tail root of animals that exhibit premonitory symptoms. Wash frequently external genitals and tail of gravid animals that have herded with those aborted, with 5 per cent, solution ferrous sulphate. Animals which have aborted should be fed ofi', for the microbes are dis- lodged with difl&culty, and fresh generations are liable in subsequent conceptions to repeat their attack (Nocard). Prevent use of bulls with balanitis or suspicious discharge. Abscess. A circumscribed swelling containing pus. Fomentations, poultices, water dressings relieve tension and pain. When maturing tardily, apply counter-irritants— mercury oleate or iodine over small area. Open immediately with knife, and pro^'ide drainage. When deep-seated, open by Hilton's method under local ansesthesia. After evacuation dress antiseptically. Healing of chronic abscess cavity hastened by antiseptic injection, as 10 per cent. sol. of iodine. Belladonna inunction relieves pain. AcARi. Mites. See Mange and Scab. They produce skin irritation, itching, occasionally eruption. Soft soap, alkalies, and hot water cleanse skin, remove scales, and lay bare burrows. Soaking with oil and alkali facilitates removal of crusts. As parasiticides rub in sulphur, or sulphur iodide ointments, mercury oleate, carbolic or tar oils, stavesacre, or creolin solutions. For dogs — aniseed or other volatile oil, wood tar oils, or tolu. For sheep — solutions of tar oils, arsenic, tobacco. Separate aff"ected from healthy. Narrowly watch suspected. Disinfect premises, racks, rubbing posts, etc. 718 INDEX OF DISEASES AND REMEDIES ACTIXOMTCOSIS. A disease caused by the ray fungus found on barley and other plants, thence introduced into the bodies of animals, probably through abrasions in the mucous membranes, producing granulomata, nodules or tumours ; found chiefly on the tongue and jawbones of cattle, udder of sows, etc. In early stage excise diseased structures. Scrape and tlress with iodine tincture, iodoform, a mixture of iodine, carbolic acid, and glycerin. Administer full doses pot. iodide for month ; or small doses of mercurj* biniodide. Precautions to prevent transfer of parasite to man or other animals. Generous diet ; tonics. Acidity of Stomach. Pyrosis. Occurs in all animals, notably when under artificial condi- tions. Change of food, which should be digestible, unstimulating, and rather restricted in amount. Half dose of phj'sic will remove any irritant. Mineral acids, given before or with food. Alkaline bicarbonates as palliatives. Lime water and chalk when diarrlnea present. Magnesia or the carbonate when constipation present. Place a piece of rock salt in horse's manger. Conjoin antiseptics with antacids when associated with flatulence. Bismuth and opium when accompanied by irritation. Gentian, nux-vomica, and other bitters when resulting from atony. Silver oxide, tannates, lead acetate, when associated with gastric catarrh. Acne. Inflammation of sebaceous follicles and sweat glands, leading to erup- tion of pimples, usually produced in horses by badly fitting or dirty harness. Hot fomentations ; water dressing ; alkaline solutions, such as saturated solution sodium bicarbonate, boi-ax, glycerin and water, or sulphur iodide. Touch each pustule with undiluted carbolic acid. See to fitting and proper lining of harness. Sulphur, both locally and internally. Belladonna extract, hydrocyanic acid, or Goulard's extract relieve local irritation. Salines and arsenic internally in chronic cases. Acne (Contagious) of Horses. Has been called Variola equina : A contagious pustular eruption, stated to have been imported into England in 1887 with Canadian horses. The sick isolated, and premises, harness, and stable appliances disin- fected. ' Sanitas,' carbolic, or creolin solution applied. After-Pains. Post-partum pains ; Heaving. Septic metritis. Remove fn'tal membranes and clots from uterus ; raise hind-quarters. Syphon into uterus antiseptics and anodynes, solution of carl)olic acid, Condy's Huid, or mercuric iodide, with belladonna and opium. Ergotin hypodermically, if uterus flaccid and dilated. Administer chloroform or chloral, with cannabis indica or belladoima. Morphine and atropine hypodermically in persistent cases. Laxatives and enemata to empty bowels ; draw away milk. Disinfect attendants and lambing pens. Alopecia. Baldness depending on faulty nutrition of skin and atrophy of hair bulbs. Sometimes parasitic. INDEX OF DISEASES AND REMEDIES 719 Alopecia — contin ned. Oleaginous diet, tonics, sulphur iodide. Antiparasitics. Stimulate skin with ammonia liniment ; cantharides tincture, one part ; soap or camphor liniment, eight parts ; or castor oil. Shave and rub in ' Sanitas ' fluid or vaseline daily, dressing occasionally with above stimulants. Amaurosis. Blindness. Gutta Serena ; Paralysis of optic nerve and retina with dilated pupil. Unless when depending upon loss of blood, debility, or lead-poisoning, it is inculpable. Strychnine in ti-aumatic cases and those of nerve atrophy, but unsuit- able wheie there are brain symptoms. Anemia. Diminution of red corpuscles and other essential constituents of the blood. Pernicious anfemia, probably dependent on a microbe (Friedberger), frequently infectious, and accompanied by fluidity and redness of bone marrow. Generous diet, containing suitable proteids and fats. Comfortable quarters, pure air, exercise ; clip horses with heavy coats. Iron salts and occasional laxatives. Malt extract. Gentian, quinine, and other bitters where appetite faulty ; strychnine. Mineral acids where gastric mucous membrane soft and relaxed. Arsenic, after iron has been given for ten days, or where iron dis- agrees. Calcium phosphate in growing young animals ; Squires' syrup, alter- nated with Donovan's solution or cod-liver oil. Aneurism. A localised dilatation with partial rupture of an artery. Equable pi-essure, truss, bandages, acupressure, cat-gut ligatures above and below sac. Aconite relieves pain and lowers circulation. Ergotin locally injected contracts vessel. Pot. iodide encourages absorption. Rest, quiet ; rather low diet. Electrolysis, injection of ferric chloride, lead acetate, or ergotin may cause coagulation within sac. Radical cure and obliteration of vessel by double ligature or by con- tinuous acupressure. Angle Berries. See Warts. Remove with knife, torsion, caustic, or ligature ; dress antiseptically. Anthrax. Charbon. ^^pends upon the Bacillus anthracis, and is communicable by inocula- jhtion from one animal and from one species to another. Cattle, ^Phorses, and sheep are most frequently attacked. Bacilli and spores are taken up by animals in their food and water ; are occasionally inhaled, or may be introduced through skin abrasions. The char- acteristic lesions are accompanied by acute pyrexia, prove fatal in one to three daj's, and are usually localised — (1) In the subcutaneous structures, corresponding to the malignant pustule of man. (2) In the tongue, chiefly of herbivora, constituting glossanthrax. (3) In the pharynx and respiratory passages of pigs, horses, and other animals. (4) In the intestine of horses. (5) In the spleen, chiefly of adult cattle and sheep, recognised as splenic apoplexj' ; very sudden in its onset, and killing sometimes within an hour. Curative treatment in animals is dangerous and inadvisable. 720 INDEX OF DISEASES AND REMEDIES Anthrax. Charbon — continued. Preventive treatment consists in protection from access of bacillus and spores. Cremate or bury in graves 7 feet deep, infected discharges and carcases, which sliould neither be skinned nor opened. The flesh of animals dead from anthrax has produced by ingestion the disease in pigs and dogs. Thoroughly disinfect infected premises. Fence off graves. Keep susceptible animals off pastures wliere disease has occurred, and from low-lying swampy districts and other situations affording favour- able habitat for the micro-organism. Inoculation with cultivated virus ensures temporary protection. Anuria. Dysuria ; Retention of urine. Results from calculi, or urethral obstruction, paresis or Ki)asm of the bladder, and other causes, more emnmon and distressing in horses and dogs than in cattle or sheep. The bladder ui the horse may be gently pressed by the hand introduced into tlie rectum. Friction and warm applications to the perineum may overcome paralysis or spasm. Anti-paralysants or antispasmodics administered. Catheter. Surgical treatment for calculus. Aphtha. Vesicles in the mouth ; Thrush. Associated' with the epiphyte, oi'dium albicans. Most common in young animals. Alum, borax, sulphurous or boracic acid, or pot. chlorate solutions applied locally. Oxymel, glycerin and water, or glycerin of starch, or of tamiic acid. When connected with gastric derangement, give laxatives, salines, or grey powder. When patient reduced prescribe tonics. Soft digestible food. Aphthous or Vesicular Epizootic. Foot-andmouth-disease ; Eczema contagiosa : A contagious eruptive fever affecting cattle, sheep, pigs, and occasionally poultry. The contagious agent, contained in the discharges from the vesicles and ulcerations, retains its activity for several months, and is trans- missible directly or indirectly. Segregate affected ; disinfection ; soft digestible food. Keep inflamed, abraded surfaces clean, and moisten occasionally with alum, borax, or zinc sulphate, made up with treacle, honey, or glycerin and water. Lead or zinc acetate solution or ointment, dithion, Goulard's extract, or Condy's fluid diluted, applied to udder and feet. Milk affected cows frequently, preventing lodgment in udder of stale milk. The milk unsafe to use unless boiled for fifteen minutes. Pot. nitrate and clilorate, mixed with mash or drinking water, M'hen fever high. One attack does not certainly protect the subject exposed to .subsequent infection. Apoplexy, Cerebral. Rupture of blood-vessel occasionally from atheroma, causing pressure, and sometimes softening of l)rain substance. Not common in domestic animals. Blood-letting, aconite, lower arterial pressure where attack threatened, or in earlier comatose stage. Active purgative, laxative enemas, cold water and ice to head relieve congestion. Nitro-glycerin and bromides also diminish cerebral congestioa. . INDEX OF DISEASES AND REMEDIES 721 Apoplexy, Cerebral— co«?m?/ec?. Akohol and- other stimulants may be needful to combat subsequent ansemia. Massage, electricity, strychnine, relieve parah'sis. Digestible laxative food ; avoid over-exertion or exposure to heat of sun. Iodine and pot. iodide promote absorption. Recurring attacks in robust subjects prevented by careful diet and regular work. Apoplexy, Parturient. Milk fever : A disease of cows (and ewes) occurring at parturition, or a few days thereafter ; characterised bj- loss of consciousness, and paralysis of motion and sensation ; sometimes ushered in by cerebral excitement, spasms, and convulsions ; attacking animals in the prime of life, in good condition, and free milkers. Mortality ranges from 25 to oO per cent. No marked pathological appearances. Those recovering do so quickly, and usually perfectly. Genesis of disease still unexplained, but probably due to a nerve toxine. May bleed in earliest stage. Cathartics, active — salts, with calomel, gamboge, or croton, treacle, and aromatics. Intestinal antiseptics. Chloral hydrate. If swallowing difficult, give cathartic and other medicine with Read's pump. Prop on sternum : keep up head : turn patient from one side to other every three hours. Remove milk every few hours and rub bag. Try Schmidt's treatment : — Dissolve oij- to 5iij- pot. iodide in 35 ounces of boiling water ; cool to blood heat, and inject one-fourth of the solution into each teat. Knead the udder after injection. If urine retained, empty urinary bladder by catheter twice daily. Ice or refrigerants to head ; clothe and rub body and legs. Linseed gruel occasionally by stomach pump and clyster. Whisky or other alcohol, with ammonia solution and carbonate, where collapse threatened. Rubefacients to spine. Cold pack sometimes beneficial. Until recovery fairly established, withhold dry food, but allow mashes and diluents. Purgatives, counter-irritants to the spine, pot. iodide and nux-vomica relieve resulting paresis. Prevent by sparingly feeding susceptible subjects for a month before calving. Cathartic a fortnight before parturition, and another if required imme- diately after. Milk cow a fortnight before calving, earlier if milk can be drawn, and empty bag twice daily. Apoplexy, Pulmonary. Hyperaemia and cedema of lungs. Occurs especially in horses out of condition, usually from violent over-exertion. Cool air to breathe ; smart hand-rubbing of body and limbs, which must subsequently be warmly clothed. Small repeated doses of alcohol, ether, or ammonia stimulate cardiac and respiratory centres. Abstraction of blood from jugular relieves congestion of right heart. Apoplexy, Splenic. See Anthrax. Appetite, I:wpaired. Varied and tempting diet. Food removed if not eaten, and fresh supply presented at next meal. Acids, bitters, nux-vomica, quinine. Examine teeth, mouth, and throat, and look for gastric, cardiac, or other cause. 2z 722' INDEX OF DISEASES AND REMEDIES, Arteritis. Inflammation of arteries. Not common in the lower animals. Rest, alteratives, salines, pot. iodide. Arthritis. Inflammation of joint. Occurs in all animals ; in young, from pyaemic infection, or rheumatism ; in horses, from strains, injuries, or sepsis from open joint. Synovial membrane primarily aff"ected, but other structures become involved, and in clironic cases periosteum, ends of bones, and ligaments are attacked. Rest, anatomical and physiological, fomentations, hot compress. Antipyretics, with analgesics subcutaneously, to reduce pyrexia and pain ; counter-irritation in some cases after abatement of acute symptoms. Slings, splints, and adhesives needful for horses in acute attacks. Antiseptics in treatment of open joint. Injection of sterilized glycerin. Sodium salicylate in rheumatic cases. AscARiDES. See Worms. Ascites. Abdominal dropsy : Accumulation of fluid in cavity of peritoneum, depending on disease of some important internal organ obstructing return of venous blood to the heart. More common in dogs, sheep, and cattle than in horses. Remove, if possible, conditions on which it depends. Diuretics, salines, oil of turpentine, pot. iodide, pilocarpine. Digitalis, especially in cardiac complications. Infusion of buchu. Generous diet and tonics in anaemic or tuberculous disease of peritoneum. Concenti-ated dietary, iron salts, and turpentine in sanguineous form appearing in impoverished sheep and lambs. Tapping, even when it does not cure, relieves distressing symptoms. Asthma. Dyspnoea depending on intermittent bronchial spasm. Rare in horses and cattle, more frequent in dogs. Paroxysm checked by cautious inhalation of anesthetics, amyl-nitrite, or nitro-glycerin, or by chloral given by mouth. Bromides ; strong coS"ee internally. Emetics relieve many canine cases. Inhalation of terebene with or without steam ; of stramonium with pot. nitrate and chlorate, or amm. chloride. Belladonna, stramonium, sometimes with eucalyptus, internally or in- haled. Alkalies, amm. chloride, pot. iodide ; inhalation of sulphur fumes when associated with dry bronchial catarrh. Oil of turpentine, asafcetida, benzoin, eucalyptus oil when discharges profuse. Strychnine internally or hypodermically when respiratory centre weak. Acids and arsenic when complicated with gastric derangement. Occasional dressing of throat with stimulant embrocation, especially in old dogs with severe bronchial symptoms. Regular digestible, rather concentrated, diet. Exercise. Atheroma. Degeneration of arteries, with calcification. Not common in lower animals. Avoid over-exertion ; prescribe digestible oleaginous diet. Ammonium iodide promotes absorption. Iron salts, phosphates, Easton's syrup in debilitated patients. Phosphorus in small doses where brain vessels implicated. Atrophy. Wasting ; Emaciation. Results from imperfect nutrition, nervous lesion, pressure, disease, or inaction. Suitable diet ; fitting use of wasted part j tonics, arsenic, and strychnine internally. INDEX OF DISEASES A^D REMEDIES • 723 Ateophy — cont inued. Friction, massage, electricity, locally. Counter-irritation. Inunction of oil, cantharides, or mercuric iodide iu muscular atrophy. AzoTCRiA. See Hjemoglobincria. Balanitis. Inflammation of the glans of penis. Common in dogs ; contagious. Penis withdra\^Ti, examined, cleansed, and dressed with astringent. Injection of mild astringent daily for a •week. Zinc chlor. grs. ij. to grs. iv. in an ounce of water. Any fungoid or vascular formations scraped or cut off. In persistent cases horse or bull must be cast and secured, thorough examination made ; inflamed, ulcerated, or fungoid surfaces dressed with silver nitrate solution containing grs. x. to the ounce of distilled water. Zinc sulphate or lead acetate injections repeated daily. Perfect rest, dose of physic, laxative diet. Barrexxess. Sterility. Congenital, sometimes from hermaphrodism. Also caused by disease of organs of generation and faulty general health, with acid or septic vaginal discharges. Change of diet and surroundings ; exercise. Alteratives ; pot. iodide ; phosphoriis and cantharides, small doses. Gradual lowering of fat plethoric subjects. Improved, condition of debilitated, by diet and tonics. Wash out and disinfect vagina. Dilatation of os uteri if it be constricted ; change male. Artificial insemination may be tried. Bites of Insects. Ammonia or pot. bicarbonate solution. Eucalyptus oil. Creolin, carbolic acid, prussic acid, chloroform, cold water dressings. Black-leg or Black Quarter. Quarter evil. Consists in phlegmonous, emphysematous swellings, usually about the hind- quarters, occasionally on the shoulders, neck, or fore-quarters, caused by the Black-quarter bacillus. Cattle, sheep, goats, and rabbits are readily inoculated ; the horse, ass, and white rat exhibit only local swelling at the point of inoculation ; the pig, dog, cat, black rat, and man are immmie. The disease is endemic ; the bacterium, from the infected pasture or water, probably enters the body by wounds of the legs or feet. Cattle from four to twenty months are most liable to attack. Curative treatment very unsatisfactory. Free scarification of limited external swellings and moistening with antiseptics arrest a few slight cases. Prevention is effected by keeping young cattle and sheep out of pastures kno^vn to be infected ; and by inoculation with special vaccine. Animals dying from the disease should be burned unskinned and un- opened, or deepl\- buried with lime. Disinfection of premises is adopted as for contagious diseases. Setons have been credited with some preventive power. Administration once or t'wice weekly of pot. chlorate or other saline antiseptic ad^^sed. Prepared, vaccine used hypodermically as a preventive iu France, Germany, and England ; stated to be effectual. See p. 6S5. Bladder, Urinary, Ixfi^\.m>iatiox of. See Cystitis. Bladder, Irritable. Diluents, linseed tea, suitable diet. Interdict heated grain or fodder, or other acrid food. Laxative relieves any gastro-iutestinal irritation. Urinary disin- fectants. 724 INDEX OF DISEASES AND REMEDIES Bladder, Irritable — continued. Belladonna as anoilj'ne used internally and locally. Benzoic acid or annnonium bcnzoate when urine alkaline. Alkaline bicarbonate when urine acid. Copaiba and cubebs as antiseptics in chronic cases. Sulphuric and salicylic acids with iron sulphate, where irritation in horses is connected with influenza or purpura. Anodyne enemata benefit reflexly. Cleanse with soap and water prepuce and external meatus of male. Bladder, Paralysis. Prevent accumulation of urine by iise of catheter, or in horse by gentle pressure on viscus from within rectum. Prescribe cantharides, ergot, or cannabis indica ; nux-vomica or eserine when atonic. Bleeding. See Hemorrhage. Bog Spavin. Distension of tibio-tarsal capsule ; in some cases acute synovitis. Rest ; high -heeled shoe. In acute cases rest best secured by slinging. Foment when joint hot and tender. Cold water and refrigerants when acute inflammation abated. Spring truss sometimes used in simple cases to give equable pressure. Counter-irritation encourages absorption in chronic cases. Removal of fluid by aspirator or special trocar may be tried. Boil or Furunculus. A localised acute suppurative inflanmiation, with limited necrosis of the cutis. A carbuncle is a boil on a larger scale. Mercuric nitrate or belladonna ointment, or painting with silver nitrate, sometimes aborts inflammation in early stages. Fomentations and poultices hasten maturation and relieve pain. Counter-irritants hasten suppuration. Anodj'nes locally relieve irritation and pain. Laxative diet, alkaline sulphites and chlorates, and calcium sulphide internally. When opened, treat antiseptically. Arsenic internally sometimes prevents recurrence. Bone Spavin. See Spavin. BoTS IN Horses. Larvffi of cestrus equi developed in stomach. Turpentine and oils, bitters, hydrochloric acid, iodine, naphthol, copper and iron sulphates, arsenic, followed by purgatives. Carbon bisulphide 75 grains, in gelatin capsule, repeat dose in twelve liours, and next day give a dose of physic. Green fodder ; dcstro}' larvtc as they are expelled in spring, and the fly. Bowels, Inflammation of. See Enteritis. Braxy in Sheep. An infective gastro-entcritis characterised by patclies of inflammation and ecchymoscs chiefly aftecting the mucous and sei'ous membranes and skin. Pathology undetermined. Most cases prove fatal. Prevent by carefully regulated dietary. Removal from exposed, undrained, infected grazings. Broken Knees in Hoksks. Where skin not t)rokcn, tie up head and apply diluted zinc or lead acetate solution tor two or three days. W^lien skin cut, cleanse thoroughly, dress antiseptically, bring edges to- gether with pin sutures, plaster, styptic colloid, or shellac paste ; INDEX OF DISEASES AND REMEDIES 725 Broken Knees in Horses — continued. retain them in position with light calico bandage ; dress with mild astringent solutions. When skin considerably lacerated, the tendon and its sheath bruised and exposed, or the knee-joint opened, the limb should be put in splints and animal slung ; several folds of antiseptic lint, retained in place by a calico bandage, over which cold water is made to trickle con- tinuously. When tendon much bruised, knee-joint laid open, bones seriously injured or fractured, anchylosis must ensue, and the animal had better be destroyed. Broken Wind in Horses. Pulmonary emphysema, associated with indigestion and characterised by expiratory dyspntva and peculiar cough. Probably of nervous origin and connected with tlie vagus. Seldom curable, but relieved by careful dietary ; good concentrated food given damped ; water frequently, in limited quantity at a time, but withheld before hard, fast work. Reasonable restriction of water specially needful when heart affected. Laxatives and salines given occasionally. Rock salt, chalk, or whiting in manger. Two or tliree ounces Unseed oil with food. Arsenic (Fowler's solution) given daily or every second day, may be continued for months. Sedative cough balls occasionally. Bronchial Croup. ' Fat stock show disease.' Fibrinous exudation on tracheal and bronchial mucous membrane. Frequent in cattle and sheep, and in other animals which have breathed smoke and hot air, especially during fogs. Rapid progress renders treatment nearl}' hopeless. Inhalation of watery vapour medicated with phenols, eucalj'ptus oil, or amm. chloride. Fresh air. Apomorphine in carnivora. Tracheotomy essential to prevent asphyxia. Bronchial Pilaris. Ste Worms. Bronchitis, Acute. Inflammation of mucous membrane lining bronchi. Sometimes extends into the bronchioles, alveoli, and lung parenchyma. Horses and dogs attacked more frequently than cattle or sheep. Usually classified as (1) Acute ; (2) Croupous ; (3) Chronic; (4) Verminous. Place horse in comfortable box, 60° to 65° Fahr., cool, pure air to breath ; body and limbs clothed. Inhalation of watery vapour from steam-kettle, large mashes, or buckets of boiling water promote exudation in dry stage. Inhalation, medicated as required by antiseptics, anodynes, or ex- pectorants. Fomentations and mustard to throat and sides. Mustard in earlier stages applied for fifteen to twenty minutes, washed off, and reapplied if needful. Salines in drinking water, and antifebrin or antipyrine relieve fever. Aconite, a few doses early in robust subjects, where symptoms acute. Ammonium acetate solution, ipecacuanha, and squill while membrane dry and congested. Apomorphine, pilocarpine, benzoic acid, eucalyptus oil, terebene, mineral acids diminish excessive secretion. Soap liniment and laudanum rubbed into throat and down neck twice daily relieve difficult breathing, especially when secretion excessive. Belladonna stimulates respiratory centre and eases cough, conjoined with camphor, ether, or chloral hydrate, and in debilitated patients with small repeated doses of alcohol. 72G INDEX OF DISEASES AND REMEDIES Bronchitis, Acute — continued. Electuaries or gargles of opium, chloral hydrate, with glycerin, also relieve cough. Pot. chlorate and amm. chloride promote fluid secretion. Lobelia and opium where there is much discharge and paroxysms of cough. Ammonium carbonate when mucus abundant and viscid, and patient low. Mash diet; regulate bowels if possible by enemata; cathartics dangerous in horses. For dogs, emetic in early stage ; apomorphine, ipecacuanha, and anti- monial wine, where membrane dry and congested and fever high ; in weakly subjects and advanced stages, bronchi cleared by emesia pro- duced by ipecacuanha, squill, and ammonium carbonate. Bronchitis, Chronic. Frequently follows acute attacks. Sometimes of verminous origin. See Worms and Hoose. Equable temperature ; pure fresh air ; comfortable clothing which must be removed and patient wisped over night and morning. Salines, with or without mercurials, relieve congestion and fever. Terebene and eucalyptus oil as stimulants of bronchial secretion. Belladonna, balsams, and mineral acids diminish excessive secretion. Ammonium carbonate and chloride useful where secretion viscid and irritating. Belladonna and ether stimulate respiratory and cardiac centres. Chloroform, chloral, and opium abate cough. Mustard and other counter-irritants, carefully used, lessen congestion, irritation, and cough. Mustard embrocation, although most effectual in early stages, also useful in clironic cases. Soap liniment, with or without laudanum, frequently relieves cough. Alcohol, ether, volatile oils, digitalis, maintain heart-action in weakly subjects. Inhalations of sulphurous acid, creosote, eucalyptus, and other anti- septics, when secretions foetid. Intratracheal injections in parasitic cases. Arsenic occasionally relieves emphysema. Careful dietarj', nutritive oleaginous food, bland oils. Iron and other tonics promote convalescence. Bronchocele. Goitre. Hypertrophy of thyroid gland. Rare in horses and cattle, more com- mon in dogs. Often harmless. Local stimulation, iodine, pot. iodide. Puncture and inject with iodine (Cagny). Liberal dietarj' ; full proportion of fatty matters. Extirpation may be necessary. Bruises : Contusions. Medicated fomentations, poultices, water-dressing, refrigerants, carbolic and other antiseptics. Massage, subsequent inunction with oil, pro- mote absorption. Lead, zinc, and other astringent solutions probably prevent leucocytes exuding and accumulating outside vessels. Belladonna, opium, and aconite paralyse sensory nerves and relieve pain. Brushing or Interfering. Occurs in horses with faulty action, and in others when leg weary or out of condition. Careful shoeing. A plain shoe unnailed on the inner branch. A three- quarter shoe, or a slioe thin on inside web, without heel on outside. Well-fitting boot on the fetlock liable to be struck. Improved condition often the most effectual remedy. INDEX OF DISEASES AND REMEDIES 727 BULLiE. Pemphigus : Herpes : Eruption of large vesicles in irregular patches about junction of skin and mucous membranes, usually connected with gastric derangement, especially in young patients. Rare in animals. Classified by Friedberger* as (1) Traumatic. (2) Thermic (caused by burns), or (3) Chemical (as induced by cantharides). Vaseline, ' Sanitas ' solution, carron oil. Laxatives and salines when connected with gastric derangement. Adult horses subject to an inflammatory form passing to pustulation, treated by laxative, alkaline wash, and zinc ointment. BUKXS AXD SCAUJS. Protect immediately from air and ii-ritants by layers of cotton wool or application of carron oil. Liniment of oil and litharge, with five per cent, boric, salicylic, or carbolic acid, or peppermint oil. Whiting and water, or fuUers' earth and oil, about consistence of cream, applied repeatedly, until tolerable coating formed. Zinc oxide, witli about ten parts of vaseline, or of glycerin and water. Alkaline solutions, soap lather, saturated solution sodiom bicarbonate relieve irritation in slighter cases. Where discharges are foul, add antiseptics to above dressings. Where there is irritation or pain, add chloroform or laudanum, or both. Combat constitutional symptoms with antiseptics and anodynes in- ternally. Anticipate collapse and necrosis in severe cases. BCBSATTZE. Kunkur : A parasitic fungoid disease aflfecting horses and other animals in India and other tropical countries. Improved sanitary conditions ; change of food and surroundings. Kunkur growths excised ; wounds and ulcers treated antiseptically. Calcxili, Biliary. Purgatives, salines, olive oil. Chloroform, chlorodyne, belladonna internally. ]Morphine and atropine hypodermically. Nitric acid, nitro-hydrochloric acid. Hot fomentations, counter-irritation. Calculi, I>"testi>'al. Dust balls ; concretions. Rectal exploration : use long tube for injections. Laparo-enterotomy. Avoid active cathartics, but give enemas and anodynes. Restrict to soft, concentrated food, ^lorphine and atropine hypodermicaUy, chloral or Indian hemp, most prompt and efifectual means of relieving spasm and pain. Calcttli, Ukixaet. Lithiasis ; Gravel. Dilute mineral acids in horse. Try piperazin in dogs. Alkalies or alkaline bicarbonates diminish tendency to urinary deposits common especially in highl^'-fed rams and wethers. Ammonia benzoate helps resolution of phosphatic deposits of sheep. Diluents, cooling laxative food ; raise feeding sheep thrice daily, and drive them a few hundred yards, ensuring their urinating. Sheep affected must be placed on buttocks, and by manipulation the sabulous matter in urethra is gradually moved. Where canal hopelessly blocked it must be opened either at the ischia arch or by amputation of appendix. Lithotomy "or lithotrity only means of removing cystic calculi of any considerable size in animals. Caxcek, Carcinoma : A malignant growth of epithelial-like cells contained in an alveolar stroma. Affects all classes of animals. 728 INDEX OF DISEASES AND REMEDIES Cancer — continued. Excision of localised accessible <^ff)\vths in e.arly stage. Destruction by clironiic acid or other caustic seldom successful or safe. Carbolic acid, bromine, or iodoform may retard growth and lessen risk of secondary infection. Generous diet retards exhaustion caused by absorption from disintegrated tissues. Analgesic, antiseptic, and deodorant dressings. Canker of Horse's Foot. A disease affecting the keratogenous membrane of the foot, and pro- ducing disorganisation of the horn of the sole, frog and laniinal sheath, and fuitid, infective discharges. Mr. Malcolm, Birmingham, has shown canker to be purelj' local, occur- ring in all breeds and descriptions of horses, possibly' depending on an ejiiphyte, and, while confined to the frog and sole, curable (Journal of Comparative Patliology and Thernpeutics, 1891). In all cases, the degenerate horn, fungoid growths, and every portion of unhealthy tissue must be excised with the knife or cauterised with the hot iron. Dress with salicylic acid, chinosol, or formaldehyd solution ; or with equal parts of sulphates of copper, iron, and zinc, with crude carbolic acid, and vaseline added to form a paste. This is covered with tow and a leather or iron sole, and tlie shoe replaced. Daily, or every second day, the horse, either standing or cast, examina- tion is made for any canker specks, which are removed and the foot dressed as before. Mineral acids and silver nitrate sometimes serviceable. Calomel used dry encourages growth of horn. Examination and dressing repeated at longer intervals. After first few days many cases are best at work. Canker of Ear. See Otorrhcea. Capped Hock, Knee, and Elbow in Horse. (a) A collection of fluid immediately underneath the skin of the point of the hock. (/>) Chronic synovitis of the bursa of perforatus cap. Capped Knee — (1) Distension of sheath of extensor metacarpi magnus. (2) Effusion beneath the skin. Gapped Elbow — Subcutaneous inliltration from bruising. Hot fomentations ; subsequently stimulate with cantharides liniment or mercuric iodide ointment ; soft soap rubbed in daily. If swelling recent and fluctuating puncture with aspirator needle ; inject cavity with iodine solution. In bursal form of capped hock use shoe raised at heel. Apply a charge. In indurated capped elbow excision is the only satisfactory remedy. • Prevent recurrence by heel-pad, ring-pad, or by felt attached to horse-rug. Carditis. Myocarditis. Rare in lower animals. Inflammation of muscular fibres of heart with (1) infiltration or induration, or (2) suppuration, as in puerperal metritis in cattle, or omphalo-phlebitis of foals (Fricdberger). Concentrated good food. Digitalis, caffeine, alcoholic stimulants as heart tonics. Stimulant embrocations to chest. Combat pyivmic infection with antiseptics and quinine. Cataract. Opacity of the lens. Extraction of the lens ; or needling to promote its absorption. Chloroform — and locally, atropine and cocaine — for diagnt)sia and ojjera- tion. INDEX OF DISEASES AND REMEDIES 729 Cataract— foiiin; ued. Phosphoretted oil, instilled into human eye, if borne, leads to absorp- tion. Mercurials internally. Catarrh. Inflammation of any mucous membrane, with serous or muco-purulent discharge. But the term is specially applied to inflammation of the membrane lining the nasal chambers and upper respiratory passages, constituting Cold in head or Coryza. More frequent in horses than other animals. House comfortably ; clothe body and head; bandage legs. Equable temperature of 60" to 65" Fahr. Steam head with vapour of water alone, or medicated with antiseptics or anodynes. Warm or vapour bath ; patient quickly dried and re-clothed. Mash diet or green food ; laxative enemata ; laxatives if required. Amm. acetate solution ; pot. nitrate or chlorate ; other saline electuaries. Hot fomentations ; stimulating embrocations to throat. Insufflations. Catarrh, Chronic, of Horses. Usually accompanied by nasal discharge. Cure uncertain. Isolate patient until tested for glanders. Nasal douche or spray. Wash out nasal passages, and, if necessary, trephine and disinfect the sinuses. See to faulty teeth. Examine guttural pouches. Fresh air, rest, or gentle work ; if coat rough clip or singe. Green fodder ; feed on floor, or graze by day. Inhalation of sulphurous, carbolic, or iodine vapours. Administer iron, arsenic, terebene, or copaiba. Catarrhal Fever, jSLaligxant, of Cattle. An acute contagious fever, with catarrhal inflammation of the mucous membrane of the eyes and respiratory organs, occasionallj- involv- ing the gastro-intestinal and urinary membranes, usually of two to four weeks' duration ; the mortality 70 to 90 per cent. More frequent in Europe and America than in Great Britain, chiefly affecting young animals in spring (Friedberger and Law). Antipyretics, saline expectorants, and antiseptics. Combat formidable symptoms and maintain strength. Cerebral An.emia. Occurs in all animals. Stimulants to combat syncope. Salt solution hypodermically. Mustard and other cutaneous irritants. Phosphorus, phosphates, quinine, strychnine. Cerebral H.smorrhage. See Apoplexy. Cerebral HYPER.i:MLA. Occurs in all classes of animals, especially in early life, and appears in an active and passive form. Blood-letting in earliest stage, but not when coma supervenes. Ice-cap or refrigerants ; darkened, cool quarters. Cathartics, salines, warm clothing to stimulate skin. Cerebro-spinal Menixgitis in Horses. Hyperemia and inflammation of the cerebro-splnal meninges. Horses and sheep more frequentty affected than cattle, hogs, or dogs ; horses in America attacked more frequently than in Great Britain ; enzootic and epizootic ; but special infecting agent has not been discovered. Slings essential where horse cannot stand. Half dose of physic, oil, and a few grains calomel. Salines, laxative enemas, mash diet. Where urine not freely passed use catheter. Strychnine thrice daily. 730 INDEX OF DISEASES AND REMEDIES Cerebro-spinal Meningitis in Horses — continued. Cold or ice-bag to head and neck ; counter-irritation to spine. Ergotin and atropine liypodermically, aijproved by Mr. Lyman, Boston, U.S.A., and Professor Williams. Pilocarpine, ten grains hypoderinically { Friedberger). Chokino. Usuall}' from obstruction of oesophagus. Common in cattle feeding on roots. Repeated small quantities slowly given of linseed gruel, oil, or otlier lubricant. Secure wooden gag in mouth, Avliich evokes swallowing movements and discharge of saliva. Move foreign body, upwards if possible, by introducing hand into mouth, and by external manipulation of gullet. Failing, carefully pass the probang, cup end first. Other means unsuccessful, cut into gullet and extract obstruction. Where hoven becomes serious puncture rumen witli trocar or knife. In liorses symptoms less urgent, and treatment not always satisfactory. In pharyngeal choking, explore pharynx and remove obstruction. In cervical cases, manipulate upwards or paus the probang. In thoracic cases use probang. Colic. Gripes; Spasm of intestine; Irregular inordinate contractions of muscular walls of intestines. Occurs in all animals ; presents two forms — (a) spasmodic ; (h) flatulent. Place horse in spacious, well-littered box. Purgative to remove irritant : in horse, aloes ; in cattle and sheep, oils and salines ; in dog, castor oil. Catharsis hastened and pain relieved by copious laxative enemas, hot fomentations and friction to abdomen, and gentle exercise. Eserine and pilocarpine if bowels continue torpid. Ether, oil of turpentine, other volatile oils, ammonia, and ammonium carbonate combat flatulence. Pother, alcohol, and chloral hydrate, conjoined with opium, belladonna, cannabis indica, control spasms and pain. Morphine and atropine hypodermically or inhalation of chloroform quiets violent spasm. Repeated recurring attacks in influenza in horses, often connected with hepatic derangement, treated with half dose of aloes and a little calomel, spirit of chloroform, and mustard embrocation to abdomen. In flatulent colic in horse the distended bowel may be punctured by trocar and canula. Similar treatment in other classes of patients. Cholera of Fowls and Hogs. See Fowl Cholera and Swine Fever. CUORKA. Irregular, involuntary, convulsive movements of voluntary muscles, or groups of muscles. Stated to be sometimes dependent on localised sclerosis of spinal cord (Repoi'ts of Brown Institute). Occurs in all animals, usually in the young, feeble, or anaemic. In iiorso most conunon in the form of stringhalt, which see. In dog as sequel of distemper, or from intestinal worms. Remove gastro-intestinal derangement, worms, or other cause of reflex irritability. In weakly dogs or convalescents from distemper, generous diet, fair pro- portion of good milk or fatty matters. Iron, arsenic, other tonics, ctlier, and spirit of camphor ; Fellows' syrup. Sponging or affusion with water, at first tepid, subsequently cold. Violent spasms relieved by full doses chloral hydrate or Indian hemp, internally, or chloroform inhalation. Counter-irritants over spine in long-standing cases. INDEX OF DISEASES AND REMEDIES 731 Coma. Stupor, symptomatic of impaired brain function. Affusion alternately with warm and cold water ; ice-bag to head. Ammonia given by inhalation and subcutaneously. Mustard to extremities ; stimulating enemata, eserine, and pilocarpine. Cautious bleeding ; endeavour to promote action of bowels and skin. CONJUNCTIYITIS. Inflammation of mucous membrane of eye. See also Ophthalmia. Remove any irritant : foment ; castor oil between lids relieves irrita- tion. Poppy-head infusion as fomentation. Silver nitrate, zinc acetate, or other astringent solution suitablj' diluted. Shield from light ; try cold applications. Atropine and cocaine as local anodynes. Mercuric nitrate ointment when lids inflamed and granular. Ergot fluid extract undiluted I'elieves vascular engorgement. Dose of physic ; shade both eyes. CoJfSTIPATION. Torpidity of bowels. Insuflicient intestinal secretion and movement. Laxative diet, diluents, salines, regular exercise. Purgatives in moderation, especially when liver deranged ; repeated laxative clysters ; massage of abdomen. Aloes, oils, calomel, small doses Epsom salt for horses, Salts, croton, gamboge, veratrine, calomel for cattle. Calomel and jalap, castor and linseed oils, and emetics for dogs and cats. Gentian, quinine, and other tonics when associated with debilit}-. Oil of turpentine by mouth and rectum where there is flatulence. Physostigmine and pilocarpine in obstinate cases. Soap suppository in young animals. Nux-vomica, belladonna : electricity or ergot to give tone. Where bowels obstructed by concretions or twist, cathartics are danger- ous, and diluents, laxative enemata, and anodynes are indicated. In dogs use oil and grey powder, or jalap and calomel. In poultry clear out the rectum and give castor oil. CoxsuMPTioN, Pulmonary. See Tuberculosis. Convalescence. Easily digested nutritive food, malt extract, milk and eggs, fresh air, exercise. Alcoholic stimulants, bitters, mineral acids, arsenic. Pepsin for dyspeptic dogs and young herbivora feeding on milk. Iron salts, phosphates, baths, cold sponging. Convulsions. Fits produced usually by irritation of motor centres of brain or spinal cord; they may be (1) cerebral or (2) spinal, and these again (a) central or (h) reflex. Chloral hydrate ; chloroform inhaled and swallowed. Morphine subcutaneously : spinal ice-bag. When of cerebral origin, bromides or ammonia internally ; cold afi'usion ; ice to head. When reflex remove source of ii'ritation. Corneal Opacities. Paint spot with silver nitrate, 1 part to 100 water, or corrosive sublimate 1 part, common salt 7^ parts to 3000 water, and afterwards spray or douche with solution sodium hj^posulphite, grs. 5 or 10 to the ounce of water. Sodium chloride injected under conjunctiva. Iodine and pot. iodide internallj' and locally promote absorption. Corneal Ulcer. Stimulant and astringent collyrium, silver nitrate grs. iij. to one ounce distilled water, apply with camel-hair brush. When ulcer small, instil 2 p. cent, solution fluorescein, which stains ulcer and facilitates its location. 732 INDEX OF DISEASES AND REMEDIES CoKNS IN Foot of Horse. Bruise of sensitive sole. Remove shoe and any cause of irritation, pare to relieve pressure, ensure exit of any pus, and disinfect. Poultices soften liorn and abate tenderness. Use light wide- webbed, bar, or f shoe. Shoe strong feet with tips. Cough. An expiratory explosion forcing open the glottis and following a deep inspiration. More common and serious in horses than otluT animals. Comfortable housing and clothing, pure air, caieful feeding. Catarrhal. — Steam liead ; ammonium acetate solution, salines, ether, mustard to throat. Bronrhial. — Ammonium acetate, ipecacuanlia, squill, nitrous etlier, counter-irritants. Dry, with scant secretion. — Amm. acetate or cliloride, pot. bicarbonate and chlorate, borax. With profu.se dischanjc. — Balsams, eucalyptus oil, tar, terebene, creo- sote, astringent sprays or inhalations. Irritable. — Demulcents, camphor and belladonna, conium, opium, hydio- cyanic acid, cocaine. Reflex. — Bromides, chloral hj'drate ; remove cause of irritation. Verminous. — Frequent in calves and lambs. See Worms. CoxTGH, Chronic, of Horses. Careful dieting, food damped, linseed masli or oil. Expectorant and anodyne electuaries. Epsom salt or otlier salines occasionally. Belladonna, cam))hor, alcohol, tar, creosote, arsenic. Counter-irritants : mustard, mercuric iodide ointnjent. Crib-biting and Wind-Sucking. Iron stable fittings. Feed on the ground. If manger used, turn when empty into recess in wall. Use muzzle, bib, or spiked neck strap ; concentrated digestible food. Chalk, antacids, and occasional laxative relieve the indigestion from which crib-biter usually suffers. Crib-biter should be placed by himself, as other horses imitate and acquire the habit. Curb. Sprain or injury of straight ligament of liock, or of perforatus tendon. Foment ; refrigerants. Counter-irritants ; mercuric iodide ointment ; firing and blistering. High-heeled shoe, without toe-piece. Rest, especially in young horses. Cow-Pox. See Variola. Cy.stitis. Inflammation of urinary bladder, of several forms — catarrhal, puru- lent, hiumorrhagic, chronic. Oleaginous laxatives ; aconite, calomel and opium abate acute fever. Emollient anodyne cnemata and suppositories of liyoscyanuis, opium or belladoinia; urinar\' disinfectants. Rugs wrung out of iMjjling water to horse's loins. Maslies, linseed, boiled barley, diluents. Benzoic, boric, or salicylic acid, borax, pot. cldorate or creolin when urine alkaline, fermenting, or bad-smelling. Pot. bicarbonate or other alkalies internally M'hen urine acid and acrid. Syringe female bladder with alkaline solutions when urine acrid ; when foetid, with benzoic acid or dilute copper sulphate. Creolin, astringents, buchu, bearberry, eucalyptus oil in chronic vesical catarrh. INDEX OF DISEASES AND REMEDIES 733 C YSTiTis — C071 1 imied. Irrigation with solution ferric chloride, creolin, alum, or tannin in hcemorrhagic cases. Debility. Weakness. Endeavour to remove cause. Easily assimilated nutritive food, cod-liver oil, milk, malt extract ; suit- able liygiene. Acids, bitters, quinine when gastric digestion weak. Alcoholic stimulants wlien heart action feeble. Laxatives when elimination of waste defective. Calcium phosphate and fatty matters useful in young animals. Nux-vomica and Easton's syrup in nervous debility. Iron salts when associated with anremia. Arsenic, pepsin, or liq. pancreatis when assimilation is at fault. Cold sponging and baths for dogs. Delirium. Perversion and inco-ordination of brain functions. For vigorous patients cold affusion applied cautiously. Ice and refrigerants to head. Perfect quiet, cathartics, salines, digestible cooling diet. Chloroform, cannabis indica, bromides, internally. Alcohol, ammonia, belladonna, camphor, when associated with exhaus- tion. Blood-letting in delirium, resulting from injuries, in earlier acute stages of phrenitis, and in robust subjects. Dextition Fever. Not infrequent in horses. Soft laxative food, rest, salines, febrifuges. Lance gums if absolutely needful. Remove temporary teeth interfering with eruption of permanent. When dentition of dogs delayed or defective give calcium phosphate. Diabetes Insipidus. Polyuria ; Excessive secretion of urine. Peculiar to horses. Caused apparently by some toxic material derived from faulty food, frequently heated, musty grain or fodder, or produced in connection with such diseases as influenza and glanders. Seldom fatal. Half dose phj-sic, especially wlien digestion out of order. Iodine with pot. iodide, either in bolus or solution. With iodide alternate or conjoin iron salts. Chalk or whiting in manger, or sodium bicarbonate in water, counteracts acidity frequently present. Phosphoric acid and bitters lessen thirst. Careful feeding ; change food. Avoid stale, damp, badly-saved fodder, or musty, unsound grain. Allow moderate supply of water. Diabetes, Saccharine. Diabetes mellitus. Pathology not explained. Occasionally occurs in dogs, very rarely in horses or cattle. Relief afforded by withholding carbo-hydrates, substituting soup, cooked animal food. Codeine and iodine ; antipyrine ; sodium salicylate. Diaphragmatic Spasm. Usually resulting from over-exertion or acute gastric derangement ; specially observed in horses and dogs ; intermittent, seldom lasting many hours. Chloral hydrate and alcohol per orem. Rest. Dogs, an emetic, especially if of gastric origin. Stimulant embrocation applied to chest. Diarrhoea. Scouring ; Frequent discharge of fluid fteces. Occurs in all animals. Sometimes symptomatic of tuberculosis. 734 INDEX OP DISEASES AND REMEDIES DiARRiirKA — continued. Laxatives in first stage to remove irritant. Perfect rest ; keep patient comfortable and warm. Restrict water ; diet carefully ; wheateu flour gruel ; boiled milk. Alkalies; chalk where dejections acid. Mineral acids or gallic acid with opium in profuse thin discharges. Enemata of starch gruel at 100° Fahr., with lead acetate and opium. Aromatics and camphor abate nervous irritability. Oil of cinnamon valuable in cases resulting from cold. Volatile oils, ether, chloroform, chlorodyne in moderate, frequently repeated doses relieve flatulence and spasm. Ammonium carbonate where watery discharges continue and heart action weak. If due to strongyles, carbolic acid, thymol, lysol, iodine, and salol, or other intestinal antiseptic. Arsenic and opium in chronic cases. Copper sulphate ; corrosive sublimate with creosote and opium when chronic discharges contain mucus and blood. Ergotin and opium administered with keratin where discharges profuse and continued. Antiseptics, sodium salicylate, tannalbin, naphthol, lysol, sulphites, sulpho-carbolates where discharges foul. Nitric acid and nux-vomica when complicated with hepatic derangement. In young animals castor oil with a few drops laudanum. Grey powder in young patients where discharges pale and foetid. While patient fed on milk, if it disagrees when given with lime water, in cautiously regulated, restricted amount, substitute cooked starch food, or beef tea and white of egg, with a little wine or spirit if animal reduced. 'Diphtheria' in Poultry. Croupous exudations, chiefly within the mouth, throat, nasal cavities, and about head; of two varieties — (1) depending on bacteria, chiefly cocci ; (2) on gregarinaa or coccidia ; this latter condition more chronic and less serious, and affects rabbits, rats, and fish, as well as poultry (Friedberger). Isolate affected birds ; enjoin thorough cleanliness and disinfection. Moisten external eruptions with 1 part corrosive sublimate, 10 parts salt, and 1000 water. Where mouth or throat affected give every two hours electuary, 1 part creolin, 5 each borax, pot. chlorate, glycerin, and 100 simple syrup. Feed liberally to sustain strength. Dislocations. Luxations. Not common in the lower animals. Bring bones into natural position. Retain in position by splints, bandages, plasters ; sling if necessary. Abate inflammation by either hot or cold applications, as may be suitable. Distemper in Dogs. A contagious eruptive fever affecting the mucous membranes, skin, and glands, and frequently the cerebro-spinal axis. It attacks dogs, cats, foxes, wolves, hyenas, jackals, and monkeys. Evidently of organismal origin ; cultivations to the seventh generation produce the disease when inoculated in dogs and cats ; but the distinctive microbe has not yet been demonsti'ated. Prevent spread by early isolation and disinfectants. Good nursing and cleanliness as important as medicines. An emetic and mild laxative if required in early stage. Annnoniuin acetate solution and ipecacuanha, steaming and sponging nose and eyes relieve catarrh. Boric acid, two per cent, solution in conjunctivitis, which see. Hot compresses, embrocations, stimulant expectorants in laryngeal and bronchial caaes. INDEX OF DISEASES AND REMEDIES 735 Distemper in Dogs — continued. Chlorodyne or spirit of chloroform and morphine allay gastro-intestinal irritation. Boric acid and ' Sanitas ' powder with ten parts kaolin or starch abate skin irritation. Sodium sulphite as antiseptic and antipyretic (Professor Williams). For nervous complications see Chorka, Epilepsy, Convulsions. If food not spontaneously taken give beef tea and milk, beef tea with white of egg, or finely minced lean beef uncooked, and, if required, wine or spirit. During convalescence give phosphates, and hsematinics ; and a generous diet. Attenuated virus produces mild attack, which affords protection for several years (Friedberger). • Dropped Elbow ' or Radial Paralysis. Lameness with loss of power to extend the elbow- joint. Caused by injury to the extensor muscles, the brachial plexus, or the nerve supplying the affected muscles. Sometimes attributed to costal fracture. Recovery protracted. Place horse in slings for a few days, foment extensor region, massage, nerve stimulants, deep injection of sol. strychnine ; blisters ; setons, exercise. Dropsy. Symptomatic serous effusion. See Ascites. Endeavour to restore functions of heart, kidneys, or liver, the impaired actions of which usually cause the effusion ; Turkish baths. Digitalis infusion and strychnine useful in most dropsies, especially in cardiac, in which give with salines. Copaiba in cardiac and hepatic cases. Laxatives and pot. iodide in renal dropsy. Encourage vicarious functions of bowels and skin if kidneys affected. Iron and salines in cases associated with anaemia. Restrict quantity of fluid ; friction ; shampooing ; external stimulants. Trocar and canula, aspirator. Dysentery. Contagious specific inflammation of mucous and glandular structures of intestine, occurring in foals, calves, lambs, and dogs, within a few days after birth. In muco-purulent, often bloodstained discharge are numerous bacteria. Mortality 10 to 80 per cent. Observed to concur with epizootic abortion (Friedberger). Isolation of infected ; thorough disinfection. Antiseptic treatment of females aborting and parturient. See Abortion. Castor oil and grey powder, intestinal antiseptics, tannates. Well-boiled starch gruel or other mucilage, with a few drops laudanum. Salicylic and tannic acids with chamomile infusion (Frohner). Rhubarb, magnesium carbonate, and opium (Hertwig). Chlorodyne, creolin, or resorcin, with laudanum, acetate of lead. Dyspepsia. Indigestion. Treatment varies with cause and nature of attack. Suitable dietary. Avoid indigestible food and long fasts. Rectify irregularity of bowels. Enjoin exercise. Resulting from over-eating, an emetic for dogs ; cathartic for animals that do not vomit. For flatulence, essential oils, ginger, creolin, hydrochloric acid, ether. For gastric catarrh, ammonium chloride, sodium hyposulphite, fragments of ice. Alkalies, chalk, magnesia, given before feeding or with food. For atonic forms, in cattle, mineral acids, usually more permanently useful, are given with bitters and veratrine. Pepsin with glycerin for dogs and young animals while living on milk. 736 INDEX OF DISEASES AND REMEDIES Dyspepsia. Indigestion. — Continued. Where food irritates, provoking diarrhoea, bismuth salts or arsenic with morpliinc. Depending upon worms — appropriate vermicides. In chronic dyspepsia, obviate errors of diet or management, examine teeth, change food. Provide horses with whiting and rock salt to lick. Try daily 1 lb. linseed cake. Restrict cattle to mash diet for two days, and add salt and treacle to drinking water, emetine or veratine subcutaneously. Both in hoven and overloading with cb-y food rub left flank and belly ; soap and water enemata. Dyspn1CS • OI 250 Actual cautery 52 Acupuncture . 52 Adeps, hog's lard 671 induratus 674 lanoe 673 Adhesives .' 674, ' 083 706 Adjuvants 688 Administration oi medicin* igj 147, 149, 150, 151, 693, 694, 690 Adonidin 527 Adulterations . 688 ^gyptiacum ointment 246 ^jrugo 245 iEther . 70, 357, acetic . 361 chloric . 373 nitrous . 362 sulj)huric 357 ^theris nitrosi spiritus 362 Age of patients . 22 Airol . 224 Akazga, African ordeal plant 495 Alcohol . 345, 346 347 absolute , 345 amylic . , 348 cthylic . , 345 , 346 methylic . 347 90 percent." 70 „ „ 60 „ „ . 346 45 „ ,, 20 „ „ J poisoning 351 Aldehyd . 345 Ale . 348 Alkalies, general a ttions 169 Alkaloids 688 Allopathy . 26 Allspice . 575 Almond oil , 703 Aloe, characters of ^ 426 Aloes, Barbados , 426 caballine 427 Cape 427 comparative effects 427 East Indian 427 Natal • 427 Socotrine ^ 427 Ejolutious of , 434 tinctures of 434 Aloetic masses 434 Aloin . 428 ,435 experiments with, ¥. 19, 436, 437. Alphol . 393 Alteratives, 128, 133, 171, 177, 181, Alteratives, 182, 188, 201, 212, 259, 272, 278, 290, 296, 313, 314, 319. Althsea radix . . . 644 Alum, (ammonia) . . 219 (potash) . . 219 Alumen exsiccatum . 221 Aluminium and its compounds 219 chloride . . 222 sulphate . . 222 Ammonia alum . . 220 derivatives . . 221 Ammoniacum gum . . 580 Ammoniated mercury . 302 tincture of opium . 476 Ammonium and its compounds 161 acetate . . 167 bromide . . 163 carbonate . . 166 chloride . . 161 liquor . . .162 spirit of . .163 Amorphous quinine . . 552 Amygdalin . . , 418 Amyl-nitrite . . 348, 384 alcohol . . 348 Amyloform . . . 387 Amyloiodoform . . 387 Amylum, wheat-flour . 654 Analgesics (Anodynes), G6, 225, 233, 308, 336, 373, 374, 375, 379, 380, 382, 388, 391, 394, 409, 422, 470, 474, 480, 484, 486, 490, 507, 510, 512, 514, 537, 542, 625. Anaphrodisiaes . . 125, 177, 308 Anaesthesia . . . 71 AncBsthetics, 69, 357, 365, 368, 374, 377, 419, 424. administration, 74, 75, 372 local, 70, 3G0, 371, 378, 404, 409, 412, 416, 419, 422, 508, 514, 516, 518, 537, Anethol . . . 583 Angustura bark, false . 493 Anhidrotics . . .118 Anise, seed . . . 682 oil . . . 583 I Anodynes {see Analgesics) . 66 ! Antacids, 95, 164, 166, 171, 174, 188, I 204, 211, 223, 290, G78. I Anthelmintics (see Vermicides) 112 Anthcmidis flores . . 588 Antidotes . . 142, 144, 146 Antiemetics, 100, 307, 374, 408, 470, I 545. Antifcbrin . . . 383 Antilithics . . 172, 188, 394 Antimony and its compounds 262 chloride . . 264 oxide . . . 263 sulphide , , 263 tartariscd . , 264 INDEX OF MEDICINES 781 PAGE Antimony, wine of . . 271 Antiparasitics (see Insecticides), 389, 392, 393, 406, 409, 411, 412, 415, 425, 441, 550, 585, 595, 603, 607, 611, 624, 628, 634, 640, 641, 644, 676, 681. Antipathy ... 26 Antiperiodics . . 48 Antiputrescents . . 41 Antipyretics, 136, 168, 181, 339, 349, 354, 382, 388, 391, 394, 395, 397, 411, 412, 554, 556, 559, 642. Antipyretics, general actions, 106, 128, 135. Antipyrine . . 80, 381 Antiseptics, 40, 41, 108, 177, 183, 184, 190, 192, 195, 200, 202, 208, 223, 239, 247, 250, 256, 261, 280, 299, 301, 303, 306, 325, 327, 330, 335, 341, 356, 375, 380, 382, 387, 388, 389, 390, 391, 392, 394, 396, 397, 402, 411, 412, 414, 415, 417, 418, 425, 556, 559, 560, 573, 585, 587, 593, 595, 603, 624, 627, 629, 638, 642, 659, 660, 676. Antiseptics, general actions, 28, 36, 37, 40. intestinal, 108, 223, 224, 308, 387, 390, 391, 393, 409, 412, 414, 417, 562, 585, 630. Antiseptic surgery, 39, 402, 408, 561, 562, 585, 628, 630. Antisialics ... 93 Antisecretories . 479, 485, 519 Antispasmodics, 164, 356, 359, 364, 373, 374, 375, 377, 385, 422, 424, 470, 480, 485, 490, 511, 524, 541, 579, 634. Antispasmodics, general actions, 67, 69. Antithermals, 106, 135, 354, 382, 412, 541, 548. Antitoxines . . , 5, 6 Antizymotics ... 35 Aperients [see Laxatives) . 101 Aphrodisiacs . . 125, 623 Apomorphine hydrochloride 461 Apothecaries' weights, etc. . 714 Aqua .... 153 camphoraj . . 625 chloroformi . . 373 regia . , . 334 fortis . , . 332 Arabin . , . 646 Arbutin . . . 535 Areca catechu . . 604 Areca-nut . . , 604 Arecoline hydrobromidc , 604 Argentum coUoidale . . 249 Argenti nitras . . 247 Argentol . . .250 PAGE Argol or crude tartar , 186 Argonin . . , 250 Aristol . . . 417 Arnica . . . 580 Arnicin . . . 580 Aromatic carbon compounds 388 oils . . . 704 Arrowroot . . . 654 Arsenic and its compounds . 271 antidotes . . 277 poisoning . 274, 276 Arsenical sheep-dips . . 280 solutions . . 284 Arsenious acid . . 271 Artemisia absinthium . 605 maritima . , 605 Asafoetida . . . 579 Ascarides . . .114 Aseptic suture twist . . 407 wounds . . 40 Aseptol . . . 408 Aspidium filix-mas . . 608 Astringents, 206, 220, 223, 225, 231, 233, 236, 238, 240, 244, 246, 247, 256, 259, 261, 325, 330, 387, 567, 636, 638. Astringents, general actions 56, 57 intestinal, 107, 223, 234, 387, 471, 561, 640. Atomic weight of medicines . 7 Atropa belladonna . . 477 Atropine . . .477 compared with morphine 480 Autumn crocus , . 619 Avoirdupois weight . . 713 Axunge or hog's lard . 671 Bacteria Bacterial products Bactericides (see al.^o Germicides), 48, 19 Bacteriology . Balls or boluses Ball mass Balsam, Canada Friar's of Gilead of Peru of Tolu Balsams Balsamodendron myr Bandages Barbados aloes tar Barbaloin Barium chloride Bark, cinchona oak Barley Barley sugar . nti 250 sept 31,32 33 ics and 300. 3 692 693 592 642 592 643 643 G43, 705 573 130, 6G0 426 424 435 216 551 566 644 657 782 INDEX OF MEDICINES FAOB Barm .... 645 Bassorin . . • 646 Baths . . .690 cold . . .690 hot . . . 691 medicated . . 691 sponge . . 692 vapour or Turkish . 691 Bearberry leaves . . 535 Bear's foot . . . 610 Beer . . . .348 Bees wax . . . 683 Belladonna . . . 477 compared with opium 480 poisoning . 480, 481 preparations . . 487 Benzin — petroleum spirit 389, 424 Benzene • . 388, 389 Benzene or benzol series . 388 Benzoated lard . . 672 Benzoates . . . 642 Benzo-naphthol . . 393 Benzoic acid . . 389, 642 Benzoin . . . 641 compound tincture of 642 Berberine . . . 555 Beta-naphthol . . 392 Betel-nut . . .604 Betol . . . .393 Bhang . . .490 Bicarbonate of potash . 172 soda . . . 188 Bile . . . ,109 Bismuth salts . . 222 Bismuth benzoate . . 224 beta-naphthol . . 224 dithio-salicylate . 224 liquor . . .224 oxide . . .223 oxycarbonate . . 223 oxy-iodo-gallato . 224 oxynitrate . . 223 salicylate . . 223 subgallate . . 224 tribromophenol . 224 Bisulphate of potash , , 176 Bitters, 433, 438, 499, 535, 555, 560, 5G4, 565, 566. Bituminous shales . . 425 Black Alder . . . 438 bone or ivory . • 343 hellebore . . 610 oil . . . 653 sugar . . . 653 wash . . .292 Black-quarter vaccine . 685 Bladder, urinary, drugs acting on, 122, 389, 391, 392, .394, 396, 485, 500, 514, 535, 536, 625, 664. Blast furnace oils . . 399 Bleaching powder . . 48, 208 Blisters (see also Counter 49, 53, 55. application of fly Blood-letting • topical . Blue pill ointment Prussian stone vitriol . Boluses, how made, etc. mass for Bone or ivory Idack Boracic acid . ]>orax . Boric acid Borneo camphor Boro-glyceride Bots in horses . Bottles Brain, medicines acting on Bi'andy Brayera Bryonia Brimstone British gum . Bromide of ammonium potassium zinc Bromides Bromine Bromism Bromol Broom . Brucine or brucia Buckthorns syrup of Buchu . Burgundy pitch Burnett's disinfecting Burning Butter of antimony zinc Butyl- chloral hydrate Buxine Caballtne aloes Cade, oil of Caffeine citrate . Cajuput Calabar bean . Calabarine Calcined magnesia Calcii carljonas Calcium and its compounds oxide of carbonate chlorata chloride litjuid PAO« irritants), 55 60 138, 139 140 291 288 418 243 243 693 651, 693 343 341 190 341 623 343, 677 113 695 62,63 347 607 448 316 646 163 179, 307 308 306 307 308 308 534 494 438 438 535 592 46, 240 45 264 232 378 535 427 586 488 488 584 502 503 210 205 202 203 205 208 208 INDEX OF MEDICINES 783 PAGE Calcium phosphate . 207 Calisaya bark . 551 Calomel 292 Calumba bark 565 Calvert's disinfecting powder 398 Calx chlorinata 208 Camphor 622 artificial 623 Borneo • 623 compound liniment 625 oil or liquid 623 spirit . 625 Campli orated oil 625 Camphoric acid 623 Camphors 623, 704 Canada balsam 592 Cane sugar 657 Cannabin 490 Cannabis indica 489 Cantharides . 661 liniments of 669 ointments of 667 plasters of 669 tinctures of 667 vinegars of 667 Cantharidin . 662 Cantharis vesicatoria . 661 Capsaicin 575 Capsicum 575 Caraway 583 Carbo animalis 343 hydrates 654, 659 ligni . 343 Carbolic acid . 397 tow 408 wool 408 Carbon 343 Carbonate of ammonia 166 iron 256 lead 231 of lime . 205 magnesia 211 potash . 172 soda 188 zinc 237 Carbonic acid . 336 Carbo sapol 400 Cardamoms . 583 Cardiac sedatives 91,171, 453, 538 stimulants, 87, 167, 363, 484, 525, 586. tonics, 89, 479, 495, 525, 529, 533, 534. Carminatives (see also Stomachics), 106, 359, 363, 455, 555, 577. Carron oil . . 205, 403, 650 Casca or doom Cascara sagrada Cascarilla bark Cascarillin Cassia acutifolia or senna 537 438 566 566 449 PAGE Castor oil . . . 439 seeds , . , 439 Cataplasmata (poultices) . 707 Catechin . . , 635 Catechu pale . , . 635 black . . . 635 infusion . . 636 tincture . . 636 Cathartics, 100, 101, 176, 191, 199, 212, 214, 296, 428, 435, 438, 4.39, 441, 442, 443, 446, 447, 449, 455, 620, 651, 659. Cathartics for cattle, 104, 176, 191, 199, 214, 441, 443, 447, 652, 659. dogs, 104, 211, 291, 431, 437, 438, 441, 443, 446, 449, 647, 652. horses, 103, 428, 434, 436, 441, 443, 652. sheep . 104, 433, 441, 447 pigs 104, 431, 441, 443, 449 Caustic ammonia . . 162 lime . . .203 lunar . . . 246 potash . - . 246 soda . . .188 Caustics, 49, 172, 239, 246, 247, 262, 264, 272, 279, 299, 301, 326, 330, 333, 335, 399,411. Caustics, general actions . 61 Cautery, actual . . 52 Cayenne pepper . , 575 Cera alba . . .683 flava . . .683 Cerates . . 683, 705 Cerebral sedatives, 62, 357, 374, 379, 380. stimulants 62, 346, 357, 373 Cerevisife torula or yeast .31, 645 Cerin . . . .683 Cetaceum . • . 682 Cevadilla . . . 547 Chalk . _ . . .205 mixtures . . 206 Chamomile flowers . , 588 Charcoal, animal . . 343 wood . . .343 Charges . . .707 Chemical constitution of medicines, 8 Chillies . . .575 Chinaseptol . . . 394 Chinese twist . . . 407 Chinoline . . .395 Chinosol . . ,396 Chiretta . . .565 Chloralamide . . . 379 Chloral hydrate . 65, 71, 374 Chloralum . . .222 Chlorate of potash . . 182 Chloric ether . . .373 Chloride of ammonium , 161 antimony . . 264 784 INDEX OF MEDICINES Chloride of barium lime sodium . zinc Chlorides of mercury Chlorinated lime soda Chlorine Chlorodyiie Chloroform compared with ether precautions in using spirits of Cholagogues {see Hepatic stimulants) 102, 110, 161, 176 429, 449, 450, 453 621. Chondrin Christmas rose Chrysarobin . Chrysophan , Chrysophanic acid Chromic acid . Churrus Cicuta virosa . Cinchona alkaloids grey or pale red tinctures yellow . Cinchonidine Cinchonine Cinchonism Cinnabar Cinnamic aldehyde Cinnamon oil Cocaine hydrochloride substitutes Citrate of iron and quinine Citric acid Citrine ointment Classifications of medicines, 7, 8, 9 10, 11. Claviceps purpurea . . 612 Climate modifying medicinal action, 22. Clothing . . 130, 660 Clysters or enemata, 15, 149, 157, 359, 378, 475, 599, 676, 678, 695. Coal tar . . .425 Codeine . . . 460 Cod-liver oil . . .669 for feeding purposes . 670 Colchicine . . .620 Colchicum autumnale . 619 Cold applications . . 158 a natural tonic . 49 sponging . 158, 692 Collidine . . .631 PAGE 216 208 195 239 292, 298 208 201 309 373 70 370 73, 369 373 295, 300, 333, 455, 546, 560, 674 610 641 454 454, 641 335 490 509 551 552, 553 551 551 557 551 553 553 555 285 578 578 578 70, 514 517, 518 255, 557 340 304 PACK Collodion contractile . . 361 flexible. . . 362 styptic . . .640 CoUonsonia canadensis . 536 Collunaria . . . 703 CoUutoria . . .703 Collyria . . .703 Colocynth . . .449 Colophony — resin . . 601 Combination of medicines . 687 Common mass . 660, 692 salt . . .195 Compound powder of catechu 636 Condy's fluid . . . 46, 184 Confections . . . 711 Conine hydrobromide . 509 Conium maculatum . . 508 Constipation . . 105, 522, 697 Contagious disorders . . 2, 3 prevention of, 3, 5, 33, 42, 44,46. Convallaria Majalis . . 537 Convolvulus Scammonia . 448 Cooper's salts ... 46 Copper acetates . . 245 iodide . . . 245 poisoning . . 242 resinate . . 245 sulphate . . 243 Coriander . . . 583 Corn flour, Oswego . . 655 Cornutine . . . 613 Correctives . . . 688 Corrosives, 140, 171, 247, 272, 299, 300, 321, 325, 330, ,332. Corrosive sublimate . . 298 antidotes for . . 300 poisoning by . . 299 Goto bark . . .107 Cotton , . .644 Counter-irritation . . 49 Counter-irritants (blisters), 49, 53, 54, 158, 165, 270, 2S8, .303, 314, 338, 445, 550,570,598, 610, 662, 664, 665, 668. Cough mixtures, 86, 87, 168, 371, 473, 530. Cramp . 68 Cream of tartar 186 Creolin (Jeyes') 41, 412 Creosote 408 Cresol . 412 Creta prceparata 205 Croton . .% 442 cake 443 cascarilla 566 oil 443 seeds . 442 Croton-olic acid 443 Cryptopine 459 Cubebs pepper 575 INDEX OF MEDICINES 785 PAGE Cumulative medicines 18 Cuprea Ijarks . 552 Cupri acetas . 245 iodidum 245 sulphas 243 Cuprum 241 Curare 61, 523 Curarina 523 Curative action of medicines 26 Ciisso . 607 Cyanide of potassium 422 Cj^anogen gas . 418 Cymogene 423 Danda oil or Assu juice 439 Dandelion 568 Datura stramonium . 513 Deadly nightshade 477 Death during anaesthesia 73 Decoctions 694 Deliriants 66 Delphinium staphisagria 607 Demulcents, 58, 644, 646, 6 51, 656, 659, 673, 674, 676, 682. Deobstruents . . .134 Deodorisers, 28, 36, 46, 184, 192,202, 208, 309, 310, 327, 338, 344, 386, 406, 412, 415, 627, 660. Depressants . , . 63 Derivation or Counter-irritation 49 Dermatol . . 224 Desiccants, 205, 206, 220, 223, 224, 225, 231, 236, 297, 344, 387, 391, 392, 393, 397, 414, 416, 417, 562, 585, 656, 682. Detergents . . 172, 678, 692 Dextrin . . , 655 Dextrose — grape sugar • 655 Diachylon plaster . . 231 Diaphoretics, 116, 168, 262, 264, 364, 519, 520, 544, 604, 620, 629. Diaphoretics, general actions, 116, 117 Diarrhoea . . 106, 206 Dick's (Professor) cough-balls 531 iodine balls 312 ■w hite lotion 239 Dieting 129 Diffusible stimulants, 63, 164, 349 ,359 Digitalein 525 Digitalin 524 varieties 532 Digitalis 524 experiments with 528 Digitin 525 Digitonin . ** . 525 Digitoxin 525 Diluents 59 Diphtheria antitoxine 5 Diseases treated by inoculation 5,6 Diseases modify actions of medi- cines 24 PAGE Diseases, how cured . . 25 Disinfectants, 36, 38, 42, 46, 184, 202, 208, 222, 240, 258, 301, 309, 310, 327, 338, 344, 386, 387, 397, 406, 412, 414, 415, 573, 627, 629. Disinfectants, general actions, 29, 36 Dithion . . .562 Diuretic ball . . .112 mass . . . 181 Diuretics, 161, 16S, 174, 176, 177, 181, 183, 186, 187, 297, 364, 381, 383, 520, 525, 533, 534, 535, 573, 586, 593, 620, 629, 642. Diuretics, general actions, 118, 120, 121. Dogs, actions of medicines on, 21, 87, 94, 104, 124, 168, 197, 234, 238, 265, 275, 287, 294, 313, 328, 339, 352, 400, 413, 421, 431, 441, 449, 464, 482, 498, 516. emetics for. 99, 100, 167, 201, 220, 239, 244, 246, 264, 461, 545, 679. vermicides for, 112, 597, 605, 606, 608, 609, 611, 619. Dolomite . . .210 Donovan's solution . . 284 Doses of medicines . . 147 Dover's powder . 476, 546 Drastic cathartics . 101, 443, 446 Drenches, draughts, or drinks 694 Drenching horn . . 695 Dried alum . . .221 Drj' cupping ... 53 Drying milch cows . . 127 Dryobalanops camphora . 623 Ductal . . .412 Easton's syrup . 255, 501 Ecbolics . . 126, 012, 617 Elaterium . . . 446 Elective afEnity . . 17 Electricity ... 80 Electrolysis ... 81 Electuaries . . . 86, 711 Elemi resin . . . 574 Eliminatives . . . 295 Elixirs . . 306, 390, 712 Ellerman's fluid . . 46 Embrocations . . 706 Emetics, 100, 167, 201, 220, 238, 244, 246, 247, 265, 461, 545, 570, 620, 679. Emetics, general actions 96, 98, 99 Emetine . . . 545 Emollients, 58, 425, 646, 651, 656, 676, 682. Emplastra . . . 706 Emulsions . . 417, 703 Endermic application of medicines, 151. 3d 786 INDEX OF MEDICINES Enemata, 157, 182, 359, 432, 475, 599, 634, 657, 678, 695, 697. Enzymes-organic ferments 30, 36 PAQE Fats and fixed oils . . 647 Febrifuges (see Antipyretics), 138, 212, 215, 296, 364, 381, 383, 541, 548, 554 Epidermic administration 10 ' Fennel , , 583 Epsom salt 212 Fenugreek 583 Ergot . 612 Fermentation, acetous 337 Ergotin 617 vinous . 345 Ergotinic acid 613 Ferments, organic 30 Errhines 84 organised 30,37 Erythroxylon coca 514 Fern rhizome . 608 Escharotics (see Caustics) 51 Ferri carbonas 256 Eserine 502 carbonas saccharatus . 256 Eseridine 508 iodidum 259 Essential oils . 704 peroxidum humidum. . 259 Ether . 357 pernitratis 261 acetic . 361 sulphas 256 chloric . 373 Ferric salts 251 nitrous . 362 perchloride 260 sulphuric 357 Ferrocyanides 251 Ethereal oil . 361 Ferrous salts . 251 Ethyl alcohol , 345 sulphate 256 bromide 346 Ferrum 251 chloride 346 Ferruni redactum 255 nitrite . 302, 363 Ferratin 255 Eucaine 518 Fever medicines (see Antipyretics) 135 Eucalyptus globulus . 582 Flax, cominon 648 Eucalyptol 584 Flexible, collodion 362 Eulyptol 585 Flies, blistering 661 Euphorbium . 609 Flowers of sulphur . 317 Euphorbon 610 Fhiid extracts 698 pjurophen 417 Fomentations . 700 Evacuants 157 Fool's parsley . 509 Excipients, 647, 654, 659, 6 60, 675, Foot-rot dressings, 244, 264, 280 ,403, 679, 682, 692. 411, 425, 603, 619. Excitants — stimulants 63 Formaldehyd . 386 Exercise 131 Formalin 386 Exalgin 67, 394 Fowler's solution 280 Exhilarants 64 Foxglove 524 Expectorants, 84, 161, 164, 1 67, 177, Frankincense . 590 181, 265, 270, 272, 313, 3 89, 522, Freezing mixtures 159 534, 545, 573, 579, 593, 600 , 642. Friar's balsam 642 Experiments on actions of mc dicines. Friction 50 2, 267, 368, 375, 385, 400, 4 01, 404, Fructose or Insvulose 658 410, 413, 435, 436, 437, 4 i4, 451, Fullers' earth . 222 466, 467, 481, 482, 491, 5 35, 528, Fumigations . 713 539, 544. Extract, Goulard's 233 Galactagogues 126 Extract of aconite 543 Galbanum 581 belladonna i86, 487 Gallic acid 638 ergot 617 Galls or GalL-e 637 Indian hemp 490 Gambier 635 male fern . 609 Gamboge 446 nux vomica 502 Gargles and sprays, 86, 161, 182, 200, opium t76, 477 249, 328, 414, 556, 585, 588, 639, Extracts . . ( 398, 699 660. Eye, remedies acting on, 82, 1 95,221, Gastric juice . 13 234, 238, 244, 249, 301, 3( )4, 479, Gastric stimulants or tonics, 95, 278, 486, 503, 515, 605. 323, 495, 501, 507, 547, 548, 555. 564, 565, 573, 605, 624, 680, 681. F^x saccharl . , - 658 sedatives, 371, 470, 485. Farad ism 80 Gelatin . 674 INDEX OF MEDICINES 787 PAGE Gelsemine • . . 495 Gentian . . , 563 infusion . . 565 tincture . . 565 Gentiana lutea . • 563 Gentianin . . . 563 Gentiopicrin . . . 563 Germicides (see Antiseptics), 48, 250, 408, 412, 559. Ginger . . . 576 preserved . . 576 tincture . . 578 Gingerin . . . 578 Gins . ■ . .347 Glandular stimulants, 177, 290, 520, 565, 573, 604. Glauber salt . . . 191 Glonoin . . .386 Glucose or dextrose . . 658 Glucosides . . .690 Glue . • . .674 plasters . . 675 Glusidum (saccharin) . 390 Glutol. . . .387 Glycerin . . .675 of alum . 221, 677 ,, belladonna . . 487 ,, boric acid . . 343 ,, borax . . 120 ,, carbolic acid . 676 ,, iodine . . 316 ,, pepsin . . 681 ,, starch . . 676 ,, tannic acid . 640, 676 Glycerina . . . 701 Glycoformal . . .387 Glycyrrhizse radix . . 653 Glycyrrhizin . . . 653 Golden eye-ointment . . 304 Golden seal . . 126, 555, 564 Goose grease . . . 672 Gossypium . . . 644 Goulard's extract . . 232 Grape sugar , . . 658 Green vitriol . . . 256 Gregory's mixture . . 455 Grey powder . . . 290 Guaiacol . . .411 Guarana . . . 488 Gum acacia . . . 645 ammoniacum . . 580 Arabic . . . 645 Bassorin . . 646 benzoin . . 641 British . . 646, 655 Cape . . . 646 resins . . . 710 Senegal . . 646 tragacanth . . 645 Gun cotton . . .361 Gun j ah . . . 490 162 490 (see 4.5 708 45 49, 701 610 549 349 611 527, 611 527, 610 508 512 513 110 Habit modifies the action of medi- cines, 23. Hsematinics — blood tonics, 23, 123, 133, 252, 255, 258, 259. Hfematoxylon (logwood) . 636 Haemoglobin ... 29 Hjemostatics, 57, 234, 236, 344, 355, 383, 409, 530, 596, 616, 639. Hartshorn Haschisch Heart, medicines acting on { Cardiac), 87. I Heat . and moisture a disinfectant a stimulant Hellebore, black green . white . Helleborin Helleborein Helleborus niger Hemlock succus . Henbane or hyoscyamus Hepatic depressants . stimulants (see Cholagogues), 110, 300, 333, 429, 449, 450, 453, 455, 546, 560, 621. Hoffmann's anodyne . . . 361 Hollands . . .347 Holocaine . . .517 Homatropine hydrobromide, 477, 488 Homoeopathy ... 26 Honey or mel . . . 659 Horse, action of medicines on (see p. 779), 19, 20. alteratives . 134, 182 anaesthetics • . 70 anodynes . . 67 antipyretics . . 135 cathartics, 103, 428, 436, 441, 443, 652. diuretics sedatives stimulants tonics . vermicides Hordeum Horses do not vomit Hot fomentation Hot iron Huile de cade . Hyderabad — chlorofor 72, 369, 370. Hydragogue cathartics , 102 298 292 290 290 302 121 65 64, 350, 364 133 113 644 20 157 52 586 m experiments, Hydrargyri bichloridum chloridum ,cum creta emplastrum iodida . 788 INDEX OF MEDICINES PAGE Hydrargyri linimentum . 2S1> nitratis . . 304 unguentum . 288 oleas . . . 289 oxidum flavura . 292 nigrum . . 291 rubrum . . 292 perchloridum . . 298 pilula . . .291 subchloridum . . 292 unguentum . . 288 Hydrargyrum . . . 285 Hydramel or pentane . 46 Hydrastis Canadensis 126, 555, 564 Hydrobromic acid . . 335 Hydrochloric or muriatic acid 330 Hydroctarnine . . 459 Hydrocyanic or prussic acid . 418 Hydrogen peroxide . . 627 Hydronaphthol . . 393 Hydrotherapy . . 117 Hydroquinone . . 390 Hygienic remedies . . 130 Hyoscine . . . 513 Hyoacyamine . . . 513 Hyoscyamus niger . . 513 Hypnone ... 65 Hypnotics produce sleep, 64, 374, 379, 380, 490. Hypodermic injections, 17, 152, 377, 382, 385, 396, 437, 461, 467, 475, 481, 487, 489, 502, 508, 512, 514, 517, 518, 522, 543, 544, 547, 548, 557, 605, 617, 622, 643- Hypodermic S3'ringe . . 152 Hypochlorite of calcium . 208 Ice . . . . 159 Ice-bag . • . 159 Ichthyol . . .681 Idiosyncrasies . . 23 Indian hemp . . . 489 tobacco . . 634 Infusion of catechu . . 636 cinchona . . 557 ergot . . . 617 gentian . . 565 opium , . . 476 tobacco . . 634 Infusions . . . 702 Infusoria . . .30 Inhalations, 87, 149, 328, 372, 396, 410, 599, 642, 712. Injections, intramuscular, 501, 548, 562, 617. intratracheal, 15, 87, 150, 284, 378, 383, 40,'"), 411, 482, 508, 512, 522, 557, 597, 622, 643. intravenous, 150,218, 376, 378, 429, 605. rectal . . ,15, 149 Injections, subcutaneous (see Hypo- dermic), 17, 151, 200, 284, 461, 475, 487, 489, 502, 508, 512, 517, 521, 544, 547, 548. Iiijectio apomorphina,' hypodermica, 461. atropinjB hypodermica 487 ergotje ,, 617 morphinaj ,, 475 Inoculations . . 4, 5, 6, 7 Insecticides (see Antiparasitics), 48, 192, 607. Intestinal antiseptics and disinfect- ants, 108, 223, 224, 308, 389, 390, 391, 393, 405, 409, 412, 414, 417, 562, 585, 630. astringents, 107, 387 640 stimulants 216, 502, 519 604 Iodide of copper 245 iron 255 lead 232 mercury 302 potassium 177 starch . 311 sulphur 316 Iodine • 310 ointment 316 solutions 315 tinctures 316 lodism 178 313 Iodoform 415 Iodoform substitutes, 387, 391 417,418 lodoformal 418 lodoformin 418 lodoformogen . 418 lodol . 417 lodum , 310 lodo-salicylic acid 418 Ipecacuanha . 544 Iron and its salts 251 and quinine citrate 255 557 arsenate 255 carbonate 256 chloride 260 hydrated peroxide 259 iodide . 259 phosphate 255 501 saccharine carbonate 256 sulphate 256 salicylate 562 tincture 260 Isinglass 674 Itrol . 250 Izal . 415 Jarorandi 519 Jaborine 519 Jalap . 448 Jamaica ginger 577 pepper . • 575 James's powder 263 INDEX OF MEDICINES 789 PAGE Jasmine • . , 495 Jervine . . . 549 Jesuits' bark . . .551 Jeyes' fluid • . , 412 Jonah's gourd . . 439 Juniper tops and berries . 5S6 Juniperus communis . . 586 sabina . . . 617 oxycedrus . . 586 Jute . . . .649 Kaieine . . . 396 Kaladana purgative seeds . 448 Kalium or potassium salts . 169 Kamala a vermifuge . 114,611 Kaolin . . . 2'22 Kelp . . . .310 Keratin . . . 679 Kermes mineral . . 263 Kidneys . , .119 Kino . . . .636 Koch, Professor . 3, 38, 299 Kousso a vermifuge , . 607 Krameria triandra . . 636 Kreosote or creosote • . 408 Labaeraque's soda disinfecting fluid, 201. Lactose or lactine . . 658 Lanoline . . . 673 Lanthoptine • . .459 Laudanine . . . 459 Laudanosine . . . 459 Lcevulose— left-handed sugar 658 Lapis infernalis . . 246 Lard . . . .671 Larkspur or stavesacre . 606 Laudanum or tincture of opium 476 Laughing gas . . . 70 Lavender . . . 587 Laxatives, 101, 175, 186, 211, 290, 314, 319, 438, 455, 646, 651, 659, 678. Lead and its compounds • 225 acetate • . , 232 carbonate . , 231 iodide • . . 232 oxide . . , 231 oleate . , .231 plaster . . .231 poisoning with . 226 antidotes for . 231 sugar of . . 232 ■white • . .231 Leopard's bane or arnica . 580 Leucocytes ... 29 Lime, burnt • . . 203 carbonates . . 205 chloride . . 208 chlorinated . . 208 hydrate . . 204 PAGE Lime, phosphate . . 207 saccharated • . 205 water . . . 204 Liniment of ammonia . 166 belladonna . . 487 camphor . . 625 cantharides . . 669 croton . . . 445 lime . . .205 mercury . . 289 opium . . . 477 soap • . , 679 turpentine . . 599 Liniments, 166, 205, 231, 407, 445, 474, 477, 487, 543, 599, 625, 667, 689, 706. Linseed . . . 648 cake . . . 649 meal . . -649 oil . . . 649 Lint . . . .649 Linum usitatissimum . • 648 Liquor ammonice fortis . 162 acetatis . . 167 arsenicalis . . 284 arsenici et hydrargyri iodidi, 284. atropinte sulphatis • 487 calcis . , . 204 carbonis detergens . 425 chlori . . .309 ethyl nitritis . . 362 ferri perchloridi . 260 hydrargyri perchloridi 301 iodi . . .316 pancreatis . . 681 picis carbonis . . 425 potassEe . . 171 trinitrini . . 386 Liquors . . . 702 Liquorice root . . 653 sugar . . .653 Litharge— oxide of lead . 231 Lithium salts . . . . 169 Lithontriptics . . 123, 172, 174 Liver, drugs acting on , . 109 stimulants, 109, 110, 333, 429, 449, 450, 455. Lobelia — Indian tobacco . 634 Logwood an astringent dye . 636 Long pepper . . . 574 Loose box . . .1.30 Loretin . . .418 Losophan . . .418 Lotions, 179, 181, 184, 186, 235, 237, 240, 245, 301, 326, 329, 3.32, 33.3, 338, 342, 407, 422, 474, 562, 628, 677, 702. Lubricants . 425, 601, 652, 673 Lunar caustic . . . 247 Lysol .... 415 79Q INDEX OF MEDICINES M'Call, Professor, experiments with counter-irritanta . 54 Macdougall's disinfectants . 44, 398 Maguesium and its compounds 210 calcined • . 210 carbonate . . 211 oxide . . . 210 sulphate . . 212 Maize starch . . . 654 Male fern . . .608 Mallein . . .684 Mallows . . . 644 Malt extracts . . 645 Maltose . . . 655 Mammary glands, drugs act- ing on . . 126, 127 Mandrake . . . 449 Mange and scab dressings (see Parasiticides) . . 48 Marjoram . . . 587 Marsh-mallow . . 644 Mass, common . . 651 Massage ... 50 Materia Medica, definition of 1 Matico leaves . . . 575 May apple or podophyllum . 449 Meadow saffron . . 619 Measures, pharmaceutic . 714 domestic . . 715 Meconic acid . . . 459 Meconidine . . . 459 Medicated spirits . . 712 Medicines, absorption of, 13, 14, 15, 16 acting by counter-action, 26 acting generally . 148 acting hypodermically 151 acting intratracheally . 150 acting locally . . 148 acting by mouth . 149 acting by pulmonary membrane . . 149 acting by rectum . 149 acting by skin . . 150 circumstances modify- ing . . ; 22 classification of 7, 10, 11 curative action of . 25 doses . . ,147 elective affinity . 17 on different patients, 18, 22, 269, 275, 287, 352. physiological action of 12 therapeutic action of . 12 Mel — honey . . . 659 boracis . . 191 Mentha piperita . . 587 pulegium . . 587 viridis . . ■ . 587 Menthol . . .587 Mercurial compounds . 285 liniments . . 289 Mercurial ointments, 288, 292, 297, 302, 303, 304 pill plaster . Mercurialism . Mercuric salts Mercurous salts Mercuro-zinc cyanide Mercury and its compounds ammoniated chlorides corrosive sublimate iodides . liniment nitrate . nitrate ointmoii ointment oleate . oxides . pill poisoning plaster . with chalk Methylated spirit Methyl alcohol chloride Conine • morphine strychnine violet . Methylal Methylene blue Metric weights and measures Microbes Milk sugar Milk of sulphur Mindererus spirit Mineral Kermes oils Mixtures freezing Molasses — treacle Monkshood Morphine acetate . compared wit) hydrochloride muriate tartrate Morrhuse oleum Mortars Motor depressants ( 62. Mucilages Muriate of ammonia antimony mercury morphia soda 291 290 287 285 285 302 285 302 292, 298 298 302 289 304 304 288 289 291, 292 291 286 290 290 347 347 347 509 459 8,495 391 71 71 392 716 3, 32 658 317 168 263 705 703 159 659 536 459 460 480 460 460 475 669 709 see Paralysants), atropin 646, 703 161 264 292, 298 460 195 Muriatic or hydrochloric acid 330 INDEX OF MEDICINES 791 Muscarine • Musk • Muscle poisons stimulants, 56, 59, 499, PAGE 98 704 60 59 503,507 59 569 570 569 522, 525, 547, 548, 614, 6nh Muscles, drugs acting on Mustard applications black . compared with other irritants . . 570 oil of . . . 569 white . . .569 Mydriatics, dilators of the pupil, 82, 478, 485, 515. Myotics, contractors of the pupil, 82, 503, 507, 605. Myricin • . • 683 Myristin . . • 669 Myrosin . . • 569 Myrrh . . • 573 tincture of . . 574 Myrrhol . . • 573 Naphthatjn . Naphthalol Naphthas Naphthols Narceine Narcotics Narcotine Nataloin Natural orders of plants Nauseants Neriin ... Nerve paralysers stimulants tonics . . 79, Nervous system, drugs acting Neurotics Neutral organic principles Nicotiana tabacum Nicotine Nicotianin Nightshade, deadly . Nitrate of mercury . potash . silver . soda Nitrates Nitre or saltpetre sweet spirit of . Nitric acid Nitrite of amyl Nitrite of ethyl Nitrite of sodium Nitro-glycerin hydrochloric acid Nitrous ether . oxide gas 392 393 423 392 459 66 459 435 8 98 527 63, 79 63, 80 247, 494 on 62 62 690 630 631 631 477 304 179 246 198 180 179 362 332 384 362 386 386 334 362 70 34S Nut-galls Nutrients, 129, 646, 650, 670. Nux vomica . alkaloids of poisoning Oak bark galls Oakum Oatmeal ffinanthe crocata Oil, almond . anise black . cake Carron . castor . chamomile cod-liver croton . drying . expressed or fixed linseed . olive volatile of cade . cinnamon ergot eucalyptus juniper . mineral mustard myrrh . peppermint pine poppy . Scotch fir rapeseed Oil of savin tar thyme . turpentine Valerian vitriol . wine Ointments, how made, etc. Ointment, blistering cantharides carbolic citrine . iodide of sulpl iodine . mercury red iodide resin savin . silver nitrate simple . sulphur zinc oxide PAGE 637 654, 659, 493 494 496 566 637 649 654 509 651 582 653 649 650 439 588 669 442 650 647-703 649 647 582, 704 586 578 613 584 586 424, 705 572 573 587 600 456 600 651 584 602 629 590 589 324 361 705 667 667 408 304 316 316 288, 304 302 601 619 249 601 320 237 792 INDEX OF MEDICINES PAGE PAOE Oleates . . 236-289, 706 Pain relievers (see Analgesics) 66 Oleate of lead 231 Palma Christi 439 Oleo-resins , . 578, 591, 704 Papaverine 459 Oleic acid 340 Papaver somniferum . 456 Oleum setherum 361 rhcjeas . 456 anisi 582 Paraffin oils . 425 anthemidis 588 Paraldehyde . . 65, 380 crotonis 442 Paralysants, 60, 61, 63, 64, 67, 71. ergot;e . 613 76, 79, 91, 340, 351, 384, 386, 419! juniperi 586 422, 484, 510, 515, 523, 542, 547. lini 649 Paramorphine 461 menthjE piperitfu 587 Parasiticides {see a/,so Insecticides morrliuiu 669 and Vermicides), 48, 112, 192, 208, oliva3 . 647 248, 280, 301, 304, 309, 315, 316, picis 602 319, 327, 338, 389, 39 2, 406, 411, ricini . 439 414, 417, 441, 547, 550, 628, 634. sal)inre . 618 Parcira 535 terebinthinJB . 590 Parturients 126 tiglii . 442 Pastes 224 Olibanuin or frankincc use 591 Pearl ashes . . 172 Olivffi oleum . 647 barley . 644 Olives . 647 Pennyroyal 587 Olive oil 647 Pentane 46 Opium . 456 Peppers 574 alkaloids 459 Pepper, Cayenne 575 ammoniatcd tincture 476 cubeijs . 575 Opium antidotes 469 Peppermint 587 camphorated tincture 477 oil 587 compared with bellado ina 480 spirit . 588 Egyptian 457 water . 588 enemas 475 Pepsin 680 English 458 Percolation 711 European 458 Periodate 418 extract 477 Permanganate of potash 184 Indian . 457 Peroxide of hydrogen 627 liniment 477 iron 259 poisoning by . 465 Peru balsam . 643 preparations of 476 Peruvian bark 551 purity and strength of 458 Petanelle 660 Smyrna 457 Petrolatum 425 test for 459 Petroleum benzin 389, 424 tinctures of 476 vaseline 425 Turkey 457 Petroleums 423, 424 Ordeal bean of Calabar 502 Pharmacology 1 Organic animal extracts 690 Pharmacy 687 Orpliol 224 Phenic, or carbolic, acid 397 Orthoform 518 Phenacetin 393 Ossein 674 Phenol 397 Oxalic acid 340 -acetamide 383 Oxide of antimony 263 -salicylate . 67, 391 calcium 203 Phenazone (antipyrine) . 80, 381 iron 259 Phenyl hydrate 397 lead 231 Pidebotomy . 139 magnesia 210 Pliospiiate of iron 255, 501 mercury 291, 292 lime 207 zinc 236 Pliosplioric acid 334 Oxygen 159 Phospiiorus 304 Oxymel 339 Piiysic masses 434 Oxymorphine . 459 Pliysiological actions of medicines 12 Oxytocics or ecbolics 126, R12, 617 rest 131 Ozone .... 160 Physiology of vomiting 97 INDEX OF MEDICINES '93 PAGE PAGE Physostigmatis semina 502 Potassium hydrate . 171 Phj-sostigmine sulphate 502 iodide . 177 Picrotoxin 67, 495 nitrate . 179 Picric acid 332 permanganate 184 Pigs acted on by medicines i nuch in soaps . 677 the same way as men and dogs, sulphate 176 22, 104, 197, 266, 275, 468. sulphurata 175 Pill, blue 291 tartrates 186 how made 291 Potash alum . 219 Pilocarpine nitrate 519 Poultices 707 Pimento or allspice . 575 bran 707 Pimpinella anisum 582 charcoal 344 Pines .... 591 linseed 651 707 Pinus Sylvestris 591 mustard 572 Piper album . 574 yeast 645 Chili . 575 Powder, antimocial 263 cubeba . 575 Dover's 476 546 longum 574 Dr. Gregory's 455 nigrum 574 •James's 263 Piperazin 394 Powders, how made, etc. 709 Piperidine 574 Precautions with ansesthetics 369 Piperine 574 Precipitated chalk 205 Pitch . 603 Precipitated sulphur . 317 Pix Burgundica 592 Prepared chalk 205 liquida . 603 Prescribing 687 Plasters, adhesive 221, 232, 683, 706 Prescriptions . 687 anodjTie 487 Pressure 50 blistering . 552, 572, 669 Preventive inoculation 4,6 glue . . 674 Proof spirit . 346 lead or sticking 231 Protargol 250 Plasters, how made, etc. 203, 706 Protective vaccines . 34 Plumbi acetas 232 Protectives 361, 362, 372, 425 677 emplastra 231 Protopine 459 iodidum 232 Propane 423 oxidum 231 Prussic acid . 418 Plumbi carbonas 231 antidotes for . 421 Plumbism 226 poisoning with 420 Plumbum 225 Pulvis antimonii 263 Podophyllum . 449 Doveri . 476 ,546 Poisons and antidotes, 140, ] 42, 144, rhei compositus 455 146. Pumpkin seed a vermifuge 114 Pomegranate root bark 112 Pure air 129 Poppy heads . 456 Purgatives {see Cathartics an d oil 456 Laxatives) . 100 petals . 456 Purpura hemorrhagica 179 ,184 seed cake 456 Pustulants . . 51, 265 ,443 Porter 348 Pj-ridine 396 631 Position, restorative . 131 Pyoktanin 391 Potash salts . 169 Pyrocatechin . 390 Potashes or pearl ashes 172 Pj'rogallic acid 390 640 Potassii acetas 186 Pyroligneous acid 337 aqua or liquor . 171 fusa or caustica 171 Quantities of medicines 147 Potassium and its salts 169 Qualities of medicines 688 acetate 186 Quassia 567 bromide 179, 307 Quassin 567 carbonates 172 Quercin 566 caustic . 171 Quercus cortex 566 chlorate 182 Quicklime 203 citrate . 186 Quicksilver 285 fusa 171 ! Quinine hydrochloride 653 794 INDEX OF MEDICINES Quinine sulphate hydrochloride valerianate Quini-chloral . Quiuidine PAGE 552 553 553 590 558 553 Rapeseed oil . . . 651 Kectified spirit . . 346 Red cinchona bark . . 551 Red ointment . . 302 Refrigerants, 93, 15S, 161, 169, 200, 340, 356, 357. Remedies, hygienic . . 130 Remijia barks . . 552 Resin or rosin . . 601 Resins . . 601,710 Resinate of copper . . 245 Resolvents . . 314,680 Resorcin . . . 389 Respiration, medicines acting on 83 Rest a restorative . . 131 Restoratives, 128, 195, 200, 207, 348, 489, 584, 645. Retine . . . 602 Revulsion or derivation . 49 Rhamnus catharticus . 438 Frangula . . 438 Purshianus . . 438 syrupus . . 438 Rhatany . . . 636 Rheum . . . 454 Rhceadine . . . 456 Rhubarb . . ,454 compound powder of . 455 Rice starch . . . 654 Ricini oleum . . . 439 Ricinus communis . . 4.39 Rosemary . . . 587 Rosin or resin . . 601 black or fiddler's . 601 yellow . . . 601 Rowel or issue . . 52 Rubefacients (nee also Counter- irritants), 49, 50, 355. Rum . . . . 347 Ruminants, medicines acting on, 21, 94, 104, 123, 168, 197, 233, 265, 2G9, 275, 287, 468, 487. Rye, ergot of . . . 612 Sabadilla or Cevadilla 547 Sabi.'ia or savin 617 Saccharated lime 205 Sacchari fsex . 658 Saccharin 390 Saccharoses . 657 Saffron, meadow 619 Sago starcli 65+ Salacetol 391 PAGE Sal-ammoniac . . 161 Salicylates . . 224,558 Saline purgatives . 102 Salol . . . 42,391 Sal-prunelle . . . 180 Sal- volatile . . .163 Salicin . . . 558 Salicylate of iron . . 562 sodium , . 559 Salicylic acid . . 558 Salt, common . . 195 Epsom . . 212 Glauber . , 191 Saltpetre . . .179 Salt poisoning . . 197 Sandal-wood nil . , 124 Sanitas . . .626 Sanoform . . . 418 Santonica . . . 605 Santonin . . . 606 Sapo durus . . . 677 Saponin . . . 525 Savary's liquid sinapism . 572 Savin . . . .617 Scammony , . . 448 Schmidt's treatment of parturient apoplexy, 179. Scilla . . . .534 Scillain ... 534 Scillitoxin . . . 534 Scoparin . . . 534 Secale cei'eale . . . 612 Sedatives or depressants (see Paralysants), 64, 91, 383, 422, 518, 537, 550. Semina crotonis . . 442 ricini . . . 439 Senegal gum . . . 646 Senna leaves . . . 449 Sotons ... 52 Shampooing ... 50 Sheep, actions of medicines on, 21, 94, 104, 123, 197, 269, 275, 287, 352. cathartics for, 104, 431, 441, 443, 449. dips . . 280,634 precautions in dipping 283 Sialogogues . . 92, 183, 520 Sieves . . .709 Silver and its compounds . 246 citrate . . .250 colloid . . .249 lactate . . . 250 nitrate . • . 246 oxide . . .249 Sinalbin and sinigrin . . 569 Sinapisms or mustard applications, 50, 571, .572. Size — weak glue . . 674 Skin, mcilicines acting on 115, 175, 194. INDEX OF MEDICINES 795 Smelling-salts PAGE 167 Smoothing-iron 50 Soaps . 677 Castile . 678 glycerin . 678 hard or soda 677 medicinal 678 Soap liniment 679 soft or potash . 678 Socaloin 435 Socins' paste . 240 Soda salts 187 Soda water 188 Sodium and its compounds 187 bicarbonate 188 biborate , 190 bromide . 308 carbolate 408 carbonates 188 chlorata .» 201 chloride 195 ethylate solution 187 hydroxide or caustic s( 3da 188 hyposulphite . 192 iodide . 177 liquid, Labarraque's 201 nitrate . 198 Sodium nitrite 386 phosphate 191 soap 677 sulphate 191 sulphite 192 thiosulphate 192 Soft soap 678 Solutio arsenicalis 284 chlori . 309 plurabi diacetatis 232 Solutions 702 Solutol 415 Solveol 415 Soporifics 64 Southernwood 605 SozoJodol 418 Spanish flies . 661 Spasm . 60,68 Sparteine 534 Spatula} 706 Spearmint 585 Species of patient ditferently affected by drugs 18 Spermaceti — cetaceum 682 Sphacelinic acid 613 Spinal depressants 76, 307 stimulants . 78, 495, 501 Spinal hot-bag 701 ice-bag . 701 Spirit of ammonia 162 chloroform 373 ether . 361 salt 330 turpentine 590 Spirit of wine . . , 346 Spirit, proof . . . 346 rectified . . 346 Spirits or essences . . 346 Spiritus Eetheris . . 361 setheris nitrosi . 362 compositus . . 361 Mindereri . . 167 rectificatus . . 346 Spongiopiline . . .158 Sprays . . 247, 339, 627 Spurred rye . . . 612 Squill . . . .534 Squire's chemical food . 255 Staphisagrine . . 607 Starch . . .654 iodide of . 311,655 Stavesacre seeds . . 607 Steam a disinfectant . , 45 Steam kettle ... 84 Steaming horse's head , 158 Steel, tincture of . . 260 Sternutatories . . 84 St. Ignatius bean . . 495 Stibium (antimony) . . 262 Stimulants, 64, 350, 364, 373, 389, 390, 39.3, 404, 411, 489, 495, 575, 577, 579, 582, 583, 586, 593, 596, 624, 642, 662, 678, 681. bronchial . . 85, 164 cardiac . . 88, 484, 489 cerebral . 63, 77, 358 difi'usible, 63, 167, 349, 358, 360. gastric, 95, 189, 272, 331, 507, 548, 565, 573, 605, 624, 680, 681. glandular, 92, 177, 358, 520, 565, 573, 604. intestinal, 216, 502, 519, 604. liver, 109, 191, 300, 333, 429, 449, 450, 455, 545. motor 59, 80, 217, 505, 520 nervine, 63, 78, 79, 349, 495, 501. respiratory . 83, 167, 489 skin and mucous surfaces, 117, 319. urino- genital , 120, 125 vascular . 88, 90, 167 Stomachics (see also Carminatives), 106, 195, 199, 455, 5.55, 564, 565, 566, 568, 570, 575, 577, 578, 584, 585, 587, 588, 589, 5i)(i. Stopping for horses' feet . 603 Stramonium . . . 480 Strongyli . . . 115 Strophanthin . . , 532 Strophanthus Kombe . 532 Strychnine . . . 495 arsenite . . 502 796 INDEX OF MEDICINES PAOE Strychnine poisoning , . 496 Styptic colloid . . 640 Styptics (.see also Astringents and Hemostatics), 51, 57, 220, 233, 261, 326, 397, 412, 601, 639, 640. Styrax . . .643 Subcutaneous injections (.see Hypo- dermic) . . .151 Succi . . . .699 Sucrose . . . 657 Sudorificg . . .116 Suet .... 672 Sugar .... 657 Sugar, cane . . . 657 grape . . . 658 liquorice . . 653 of fruits . . 658 of lead . . . 232 of milk — lactose . 658 Sulphate of alumina and potash 219 copper . . , 243 iron . . . 256 magnesia . . 212 potash . . .176 quinine . . . 553 soda . . . 191 zinc . . . 237 Sulphates . . .176 Sulphite of soda . .192 Sulphur . . .316 anhydride . . 327 flowers of . . 317 iodide . . . 316 liniments of . . 320 liver of . . . 175 milk of. . . 317 ointments of . . 320 precipitated . . 317 roll or stick . . 317 sublimed . . 317 vivum . . . 317 Sulphide of antimony . 263 potassium . . 175 Sulpho-carbolic acid . . 408 carbolates . . 408 phenic acid . . 408 Sulphonal . . . 65, 379 Sulphuretted hydrogen . 318 Sulphuric acid . . 324 ether . . .357 Sulphurous acid . . 327 Sumbul or musk root . . 589 Sunlight . . .42, 130 Suppositories . . . 698 Surgeon's lint . . . 649 Surroundings modify actions of medicines . . 24 Susceptibilities, special . 19 Sweat glands, action on , 116 Swcot spirit of nitre . . 362 Synergists . . . 687 PAOE Syringes, enema . . 698 Syrups, 255, 378, 455, 501, 534, 659, 710,711. Syrup simple . . 659,711 iodide of iron . . 259 Easton's . 255, 501 Squire's . . 255 Syrupus chloral . . 378 rhamni . . . 438 rhei . . . 455 Tables of weights and measures, 714 Tablets . . .152 Tannalbin . . .640 Tannigen . . . 640 Tannin or tannic acid . 637 Tannoform . . . 387 Tansy . . . .606 Tapeworms . . .113 Tapioca starch . . 655 Tar . . . . 425 Barbados . . 424 coal . . .425 oil of . . .602 ointment . . 603 Rangoon . . 424 Taraxacum . . . 568 Tartar, cream of . . 186 emetic . . . 264 Tartaric acid . . . 339 Tartarised antimony . . 264 experiments with . 287 Tartrate of potash . . 186 Tseniacides . . .112 Tea . . . . 488 Temperature modifying ac- tions of medicines . . 22 high, destroys micro- organisms . . 45 of stables . . 130 Tenaline . . .605 Terebene . . . 594 Terebinthinaj . . 590, 591 oleum . . . 594 Terpene . . .600 Terpinol . . .600 Tetanus antitoxine . . 6 Thallin . . .42, 395 Thebaine . . .461 Theine . . .488 Theobromine . . . 488 Therapeutic action of medicines 12 Theriaca (treacle) . . 658 Thermometers . . 716 Thioform ... 224 Thiol . . . .681 Thirst .... 93 Thus (Frankincense) . . 592 Thyme . . .629 Thymol . . .629 Tinctura aconiti . . 543 INDEX OF MEDICINES 797 Tinctura aloes PAGE 434 Unguentum gallaj cum opio PAOB 640 aruicje , 582 hydrargyri 288 BellatlonnfB 487 hydrar-iodidi rubri 302 benzoini composila 642 nitratis . 304 calumbaj 565 iodi 316 cannabis indicai 493 resinae . 601 cantharidis 667 simplex 601 ,683 cascarillae 566 sulphuris 320 catechu 636 veratrinae 548 chirata? 565 zinci oxidi 237 chloroformi et mor Upas antiar 2 phinfe composita 373 Urari or curara 523 cinchonse 557 Urethane 380 colchici 622 Urinary deposits 122 digitalis 532 disinfectants. 391, 392, 394, ergotffi ammoniata 617 535, 536. ferri perchloridi 260 sedatives 124, 485, 514 ,625 gentianse 565 tonics . . 124, 500 ,664 iodi 316 Urine, secretion of 119 ,, decolorata 316 Uva ursi 537 , 636 ,, oleosa 316 myrrhag 574 Vaccines 4, 33, 34 nucis vomicae . 502 Valerian 588 opii 476 Valerianic acid 589 ,, ammoniata 476 Van Swieten's solutio n 301 Zingiberis 578 Vapour bath . 691 Tinctures, how made, etc. 711 Vapours or inhalation s 712 Tobacco 630 Vascular depressants 91, 453 538 alkaloids 631 stimulants 8 8, 484, 526 585 enemas . 634 tonics, 90, 479 495, 529, 533, Tolu balsam . 643 534. Tolerance of medicine 23 Vaseline 425 Tonics. 132, 133, 238, 245, 2 48, 255, Vehicle 688 256, 259, 260, 272, 278, 3 25, 330, Veins, injection into 150 433, 438, 499, 555, 564, 670 Venesection , 138 140 Tonics, blood, 23, 133, 252, 2 55, 256, Venice turpentine 590 ,591 259. Ventilation 130 gastric, 95, 132, 334, [ !36, 495, Veratrine 547 501, 504, 507, 548, t )55, 565, Veratrum album 549 573, 624, 680, 681. viride . 549 heart and vascular, 89, 90, 479, Verdigris 245 495, 529, 533, 5.34. Verdigris liniment 246 nerve . 79 , 133 Vermicides and vermi fuges, 112, 113, Tow . 649 244, 256, 296, 392, 393, 424, 432, Tragacanth 645 453, 568, 579, 593, 597, 604, 606, Treacle 658 608, 609, 611, 612, 619, 629, 630, Trichinae 115 634. Tropacocaine . 518 Vermin-killers 501 Tropeines 478 Vesicants (see Counte r-irritants) 50, Tuberculin 685 288, 662. Tumenol 682 Veterinary Pharmacy 687 Turkey opium 457 Vienna paste . 172 Turkish baths 691 Vinegar 337 Turpentines . 590, 591 , 592 of cantharides 339 Turpentine, oil of 594 of colchicum 622 Tuson's disinfectants 258 of opium 476 Virginian tobacco 631 Unguenta, 407, 424, 425, 4 88, 512, Vitriol, blue . 243 517, 601, 628, 640, 683, 705 green . 256 Unguentum cantharidis 665 oil of . 324 cupri acetatis 246 of copper 243 798 INDEX OF MEDICINES PAflE PAOI Vitriol, white. 237 Whiting 2U5 Volatile oils . 704 Wines . 347 Volckniann's antiseptic 630 Wintergreen . 558 Vomica, nux . 493 Wolfsbane 536 Vomiting, how produced 96 Wood charcoal 343 checked 100 naphtha 347 Vulneraries . . 574, ■381, 641 or pyroxylic spirit . 347 tar 425, 602 Wash, black . 291 Wormwood 605 yellow . 301 Woorara or curara poison . Gl, 523 Water 153 Wounds 40 impurities 154 actions and uses 155 Xerofoem 224 dressings 158 hemlock 509 lime mineral . 204 155 Yeast . Yellow cinchona bark . 31, 645 551 of ammonia 167 resin 601 tar 603 wash 301 683 Watering of horses 156 wax Wax . 683 Weights and measures 713 Zinc and its compounds . 235 Wet pack 136, 158 acetate . 240 Wheat flour . 654 bromide 308 Whisky 347 butter of 239 White arsenic 271 carbolate 239 hellebore 549 carbonate 237 lotion . . 235, 239, 240 chloride 239 mustard seed . 569 oxide 236 pepper . 574 sulphate 237 vitriol . 237 Zingiber officinale 576 wax 683 Zingiberis tinctura 578 Printed by T. and A. Constahi.k, Printers to His Majosly at tlie Edinburgli University Press CATALOGUE OF William R. Jenkins Co/s Works Concerning HORSES, CATTLE, SHEEP, SWINE, Etc. 1907-8 (*) Designates New Books. (f) Designates Recent Publications. AXDERSOX. "Vice in the Horse" and other papers on Horses and Riding. By E. L. Anderson. Size, 6x9, cloth, illustrated 1 75 ARMSTEAD. "The Artistic Anatomy of the Horse." A brief description of the various Anatomical Struc- tures which may be distinguished during Life through the Skin. By Hugh W. Armstead, M.D., F.R.C.S. With illustrations from drawings by the author. Cloth oblong, 10 x 12^ 3 75 BACH. "How to Judge a Horse." A concise treatise as to its Qualities and Soundness ; Including Bits and Bitting, Saddles and Saddling, Stable Drainage, Driv- ing One Horse, a Pair, Four-in-hand, or Tandem, etc. By Capt. F.W.Bach. Size, 5 x7i, clo., fully illus.l 00 BANHAHT. "Tables of Veterinary Posology and Thera- peutics," with weights, measures, etc. By Geo. A. Banhara, F. R. C. V. S. New edition. Cloth, size 4x5 1-2, 192 pages 1 00 BAUCHER. "Method of Horsemanship." Including the Breaking and Training of Horses. By F. Baucher 1 0<^ BELL. (*)"The Veterinarian's Call Book (Perpetual)." By Koscoe R. Bell, D.V.S., editor of the AmerixMn Veterinary Review. Completely revised 1907. A visiting list, that can be commenced at any time and used until full, containing much useful informa- tion for the student and the busy practitioner. Among contents are items concerning: Prescription writing; Veterinary Drugs; Poisons; Solubility of Drugs; Composition of Milk,Bile, Blood, Gastric Juice, Urine, Saliva; Respiration; Dentition; Temp- erature, etc., etc. Bound in flexible leather, with flap and pocket , , , ,.,,... 1 25 BITTING. "Caaiol's Exorcises in Equine Snifrerj." See •'C'adiut." BRADLEY. "Outlines of Veterinary Anatomy." By O.Charnock Bradley, Member of the Koyal Col- lege of Veterinary Surgeons ; Professor of Anatomy In the New Veterinary College, Edinburgh. The author presents the most important facts of veterinary anatomy in as condensed a form as possible, consistent with lucidity, 12mo. Complete in three parts. Pakt I. : The Limbs (cloth) 1 25 Part II. : The Trunk (pap»-r) 1 25 Part III, : T/ie Head and Neck (paper). 1 25 The Set complete 3 25 CADIOT. " Exercises in Equine SurgrerY." By P, J, Cadiot. Translated by Prof. A. W. Bitting, D.V.M, Edited by Prof. A. Liautard, M.D.V.M. Size,6x9X- cloth, illustrated 2 50 — "Roarintc in Horses." Its Pathology and Treatment. This work represents the latest development in oper- ative methods for the alleviation of roaring. Each step is most clearly defined bv excellent full-page illustrations. By P. .1. Cadiot, Professor at the Veterinary School, Alfort. Translated by Thos J. Watt Dollar, M.R.C.V.S., etc. Cloth, size 51-4x7 1-8, 77 pages, illustrated 75 — "Studies in Clinical Veterinary Medicine and Surgery." By P. J. Cadiot. Traiislaied, edited, and supplemented with 49 new articles and 34 illustrations by Jno. A. W. Dollar, M.R.C.V.S Cloth, size 7x9 34, 619 pages, 94 black and white illustrations 5 25 —(•)" A Treatise on Surgical Therapeutics of the Domestic Animals." By F. J. Cadiot and J. Almy. Translated by Prof. A. Liautard, M,D.,V.M, I. General Surgery. — Means of restraint of animals, general anaesthesia, local anesthesia, surgical anti- sepsis and asepsis, hematosis, cauterization, filing, II Diseases Common to all Tissues. — Inflammation, abscess, gangrene, ulcers, fistula, foreign bodies, traumatic lesions, complications of traumatic les- ions, granulations, cicatrices, mycosis, virulent diseases, tumors. Ill, Diseases Special to all Tissues and Affections of the Extremities. — Diseases of skin and cellular tis- ^up, of serous bursae, of muscles, of tendons, of tendinous svnovial sacs, of aponeurosis, of arteries, of veins, of lymphatics, of nerves, of bones, of articulations. Cloth, si/H fi X 9, 580 pages, 118 illustrations 4 50 CHAFMAN. "Manual of the Pathological Treatment of Lameness in the Horse," treated solely by mechanical means. By George T. Chapman, Cloth, pizt» 6x9, 124 pages with portrait ,,...,.? 00 CLARKE. "Clinrf of tlifi Feet and Teeth of Fossil Horses." By W. H. Clarke. Card, size 9 1-2 x 13. . 25 *' Horses' Teeth. ^' Fourth edition, re-revised, with second appendix. Cloth, size 5 1-4 x 7 1-2, 322 pp., illus.. 2 60 CLEAVELAND. " Pronounoiiigr Medical Lexicon." Pocket tiilition. By C H. Cleveland, M.D. Cloth, size 3 1-4x4 1-2, 302 pages 76 CLEMENT, *' Veterinary Post Mortem Examina- tions." By A. W. Clement, V.S. 1 he absence in the Eiifili.-h languajre! <>f any gnide in making autopsies upon the lower ariirnal», induced Dr. Clement to write this book, trusting that it would prove of prac- tical value to th«> profession. Cloth, size 5x7 1-2, 64 pages, illustrated 75 COURTENA Y. (f) " Mannal of the Practice of Veterinary Medicine." By Edward Courtcnay, V. S, Revised by Frederick T. G. Hobday, F R.C.V.8. Second edition. Cloth, size 5 1-4x7 1-2, 573 pages 2 75 COX. " Horses : In Accident and Disease." The sketches introduced embrace various attitudes which have been observed, such as in choking ; the disorders and accidents occurring to the stomach and intestines ; affection of the brain ; and some special forms of lame- HBss, etc. By J. Roalfe Cox, F.R.C.V.S. Cloth, size 6x 9, 28 full page Ulustrations 1 LO DALRYMPLE. {*)"Veteri nary Obstetrics." A compen- dium for th« use of advanced students and Practi- tioners. By W. H. Dalrymple, M. R. C. V. S., principal of the Department of Veterinary Science in the Louisiana State University and A. & M. College; Veterinarian to the Louisiana State Bureau of Agriculture, and Agricultural Experiment Stations. Second edition revised. Cloth, si^e 6x9 1-4,162 pages. 51 illustrations 2 50 DALZIEL. " Breaking and Training Doprs." Part I, by Pathfinder. Part II, by Hugh Dalziel. Clolh. illustrated 2 50 — " The Collie." By Hugh Dalziel. Paper, illu.'strated 50 — "The Diseases of Dogs." Causes, symptoms and treatment. By Hugh Dalziel. Illustrated. Paper, 50c. Cloth, 1 fO — "Diseases of Horses." Paper 50 — " The Fox Terrier." By Hugh Dalziel. Paper, 50 ; clo.l 00 — "The Greyhound." Cloth, illus 1 oo ^ " The St, Bernard." Cloth, illustrated. ..,.., ........ 1 OQ DANA, "Tables in ComparatiTe Phyaiology." Bj Prof. C. L. Dana, M.D. Chart, 17 x 17 26 DANCE. "Veterinary Tablet." By A. A. Dance. Chart, 17 X 24, mounted on linen, folded in a cloth case for the pocket, size 3 3-4 x 6 1-2. Shows at a glance the synopsis of the diseases of horses, cattle and dogs ; with their cause, symptoms and cure 75 DE BR UIN. (♦)" Bovine Obstetrics." By M. G. De Bruin Instructor of Obstetrics at the State Veterinary School in Utrecht. Translated by W. E. A. Wyman, formerly Professor of Veterinary Science at Clemson A. & M. College, and Veterinarian to the South Carolina Experiment Station. Cloth, size 6x9, 382 pages, 77 illustrations 5 00 !S)'nopi«ii4 of the Essential Features of the Work 1. Authorized translation. 2. The only obstetrical work which is up to date. 3. Written by Europe's leading authority on the subject. 4. Written by a man who has practiced the art a lifetime. 5. Written by a man who, on account of his eminence as bovine practitioner and teacher of obstetrics, was selected by Prof. Dr. FrOhner and Prof. Dr. Bayer (Berlin and Vienna), to discuss bovine obstetrics both practically and scientifically. b. The only work containing a thorough differential diaK- nosis of ante and post partum diseases. 7. The only work doing justice to modern obstetrical surgery and therapeutics. 8. Written by a man whose practical suggestions revolu- tionized the teaching of veterinary obstetrics even in the great schools of Europe. 9. The only work dealing fully with the now no longer obscure contagious and infectious diseases of calveB. 10. Absolutely original and no compilation. 11. The only work dealing fully with the difficult problem of teaching obstetrics in the colleges. 12. The only work where the practical part is not over- shadowed by theory. ... A veterinarian, particularly if his location brings him in contact witli obstetrical practice, who makes any pretence toward being scientific and in possession of modern knowledge upon this subject, will not be without this excellent work, as it is really a very valuable treatise.— P?o/. Roscoe R. Bell, in the Ameiican VeteHnary Remew. In translating into English Professor De Bruin's excellent text- book on Bovine Obstetrics, Dr. Wyman has laid British and American veterinary surgeons and students under a debt of gratitude. The works represents the happy medium between the booklets which are adapted for criiinrnin!,' purposes by the student, and the ponderous tomes which, although useful to the teacher, are not exactly suited to the requirements of the everyday practitioner . . . We can strongly recommend the work to veterinary students and practitioners.-The Journal of Comparative Pathology and Thcra})eutics. DOLLAR. r*i" Diseases of Cattle, Sheep, Goats and Snine." By G. Moussu and Jno. A. W. Dollar, M.R.C.V.S. Size 6 x 9 1-2, 7«5 pages, 329 illustrations in the text and 4 full page plates 8 75 — (t)''A Hand-book of Horse-Shoeing'," with Introductory chapters on the anatomy and physiology of the horse's foot. By Jno. A. W. Dollar, M.R.C.V.S., with the collaboration of AlbertWheatley, F.R.C.V.S. ploth, si^e 658 1-2, 433 pages, 4O6 illustrfttions , .4 76 DOLLAE (continued) — (t) "eperative Technifiue." Volume 1 of " The Practice of Veterinary Surgery." Clolb, size 6 3-1 x 10, 264 paces 272 illustrations ' .375 — " tJeucral Siirt'ery." Volume 2 of " The Practice of Veter- inary Surgery." In preparation. — (t)"Begional Veterinary Surgery." Volume 3 of "The Practice of Veterinary Surgery." By Drs Jno A W. Dollar and H. Moller. Cloch, size 6 1-2 x 10 853 and XVI pages, 315 illustrations 6 25 — "Cadiot's Clinical Veterinary Medicine and Snrsery." See '• Vadiot." — " Cadiot's Roaring in Horses." See " Cadiot." DUN, "Veterinary Medicines, their Actions and U«es." By Finlay Dun, V.S., late leetuier on Materia Medica and Dietetics at the Edinburgh Veterinary College, and Examiner in Chemistry "to the Eoyal College of Veterinary Surgeons. Edited bv James Macqueen, F.K.C.V.S. Tenth revised English edition. Cloth, size 6x9 3 75 FLEMIXG. " Tlie Contagions Diseases of Animals." Their influence on the wealth and health of nations and how they are to be combated. Paper, size 5 x 7 1-2 30 pages 25 - "Human and Animal Variolae." A Study in Comparative Pathology. Paper, size 5 1-2x8 1-2, 61 pages. . . 25 - " Parasites and Parasitic Diseases of tLe Domesticated Animals. By L. G. Neumann. Translated by Dr. Fleming. See " Xeumayiyi." - "Operative Veterinary Surgery." Vol. I, by Dr Geo Fleming, M.K.C.V.S. This valuable work, one'of the most practical treatises yet issued on the subject in the ±.nglish language, is devoted to the common opera- tions of Veterinary Surgery ; and the concise descrip- tions and directions of the text are illustrated with numerous wood engravings. Cloth, size 6x9 1-4 285 and xviii pages. 343 illustrations 2 75 Q^^^' ^^^f!^}^^'^ ^^^ P^'^^d through the press by W Owen Williams, F.R.C.V.S. Cloth, size 6 x 9 1-4. 430 and xxxvii pages, 344 illustrations.. 3 25 - " Roaring in Horses." By Dr. George Fleming, ■5.1 "* history, nalure, causes, prevention and treatment. Cloth, size 5 1-2 x 8 3-4, 160 pa-e« 01 engravings, 1 colored plate ., T . .°. . V 5u - " Veterinary Obstetrics." Including the Accidents and Dis- eases incident to Pregnancy, Parturition, and the Early f"r ^"v^^^^'p^i?^^^ Animals. By Geo. Fleming i.E.UV.S. Cloth, size 6x8 3-4, 758 pages, illus.6 25 GOTTHIEL. O^A Manual of General Histology." By Wm. S. GoUheil, M.D., Professor of Pathology in the American Veterinary College, New Yorli; etc., etc. Histology is the basis of the physician's art, aa Anatomy is the foundation of the surgeon's science. Only by knowing the processes of life can we under- stand the changes of disease and the action of remedies; as the architect must know his building materials, so must the practitioner of medicine know the intimate structure of the body. To present this knowledge in an accessible and simple form has been the author's task. Second edition revised. Cloth, size 5 1-2 x 8, 152 pages, 68 illustrations. . . 1 OU GRESSWELL. •• The Borine Prescriber." For the use of Veterinarians and Veterinary Students. Second edition i-evised and enlarged, by James B. and Albert Gresswell, M.R.C.V.S. Cloth, size, 5x7 1-2, 102 pages 75 — "The Equine Hospital Prescriber." For the use of Veter- inary Practitioners and Students. Third edition re- vised and enlaiged, by Drs. James B. and Albert Gresswell, M.E.C.V.S. Cloth, size 5x7 1-2, 165 pages 75 — "Diseases and Disorders of the Horse." A Treatise on Equine Medicine and Surgery, bt^ing a contribution to the science of comparative pathology. By Albert, Jas. B. and Geo. Gresswell. Cloth, size 5 3-^ V'^x X \«