THE UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS LIBRARY 'V66du M. \ Return this book on or before the Latest Date stamped below. A I charge is made on all overdue ! books. U. of I. Library KC -9 'j6 fiSJG -5 if ’>3 9324-S Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2017 with funding from University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign Alternates https://archive.org/details/victoriahistoryo01page_1 Ubc IDlctoda 1f)f8tov'e of tbc (Counties of Englanb EDITED BY WILLIAM PAGE, F.S.A. A HISTORY OF DURHAM VOLUME I THE ICTORIA HISTORY OF THE COUNTIES OF ENGLAND DURHAM LONDON ARCHIBALD CONSTABLE AND COMPANY LIMITED This History ts issued to Subscribers only By Archibald Constable & Company Limited and printed by Eyre & Spottiswoode H.M. Printers^ London INSCRIBED TO THE MEMORY OF HER LATE MAJESTY QUEEN VICTORIA WHO GRACIOUSLY GAVE THE TITLE TO AND ACCEPTED THE DEDICATION OF THIS HISTORY 539149 THE ADVISORY COUNCIL OF THE VICTORIA HISTORY His Grace The Lord Arch- bishop OF Canterbury His Grace The Duke of Bedford, K.G. President of the Zoological Society His Grace The Duke of Devon- shire, K.G. Chancellor of the University of Cam- bridge His Grace The Duke of Rutland, K.G. His Grace The Duke of Portland, K.G. His Grace The Duke of Argyll, K.T. The Rt. Hon. The Earl of Rosebery, K.G., K.T. The Rt. Hon. The Earl of Coventry President of the Royal Agricultural Society The Rt. Hon. The Viscount Dillon Late President of the Society of Antiquaries The Rt. Hon. The Lord Lister Late President of the Royal Society The Rt. Hon. The Lord Alverstone, G.C.M.G. Lord Chief Justice The Hon. Walter Rothschild, M.P. Sir Frederick Pollock, Bart., LL.D., F.S.A., ETC. Sir John Evans, K.C.B., D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S., ETC. Sir Edward Maunde Thomp- son, K.C.B., D.C.L., LL.D., F.S.A., etc. Director of the British Museum Sir Clements R. Markham, K.C.B., F.R.S., F.S.A. President of the Royal Geographical Society Sir Henry C. Maxwell-Lyte, K.C.B., M.A., F.S.A. , etc. Keeper of the Public Records Col. Sir J. Farquharson, K.C.B. Sir Jos. Hooker, G.C.S.L, M.D., D.C.L., F.R.S., etc. Sir Archibald Geikie, LL.D., F.R.S., ETC. Rev. J. Charles Cox, LL.D., F.S.A., etc. Lionel Cust, M.V.O., M.A., F.S.A., etc. Director of the National Portrait Gallery Charles H. Firth, M.A., LL.D. Regius Professor of Modern History, Oxford Albert C. L. G. Gunther, M. A., M.D., F.R.S., Ph.D. Late President of the Linnean Society F. Haverfield, M.A., LL.D., F.S.A. CoL. Duncan A. Johnston, C.B., R.E. Late Director General of the Ordnance Survey Prof. E. Ray Lankester, M.A., F.R.S., ETC. Director of the Natural History Museum, South Kensington Reginald L. Poole, M.A. University Lecturer in Diplomatic, Oxford J. Horace Round, M.A., LL.D. Walter Rye W. H. St. John Hope, M.A. Assistant Secretary of the Society of Antiquaries Among the original members of the Council were The late Marquess of Salisbury The late Dr. Mandell Creighton, Bishop of London The late Dr. Stubbs, Bishop OF Oxford The late Lord Acton The late Sir William Flower and The late Professor F. York Powell General Editor — William Page, F.S.A. GENERAL ADVERTISEMENT The Victoria History of the Counties of England is a National Historic Survey which, under the direction of a large staff comprising the foremost students in science, history, and archaeology, is designed to record the history of every county of England in detail. This work was, by gracious permission, dedicated to Her late Majesty Queen Victoria, who gave it her own name. It is the endeavour of all who are associated with the undertaking to make it a worthy and permanent monument to her memory. Rich as every county of England is in materials for local history, there has hitherto been no attempt made to bring all these materials together into a coherent form. Although from the seventeenth century down to quite recent times numerous county histories have been issued, they are very unequal in merit ; the best of them are very rare and costly ; most of them are imperfect and many are now out of date. Moreover, they were the work of one or two isolated scholars, who, however scholarly, could not possibly deal adequately with all the varied subjects which go to the making of a county history. vii In the Victoria History each county is not the labour of one or two men, but of many, for the work is treated scientifically, and in order to embody in it all that modern scholarship can contribute, a system of co-operation between experts and local students is applied, whereby the history acquires a completeness and definite authority hitherto lacking in similar undertakings. The names of the distinguished men who have joined the Advisory Council are a guarantee that the work represents the results of the latest discoveries in every department of research, for the trend of modern thought insists upon the intelligent study of the past and of the social, institutional, and political developments of national life. As these histories are the first in which this object has been kept in view, and modern principles applied, it is hoped that they will form a work of reference no less indispensable to the student than welcome to the man of culture. THE SCOPE OF THE WORK The history of each county is complete in itself, and in each case its story is told from the earliest times, commencing with the natural features and the flora and fauna. Thereafter follow the antiquities, pre-Roman, Roman, and post-Roman ; ancient earthworks ; a new translation and critical study of the Domesday Survey ; articles on political, ecclesiastical, social, and economic history ; architecture, arts, industries, sport, etc. ; and topography. The greater part of each history is devoted to a detailed description and history of each parish, containing an account of the land and its owners from the Conquest to the present day. These manorial histories are compiled from original documents in the national collections and from private papers. A special feature is the wealth of illustrations afforded, for not only are buildings of interest pictured, but the coats of arms of past and present landowners are given. HISTORICAL RESEARCH It has always been, and still is, a reproach that England, with a collection of public records greatly exceeding in extent and interest those of any other country in Europe, is yet far behind her neighbours in the study of the genesis and growth of her national and local institutions. Few Englishmen are probably aware that the national and local archives contain for a period of 8oo years in an almost unbroken chain of evidence, not only the political, ecclesiastical, and constitutional history of the kingdom, but every detail of its financial and social progress and the history of the land and its successive owners from generation to generation. The neglect of our public and local records is no doubt largely due to the fact that their interest and value is known to but a small number of people, and this again is directly attributable to the absence in this country of any endowment for historical research. The government of this country has too often left to private enterprise work which our con- tinental neighbours entrust to a government department. It is not surprising, therefore, to find that although an immense amount of work has been done by individual effort, the entire absence of organization among the workers and the lack of intelligent direction has hitherto robbed the results of much of their value. In the Victoria History, for the first time, a serious attempt is made to utilize our national and local muniments to the best advantage by carefully organizing and supervising the researches required. Under the direction of the Records Committee a large staff of experts has been engaged at the Public Record Office in calendaring those classes of records which are fruitful in material for local history, and by a system of interchange of communication among workers under the direct supervision of the general editor and sub-editors a mass of information is sorted and assigned to its correct place, which would otherwise be impossible. THE RECORDS Sir Edward Maunde Thompson, K.C.B. Sir Henry Maxwell-Lyte, K.C.B. W. J. Hardy, F.S.A. F. Madan, M.A. F. Maitland, M.A., F.S.A. COMMITTEE C. T. Martin, B.A., F.S.A. J. Horace Round, M.A., LL.D. S. R. Scargill-Bird, F.S.A. W. H. Stevenson, M.A. G. F. Warner, M.A., F.S.A. FAMILY HISTORY Family History is, both in the Histories and in the supplementary genealogical volumes of chart Pedigrees, dealt with by genealogical experts and in the modern spirit. Every effort is made to secure accuracy of statement, and to avoid the insertion of those legendary pedigrees which have in the past brought discredit on the subject. It has been pointed out by the late Bishop of Oxford, a great master of historical research, that ‘ the expansion and extension of genealogical study is a very remarkable feature of our own times,’ that ‘ it is an increasing pursuit both in America and in England,’ and that it can render the historian most useful service. CARTOGRAPHY In addition to a general map in several sections, each History contains Geological, Oro- graphical, Botanical, Archaeological, and Domesday maps ; also maps illustrating the articles on Ecclesiastical and Political Histories, and the sections dealing with Topography. The Series contains many hundreds of maps in all. ARCHITECTURE A special feature in connexion with the Architecture is a series of ground plans, many of them coloured, showing the architectural history of castles, cathedrals, abbeys, and other monastic foundations. In order to secure the greatest possible accuracy, the descriptions of the Architecture, ecclesiastical, military, and domestic, are under the supervision of Mr. C. R. Peers, M.A., F.S.A., and a committee has been formed of the following students of architectural history who are referred to as may be required concerning this department of the work : — ARCHITECTURAL COMMITTEE J. Bilson, F.S.A., F.R.I.B.A. R. Blomfield, M.A., F.S.A., A.R.A. Harold Brakspear, F.S.A., A.R.I.B.A. Prof. Baldwin Brown, M.A. Arthur S. Flower, F.S.A., A.R.I.B.A. George E. Fox, M.A., F.S.A. J. A. Gotch, F.S.A., F.R.I.B.A. W. H. St. John Hope, M.A. W. H. Knowles, F.S.A., F.R.I.B.A. J. T. Micklethwaite, F.S.A. Roland Paul, F.S.A. J. Horace Round, M.A., LL.D. Percy G. Stone, F.S.A., F.R.I.B.A. Thackeray Turner. GENEALOGICAL VOLUMES The genealogical volumes contain the family history and detailed genealogies of such houses as had at the end of the nineteenth century seats and landed estates, having enjoyed the like in the male line since 1760, the first year of George III., together with an intro- ductory section dealing with other principal families in each county. IX The general plan of Contents and the names among others of those who are contributing articles and giving assistance are as follows : — Natural History Geology. Clement Reid, F.R.S., Horace B. Woodward, F.R.S., and others Palaeontology. R. L. Lydekker, F.R.S., etc. {Contributions by G. A. Boulenger, F.R.S., H. N. Dixon, F.L.S., G. C. Druce, M.A., F.L.S., Walter Garstang, M.A., F.L.S., Herbert Goss, F.L.S., F.E.S., R. I. Pocock, Rev. T. R. R. Stebbing, M.A., F.R.S., etc., B. B. Woodward, F.G.S., F.R.M.S., etc., and other Specialists Prehistoric Remains. Sir John Evans, K.C.B., D.C.L., LL.D., W. Boyd Dawkins, D.Sc., LL.D., F.R.S, F.S.A., Geo. Clinch, F.G.S., John Garstang, M. A., B.Litt., F.S.A.,and others Roman Remains. F. Haverfield, M.A., LL.D., F.S.A. Anglo-Saxon Remains. C. Hercules Read, F.S.A., Reginald A. Smith, B.A., F.S.A. , and others Domesday Book and other kindred Records. J. Horace Round, M.A., LL.D., and other Specialists Architecture. C. R. Peers, M.A., F.S.A., W. H. St. John Hope, M.A., and Harold Brakspear, F.S.A., A.R.I.B.A. Ecclesiastical History. R. L. Poole, M.A., and others Political History. Prof. C. H. Firth, M.A., LL.D., W. H. Stevenson, M.A., J. Horace Round, M.A., LL.D., Prof. T. F. Tout, M.A., Prof. James Tait, M.A., and A. F. Pollard History of Schools. A. F. Leach, M.A., F.S.A. Maritime History of Coast Counties. Prof. J. K. Laughton, M.A., M. Oppenheim, and others Topographical Accounts of Parishes and Manors. By Various Authorities History of the Feudal Baronage. J. Horace Round, M.A., LL.D., and Oswald Barron, F.S.A. Agriculture. Sir Ernest Clarke, M.A., Sec. to the Royal Agricultural Society, and others Forestry. John Nisbet, D.CEc., and others Industries, Arts and Manufactures • TT- r Various Authorities Social and Economic History ) Ancient and Modern Sport. E. D. Cuming and others Hunting \ Shooting >■ By Various Authorities Fishing, etc./ Cricket. Home Gordon Football. C. W. Alcock X FIGURE OF JONAS THE PROPHET EMBROIDERED ON BISHOP FRITHSTAN’S STOLE {A.D. 909x0913) FOUND IN ST CUTHBERT’S COFFIN. M'Lagaii & Cumining, Litho. Edinr. THE VICTORIA HISTORY OF THE COUNTY OF DURHAM EDITED BY WILLIAM PAGE, F.S.A. VOLUME ONE LONDON JAMES STREET HAYMARKET 1905 County (Tommtttee for Durbam THE RT. HON. THE EARL OF DURHAM Lord Lieutenant^ Chairman The Rt. Hon. the Earl of Strathmore AND KiNGHORNE The Rt. Rev, the Lord Bishop of Durham The Rt. Hon. The Lord Barnard The Hon. Frederick W. Lambton, M.P. The Hon. Arthur Elliot Sir William Eden, Bart, Sir William H. E. Chaytor, Bart. Sir Henry S. M, Havelock-Allan, Bart, Sir Powlett C. J. Milbank, Bart. Sir Charles M. Palmer, Bart. Sir David Dale, Bart. Sir Lindsay Wood, Bart. Sir Jonathan Backhouse, Bart, The Very Rev. G. W. Kitchin, D.D., F.S.A., Dean of Durham The Worshipful The Mayor of Durham The Worshipful the Mayor of Jarrow- on-Tyne Charles W. Bell, Esq., D.L., J.P. Robert Cameron, Esq., M.P. Lt.-Col, J. C. Fife-Cookson, D.L., J.P. The Rev. Canon Fowler, D.C.L,, F.S.A, John Scott Fox, Esq., K.C, The Rev. Henry Gee, D.D,, F.S.A. The Rev. Canon Greenwell, D.C.L., F.S.A. Arthur Henderson, Esq., M.P. F. B. Jevons, Esq., D.Litt. G. A. Lebour, Esq., M.A., F.G.S. William G. Morant, Esq. The Rev. Canon Norman, D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S. John S. G. Pemberton, Esq., M.P, Ralph Simey, Esq., D.L. Samuel Storey, Esq., D.L., J.P. The Rev. Canon Tristram, D.D., LL.D., F.R.S. Victor A. Williamson, Esq., C.M.G., D.L. John Wilson, Esq., M.P. XIll CONTENTS OF VOLUME ONE Dedication . .... The Advisory Council of the Victoria History General Advertisement .... The Durham County Committee Contents ...... List of Illustrations ..... Preface ....... Table of Abbreviations .... Natural History Geology ...... Palaeontology ..... Botany ...... Zoology Marine ...... Marine Molluscs .... Non-Marine Molluscs Insects ...... Spiders ...... Crustaceans ..... Fishes . . * . Reptiles and Batrachians . Birds ...... Mammals ..... Early Man ...... Anglo-Saxon Remains .... The Contents of St. Cuthbert’s Shrine Introduction to the Boldon Book Text of the Boldon Book Ancient Earthworks History of Schools . Index to the Boldon Book By G. A. Lebour, M.A. . . . . By R. Lydekker, F.R.S., F.G.S., F.L.S. By M. C. Potter, M.A. . . . . By the Rev. A. M. Norman, D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S., Hon. Canon of Durham »> » » By B. B. Woodward, F.G.S., F.R.M.S. By the Rev. W. J. Wingate, and J. E. Robson, F.E.S. {Lepidoptera) . , By the late F. O. Pickard-Cambridge, M.A. . By the Rev. T. R. R. Stebbing, M.A., F.R.S., F.Z.S By Alexander Meek, M.Sc., F.Z.S. By E. Leonard Gill, B.Sc. . . . . By the Rev. H. B. Tristram, LL.D., F.R.S., Canon of Durham ..... By E. Leonard Gill, B.Sc. By the Rev. Wm. Greenwell, D.C.L., F.R.S., F.S.A., Minor Canon of Durham, and Geo. Clinch, F.G.S. .... By Charles C. Hodges . . . . By the Very Rev. G. W. Kitchin, D.D., F.S.A., Dean of Durham .... By G. T. Lapsley, M.A., Ph.D. (Harvard) jy yy yy • By I. Chalkley Gould .... By A. F. Leach, M.A., F.S.A. PAGE V vii vii xiii XV xvii xix xxi I 31 35 83 87 90 93 141 150 168 17+ 175 192 199 21 1 241 259 327 343 365 415 XV LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS Portion of Bishop Frithstan’s Stole found in St. Cuthbert’s Coffin Articles found in Heathery Burn Cave .... Drinking Cup from Sacriston : Bronze Rapier-blade from River' Tyne at Newcastle : Bronze Sword from River Tees opposite Middlesbrough : Bronze Spear-head from River Tyne above Newcastle : Bronze Rapier-blade from River Tyne at New castle ; Bronze Dagger from River Tyne above Newcastle : Bronze Rapier- blade from River Wear at Claxheugh . Late Celtic Sword and Sheath found at Barmston, near Sadberge, co. Durham Frontispiece 201 • 203 205 full-page plate, facing 206 Hartlepool Gravestones ....... Iron Weapons found at Hurbuck, near Lanchester Bishop Tidfirth’s Stone from Monkwearmouth : Three Spear-\ heads from Darlington : Anglian Brooch from Darlington : I Earthenware Vessel containing Coins from Heworth : Brooch ( or Buckle from East Boldon . . . . . ) Glass Vessel found at Castle Eden ..... Auckland : Parts of Cross-shaft ..... Aycliffe : Cross and Cross-shaft in Churchyard St. Oswald’s, Durham : Portion of a Cross-shaft . . . Billingham : Fragment of Gravestone, now in British Museum Jarrow : Fragment of Cross-shaft in North Porch . Durham : Coped Grave Cover in Cathedral Library . . > Front and Back of Portions of Cross from the Chapter House, Durham Fronts of Portions of Crosses from the Chapter House, Durham Back of Portion of Cross from the Chapter House, Durham . Portion of Cross-shaft from Gainford ..... Portion of Base Stone of Cross from Hurworth Monkwearmouth : Gravestone of Herebericht Sockburn : — Portion of Cross-shaft Upper Part of Cross-shaft Stone with Two Warriors on HorsebackJ Portions of Cross-shafts 209 full-page plate, facing 2 1 2 >> » >> 21.^ >> n It 2I.|. tt tt tt 216 tt tt tt 218 tt tt tt 220 tt tt tt 22^ 226 227 228 230 233 full-page plate, facing 2'^\ tt tt tt 236 Hog-backed Stones ......... tt tt tt 240 Sundial at Darlington ......... 240 Sundial at Pittington ...... ... 240 St. Cuthbert’s Coffin : — Outer Lid ..... ...... • 243 Inner Lid. .... ...... Fragments of Wood showing Arcading ...... . 243 Model Restored ; Grooves for Cross-pieces supporting the Inner Lid . . 244 Right Hand Side ......... . 245 Left Hand Side .......... . 245 Groove and Rebates ......... . . . . 246 Head with Figures of St. Michael and St. Gabriel .... . 247 Foot with Figures of Virgin and Child ...... . 247 Iron Ring ........... 248 Inscriptions on the Coffin ........ . 249 xvii LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS St. Cuthbert’s Cross . . . . .1 PAGE St. Cuthbert’s Comb . . . .J . . . . . full-page plate, facing 254 St. Cuthbert’s Portable Altar . . Bracelet of Gold Thread and Silk found in St. Cuthbert’s Coffin .... ,, ,, ,, 256 Portion of Maniple found in St. Cuthbert’s Coffin ...... J Portions of Bishop Frithstan’s Stole . .' Ends of Bishop Frithstan’s Stole . ^ .... . ,,,,,, 258 Bishop Frithstan’s Maniple . . Ancient Earthworks Stockley Beck Camp, Brancepeth . 347 Maiden Castle, Durham 348 The Castles, North Bedburn 349 Shackerton Hill, Heighington . 349 Jarrow ...... 351 Lanchester ..... 351 ‘ Castle Steads,’ Rowley Gillet 352 Piercebridge ..... 353 Castle Hill, Bishopton 353 Durham Castle .... 354 Barnard Castle ..... 355 Brancepeth ..... 356 Shipley Moat, Hamsterley . 356 Holmside Hall, Lanchester . 356 Langley Hall, Lanchester . 356 Castle Wood, Wolsingham . 356 Bradley Hall, Wolsingham . 357 Dawdon Tower .... 357 Low Dinsdale ..... 358 Summerhouse, Gainford 358 Low Throston ..... 358 Wardley Hall ..... 359 Ludworth Tower . . . . 359 Raby Castle ..... 359 Stockton Castle .... 359 Middle Friarside, Tanfield 359 Chapel Walls, Wolsingham . 360 Archdeacon Newton . . . . 360 Cockfield ...... 361 Park Pasture, Stanhope 362 LIST OF MAPS Geological Map ...... Orographical Map ...... Botanical Map. ...... Pre-Historical Map ...... Anglo-Saxon Map ...... Ancient Earthworks Map ..... xviii PAGE between xxvi, i » 24> 25 » 34. 35 „ 198, 199 „ 210, 21 1 .. 342.343 PREFACE The fact that the county of Durham was a palatinate, and there- fore more than other counties a separate district, may be the reason why it has been peculiarly fortunate in having attracted men of culture and leisure to study its history seriously and enthusiastically. Although he never attempted anything in the form of a county history, George Allan, a solicitor of Darlington, during the latter half of the eighteenth century collected and added to the manuscripts which had been prepared by many earlier workers. This vast store of material he freely placed at the disposal of historical students, thus enabling them to give a thoroughness to their work which otherwise could not probably have been attained. It was by this means that William Hutchinson was able to write his History and Antiquities of the County Palatine of Durham^ the first volume of which appeared in 1785. Hutchinson was a man of many parts, a lawyer, a politician, a play- wright and a novelist, but his history is nevertheless good, and will compare favourably in a few points with that of his rival Surtees. Without doubt, however, the principal historian of the county was Robert Surtees. From his boyhood Surtees was a student of history, and conceived the idea of writing a history of his native county while an undergraduate at Christ Church, Oxford. He retired to his family seat at Mainsforth in 1805, and there at the age of twenty-six began what became his life’s work. But The History and Antiquities of the County Palatine of Durham was delayed on account of his health, and the first volume was not published till 1816. Beyond the care and accuracy which he gave to his task there is a quaint humour in his style of writing, unusual in works of this nature, which adds a charm to what otherwise might often prove dry reading. The attraction of this quaint humour, exhibited as well in conversation as in writing, together with a generous disposition, surrounded him with those congenial com- panions and devoted friends who may be said to have founded a school of local historical research which has attained a standard that has never been reached elsewhere in this country. Among those influenced by this movement occur the names of Rev. James Raine, Canon Raine, his son, J. Hodgson Hinde, Sir Cuthbert Sharpe, W. H. D. Longstaff, Canon Greenwell, and Canon Fowler. Surtees died in February, 1834, leaving the fourth volume of his history, which remained unpublished till 1 840, to be completed by his colleague, Rev. James Raine. Within a few months of his death the Surtees Society, which has done so much to XIX c PREFACE elucidate the history of the north of England, was founded as a memorial to him. The prime mover in the formation of this Society was Rev. James Raine, D.C.L., author of The History and Antiquities of North Durha?n^ a most scholarly work relating to the detached parts of Durham locally situated in Northumberland, the first part of which was issued in 1830, and the second in 1852. Raine was a man of great learning and indefatigable industry, to whose works all historians of the north of England are indebted. With such rivals as these it seems bold to com- pete, but it may perhaps be claimed that the aims of the Victoria County History differ in many respects from those of the existing county histories. The editor desires to express his thanks to Rev. Canon Greenwell, for valuable advice and assistance ; to Rev. Dr. Gee, for help in many ways ; to Dr. Kitchin, Dean of Durham, for the use of plates ; and to the Society of Antiquaries of London, the Yorkshire Archeological Society, and the Surtees Society, for the use of blocks for illustrations. XX TABLE OF ABBREVIATIONS Abbrev. Plac. (Rec. Abbreviatio Placitorum (Re- ChartuI Chartulary Com.) cord Commission) Chas Charles Acts of P.C. Acts of Privy Council Ches Cheshire Add Additional Chest Chester Add. Ch.nrt. Additional Charters Ch. Gds. (Excli. Church Goods (Exchequer Admir Admir.alty Agarde’s Indices K.R.) . . . King’s Remembrancer) Agarde .... Chich Chichester Anct. Corresp. . Ancient Correspondence Chron Chronicle, Chronica, etc. Anct. D. (P.R.O.) Ancient Deeds(Public Record Close .... Close Roll A 2420 Office) A 2420 Co County Ann. Mon. . Annales Monastic! Colch Colchester Antiq Antiquarian or Antiquaries Coll Collections App Appendix Com Commission Arch Archaeologia or Archaeological Com. Pleas Common Pleas Arch. Cant. Archsologia Cantiana Archdeacons’ Records Conf. R. . . . Confirmation Rolls Archd. Rec. Co. Plac. County Placita Archit Architectural Cornw Cornwall Assize R. . . . Assize Rolls Corp Corporation And. Off. . . . Audit Office Cott Cotton or Cottonian Aug. Off. . . . Augmentation Office Ct. R Court Rolls Ayloffe Ayloffe’s Calendars Ct. of Wards . Cumb Court of Wards Cumberland Bed Beds Bedford Bedfordshire Cur. Reg. . . . Curia Regis Berks .... Berkshire D Deed or Deeds Bdle Bundle D. and C. . . . Dean and Chapter B.M British Museum De Banc. R. De Banco Rolls Bodl. Lib. . . . Bodley’s Library Dec. and Ord . Decrees and Orders Boro Borough Dep. Keeper’s Rep. Deputy Keeper’s Reports Brev. Reg. . Brevia Regia Derb Derbyshire or Derby Brit Britain, British, Britannia, etc. Devon .... Devonshire Buck Buckingham Dioc Diocese Bucks .... Buckinghamshire Doc Dods. MSS. Documents Dodsworth MSS. Cal Calendar Dom. Bk. . . . Domesday Book Camb Cambridgeshire or Cambridge Dors Dorsetshire Cambr Cambria, Cambrian, Cam- Duchy ol Lane. Duchy of Lancaster Campb. Ch. brensis, etc. Campbell Charities Dur Durham Cant Canterbury East Easter Term Cap Chapter Ecd Ecclesiastical Carl Carlisle Eccl. Com. Ecclesiastical Commission Cart. Antiq. R. Cartae Antiquae Rolls Edw Edward C.C.C. Camb. . Corpus Christ! College, Cam- Eliz Elizabeth bridge Engl England or English Certiorari Bdles. Certiorari Bundles (Rolls Engl. Hist. Rev. . English Historical Review (Rolls Chap.) Chapel) Enr Enrolled or Enrolment Chan. Enr. Decree Chancery Enrolled Decree Epis. Reg. . Episcopal Registers R. Rolls Esch. Enr. Acets. . Escheators Enrolled Accounts Chan. Proc. Chancery Proceedings Excerpta e Rot. Fin. Excerpta e Rotulis Finium Chant. Cert. . . Chantry Certificates (or Cer- (Rec. Com.) (Record Commission) tificates of Colleges and Exch. Dep. Exchequer Depositions Exchequer King’s Bench Chantries) Exch. K.B. . . Chap. Ho. . Chapter House Exch. K.R. . . Exchequer King’s Remem- Charity Inq. Charity Inquisitions brancer Chart. R. 20 Hen. Charter Roll, 20 Henry III. Exch. L.'l'.R. . . Exchequer Lord 'I'reasurer’s III. pt. i. No. 10 part i. Number 10 Remembrancer XXI TABLE OF ABBREVIATIONS Exch. of Pleas, Plea Exchequer of Pleas, Plea Roll R. Exch. of Receipt . Exchequer of Receipt Exch. Spec. Com. . Exchequer Special Commis- sions Feet of F. . Feet of Fines Feod. Accts. (Ct. of Feodaries Accounts (Court of Wards) Wards) Feod. Surv. (Ct. of Feodaries Surveys (Court of Wards) Wards) Feud. Aids . Feudal Aids fol Folio Foreign R. . Foreign Rolls Forest Proc. Forest Proceedings Gaz Gazette or Gazetteer Gen Genealogical, Genealogica, etc. Geo George Glouc Gloucestershire or Gloucester Guild Certif. (Chan.) Guild Certificates (Chancery) Ric. II. Richard 11. Hants .... Hampshire Harl Harley or Harleian Hen Henry Heref. .... Herefordshire or Hereford Hertf. .... Hertford Herts .... Hertfordshire Hil Hilary Term Hist History, Historical,Historian, Historia, etc. Hist. MSS. Com. . Historical MSS. Commission Hosp Hospital Hund. R. . . . Hundred Rolls Hunt Huntingdon Hunts .... Huntingdonshire Inq. a.q.d. . Inquisitions ad quod damnum Inq. p.m. Inquisitions post mortem Inst Institute or Institution Invent Inventory or Inventories Ips Ipswich Itin Itinerary Jas James Journ Journal Lamb. Lib. Lambeth Library Lane. Lancashire or Lancaster L. and P. Hen. Letters and Papers, Hen. VIII. VIII. Lansd. Lansdowne Ld. Rev. Rec. . Land Revenue Records Leic Leicestershire or Leicester Le Neve’s Ind. Le Neve’s Indices Lib Library Lich Lichfield Line Lincolnshire or Lincoln Lond London m Membrane Mem Memorials Memo. R. . . . Memoranda Rolls Mich Michaelmas Term Midd Middlesex Mins. Accts. Ministers’ Accounts Misc. Bks. (Exch. Miscellaneous Book (Ex- K.R., Exch. chequer King’s Remcm- T.R. or Aug. brancer. Exchequer Trea- Off.) sury of Receipt or Aug- mentation Office) Mon Monastery, Monasticon Monm Monmouth Mun Muniments or Munimenta Mus Museum N. and Q. . . . Notes and Queries Norf. .... Norfolk Northampt. Northampton Northants . Northamptonshire Northumb. . Northumberland Norw Norwich Nott Nottinghamshire or Notting- ham N.S New Style Off. Office Orig. R. ... Originalia Rolls O.S Ordnance Survey Oxf. Oxfordshire or Oxford P Page Palmer’s Ind. . Palmer’s Indices Pal. of Chest. . Palatinate of Chester Pal. of Dur. Palatinate of Durham Pal. of Lane. . Palatinate of Lancaster Par Parish, parochial, etc. Pari Parliament or Parliamentary Pari. R. ... Parliament Rolls Pari. Surv. . . . Parliamentary Surveys Partic. for Gts. Particulars for Grants Pat Patent Roll or Letters Patent P.C.C Prerogative Court of Canter- bury Pet Petition Peterb Peterborough Phil Philip Pipe R Pipe Roll Plea R Plea Rolls Pop. Ret. Population Returns Pope Nich. Tax. Pope Nicholas’ Taxation (Re- (Rec. Com.) cord Commission) P.R.O Pubic Record Office Proc Proceedings Proc. Soc. Antiq. . Proceedings of the Society of Antiquaries Pt Part Pub Publications R Roll Rec. .... Records Recov. R. . . . Recovery Rolls Rentals and Surv. . Rentals and Surveys Rep Report Rev Review Ric Richard xxii TABLE OF ABBREVIATIONS RofF. .... Rochester diocese Topog Topography or Topographi- kot. (Jur. Keg. Rotuli Curiae Regis cal Rut Rutland Trans Transactions Transl Translation Treas Treasury or Treasurer Sarum .... Salisbury diocese Trin Trinity Term Ser Series Sess. R Sessions Rolls Univ University Shrews Shrewsbury Shrops .... Shropshire Valor Eccl. (Rec. Valor Ecclesiasticus (Record Soc Soc. Antiq. . Society Society of Antiquaries Com.) Vet. Mon. . Commission) Vetusta Monumenta Somers Somers. Ho. Somerset Somerset House V.C.H VJr Victoria County History S.P. Dom. . State Papers Domestic vol Volume Staff. .... Staffordshire Star Chamb. Proc. Star Chamber Proceedings Stat Statute Warw Warwickshire or Warwick Steph Stephen Westm Westminster Subs. R. ... Subsidy Rolls Westmld. Westmorland Suff. Suffolk Will William Surr Surrey Wilts .... Wiltshire Suss Sussex Winton. Winchester diocese Surv. of Ch. Liv- Surveys of Church Livings Wore Worcestershire or Worcester ings (Lamb.) or (Lambeth) or (Chancery) (Chan.) Yorks .... Yorkshire xxiii A HISTORY OF DURHAM r-M Hisroin’ OK Dl ltllAM GEOLOG Bonnyrujfi Tall r yjT&nfri ’jjairr. li l-oUtpy^vU J Shlos/ljwU Craa WalBm fi^hiidiTTt nut vt't ti 1/^11100 ^ru/ruifit'i O-rwJiii iirtti<>y H, \vj.,.hn^U \'P' ' ^^'•U'OCiTtpt 1 -.1 l^Stn. ' lLT\miS WOviu liiytni "'i^'iiExu4M Ir'-f-iCi;' ’£p'W< iWiSj^ ■■ ' >iV V. ‘ !/^ lin'tiryyOijiii ftun^- ^Kthijixk Hall Km0i^w6^l ..... '.'J''«. V 'oomZ«j ^TVhnitse Fell ¥Sui wai >iiiii5ia"^j ^The^. ^''; :v0fc. |P^'^<^(-'';i vmjAiii- ■ / /^ftlU’ivulI.i F Offbffi O ti/^jly .^y^lfeiejiic/l Swmtufj^e 'l' O J r hFrnrto apuu.. :Lea/li .ILSTO: ‘^iiiJfJ0(lj- i.^oni " Nf?d ■ 'll JUiitvAclii .f- 3/£71^ .‘Tinrhin 'larrytfill <1^ Shiiei ^ytg^lr^ (><)s^;;jroIl 29; /' ••/V /Comnti>rV' " k'f-tuh^ijh'^ii n pUeton ^ oniJino^ kvir/i 'htnc^'^^ Till, 'iie Turn , > X—i-— Li ■kylunr- ^ Mailin' lirr{^. Ur rufMrl y^mii’inu F«‘LL ; 22If» /•/,577 'ITtrifijltirlfi lliluiii Foil ‘ RoJUn TlWiTTtf Turn Hr. 'Cotjjyi-r^t'}i Bijfllr ma: ^^^httFlin^iton Moor ilwrlton ilU/fPfiUri/Uhn ,<{yrf/(ni.’f/' ^ - AiiuiUft'iU/t 11 luo 11 . '15ii2 fohlr’r'}teJ.ijhjFi>hne Moor iH'. ii ' '7-'' Slti^htfu’hna lUiirtkii *: mti 'rtZ/n// VV^///, h A: / •.;„. / •■■"O xSuinpil^:;r2. EXPLANATION OP COLOPRING SH/liH' SOl’Tli '\Snn:iJ)s }>and wniifiH AUu\-Ui/n B. i! (imirA ''Vrt g^ar^KtiMi FonluiiH' Grejfit (folite. SerLe-;. ^^XSTASTra^f'.'; rd ■ ' T Y /V \ A'n «« A- ‘‘’''"li.IirW ii Vt Tipper Lias Middts Lias JURASSIC I’oin/ lower Lixis MT^cWyTui Moor ‘IL>. yl.if'r'Botit Ho. Keupcr Marls Bicnter Sandstone ■ Wiiub^ooh TRIASSIC SoutLi ,T,f nou^,- ; Si., 'util ofa.W, *ar 'BVi^DElU.AMD H.Bien^Lipht Hr. Pfjful . JT/ j wofdi MxLgnes ion L inie stoae. Bed. Sandstone d Maj'U PERMIAN SVe.fi^ioi CARBON- IFEROUS Millstone Grit Carhoniferoiis Limestone with Great Limestone/ i)net»n\ Mltrelcn Brch rihjria^tuJiifth , ’ • ttnti'htefi' jffm Wenlock Group UPPER (\)n7.s-ton Limestone .SojJiajii Milhonrne ti- Shiddaw Shite LOWER life Mall fDalToivAc y leDalf‘1^‘^1 \'Liddle Star/i‘ Moses foiixt I BiiwnL I Lane ktiin/ofr worth ,, ^t6erSo. CiLOundon BS llawtlwm My the I Shippersea Buy \ Shot Rode il FavMoles i Round .Sti>ol i\jIorclen T! .^Tlesledet^ JJawthfWfi^ 9 Jjiishu ■Con*_ 'Mjluebe-. 't^lu'rord Ho. • iTOM’hed'y' [evilL>,^ teriftiii Bean Mian ishoU^ti- ^^lorfiLeSrJSlll ^ Jikfl^aic Srim^ • no. BlajA%lltMSt JLdliSortSt^^ Sfifiiu/p/lljf Hutton^ ^'toiitrLi^ptffK •Xipht Ho. \ TRiSidjijp. ^ MurwartRBum.^ ihhiii'tx.. ^ KfVili J’UtrjLy. Old Sal , SrvUon LawLi^Tit. Ho. /^icttcrwulo dmer^iloh .ieiiton (drew fenhnm Munstp) iptaiFlELD yewtrnj iewlevl iivScm/l West Sew 'Tod,T / / Wes^iudd / ^Pf^jiathariA **11 ''''‘ ’■firangetown. {< \ ).-y ihBaii^ / iKxfim 'iitsUj. I "^"^[Tr/wJuTwflM 'W.fi/fc \ppatsii^Moor i' '' / N'( £ ^elnsisMo Slininidl^ ^h. WiMton on Te^ 'TLlilin y.^'—s-DaleA. rsoo Jiewlevl^ffh — jTaAr^i*dt' (^BiXriiaby -/ ^ liooi' , ^ r CfCrsiUtkoii^ni^^ hor^uil [lr,V f/irwtd ii^dxndmk ortolv* ^.I'i.phOy "^Vddletvn ' AT George M^fUeibp ’Girlio^i '^ashaifl forsal^. Tewton Morr 'hirrwrrriirld''^ ^Mo.J^T IPirt/m. Jui ./.&.BnitKoit.i.uW. County Boundary shown thus THE COUNTl ES OF ENGLAND 1 GEOLOGY From the mouth of the Tyne to that of the Tees the county of Durham is bounded by the sea, and the long coast-line is for the most part one of fine and instructive cliff-sections. This coast- line forms the broad base of the rough triangle in which the county is shaped. The apex of this triangle is situated among the high hills of the Pennine range to the west not far from Cross Fell. From this point the northern boundary follows generally the valleys of the Derwent, Stanley Burn and the Lower Tyne ; and the southern limit is practically the River Tees from Crook Burn, near Caldron Snout, to the sea. From the Pennine highlands to the coast about midway between Tyne and Tees the valley of the Wear, somewhat irregular in its trend, divides the entire area into two fairly equal portions, one northern and one southern, whilst the tributaries of the three main rivers, most of them deeply sculpturing the surface, afford numberless exposures by means of which an insight into the rocky structure of the region may be readily gained. Here, as elsewhere, it is this structure which has determined the main topographical features. Thus the highest ground, to the west, consists of the hard rocks of the Lower Carboniferous Series, the comparatively low ground between Gateshead and the Aucklands is occupied by the outcrops of the less resisting Coal Measures, and the bold, though not very high, undulating country which fringes the coast as far south as the Hartlepools is due to the remarkable development of the Permian Magnesian Limestone in that district. The low, red- soiled country between Darlington and Seaton Carew owes its soft out- lines and striking colour to the easily crumbled salt-bearing strata of the Upper Permian and Trias. There are thus four topographical and geological regions in Dur- ham equally distinct as to surface features and vegetation, as to their stratigraphical constituents, and, one may add, also as to the chief occu- pations which are followed within them. They may be briefly defined as follows : — A. The Lower Carboniferous Region^ including the upper vale of Derwent as far as Shotley Bridge, Weardale as far as Witton-le-Wear, and Teesdale as far as Piercebridge. This is the lead mining country. B. The Coal Measure Region^ including the lower portion of the Derwent Valley, the whole of the Team Valley, and the valley of the Wear from Witton-le-Wear, past Durham and Chester-le-Street to Clax- heugh. This is the chief coal district. I I I A HISTORY OF DURHAM C. The Magnesian Limestone Region, between the last-named and the sea and bounded on the south by an ill-defined line curving from a little west of Darlington to the Hartlepools. Until about the middle of last century this was a purely pastoral district, but now many collieries have been opened out in it. D. The Red Region, between the Lower Tees and the Magnesian Limestone Region. This is the salt district. TABLE OF STRATA IN DURHAM Approximate feriod Formation Character of Material thickness in feet River Alluvium, Peat Mud, silt, gravel, peat : border- ing streams and in hollows Recent Marine Alluvium (old lakes) Shingle, beach sand, blowing up to 30 sand, mud up to 50 Old River Drift Gravel, sand, loam, clay, etc.. of ancient river terraces up to 50 Pleistocene (Drift) Old Marine Alluvium . Later Glacial Deposits . Raised beaches Gravel, sand, ‘ leafy ’ clays, up to 30 Older Glacial Deposits . cave-earth (?) Boulder clay, some rare thin up to 250 sands and gravels .... up to 200 Salt-Mea- sures (Trias above, Up- Keuper Red Sandstones and Mostly red rocks with deposits Marls passing downwards in- of rock salt, gypsum, anhy- to similar Permian Sandstones. drite, and thin magnesian per Permian below) etc. limestones towards the base up to 1,200 Magnesian Limestone Often concretionary up to 800 Marl Slate Flaggy calcareous beds with fish remains up to 15 Permian Yellow Sands (‘Quicksands’) . Generally yellow but some- (usually 3) times dark-coloured, more or less incoherent, water-bear- ing sandstones .... up to 104 Coal Measures ; down to the Sandstones, shales, coals and Hutton Seam inclusive fire-clays Coal Measures : down to the Sandstone, shales, coals and Brockwell Seam inclusive fire-clays Carbonifer- Lower Coal Measures or Gan- nister Beds. Millstone Grit Sandstones, shales, few coals, occasionally beds of ‘gan- nister,’ sandstones, shales, together up ous to 5,500 rare coals Bernician or Carboniferous Sandstones, shales, fire-clays, a Limestone Series few thin coals, limestones . Basement beds (so-called) . Coarse breccia variable Silurian Exact horizon unknown (Stock- ‘ Slate-pencil ’ Shales thickness dale Shales [?]) . unknown Th e scenery of these regions is as characteristic in each case as the industries which each supports, and will be noted under separate heads 2 GEOLOGY later. Here it will suffice to say that A is a treeless moorland tract in which bogs and crags abound, B an area of wooded and, here and there, gorge-like valleys or ‘ denes ’ with good open arable land between them, C a broad zone of grass-covered billowy down?-like ground bounded by a marked rounded scarp on its western side and by bold sea-cliffs to the east, and D a thick-soiled ruddy quarter devoid of striking features. It is needless to add that both A and B, and in a minor degree C also, are now much disfigured by the mining operations which have been for so long a time carried on within their limits. SILURIAN SYSTEM The most ancient deposits to be seen in the county probably, but by no means certainly, belong to the Stockdale Shale group of the Silurian System. Only the upturned edges of these beds are visible, and that too only in a very small inlier laid bare by the erosive action of the Upper Tees close to the fine basaltic crags of Cronkley Scar, above the High Force, at the old Pencil Mill. Long ago the late Professor John Phillips had noticed these rocks and had noted their resemblance to the ‘ Grauwacke ’ of the older Pal£Bozoic formations, but without assigning any geological date to them.* It was not however till 1875 that the exposure was carefully studied by Messrs. Gunn, Clough and Dakyns, and the approximate age of the strata ascertained.^ The natives had for centuries used the soft clay-slate of which the beds consist for slate- pencils, and the name of the old mill standing by the river at the point of their outcrop testifies to this. The uptilted position of the layers and their denudation before the deposition of the lowest over-lying Carboniferous material sufficiently prove the pre-Carboniferous age of the pencil beds ; their lithological characters are those of the Stockdale Shales as they occur in the Lake District. Some dykes of mica-trap (minette) accompany them here as in their typical area of development, and so far give confirmatory (though in the absence of fossils still incon- clusive) evidence as to their age. CARBONIFEROUS SYSTEM There are no Old Red Sandstone or Devonian rocks cropping out in the county. The feebly developed brecciated deposits which occur at and towards the base of the Carboniferous Series in the Pencil Mill inlier already mentioned do not even represent the true basement beds of the system, since they are merely the fragmental shore accumulations of a portion of the Lower Carboniferous considerably younger and higher than the oldest and lowest horizon of that period. This is a point not always clearly understood. There is a base to the Carboniferous in Dur- ham but it is not the base of the system. Of anything corresponding to and truly contemporaneous with the chocolate-coloured breccias which occur in pockets on the face of the Pennine escarpment not ‘ Illustrations of the Geology of Yorkshire, pt. 2, 1836, p. 78. ® ^art. Journ. Geol.Soc. xxxiv. and Geol. Mag. (December ii), iv. 58,59, 139, 140. 3 A HISTORY OF DURHAM many miles to the west in Westmorland and Cumberland, between the regularly bedded Roman Fell Series (Lower Carboniferous, beneath the Scar Limestone Series) and the denuded older Palaeozoic rocks, there is here no trace. The Ordovician and Silurian rocks on which the Car- boniferous were deposited stood out as islands during the earliest Car- boniferous times, and pseudo-basal beach formations were formed at several horizons at various stages in the gradual submergence and bury- ing of the ancient sea-floor. It is some of these old shingle beaches which have, naturally enough, been not unfrequently regarded as base- ment beds. Neither is the series of flaggy sandstones and quartzose conglomer- ates known on the Pennine escarpment as the Roman Fell Series continued into Durham. This thick set of beds thins away very rapidly to the east, and wedges out before reaching the western boundaries of the county. From the lowest known Durham Carboniferous stratum to the Mill- stone Grit division, the rocks exhibit the remarkable characters of the Bernician Series. They consist of oft-repeated alternations of grits, sandstones, shales, fire-clays and limestones, with a few (far fewer than in Northumberland, though more than in Yorkshire) thin and gener- ally inconstant coal seams of small commercial value. The nature of the series is in fact intermediate between that of the Lower Carbon- iferous rocks of Derbyshire and Yorkshire and that of the cor- responding set of strata in Northumberland and Scotland. There are here no huge thicknesses of limestone such as obtain in this stratigraphi- cal division further south, thicknesses which there fully justify the term ‘ Mountain Limestone ’ so often applied to it, a term quite inapplicable to the thin layers of calcareous rock which represent them in Durham. On the other hand the number of limestone beds is rather smaller and their individual thickness rather greater (not their total thickness) than in Northumberland. Indeed the entire group so closely resembles that upper portion of the Carboniferous Limestone Series which, as it is represented in the Yorkshire dales, goes by the name of ‘ Yoredale Rocks ’ that the Geological Survey have used that term to denote the whole of the Lower Carboniferous strata of Durham beneath the Mill- stone Grit. This is somewhat unfortunate, since only the upper portion of these beds really corresponds to the typical Yoredales, the lower portion representing the massive Scar limestones which form the base of Ingle- borough, Pen-y-ghent, and the other great hills of the West Riding. The thickness of the whole in Durham varies from about i,ioo to 1,250 feet, the series thickening gradually towards the north and north- west, until in some parts of Northumberland it attains the enormous thickness of 8,000 feet or, in places, even more. It is to be noted that with increased total thickness in the direction stated there coincides an increase in number of both limestones and coals, the former thinner, as a rule, than in Durham, but the latter thicker and much more constant — so much so indeed as, in Northumberland and in a still greater degree in GEOLOGY Scotland, to give the value of a workable coalfield to the area occupied by the Carboniferous Limestone or Bernician Series. Although, as has been explained above, all the lower beds of this important division are not to be seen cropping out at the surface in the county, yet all have been proved within its boundaries by mining opera- tions. Long before geologists had begun to survey the district scientifi- cally the lead-miners had become familiar with every stratum between the Millstone Grit and the floor of denuded Silurian and Ordovician rocks. To each stratum a name had been given by them, and the changing characters which they displayed from place to place had been carefully observed and often recorded in the plans and sections connected with the mines. It is to these early lead-miners, and more especially to Mr. Westgarth Forster, who in 1817 gathered their observations and his own in a complete and singularly able treatise, that we owe our first knowledge of these strata.* About 1 20 well marked beds or sets of beds are recognizable in the series, and have been measured over and over again in countless shafts and levels. The best known and most char- acteristic of these may now be enumerated, beginning with the lowest and denoting them by the numbers used in Forster’s classical section. Be- fore proceeding, however, it will be well to state that special prominence is given to the limestone beds, because, though by no means the thickest, they are much the most constant and serve as datum lines of great value in correlating the deposits present in one shaft or region with those found in another. Besides it is in the limestone layers that the lead veins have as a rule been found to be richest in ore. No. 217. The Melmerby Scar Limestone. — This, the thickest lime- stone in the county, on an average 132 feet thick, comes nowhere within it to the surface. It has been proved in several mine-shafts however. It is the nearest approach to the true ‘ Mountain Limestone’ type to be found in Durham, but being only known underground it cannot form ‘ mountains ’ in any true sense. Miners frequently call this mass of limestone ‘ the Great Limestone,’ but as that name is given more generally to another much better known horizon considerably higher up this practice should not be adopted. This .thick limestone is not continued as a separate bed into Northumberland, but is there repre- sented by shales and sandstones, and even by a few thin seams of coal with occasional thin bands of limestone only. After a small interval of shale and sandstone comes No. 214. Robinson's Lime. — A limestone 20 or 21 feet thick. More shale and sandstone of no great thickness separates this from No. 208. The Smiddy Limestone. — About 31 feet thick or a few inches more at its maximum. Shale and sandstone again, then No. 204. The Tenth or Little Limestone. — The latter name may, as in the case above referred to, lead to some confusion, as another ‘ treatise of a Section of the Strata from Newcastle-upon-Tyne to the Mountains of Cross Fell in Cumber- land, by Westgarth Forster. 5 A HISTORY OF DURHAM higher and better known bed is usually also known as the Little Lime- stone. This one is about i8 feet thick. Another group of shale and sandstone, then No. 200. ’The Ninth or 'Jew Limestone. — Amongst the lead-miners an idea (without foundation in many cases) has long prevailed that profitable mining could not be carried on beneath this bed. Several of the most paying lead deposits have been worked to the west in lower strata. The Jew Limestone is about 24 feet thick. Some eight or nine alternations of shale and sandstone occur beneath No. 190. The Tyne-hottom Limestone. — This is one of the best known named limestones in the series, but the name has often been misapplied. This is due to the fact that over a considerable tract of country the bed properly so called lies next above the great sheet of basalt known as the Great Whin Sill in the north of England and to the consequent inference — quite a mistaken one — that the first limestone above this intrusive and horizon-shifting mass of igneous rock must everywhere be the same. Many miners still refuse to regard the Whin Sill as intrusive because of the supposed constant position (as they think) of the Tyne-bottom Limestone above it, arguing in a vicious circle thus : The Tyne-bottom Limestone is next above the Whin Sill at A, the limestone lying upon the Whin Sill at B or C must therefore be the Tyne-bottom Limestone also, and the Whin Sill has therefore not changed its horizon and is not intrusive. An instructive example of bad logic and worse geology. That the lower courses of the lime- stone are commonly baked, and the shales which often lie between it and the basalt indurated into porcellanite or ‘whetstone’ by the heat of the once molten sheet, is evidence of intrusion which they do not take into consideration. For some four miles the river South Tyne runs upon this limestone, hence its name. In Durham it is one of the lowest of the Bernician limestones to crop out at the surface — ‘ to the day,’ as it is termed locally. It is usually about 24 feet thick. Shales and sandstones follow as usual, then comes No. 186. The Eighth or Single Post Limestone. — This is a thin but very constant bed, about 6 feet in thickness only. Single Post means single course., i.e. the bed consists of one layer or course of limestone, most of the thicker limestones comprising several posts individually seldom so thick as this. The word ‘ post,’ as met with in records of mining sections, more often means ‘ sandstone,’ the latter word being in practice very commonly omitted from the full description which should be Sandstone Post or Freestone Post = Sandstone Bed or Course. Next come shale and sandstone, then No. 18 1. The Cockle-shell Limestone. — A still thinner but well- known bed, seldom exceeding 3 feet in thickness. It is usually full of Productus giganteus, the ‘ cockle-shell ’ of the miners, but though it takes its name from this circumstance it must not be supposed that this fossil is in any degree specially characteristic of this horizon. It is 6 GEOLOGY found in varying abundance in every one of the limestone beds enumerated. The usual shale and sandstone interval is succeeded by No. 169. T" he Sixth or Scar Limestone. — This must not be con- founded with the previously described No. 217, which sometimes is also known as the ‘ Scar Limestone,’ the qualifying word ‘ Melmerby ’ being omitted. It is an important horizon in the lead measures, since many of the richest ore- deposits have been found associated with it. There are within it three thin bands of shale (locally ‘ famp ’ in the lead districts only) which separate the limestone into three posts or courses. As lead veins of small faulting capacity traverse this bed, the ore is apt to extend in great horizontal lateral masses along the ‘ famp ’ partings and to form those exceedingly valuable masses of ore known amongst the lead-miners as ‘ flats.’ Though only about 30 feet thick this limestone has in many a mine yielded not only a thick vertical main vein but a ‘ high,’ a ‘ middle ’ and a ‘ low ’ flat of thick ore of great value in the days before Free Trade. More shale and sandstone, and then No. 166. The Fifth or Five-Tard Limestone. — Notwithstanding its name, this bed is only 7 or 8 feet thick, and is not very constant at that. Shale and sandstone as before, then No. 162. Fhe Fourth or Three-Yard Limestone. — True to its name this bed is generally about 12 feet thick. Shale and sandstone, with usually a good deal of clay ironstone (formerly worked before foreign iron ore was imported on a large scale) associated with the shale, then No. 160. The Four-Fathom Limestone. — This bed again justifies its name, being about 24 feet thick on an average. Although not restricted to this horizon, yet the large Foraminifer Saccammina carteri occurs in such special abundance in it that the limestone is often spoken of as the ‘ Saccammina Limestone.’ Long before the nature of the fossil was recognized by the late Dr. H. B. Brady the miners and quarrymen knew the band in the stone which is made up of the little spindle-shaped tests as the ‘ spotted post,’ though it must be added that they some- times gave the same name to certain portions of other limestones with ‘ spots ’ — or sections — due to other fossils, especially corals of the genera Lithostrotion and Syringopora transversely cut. The Four-Fathom and the other limestones above it are among those which are most obvious and ‘feature-making’ in the upper dales of the Tees and Wear. They appear as long continuous short-grass covered zones running across the country and contrasting strikingly with the ranker vegetation on the shales and sandstones between them. Sheep congregate specially on these deep green bands ; houses, where possible, are built on them, and when the snow melts it is from them that it is first completely cleared — a hint to house-builders and others that the conductivity for heat of a rock is not an element to be neglected in selecting building sites. 7 A HISTORY OF DURHAM Shales, sandstones (often including a specially thick, set of beds) and a thin 3 foot thick limestone, No. 156, known as The Small Limestone and very constant, bring us to No. 153. The Great or Main Limestone, the thickest (about 72 feet thick) and by far the most important of the higher (or true ‘Yore- dale ’) limestones of the Bernician Series. As an ore-bearing horizon it is second to none, and the same may be said of it as regards quarrying. For centuries a large population has been supported by the work neces- sitated by it, specially in the Stanhope district of Weardale. Between Wolsingham and Frosterley this great calcareous formation is to be seen dipping beneath the bed of the Wear, and its outcrop can be followed thence for miles, forming a clear feature dotted with quarries as far as the eye can reach both to the north and to the south. Considering the extreme variability of most of the beds of limestone from the midlands northwards the regular constancy of this horizon is remark- able. It can be traced with certainty from west Yorkshire to north Northumberland, and even, if recent correlations be accepted, to the central valley of Scotland between the Forth and the Clyde. Its thick- ness is greatest in the Durham area, from which it thins away south, west and north. Whether it thickens or thins to the east it is not yet possible to say, though the Chopwell boring, which will be referred to again further on, seems to show that it will prove to thin away in that direction likewise. Naturally so thick a limestone is made up of many layers, and to these names have of course been given by the generations of quarrymen who have been engaged in destroying them. The names adopted in the Frosterley quarries are quaint and sometimes descriptive. They are perhaps worth citing. They are as follows, in ascending order : — (1) The Bottom Post. This layer is frequently entirely made up of the fossil Monticuliporid coral Chcetetes hyperboreus. (2) The Newcastle Post. (3) The Jack Post. (4) The Yard Post. (5) Whaley. (6) Stiff Dick. (7) Dun Jim. (8) Dun Kit’s Bastard. It may be noted that the term ‘ bastard ’ in the sense of inferior or impure is common in the north in connexion with workable stone. (9) The Dun Kit Post. (10) The Five Thin Posts. (11) The Black Beds. It is in this part of the Great Limestone that the rich ‘ middle ’ flat of lead ore occurs. (12) The Toms or Twee Toms. (13) The Thick Cockle Post. (14) The Thin Cockle Post. These two fossiliferous courses are perhaps the most valuable of the whole mass. One of them is full 8 GEOLOGY of large horn-shaped corals of the Clisiophyllum type, and the other is equally full of Producius giganteus, the largest of Brachiopod shells. These layers are quarried, where the fossils are most crowded, for orna- mental purposes, as the stone takes a good polish, and many are the churches and other public buildings throughout the kingdom in which the Stanhope and Frosterley marbles, as they are called, display their beautifully preserved organic remains from the old Upper Bernician or Yoredale sea. (15) Elsie. (16) Rose-Mary, or The Pea Post. This layer is a mass of Lithostrotion corals in their original position of growth. The sections of the corallites are the ‘ peas.’ (17) The Mucky Posts. (18) Crabby. A ‘ crabbed ’ or difficult stone to work. (19) Toby Giles. And finally (20) The Fine Posts. The topmost portion of the Great Limestone is often irregularly bedded, presenting the aspect of ellipsoidal blocks of stone with inter- vening calcareous shale. This appearance may be due to what Mr. J. G. Goodchild has called the ‘ dwindling ’ of the limestone, or its gradual decay under the effect of solvents. To this structure is no doubt owing the name of ‘ Tumbler Beds,’ often given to this part of the formation, the word ‘ Tumbler ’ meaning ‘ boulder ’ in the local dialect. The ex- traordinary persistence of the Great Limestone makes it without excep- tion the best and most convenient datum-line in the Lower Carboniferous deposits of the north of England. Sandstones and shales, together with a very thin and by no means constant representative of what to the north and west is, under the name of The Little Limestone Coal^ perhaps the most continuous seam of coal in Britain (as it certainly is the most constant of the Bernician seams, stretching from the northernmost portions of Northumberland to the Craven district), separate the Great from No. 145. The Little or Second Limestone. — This is the Little Lime- stone proper referred to under No. 204. In it the lead veins have fre- quently been found to yield very abundant ore, but it is a thin and, in this county, not very regular bed. Sandstones and shales, the last of these non-calcareous intervals, lead to No. 1 2 1. The Fell Top Limestone., a still thinner and more variable limestone, sometimes duplicated by means of intercalated thin shales and sandstones, and sometimes absent altogether (though in that case usually represented by a calcareous shale full of ordinary limestone fossils, amongst which trilobites are common). This is the highest marine limestone in the Carboniferous Series of Durham ; and although the Geological Sur- vey, owing to the necessity of carrying on lines of division decided on further south, have been compelled to fix the upper boundary of the Limestone Series a little above this horizon, there is no such necessity I 9 2 A HISTORY OF DURHAM here, and the Fell Top may well be taken as the obvious termination of the Carboniferous Limestone or Bernician, the shaly beds immediately following being grouped with the Millstone Grit. Perhaps the most striking point in connexion with the Bernician Beds as developed in Durham is the marked disappearance of the coals which characterize them further to the north. This disappearance is not however complete. One seam (which sometimes is represented by two) has already been mentioned as occurring beneath No. 145, another is sometimes found beneath the Fell Fop Limestone (No. 121), but of no value; and one beneath the Scar Limestone (No. 169). Indeed it is clear that the many Bernician seams which crop out in west North- umberland have a general tendency to thin away to the south-east, that is towards Durham. It is, of course, possible that there may be a re- crudescence of these seams beneath the Upper Carboniferous strata to the east, but nothing but actual boring to very considerable depths can prove whether this be so or not. Such rare borings bearing upon this point as have been put down recently are decidedly in favour of a nega- tive answer to this question. One at Sherburn, which went some way beneath the Millstone Grit into the Upper Limestone horizons, struck upon no seam approaching a workable thickness. The same result was obtained by an extremely interesting and deeper boring put down in the Chopwell Woods on the banks of the Derwent, and described by Mr. J. B. Simpson in the ‘Transactions of the North of England Institute ot Mining and Mechanical Engineers in 1902.’^ THE MILLSTONE GRIT AND COAL MEASURES The middle division of the Carboniferous Series is a very marked and well individualized one in the midlands. On following it towards the north it loses much of its individuality, and this loss of specialization is accom- panied by very considerable thinning. The coarse grits which form the fine bold escarpments or ‘ edges ’ of the Peak district of Derbyshire, or the silicious scars of west Yorkshire, have not disappeared altogether in Durham, but they have sadly dwindled both in coarseness of texture and in the relative importance which these beds bear to the rest of the strata associated with them. In fact the grits of the Millstone Grit in this county are scarcely in any way different from many of those of the Limestone Series below or of the Coal Measures above them. It is true that grits and sandstones are still the predominant rocks, and that the quartz grains of the grits are often found to have been augmented in size by the addition to each grain of crystallographically orientated secondary quartz. On the other hand the shales which intervene be- tween the grits are absolutely identical with those of the great forma- tions above and below, and no fossils have so far been met with which can be said to characterize the division paleontologically. It may be 1 Published in the transactions of that Society in 1904. It appears from this boring that several limestone beds which, in south Northumberland, are intercalated between the Great and the Little Limestones, persist in north Durham, as indeed might well have been expected. 10 GEOLOGY asserted that had the Millstone Grit not been known and mapped in the more southern counties, its representatives in Durham (and still less in Northumberland) would probably not have been recognized as forming a separate stratigraphical group. They would no doubt have been re- garded simply as a set of rather coarse, irregular and variable gritty sand- stones, with some shales and one or two thin local coal-seams, forming the basal portion of the Coal Measures : as the introduction in fact to the huge non-marine set of strata to which the term Coal Measures is properly applied. However, as the division is generally recognized it is best to retain it, bearing in mind the want of special features which is its only noticeable, if negative, character. In Durham these beds, though no- where more than 400 or 500 feet thick, and often much thinner, by reason of the orographical features of the country occupy a considerable area. The hills covered with heathery moorland, which rise between the deep dales dug out of the Bernician rocks, are capped with this de- based Millstone Grit, and much of the wild crag, ling and peat scenery on these high grounds is due to the unyielding nature of these silicious deposits. It should be stated however that in most of the geological maps of this part of England published before the sheets of the Geolo- gical Survey the area coloured as Millstone Grit is very much exaggerated, partly owing to a real misconception as to the distribution of the strata, but partly also to the fact that the older geologists were in the habit of grouping a good deal of the Bernician Series (even including the Great Limestone in some cases) under the appellation Millstone Grit. After what has been said above it will be readily understood that between the Millstone Grit and the overlying Coal Measures no violent break is to be expected in this county. Not only is this the case, but it can be truly said that none but a purely arbitrary and non-natural boundary can be drawn between the two. One can go still further than this and state that even such an arbitrary line of demarcation can scarcely be drawn with any confidence. Thus it has repeatedly happened that the writer has been called in by coal owners to decide whether in the bore holes which they had put down below the known workable coal seams of the Coal Measures the Millstone Grit had been reached or not, and he has been quite unable to give more than a tentative and generally a very doubtful opinion. There is in fact nothing but a perfect passage between the two, a passage unmarked by any datum line recognizable over any but the most limited areas. This difficulty is intensified by the entirely artificial divisions which, for mere convenience, have been usually accepted in classifying the Coal Measures. These divisions are, as re- gards the upper two, taken as including certain well-known coal seams, and for the practical purposes of the miner this is no doubt a useful arrangement. But the lowest division — known as the Lower Coal Mea- sures or Gannister Series — though sufficiently limited at the top by this method of classification, lacks any similar means of fixing its bottom limit, as there are thereabouts no coal seams at all. The Lower Coal Measures then (which must in no wise be con- A HISTORY OF DURHAM founded with the beds grouped under that name in the Scottish coal- fields, which are equivalent to the Bernician Series) as usually accepted may be defined as comprising the 200 or 300 feet of strata which graduate upwards from the perfectly similar rocks of the Millstone Grit, and come to an end immediately beneath the well-known lowest continuous and valuable coal-seam known as the Brockwell or Main Seam, which is regarded as the bottom bed of the so-called Middle Coal Measures, These strata consist of sandstones, shales and a few sometimes work- able but never quite constant coal-seams, together with ordinary fire- clays accompanying such seams (or some of them), and a few beds, not very continuous, of that hard white, compact, root-traversed and highly silicious sandstone known as Gannister, and used for lining Bessemer converters, etc. This singular rock is certainly more prevalent in these beds than elsewhere in this region, but it is unfortunately by no means restricted to them, as is the case in the Lower Coal Measures of the Yorkshire and Lancashire coalfields for instance. Beds of the same stone, sometimes quite as typical, are occasionally found in the Bernician Series, where, here and there, they are even worked as Gannister, and also in the higher Coal Measures, though to a less extent. Thus this special deposit, though somewhat characteristic of the so-called Lower Coal Measures (sufficiently so to justify the name Gannister Series, sometimes applied to the division), can scarcely be used — especially as it occurs in non-continuous beds — as a criterion of solid value. Again in the more southern coalfields certain marine organisms of special types are found which are restricted to some horizons in the Lower Coal Measures and the Millstone Grit. This is not the case in Durham, though it is possible, indeed probable, that further investigation may to some extent put an end to this difficulty. This hope is held because in the adjoining county of Northumberland casts of some of these fossils have been found in these beds (in the neighbourhood of Stocksfield). More recently, in shale cores from a deep bore in the Coal Measures in the north- western portion of the Durham coalfield, from an horizon considerably below that of the Brockwell seam, and either in the Lower Coal Mea- sures or in the upper portion of the Millstone Grit, the writer detected a small Productus, a Discina and some annelid tubes allied to Serpulites. These are of course marine fossils, but not specially of the kinds charac- teristic of the Gannister Series of Yorkshire or Lancashire. The entire thickness of the Coal Measures is on the average some- thing under 2,000 feet, but it must be remembered that denudation has removed an unknown series of beds from the upper portion and that the original thickness of the whole was certainly greater, and in all proba- bility much greater than this. Just as in the Lower Carboniferous rocks the limestones are the most persistent, and therefore, as datum lines, the most important beds, so in the Coal Measures the thicker coal-seams are the deposits most to be relied on in a survey of the strata. Insignificant individually as to 12 GEOLOGY thickness when compared with the enormous mass of rapidly alternating sandstones and shales with which they are interbedded, they are yet much more constant than any of these, and the accurate knowledge of them derived from the innumerable spots at which they are, or have been, worked throughout the coalfield gives them a commanding position as stratigraphical units such as no other deposits associated with them can claim. It is not necessary here to enter into the interesting, and at the present day rather controversial, question of the origin of coal generally, especially as the seams of Durham are most of them of a kind which does not give rise to much difference of opinion. With very few ex- ceptions these seams, each provided with its regular seat-earth or ‘under- clay ’ — which is also almost in every case a fire-clay — are obviously accumulations of vegetable matter in low-lying swampy flats of great area, and most of this vegetable matter is doubtless in its carbonized or coaly state much in the place where it grew and flourished when living ; the under-clays in which the strange tree-roots known as Stigmarta are found quite undisturbed representing the soil beneath the heaped up de- cayed plant remains of the watery marsh. That these plants, some of them gigantic in size, were chiefly allied to the club-mosses, horse-tails and ferns of the present day is clear from the many well-preserved speci- mens which not the coals themselves but the shales and other beds accompanying the coals yield throughout the Coal Measures. The animal remains which are also, though less often, found tell the same tale. They are the exuvis of fishes whose rare recent allies inhabit fresh or at least estuarine waters, of alligator-shaped amphibia fitted for similar conditions, and of shells (chiefly bivalves) which apparently lived the life of our river and pond mussels. Occasionally some of the animal forms are consistent with existence in brackish waters, but instances of frankly marine forms such as those which obtain in the Carboniferous Limestone Series, though not absolutely unknown, are yet of great rarity, and suggest, when they do occur, brief episodes only during which quite occasional incursions of the sea may have invaded the delta-like swamps. The Durham coals are almost all of the ordinary or so-called ‘ bitu- minous ’ type and furnish some of the best examples of household, cok- ing and gas coals known. A few deposits of cannel coal occur, but they are all of very limited extent and small thickness. They moreover as a rule form part of the ‘ bituminous ’ seams, occurring usually towards the upper portions of such seams over small areas. Microscopic exam- ination shows that these sporadic cannel beds (which sometimes are locally thick enough for working separately, and then yield gas of ex- ceptional illuminating power) largely consist of minute freshwater alg^ which lived, presumably, in shallow pools dotted here and there upon the surface of the forest swamps. True anthracite is not found in the county, though as a trade term the use of the word ‘ anthracitic ’ is not unknown in prospectuses describing coals with a somewhat smaller pro- portion of volatile matter than is usual in the common coals. Some- 13 A HISTORY OF DURHAM times also the altered coal met with near intrusive dykes or sheets of igneous rock is miscalled ‘ anthracite.’ It is a kind of impure stony coal, useless for industrial purposes, and locally known as ‘cindered coal’ (a good descriptive name), but it is in no sense anthracite. The amount of ‘ ash ’ or non-coaly mineral mat- ter of the ordinary Durham coals is small in quantity — seldom indeed more than the percentage of silica which the tissues of the coal-making plants originally contained. In the cannel seams, especially towards their outer limits (i.e. near the edges of the ancient ponds), the amount of ash is often great, so much so that the cannels frequently pass later- ally into shales (indurated and laminated mud). In the ‘ cindered coal’ above referred to the percentage of ash is also very large, which would not be the case were these metamorphosed coals akin to true anthracite. Before proceeding to enumerate the principal coal seams it will be well to draw attention to the fact that the correlation of the seams of one portion of the coalfield with those of another is often rendered difficult by the frequent splitting up and reunion to which they are subject. Mr. M. Walton Brown it was who first pointed out, by a critical examination of all the evidence available a few years ago, how all but universal is this division of the seams in the Great Northern Coalfield. To this phenomenon, one which has not yet received a per- fectly satisfactory explanation, it is largely due that the nomenclature of the coal beds is so confusingly local and that there are so many synonyms. Most of the seams to be now mentioned, in ascending order, are under 6 feet in thickness and not less than 2 ft. 6 in. Thinner seams, unless of some special interest, are omitted. Nos. I and 2 of the list are in the Lower Coal Measures, as above defined, the rest are all in the so-called Middle and Upper Coal Measures, divisions which, however convenient, are too empirical to be recognized here. No. I. The Marshall Green Seam. — This coal lies only a little above the Millstone Grit. It may be repeated that within the latter division two or three thin and inconstant coals occur locally, but none of any importance. No. 2. The Victoria Seam. — Known only in the western part of the coalfield. No. 3. The Brockwell Seam, or Main Coal. — This is a coal of con- siderable value and, as before stated, is generally taken as the bottom bed of the workable Coal Measures (i.e. the so-called Middle and Upper Coal Measures). The term Main is unfortunately also applied to other seams. No. 4. The 'Three garter Seam. — Not to be confounded with No. 10. No. 5. The Five garter Seam. — In some parts of the field this is known as the Busty seam, in others as the Lower Busty. Not the same as No. 12. 14 GEOLOGY No. 6. The Ballarat or Upper Busty Seam. No. 7. The Hand Seam. — A thin coal, not industrially valuable, but very constant and useful as a datum horizon in attempting corre- lations. No. 8. The Stone Coal, or Tilley Seam. No. 9. The Hodge, or Splint Seam. — The term ‘splint ’ is applied to a hard stony coal breaking up in flat slabs, and to some extent inter- mediate between common coal and cannel. It is by no means restricted to this horizon, many of the other coal seams containing bands of ‘ splint,’ some of which are persistent over considerable areas. No. 10. The Yard, Three garter, Harvey, Constantine, Beaumont, Barlow Fell, or Towne ley Main Coal, or (in the Consett district) ‘■No. i ’ Seam. — This set of names is a good example of the troublesome no- menclature of the Durham seams. No. II. The Ruler Coal. No. 12. The Hutton, Main, or Five garter Seam. — This is prob- ably the most famous of north country coal seams. It yields in different districts the best household, the best coking, and the best gas coal. In Northumberland it is known as the Low Main, and it is in its shaly roof that the finest series of fish and amphibian remains have been collected. No. 13. The Brass Thill. — Not the same as No. 16. ‘Thill’ in the local dialect means the underclay, and ‘ brass ’ is marcasite or rhom- bic iron pyrites. A coal with much sulphide of iron in it (pyrite or marcasite) is said to be ‘ brassy.’ No. 14. The Low Main Seam. — This is not the Northumbrian seam of that name. It is however, in part, the Hutton Seam of the Con- sett district, a complicated bit of correlation due to the splitting up of seams already referred to. No. 15. The Maudlin Seam. — In the Wallsend district, only sepa- rated from Durham by the river Tyne, this is known as the Bensham Seam, and that name is sometimes also used for it in the neighbour- hood of Gateshead, where, indeed, the village of Bensham is situated. No. 16. The Main Coal (in the Pelton district near Chester-le- Street) or Brass Thill (in the Consett district). No. 17. The Hard Coal (of Pelton). This seam on the eastern side of the coalfield and in the Consett district is known as the Five garter Seam. No. 18. The Shield Row Seam, or (in the Wearmouth district) the Three garter Seam. — This is the celebrated High Main Seam of the Northumbrian side of the Tyne, from which the original ‘ Walls- end ’ coal was obtained close to the easterly termination of the Roman wall. No. 19. The Splint or Craw Coal. — Not, of course, the same as the much lower No. 9. The Coal Measures above this seam are de- nuded away — to what extent must always remain unknown to us. It will be understood that the intervals between these nineteen 15 A HISTORY OF DURHAM workable seams are made up of numberless sandstones, shales, fireclays, and thin worthless coals. Owing however to the extreme variation in thickness of these strata — a variation which the continual splitting up and reuniting of the coal seams necessarily implies — no good purpose can be served in a brief synopsis like the present by going into numerical details respecting them. Suffice it to say that the sandstones vary from the coarsest grit to the finest grained sandstone, from massive building stone and material suitable for grindstones to roofing flags, from dark brown to every shade of yellow, grey and occasionally to pure white ; that the shales, locally known as ‘ plate ’ or ‘ metal,’ vary also from highly arenaceous clayey alternations (‘ grey beds ’) to the finest laminated unctuous bluish beds, and that they frequently contain concretionary nodules and thin continuous bands of clay ironstone sufficiently rich in carbonate of iron to pay handsomely for working in the old days ; and that the underclays and other fireclays are usually excellent in quality as material for refractory bricks or pottery. THE PERMIAN SYSTEM Overlying the denuded Coal Measures and some of the Lower Car- boniferous rocks from close to the mouth of the Tyne near South Shields to somewhere between the Hartlepools and the mouth of the Tees, and therefore unconformable upon everything beneath them, come the Per- mian Series of the north-eastern type, admirably displayed as regards its thicker members in the coast section. It may be premised that these north-eastern Permians are much more closely allied in aspect and arrangement to the Permian or Dyas series of the continent than to the much nearer representatives of that system in the north-west of England on the opposite side of the Pennine range. The lowest of the Permian beds on this side of England are better shown in Durham than elsewhere, but they are not visible along the coast in Durham, though excellently exposed in the Cullercoats and Tynemouth cliffs in neighbouring Northumberland. They can however be studied in many fairly good sections inland, along the foot of the Permian escarpment, and still more fully by means of the many borings and sinkings which in the Permian area pierce through them in order to reach the Coal Measures which lie immediately beneath. These Permian basement deposits are known as the Yellow Sands. They are not universally present, even in the county of Durham, but where present they consist of highly false-bedded sandstones ranging in colour from the bright yellow which gives them their name to red on the one hand and (rarely) dark grey on the other. The grains of sand of which the rock is chiefly made up are of moderate size or quite coarse, but usually rounded after the manner of desert sand and very unlike the angular unworn grains of ordinary grits. More often than not these grains of sand are so incoherent as to crumble between the fingers, but sometimes they are cemented more or less firmly by carbonate of lime. Carbonate of lime has also frequently segregated in i6 GEOLOGY nodular knobs or in anastomosing veins or ribs within the rock, thus giving it a strange and unique appearance. Where this segregation has taken place the sandstone is generally bleached, so that on a weathered surface the knobs and ribs stand out in white upon the yellow back- ground. There are no fossils of any kind in the Yellow Sands deposit, and its place as a true member of the Permian system, which has more than once in time past been disputed, depends more upon the uncon- formity between it and the upturned denuded edges of the Carboniferous upon which it rests, and upon its complete (though not always well dis- played) conformity with the overlying fossil-bearing, and therefore proven, Permian Marl Slate. It may be added that the unconformity referred to is shown not only by the denudation of the coal-bearing rocks before the deposition of the sands, but also by the fact that most of the dislocations affecting the Coal Measures stop short at and do not affect the Yellow Sands. These dislocations are thus pre-Permian faults. A few other faults affect both systems and are therefore post-Permian, though some of these (whose vertical throw or displacement is less in the Permian than in the Carboniferous rocks) are both pre- and post- Permian, an interesting fact proved in several cases in recent years. The denuded floor upon which the sands lie is irregularly undulating, and the sands fill up the hollows and are there thickest — up to i oo feet or thereabouts as a maximum — becoming thin or being absent altogether where the floor rises into diminutive hills. It is in the north and east of the Permian area that the sands are most fully developed. In the south and west they are either thin or wanting. So loosely coherent a deposit is necessarily a first rate water-bearing stratum, and we find accordingly that the Yellow Sands play an im- portant and twofold part in that capacity — a beneficent part so far as water supply is concerned, though the water from this horizon is gener- ally exceedingly hard, and sometimes, in the neighbourhood of the coast, to a certain extent brackish — a highly inconvenient and occasionally dangerous part from the mining point of view, since shaft sinking through the sands where they are full of water is always attended with great expense and many difficulties, and has more than once given rise to floodings which it has taxed the resources of engineering to the utmost to cope with successfully. The outcrop of the Yellow Sands is from the nature of the case a narrow and an interrupted one, but where they are thick — as at Houghton-le-Spring, Newbottle, Ferryhill, Claxheugh, etc. — good sections can be examined, though none quite so good as those at Culler- coats and Tynemouth in the neighbouring county. The present writer has elsewhere given quite recently a very full account of this member of the Durham Permian from which the fol- lowing theoretical conclusions, agreeing in the main with the views of the late Mr. Richard Howse, may be quoted : — The history of the beginnings of the Permian system in Northumberland and Durham, such as it can be gathered from the facts already stated and from the details A HISTORY OF DURHAM with which this paper concludes [a collection of detailed sections], seems fairly ob- vious. (i) A mass of sand, probably chiefly derived from the waste of the Carboniferous Sandstones which formed so large an area of the then land-surface to the west, occu- pied a broad tract of coast from somewhere to the north of Hartley, in Northumber- land, to Yorkshire and still farther south, narrower in the north than in the south. This sand was a beach at the coast line and a desert of blowing dunes elsewhere. Rivers, sluggish, and probably inconstant (changing their course as do the channels in a delta), wound their way to the sea across this sandy tract, and added to the irregu- larity of its surface.' The deposition of calcareous and magnesian mud in the thinly bedded layers which betoken tranquil deposition followed, due partly to silting from landwards and from tidal irruptions from seawards most probably in a chain of coastal lagoons. This was accompanied by a downward movement of the coast line and the gradual merging of the lagoons into the sea proper when the Magnesian Limestone, with its curious fauna — a marine fauna checked in its existence by the unfavourable chemical composition of the Permian sea water to which the rock owes its dolomitic character — was deposited. This view is strongly confirmed by the occasional excep- tions to the rule that the Marl-slate precedes the Magnesian Limestone proper which already have been referred to, such exceptions (where limestone occurs beneath the so-called Slate) being obviously the result of local accidental breaches of the bars sepa- rating the lagoons from the sea.“ The Marl-slate referred to in this extract is the next Permian division above the Yellow Sands. Whether the latter can in any real sense be said to represent the much more largely developed Rothliegendes of the German Dyas may be regarded as doubtful in the absence of palaeontological evidence. That the thin Marl-slate is the equivalent of the Kupfers chief er is however open to no doubt, although in this country seldom more than a yard in thickness this formation of impure calcareous slabby beds of grey or brownish colour contains a storehouse of fossils which sufficiently attest its exact stratigraphical horizon. Besides shells such as Nautilus freieslebeni. Lingula credneri, Discina konincki and Myalina huusmanni, and plants (imperfectly preserved but capable of identification) such as Neuropteris huttoniana, Caulopteris (?) selaginoides and Polysphonia (?) sternbergiana, this deposit is a true fish bed and yields extraordinarily perfect specimens, usually as entire individuals, of such vertebrates as Palceoniscus^ Dorypterus^ Acentropus^ Pygopterus^ Acrolepis^ Ccelacanthus^ Platysomus — represented by many species, as well as amphibians and some true reptiles such as Proterosaurus. In the county it is at Claxheugh, Deaf Hill, Middridge near Shildon, Thickley, and Ferryhill that some of the most remarkable specimens have been found. The next, and much the most fully developed division of the Permian, following, with perfect conformity over the Marl Slate, is the Magnesian Limestone^ which in Britain is nowhere so thick or so splendidly exposed for study as in the cliff sections of Durham and i * The late Prof. A. H. Green was of opinion that the quicksands (that is, our Yellow Sands) are the deltas of the streams which emptied themselves into the Permian inland sea {Geol. Mag. [1872], ix. 1 01). The entire absence of fossil remains, the form of the grains, and the nature of the cross bedding, seem to point rather to wind as the final distributor of the sand, though Prof. Green’s view may quite well be accepted for their first accumulation. ® Trans. Inst. Min. Engineers, 1903. 18 GEOLOGY in the numerous quarries inland. Its maximum thickness is about 800 feet, and this is attained beneath the red sandstones of Seaton Carew, as proved by borings made at that place in 1888. Its minimum is in the neighbourhood of Naughton, where it has been proved, also by boring, to be less than 300 feet, but as there is a suspicion of the upper portion of this formation having been denuded off at this spot this minimum thickness is less certain than the maximum quoted. As the Marl Slate is without doubt identical with the Kupfers chief er so is the Magnesian without doubt the equivalent of the continental Zechstein. Its curiously stunted forms of peculiar marine fossils represented by many individuals but comparatively few species are the same as those of the Zechstein. Its general but varying dolomitic character, to which it owes its English name, is the same ; and its position in the stratigraphical sequence is also the same. In Durham however its lithological features are extremely peculiar. Long after the limestone was deposited molecular movements took place within the already consolidated rock which, in many places and at many horizons, gave rise to a quite unique development of concre- tionary structures. From the time of Sedgwick, who first described them from a scientific point of view, to the present day when Dr. George Abbott of Tunbridge Wells has spent the leisure intervals of many years in studying and photographing them, the concretions referred to have attracted and have puzzled geologists. They have been classified according to their endlessly diversified forms, but the cause of so much structural rearrangement in this formation has not yet been clearly established. Professor E. J. Garwood has shown with regard to the simpler spheroidal forms (which are known as the cannon ball limestone) that these are due to the segregation towards centres of the carbonate of lime previously existing in the rock, and not to the intro- duction of that compound into the magnesian beds from without (this latter was the so-called ‘ stalactitic theory ’ of the late Mr. Richard Howse), but it cannot be said that this, which is probably now admitted by all, carries us very far. It is a theory accounting for the multi- form character of the concretions, the ‘ honeycombed,’ ‘ coralloid,’ ‘ oolitic,’ ‘ botryoidal,’ ‘ egg and cup,’ and others infinitely varied besides the spheroids that is required, and this probably experiment only will in time provide. The Geological Survey in its maps has unfortunately not attempted to divide the Magnesian Limestone. The task, owing to the extraordi- nary variability of the rock — now earthy, now flaggy, over and over again concretionary in every conceivable form, now massive, now cellular and now brecciated — was no doubt a difficult one. No divi- sions are shown in the maps. Nevertheless it is possible to arrive at some fairly definite divisions in this curious formation, though we will not go so far as to assert that the following scheme, propounded by the late Mr. Howse, and the best known to us, can be regarded as anything more than tentative. These proposed divisions are (in ascending order) : — 19 A HISTORY OF DURHAM (1) Lower Groups consisting of {a) a conglomerate at the base and {h) compact limestone. (2) Middle Groups consisting of (c) shell limestone and {d) cellular limestone. (3) Upp^^ Groups consisting of {e) botryoidal limestone and [f) upper yellow limestone. It is better to have a classification such as this, confessedly open to improvement but more useful, so far as it goes, than none at all. One striking result of the changeable nature of the Magnesian Limestone is, naturally enough, constant difference in the degree of resistance which its component parts offer to denuding action both mechanical and chemical, and, as a consequence of this, extraordinarily diverse weathering features. Where hard and soft, crystalline and earthy, calcareous rock is as it were commingled in a kind of omniform mosaic, it is not surprising to find caverns, ravines, stacks, promontories of all kinds to be the rule, and all such features are eminently characteristic of the coast of Durham from South Shields to the Hartlepools. One of these features is deserving of special mention. This is the occurrence in some of the cliff sections and in some of the adjoining sea stacks — especially in Marsden Bay — of ancient caverns, V-shaped, and evidently at one time subterranean waterways (like those in the Mountain Limestone of Craven), the roofs or vaults of which have in course of time collapsed, filling the underground ravine with angular fragments of the overlying limestone. These fragments, wholly unrounded, have at a subsequent period been cemented together by secondary dolomitic matter, and now appear as portions of a solid mass of breccia — so solid that several have resisted the waves and the weather better than the unbroken rock from which the original caverns were eroded and now stand out as great sea stacks on the beach. Such a mass is the fine stack known as Lot’s Wife near the well-known cave-drilled islet named Marsden Rock. These peculiar breccias, the occasional formation of which even at the present day gives rise to violent but of course quite local earth shakes, are known as ‘ breccia gashes.’ THE RED BEDS OF SOUTH DURHAM OR SALT MEASURES A great series of red coloured sandstones and clayey arenaceous beds, miscalled ‘ marls,’ follows immediately upon the topmost portion of the massive Magnesian Limestone. Quite a thousand feet of these strata are met with in south Durham, and form the floor on which the Pleis- tocene or Drift deposits have been laid in that region. The latter more often than not conceal the former to so great an extent that no very certain line can be drawn to indicate their lower boundary. Roughly it may be said that the Durham side of the Tees from the mouth of 20 GEOLOGY that river to Darlington and north to Seaton Carew is made up of these red rocks. Much is known of them however by means of the many borings which, within the last twenty years, have been put down through them in search of the valuable salt beds which they contain. The age of the series has been the subject of some controversy, which need be referred to here but briefly. That the lowest members of the series (which nevertheless differ but slightly from the rest) are of Upper Per- mian age has been held by several geologists because a few thin beds of Magnesian Limestone occur in them similar in all respects to the main mass of that formation below. The late Sir Andrew Ramsay, Mr. R. Howse and the present writer took this view and were disposed to include some of the red beds above these bands of dolomitic limestone as well in the Permian System, including the lowest, at least, of the beds of rock salt. Others, including Mr. H. Howell and the Geological Survey, regard the whole of the red series as Triassic and — since the Bunter or Lower Trias has been shown by the Survey to thin out and disappear some 20 miles or so to the south of the Tees — as strata of Keuper age (Upper Trias) overlapping the Bunter. The absence of well marked unconformities and of any palaeontological evidence must probably always leave the decision of these points doubtful, and it is therefore safer, in our present state of knowledge, to adopt some descriptive non- committal term, such as ‘ the Salt Measures,’ to which no reasonable exception can be taken. If the unconformity which it has been hinted may possibly occur at Norton and account for the abnormal thin- ness of the Magnesian Limestone there, should some day be proved, then the Survey view will properly prevail and all the red beds above the highest of the limestone bands be classed as Keuper. The salt beds, one of which is from 6o to loo feet thick, are associated with many layers of gypsum and anhydrite (the latter being known to the salt-borers as ‘white stone’), and the mode of their occur- rence is in all respects comparable to what obtains in the Triassic salt- bearing series of Cheshire. They lie in the lower portion of the series, and being composed of very soluble material they thin out gradually before reaching the surface. Thus the further to the dip (that is to say, the further away from the original outcrop) one bores for the salt the more likely one is to find it and the thicker it will be. This is why the bores through which the brine is extracted are all clustered close to the Tees and why they are so deep. Attempts to tap the same beds where this horizon approaches the surface have either failed altogether or have only met with deposits so reduced in bulk as to be comparatively worth- less. As is the case with most districts underlain by easily soluble rocks, subsidences are not unknown in the Salt Measure area of Durham, but fortunately the great depth of the salt-winnings has prevented the actual workings from causing the dire effects which have followed such undertakings elsewhere. The surface sinkings are here few and due altogether to the natural solution and removal of salt or gypsum at no great distance from the outcrop. The best known are curious depressions at 21 A HISTORY OF DURHAM Oxenhall near Darlington, known as the ‘ Hell Kettles.’ These sink- holes vary from 75 to 1 14 feet in diameter. It is sufficiently clear that during the period of geological time represented by these red beds the area now occupied by south Durham was much in the conditions observable in the Salt Lake regions of Asia, north-eastern Africa, or north-western America — conditions of dwindling inland sheets of water in an arid climate of evaporation, and of salt and gypsum deposition such as the late Sir Andrew Ramsay showed many years ago have so constantly accompanied the accumulation of red-hued sandy strata. THE IGNEOUS ROCKS Most remarkable and, in all probability, with the exception of the Minettes, oldest of the igneous rocks of Durham, is the famous Great Whin Sill, which, though exposed within the county boundaries only in the inlier between Middleton in Teesdale and Caldron Snout, is yet the cause of perhaps the finest scenery in the county. This sill {sill means a stratum simply in north country dialect) is a huge sheet of intrusive basaltic rock — strictly speaking, ‘ diabase ’ — -which is known from a few miles south of Berwick to as far south as Lunedale in Yorkshire, a distance of over 80 miles, and which crops out to the west of this Durham inlier along many miles of the Pennine escarpment and more especially at Highcup Nick. It possibly underlies the whole of the county of Durham, though this will probably never be proved. So vast an intrusive sheet is very exceptional — unique indeed as regards Britain in times later than those during which the much more ancient Dalradian sills of Scotland were injected. In the Middleton inlier it lies very near to the Ordovician and Silurian floor, upon which the Lower Carboni- ferous rocks were laid down as has already been mentioned (see p. 3) ; but it is well within the last named series and, although in many places where its position has been ascertained with accuracy (as in mine shafts, etc.) beyond the inlier, it is found to shift its horizon as much as even 1,000 feet in some cases (a sufficient proof of its intrusive character were other convincing evidence lacking), yet it is always within the Carboniferous Limestone Series. This important fact is not, however, enough to enable one to say more as to the age of the Whin Sill than that it is younger than the highest horizon to which it has risen. It is post-Carboniferous Lime- stone probably (all but certainly so) ; it is possibly of Permian or even of much later date. The thickness of the sill, considering its enormous area of at least 400 square miles, is extraordinarily uniform, ccmtinuing for long distances from 80 to 100 feet, though to the west sometimes much thinner, and sometimes 1 50 feet or even more. It sometimes splits up into two or even three sheets. In the Middleton tract it is a single sheet and very thick, forming the magnificent columnar scars of Cronkley and the waterfalls of High Force and Caldron Snout. At Stanhope in Wear- dale, in which neighbourhood the main sill is met with in many lead mines, an upper ‘ split ’ or branch known as the Little Whin Sill crops 22 GEOLOGY out among the limestones above the chief sheet. Notwithstanding the changes of horizon, the baking and consequent metamorphism of the shales and limestones above as well as beneath the Great Whin Sill — phenomena which render the contemporaneity of the sheet an impossi- bility, it is strange that the lead miners as a rule still decline to regard it as contemporaneous, and the bed of limestone which happens to be next above it is always, by them, called the Tyne-bottom Limestone (see p. 6), as has been mentioned before. Some very fine pectolite has been found in joint cracks in the Whin Sill near Middleton. The Cockjield or Bolam Dyke is, next to the Whin Sill, the most remarkable mass of igneous rock in the county. It is a continuation of the well known Cleveland Dyke, which to the south of the Tees is seen cutting through the Jurassic rocks, and, though it does not every- where come to the surface, it can be traced north-west beyond the county boundaries as far as Armathwaite where it crosses the Eden with a thickness of 54 feet. At Cockfield its thickness is very vari- able, 15 to 66 feet. It is the longest known dyke in Britain, being some 1 10 miles in length (anti possibly nearly 200 miles). At Bolam it spreads out laterally in the form of a sill baking coal seams and shales above and below in the same manner as, elsewhere, it bakes and alters them to right and left of its course. The stone of this dyke is often known as ‘Old Roger’ on Tees-side. The Hett Dyke runs across the coalfield from Quarrington Hill (on the Magnesian Limestone escarpment) to Tudhoe and Hett. It resembles the Whin Sill in composition, and is quite unlike the Cleve- land Dyke petrologically. At Brancepeth, about 300 yards from a branch of this dyke, coked or ‘ cindered ’ coal occurs over an area of about 50 square yards. This is an unusual distance for contact meta- morphism of this kind to be felt, but there is in north Durham a long and broad zone running nearly across the coalfield several square miles in area, where the coal generally has the appearance of having been altered by ‘ whinstone,’ although no dyke or sheet can be pointed to as the cause of this — the coal is however rendered unsaleable by the change it has undergone, whatever this may be due to. The Hett Dyke can be seen near the confluence of the Bedburn Beck and the Wear, and thence runs to Egglestone Moor. The Hebburn Dyke runs from near Cleadon to the Tyne, which it crosses at Hebburn. It is known in Northumberland as the Walker Dyke. It may possibly be represented by the amazing number of basaltic blocks on the sea-beach at Whitburn, but it is not actually seen anywhere piercing Permian rocks. There are a few other dykes in the county very similar in character to the above. All these are probably of Tertiary age, though this must always remain doubtful. All of them as well as the Whin Sill are infinitely younger than the Minette dykes (mica-trap) which have already been referred to (p. 3) as cutting through the older Palaeozoic beds of Cronkley in Upper Teesdale. 23 A HISTORY OF DURHAM THE PLEISTOCENE OR DRIFT DEPOSITS From Upper Triassic times no geological period has left traces of its deposits in Durham until the Pliocene or latest Tertiary ages had passed away and the arctic cold of the great Ice Age had covered the greater part of Britain with snow and ice, and had brought it to the condition now prevailing in Greenland. To that Glacial time is due the irregular but often thick cloak of Drift deposits that at the present day conceals beneath it so many of the valleys and other features which denudation had sculptured and eroded on the outcrops of all the older formations so far enumerated and described in these pages. In this cold Pleistocene epoch all but some of the very highest portions of the county in the west was, as we cannot but believe, entirely smothered under an ice sheet which probably began as small glaciers gliding down the upper dales, and gradually increased in size until these merged into larger glaciers running from north to south across the lower and eastern half of the region. At its maximum the heights bare of ice formed but a small nunatdk or rocky island in the Yad Moss area. Then, as the severity of the climate was relaxed, the great complex sheet of ice melted away in its lower parts, and waned until the original hill-land glaciers had returned to their original beds and to their original insignificance. Finally, the last of the glaciers dwindled and died out, leaving the country much as we see it now. Traces of these successive changes are year by year being recognized with the certainty due to constantly increasing knowledge, but it must be admitted that a great deal more work’ is required in Durham before anything like a final verdict can be given respecting the history of all the difficult deposits grouped under the term ‘ Glacial.’ Concerning the lowest of these, the stiff clay studded with boulders — of which many are obviously foreigners that have reached their present abiding place after much travel — the clay known par excellence as the Boulder Clay, there is not now much doubt. Few geologists see in it, now, the material dropped into the sea from floating icebergs. It is recognized by almost all as the equivalent of the Moraine profonde of Swiss glaciers, i.e. as the ground-down mud interspersed with fallen blocks which underlies moving ice on land. That this Boulder Clay or ‘ Till ’ sometimes attains a thickness of 200 feet or even more is evidence enough of the enormous thickness of ice beneath which it was accumulated. The polishing and grooving of the rock surface on which the clay lies is also evidence enough of the movement by which the vast muddy mass was urged over the subjacent floor, and the determina- tion of the place of origin of the travelled stones within the clay yields information as to the directions followed by the ice-currents in their flow over the region. The innumerable pit-sections and boring-records which are available as to the superficial deposits of the entire county, whether in the coalfield or the leadfield, show how widespread is this great Boulder Clay formation ; but they also show how rapidly it varies 24 the library OF THE UNIVERSITY OF ILUNOI8 •a** life iiis'lol.’v or Di iniAM OROQRAF- /. •'4hLU* J''uJil44vS/'u-l‘f / Stuff rtnt/nr^ 'Ji.tH T ‘n^rnt ' TTO ■W77ifc/'w,^iy \'U>lit.m nut VII ■Ww/W// Toyt/t , fnj/iujriit't,'ii )//->/. '/u/z/^xu; fy'iirtrpfywi liinroti t ^ruOnjij ]L,}i /V /// ? c\/' ' l ' lini tii IMhi/l Cr^t-nx) SiJJs-WrTly •n-UnHi ja, -tft-tV- n 1/ thumi ST .'Thji'irx ip yfurtahvti i? / '. At \ FeUhoHse ,^^.. \ FfH , ' ^ - ’ f'g!'--,- ' _) r/lOl/TW WA^t/^/itiffiiU m.j srdF ^ — AWTiJ/ci« Iwiif-Sgl! /&/« ■»»J(l!lf^li^, itiia:^.jfi''-^>{A ’// . V ^ ' <• rhcKa fd ontkThon/ WhskSJdekty ubk Vrm^£(^ ii.357 M2w?/* yfT^ar >7 [IveFfJM '^Kiiavf^nnire:. itiqfutv Tipi wiw Extkiyifni^ St Shotton >■- f(/r(hbitn^’ ■fT'iiiekt'vihfir- wrt}. 1 1 upV' jj;,^ ■ l.■ir^^^, syyLarlULut^iU,7{^ ' 7S,-. ■' ' i/ltjh'/ <-vb. {//»<»7m M’/u/r Ho. Sftat ai550 wS-i^ 'S4'/U'A* (p r e jt t iphthohno' O TH C VI iMDR I A HI STO RY C IICAL MAP. t'lyyj’jS^WTn: RKFERENCE NOTE ^SHIELDS ru'hinijn.i li. Uft- (t*UI/^ Sfil Bttv .t Bnck 5^jart^it)iilii ot'R'.Weai* 1sumyEiu..mi) N^yv f'ierj'Liqhi /f/i Pitn/i i ailt’rCen lXock« 120 feet LSeaham. S'eahajn ^^Xiddlf Stack Point Xf^iictnktn \^esiej)f^ J'hdiaidon. iV TJnwthoi’n Sytl^e 1 Sluppet'sea Bq^' \sfu>pBock- lA F(KV Bolfif I RounA Stool ^iffordeh. P* JfalX- , X jXv '■Lcm^/lcv’n/^ Dean IfUiiit '» /j AA’i/.l OldK'' - ^v^Tiii^riCtcy iSw^ *£j^ ^^/'Jjxo'dhgl ^Tiu>rnJ>‘\-lTaIt - mindd-' L'-v. Wi/i.fiit^r dk^ ’-ffiitta^ ihhiii'Ji .aifrjh> OilEaJU DaJttfo .^^utta-Wuk Seaton Care/^. 9ni^eficZ iGBFIELD /imF\ fhilxLat^ pffildqn 'Grcencdn Sand West Scar 'lodPl xatkajfi fprion oPe^& JWton •otjUd'ks 'JjrariffetoHTi tiiBanV y IcLzenhy^ ^oo 5^^ ^(Jl^BORdrfG>p, rits Pinchinptl^'pe^^'-^'^ tarUyn; vddletpn v.Gear^ OncBe^ 2'7ew^ f*AU > (eByn Mon^ sPictc^ i I 0^"' *' r t I » t 1- GEOLOGY in thickness from place to place, the thickest portions often within a few yards of bare rock or of quite thin Drift. The six volumes of Borings and Sinkings, published by the North of England Institute of Mining and Mechanical Engineers, are full of valuable details bearing upon the distribution of this oldest of the Glacial deposits. All pre-Glacial valleys were necessarily choked up with this clay and most of them are so still, the post-Glacial rivers not having by any means always chosen to follow the ancient channels, and having often preferred to wear down new valleys through virgin rock to digging along their old courses through the stiff intractable material under which they were buried. These concealed pre-Glacial valleys — and there are many of them — are known as ‘ washes,’ and frequently present formid- able barriers of barren ground to the miner between the denuded edges of coal-seams. The best known of these washes or washouts is the long one which, first recognizable high up the Wear valley near Witton- le-Wear, follows more or less parallel to the present river (but rarely coinciding with the actual thalweg now existing) to Durham city, half of the market place in which is situated upon it ; thence to near Chester-le-Street. Here instead of approximately following the present river and its valley it turns abruptly to the north, actually crosses (as the railway also does) the watershed between the Wear and the Tyne, and, following the Team valley, reaches that of the Tyne 1 50 feet beneath its bottom level. This pre-Glacial wash is filled with boulder clay and, above that, with later clays, gravels, and sands which, in places, attain a thickness of more than 300 feet. Similar ancient river courses similarly hidden from view by Glacial infillings are numerous, and a number in the north-eastern portion of the county have quite recently been care- fully and successfully worked out with much skill and patience by Dr. David Woolacott. Above the Boulder Clay are vast thicknesses of sand and gravel, as well as limited patches of laminated (locally, ‘ leafy ’) clays, which are largely the result of the reassorting of the material of the older clay and of silty accumulations in ice-dammed or moraine-dammed lakes at the melting of the ice and after. There is no evidence in Durham of any true Interglacial Period, these gravels and sands, which are usually called the Upper Glacial gravels and sands, being the final set of accumulations due to any phase of the reign of cold. They can be excellently studied along the banks of the Derwent and Wear, where numerous cuttings, both artificial and natural, expose sections of great height and length. Exactly the same kinds of stones are found in these loose deposits as in the Boulder Clay, but the polished and scratched faces which they exhibit in the latter are as a rule effaced by the rolling to which the blocks were subjected during the debacles of the later or melting stage. It is clear from a study of the Drift of Durham that one great glacier- sheet came from the Tyne valley and from north-west Northumberland and swept due south across lower (or eastern) Durham towards the York- 25 4 I A HISTORY OF DURHAM shire plain and the foot of the Cleveland hills (which hills Prof. P. F. Kendall has well shown were by no means altogether covered by the ice sheets). It is also clear that another great glacier sheet came from Westmorland along the pass of Stainmore (by Brough-under-Stainmore), and followed roughly the trend of the Tees till it blended with the first- named flow. It was this sheet from the west that brought down all the huge blocks of unmistakable Shap Fell granite which are found all along its course, by Barnard Castle, Darlington and thence to the coast south of Tees from Redcar to Scarborough and Seamer. Thirdly, smaller glacier-sheets pushed their way from the small highland nunatdki in the Pennine west down the valley of the Wear and down many of the smaller burn-dales between Derwent and Tees. These glaciers all carried material to the greater sheet into which they fell on reaching the eastern lower country, but this material was entirely of local origin, none as in the case of the other and larger glaciers foreigners from great dis- tances. Beyond this Captain Dwerryhouse has taught us by means of Prof. P. Kendall’s new and valuable criteria that as there were lakes held up by the ice in the Glacial period among the Tabular hills in east Yorkshire, so there were similar small lakes on the confines of Durham at the same time in the highest ground free from ice to the west. RAISED BEACHES, CAVE-EARTH, OLD PEAT DEPOSITS, ETC. All newer than the Glacial Drift, but not always easy to place correctly as to relative age among themselves, these accumulations now claim attention. Dr. Woolacott’s researches have largely extended our knowledge of the Durham raised beaches. Some of these occur at a height of 150 feet above present sea-level. It has been already mentioned that the pre-Glacial valley of the Wear ran into the Tyne Valley at 150 feet be- low the river — i.e. below sea-level nearly, as the Tyne is there tidal. We thus obtain an index to the probable maximum amount of vertical movement to which north-east Durham, at any rate, was subjected in Glacial and post-Glacial times. The land must have sunk at least 300 feet below the level at which it stood when the Team Wash began to be filled in. This is obvious enough, but much careful gathering of ob- servations, now actively going on, by competent men, requires to be done before the details of the old history can with any confidence be completed. At Cleadon, Marsden, Fulwell, Hendon and several other places the raised beaches can be well seen and studied. It is worth noting that besides common beach shells of living species, many chalk flints have in recent years been found in these raised shore gravels. There are not many cave-deposits in Durham, though the Magnesian Limestone is so riddled with caverns. There are a few however, among which those at Heathery Burn near Stanhope take the first place. The cave here (now destroyed) was in the Carboniferous Limestone, and in 1861 was found to contain remains of the otter, badger, goat, roebuck, hog, 26 GEOLOGY horse and water-rat. Bones of man with others of dogs, rabbits, goats, sheep, pigs and oxen were, in 1865, found in a Magnesian Limestone cave close to Ryhope Pit. Human remains with edible shells and re- mains of horse, cow, sheep, dog, pig or wild boar, red deer, roe, badger, fox, yellow-breasted marten, weasel, hedgehog, mole, water-vole, kestrel or merlin, gannet, great auk (now extinct) and other birds were found in some old sea-caves also in Magnesian Limestone high above the present sea-level at Whitburn Lizards in 1878. Stone implements of neolithic type have occasionally been found and are recorded in the Transactions of the local antiquarian societies, but they do not appear to offer any points of special geological in- terest. So-called submerged forests, possibly, but not quite conclusively, pointing in a less marked degree than the raised beaches, to earth- movements in comparatively recent times, are observable at low tide at Whitburn, and also at the Hartlepools, but more evidence is wanted in both cases. Under the head of recent deposits must be classed the beach- material now in process of accumulation, the loam, sand and gravel of the rivers forming alluvial flats or ‘ haughs ’ at the river-bends, and the peat-bogs of the high moorland, some of which represent the sites of lakes (possibly Glacial), but most of which are of later date. APPENDIX References to a Few of the More Useful Authorities. MAPS Geological Map of Durham and Northumberland, by N. J. Winch, being part 1. vol. iv, Transactions of the Geological Society of London, l8l6. Geological Map of Durham, by William Smith, London, 1824. Geological Map of Northumberland and Durham, by George Tate, (printed 1867) in the History of Alnwick, and also in Hew Flora of the two counties, published by the Natural History Society of Northumberland and Durham in 1868. Sketch-map of the Geology of Northumberland and Durham, by G. A. Lebour, 1886 and 1889. Six-inch sheets of the Geological Survey (for the coalfield and part of the lead districts). Also sections and one-inch sheets of the Geological Survey, complete. BOOKS AKD PAPERS {.GENERAL) ‘ Observations on the Geology of Northumberland and Durham,’ by N. J. Winch, Trans. Geol. Soc.'w. i-ioi, 1816 (read 1814). Synopsis of the Geology of Northumberland and Durham, by R. Howse and J. W. Kirkby, New- castle-upon-Tyne, 1863 ; ‘Geology’ (of Northumberland and Durham), being chapter i. of ‘A New Flora’ of these counties {Nat. Hist. Trans, of Northumberland and Durham, vol. ii. 1868) by G. Tate ; Geology of the Counties of England, article ‘ Durham,’ by W. J. Harrison, 1882. Outlines of the Geology of Northumberland and Durham, by G, A. Lebour, London and New- castle, 1886 and 1889. ‘ Geology of Durham’ in Worden’s Gazetteer of the County, 1891, by G. A. Lebour. ‘ Geology of England and Wales,’ passim, by H. B. Woodward, London, 1887. The Ancient Volcanoes of Great Britain, by Sir A. Geikie (for Whin Sill and Dykes), vol. ii. London, 1897. 27 A HISTORY OF DURHAM The Coal-fields of Great Britain^ by E. Hull, ed. 4, London, 1881. The Geology of North-Eastern Durham^ by D. Woolacott, Sunderland, 1897. Industrial Resources of the Tyne^ W ear ^ and Tees^ ed. 2, 1864. PAPERS ‘ Notes on the Fossil Remains of some Recent and Extinct Mammalia in the Counties of Northumberland and Durham,’ by R. Howse, Tyneside Nat. Field Club Trans, vol. v. (1860-2). ‘On the Raised Beaches on the North-East Coast of Yorkshire’ (refers to south Durham), by Dr. W. Y. Veitch, Proc. Yorksh. Geol. and Polytech. Soc. new ser. vol. viii. (1883). ‘ On the Raised Beaches of the Durham Coast,’ by David Woolacott, Proc. Univ. Durham Phil. Soc. and Nat. Hist. Trans. Northumb. and Durham^ 1899—1904 (several papers). ‘ Preliminary Note on the Discovery of Old Sea-caves and a Raised Beach at Whitburn Lizards,’ by R. Howse, Nat. Hist. Trans, of Northumberland and Durham., vol. vii. (1880). ‘ On the Heathery Burn Cave.’ Notes by J. Elliot, Professor T. H. Huxley and Dr. C. Carter Blake, Geologist, vol. v. (1862). ‘ Note on the Ryhope Cave,’ by R. Kirkby and Professor G. S. Brady, Nat. Hist. Trans, of Northumberland and Durham, vol. i. (1866). ‘ On Drift Coal in Durham,’ by G. A. Lebour, Naturalist (ann. 1885). ‘ On the Wear and Team Wash Out,’ by Nicholas Wood and E. F. Boyd, Trans. N. Engl. Inst. Min. and Meehan. Engineers, vol. xiii. (1863). ‘ On the Glaciation of the Counties of Durham and Northumberland,’ by R. Howse, Trans. N. Engl. Inst. Min. and Meehan. Engineers, vol. xiii. (1863—4). ‘The Salt Deposits of Durham,’ Anon., Times, 26 December, 1882. ‘ Salt Working at Middlesborough,’ Anon., Journ. Soc. of Arts, vol. xxxi ; and ‘ Engineering,’ vol. xxxvi. (1883). Middlesborough and District, 12 mo. Middlesborough (1881). ‘The Permian Formation in the North-East of England,’ by E. NExhon, Midland Naturalist, vol. iv. See also same author, §luart. 'Journ. Geol. Soc. for November 1888, W. J. Bird in the Trans. Manchester Geol. Soc. for 1888, and H. H. Howell in the Geological Magazine for January (vol. vii.) 1890. These papers refer to the age of the salt-bear- ing beds. ‘ The Salt Deposits of Middlesborough and the mode of working them,’ by T. Hugh Bell, Proc. Cleveland Inst, of Engineers for 1882—3. ‘Analyses of Magnesian Limestone,’ by J. Browelland R. Kirkby, Trans. Tyneside Nat. Field Club, 1866. ‘ On the Sinking of two Shafts at Marsden, etc.,’ by J. Daglish, Proc. Inst. Civil Engineers, vol. Ixxi. (1883). ‘ On the Occurrence of Sand-pipes in the Magnesian Limestone of Durham,’ by R. Kirkby, Geologist, vol. iii. (i860). ‘ On the Geological Relations and Internal Structure of the Magnesian Limestone, etc.,’ by Professor A. Sedgwick, Trans. Geol. Soc. ser. 2, vol. iii. (1835). ‘ On the Breccia-Gashes of the Durham Coast and some Recent Earth-shakes at Sunderland,’ by Professor G. A. Lebour, Trans. N. Engl. Inst. Min. and Meehan. Engineers, vol. xxxiii. (1884), also Geol. Mag. (1885). ‘ Notes on the Permian System of Northumberland and Durham,’ by R. Howse, Trans. Tyneside Field Club (1838). ‘ Tabular View of the Permian Strata of the North-East of England,’ by J. W. Kirkby and E. Binney, Geologist, vol. vi. (1863). ‘ On the Magnesian Limestone of Durham,’ by J. Daglish and G. B. Forster, Trans. N. Engl. Inst. Min. and Meehan. Engineers, vol. xiii. (1864). ‘The Marl Slate and Yellow Sands of Northumberland and Durham,’ by Professor G. A. Lebour, Trans. Inst. Min. Engineers, vol. xxiv. (1903). ‘ On the Origin and Mode of Formation of the Concretions in the Magnesian Limestone of Durham,’ by Professor E. J. Garwood, Geol. Mag. new ser. Dec. iii. vol. viii. (1891). ‘ On the Concretions of the Durham Magnesian Limestone,’ by Dr. G. Abbott, Repts. Brit. Association (1896-1901). 28 GEOLOGY ‘On the Red Rocks of England of older date than the Trias,’ by Sir A.idrew Ramsay, ^^uart. 'Journ. Geol. Soc. (1871). Catalogue of the local Fossils in the Museum of the Natural History Society, by R. Howse, Newcastle-upon-Tyne (1890). ‘ Note sur la gdologie du Bassin houiller de Newcastle,’ by A. Soubeyran, Annales des Mines, sdr. 8, t. i. (1882). The Coal Seams of the Northumberland and Durham Coalfield, by J. B, Simpson (a compara- tive chart of typical sections), 1877. ‘ A Synopsis of the Seams of Coal in the Newcastle District,’ (the first real attempt at cor- relation) by J. Buddie, Trans. Northumberland Nat, Hist. Soc. vol. i. (1831). ‘ Probability of finding Coal in the Bernician of Durham, etc., with an account of the Chopwell Boring beneath the Brockwell Seam,’ by J. B. Simpson, Trans, Inst. Min. Engineers, vol. xxiv. (1904). The Economy of a Coalfield (full of local geological details), by Dr, J, F. W. Johnston, Dur- ham (1838). A Productive Mountain Rock, The Great Limestone, etc. (a local pamphlet with much in- formation), by W, M, Egglestone (circa 1882). Observations to accompany a plan of Silver Band Lead Mines, by T. Sopwith, Newcastle (185 ?). ‘ On the term Bernician, etc.’ See papers by Professor G. A. Lebour, Trans. N. Engl. Inst. Min. and Meehan. Engineers, vol. xxv. (1876), and Geol. Mag. Dec. ii. vol. iv. (1877). ‘ On the Correlation of the Coal Seams of the Great Northern Coalfield,’ by M. Walton Brown, Trans. N. Engl. Inst, of Min, and Meehan. Engineers, vol. xxxix. (1890). ‘The Geological History of Tyne, Wear and Associated Streams,’ by D. Woolacott, Proc. Univ, of Durham Phil. Soc., vol. ii. (1903). ‘On the Dry Valleys and Glacial Lakes of the Country about the Source of the Tees, etc.’, by Captain Dwerry house, fifuart. Journ. Geol. Soc. vol, Iviii. (1902). ‘Petrological Notes on some North of England Dykes,’ by J. J. H. Teall, ^art. fourn. Geol. Soc. vol. xl. (1884). ‘ On the Contact-metamorphism of Dykes ’ (refers to Durham dykes), by Sir Lowthian Bell, Proc. Royal Soc. vol. xxiii. (1875). ‘On the Whin Sill in Northumberland,’ by W. Topley and G. A. Lebour, Brit. Assoc. Rept. for 1873. ‘ On the Limits of the Yoredale Series in the North of England,’ by Professor G. A. Lebour, Geol. Mag. Dec. ii. vol. ii. (1875). The ‘ Whinsill ’ of Teesdale as an Assimilator of Surrounding Beds, by A. C. Clough, ^art. Journ. Geol. Soc. vol. xxxv. (1880). ‘ On the Intrusion of the Whin Sill,’ by David Burns, Trans. N. Engl. Inst, of Min. and Meehan. Engineers, vol. xxvii. (1878). ‘ On the Igneous Rocks of Durham, etc.,’ Professor A. Sedgwick, Trans. Geol. Soc. vol. iii. ser. 2 (1826—8), and Trans. Cambridge Phil. Soc. vol. ii. (1822). ‘Petrology of the Great Whin Sill,’ by J. J. H. Teall, fluart. Journ. Geol. Soc. vol. xl. (1884) ; and Proc. Geol. Assoc, for 1886. In the first of these papers a bibliography of the Whin Sill is given. ‘ On the Intrusive Character of the Whin Sill in Northumberland ’ (gives references to previous literature and relates also to Durham), by W. Topley and G. A. Lebour, fifuart. Journ. Geol. Soc. vol. xxxiii. (1877). ‘ On the Whin Sill,’ by W. Hutton, Trans. Nat. Hist. Soc. of Northumberland and Durham, vol. ii. (1832). A very curious paper in which all the observations are excellent and the inferences wrong. 29 PALiEONTOLOGY Within the limits of the county of Durham vertebrate remains are chiefly confined to two groups of strata widely sundered in geological time, namely to modern, Prehistoric and apparently Pleistocene deposits on the one hand, and to those of Permian and Carboniferous age on the other. Needless to say, the fossils from the Palaeozoic formations largely outweigh in point of interest those from the superficial deposits, and among the former the most important are those from the Permian, which include several forms first described on the evidence of Durham specimens, and some of which are at present unknown beyond the limits of that county. Nevertheless, the remains from the super- ficial formations are by no means lacking in interest, the most noticeable being those of the lynx, the elk, and the great auk. No vertebrate remains have been obtained from the Trias of the county, this formation being, as usual, unfossiliferous. The great historian of the fossil vertebrates of the county is Mr. Richard Howse, whose Catalogue of the Local Fossils in the Museum of the Natural History Society of Northumber- land, Durham, and Newcastle-on-Tyne,* has been of the greatest assistance in the compilation of the present account. Apart from the bones of various species of domesticated mammals, such as the dog, goat, and horse, disinterred during the excavation of Roman camps, the most modern vertebrate fossils discovered in the county appear to be those from estuarine silts or old lake-beds, belonging apparently either to the Historic or the Prehistoric epochs. Among such remains, Mr. Howse records those of the red deer [Cervus elaphus) from silt eighteen feet below the surface in Jarrow Dock and Cobble Dene Dock, as well as from the silt of the bed of the Tyne ; similar remains being also recorded from West Hartlepool, North Bailey, and from Durham itself. Of the roe {Capreolm capreolus) antlers have been found in the Roman camps. More interest attaches to the remains of the elk {Alces alces) from beneath the peat at Hartlepool, and at Mainsforth, near Sedgefield,* since remains of this animal are very rare in Britain, where they appear to be quite unknown in deposits which can be definitely assigned to the Pleistocene epoch. The wild ox, or aurochs {Bos taurus primtgenius) has left its remains in the silt of Jarrow Dock, as well as in that of the Tyne, and beneath peat in various localities in the county ; and bones of the domesticated Celtic shorthorn — the miscalled Bos longifrons — are likewise reported from Jarrow and Hartlepool. Remains of the wild boar (5ar scrofa ferns') have been met with in river-silt, as well as in Roman stations, and a skull is recorded from North Bailey. Boars’ tusks, together with remains of the dog, the badger, and the Celtic shorthorn, have also been obtained from the cave at Heathery Burn, near Stanhope, in Weardale, which was explored by Canon Greenwell, and yielded implements of the bronze period. Much greater interest attaches to the remains of the great auk {Alca^ or Plautus^ impennis) discovered in cave-deposits at Marsden, in the Cleadon Hills, and described in 1880 by Mr. Howse.® Up to the year 1890, at any rate, these were the only remains of this bird discovered in England. They were associated with those of man, the badger {Meles meles\ the fox {Vulpes vulpes\ and other species. Next in order may be considered the remains from fissures in the Mountain Limestone at Teesdale, which may or may not be approximately of the same age as the ordinary cavern-bones from other parts of the country. By far the most interesting of these belong to the lynx {Felts [Zy«x] lynx)^ a species known elsewhere in Britain only from the Yew-Tree Cave, Pleasley Vale, on the borders of Derbyshire and Nottingham. These have been described by the late Mr. William Davies.^ Other mammals of which the remains have been found at Teesdale include the wild cat {Felis catus\ the wolf {Cams lupus\ the fox, the otter {Lutra lutra)^ the roe, the red deer, the wild boar, and the horse. The exploration of the Teesdale fissure by the late Messrs. ^ Nat. Hist. Trans. Nor thumb, and Durham, x. 227 (1889). - See Woodw.ird and Sherbom Brit. Foss. Vertebrate, p. 312; Chirdon Burn, North Tyne, where an antler of this species has been obtained, is here said to be in Durham, instead of Northumberland. 3 Nat. Hist. Trans. Northumb. and Durham, vii. 361. Geol. Mag. (2) vii. 346 (1880). 3^ A HISTORY OF DURHAM Backhouse also yielded remains of the capercaillie [Tetrao urogallus). Few other vertebrate remains appear to have been recorded from the superficial deposits of the county. The local Natural History Society’s Museum possesses, however, a skeleton of the extinct Irish deer {Cervm giganteus)^or miscalled Irish elk, obtained in the winter of 1855-56 in peat under a thick deposit of brick-earth at South Shields ; a pair of antlers of the same species has also been obtained from an ancient forest-deposit at the mouth of the Tees,i at Snook Point, which is now in the Durham University Museum; and a second pair was dug up at Nab Hill so long ago as 1840.® Probably these may be assigned to the Prehistoric epoch. Remains of the wild boar from South Shields may have come from the same layer. Finally, a fragment of a tusk, five inches in circumference, found in the excavation of the West Hartlepool Docks, is stated to be the only evidence of the former existence of the mammoth or hairy elephant [Elephas primigenius) within the limits of the county.* This specimen was preserved in the Athenaeum at West Hartlepool. Mr. Howse regards it as being of Prehistoric age, but it should apparently be referred rather to the antecedent Pleistocene epoch. Passing on to the fossils of the Palaeozoic epoch, the first that claim attention are five species of enamel-scaled, or ganoid, fishes from the Upper Magnesian Limestone of the Permian series from Fulwell Hill and Marsden Bay, first brought to notice in 1862 and again in 1864 by Mr. J. W. Kirkby. At first all were referred to the family Palceoniscidee, one to the genus Acrolephy and the others to Palaoniscus itself. As regards the first genus, subsequent investigations have confirmed the original determination, but the reference of the others to Palaoniscus has proved erroneous, for not only are they distinct from that genus, but they also belong to quite another family group — the Semionotida in place of the Palaoniscida ; being, in fact, near allies of the well- known Mesozoic genera Lepidotus and Dapedius. Accordingly, in 1877 they were referred by Dr. R. H. Traquair* to a new genus, under the name of Acentrophorus^ which is thus typified by Durham specimens. The discovery of these fishes is recorded by Mr. Kirkby in the following words : — ‘The fossils were first noticed by the workmen in August 1861 in a newly-opened quarry belonging to Sir Hedworth Williamson, Bart., at Fulwell, about a mile and a half to the north of Sunderland ; and my attention was almost immediately drawn to them by Mr. Harry Abbs, of the latter town ‘ The quarry referred to is situated on the northern slope of Fulwell Hill, and is not far dis- tant from another more extensive and much older quarry belonging to the same proprietor. In these quarries, as well as in others on the same hill more to the west, the Magnesian Limestone is largely worked for lime-burning, as it has been in the older quarries for the last sixty years or more. During the whole of that period, up to 1861, no traces of any organic remains had ever been found in the limestone of this hill. But about the time named, or a little before, it became necessary, in order to keep the new quarry at its proper level, to cut through some underlying beds (brought up by an anticlinal) which had never yet been cut through, owing to the unvendible quality of the limestone ; and it was in working these lower and inferior strata that the great bulk of the fossil fish were discovered, most of them having been found in one bed, or zone of beds, of lime- stone ; there nevertheless being several instances of their occurrence both above and below that horizon. ‘ Soon after their discovery in the new quarry, another on the same anticlinal brought up the equivalent strata in the old quarry, about half a furlong to the south ; and it was not long before the same fossils were met with there, besides other species that the first locality had not yielded. ‘ The same fish-bed would appear also to extend considerably to the north-east ; for I have obtained the tail-half of a small fish from a stratum of limestone in Marsden Bay, occupying the same stratigraphical position as the Fulwell fish-bed.’ Three forms of these Fulwell fishes were respectively named by Mr. Kirkby Palaoniscus varians^ P. abbsiy and P. altus ; names which in 1877 became changed to Acentrophorus varians^ A. abbsi, and A. altus. Another type was provisionally assigned to Palaoniscus angustus of Agassiz, an Imperfectly known fish of uncertain affinity.® Finally the fish originally identified by Mr. Kirkby with Acrolepis sedgwicki (an identification subsequently cancelled by its author) was eventually named by Mr. Howse Acrolepis kirkbyi. According to Dr. Smith Woodward,* it is allied to A. sedgwicki, but its affinities and right to specific distinction are not clear. Following the divisions adopted by local geologists, the next zone of the Permian formation from which vertebrate fossils have been obtained is the so-called Lower Limestone, the Compact Limestone of Sedgwick, which forms in most places a conspicuous plateau, or ‘ step,’ in the Permian escarpment. An extremely interesting, although unfortunately very imperfect, specimen from this 1 Trans. T'jneside Nat. Field Club, v. 1 14. * Ibid. 1 1 1. * Ibid. * Quart. Joum. Geol. Soc. xxxvii. 565. ® See Woodward, Cat. Foss. Fish. Brit. Mus. ii. 447. ® Ibid. 504. 32 PALAEONTOLOGY horizon is a split slab of yellow limestone showing the skeleton of the trunk and part of the skull of a four- limbed air-breathing vertebrate, for which the name Lepidotosaurus duffi has been proposed by Messrs. Hancock and Howse.^ The slab with the skeleton itself is preserved in the local Natural History Society’s Museum at Newcastle-on-Tyne, and the counterpart, displaying the impression of the same, in the British Museum. The specimen was obtained in 1867 from a quarry at Middridge, near Bishop’s Auckland. By its describers Lepidotosaurus was referred to the primaeval salamanders, a group technically known as Labyrinthodontia or Stegocephalia, and typically characterised by the complete roofing of the skull, the sculpturing of the cranial bones and of those forming the characteristic chest-shield, the complex internal structure of the teeth, and the presence of an armour of bony scales on the lower surface of the body. Such scales are present in the Middridge skeleton, and serve to indicate that the original determination is probably correct, although, from the imperfect condition of the specimen, the exact serial position of the genus cannot be determined. The fishes of the Lower Magnesian Limestone of the county appear to be two in number, Palaoniscus freieslebeni and Platysomus gibhosus^ the two genera to which they belong respectively typifying the families Paleeonhcida and Platysomatides. Both families belong to the enamel-scaled group ; the members of the former being characterised, among other features, by their slender herring-like shape, while those of the latter are deeper-bodied, rhomboidal fishes, more like a John Dory in contour. Both species occur typically in the Kupferschiefer, or Upper Permian, of Thuringia. Of P . freieslebeni the Durham examples from the Lower Limestone were obtained at Down Hill, near Boldon, Houghton-le-Spring ; while those of P. gibbosus came from Pallion Quarry, near Sunderland.* Next in order comes the Marlslate — the equivalent of the German Kupferschiefer — which, although a very thin and local deposit in the county, has yielded some very interesting fossils. The most important, perhaps, of these are two slabs from Middridge, now preserved in the Museum at Newcastle, each of which displays a portion of the skeleton of a reptile of the size of a large lizard. These specimens were described and figured by Messrs. Hancock and Howse,® by whom the one was referred to Protorosaurus * speneriy a primitive reptile from the German Kupfer- schiefer, while the other was made the type of a second species of the same genus, with the title of P. huxleyi. The Protorosaurida form an extremely generalised group of early reptiles whose nearest existing representative is to be found in the New Zealand tuatera {Sphenodon punctatus\ which typifies the order Rhynchocephalia. At present, they are the earliest known members of the reptilian class. Two species, P. speneri and P. linckiy are known from the Continent, the first of which is, as above stated, recorded from Durham. P. huxleyi is unknown elsewhere than in Durham. Fish-remains from the Marlslate of the county are much more numerous. Among these, mention may first be made of the widely spread primitive shark known as Janassa bituminoscy typically from the German Kupferschiefer, but of which teeth have been discovered at Middridge. These teeth, as in other representatives of the PetalodontidcSy formed a pavement when arranged in the mouth ; the number of rows of principal teeth in this particular genus being three. From the evidence of Durham and Northumberland specimens, Messrs. Hancock and Howse ® formulated a scheme of the mode of arrangement of the teeth, from which they were led to believe that Janassa was a ray. Their interpretation was, however, shown by the late Professor K. von Zittel to be incorrect. Another shark, JVodnika althausi (also known as W. striatula)y belonging to the same family {Cestraciontida) as the existing Port Jackson shark, is recorded by Mr. Howse from the Marlslate of East Thickley Quarry. The species, which is the only member of its genus, is typically from the Kupferschiefer of Thuringia ; and the genus is distinguished from the Port Jackson shark (Cestracion) by all the teeth, which are large size, being of a crushing type, and by the small number of those in the front of the jaws. Although the species is included in Messrs. Woodward and Sherborn’s British Fossil VertebrateSy it is not given as British in the Catalogue of Fossil Fishes in the British MuseumJ Of the enamel-scaled, or ganoid, fishes from the Durham Marlslate, the first is Ceelacanthus granulatuSy the typical representative of a genus and species founded by Agassiz on a specimen (now in the British Museum) from Ferryhill, but likewise known from Fulwell Hill and Middridge, and also occurring in the Thuringian Kupferschiefer. The genus belongs to a separate family [Ceslacanthida) of fringe-finned ganoids, now represented by the bichers and the reed-fish of the African rivers. The specimen from Ferryhill described in 1850 by Sir Philip Egerton as a distinct species under the name of C. caudalis is now ascertained to pertain to an immature example of C. granulatus. 1 Nat. Hist. Trans. Northumb. and Durham, iv. p. 219, pt. viii, and ^art. Joum. Geol. Soc. xxvi. 556, pt. 38 (1870). * Fide Howse, Nat. Hist. Trans. Northumb. and Durham, i. 247. s JJuart. Joum. Geol. Soc. xxvi. 565, pis. 39 and 40 (1870). The name (as was usual at that time) is spelt Proterosaurus. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (4) v. 47 (1870). « i. 248. 4 s I 33 ® i. 248. 5 A HISTORY OF DURHAM Of ganoids with a more normal, or, rather, more specialised, type of fin, our first representation is Pygopterm humboldtiy a member of the family Palaonhcida first described on the evidence of specimens from the continental Kupferschiefer, but subsequently identified from the Marlslate of Middridge and Ferryhill. A specimen from the latter locality was regarded by Sir P. Egerton as representing a distinct species, P. latui ; but its peculiarities in shape appear to be due to the effects of crush. ^ This fish has also been called P. mandibularts. To the same family belongs Palaoniicm freieslebeniy already mentioned under the heading of the Lower Magnesian Limestone, which also occurs in the Marlslate of Ferryhill, Middridge, and East Thickley. A second species of the same genus, P. longissimusy was named on the evidence of a specimen from the Clarence Railway cutting, near Mainsforth, in the present county, and also occurs at Ferryhill and Middridge. The type specimen is in the Museum at Newcastle-on-Tyne, but the counterpart is in the collection of the British Museum. A third species, P. macrophthalmusy also typically from Durham, occurs at Ferry- hill and Middridge ; the type specimen (a nearly complete fish) being in the Museum of the Geological Society of London. The so-called P. elegans appears to be a synonym of P. freieslebeni. To the same family belongs the genus Acrolepisy already referred to when treating of the fishes of the Lower Magnesian Limestone. It is typified by A. sedgwickiy first described from Middridge, and also occurring at Ferryhill ; the continental A. asper being apparently referable to the same species. A second species, A. exsculptOy typically from the German Kupferschiefer, is also recorded from the Marlslate of Middridge and Fulwell Waterworks. The family Platysomatiday the members of which, as already said, are distinguished from the Palaonhcida by their shorter and deeper bodies, are represented in the Marlslate of the county by at least two, and possibly by three, species. The first of these is Globulodus macruruSy a genus and species typically from the German Kupferschiefer differing from the better known Mesolepis of the Coal Measures by the dentition. This fish occurs both at Middridge and Ferryhill. Of the typical genus Platysomusy the aforesaid P. gibbosus (also known as P. striatus) occurs at the two localities last named. Perhaps the most remarkable of all the Marlstone fishes is the one described from the German Kupferschiefer as Dorypterus hoffmanniy of which the serial position is still problematical. According to Messrs. Hancock and Howse, by whom they were described, four examples of this singular fish have been discovered at Middridge, two in 1865 and two in 1869 ; all four being in the Newcastle Museum. The genus takes its name from the presence of a sword-like dorsal fin, recalling in form (although not in structure) the back-fin of a killer-whale. Dr. Smith Woodward^ observes that : — ‘ This fish still requires satisfactory elucidation, but it is evidently related to the as indicated by the great development of the azygous [unpaired] fin-supports, which are sometimes, at least in part, mistaken for dermal structures. So far as the absence of flank-scales is concerned, Dorypterus bears the same relation to the typical Platysomatida as Phanerosteon with respect to the typical Paleeon'tscida. ' Lastly, in the family Semionotida we have a species of the genus AcentrophoruSy already referred to under the heading of the Lower Magnesian Limestone, in the Marlstone of the county. This species, A. glaphyrusy was named by Agassiz on the evidence of a Durham specimen preserved in the York Museum. It differs from the type species by the conspicuous serration of the scales. There are specimens of this fish from Middridge and Ferryhill in the collection of the British Museum. Although remains of fishes are far from uncommon in the Northumberland Coal Measures, few appear to be recorded from the Carboniferous rocks of Durham, none being mentioned by Mr. Howse in his catalogue of the collection in the Newcastle Museum. The present writer has, however, been informed by a local authority that such remains are quite common in the Durham Coal Measures, more especially in the shaley layer capping the Hutton seam. They have never yet been collected systematically, although they are probably quite as numerous as in the hard main shale at Newsham, Northumberland (which is the same bed as the Hutton seam), where they were assiduously collected by the late Mr. Atthey. One species of fossil fish, the primitive pavement-toothed shark Petalodus acuminatuSy is recorded from the Upper Carboniferous Limestone of the county by Dr. A. Smith Woodward in the Catalogue of Fossil Fishes in the British Museum? Since, moreover, in the same work* the widely spread fringe-finned ganoid Megalichthys hibberti is stated to be known from all the English Coal-fields, its remains probably occur within the limits of the county under consideration. 1 See Cat. Foss, Fish. Brit. Mus. ii. 474. * Cat. Foss. Fish. Brit. Mus. ii. 550. 8 4 i|, jgo. 3+ oa'«cnolll ur ii l-lNUIjl H>t UtHfJiHY OF rue ^»'WITY 0F II HISTOHV OK DrmiAM BOTAN ICAI ir,' *> Tohn^ri^fj ti yalloy^i.4,1 ; 7 VO,., -r "fourstv) SrVftff-A TaTUii^, X'hilihfrt mu ; t'VV i‘"'' ''Aimic. ^haj’tJf Sti-ih, f^ythm iiuninc . . J -JVe^ ^rtijrqintnt O'frnMiill .iJu ■X 'n^J H, ^^Ov, i^O\i/u/tt>ri^ r4LT}\’jiiS\ Txju'tfiT*’'* '^J^IlEXTTiX!fl t yV/t ' ^i^'p *T!— Y _/ /~'V /y7Xai^py4ipiti/. C-y smStd i) ij^ ^sheila. 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'Bi^h Cupliick MiSn.1 Fra - -' Ba^ kgtnm Sd^c i Enti/fwood St ^oodln/ui TfO Fi O t'yjtna*>i:lp Crnuunn^^ w LoidiS-t^^ M o o ri577D»H h.iiJ^ 'nirinnpjsth^* Hl-J, k^TItllWit/Jf Shotton Or/w^'i dunpU^^il >ghohu, xXoW/ lU’ i Hilton Ware. Rttmnn Fell i farthhin ■Jm i%fF Friiiikf/dff-. C o lu' Mo 'Slninttm- -lAlv/e/ \ ilai Burfpa V,,H U.dPf B'litle mrr 'j .4^pz zMujsei Larhn^iton MooP -MiyiUid^. 'jbervBr^ I'l'ifh/iiiiiD /> y ^4 ( omiuoiL ^^M^orr, .RxFi'm Mitu fl' ’'''^ “' ^ " "' '' " AuH. lfUl IS so '"(’“'>?X^ ','V, w/ ,v ^,''1 Sh’upjMXt'Tfue Moor V jiy . IVZ5 1 ' VI— '-=CS=j"'' A*^ > A * , x" 7^ V: [^ia i<;-»,9 <)'i»sliv(l«ii;u'li ir>' SCALC a mills to ! TH E V I CTOR I A HI STORY 0 F jr. G B artholDmew, 'MV BOTANY GENERAL PHYSICAL CHARACTER OF THE COUNTY WITH RELATION TO THE FLORA The physical features of Durham, which embrace a wide range of altitude, exercise an important influence upon climatic conditions, and together with the different geological strata tend to produce an extremely rich and varied flora. A glance at the Orographical Map will show the general configuration and boundaries of the county. The zones of altitude extend through three of the six zones into which H. C. Watson, in his work on Botanical Geography^ divides the surface of the county ; these corresponding to his mid-agrarian, super- agrarian, and infer-arctic zones. Following Baker’s scheme these may be described as the Lower, Middle, and Upper Zones, the Lower including the heights up to 900 feet, the Middle those between 900 feet and 1, 800 feet, and the Upper the heights beyond that level. At the western extremity of the county, where its width contracts to only I o miles, the two great river systems take their rise, this neck of land embracing the whole of the Wear watershed, and half of the tract drained by the Tees. The latter has its actual source in Cumberland, rising east of Cross Fell (2,900 feet) some few miles west of the district, and enters the county at a high moorland region 1,600 feet above sea- level. This is a wild, desolate expanse, which northwards, beyond the Crookburn, extends into a series of lofty ridges of similar character, presenting the most mountainous aspect of the whole county. These high grassy and heathery peaks sweep boldly round the head of the dales, the most elevated points from south to north including Viewing Hill (2,097 Highfield (2,322 feet), Burnhope Seat (2,546 feet). Dead- stones (2,326 feet), Knoutberry Hill (2,195 feet), Nag’s Head (2,207 feet), and Kilhope Law (2,206 feet), which last commands the extreme north- west of the county. From this eminence a fine view is obtained over the Cheviots and Allenheads in the Northumberland border. On the southern flank of Burnhope Seat is found the weird-looking tract of Yad Moss, a wild expanse of peat, covered with a very scanty vegetation and broken up by deep rifts cut in the black peat to its foundation of shaley sandstone, indicating in a remarkable manner the great force of the western gales. A succession of peaks of gradually declining altitude form undulating ranges of hills proceeding eastwards, one of which, north of the Wear, forms the watershed between that river and the country drained by the 35 A HISTORY OF DURHAM Allen and the Derwent. South of the Wear rises another high, heather- covered ridge, the principal peaks of which are Chapel Fell Top (2,294 feet) and Fendrith Hill (2,284 feet) ; this separates the valleys of the Tees and the Wear, and the whole then gradually slopes away through undulating moorland and wide-stretching commons down to the fertile plains below. Altogether, there are fully twenty peaks which ascend into the Upper Zone. The 900 feet contour line forming the lower limit of the Middle Zone enters the county from the north, near Blanchland, and follows the trend of the Derwent as far east as Cold Rowley, where it bends sharply to the south, passing over the Wear valley near Wolsing- ham, and extending thence as far as Egglestone. From this point the contour line extends westwards up the Tees valley to Winch Bridge, and up the Wear valley it reaches nearly to St. John’s Chapel. This forms, roughly, the boundary of the very high moorland region. On the upper slopes of these hills or ‘ fells ’ the ground is often very wet and boggy, and deep holes, the sides of which are covered with ferns, mosses, and liverworts, may prove a dangerous pitfall for the unwary. Spongy patches of bog-moss {Sphagnum) and Polytrkhum^ the ling {Calluna vulgaris)^ heather [Erica T’etralix)^ the wind grass [Aira flexuosd) with its graceful panicles supported on tall red stems, the fescue [Festuca ovina), ^ uncus squarrosus, Carex stellulata^ the waving, feathery tufts of the mat-grass [Nardus stricta)^ sweet vernal grass [Anthoxanthum odoratum), bent-grass [Agrostis vulgaris), and the hard fern [Lomaria Spicant) cover the summit with a coarse vegetation, among which the marsh violet [Viola palustris), the dainty little Potentilla tormentilla, and Galium saxatile are freely scattered. The white, fluffy heads of the cotton- grass [Eriophorum vaginatuni) also appear conspicuously, and the knout- berry {Rubus chamcemorus), with its large, beautiful white flower and raspberry-like fruit, as well as the bilberry [Vaccinium Myrtillis), the whortleberry [V. Vitis-idcea), and the crowberry [Empetrum nigrum) are generally abundantly distributed. Such is a description of the plants found in the Upper Zone of Burnhope Seat, and it may be taken as typical of the other higher hills of similar character, as well as many of those at a lower altitude possessing the same features. The upper part of the Middle Zone does not materially differ from the lower part of the Upper Zone, and in this belt very commonly occur such plants as the sundew [Drosera rotundifolia), the butterwort [Pinguicula vulgaris), the marsh willow-herb [Epilobium palustre), the starry saxifrage [Saxifraga stellaris), the bog stitch wort [Stellaria uliginosa), the lesser spearwort [Ranunculus Jlammula),2in6.t\\e, marsh speedwell [Veronica scute I lata) ; these extend also into the lower Middle Zone and even to the coast-line. The wide extent of these peaty, heather-covered moors, with their prevailing vegetation, is due to the prevalence of sandstones and shales, which thickly overlie the main limestone formation. The mountain limestone constitutes a large part of Upper Teesdale and Weardale, but it presents few of the characteristics so strikingly represented in the West Riding of Yorkshire. The calcareous strata crop out chiefly in the dales, 36 BOTANY and in place of precipitous scars the characteristic ‘hopes’ form a more special feature. These branch out from the main dales and are narrower valleys or ravines cut in the mountain sides by the burns or tributaries of the main stream. In Kilhope, Welhope, Ireshope, and Burnhope the main limestone crops out along the edge of the fells at from about 1,650 feet to 1,800 feet, and reaches an elevation of 1,800 feet in Bleak Law. On the steep banks of Langdon Dale lines of limestone cliff stand out conspicuously, reaching a height of 2,100 feet in Highfield above the Grasshill lead-mines, from which it gradually declines towards Newbiggin Moor. Here the limestone is exposed at 1,500 feet ; from this point it rapidly descends, and at Egglestone is lost at a height of some 500 feet, disappearing also about the same elevation below Frosterley, on the Wear. Many plants generally associated with the lowlands attain in the Weardale ‘ hopes ’ and in Harwood Dale an unusually high altitude, and many reach their maximum limit in these limestone dales. Equisetum palustre and Nephrodium dilatatum ascend to 2,100 feet on Highfield, and the tway-blade [Listera ovata) to 1,950 feet in Harwood Dale. The whitlow grass {Erophila vulgaris)^ the prickly shield-fern {Aspidium aculeatum)^ and the brittle bladder-fern [Cystopteris fragilis) are found at 1,800 feet on Kilhope and Bleak Law. On the southern slope of Kilhope Law the moonwort [Botrychium Lunarid)^ Gentiana Amarella^ the lady’s mantle [Alchemilla vulgaris)^ and the water cress {Nasturtium officinale) are interesting plants found at an elevation of 1,600 feet. Among other plants peculiar to the limestone the following may be specially mentioned at high elevations : — in Harwood Dale the moor-grass {Sesleria ccerulia), the hairy rock-cress {Arabis hirsuta)^ Scabiosa columbaria^ and the oat- grass {Avena pratensis) ; the vernal sandwort {Arenaria verna)^ frequent throughout the lead country on old lead-mine rubbish ; the stone black- berry {Rubus saxatile) and the rock rose {Helianthemum vulgare) rejoicing in the dry, exposed, rocky surfaces in Burnhope ; on Falcon Clints the carline thistle {Car lina vulgaris) mountain melic-grass {Me lica nutans), the spring gentian {Gentiana verna), and the smaller-flowered species (G. Amarella) blooming later in the autumn, as well as the kidney vetch {Anthyllis vulnerarid) ascending to the plateau on Widdy Bank Fell. The peculiarly rare yellow saxifrage {Saxifraga hirculus) grows in two places in Ireshope at an altitude between 1,200 feet and 1,500 feet. This is a greatly prized Durham species, being known in only two other localities in England — north-west Yorkshire and Westmorland, and it is a plant by no means easy to find. There are one or two stations in Scotland. The alpine penny-cress {Thlaspi alpestre) shows a curious preference for the lead-mines throughout the district. The cranberry {Vaccinium Oxy- coccus) is abundant on all the higher Teesdale and Weardale moors, while the rare bog whortleberry {V. uliginosum) is found only sparingly among the turfy bogs. The alpine variety of the scurvy grass {Cochlearia officinalis) is also very frequent, and is carried down into the low country along the streams. Several species of club-moss {Lycopodium) are widely 37 A HISTORY OF DURHAM distributed amongst the moors. L. clavatum^ alpinum^ and Selago are the most readily detected. Selaginella Selaginoides is frequent along the stream-sides amongst the hills, but its habit renders it very inconspicuous, and it may be easily overlooked without careful search. In all the higher moorlands of Derwent Vale, as well as Teesdale and Weardale, abundant evidence of extinct forest vegetation may be met with. The remains of roots, both of oak and birch, are found, in situ^ deeply buried in the peat, while fallen trunks and branches of birch project freely wherever the peat is exposed. Thick deposits of hazel nuts occur in the beds of peat moss by the sides of the Burnhope Burn, above Wearhead. The oak must certainly be considered truly indigenous in Durham, for enormous trunks and branches are also dug out of all the peat mosses not situated at a great elevation above the river levels. It is well known that at no very remote period vast forests occupied the northern shores of the Wear, which were inhabited by large herds of deer. This has been thoroughly established by the discovery of many animal and vegetable remains during dredging operations undertaken to remove the accumulation of many centuries’ tidal deposits, drift, and debris obstructing the river about 2 miles west of Sunderland.^ From a depth of 10 feet below the bed of the river there were dredged up the trunks and branches of trees, chiefly magnificent specimens of oaks, and large quantities of the antlers of red deer, remarkable for their size and good preservation.* The forest formerly existing in Upper Teesdale was also the haunt of red deer, and it is chronicled that on Rood Day, 1673, above 400 deer were destroyed by a severe storm of snow. Winch observes that ‘ On the elevated moors between Blanchland, at the head of the Derwent, and Wolsingham, on the river Wear, . . . the roots and trunks of very large pines {Finns syhestris) are seen protruding from the black peat moss, being exposed to view by the water of these bogs having drained off and left the peat bare ; but this tree is no longer indi- genous with us. It may be worthy of remark that the Scotch fir does not at this day attain the size of these ancient pines, though planted in similar situations, even though the young trees be protected and the plantations situated at a lower level.’ In the upper parts of the ‘ dales ’ many of the cultivated plants 1 An account of the Ancient Remains found in the bed of the Wear at Claxheugh, contributed to the Transactions of the Tyneside 'Naturalists' Field Club, 1858—60, by F. H. Johnson, M.D. 2 An old Saxon poem, referred to the Danish-Saxon period preceding the Conquest, gives a description of the Wear which helps us to realize the existence of an ancient sylvan vegetation very different from any known at the present day (Hickes’ Jnglo-Saxon Grammas^. ‘ A river of rapid waves ; And there live in it Fishes of various kinds. Mingling with the floods ; And there grow Great forests ; There live in the recesses Wild animals of many sorts; In the deep vallies Deer innumerable.’ 38 BOTANY attain a high limit of successful cultivation. It is, however, very incon- siderable compared to the elevation at which agriculture flourished in former times. In many places over the wild moors the land can be seen to have been furrowed by the plough at a height at which it is quite impossible for corn crops to be obtained at the present day. In 1825 Winch mentions that oats then only grew at some 2,000 feet* above sea- level, wheat at about half that altitude, and barley and rye at stations between these two. In Baker’s Flora (1868), the greatest height given for the oat in Weardale is 1,340 feet, for barley 1,000 feet, and for wheat 750 feet ; but at the present time much of this arable land is laid down for permanent pasture, and the height at which the oat is cultivated is apparently now reduced to about 800 feet. Above the zone of cereal cultivation and reaching to the rough vegetation of the moors are rich old pastures mown annually for hay, in which the useful agricultural grasses and meadow herbage flourish most luxuriantly. The handsome purple heads of the melancholy thistle {Carduus heterophyllus) are often a striking feature among them, and everywhere in these upland pastures there is an abundance of the mountain pansy {Viola luted) in all varieties, from the beautiful dark purple to pale mauve, almost white, and yellow. In the damper spots with coarser herbage these meadows in the spring are a blaze of yellow with brilliant masses of the marsh marigold {Caltha palustris) and globe flowers {Trollius europeeus). The bird’s-eye primrose {Primula farinosd), an exquisitely scented and delicately tinted flower, is also commonly distributed among the more marshy places. The boundary between the different types of vegetation is determined not so much by altitudes as by such conditions as soil, drainage, aspect, etc. For example, on the flanks of Kilhope Law, rich natural pastures are found at an elevation of 1,700 feet, but in Burnhope this sinks down to about 1,400 feet. The truth of this reflection is also exemplified by the unusually high region in which regularly inhabited houses are found in Durham. One farmhouse in Highfield above the lead-mines stands at 2,000 feet above sea-level, and Clough House on Kilhope Law is occu- pied at 1,700 feet. Even approaching this high altitude, around the farmhouses small gardens are common in which potatoes, rhubarb, turnips and cabbages, onions, gooseberries, strawberries, and even a few roses can be grown with success. In favourable situations on the hill- sides at an altitude of 1,600 feet plantations of beech {Fagus syhatica), spruce {Abies excelsa)^ larch {Larix europcea), and Scotch fir {Pinus syhestris), withstand the weather and form valuable woods ; the syca- more {Acer pseudoplatanus) also attains a fair size. The hazel {Corylus Avelland) and alder {Alnus glutinosd) scarcely reach this altitude, and oaks {Quercus Robur) of stunted growth are only met with at a slightly lower level. The common elm {Ulmus campestris)^ which flourishes as a large tree on the western side of the Pennine range, is not indigenous north of the Tees, and even when planted in sheltered situations does not attain any considerable size. The wych elm {Ulmus montand)^ however, 1 It is probable that Winch has here somewhat over-estimated the altitude. 39 A HISTORY OF DURHAM is truly indigenous, and is everywhere abundant in the hedgerows, though now scarcely ascending above 1,200 feet. The scenery of Upper Teesdale with its sub-alpine heights is peculiarly grand and striking. The great basaltic Whin Sill here attains a thickness of over 200 feet, and gives a wild and picturesque character to the landscape. At Cauldron Snout the river thunders through a deep narrow gorge in a fine rush of turbulent waters, forming one of the grandest waterfalls in Britain. None other approaches its fall of 100 feet upon a stream of such volume. Huge fallen boulders and sharp-edged basaltic cliffs form a rugged background ; all around is desolation : not a tree or any sign of habitation interrupts the waste of dreary moorland. A variety of the alpine willow-herb {Epilobium anagallidifoliuni) is an interesting plant found close to Cauldron Snout, and a rare species of sedge [Carex rigidd) should be specially noted here. The purple marsh-cinquefoil {Comarum palustre) also occurs on the swamps near at hand. From a short distance above Cauldron Snout commence low banks of a curious white granular limestone which extend eastwards along the back of Widdy Bank Fell. The main basaltic rock formation, with this coarse ‘ sugar limestone ’ which here overlies it, provides a botanical district quite exceptionally rich in rare and peculiarly Montane species. It is not possible to find in Great Britain any piece of ground of similar area which produces so many extremely rare plants as Widdy Bank Fell. The side of this hill towards the river is faced by precipitous basaltic cliffs known as the Falcon Clints, which extend in jagged, irregular outline for some two miles down the stream. From the other side of the hill over the beds of ‘ sugar lime- stone’ flow several streams in three directions — east, west, and south-east. The following rare plants are mentioned by Baker as occurring upon the crags and the banks of these streams, within an area of four square miles : Viola arenaria. Arenaria uliginosa. Thalictrum alpinum. Draba incana. Potentilla alpestris. Sedum purpureum. — villosum. Saxifraga aizoides. — stellaris. — hypnoides. Galium boreale. Hieracium iricum. — pallidum. — anglicum. Gentiana verna. Arbutus Uva-ursi. Bartsia alpina. Kobresia caricina. Juncus triglumis. Carex capillaris. Sesleria caerulea. Cryptogramme crispa. Asplenium viride. Woodsia ilvensis. Poly podium calcareum. Equisetum variegatum. Poa Parnellii. Galium sylvestre. Tofieldia palustris. Scirpus pauciflorus. Armeria maritima. Primula farinosa. Cronkley Fell presents a bold front on the Yorkshire side of the river ; it rises perpendicularly, repeating precisely the same physical features as its opposite neighbour, and many of the rarities just enumerated are common to both grounds. The Upper Teesdale district generally should be considered to include both the Yorkshire and Durham borders. and many of the very rare plants are quite peculiar to this special region. Near Barnard Castle and Rokeby and further eastwards along the banks of the Tees the delightful woods on both sides of the river are also 40 BOTANY charmingly productive of a similar rich sylvan flora. It should be mentioned that Arenaria uliginosa is a plant only found on the Durham border on Widdy Bank, and it has no other locality in Great Britain. Potentilla fruticosa, with its characteristic bushy growth and pretty yellow flowers, which grows abundantly lower down the stream by the Whet- stone Sill, is found also plentifully on Cronkley Scar, but is known in no other locality in England except sparingly in Cumberland and West- morland. This Whetstone Sill, a flat piece of ground where Langdon Beck and Harwood Beck unite with the main stream a mile above High Force, is a famous botanical ground. Here are first seen the rare species of hawkweed, Hieracium crocatum, gothicum^ and corymbosum, and the tea-leaved willow {Salix phylicifolia) also grows here. The very rare spring gentian, the lovely deep blue Gentiana verna of the Swiss mountains, is to be gathered in plenty about Widdy Bank Fell and in many places on the high limestone pastures. At High Force, five miles below Cauldron Snout the river again contracts into a very narrow channel between high basaltic clilfs, and the water leaps over a precipice with a sheer fall of 70 feet. Birch, beech, elm, and alders spring from the fissures of the dark, smooth-faced cliffs of basalt, and magnificent groups of remarkably fine spruce trees above help to complete a striking picture, with the purple heather-clad fell commanding the background. Weird forms of junipers make a conspicuous feature here and for some distance up the stream along the strath, among the fallen boulders. Here again Potentilla fruticosa grows abundantly, and extends as far down as Middleton, where the basalt comes to an end. Many of the rarer plants of the Widdy Bank plateau get carried down by the stream to a much lower level, and the luxuriant woods which extend for a considerable distance below High Force thus continue to furnish many rare floral beauties dispersed along the rocky banks of the stream. The lily of the valley {Convallaria majalis) and the herb-paris {Paris quadrifolid) hide in the cool recesses of the woods near High Force, and the autumn-flowering crocus {Golchicum autumnale) is a specially rare plant appearing opposite Egglestone. On approaching High Force the upper part of Teesdale loses its distinctively wild moorland character, and plantations of spruce and firs with other well-grown trees appear, giving a much more cultivated aspect. Extensive fir-plantations reach to the top of the moor at Egglestone ; the rare marsh orchid {Malaxis paludosd) has a well- established home on the banks of the Egglesburn, and the cordate tway-blade {Listera cordatd) may also be found near the same spot. Below Egglestone the Tees valley, and below Wolsingham the Wear valley, gradually widen as these rivers emerge from the highlands of the western parts of the county and flow through the less elevated central regions. The high fells still extending between these points and further north now rapidly decline in level. A sinuous line from Barnard Castle through Witton-le-Wear to Wolsingham and then northwards indicates roughly the boundary east of which the coal measures are met with, overlaid for the most part with boulder clay. The principal collieries ^ 41 6 A HISTORY OF DURHAM fall within the drainage tract of the Wear, and in the Auckland valley several very rich mines are worked. Thick seams of coal and the fossilized remains of plants found in the carboniferous formation furnish evidence of a luxuriant vegetation during this period. The fronds of many species of ferns, fragments of the stems of Calamites^ Lepidodendron^ Picea^ Pinites, Sigilaria^ and Stigmaria are among the commonest forms met with in abundance in a good state of preservation. As the moors diminish in extent they are replaced by pasture and arable land. The general vegetation presents few features calling for special remark. The rivers flow for the most part through deeply excavated banks, and the many beautiful ravines and denes in which shade plants love to shelter are characteristic of the whole county. The country is richly wooded, and the numerous well-timbered parks, such as Raby, Winyard, Ravensworth, and Gibside, boast some specially fine trees. Large woods have been planted in some localities, chiefly of Scotch pine and larch. A geological formation which has a marked influence upon the character of the vegetation is the magnesian lime- stone. Speaking generally, this occupies a triangular area eastwards of a line from Shields to Piercebridge, and extending thence as far as the coast, where it ends abruptly in a broken outline of outstanding cliffs. The highest escarpment lies to the west. Between Sedgefield and Darlington the general altitude attains some 300 feet, forming the watershed of the Skerne, a river rising further northwards in the magnesian limestone hills, near Trimdon, here reaching a height of 606 feet, their greatest elevation. The Skerne first flows eastwards, but suddenly turns south-westwards at Hurworth, some six miles from the sea, to follow a winding, sluggish course through Darlington, finally joining the Tees at Croft. A large flat tract of country, consisting for the most part of beds of red sandstone overlaid with boulder clay, occupies this south-eastern part of Durham from Sedgefield to Hartle- pool, and southward to the Tees. The ponds, ditches, and slowly running streams of this district furnish very favourable stations for aquatic plants. Morden, Bradbury, and Preston Carrs, through which the Skerne flows, occupy the site of a former lake, now since the drainage forming a large extent of peaty soil somewhat resembling the fens of the eastern counties. Here, especially along the banks of the Skerne, and around Billingham and Norton, the ditches abound in water plants, among which may be specially mentioned the common meadow rue {Phalictrum Jiaviim)^ the great spearwort {Ranunculus lingua)^ the water crowfoot (jR. Jluitans), the shining pond-weed [Potamogeton lucens)^ the mare’s-tail {Hippuris vulgaris), the water milfoil {Myrtophyllum verticil- latum), the glaucous stitch wort [Stellaria glauca), and the bur-marigold [Bidens tripartita). The following are quite special to these localities, and are not known in the neighbouring county of Northumberland : the frog-bit [Hydrocharis Morsus-rance), the mudwort {Limosella aquatica), the small creeping persicaria {Polygonum minus), the arrow-head {Sagittaria sagittifolia), the great water dock {Rumex hydrolapathutn), the flowering 42 BOTANY rush {Butomus umbel latus)^ and the water violet [Hottoma palustris). The last occurs also near Durham and Sunderland, and finds here its most northern limit. The Hell Kettles, a remarkable series of large deep ponds surrounded by boggy ground and overgrown with rushes and sedges, is a botanical region worthy of note. Here grows the sedge so valuable in the eastern counties for thatching; and, among other rarities, Juncus obtusifolia^ Carex stricta^ the bladderwort {JJtricularia vulgaris)^ the mealy guelder-rose {Viburnum lantand)^ and the rough stonewort {Chara hispida), all denote the peculiar features of a fen vegetation. Iris fcetidissima is a very rare plant found in the damp woods. The flora of the magnesian limestone district is in great contrast to that of the boulder clay and the coal-measures. The warmer, better-drained soil supports again the lime-loving plants, and the special limestone species of the west are thus once more freely met with in the east, with the addition of some nine species which are confined to the magnesian formation. These are the perennial flax the bearded St. John’s wort {Hypericum montanum)^ the sainfoin {Ono- brychis sativd), the woolly-headed thistle {Carduus eriophorus\ the privet {Ligustrum vulgare'), the dwarf orchis [Orchis ustulatd)^ the bee orchis [Ophrys apiferd), the fly orchis (0. musciferd)^ and the upright brome- grass [Bromus erectus). The low hills to the east are intersected by picturesque denes and ravines, in the upper part often so confined as to be impassable, and gradually widening as they approach the shore. A rich flora of shade-loving plants clothes the sides and floors of these denes, and many rare species luxuriate under the protection of the sylvan vegetation. Castle Eden Dene, the most considerable and beautiful of them all, is especially noteworthy as sheltering a much prized orchid peculiar to the limestone, the lady’s slipper [Cypripedium Calceolus), which was once plentifully distributed there, but now requires very careful preservation to save it from extirpation. Some of the rare orchids mentioned above, as well as the narrow-leaved helleborine [Cephalanthera ensifolid), are found in the deep recesses of this and other denes of the magnesian limestone. The coast line of Durham, some forty-five miles in length, lies wholly between the mouths of the rivers Tyne and Tees. Steep grassy slopes alternate with magnesian limestone cliffs, which at Marsden and north of Hartlepool stand out in bold rugged outline; desolate sand dunes stretch along the shore towards the Tees mouth, and are succeeded by salt marshes near Middlesbrough. A long coast line of such varied character is peculiarly favourable for maritime vegetation, and the different physical formations support each their special plant-associations. South of the Tyne lies an open stretch of sand bordered by grass-covered slopes ; here in former days were deposited large heaps of ballast from the vessels entering the Tyne. Similar ballast heaps are to be found at Sunderland and Hartlepool. Baker’s list includes more than 150 species of plants which have been thus introduced, but he states that it rarely happens that any of these ballast introductions ripen seed and spring up 43 A HISTORY OF DURHAM a second time, and so when fresh importations cease they rapidly disappear. Baker considers that the wild mignonette {Reseda luted) ^ the wall rocket {Sinapis tenuifolid) ^ the wild parsnip {Pastinaca sativd)^ and three or four Chenopodiacecs, are all that are likely to have been introduced in this manner. The sand dunes are covered with the grass- like associations of sand-binding plants specially adapted for this situation by their deep roots and creeping rhizomes. Chief amongst these may be mentioned the sea-reed {Ammophila arundinacea)^ the rushy wheat- grass {Triticum junceum)^ and T*. acutum^ the sea lyme-grass {Elymus arenarius)y the sea-barley [Hordeum maritimum) ^ the sea hard-grass {Lepturus Jiliformis), the creeping fescue-grass {Festuca rubra) ^ the hemlock stork’s-bill {Erodium cicutarium)^ and the three species of sea sedges — Carex arenaria^ C. extensa^ and C. distans. A more varied flora is found upon the steep grassy slopes with a wet argillaceous subsoil. Here many plants which are well represented in the vegetation of the upper dales are found in abundance. The graceful ‘ grass of Parnassus ’ [Parnassia palustris) and the glossy yellowish-green rosettes of the butterwort {Pinguicula vulgaris) may be found growing equally well near the Black Hall Rocks and at Langdon Beck. The wild thyme [Phymus Serpyllum), the seaside plantain [Plantago maritima), and many others, are also similarly distributed. The great water horsetail [Equisetum maximum) and Gentiana Amarella are again characteristic plants found plentifully here and at a considerable distance inland. Just above the tidal limits some of the most characteristic maritime plants found are : the sea-rocket {Cakile maritima), the beet {Beta maritima), the sea-purslane {Honkeneja peploides)^ the sea-holly {Eryngium maritimum)^ the hound’s- tongue {Cynoglossum officinale)^ and the red goose-foot {Chenopodium rubrum). The yellow horned poppy {Glaucium luteum) was once plentiful near Seaton Carew, but it is feared that it is now extinct. Peculiar to the salt marshes are the sea-starwort {Aster tripolium), the seaside arrow-grass {Priglochin maritimum), the sea-blite {Suceda maritima)^ and the shrubby sea-purslane {Obione portulacoides). On the limestone cliffs, the sea spleen wort {Asplenium marinum) must be specially mentioned, but it now grows only in the more inaccessible situations. The district coming within the drainage tract of the Derwent extends to the north of the county. The hills are chiefly composed of millstone grit overlying the carboniferous limestone strata, and in the upper part have much the same undulating heathery character as the fells already considered on the west. The sandstone, however, appears more dominant, and the moors consequently are more thickly clothed with heather, the ling {Calluna vulgaris) and Erica cinerea being the most abundant species. The brilliant purple of the heather on these vast sweeps of moorland, and in the spring the perfect blaze of yellow broom, produce an impression of vivid glowing colour which is not readily effaced. The common bracken {Pteris aquilina) everywhere adds its wealth of orange-coloured fronds in autumn. The mountain buckler fern {Neplirodium Oreopteris) grows in great profusion, and sometimes 44 BOTANY clothes the hillsides to the exclusion of all others (Featherstonhaugh), and the hard fern {Lomaria Spicant) is also especially plentiful in the hilly districts and on the edges of the moors. At Edmondbyers may be seen growing the rare little pink flower Erinus alpinus^ which so curiously springs up about the Roman camps. It is supposed to have been brought by Spanish legions, and has thus long survived the old Roman occupation. The limestone is exposed in the bed of the Derwent below Muggleswick, and here the river has carved a deep channel through precipitous banks, and winds in and out through a most romantic and picturesquely wooded retreat locally known as the Sneep. The coal- measures here also first make their appearance, and extend through the lower part of the valley to the mouth of the river. Over a considerable portion of the intervening country, however, thick beds of sand and gravel occur resting upon the boulder clay. This formation results in numerous landslips along the course of the stream, and thousands of tons of ballast have been laid down to counteract the constant undermining of the base of. the hills. The Broad Oak Hills are composed of this sand and gravel upon a bed of clay, and as far down as Winlaton can be seen a mass of boulder clay and gravelly drift forming what is known as Winlaton Mill ‘scaurs.’ Below the Sneep the Vale of Derwent becomes very richly wooded. It possesses large tracts of native wood- land, chief among which may be mentioned the extensive Crown lands of Chopwell, where in former days oak was grown for the Royal Navy. In the sheltered denes the oak fern {Polypodium Dryopteris) grows profusely, often thickly covering the damp bank sides with its fragile, tender green fronds. The lovely delicate beech fern (P. Phegopteris) is also widely distributed in the valley, selecting wet mossy rocks and places within reach of the waterfalls, where its slender creeping rhizomes can spread themselves over the moist surface. Many of the rarer ferns which once grew luxuriantly have been almost exterminated by ruthless collectors. The royal fern {Osmunda regalis)^ for example, was formerly abundant, but has now no native haunt on the Derwent. Though not possessing many specially rare species, the flora is very rich, and most of the ordinary woodland plants are represented in profusion. The fine large purple flowers of the wood crane’s bill {Geranium sylvaticum) produce a lovely effect in masses in the woods, and the foxglove {Digitalis purpurea) is abundantly dispersed, though it becomes scarce north of the Tyne. The daffodil {Narcissus Pseudo-narcissus) grows wild in some of the moist woods, and the rare maiden-pink {Dianthus deltoides) in the hilly pastures in the neighbourhood of Shotley Bridge. The woods everywhere are very favourable to fungus flora, those near Medomsley especially possessing innumerable species. The encroachment of paper mills, ironworks, and collieries has destroyed many good plant stations, and below Swalwell the country gives place to a manufacturing district, extending to the Tyne, of no further interest to the botanist. 45 A HISTORY OF DURHAM NOTES ON THE BOTANICAL DISTRICTS The botanical districts^ which are based upon the river basins^ are : the W ear ^ the Tees^ and the Derwent. THE WEAR DISTRICT The drainage tract of the Wear comprises fully one half of the total area of the county, including the main central portion from east to west. The river rises in the highlands of the west, its actual source being the small Scraith Burn issuing from the head of Burnhope Seat, the highest point in the county. At its junction with another burn descending the eastern slope of Deadstones the stream becomes known as the Burnhope Burn, which, flowing rapidly over a very rocky bed and fed by many little tributaries from the mountain sides, soon gathers force and volume. Above Wearhead (i,ioo feet) this unites with Kilhope and Welhope burns to form the Wear, which has now attained a very considerable size. Westwards of this point extends the region of wildest moorland vegetation. The flora characteristic of the summits has already been described. Rubus chamesmorus is plenti- fully distributed on all the high peaks, but is seldom found lower than 1,500 feet. On the banks by the streams high up in the hills the wild thyme [Thymus Serpyllum) spreads its fragrance everywhere ; and Linum catharticumy Euphrasia officinalisy Polygala vulgaris^ Sagina apetaloy S. nodosa^ Hypericum pulchrum^ and Galium saxatile are freely present on the drier grassy places. Along the more marshy sides of the streams Sedum villosumy with its pretty little purplish star-like flowers, Stellaria uUginosay Saxifraga stellaris, Triglochin palustre^ and Montia fontanay are noteworthy ; while Veronica scutellatay Lychnis floscucuUy Cochlearia officinalisy Ranunculus flammulay and Viola palustris are commonly distributed in the same situations. The swamps abound in species of Juncus and CareXy with here and there the purple flowers of the marsh orchis (0. latifolia) appearing among them. Patches of the pale green rosettes of Pinguicula vulgaris are frequently to be seen, as well as Pedicularis palustris and Drosera rotundifoUa. By the brooksides, up to a height of about 1,300 feet, the rich alluvial land left by the stream forms fine natural pastures in which many varieties of grasses and nearly all the common flowers of the English meadows are represented in profusion. An abundance of the beautiful purple and yellow pansy, Viola luteay is a special feature of these upland meadows, and it extends also to the sandy shores near Frosterley, being carried down to the lower reaches of the stream. In the undrained pastures the abundance of Trollius europaus and Caltha palustris provides a wealth of golden colour ; the frog orchis [Habenaria viridis) is scattered everywhere, and Polygonum viviparum is not unfrequent ; Achillea ptarmica also occurs, and Anemone nemorosa sparingly. Primula farinosa grows freely in the marshy places. At Burnhope there is a curious out-crop of black coaly-looking shale where grow quantities of the sweet-scented Myrrhis odorata. Close by the cliflF is a natural wood of Betulay CoryluSy Salixy and Pyrus aucuparia. In the under- growth are found Pyrola minory Trifolium mediumy Lathyrus tuberosusy Crepis hieracioideSy and Hieracium gothicum and tridentatum. The numerous ‘ hopes,’ which shelter many a rare species, are specially characteristic of Weardale. These branch out in all directions from the main valley, extending into the upper heights of the hills. To the west are Kilhope, Welhope, Burnhope, and Ireshope ; on the south, Swinhope, Westernhope, and Bollihope ; while in a northerly direction the more considerable are Stanhope, Rookhope, and Middlehope. Taxus baccata is truly wild in several places in the district. Botrychium Lunariuy Lycopodium clavatumy L. alpinum and L, Selago are plants to be noted in the higher localities. Asplenium viride grows very abundantly by the burns in Harthope and Ireshope, A. Trichomanes ascending to the scars of Bleak Law. Some very picturesque limestone cliffs known as Clint’s Crags form an interesting feature in the upper part of Ireshope. Here Epilobium angustifoUum appears in great profusion, the rocks being enriched with masses of its spikes of purple flowers ; the marshes in the neighbourhood are a station for the specially rare yellow Saxifraga hirculus. Selaginella Selaginoides is found in abundance, and patches of the fragrant orchid, Habenaria conopsea. The honeysuckle [Lonicera periclymenum) may also be seen growing freely at this height. Many valuable old lead mines exist in the district, for which Arenaria verna and Thlaspi alpestre have a special predilection ; a variety of the latter, T. occitanumy is found north of the stream below Eastgate and by the Grasshill lead mines. At St. John’s Chapel the country becomes less wild and begins to assume a more 46 BOTANY pastoral beauty. Between here and Westgate Rubus villtcaulis, R. infestus^ Lycium barbarum^ and Impatiem bahamifera may be found. The river is here fairly broad, and as the valley descends it widens considerably towards Stanhope, six miles eastward of St. John’s Chapel. High gritstone moors, for the most part clothed with heather, extend on either side of the valley as far as Wolsingham. Stanhope Common lies upwards of i,ooo feet above the town, which itself is some 670 feet above sea-level. It is a large extent of moorland lying on the Millstone Grit above the limestone, which crops out on the hillsides at about 800 to 900 feet. The appearance of the gritstone marks very sharply the boundary between the moor and cultivated ground, the house and walled intakes terminating abruptly at the junction of this strata with the limestone. Heather refuses to grow on the limestone formation, and the vivid green, grassy slopes of the latter thickly covered with trees are in strong contrast to the sudden appearance of the wild, barren-looking heath, and serve to illustrate very strikingly the different character of the two soils. Calluna vulgaris forms the main mass of the vegetation of the moor, among which are interspersed Empetrum nigrum^ Vaccinium Myrtillus^ Festuca ovina^ Juncus squarrosus, and the procumbent Galium saxatile. In the damper spots are Sphagnum and Polytrichum communis^ while the reindeer moss [Cladonia rangiferina) is frequently to be seen. Bollihope Burn enters the main stream near Frosterley, and in the lower part of the glen through which it flows the last outcrop of the limestone is exposed to view in the fine cliffs of Bishopley Crag. Festuca sylvatica, a rare plant in Durham, grows in Bollihope Dene, and F. rubra^ usually associated with sandy shores, ascends to 750 feet on Bollihope Moor. Bushes of yellow broom and furze {Cytisus scoparius and Ulex europaus) brighten the rocky shores of the river ; and in the shady woods which now border its banks are beautiful masses of sweet cicely, Myosotis sylvestris^ the sweetly odorous Asperula odorata^ and other woodland forms, including Arum maculatum and Orchis mascula. At Wolsingham the Waskerley Beck flows into the Wear from the north, and a little lower down above Witton-le-Wear the Bedburn, with its many tributaries, enters it on the south. Scutellaria minor is plentiful on the Wolsingham moors, and other notable plants known in the same neighbourhood above Shull are the rare Malaxis paludosa^ Dianthus deltoideSy and D. Armerioy the latter springing up after the ling has been burnt. Trientalis europaa and Convallaria majalis exist in Shull woods. From high up in the moors near the Tees a considerable stream runs through the Auckland valley and joins the Wear at Bishop Auckland. Here the main river, which has hitherto taken a course to the south-east, turns sharply northwards, and then continues in a north-easterly direction with many a devious turn till it finally reaches the sea at Sunderland. On the left bank the tributaries of the Deerness and the Browney drain a large extent of moorish coal country. Bryonia dioica is not uncommon about Bishop Auckland, and the rare Gagea lutea is found in the woods in this locality. Calamintha Nepeta should be noted on the banks of the Wear near Durham, and Atropa belladonna (the deadly nightshade), as well as the very rare Colchicum autumnale in the damp meadows. Leaving Brancepeth Park on its western slope the Wear passes directly through the city of Durham, which occupies a magnificent site on the edge of the moorland, and flows through richly wooded banks past the ruins of Finchale Abbey and the stately parks and castles of Lumley and Lambton. In the flat country and low-lying woods below Durham some of the more interesting plants are the wild daffodil (Narcissus Pseudo-narcissus), Neottia Nidus-avis, Rosa arvensis, Melica nutans. Astragalus glycyphyllos, and Limosella aquatica. For the last four miles the river cuts through the magnesian limestone eastwards to the sea. The largest area of magnesian limestone is included in this drainage tract. Numerous denes extend into the heart of the range, opening out more widely to the sea. The most extensive is the very beautiful dene of Castle Eden, well known to botanists as a station for the now very rare Cypripedium Calceolus. Taxus baccata flourishes luxuriantly here, and introductions, such as Larix leptolepis and Rosa rugosa, have found a congenial home. These sheltered denes of the magnesian limestone afford favourable conditions for the growth of many orchidaceous plants ; among the more remarkable species scattered generally in these situations are Neottia Nidus-avis, Epipactis palustris, Cephalanthera ensifolia, and Ophrys muscifera. Ligustrum vulgare, Cornus sanguinea, and Lithospermum officinale are truly wild in these denes, and among other plants worthy of mention are Hypericum montanum, Lactuca muralis, Erigeron acris. Inula Helenium, Petasitis fragrans, Equisetum maximum, Paris quadrifolia, Scolopendrium vulgare. Daphne laureola, and Campanula latifolia. Primula farinosa is frequent about the streams that issue from the magnesian limestone. Dispersed all along the coast are Orchis ustulata, O. pyramidalis and Ophrys apifera. 47 A HISTORY OF DURHAM THE TEES DISTRICT The Tees, rising in Cumberland on the slopes of Cross Fell, first enters Durham at its junction with the Crookburn Beck which flows southwards from Yad Moss. It continues a fairly level course for some miles, spreading into a still expanse of water forming the Weel, in which are found Potamogeton rufescem and an abundance of Ranunculus peltatus. Immediately below this, at Cauldron Snout, the river contracts into a narrow channel and, falling to a depth of 100 feet, tumbles over a series of rocky ledges. Rushing through a deepening basaltic gorge by a succession of cataracts the turbulent waters at last emerge from the narrow chasm, and by a final leap broaden out, fan-like, into a torrent of boiling foam. The Maze Beck enters just below the Snout, and then the stream flows swiftly over a very rocky bed, taking an irregular winding course to the sea. Beyond the Weel extends a bare, desolate waste of moors with not a tree to be seen, these heights being a part of the main limestone formation. Carex r'lgida and Epilobium alpinum are rare plants growing here. On Bleak Law, at an elevation of i,8oo feet, occur Draba incana^ Erophila vulgaris^ Asplenium v'tride and Cystopteris fragilis. On Widdy Bank Fell a special abundance of very rare plants is found, among them Gentiana verna^ Arenaria uliginosay Ehalktrum alptnunty Potentilla alpestrisy Viola arenariay and Carex capillaris. On the north side the fell appears as a rounded sloping hill, the summit covered with heather. Heather clothes also the steep cliffs which face the Tees and which terminate to the south-west by perpendicular basaltic crags known as the Falcon Clints. Among the talus of sharp rocks some of the familiar plants which it is interesting to observe have established themselves are : Oxalis acetosellay Geranium Robertianum and lucidumy Asplenium Adiantum-nigrumy Pteris aquilina and Polypodium vulgar e ; the rare Saxifraga aizoides and hypnoides and Sedum telephium are also plentifully seen. Juniper bushes cling to the crevices of the basaltic columns with here and there a solitary moimtain ash, while Solidago virgaureay Eeucrium Scorodoniay Fragraria vescay Corylus Ave liana y Sanguisorba officinaky Digitalis purpurea and Campanula rotundifoUa find a home among the rocks and heather. On these clints also many special species appear, such as Woodsia ilvensisy Aspidium Lonchitisy Potentilla alpestrisy Arctostaphylos Uva-ursiy y uncus triglumisy Kobresia caricinuy Hieracium iricumy H. anglicum and H. pallidum. To these may be added others, all noteworthy, growing on the banks of the various streams which flow outwards from Widdy Bank Fell, such as Bartsia alpinuy Sedum villosuniy Saxifraga stellarisy Galium borealcy G. Sylvestrey Sesleria cesrulwy Cryptogramme crispay Poly- podium calcareumy Equisetum variegatumy Poa ParneUiiy Eofieldia palustris and Scirpus pauciflorus. Armeria maritima is found plentifully on one of the little streams running from the sugar limestone. This upper drainage tract of the Tees is separated into two distinct dales, the one formed by the Tees itself and the other by the Harwood Beck running almost parallel with it from north to south. Langdon Beck flows in the same direction through a narrower valley to the west, and taking a south-easterly turn joins Harwood Beck at Langdon Bridge. Their united streams flowing southwards meet with the Tees about a mile above High Force. At this meeting of the waters on the flat piece of ground known as the Whetstone Sill Potentilla fruticosay an extremely rare plant, grows most luxuriantly. The peculiarly rare Bartsia alpina grows here too, but most abundantly a little higher up by the Whey Sike, and from the Widdy Bank streams it is carried down to Harwood Beck. Habenaria albida is found plentifully near the same point, as well as Hieracium gothicumy corymbosumy and crocatumy all rare species, extending also for some distance down the stream. It is difficult to tread anywhere hereabouts without finding a profusion of Gentiana Amarella. In Harwood Dale numerous species of the commoner lowland plants ascend to a considerable altitude. To give a few instances ; Lychnis diurnay Geranium sylvaticumy Spiraa ulmariay Ajuga reptansy and Briza mediuy are found on the limestone scars at an elevation of 1,650 feet ; Pedicularis palustris and Plantago media attain a limit of 1,700 feet, Poa trivialis l,8oo feet, while Listera ovatOy Rumex crispusy Achillea ptarmicay and Apargia hispida reach a limit of 1,950 feet. Erollius europaus and Caltha palustris form a very conspicuous feature of Teesdale, spreading themselves in quantity over the whole valley above High Force. The deep blue Swiss gentian [Gentiana verna) is abundantly distributed in several places, Fendrith Hill, Widdy Bank Fell, and above Cauldron Snout being favourite localities of this lovely flower. Primula farinosa also grows in plenty in the marshy places, especially about Langdon Dale. The very rare Vaccinium uliginosum occurs sparingly on the boggy parts of the moor above High Force, and in the drier more sandy ground fasione montana has established a home. From Cauldron Snout to the head of High Force the river declines in level 430 feet, and then rushes in a great sheet of foam over a precipice some 78 feet high, forming a very 48 BOTANY beautiful waterfall. Perpendicular rocks line the sides of the stream for some distance, and the banks are still craggy and precipitous almost as far down as Middleton. The river receives four feeders from the north between High Force and Egglestone — the burns of Ettersgill, Bowlees, Hudshope, and Egglesburn, in the first of which there is a pretty little waterfall called Hell Cleft. Saxifraga aizoides appears again on the rocks towards High Force, and some other of the rarer plants on Widdy Bank are carried down as far as Eggleston, a distance of some seven miles. H'teracium anglicum^ H. iricum^ Potentilla alpestris and Thalictrum alpinutn descend to Winch Bridge, a favourite station for some of the stray plants from the heights of Falcon Clints ; the rare horsetail, Equhetum umbrosum^ is found as low as Middleton, and Saxifraga stellaria reaches to Eggleston. The flora beyond this point is of a more ordinary woodland type. Jquilegla vulgaris should be noted truly wild in the vicinity of Middleton, and Pyrus Aria at Winch Bridge. The woods near High Force contain a very rich vegetation. A great wealth of many-coloured lichens clothes the black smooth rocks and trunks of the trees, masses of the curious green lichen, Usnea barhata^ depend from many of the branches, and a rich fungus-flora is found in the damp, decaying undergrowth. The wild raspberry {Rubus idcsus') is common, and the lily of the valley {Convallaria majalis) is plentiful in the shade of the woods, as well as Paris quadrifoHa^ Myosotis sylvestris^ and the large Campanula latifoUa. Below High Force the valley descends rapidly and soon becomes well-wooded, though still girdled by the high ridges of Newbiggin (2,215 feet), Middleton (1,990 feet), and Eggleston (1,590 feet) moors. A stream rising north of Barnard Castle on the edge of the moors at Langley Dale flows through Raby to Staindrop, where it is joined by one flowing through Streatlam Park, and their united waters enter the main river near Gainford, a station for Turritis glabra. The limestone reappears below Barnard Castle, and fine cliffs border the Tees for some miles. Rumex aquaticus is an uncommon northern plant descending the dale from Widdy Bank to Barnard Castle ; it is also recorded at Piercebridge (Wheldon). From Piercebridge, where the magnesian limestone commences, right to the Tees mouth, the river traverses flat low country through which flow many sluggish tributaries. It follows a very winding course, and between Croft and Dinsdale twists and turns in truly serpentine fashion. The damp woods in this district provide many specially rare plants, among which may be mentioned Colchicum autumnaky Iris fcetidissimay Ophrys apifera^ O. musciferoy Orchis ustulatUy Allium scorodoprasumy and Ruscus aculeatus. Other noticeable plants in the locality are ; Chenopodium glaucumy Spiraa Filipendulay Stachys ambiguOy Euonymus europauSy Trifolium fragiferumy Bryonia dioicay Hypericum Androsamumy Linum perenncy and Symphytum officinale and Rhamnus catharticuSy both rare in the county. Viola odora is frequent in the woods. The slowly running streams and ditches of this flat country furnish an abundance of aquatic plants, a number of which have already been mentioned in connection with the Skerne and Morden Carrs. The becks in the neighbourhood of Stockton, Norton, Billingham, and Greatham also provide good stations for such plants. Sparganium ramosumy S. simpleXy Typha latifoliay T. angustifoliay (Enanthe phellandriumy Zannichellia palustrisy Nasturtium sylvestrey N. terrestrcy Samolus valerandiy Potamogeton plantagineuSy P. densuSy and P. gramineus are among those not given previously. In the salt marshes at the mouth of the Tees and salt-water ditches along the coast are ; Obione portulacoideSy Aster tripoliumy Statice limoniumy Ranunculus Baudotiiy Artemisia maritimay Salicornia herbaceay Sueda maritimuy A triplex littoralisy Triglochin maritimumy Ruppia maritimay Agrostis albay Juncus maritimay J. compressuSy Scirpus rufusy glaucuSyZxvA maritimus. To the previous list of plants growing on the sand-dunes the following may be added ; Glaux maritimay Armeria maritimay Plantago coronopuSy Atriplex portulacoideSy A. Babingtoniiy Glyceria distanSy G. procumbenSy G. loUaceay Thalictrum minuSy Seneberia coronopuSy and Salsola Kali. Growing in the sea are the two monocotyledonous plants, Zostera marina and Z. nana. THE DERWENT DISTRICT For the greater part of its course the Derwent forms the northern limit of the county, only a small area to the north-east extending the boundary along the Stanley Burn to the Tyne at Wylam. The river takes its rise by two branches, the Knucton Burn on the south and the Beldon Burn on the north. The latter rises beyond the county limit near to Allenheads, the high ridge of Knucton Edge which separates the two streams forming the western confines of the district. At the head of Knucton Burn the ridge attains a height of 1,833 from this a range of high fells extends for several miles due east to Bolt’s Law, which has an elevation of 1,772 feet. Some interesting plants may be 49 7 I A HISTORY OF DURHAM found on the banks of the Beldon and Knucton Burns, such as Salix laurina, S. nigrlcanSy Narthedum ossifragurrty Galium boreahy Saxtfraga stellarisy and S. aizoides. Fida cracca and Oxalis acetosella are common lowland plants ascending to 1,500 feet, nearly to the source of the Knucton Burn. A little lower down, at Bay Bridge, Bolt’s Burn joins the main stream. At this height, for the distance of a mile along the side of the Derwent, extends a narrow belt of pasture land and dense wood. A fine profusion of the mountain pansy, Viola luteay is again met with here. The high ground above Blanchland and Edmondbyers provides some of the rarest plants in the district.^ Vacdnium Oxycoccus and Rubus chamamorus occur, though not very plentifully, as well as Bartsia alpinay Apium graveolenSy Parnassia palustrisy Anagallis temlloy and Malaxis paludosa. In the woods at Roughside are Carduus heterophylluSy Pyrola mediay and Prientalh europaa. Among orchi- daceous plants the butterfly orchis {Jiabenaria bifolid)y H. albidoy H. viridisy Orchis laUfoUay Gymnadenia conopseay and Epipactis ladfolia are all to be found in the locality. The next important stream to be received is the Burnhope Burn, which, taking its rise in Bolt’s Law, drains Muggleswick Common and the valley between Edmondbyers and Muggles- wick. The woods in this neighbourhood are a very profitable botanical hunting ground, the seam of mountain limestone which appears here supporting plants favouring this formation. Ligustrum vulgarcy plentiful on the magnesian limestone of the coast and indigenous only on calcareous ground, is to be found in these woods. Primula farinosa grows in several localities hereabouts, and Listera cordata on the Muggleswick Moors. Some little distance lower down, the Hyshope Burn and the Horsleyhope Burn, both issuing from the fells above Muggleswick, unite to pour their waters into the main stream. It is near this point that the main limestone appears in the bed of the Derwent. The tortuous windings of the river here traverse the picturesquely wooded district of the Sneep, where Neotda Nidus-avis may be found growing among the rich humus of the rotting leaves. Turning north the stream now leaves the vast sweep of moorland behind and proceeds for nearly the whole of its further course through a piece of country of great sylvan beauty. On the high ground on the east bank the collieries and iron-works which have sprung up have laid waste a considerable area, and the paper-mills, which pollute the stream in the beautiful neighbourhood of Shotley Bridge, may have affected some plant stations. The somewhat rare Dianthus deltoideSy however, is still found in the hilly pastures near Shotley Bridge [its only other locality in the district being a pasture field near Edmond- byers (Featherstonhaugh)] and Narcissus Pseudo-narcissus grows wild in considerable quantity at Allansford, as well as Aquilegia vulgaris. Orobanche major is frequently found in this neighbourhood parasitic upon the broom. The many species of ferns which grow so luxuriantly in the shady woods of the Derwent are treated separately, and few of the numerous woodland plants merit special mention. A deep rose-coloured variety of Anemone nemorosay the tint of which remains permanent under cultivation, is found in a wood near Shotley (Featherstonhaugh). Some uncommon plants are met with in Gibside Woods. The lily of the valley {Convallaria majalis) and Carduus heterophyllus may be mentioned as growing here, the latter also to be found in several places on the banks of the Derwent. Considerable tracts of land in the district are occupied by flourishing plantations, fine belts of fir trees predominating in the upper reaches of the valley. The most extensive natural woods are those of Chopwell and Gibside. Axwell Park, approaching within a mile of Derwenthaugh where the river flows into the Tyne, also contains some magnificent beeches ; the white water-lily {Nympheea alba) grows in a pond in the park, and Stachys ambigua is a plant worth mentioning which finds a home there. A species of horsetail, Equisetum hyemaky rare in the county, may be found in the boggy woods on the banks of the stream in its lower reaches. On the west side of the river, and parallel with it, a small stream runs through a wooded dene to the Tyne at Blaydon. On the east side the Team drains the coal country south of Newcastle, the finely timbered park at Ravens- worth forming a pleasant feature on its banks. Many interesting plants were once known in the vicinity of Gateshead, south of the Tyne — Selaginella SelaginoideSy for example, on Gateshead Fell — but they are long since exterminated, the stations being built over or destroyed by the smoky, deleterious atmosphere. All plant-life in close proximity to the Tyne is now injuriously affected by the manufactories and chemical works on its banks. * Most of the species here enumerated are recorded by the Rev. W. Featherstonhaugh. Transactions of the Vale of Derwent Naturalists' Field Club, iv. 50 BOTANY A LIST OF THE FLOWERING PLANTS OF DURHAM OBSERVATIONS The order and nomenclature of the following list are those of Sir J. D. Hooker’s Siudenfs Flora of the British Islands^ 3rd Edition, 1884. The numbers after the specific names refer to the zones of altitude. The authorities made use of in this account are the admirable Flora of Northumberland and Durham^ by Baker and Tate,^ and Winch’s Essay on the Geographical Distribution of Plants through the counties of Northumberland, Cumberland and Durham (1825), together with the author’s own observations. The list of flowering plants and ferns is that of Baker’s Flora ; the species marked * are added from a list by Mr. J. A. Wheldon. Mr. W. Ingham, B.A., has been kind enough to contri- bute the sections on Mosses and Liverworts, and the Rev. W. Johnson that on the Lichens. LIST OF FLOWERING PLANTS DICOTYLEDONES. Ranunculace^ Thalictrum alpinum, L. 2 — minus, L. i — flexuosum, Reich, i — flavum, L. i Anemone nemorosa, L. i, 2 Adonis autumnalis, L. Alien. i Myosurus minimus, L. i Ranunculus heterophyllus, Fries, i, 2 — marinus, Fries., var. Baudotii, Godr. — fluitans, Lamk. i — hederaceus, L. i — lingua, L. I — flammula, L. I, 2 — auricomus, L. I, 2 — sceleratus, L. i — acris, L. i, 2, 3 — repens, L. i, 2, 3 — bulbosus, L. 1,2 — arvensis, L. i — ficaria, L. i, 2 — parviflorus, L. i Caltha palustris, L. i, 2, 3 Trollius europaeus, L. i, 2, 3 Helleborus foetidus, L. i — viridis, L. i Aquilegia vulgaris, L. I Delphinium Ajacis, L. Alien, i Berberide.?: Berberis vulgaris, L. i Nymphaeace.® Nuphar luteum, Sm. i Papaverace® Papaver hybridum, L. Colonist. I — argemone, L. Colonist, i Papaverace® {continued) Papaver dubium, L. Colonist. l — rhoeas, L. Colonist, i — somniferum, L. Alien, i Chelidonium majus, L. I Glaucium luteum, Scop, i Fumariace® Fumaria capreolata, L. Colonist. l sub-sp. *confusa, Jord. var. Boraei, Jord. „ pallidiflora, Jord. — officinalis, L. Colonist, i Corydalis claviculata, DC. i Crucifer® Cheiranthus Cheiri, L. Alien, i Nasturtium officinale, R. Br. i, 2, 3 — sylvestre, R. Br. i — palustre, DC. i Barbarea vulgaris, R. Br. i — praecox, R. Br. Alien, i Arabis hirsuta, R. Br. i, 2 — perfoliata, Lamk. i Cardamine hirsuta, L. i, 2, 3 sub-sp. flexuosa, With. — pratensis, L. i, 2, 3 — amara, L. i Sisymbrium thaliana, Hook, i, 2 — Sophia, L. I — officinale. Scop, i — alliaria, Scop, i Hesperis matronalis, L. Alien, i Brassica campestris, L. sub-sp. rapa, L. Colonist, i, 2, 3 ,, napus, L. Colonist, i, 2, 3 — nigra, L. Colonist, i — sinapis, Visiani. Colonist, i, 2 — alba, Boiss. Colonist, i, 2 'Natural History transactions of N orthumberland and Durham, ii., 1867-68. 51 A HISTORY OF DURHAM CauciFERi® {continued) Diplotaxis tenuifolia, DC. I Draba incana, L. 2 Erophila vulgaris, DC. i, 2 Cochlearia officinalis, L. i, 2, 3 sub-sp. alpina, Wats. ,, danica, L. — anglica, L. i Capsella Bursa-Pastoris, Moench. i, 2 Senebiera coronopus, Poiret. i — didyma, Pers. Alien. Lepidium latifolium, L. I — campestre, R. Br. i sub-sp. Smithii, Hook. l Thlaspi arvense, L. i — alpestre, L. i, 2, 3 var. sylvestre, Jord. „ occitanum, Jord. Cakile maritima. Scop, i Raphanus Raphanistrum, L. l, 2 RESEDACEiE Reseda Luteola, L. i — lutea, L. I ClSTINE.® Helianthemum vulgare, L. l, 2, 3 V lOLACEi® Viola palustris, L. i, 2, 3 — odorata, L. i — hirta, L. i — canina, L. I — sylvatica. Fries, i, 2, 3 — arenaria, DC. 2 — tricolor, L. i, 2 sub-sp. Lutea, Huds. i, 2, 3 PoLYGALE.^: Polygala vulgaris, L. i, 2, 3 Caryophylle^ Dianthus Armeria, L. l — deltoides, L. I Saponaria officinalis, L. i Silene maritima. With, i, 2 — Cucubalus, Wibel. i — noctiflora, L. i Lychnis Flos-cuculi, L. i, 2, 3 — diurna, Sibth. i, 2 — vespertina, Sibth. 1 Githago segetum, Desf. i, 2 Cerastium quaternellum, Fenzl. I — tetrandrum, Curtis, i — semidecandrum, L. I — glomeratum, Thuill. i, 2 — triviale. Link, i, 2, 3 — arvense, L. i Stellaria nemorum, L. i, 2 — *aquatica. Scop. — media, Vill. i, 2, 3 — Holostea, L. i, 2 — palustris, Ehrh. i Caryophylle/e {continued) Stellaria graminea, L. 1,2 — uliginosa, Murr. i, 2, 3 Arenaria verna, L. ij 2, 3 — uliginosa, Schl. 2 — trinervis, L. i — serpyllifolia, L. i — peploides, L. i Sagina apetala, L. i sub-sp. maritima, Don. 1 — procumbens, L. i, 2, 3 — nodosa, E. Mey. !> 2, 3 Spergula arvensis, L. i Spergularia rubra, Pers. i — salina, Presl. i — media, Pers. i PoRTULACEi^: Montia fontana, L. i, 2, 3 var. rivularis, Gmel. Hypericine.® Hypericum Androsaemum, L. I — perforatum, L. i — quadrangulum, L. i, 2 — humifusum, L. 1,2 — pulchrum, L. 1,2 — hirsutum, L. i — montanum, L. i — calycinum, L. Alien Malvace.® Malva sylvestris, L. I — rotundifolia, L. i — moschata, L. i TiLIACEi?: Tilia vulgaris, Hayne. l Line.® Linum perenne, L. i — catharticum, L. i, 2 Geraniace^^: Geranium sanguineum, L. I — sylvaticum, L. i, 2 — pratense, L. i, 2 — molle, L. I, 2 — pusillum, L. I — columbinum, L. i — dissectum, L. i — Robertianum, L. i, 2 — phaeum, L. Alien, i — lucidum, L. 1,2 Erodium cicutarium, Sm. i Oxalis acetosella, L. i, 2, 3 iLICINEiE Ilex Aquifolium, L. i EMPETRACEi?: Empetrum nigrum, L. i, 2, 3 CELASTRINEi^: Euonymus europaeus, L. 1 52 BOTANY Rhamne.® Rhamnus catharticus, L. l SAPINDACEi® Acer campestre, L. i — pseudo-platanus, L. I, 2 LEGUMINOSi® Genista tinctoria, L. i — anglica, L. i Ulex europaeus, L. i, 2 — nanus, L. sub. sp. Gallii, Planch, i Cytisus scoparius, Link, i, 2 Ononis spinosa, L. i, 2 — antiquorum, L. I Medicago sativa, L. Alien — lupulina, L. i, 2 — *falcata, L. Melilotus officinalis, Desr. i Trifolium arvense, L. i — pratense, L. i, 2, 3 — medium, L. I, 2 — striatum, L. I — scabrum, L. I — repens, L. i, 2, 3 — fragiferum, L. I — procumbens, L. I — dubium, Sibth. I — filiforme, L. I Anthyllis vulneraria, L. 1,2 Lotus corniculatus, L. i, 2 var. major. Scop, i, 2 Astragalus glycyphyllos, L. l — hypoglottis, L. i Ornithopus perpusillus, L. I Onobrychis sativa, Lam. i Vicia hirsuta, Koch, i — tetrasperma, Koch, i — Cracca, L. i, 2 — sylvatica, L. I — sepium, L. i — sativa, L. 1,2 — lathyroides, L. i Lathy rus pratensis, L. i, 2 — macrorrhizus, Wimm. i, 2 RoSACEiE Prunus communis, Huds. I — Avium, L. I, 2 — padus, L. I, 2 Spirasa Ulmaria, L. 1,2 — Filipendula, L. i — salicifolia, L. Alien, i Rubus Chamasmorus, L. 2, 3 — saxatilis, L. i, 2 — Idasus, L. I, 2 — fruticosus, L. sub-sp. suberectus. And. i, 2 var. plicatus, Weihe sub-sp. Rhamnifolius (cordyfolius, Weihe). I „ corylifolius, Sm. i RosACEiE {continued) Rubus fruticosus {continued) sub-sp. caesius, L. I „ discolor, Weihe. i ,, leucostachys, Sm. i ,, villicaulis, Weihe. i „ umbrosus, Arrh. i „ radula, Weihe. I „ Kochleri, Weihe. i var. infestus, Weihe. ,, pallidus, Weihe. i Geum urbanum, L. 1,2 — rivale, L. i, 2, 3 var. ^intermedium, Ehrh. Fragraria vesca, L. 1,2 Potentilla fruticosa, L. i, 2 — comarum, L. i, 2, 3 — tormentilla, Nesl. i, 2, 3 — anserina, L. i, 2 — reptans, L. i — fragrariastrum, Ehrh. i, 2 — salisburgensis, Haenke. i, 2 — argentea, L. i Alchemilla arvensis, Lam. i — vulgaris, L. i, 2, 3 Agrimonia Eupatoria, L. I Poterium sanguisorba, L. i — officinale. Hook, i, 2 Rosa spinosissima, L. 1,2 — viliosa, L. I, 2 sub-sp. tomentosum, Sm. i, — rubiginosa, L. i — canina, L. i, 2 var. lutetiana, Leman. ,, dumalis, Bechst. ,, urbica, Leman. ,, dumetorum, Thuill. ,, Borreri, Woods, i — involuta, Sm. i var. sabini. Woods. I „ Robertsoni, Baker. 1 — arvensis, Huds. i — hibernica. Smith, i var. cordifolia. Baker, i Pyrus Malus, L. 1,2 — Aria, Sm. i var. rupicola, Syme — Aucuparia, Gasrtn. i, 2 Crataegus oxyacantha, L. 1,2 sub-sp. monogyna, Jacq. Saxifrage^e Saxifraga stellaris, L. i, 2, 3 — Hirculus, L. 2 — aizoides, L. i, 2 — tridactylites, L. i — granulata, L. i, 2 — hypnoides, L. 2, 3 Chrysosplenium alternifolium, L. i — oppositifolium, L. i, 2, 3 53 A HISTORY OF DURHAM Saxifrages {continued) Parnassia palustris, L. i, 2 Ribes grossularia, L. i — alpinum, L. i — rubrum, L. i, 2 var. petraeum, Sm. — nigrum, L. I Crassulaces Sedum telephium, L. i, 2 var. purpureum, Tausch. 2 — villosum, L. 1,2 — album, L. I, Alien — acre, L. i, 2 — rupestre, Huds. Alien — reflexum, L. Alien Sempervivum tectorum. Alien Droseraces Drosera rotundifolia, L. i, 2 Halorages Hippuris vulgaris, L. I Myriophyllum verticillatum, L. I — spicatum, L. i Callitriche, verna, L. i, 2 sub-sp. platycarpa Kutz. i, 2 ,, pedunculata, DC. i, 2 Lythraries Lythrum salicaria, L. I Peplis portula, L. I Onagraries Epilobium angustifolium, L. i, 2 — hirsutum, L. i — parviflorum, Schreb. i, 2 — montanum, L. i, 2 — roseum, Schreb. Alien, i — palustre, L. i, 2 — obscurum, Schreb. i, 2 — alsinefolium, Vill. i, 2, 3 — anagallidifolium, Lam. 2, 3 Circaea lutetiana, L. I CuCURBITACES Bryonia dioica, L. I Umbellifers Hydrocotyle vulgaris, L. i Eryngium maritimum, L. I Sanicula europaea, L. i Conium maculatum, L. i Smyrnium olusatrum, L. I Bupleurum rotundifolium, L. I — tenuissimum, L. i Apium graveolens, L. i — nodiflorum, Reich, i — inundatum, Reich, i Carum Carui, L. Alien, i — petroselinum, Benth. Alien Sium angustifolium, L. i iEgopodium podagraria, L. 1,2 Pimpinella saxifraga, L. 1,2 — major, Huds. l Umbellifers {continued) Conopodium denudatum, Koch, i, 2, 3 Myrrhis odorata. Scop, i, 2 Scandix pecten-Veneris, L. Colonist, i, Chaerophyllum temulum, L. i Anthriscus vulgaris, Pers. i — sylvestris, HofFm. i, 2, 3 sub-sp. cerefolium, Hoffm. — *Foeniculum officinale. All. CEnanthe fistulosa, L. i — Lachenalii, Gmel. I — crocata, L. i — phellandrium, Lam. I yEthusa Cynapium, L. i Silaus pratensis, Bess, i Angelica sylvestris, L. 1,2 Peucedanium ostruthium, Koch. Alien — sativum, Benth. i Heracleum Sphondylium, L. i, 2 Daucus carota, L. i Caucalis daucoides, L. Colonist. — anthriscus, Huds. i, 2 — nodosa. Scop. 1 Araliaces Hedera Helix, L. I, 2 CORNACES Cornus sanguinea, L. i Caprifoliaces Viburnum Lantana, L. Alien — Opulus, L. I, 2 Sambucus Ebulus, L. i — nigra, L. I Adoxa Moschatellina, L. Lonicera Periclymenum, L. i, 2 — Xylosteum, L. Alien Rubiaces Galium verum, L. i, 2 — Cruciata, Scop, i, 2 ' — palustre, L. !> 2, 3 — uliginosum, L. i, 2 • — saxatile, L. i, 2, 3 ■ — sylvestre. Poll, i, 2 — Mollugo, L. I sub-sp. *erectum, Huds. — boreale, L. i, 2 — Aparine, L. I, 2 — tricorne. With, i Asperula odorata, L. I, 2 Sherardia arvensis, L, i Valeriane.® Valeriana dioica, L. i, 2, 3 — officinalis, L. 1,2 Valerianella olitoria, Moench. I — dentata, Poll, i Dipsace^ Dipsacus sylvestris, L. I Scabiosa succisa, L. i, 2 — Columbaria, L. I, 2 — arvensis, L. l 54 BOTANY Composite Eupatorium cannabinum, L. l Aster tripolium, L. i Erigeron acre, L. i Beilis perennis, L. i, 2, 3 Solidago Virgaurea, L. I, 2 Inula Helenium, L. i Pulicaria dysenterica, Gaert. I Gnaphalium sylvaticum, L. i — uliginosum, L. i Antennaria dioica, Br. I, 2 Filago germanica, L. Colonist. l — minima, Fries, i Bidens cernua, L. l — tripartita, L. I Anthemis arvensis, L. Colonist, i — Cotula, L. Colonist. I — nobilis, L. I Achillea Ptarmica, L. i, 2, 3 — Millefolium, L. i, 2, 3 Matricaria Chamomilla, L. i — inodora, L, i var. maritima, L. i Chrysanthemum segetum, L. Colonist — Leucanthemum, L. I, 2 — Parthenium, Pers. i Tanacetum vulgare, L. i Artemisia vulgaris, L. i, 2 — Absinthium, L. I, 2 — maritima, L. I Petasites vulgaris, Desf. l Tussilago Farfara, L. i, 2, 3 Doronicum Pardalianches, L. Alien Senecio vulgaris, L. 1,2 — sylvaticus, L. i — viscosus, L. I — Jacobaea, L. i, 2 — erucaefolius, L. i — aquaticus, Huds. i, 2 Arctium Lappa, L. i sub-sp. minus, Schk. i, 2 Carlina vulgaris, L. 1,2 Centaurea nigra, L. i, 2 — Scabiosa, L. i — Cyanus, L. Colonist. l — solstitialis, L. Alien Serratula tinctoria, L. i Carduus nutans, L. i — crispus, L. 1,2 — pycnocephalus, Jacq. 1 Cnicus lanceolatus, Hoffm. i, 2 — eriophorus, HofFm. i, 2 — arvensis, Hoffm. i, 2, 3 sub-sp. *setosus, Bess. — palustris, Hoffm. i, 2 — heterophyllus, Willd. i, 2 Onopordium Acanthium, L. Alien Cichorium Intybus, L. i Lapsana communis, L. 1,2 Picris hieracioides, L. i CoMPOSiTi® {continued) Picris echioides, L. i Crepis virens, L. I — taraxacifolia, Thuill. I — hieracioides, Waldst. & Kit. i, 2 — paludosa, Mcench. i, 2, 3 Hieracium Pilosella, L. i, 2, 3 — Anglicum, Fries, i, 2 sub-sp. Iricum, Fries, i, 2 — murorum, L. i, 2 sub-sp. caesium. Fries. i, 2 sub-sp. pallidum. Fries. i, 2 — sylvaticum, Sm. i, 2, 3 sub-sp. gothicum. Fries, i, 2 sub-sp. tridentatum, Fries, i, 2 — prenanthoides, Vill. l — umbellatum, L. i — crocatum. Fries, i, 2 sub-sp. corymbosum. Fries. i, 2 — boreale. Fries, i, 2 Hypochceris radicata, L. i, 2 Leontodon hirtus, L. I — hispidus, L. I, 2, 3 — autumnalis, L. i, 2, 3 Taraxacum officinale, Web. i, 2, 3 var. palustre, DC. var. laevigatum, DC. Lactuca virosa, L. I — muralis, Fresen. i Sonchus arvensis, L. i — oleraceus, L. i sub-sp. asper, Hoffm. Tragopogon pratensis, L. i, 2 Campanulace.^: Jasione montana, L. I, 2 Campanula rotundifolia, L. i, 2, 3 — Rapunculus, L. Alien, i — latifolia, L. I, 2 — rapunculoides, L. Alien — glomerata, L. i Specularia hybrida, DC. Colonist Ericace/e Vaccinium Myrtillus, L. i, 2, 3 — uliginosum, L. i, 2, 3 — Vitis-idaea, L. I, 2, 3 — Oxycoccus, L. I, 2, 3 Arctostaphylos Uva-ursi, Spreng. i, 2 Erica Tetralix, L. I, 2, 3 — cinerea, L. i, 2 Calluna vulgaris, Salis. i, 2, 3 Pyrola minor, L. i, 2 — media, Suz. i — rotundifolia, L. I PLUMBAGINEi^: Armeria vulgaris, Willd. i, 2 Statice limonium, L. i PRIMULACEi® Primula vulgaris, Huds. i, 2 var. *caulescens. 55 A HISTORY OF DURHAM PrimulacEj?: {continued) Primula veris, L. i, 2 — farinosa, L. i, 2 Lysimachia vulgaris, L. 1 — nemorum, L. i, 2, 3 — Nummularia, L. i Trientalis europasa, L. i, 2 Glaux maritima, L. i Anagallis arvensis, L. Colonist, i var. casrulea, Sm. Colonist. l — tenella, L. i Hottonia palustris, L. i Samolus valerandi, L. l Oleace^ Ligustrum vulgare, L. i Fraxinus excelsior, L. i, 2 Apocynace^ Vinca minor, L. Alien — major, L. Alien Gentiane^ Erythrasa Centaurium, Pers. l Gentiana campestris, L. i, 2 — Amarella, L. i, 2 — verna, L. 2 Menyanthes trifoliata, L. l Boragine^ Echium vulgare, L. I Symphytum officinale, L. l Lithospermum officinale, L. l — arvense, L. i Myosotis palustris. With, i sub-sp. repens, Don. i, 2, 3 — casspitosa, Schultz, i — sylvatica, Ehrh. i, 2 — arvensis, Hoffm. 1,2 — collina, Hoffm. i — versicolor, Reichb. I, 2 Cynoglossum officinale, L. i CoNVOLVULACE^ Convolvulus arvensis, L. l — sepium, L. i — Soldanella, L. I Cuscuta Epithymum, Murr., var. trifiolii, Bab. Colonist SoLANACEi^: Hyoscyamus niger, L, i Solanum Dulcamara, L. i — nigrum, L. Colonist, i Atropa Belladonna, L. I Lycium barbarum, L. Colonist, i, 2 Plantagine^ Plantago major, L. i, 2, 3 — media, L. i, 2 — lanceolata, L. i, 2, 3 — maritima, L. i, 2 — Coronopus, L. i ScROPHULARINE^ Verbascum Thapsus, L. l ScROPHULARiNE^ {continued) Linaria cymbalaria. Mill. Alien — vulgaris. Mill, i — minor, Desf. i Antirrhinum majus, L. Alien Scrophularia nodosa, L. 1,2 — aquatica, L. i Mimulus luteus, L. Alien Limosella aquatica, L. I Digitalis purpurea, L. i, 2 Veronica agrestis, L. Colonist. 1,2 sub-sp. polita. Fries. Colonist. 1 — Buxbaumii, Ten. Colonist, i — hederifolia, L. I — arvensis, L, i, 2 — serpyllifolia, L. i, 2, 3 — officinalis, L. i, 2 — Chamasdrys, L. i)2, 3 — Montana, L. i — scutellata, L. i, 2 — Beccabunga, L. i, 2, 3 — Anagallis, L. i Bartsia alpina, L. 2 — odontites, Huds. i, 2 Euphrasia officinalis, L. i, 2, 3 Rhinanthus Crista-galli, L. i, 2, 3 sub-sp. major, Ehrh. i Pedicularis palustris, L. i, 2 — sylvatica, L. 1,2 Melampyrum pratense, L. 1,2 — sylvaticum, L. i Lathraea squamaria, L. i Orobanche^ Orobanche major, L. l — elatior, Sutt. i Lentibularine.® Pinguicula vulgaris, L. i, 2, 3 Utricularia vulgaris, L. i Verbenace® Verbena officinalis, L. i Labiat® Mentha rotimdifolia, L. i — viridis, L. i — piperita, L. i — sativa, L. sub-sp. gentilis, L. ,, rubra, Sm. „ gracilis, Sm., var. cardiaca, Baker — aquatica, L. i — arvensis, L. i — pulegium, L. l Origanum vulgare, L. 1,2 Thymus Serpyllum, L. i, 2, 3 Calamintha nepeta, Clairv. i — clinopodium, Benth. i, 2 — Acinos, Clairv. i Nepeta Cataria, L. i Brunella vulgaris, L. 2, 3 56 BOTANY LABiATiE {continued) Scutellaria galericulata, L. I — minor, L. i Marrubium vulgare, L. l Stachys sylvatica, L. i, 2 — ambigua, Sm. i, 2 — palustris, L. 1,2 — arvensis, L. Colonist. l — Betonica, Benth. i, 2 Galeopsis, Ladanum, L. I — dubia, Leers, i — Tetrahit, L. Colonist sub-sp. speciosa, Miller, i Lamium purpureum, L. i, 2, 3 sub-sp, hybridum, Vill. — amplexicaule, L. i — album, L. I Ballota nigra, L. i var. ruderalis. Fries. Teucrium Scorodonia, L. i, 2 Ajuga reptans, L. i, 2 Illecebrace^e Scleranthus annuus, L. I Chenopodiace.e Chenopodium Vulvaria, L. l — album, L. i — urbicum, 1^. Colonist — murale, L. Colonist — rubrum, L. i — glaucum, L. I — Bonus-Henricus, L. I, 2 Beta maritima, L. l Atriplex patula, L. x var, angustifolia, Sm, sub-sp. Hastata, L. i ,, Babingtonii, Woods. l — littoralis, L. i — laciniata. Woods. l — portulacoides, L. i Salicornia herbacea, L. i Salsola Kali, L. i Sueda maritima, Dumort. l Polygonace.® Polygonum Bistorta, L. i, 2 — viviparum, L. i, 2 — amphibium, L. X — lapathifolium, L. x — Persicaria, L. x, 2 — Hydropiper, L. x — minus, Huds. x — aviculare, L. x, 2 — Raii, Bab. x — Convolvulus, L. Colonist, x Rumex obtusifolius, L. x, 2 — acutus, L. I, 2 — maritimus, L. X — crispus, L. X, 2, 3 — sanguineus, L. x — conglomeratus, Murr. i Polygonace® {continued) Rumex Hydrolapathum, Huds. — aquaticus, L. i, 2 — Acetosa, L. i, 2, 3 — Acetosella, L. x, 2 T HYMEL® ACE® Daphne Laureola, L. I — Mezereum, L. Euphorbiace® Euphorbia Helioscopia, L. x — Peplus, L. Colonist, x — exigua, L. Colonist, x — Lathyris, L. i Mercurialis perennis, L. i, 2 — annua, L. x Urticace® Ulmus montana, Sm. x, 2 — suberosa, Ehrh. x Urtica urens, L. x, 2 — dioica, L. i, 2, 3 Parietaria officinalis, L. x Humulus Lupulus, L. x Cupulifer® Betula alba, L. x, 2 sub-sp. glutinosa, Fries. Alnus glutinosa, Gaertn. x, 2 Quercus Robur, L. x, 2 var. sessiliflora, Salisb. ,, intermedia, D. Don. Fagus sylvatica, L. x, 2 Corylus Avellana, L. x, 2 Carpinus Betulus, L. Colonist Salicine® Populus alba, L. x sub-sp. canescens, Sm. 1 — tremula, L. x, 2 Salix triandra, L. x — pentandra, L. x, 2 — fragilis, L. x, 2 — alba, L. i var. casrulea, Sm. ,, vitellina, L. — Caprea, L. i, 2 — aurita, L. i, 2 sub-sp. cinerea, L. x, 2 — repens, L. i, 2 — nigricans. Fries, x, 2 var. rupestris, Sm. ,, Andersoniana, Sm. ,, hirta, Sm. — phylicifolia, L. X, 2 — laurina, Sm. x, 2 — viminalis, L. x, 2 — Smithiana, Willd. x, 2 — purpurea, L. x, 2 var. Helix, L. — rubra, Huds. x X 57 8 A HISTORY OF DURHAM CERATOPHYLLEiE Ceratophyllum demersum, L. l GYMNOSPERM^ Conifers Pinus sylvestris, L. i, 2 Juniperus communis, L. I, 2 Taxus baccata, L. i MONOCOTYLEDONES Hydrocharide/e Hydrocharis Morsus-Ranae, L. i Elodea canadensis, Michx. i ORCHIDEi?: Malaxis paludosa, Sw. i, 2 Neottia Nidus-avis, L. i Listera ovata, Br. i, 2, 3 — cordata, Br. i, 2, 3 Epipactis latifolia, Sw. i — palustris, Sw. i Cephalanthera ensifolia. Rich, i Orchis mascula, L. I — latifolia, L. i, 2 — maculata, L. i, 2 — Morio, L. I — ustulata, L. I — pyramidalis, L. I Ophrys apifera, Huds. l — muscifera, Huds. i Habenaria conopsea, Benth. l, 2 — albida, Br. i, 2 — viridis, Br. i, 2 — bifolia, Br. i sub-sp. Chlorantha, Bab. i, 2 Cypripedium Calceolus, L. l Iride.® Iris Pseudacorus, L. I — fcetidissima, L. i Amaryllide^e Narcissus Pseudo-narcissus, L. l — biflorus. Curt. Alien. I DiOSCOREiE Tamus communis, L. l Liliace>^: Ruscus aculeatus, L. Alien. 1 Convallaria majalis, L. I, 2 Allium vineale, L. I — Scorodoprasum, L. I — Schoenoprasum, L. I — oleraceum, L. i — ursinum, L. i, 2 Scilla nutans, L. i, 2 Ornithogallum nutans, L. Alien. I Tulipa sylvestris, L. Alien, i Gagea lutea, Ker. i Colchicum autumnale, L. I Narthecium ossifragum, L. i, 2 Liliace^ {continued) Tofieldia palustris, Huds. i Paris quadrifolia, L. 1,2 JUNCEiE Juncus effusus, L. i, 2, 3 var. conglomeratus, L. i, 2 — glaucus, Ehrh. i, 2 — maritimus, Sm. i — triglumis, L. 2 — castaneus, Sm. Alien — squarrosus, L. i, 2, 3 — compressus, Jacq. I — obtusiflorus, Ehrh. i — articulatis, L. i, 2 sub-sp. supinus, Moench. i, 2, 3 „ lamprocarpus Ehrh. i, 2, 3 — bufonius, L. I, 2 Luzula maxima, DC. i, 2, 3 vernalis, DC. i, 2 — campestris, Willd. i, 2, 3 var. erecta, Desv. 2, 3 Typhace^ Sparganium ramosum, Huds. i — simplex, Huds. i — natans, L. i Typha latifolia, L. i — angustifolia, L. i AROIDEi^: Arum maculatum, L. r LEMNACEiE Lemna minor, L. i — trisulca, L. i Alismace^ Alisma Plantago, L. i — ranunculoides, L. l Sagittaria sagittifolia, L. l Butomus umbellatus, L. 1 Naiadace^ Triglochin palustre, L. 2, 3 — maritimum, L. i Potamogeton natans, L. i — polygonifolius, Pourr. i, 2 — plantagineus, Du Croz. i — rufescens, Schrad. i, 2 — heterophyllus, Schreb. i — lucens, L. i — perfoliatus, L. I — crispus, L. I — densus, L. i — zosterifolius, Schum. i — pusillus, L. I — pectinatus, L. I Ruppia maritima, L. l Zannichellia palustris, L. I Zostera marina, L. i — nana, Roth, x 58 BOTANY CvPERACEyE Eleocharis palustris, Br. i sub. sp. uniglumis, Link, i — multicaulis, Sm. i — acicularis, Sm. i Scirpus lacustris, L. i sub-sp. tabernaemontani, Gmel. — maritimus, L. i — sylvaticus, L. i — setaceus, L. i — fluitans, L. i — caespitosus, L. i — pauciflorus, I/ightf. I — Caricis, Retz. i, 2 — rufus, Wahlb. i Eriophorum vaginatum, L. i, 2, 3 — polystachion, L. i, 2, 3 sub-sp. latifolium, Hoppe, i, 2 Rhynchospora alba, Vahl. i Schoenus nigricans, L. l Cladium Mariscus, L. i Kobresia caricina, Willd. 2 Carex pulicaris, L. i, 2 — dioica, L. i, 2 — disticha, Huds. I — arenaria, L. i — paniculata, L. I — muricata, L. i — vulpina, L. i — echinata, Murr. i, 2, 3 — remota, L. i — leporina, L. i, 2 — canescens, L. i, 2 — rigida. Good. 2, 3 — acuta, L. i — stricta. Good, i — Goodenovii, J. Gay. i, 2, 3 — glauca, Murr. i, 2, 3 — pallescens, L. i, 2 — panicea, L. i, 2, 3 — capillaris, L. 2 — pendula, Huds. I — praecox, Jacq. 2 — pilulifera, L. I, 2 — hirta, L. i, 2 — extensa. Good, i — flava, L. I, 2 — distans, L. i sub-sp. fulva. Good, i, 2 — binervis, Sm. i, 2 — sylvatica, Huds. i — vesicaria, L. i — ampullacea, Good, i, 2 — riparia. Curt, i — paludosa. Good, i, 2 Gramine.^: Phalaris canariensis, L. Alien, i — arundinacea, L. i 2 Gramine^e {continued) Anthoxanthum odoratum, L. i, 2, Alopecurus agrestis, L. Colonist — pratensis, L. i, 2, 3 — geniculatus, L. i, 2, 3 Millium efFusum, L. i I Phleum pratense, L. i, 2 — arenarium, L. I Agrostis canina, L. 1,2 — vulgaris. With, i, 2, 3 — alba, L. i Calamagrostis epigeios, Roth, i Apera Spica-venti, Beauv. Colonist Ammophila arundinacea. Host, i Aira caryophyllea, L. I — praecox, L. i, 2 Deschampsia flexuosa, Trin. i, 2, 3 — caespitosa, Beauv. i, 2, 3 Holcus lanatus, L. i, 2 — mollis, L. I, 2 Trisetum flavescens, Beauv. i, 2 Avena fatua, L. Colonist, i — strigosa, Schreb. Colonist, i, 2 — pratensis, L. i, 2 — pubescens, Huds. i, 2, 3 Arrhenatherum avenaceum, Beauv. var. bulbosum, Lindl. Triodia decumbens, Beauv. i, 2. Phragmites communis, Trin. i Sesleria caerulea. Scop, i, 2 Cynosurus cristatus, L. i, 2, 3 Koeleria cristata, Pers. i, 2 Molinia caerulea, Mcench. i, 2 Catabrosa aquatica, Beauv. i Melica nutans, L. 1,2 — uniflora, Retz. i, 2 Dactylis glomerata, L. 1,2 Briza media, L. 1,2 Poa annua, L. i, 2, 3 — pratensis, L. i, 2, 3 — compressa, L. i — trivialis, L. i, 2, 3 — nemoralis, L. i, 2 var. Parnellii, Bab. Glyceria aquatica, Sm. i — fluitans, Br. i, 2 var. plicata, Fr. i — maritima, Wahlb. i — distans, Wahlb. i — procumbens, Dumort. I Festuca elatior, L. 1,2 — pratensis, Huds. i, 2 — gigantea, Vill. i — sylvatica, Vill. i — ovina, L. i, 2, 3 sub-sp. duriuscula, L. l> 2, 3 sub. sp. rubra, L. i var. *arenaria, Osb. — uniglumis, Sol. i — rigida, Kth. i 59 A HISTORY OF DURHAM Gramine^ {continued^ Festuca loliacea, Huds. i Bromus asper, Murr. i, 2 — erectus, Huds. i — sterilis, L. i — mollis, L. I, 2 — secalinus, L. Colonist — commutatus, Schrab. I Brachypodium sylvaticum, R. & S. i, 2 Lolium perenne, L. i, 2 — temulentum, L. Colonist Agropyrum caninum, Beauv. i, 2 Gramineae {continued) Agropyrum repens, Beauv. i, 2 var. littorale, Reichb. sub-sp. acutum, R. & S. i — junceum, Beauv. i Lepturus filiformis, Trin. i Nardus stricta, L. i, 2, 3 Hordeum sylvaticum, Huds. i — pratense, Huds. I — murinum, L. i — maritimum. With. I Elymus arenarius, L. l CRYPTOGAMS FERNS AND FERN ALLIES The family of the Vascular Cryptogams is well represented in this county ; eighteen out of the twenty-five genera are known, and these comprise rather more than half the British species. The shady denes, together with the great extent of limestone scars and grits, furnish suitable conditions under which flourish many species of ferns. Of the ferns proper several are worthy of special notice. The royal fern {Osmunda regalis) at one time grew luxuriantly on the banks of the Derwent and in other parts of the county, but it has been sadly uprooted by enterprising gardeners and tourists, and has now nearly disappeared. Woodsia ilvensis, a peculiarly rare plant recorded from Falcon Clints, it is feared is now almost extinct. Except in Westmorland it has no other locality in England. The rare parsley fern {Cryptogramme crispd) has a wide range, growing in profusion on the basaltic crags near Holwick below High Force, and very generally on rocks of the millstone grit, ascending to 2,000 feet on Stangend Rig. Near Stanhope and also in the Derwent valley it may still be found. The oak fern {Polypodium Dryopteris) and the beech fern (P. Phegopteris) grow sparingly in Castle Eden Dene, and ascend to 1,500 feet in the Vale of Derwent. Here these delicately beautiful forms flourish most luxuriantly, and in favourite haunts clothe the damp banks with a dense dwarf forest of tender green. Three species of the buckler fern {Nephrodium) — N. Oreopteris^ the male fern {N. Filix-mas)^ and N. dilatatum — are commonly met with ; while the fourth, N. spinulosum^ is only recorded from Walridge Fell. The mountain buckler- fern {N. Oreopteris) is very plentiful in all the hilly districts, growing most luxuriantly in the higher ranges of the Derwent valley, where N. dilatatum is also found in beautiful profusion in the Muggleswick Woods. The rare hay-scented buckler-fern {N. amulum) is found sparingly in the upper part of the Derwent district (Featherstonhaugh). The rare crested buckler-fern {N. cristatum) occurs very locally at Edmondbyers (Feather- stonhaugh). The lady fern {Athyrium Filix-fcemina\ with its two varieties rhceticum and molle^ is common among the woods and rocks. The limestone species of Asplenium, the wall rue {A. Ruta-muraria) , the black spleen wort {A. Adiantum-nigrum) ^ and the maidenhair spleenwort {A. Frichomanes) are frequent on the scars. The green spleenwort 60 BOTANY {A, viride) is found on Falcon Clints and abundantly in Harthope and Ireshope in Weardale. The sea spleenwort {A. marinum)^ once plentiful on the magnesian limestone cliffs, is now only to be found in the most inaccessible places. The brittle-bladder fern [Cystopteris fragilis) grows at Castle Eden Dene, and flourishes wherever sufficient moisture can be obtained on the limestone rocks in the upper valleys of the county. The hard fern [Lomaria Spicant) is very widely distributed, and especially abundant on the hills and edges of the moors, ascending to the highest points. The moonwort {Botrychium Lunarid) cannot be said to be rare in Durham. The writer has found it at an altitude of 1,700 feet on the flanks of Kilhope Law, and it may frequently be noted in Burnhope, Rookhope, and Langdon Dale. The adder’s-tongue [Ophioglossum vulgatum) is also widely distributed, ascending to 1,300 feet, where the writer found well-grown specimens near the black shales in Burnhope. Among the Equisetacea (horse-tails) eight species are recorded. The beautiful Equisetum maximum is not uncommon in the woods on the river banks, descending to the cliffs of magnesian limestone near Black- ball Rocks, and in Castle Eden Dene it forms a veritable forest of green umbrageous growth. E. arvense, commonly known as the ‘paddock pipe,’ is freely dispersed, and gives rise to considerable trouble by reason of its long, creeping rhizomes entering and blocking up the deep field drains. The graceful E. syhaticum ascends to 1,600 feet in Harwood, and is met with in all the damp woods. E. variegatum, E. limosum^ and E. palustre^ are also widespread, the latter reaching 2,100 feet on Highfield ; E. hyemale occurs more generally on the lower ground in boggy woods. Of the Lycopodiacece (club-mosses) the three species of Lycopodium — the stag’s-horn moss (L. clavatum)^ L. alpinum, and L. Selago — are found on the highest fells, while the tiny Selaginella Selaginoides grows commonly in the upper parts of Weardale and Teesdale, and at one time found a home on Gateshead Fell. LIST OF FERNS AND FERN ALLIES Order Filices Tribe II. Polypodiea. Pteris aquilina, L. Cryptogramme crispa, Br. Lomaria Spicant, Desv. Asplenium Ruta-muraria, L. — Trichomanes, L. — viride, Huds. — marinum, L. — Adiantum-nigrum, L. Athyrium Filix-foemina, Bernh. var. molle, Roth. „ rhaeticum, Roth. Scolopendrium vulgare, Sm. Woodsia ilvensis, Br. Cystopteris fragilis, Bernh. Aspidium Lonchitis, Sw. — aculeatum, Sw. — angulare, Willd. Nephrodium Filix-mas, Rich. Order Filices {continued) Nephrodium cristatum. — spinulosum, Desv. — dilatatum, Desv. — aemulum, Baker. — Oreopteris, Desv. Polypodium vulgare, L. — Phegopteris, L. — Dryopteris, L. — calcareum, Sm, Tribe III. Osmundcce. Osmunda regalis, L. Tribe IV. Ophioglossece. Ophioglossum vulgatum, L. Botrychium Lunaria, Sw. Order Equisetace/e Equisetum arvense, L. — maximum, Lamk. — pratense, Ehrh. A HISTORY OF DURHAM Order Equisetace^ {continued) Equisetum sylvaticum, L. Order LvcopoDiACEi® Lycopodium clavatum, L. — alpinum, L. — Selago, L. — palustre, L. — limosum, L. — hyemale, L. Order SELAGINELLACEi®. Selaginella Selaginoides, Gray. — variegatum, Schleich, MOSSES {Musci) The county is peculiarly rich in these plants, owing to its abundant moisture and shade, and to its wonderfully varied surface. Two parts of the county have been particularly well worked for mosses. These are Teesdale and Weardale. There is a good list of workers in the former interesting dale, and some very rare plants have been found. Other parts of the county have been dealt with only casually, and the mosses found appear in the appended list. The rarer and more interesting are located as follows : — Pylaisia polyantha^ discovered about Darlington as a British plant in 1833 (Backhouse), is not so rare in Durham as elsewhere. It has been found chiefly on old hawthorn at Gainford, Coniscliffe, Mowden Lane, Walworth, and also on stones at Walworth (Barnes). At Winston Bridge on the Durham side grows the very rare moss Anomodon longifolius. Here also are Barbula sinuosa^ Pottia Heimii, P or tula papulosa^ Mnium stellare^ Fissidens crassipes^ FMrhynchium crassinervium in fruit, Eurhynchium tenellum^ and Plagiothecium depressum. At Piercebridge are found Pottia intermedia and Tortu/a angustata. The interesting Orthotrichum pallens grows near Darlington, and the pretty little Orthotrichum stramineum at Gainford and Winch Bridge. If we now proceed to the Tees mouth we find the flat golden tufts of Fortula ruraliformis all along the sand hills among the stunted grass, but in the flat sandy tracts at Snook Point we have a series of maritime mosses of particular interest. They are Bryum calophyllum, Bryum Warneum, Bryum lacustre, and Swartzia inclinata^ all of which also grow on Coatham Marshes across the river mouth. One plant of this associa- tion growing at Coatham, viz., Bryum Marratii, has not yet been found in Durham, but is likely to occur. On the banks of the Tees we find an abundance of mosses from Barnard Castle to the High Force, both on the walls and rocks and on the trees by the roadside, the chief ones on the trees being Orthotrichum Lyellii and Orthotrichum affine. Bryum uliginosum grows by the roadside all the way from Barnard Castle to the High Force Inn (Spruce). At Winch Bridge occur Mnium stellare and Orthotrichum stramineum.^ and below the bridge Hypnum Sommerfeltii. At the High Force among the basaltic rocks are Orthotrichum rupestre.^ Bartramia Halleriana, Ceratodon conicus, Hypnum incurvatum., Frichostomum tenuirostre, and Cynodontium Bruntoni; and on the river bank close by the two varieties plumulosum and plumosum of Hypnum uncinatum, both in fruit. In the small plantation close by the High Force are Ulota crispula, Antitrichia curtipendula., Orthotrichum pulchellumy and XJlota Bruchii, the last being the 62 BOTANY plant recorded (Spruce) as abundant in Upper Teesdale under the name of TJlota Drummondii. There is considerable evidence now that Vlota Bruchti was mistaken for TJlota Drummondii^ which was not well understood in former times (Dixon). On a small patch of boggy ground close by this plantation and growing amongst tall grasses and shrubs are some interesting bog mosses {Sphagna) ^ the rarest being Sphagnum Girgensohnii, vars. commune and hygrophilum (Horrell). Proceeding along the road up the river we soon reach the large mountain Widdy Bank Fell, which supports a wealth of rare mosses probably unsurpassed anywhere else in England. By a stone on the fell the pretty Dicranella heteromalla var. sericea fruits freely, although invariably barren elsewhere. On the boggy slope of the fell is an abundance of Catoscopium nigritum^ associated with what is usually a high alpine moss, var. compactum of Bryum pendulum. Close by grows the rare and golden-coloured moss Hypnum lycopodioides^ and the interesting Cinclidium stygium. On the top of the fell, growing among bog mosses [Sphagna) , is the very rare Campy lopus setiformis ; but the rarest moss in the British Isles is found here, the only habitat. This is ‘Tetraplodon Wormskioldii^ found in 1870 (Slater), but undetermined until refound in 1901 (Horrell and Jones). This is a moss of the arctic regions, but the Teesdale plant is conspicuous for the large size of its leaves, these being considerably longer and wider than in a specimen collected in Lapland (Schimper). Widdy Bank Fell is exceedingly rich in forms of bog moss [Sphagna)^ there being nearly twenty-eight species and eighty- one varieties on this fell alone (Horrell). The rarest of these are Sphagnum Girgensohnii^ S. Russowii, S. WarnstorJH^ S. quinquefarium, S. molle., S. teres^ S. parvifolium, S. imbricatum, and S. medium. Of these the usually rare S. imbricatum^ S. Russowii and S. medium occur in great abundance and luxuriance (Horrell). In boggy land near the Cauldron Snout are great mounds of S. imbricatum^ and S. fuscum, which have been noticed there for twenty or more years (Horrell). At the foot of Widdy Bank and on the banks of the Tees are Hypnum Patientia, and Cynodontium polycarpum var. laxirete, the latter known only elsewhere from Glenlyon, Perthshire. Proceeding now to the fine vertical cliffs of basalt called Falcon Clints, which form the edge of the Widdy Bank on the left bank of the Tees, we find in the chinks and on the ledges of rock a wonderful association of rare mosses. The genus Rhabdoweisia has here all its three species represented, denticulata^ and crenulata. The genus Weisiah represented by tortilis, crispata^ and several varieties of rupestris, including the new variety affinis. The beautiful vivid green Bryum Mildeanum is here, as also Dicranum falcatum^ Pterogonium gracile, Cylindrothecium con- cinnum, Trichostomum nitidum^ Diphyscium foliosum var. acutifolium, Hedwigia ciliatUy Andreaea petrophila var. acuminata., and Funaria Fempletoni. On limestone rocks above the dints is Hylocomium rugosum, and at the foot of the dints Archidium alter nifolium. Curving round these dints up the river we reach the Cauldron Snout, where the hitherto still, deep waters 63 A HISTORY OF DURHAM of the Tees plunge over an immense cliff of basalt. This is the home of Zygodon lapponicus in the fissures of the rocks, of the very rare and delicate Bryum concinnatuni, of T’etraphis Browniana on the underside of stones, and again of Catoscopium nigritum. Returning from Cauldron Snout over the flat top of Widdy Bank we reach a small pool supporting an exceedingly large form of Hypnum giganteum associated with the equally fine Hypnum revohens var. Cossoni forma falcata. We now reach Langdon Beck, and among the calcareous drift of this river valley is the very rare and minute moss Amblystegium Sprucei. Other rare mosses occur in this valley. On the top of the road into Weardale is a small bog supporting two rare plants, the bog moss Sphag- num Gravetii^ and the Harpidium, Hypnum exannulatum var. purpurascens. Descending the Weardale road we reach Ireshope Burn, containing many mosses, the chief being the minute Seligeria Doniana, and Seltgeria pusilla growing on its limestone dints, and Hypnum filicinum var. gracilescens^ Weisia rupestris var. intermedia ^ and Burhynchium pumilum close by. In a pool near this burn float large masses of Hypnum exannulatum var. steno- phyllum. Our next stream, Burnhope Burn, is of particular interest to the bryologist. At its side in a spring is Philonotis adpressa in fruit, the only place in England for this. Deeply imbedded in the gravelly drift of its bank are Dichodontium pellucidum vars. compactum and fagimontanum, and IVeisia viridula var. densifolia. On the large boulders in the upper part of the stream are huge masses of Hypnum ochraceum, and on the walls near it is an abundance of Barbula recurvifolia. By the side of Kilhope Burn are the rare mosses Weisia crispata^ Bryum pallescens, Amblystegium yuratzkanum and Hypnum jiuitans var. ovale. Ascending the Kilhope road to the top of Burnhope Seat, we again meet with Cylindrothecium concinnumy and on the top of the Seat is a massive growth of Hypnum fluitans Nzr. falcatum fruiting by a pool. Weardale is remarkable for the abundance of fruit on the mosses. Bryum pallens and Philonotis fontana are crowded with fruit on the gravelly drift by the burns. On the side of Sedling Burn is a huge mass of boulder clay covered with a brown carpet of capsules of a very tall and compact growth of Philonotis fontana, associated with a very tall and compact growth of Dicranella varia. LIST OF MOSSES Sphagnum fimbriatum, Wils. — Girgensohnii, Russ. var. commune, Russ. „ cristatum, Russ. „ hygrophilum, Russ. „ stachyodes, Russ. ,, xerophilum, Russ. — Russowii, Warnst. var. flavescens, Russ. „ poecilum, Russ. „ rhodochroum, Russ. Sphagnum Russowii, Warnst. {continued) var. virescens, Russ. — Warnstorfii, Russ. var. purpurascens, Russ. „ versicolor, Russ. „ viride, Russ. — rubellum, Wils. var. flavum, C. Jens. „ pallescens, Warnst. „ purpurascens, Warnst. „ rubrum, Grav. 64 BOTANY Sphagnum rubellum, Wils. {continued) var, versicolor, Russ. „ viride, Warnst. — fuscum, Klinggr. var. fuscescens, Warnst. „ pallescens, Russ. — acutifolium, R. & W. var. chlorinum, Warnst. „ flavo-rubellum, Warnst. „ fusco-virescens, Warnst. „ griseum, Warnst. „ obscurum, Warnst. „ pallescens, Warnst. ,, purpurascens, Warnst. ,, roseum, Warnst. ,, rubrum, Warnst. ,, versicolor, Warnst. ,, viride, Warnst. — quinqucfarium, Warnst. var. fusco-flavum, Warnst. ,, pallescens, Warnst. ,, roseum, Warnst. ,, virescens, Warnst. — subnitens, R. & W. var. flavescens, Warnst. ,, flavo-rubellum, Warnst. ,, obscurum, Warnst. ,, pallescens, Warnst. ,, purpurascens, Schlicph ,, versicolor, Warnst. ,, violascens, Warnst. „ virescens, Warnst. — molle, Sulliv. — squarrosum, Pers. var. spectabile, Russ. — teres, Angstr. var. imbricatum, Warnst. ,, squarrosulum, Warnst. ,, subsquarrosum, Warnst. — cuspidatum, R. & W. var. falcatum, Russ. „ plumosum, N. & H. ,, submersum, Schimp. — recurvum, R. & W. var. amblyphyllum, Warnst. ,, mucronatum, Warnst. — parvifolium, Warnst. — molluscum, Bruch — compactum, DC. var. imbricatum, Warnst. ,, subsquarrosum, Warnst. — inundatum, Warnst. — Gravetii, Warnst. — rufescens, Warnst. — imbricatum, Russ. var. cristatum, Warnst. ,, sublaeve, Warnst. — cymbifolium, Warnst. var. fusco-flavescens, Russ. „ glaucescens, Warnst. Sphagnum cymbifolium, Warnst. {cont.) var. pallescens, Warnst. — papillosum, Lindb. var. normale, Warnst. ,, sublaeve, Limpr. — medium, Limpr. var. glaucescens, Russ. „ obscurum, Warnst. ,, purpurascens, Warnst. ,, roseo- pallescens, Warnst. „ roseum, Warnst. ,, versicolor, Warnst. Andreaea petrophila, Ehrh. var. acuminata, Schimp. — alpina, Sm. — Rothii, W. & M. var. falcata, Ldb. — crassinervia, Bruch. Tetraphis pellucida, Hedw. — Browniana, Grev. Catharinea undulata, W. & M. Polytrichum urnigerum, L. — alpinum, L. Polytrichum piliferum, Schreb. — formosum, Hedw. — commune, L. Diphyscium foliosum, Mohr. var. acutifolium, Ldb. Archidium alternifolium, Schimp. Ditrichum flexicaule, Hpe. var. densum, Braithw. Swartzia montana, Ldb. — inclinata, Ehrh. Seligeria Doniana, C. M. — pusilla, B. & S. Ceratodon purpureus, Brid. — conicus, Ldb. Rhabdoweisia denticulata, B. & S. — crenulata, Jameson. — fugax, B. & S. Cynodontium Bruntoni, B. & S. — polycarpum var. laxirete, Dixon Dichodontium pellucidum, Schimp. var. P fagimontanum, Schimp. ,, 8 compactum, Schimp. — flavescens, Ldb. Dicranella heteromalla, Schimp. var. S sericea, Schimp. — secunda, Ldb. — rufescens, Schimp. — varia, Schimp. var. y tenella, Schimp. — Schreberi, Schimp.. — squarrosa, Schimp. Blindia acuta, B. & S. Dicranoweisia cirrata, Ldb. Campylopus flexuosus, Brid. var. paradoxus, Husn. — setifolius, Wils. — atrovirens, De Not. I 65 9 A HISTORY OF DURHAM Carnpylopus pyriformis, Brid. Dicranum falcatum, Hcdw. — Bonjeani, De Not. — scoparium, Hcdw. var. S spadiceum, Boul. — fuscescens, Turn. var. 8 flexicaule, Wils. Leucobryum glaucum, Schimp. Fissidens viridulus, Wahl. — ■ bryoides, Hcdw. — crassipes, Wils. — osmundoides, Hcdw. — • adiantoides, Hcdw. — decipiens, De Not. — taxifolius, Hcdw. Grimmia apocarpa, Hedw. var. rivularis, W. & M. „ y gracilis, W. & M. ,, 8 alpicola, H. & T. „ € pumila, Schimp. — funalis, Schimp. — torquata, Hornsch. — pulvinata, Sm. — orbicularis, Bruch. — - trichophylla, Grev. — Doniana, Sm. — patens, B. & S. Rhacomitrium aciculare, Brid. — protensum, Braun. — fasciculare, Brid. — sudeticum, B. & S. — heterostichum, Brid. var. gracilescens, B. & S. — lanuginosum, Brid. — canescens, Brid. var. B. ericoides, B. & S. Hedwigia ciliata, Ehrh. Pottia truncatula, Ldb. — intermedia, Furnr. — Heimii, Fiirnr. — lanceolata, C. M. Tortula rigida, Schrad. — ambigua, Augstr. — aloides, De Not. — muralis, Hedw. — subulata, Hedw. — angustata, Wils. — mutica, Ldb. — intermedia. Berk. — ruralis, Ehrh. — ruraliformis, Dixon — papillosa, Wils. Barbula lurida, Ldb. — rubella, Mitt. var. ruberrima, Braithw. ,, dentata, Braithw. — tophacea, Mitt. — fallax, Hedw. var. brevifolia, Schultz. — recurvifolia, Schimp. Barbula spadicea, Mitt. — rigidula, Mitt. — cylindrica, Schimp. — sinuosa, Braithw. — revoluta, Brid. - — convoluta, Hedw. — unguiculata, Hcdw. Weisia tortilis, C. M. — microstoma, C. M. — viridula, Hedw. var. densifolia, B. & S. — crispata, C. M. — tenuis, C. M. — rupestris, C. M. var. intermedia, Limpr. ,, stelligera, Bry. Eur. ,, compacta, Schimp. ,, rigida, Schimp. ,, affinis, Ingham „ humilis, Ingham — curvirostris, C. M. var. commutata, Dixon Weisia verticillata, Brid. Trichostomum tenuirostre, Ldb. var. Holtii, Dixon — nitidum, Schimp. — tortuosum, Dixon var. fragilifolium, Dixon Cinclidotus fontinaloides, P.B. Encalypta ciliata, Hoffm. — streptocarpa, Hedw. Anoectangium compactum, Schwg. Zygodon lapponicus, B. Sc S. — Mougeotii, B. Sc S. — viridissimus, R. Br. Ulota Bruchii, Hornsch. — crispa, Brid. var. crispula, Hamm. ,, intermedia, Dixon. — phyllantha, Brid. Orthotrichum rupestre, Schleich. — anomalum, var. saxatile, Milde. — cupulatum, Hoflfm. var. nudum, Braithw. — Lyellii, H. & T. — affine, Schrad. var. fastigiatum, H(ib. — rivulare. Turn. — stramineum, Hornsch. — pallens, Bruch. — pulchellum, Sm. — diaphanum, Schrad. Splachnum sphaericum, L. Tetraplodon mnioides, B. Sc S. — Wormskioldii, Lindb. Funaria ericetorum, Dixon — hygrometrica, Sibth. Amblyodon dealbatus, P.B. Meesia trichoides, Spr. 66 BOTANY Aulacomnium palustre, Schwgr. var. imbricatum B. & S. — androgynum, Schwgr. Catoscopium nigritum, Brid. Bartramia CEderi, Sw, — ithyphylla, Brid. — pomiformis, Hedw. var. crispa, B. & S. — Halleriana, Hedw. Philonotis fontana, Brid. var. pumila, Dixon — adpressa, Ferg. — calcarea, Schimp. Breutelia arcuata, Schimp. Webera cruda, Schwgr. - nutans, Hedw. annotina, Schwgr. — carnea, Schimp. — albicans, Schimp. Plagiobryum Zierii, Ldb. Bryum filiforme, Dicks. — concinnatum. Spruce — pendulum, Schimp. var. compactum, Schimp. — Warneum, Bland — - calophyllum, R. Br. - lacustre, Brid. - inclinatum. Bland — - uliginosum, B. & S. - pallens, Sw. — turbinatum, Schwgr. — - bimum, Schreb. var. cuspidatum, Bry. Eur. — - pseudo-triquetrum, Schwgr. pallescens, Schleich. var. contextum, Hornsch. - intermedium, Brid. — caespiticium, L. — - capillare, L. — alpinum, Huds. — Mildeanum, Jur. — argenteum, L. Mnium affine. Bland var. elatum, B. & S. — cuspidatum, Hedw. — rostratum, Schrad. undulatum, L. hornum, L. — serratum, Schrad. — stellare, Reich. - punctatum, L. --- subglobosum, B. & S. Cinclidium stygium, Sw. Fontinalis antipyretica, L. Neckera crispa, Hedw. — complanata, Hubn. Homalia trichomanoides, Brid. Leucodon sciuroides, Schwgr. Pterogonium gracile, Sw. Antitrichia curtipendula, Brid. Porotrichum alopecurum, Mitt. Leskea polycarpa, Ehrh. Anomodon longifolius, Hartm. — viticulosus, H. & T. Heterocladium heteropterum, B. & S. Pseudoleskea catenulata, B. & S. Thuidium tamariscinum, B. & S. Climacium dendroides, W. & M. Cylindrothecium concinnum, Schimp. Pylaisia polyantha, B. & S. Orthothecium intricatum, B. & S. Isothecium myurum, Brid. Pleuropus sericeus, Dixon Camptothecium lutescens, Schimp. Brachythecium rutabulum, B. & S. — rivulare, B. & S. var. latifolium, Husn. Brachythecium velutinum, B. & S. — populeum, B. & S. — plumosum, B. & S. — purum, Dixon Hyocomium flagellare, B. & S. Eurhynchium piliferum, B. & S. — crassinervium, B. & S. — praelongum, B. & S. — Swartzii, Hobk. — pumilum, Schimp. — tenellum, Milde. — myosuroides, Schimp. — striatum, B. & S. — rusciforme, Milde. var. atlanticum, Brid. Plagiothecium depressum, Dixon — pulchellum, B. & S. — denticulatum, B. & S. — sylvaticum, B. & S. — undulatum, B. & S. Amblystegium Sprucei, B. & S. — serpens, B. & S. — Juratzkanum, Schimp. — irriguum, B. & S. — fluviatile, B. & S. — filicinum, De Not. var. elatum, Schimp. „ gracilescens, Schimp. Hypnum riparium, L. var. longifolium, Schimp. — stellatum, Schreb. var. protensum, B. & S. — chrysophyllum, Brid. var. erectum, Bagn. — lycopodioides, Schwgr. - fluitans, L. var. falcatum, Schimp. ,, ovale, Ren. — exannulatum, GUmb. var. purpurascens, Schimp. „ pinnatum, Boul., forma ste- nophylloides, Ren. „ stenophyllum, Hobk. 67 A HISTORY OF DURHAM Hypnum uncinatum, Hedw. var. plumulosum, Schimp. „ plumosum, Schimp. — revolvens, Sw. var. Cossoni, Ren, forma falcata, Ren. — commutatum, Hedw. — falcatum, Brid. var. gracilescens, Schimp. — incurvatum, Schrad. — cupressiforme, L. var. resupinatum, Schimp. „ filiforme, Brid. „ ericetorum, B. & S. „ tectorum, Brid. Patientiae, Ldb. — molluscum, Hedw. var. condensatum, Schimp. Hypnum palustre, L. var. subsphaericarpon, B. & S. — eugyrium, Schimp. — ochraceum, Turn. — scorpioides, L. — stramineum, Dicks. — cordifolium, Hedw. — giganteum, Schimp. — sarmentosum, Wahl. — cuspidatum, L. — Schreberi, Willd. Hylocomium splendens, B. & S. — loreum, B. & S. — squarrosum, B. & S. — triquetrum, B. & S. — rugosum, De Not. LIVERWORTS {Hepatkce) The liverworts [Hepaticce] have received only scant attention com- pared with the mosses, although there is evidence from the plants that have been found that the county is rich in them. The appended list is very incomplete, but is offered as a nucleus for future workers with these interesting and beautiful plants. The rare ones are located as follows : Lejeunea serpyllifolia var. cavifolia occurs on the basaltic rock ledges of Falcon Clints, and Lejeunea calcarea forms minute patches on the limestone dints of Ireshope Burn. By the riverside near the High Force grows Porella rivularis. Near the basaltic blocks scattered on the slope of Widdy Bank Fell are Blepharozia ciliaris and Lepidozia setacea. At the base of the High Force is a very rare hepatic, Hygrobiella laxifolia, very scarce in quantity. Of the genus Scapania there are two very rare species not recorded from any other part of England. These are Scapania rosacea, imbedded in the sandy drift by the river side below the High Force, and Scapania subalpina var. undulifolia, in the gravelly detritus by the side of the Weardale road leading into Langdon Beck. Another member, Scapania aequiloba, grows on the Falcon Clints as well as on the slopes of Widdy Bank Fell, but in the latter case usually mixed with mosses, such as Trichostomum tortuosum. The rare Scapania intermedia also grows on the slopes of Widdy Bank, associated with the equally rare Eucalyx obovata. By the side of Ireshope Burn we find Chiloscyphus polyanthos, asso- ciated with ‘Jungermania riparia, and on the limestone dints is the minute and delicate Blepharostoma trichophyllum. On Widdy Bank is found Mylia 'Taylori, which is also of very fine growth on the top of Burnhope Seat, associated with the moss Hypnum Jluitans yzt. falcatum. The variety heterophylla of Plagiochila asplenioides grows by Burnhope Burn, and the variety majus, of yellow colour, by the waterfall at Burtree Ford. Plagiochila spinulosa grows both at the High Force and at Cauldron 68 BOTANY Snout. The flaccid and dark-coloured Jungermania cordifolia may be found by the waterfall at Burtree Ford, on the bank of Ireshope Burn, and at the High Force. Jungermania Floerkii grows on the top of Burnhope Seat, on Widdy Bank Fell, and on the top of the Weardale road leading into Langdon Beck. Of this genus Jungermania barbata is the characteristic species on the gravelly drift by Burnhope Burn, and Jungermania bantriensis occurs in great abundance below Winch Bridge in Teesdale. With Lepidozia setacea on Widdy Bank is associated Jungermania porphyroleuca in fruit. Of the genus Eucalyx, one member, obovata, has been noted above, and the other member, hyalina^ grows on the moorland by the side of Sedling Burn ; Nardia compressa occurs in wet places by Burnhope Burn, in darkish masses. Pallavicinia Lyelli has been recorded from the Durham side of the Tees (Spruce). Mixed with the mosses Cinclidium stygium and Amblyodon dealbatus on the slope of Widdy Bank grows the var. angustior of Aneura pinguis. The soft hairy masses of Metzgeria pubescens grow on the vertical limestone cliffs of Ireshope Burn and also at Cowshill. On the saccharoidal limestone of Falcon Clints are large green flat patches of Chomiocarpon quadratus. In Weardale a striking feature in the rills and ditches by the road- sides, especially the Kilhope road, is the great abundance of the hepatic Scapania undulata^ whose masses almost choke up these waterways with their glassy green-looking foliage. LIST OF HEPATIC^ Frullania tamarisci (L.) — dilatata (L.) Lejeunea serpyllifolia (Dicks) var. cavifolia, Lindb. — calcarea, Lib. Radula complanata (L.) Porella platyphylla (L.) — rivularis, Nees. Blepharozia ciliaris (L.) Blepharostoma trichophyllum (Dill.) Lepidozia setacea (Web.) Kantia trichomanis (L.) Cephalozia bicuspidata (L.) Odontoschisma sphagni (Dicks) Hygrobiella laxifolia (Hook.) Scapania resupinata (Dill., L.) — subalpina var. undulifolia, Gottsche — aequiloba (Schwoege) — nemorosa (L.) — intermedia, Husn. — undulata (L.) — purpurea (Dill.), Carr. — rosacea (Corda) Diplophyllum albicans (L.) Lophocolea bidentata (L.) Chiloscyphus polyanthos (L.) Mylia Taylori (Hook.) Plagiochila asplenioides (L.) var. heterophylla, Nees „ Dillenii, Tayl. — spinulosa (Dicks) Jungermania cordifolia. Hook. — riparia, Tayl. — inflata, Huds. — Floerkii, Web. & Mohr. — barbata, Schmid — Lyoni, Tayl. — porphyroleuca, Nees — bantriensis. Hook. — crenulata, Sm. Eucalyx hyalina, Lyell — obovata (Nees) Nardia compressa (Hook.) — scalaris (Schrad) Marsupella emarginata, Ehrh. Pallavicinia Lyellii (Hook.) Aneura multifida (L.) — pinguis (L.) var. angustior Metzgeria pubescens (Schrank) — furcata (L.) Marchantia polymorpha, L. Conocephalus conicus, L. Chomiocarpon quadratus (Scop.) A HISTORY OF DURHAM LICHENS {Lichenes) The lichen-flora of a given district under changing conditions furnishes evidence to the observant mind that it does not nourish its life as other plants do. If it did so we should naturally expect that the lichens would hold their own with their fellows, subject, of course, to the ordinary changes which come alike to all vegetable forms. But it is not so. The lichen will disappear from a spot, and more especially the frondose or foliaceous forms, without any observable change in the other vegetation around it, and that from a pollution of the atmosphere which is not sufficient to affect those plants which nourish themselves from the soil or matrix of growth. I had an opportunity of giving an illustrative case of this kind from the county of Durham,^ where lichens spoken of by Mr. Winch as flourishing in Gibside Woods many years before had utterly perished — killed by the fumes from the Tyneside some miles away. It is fortunate, therefore, that the lichen-flora of Durham county was fairly well worked before the large development of its present coal and iron industries. Nearly 200 species and varieties of lichens are recorded in Winch’s Flora of Northumberland and Durham as having been gathered in the county. I also catalogued in 1887, in the Natural History Society's 'transactions^ Northumberland and Durham^ Mr. Winch’s lichens in the museum, Newcastle-on-Tyne ; but this was only a partial list, as a number of his lichens with other of his herbaria are in the possession of the Linnean Society. As a county, Durham had and still possesses an extensive lichen- growth. The physical features of the country are various and favourable. Its eastern seaboard, of course, is poor in results, but its sub-alpine elevations westward and north-west are good. Limited in its outcrop of rock, the limestone predominates in its highest parts crossed and broken by the basalt. The best lichen districts in the county are the river valleys of the Derwent, the Tees, and the Wear. The last two, with elevations margining the upper reaches of the valleys, and the fells enclosing the river sources, are excellent hunting grounds for the botanist generally as well as the lichenologist ; and these districts are the least affected by any deleterious atmospheric elements carried by the wind. The previous workers in this humble branch of botanical science in Durham were Nathaniel John Winch,^ Mr. Robertson, and the Rev. John Harriman, of Egglestone, Teesdale. By his careful observations and exertions, Mr. Harriman contributed largely to the knowledge and extension of our northern lichenology. He discovered a number of new species. One of these, Urceolaria diacapsis, Ach., he found near Barnard Castle. A micro-diagnosis of this beautiful ^Science Gossips 1879. 2 He was a native of Newcastle, a zealous student of nature, and a distinguished botanist ; well known in the north of England by the Botanist's Guide to Northumberland and Durham and his Flora of the same counties, published in the transactions of the Natural History Society, Nezvcastle-on-Tyne. 1832. 70 BOTANY lichen, made in 1887, showed that it was not an JJrceolarta, hnt a Lecidea. I pointed out to Dr. Nylander, Paris, that it should be named Lecidea diacapsis^ and this decision he confirmed. At Dr. Nylander’s request I searched and re-searched carefully what he termed ‘ the classic ground ’ of this lichen, but did not succeed in re-finding it. Mudd’s Manual of British Lichens likewise contains notices of lichens fr. m Teesdale, where he personally did some collecting. The following limited list is a selection from my own personal gatherings of lichens in the county of Durham. Each species or variety is either in my herbarium or has passed through my hands : — Sirosiphon mineatum, Hass. Ephebe pubescens, Fr. Collema pulposum, var. pulposulum, Nyl. — tenax, var. coronatum, Koerb. — limosum, Ach. — polycarpon, Schaer. Leptogium biatorinum, Nyl. Sphinctrina turbinata, Pers. Pycnothelia papillaria, Duf. Cladonia pityrea, f. denudata, Johns. — Florkeana, f. bacillaris, Ach. Cladina sylvatica, f. scabrosa, Leight. f. tenuis, Lamy. — uncialis, f. adunca, Ach. Stereocaulon denudatum, Flk. Evernia prunastri, var. stictocera, Ach; Cetraria islandica, L. — aculeata, f. acanthella, Ach. Platysma triste, Web. Platysma saepincola, var. ulophylla, Ach. Peltigera aphthosa, L. — rufescens, HfFm. Solorina saccata, Ach. — spongiosa, Nyl. Physcia parietina, f. cinerescens, Leight. — tenella, Scop. Umbilicaria polyhirza, L. Umbilicaria cylindrica, L. var. tornata, Fr. fil. Placodium decipiens, Arn. sub-sp. P. tegularis, Nyl. Lecanora sambuci, Pers. — frustulosa, Dicks. — Parisiensis, Nyl. — atrynea, Ach. — galactina, f. dispersa, Pers. sub-sp. L. dissipata, Nyl. — ochracea, Schaer. — Hageni, Ach. — syringea, Ach. — subcarnea, Ach. — intricata, Nyl. — expallens, Ach. — ventosa, L. — chalybaea, Schaer. Pertusaria globulifera, Nyl. Lecidea atrorufa, Dicks. — lucida, Ach. — parasema, var. rugulosa, Ach. — plana, Lahm. — aromatica, Sm. — caeruleonigricans, Lightf, — alboatra, HoflFm. Endocarpon miniatum, L. FRESHWATER ALGM It is much to be regretted that very little attention has been devoted to the study of the freshwater algs in Durham, as it offers a rich field for investigation to those interested in this branch of botany. The craggy ravines and upland glens of the highlands of Teesdale and Wear- dale, and their rapid streams flowing over rough rocky beds of limestone, sandstone, or basalt, especially, would well repay some exploration. Owing to the variations of altitude and soil there appears to be a great wealth of species and genera. It is only possible, however, to give a very brief survey, chiefly from observations of the writer. The Blue-green Algse {Cyanophyceee) are richly represented, the humid atmosphere of the upper dales being especially favourable to such genera as Nostoc^ Lyngbya^ and Gleocapsa^ while the ponds and ditches are 71 A HISTORY OF DURHAM the home of numerous species of Oscillariea. Adhering to the sub- merged stones, the gelatinous masses of Nostoc verrucosum are a noticeable feature in some of the clear streams of the mountain limestone. Among the Green Algse {Chlorophycece) the Desmids appear to be specially abundant, finding a most congenial habitat in the peaty pools so frequent among the moors. Here also species of Spirogyra^ Zygnema^ and Mesocarpus are among the commonest forms to be observed. In damp situations the barks of the trees are green with Pleurococcus vulgaris; Prasiola crtspa is found by the roadsides, and the terrestrial species of Vaucheria may be met with almost everywhere. The aquatic genera JJlothrix^ Coleochceta, CEdogonium^ Chatophora^ Cladophora, and V aucherta are abundant ; Enteromorpha mtestinalis occurs in ditches at Hartlepool, and Palmella cruenta is very common in the Sunderland district (Brady). Clathrocystis ceruginosa and Physactis parvula have been noted from the moat at Raby (Norman) and Tetraspora lubrica at Ryhope (Brady). The beautiful Eraparnaldia plumosa is not uncommon, and grows plentifully on the high ground between Allansford and the Sneep. The Rhodophy cece, which make up such a large proportion of the marine algae, include only a few freshwater forms. In Durham the two species of Batrachospcrmum^ B. atrum and moniliforme^ are common in the streams of some of the hills and denes, and are also frequently met with in the lower parts of the county. The green waving tufts of Lemanea Jiuviatilis are found attached to the stones in the quieter parts of the clear mountain streams, and Chantransia chalybea clings closely to the smooth surface of the rocks under the swiftly rushing water. Among the Characece^ the species of Nitella and Chara are widely distributed. Chara hispida grows in great profusion in the Hell Kettles at Croft, and C. Jiexilis and C. fcetida also occur plentifully in the county. MARINE ALGM The bleak rugged coast of Durham, exposed to the full fury of the wind, and swept by the cold waters of the northern sea, is not favourable to a luxuriant growth of seaweeds. There is an absence of rocky pools, and few sheltered bays. The temperature of the water varies consider- ably between the east and west coasts. On the east coast the sea temperature is much lower than on the other parts of the British Isles. For example, in August it only rises to I5°C., while on the south and west coasts 20° C. is attained. In February a marine isothermal of only 5° C. extends from the Naze to the Frith of Forth, the other parts of the coast being 5° C. warmer. It is not surprising, therefore, that the oceanic vegetation is greatly superior or! the western shores, but one would hardly expect to find Durham inferior in number of species to Northumberland, which is further north, and possesses still fewer natural advantages of situation. The Northumberland region, however, presents thirty-three species not found in Durham, while the latter has only 72 BOTANY twenty which it may claim for its own, the remaining species being common to both counties. The following lists have been compiled from Brady’s Catalogue oj Marine Alga of Northumberland and Durham ; transactions of the Tyneside Field Club^ 1858-60, iv. The nomenclature is that of Holmes and Batters. Out of a total of 535 species — excluding varieties — of marine algae which are found to grow upon the shores of the British Isles, only 136 are known upon the Durham coast. These are distributed among the different orders as follows ; — Total for British Isles. Total for Durham. Cyanophyceae • • 57 5 Chlorophyceae • • . 98 . 18 Phasophyceae • • 144 • 43 Rhodophyceae . . 236 . 70 No permanent habitat is known for the following species. They have been found from time to time washed up by the sea on this coast, and are therefore included in the list. It is most probable, however, that they have been merely carried by oceanic currents to our shores. Codium tomentosum, Stackh. Halurus equisetifolius, Kiitz. Gymnogongrus norvegicus, J. Ag. Calliblepharis ciliata, Kiitz. Delesseria Hypoglossum, Lamx. Polysiphonia byssoides, Grev. Sargassum bacciferum, C. Ag. Cystoseira ericoides, C. Ag. Himanthalia lorea, Lyngb. Arthrocladus villosa, Duby. Dictyopteris polypodioides, Lamx. Dictyota dichotoma, Lamx. LIST OF MARINE ALGiE Cyanophyce.® Osc'tllariacea Spirulina tenuissima, Kiitz. Oscillaria Corallinae, Gom. Rivulariacea Calothrix confervicola, C. Ag. — scopulorum, C. Ag. Rivularia atra, Roth. Chlorophyce.® Ulvacets Monostroma Grevillii, J. Ag. Enteromorpha clathrata, J. Ag. — compressa, Grev. — Linza, J. Ag. — intestinalis. Link. Ulva latissima, J. Ag. C ladophoracea Urospora flacca, Holm. & Batt. Chaetomorpha crassa, Kiitz. Rhizoclonium riparium — tortuosum, Kiitz. Cladophora utriculosa, Kiitz. — rupestris, Kiitz. — gracilis, Gri£F. — flexuosa, GrifiF. — fracta, KUtz. — arcta, Kiitz. — lanosa, Kutz. I CHLOROPHYCEi® [continued) Bryopsidacea Bryopsis plumosa, C. Ag. Codiacece Codium tomentosum, Stackh. PH.®OPHYCEi® Desmarestiacea Desmarestia viridis, Lamx. — aculeata, Lamx. — ligulata, Lamx. Dictyosiphonaceee Dictyosiphon foeniculaceus, Grev. Punctariacece Punctaria plantaginea, Grev. Asperococcacea Asperococcus echinatus, Grev. Ectocarpacea Streblonema velutinum, Thur. Ectocarpus longifructus, Harv. — patens. Holm. & Batt. — tomentosus, Lyngb. Isthmoplea sphaerophora, Kjellm. Pylaiella litoralis, Kjellm. A rthrocladiaceee Arthrocladia villosa, Duby. Elachhtacea Elachista fucicola. Fries. 73 10 A HISTORY OF DURHAM Pn/EOPHVCEiE {continued) Sphacelariacecs Sphacelaria radicans, Harv. — cirrhosa, C. Ag. — fusca, Holm. & Batt. Chaetopteris plumosa, Kutz. Cladostephus spongiosus, C. Ag. — verticillatus, C. Ag. Halopteris filicina, Kutz. Stypocaulon scoparium, KUtz. Myrionemacece Myrionema strangulans, Grev. Chordarlacees Chordaria flagelliformis, C. Ag. Mesogloea vermiculata, Le Jol. Castagnea virescens, Thur. Leathesia dilFormis, Aresch. Scytosiphonacecs Phyllitis Fascia, Kiitz. Scytosiphon lomentarius, J. Ag. Chordacea Chorda Filum, Stackh. Lamlnariacea Laminaria saccharina, Lamx. — Phyllitis, Le Jol. — digitata, Edm. Alaria esculenta, Grev. Fucacece Fucus ceranoides, Linn. — vesiculosus, Linn. — serratus, Linn. Ascophyllum nodosum, Le Jol. Pelvetia canaliculata. Dene & Thur. Himanthalia lorea, Lyngb. Halidrys siliquosa, Lyngb. Cystoseira ericoides, C. Ag. 77 lopteridacea Tilopteris Mertensii, Kiitz. Dictyotaceee Dictyopteris polypodioides, Lamx Rhodophyce.® Porphyracea Bangia fusco-purpurea, Lyngb. Porphyra linearis, Grev. — laciniata, C. Ag. Hehninthocladlacece Chantransia Daviesii, Thur. — virgatula, Thur. Helminthocladia purpurea, J. Ag. Gelidiacecs Gelidium corneum, Lamx. Gigartinacea Chondrus crispus, Stackh. Gigartina mamillosa, J. Ag. Phyllophora Brodiaei, J. Ag. — membranifolia, J. Ag. Gymnogongrus noi vegicus, J. Ag. Ahnfeltia plicata. Fries. RHODOPHYCEi® [continued) Gigartinacea (continued) Callophyllis laciniata, Kuiz. R hodophyllidacea Cystoclonium purpurascens, Kiitz. Catenella Opuntia, Grev. Rhodophyllis bifida, Kutz. Spharococcaceee Calliblepharis ciliata, Kiitz. Rhodymeniacece Rhodymenia palmetta, Grev. Lomentaria articulata, Lyngb. — clavellosa, Gaill. Plocamium coccineum, Lyngb. Delesseriacece Nitophyllum laceratum, Grev. Delesseria alata, Lamx. — angustissima, GrifF. — Hypoglossum, Lamx. — ruscifolia, Lamx. — sinuosa, Lamx. — sanguinea, Lamx. Bonnemaisoniacea Bonnemaisonia asparagoides, C. Ag. Rhodomelacea Rhodomela subfusca, C. Ag. — lycopodioides, C. Ag. Odonthalia dentata, Lyngb. Laurencia pinnatifida, Lamx. — caespitosa, Lamx. Polysiphonia urceolata, Grev. — elongata, Grev. — violacea, Wyatt. — fibrillosa, Grev. — fastigiata, Grev. — atro-rubescens, Grev. — nigrescens, Grev. — parasitica, Grev. — byssoides, Grev. — Brodiaei, Grev. Dasya coccinea, C. Ag. Ceramiaceee Spermothamnion Turneri, Aresch. Griffithsia corallina, C. Ag. — setacea, C. Ag. Halurus equisetifolius, Kiitz. Rhodochorton Rothii, Nag. — floridulum, Nag. — sparsum, Kjellm. Callithamnion polyspermum, C. Ag. — Hookeri, C. Ag. — arbuscula, Lyngb. — tetragonum, C. Ag. Plumaria elegans, Bonnem. Ptilota plumosa, C. Ag. Ceramium Deslongchampsii, Chauv. — diaphanum, Roth. — rubrum, C. Ag. — prolifera, J. Ag. 74 BOTANY Rhodophyce/e {continued) Ceramiacea (continued) Ceramium acanthonotum, Carm. Dumontiacea Dumontia filiformis, Grev. Dilsea edulis, Stackh. N emastomacecs Furcellaria fastigiata, Lamx. RhodophycEj® {continued) RhizophyUidacea Polyides rotundus, Grev. Corallinacees Melobesia verrucata, Lamx, Lithothamnion polymorphum, Aresch. Corallina officinalis, Linn. — rubens, Ellis & Sol. FUNGI The investigation of the fungus flora of the county has unfortu- nately been almost entirely neglected during recent years, and no list is available, except that by Winch, published now nearly one hundred years ago.* This list of some 250 species comprises chiefly those fungi recognizable by the naked eye, and, as one would naturally expect at that date, contains very slight reference to microscopic species. The old nomenclature has been brought up to date, and the list given below includes Winch’s complete record, with the exception of some species of which the determination remained doubtful, as well as additions from the author’s own observations. It probably does not represent one tithe of the fungi to be found in the county, but it sufficiently indicates the rich and varied flora which might be expected. Winch’s observations were very local, and largely confined to the woods on the banks of the Derwent and the country around Darlington. The frequency with which Medomsley occurs as a habitat shows that the woods in its vicinity are remarkably prolific in genera and species belonging to this group of plants. The Hymenomycetes are represented by many species growing in great profusion in the damp woody denes. The poisonous but very beautiful fly mushroom {Amanita muscarius) may be found in the woods at High Force ; and in the pastures in upper Teesdale the brilliant red Hygrophorus coccineus forms a conspicuous object in autumn. The destructive parasite Armillaria mellea is widely distributed, and is respon- sible for the downfall of many pines and fine old beeches. It may be recognized in the Rhizomorpha-sX.2igQ by a thick black network under the bark. Three rare species of Lactarius {L. zonarius^ L. plumbeus^ and L. acris) are recorded. Marasmius oreades growing symbiotically with the grasses produces the well-known ‘ fairy rings ’ in many pastures. Various species of Clavaria, zmong them C. fastigiata^ C.coral- loides, and the rarer C. amethystina^ are found in plenty, their pale coral- like branches peeping forth freely from the moist rich humus beneath the trees. On fallen logs, especially of oak, the timber-destroying fungus Stereum birsutum is everywhere met with. The large bracket-shaped fructifications of the Polyporacea form striking features projecting from the trunks and branches of trees. Two rare forms of Polyporus found are P.fuscidulus and P. Vaillantii; P. squamosus^P. hispidus, etc., occur as parasites on various trees, the latter being especially destructive to the ^ Botanisfs Guide through the Counties of Northumberland and Durham (1805-7). IS A HISTORY OF DURHAM ash. The large pufF-balls Lycoperdon giganteum and L. ccelatum^ the somewhat rare Cynophallus caninus, and the Geasters, may be specially mentioned among the Gasteromycetes. Five species of Geaster have been recorded, none of which are common, and one, G. mammosum^ is extremely rare. In the large order TJredinacece (the rust-fungi) many species are found accompanying their hosts through the various changes of altitude. Thus Puccinia betonica preys upon the betony at its highest limit in Burnhope, as well as near the coast, and similarly Mcidium tussilaginis is found abundantly wherever the coltsfoot grows. The leaves of the wild grasses and cereals are especially liable to the attacks of rust. Among the Ascomycetes the species of Paphrina cause the well-known ‘ witches-brooms ’ on the birch and cherry. The Prystphacece are com- mon as mildews upon the grasses and other plants. Nectria reveals its presence by its small red pustules on decaying twigs, and as the destruc- tive parasite associated with the canker of the ash, apple, and beech. Epichloe typhina, with its bright orange stroma, is frequently to be observed destroying the inflorescences of Dactylis glomerata and other grasses. The small perithecia of various species of Sphceriacece are especially common, being present on nearly every decaying stalk. The black stroma tipped with snowy white of Xylaria hypoxylon form conspicuous objects in most woods in winter. Rhytisma acerinum betrays itself by the black blotches to be seen on the sycamore leaves which are everywhere attacked by this fungus. The dark-coloured gelatinous cups of Bulgaria inquinans cover the bark of fallen oak branches. The larch-canker fungus {Dasyscypha Willkommit) is frequent in the larch plantations, and threatens to render the cultivation of this tree impossible for any useful purposes. The curious little black tongues of Geoglossum glabrum are fairly common, springing up freely in grassy places. The rare Peziza onotica known as the ‘ orange-ear peziza,’ as well as P. melastoma^ the black and red peziza, another rare species, are found in the county, while the glowing crimson cups of P. coccinea are common on decaying twigs. The species of Morchella are also prevalent in the woody districts, the edible form, M. esculenta, being not unfrequent. Among the Mesomycetes some species of JJstilago, the smut of the cereals, cause annually a large loss. Among the Phycomycetes may be mentioned Cystopus Candidas^ the ‘ white rust ’ of cruciferous plants, growing especially on Capsella bursa-pastoris ; Peronospora parasitica^ a parasite often associated with Cystopus candidus ; and Phytophthora infestans^ the too well known disease of the potato. The cruciferous crops are often devastated by club-root (anbury) caused by Plasmodiophora brassicae^ one of the Myxomycetes. Rare species not already mentioned are : Agaricus petaloides^ A. horizontalis, A. sparteus^ A. gossypinus, Hygrophorus obrusseus^ Cantharellus cinereus, Merasmius fcetidus, Lentinus tigrinus, Panus conchatus. Boletus castaneus, Prametes pini, Dadalea confragosa^ T'helephora biennis^ Premella frondosa^ and T. vesicaria. 76 BOTANY The nomenclature in the following list is that of Cooke’s Handbook of British Fungi. LIST OF FUNGI Family I. Hymenomycetes. Order 1. Agaracini Genus I. Agaricus, L. Sub-genus I. Amanita, Fr. Agaricus mappa, Batsch. — muscarius, L. — rubescens, P. Sub-genus II. Lepiota, Fr. Agaricus procerus, Scop. — cepoestipes. Sow. — granulosa, Batsch. Sub-genus III. Armillaria, Fr. Agaricus melleus, Vahl. Sub-genus IV. Tricholoma, Fr. Agaricus nictitans, Fr. — albus, Fr. Sub-genus V. Clitocybe, Fr. Agaricus vernicosus, Fr. — odorus. Bull. — candicans, Fr. — dealbatus, P. — opacus. With. — maximus, Fr. — infundibuliformis, Schaeff. — cyathiformis, Fr. — brumalis, Fr. — fragrans. Sow. — laccatus. Scop. Sub-genus VI. Pleurotus, Fr Agaricus ulmarius. Bull. — ostreatus, Jacqu. — petaloides. Bull. — tremulus, SchaefF. — septicus, Fr. — applicatus, Batsch. Sub-genus VII. Colly bia, Fr. Agaricus radicatus, Relh. — velutipes. Curt. — dryophilus. Bull. — clavus, Bull. — ocellatus, Fr. Sub-genus VIII. Mycena, Fr. Agaricus purus, P. — dissiliens, Fr. — filopes. Bull. — epipterygius. Scop. — corticola, Schum. — hiemalis, Osbeck. Sub-genus IX. Omphalia, Fr. Agaricus fibula. Bull. Sub-genus XIII. Entoloma, Fr. Agaricus sericeus. Bull. Sub-genus XV. Claudopus, Smith Agaricus variabilis, P. Sub-genus XVII. Nolanea, Fr. Agaricus pascuus, P. Family I. Hymenomycetes [continued) Order I. Agaracini (continued) Genus I. Agaricus, L. [continued) Sub-genus XIX. Pholiota, Fr. Agaricus prascox, P. — comosus, Fr. — squarrosus, Miill. Sub-genus XX. Hebeloma, Fr. Agaricus pyriodorus, P. — rimosus. Bull. — geophyllus, Sow. Sub-genus XXL Flamula, Fr. Agaricus inopus, Fr. Sub-genus XXII. Crepidotus, Fr. Agaricus mollis, Schaeff. Sub-genus XXIII. Naucoria, Fr. Agaricus horizon talis. Bull. — melinoides, Fr. — festiva, Fr. Sub-genus XXIV. Galera, Fr. Agaricus tener, Schaeff. — hypnorum, Batsch. Sub-genus XXVI. Psalliota, Fr. Agaricus arvensis, Schaeff Sub-genus XXVIII. Stropharia, Fr. Agaricus aeruginosus. Curt. — stercorarius, Fr. Sub-genus XXIX. Hypholoma, Fr. Agaricus fascicularis. Hud. Sub-genus XXX. Psilocybe, Fr. Agaricus semilanceatus, Fr. Sub-genus XXXI. Psathyra, Fr. Agaricus gossypinus, Fr. Sub-genus XXXIII. Panaeolus, Fr. Agaricus separatus, L. — fimiputris. Bull — fimicola, Fr. — papilionaceus. Bull. Genus 2. Coprinus, Fr. Coprinus comatus, Fr. — atramentarius, Fr. — micaceus, Fr. — nycthemerus, Fr. — radiatus, Fr. — ephemerus, Fr. Genus 3. Bolbitius, Fr. Bolbitius fragilis, Fr. — titubans, Fr. Genus 4. Cortinarius, Fr. Sub-genus 1. Phlegmacium, Fr. Cortinarius turbinatus, Fr. Sub-genus III. Inoloma, Fr. Cortinarius violaceus, Fr. Sub-genus IV. Dermocybe, Fr. Cortinarius sanguineus, Fr. 77 A HISTORY OF DURHAM Family I. Hymenomycetes {continued) Order 1. Agaracini (continued) Genus 4. Cortinarius, Fr. [continued) Sub-genus V. Telamonia, Fr. Cortinarius evernius, Fr. — hinnuleus, Fr. Genus 5. Lepista, Smith Lepista nuda, Bull. — cinerascens, Bull. Genus 6. Paxillus, Fr. Paxillus involutus, Fr. Genus 7. Hygrophorus, Fr. Hygrophorus eburneus, Fr. — hypothejus, Fr. — virgineus, Fr. — coccineus, Fr. — puniceus, Fr. — obrusseus, Fr. — conicus, Fr. — psittacinus, Fr. Genus 8. Gomphidius, Fr. Gomphidius glutinosus, Fr. Genus 9. Lactarius, Fr. Lactarius torminosus, Fr. — zonarius, Fr. — blennius, Fr. — plumbeus, Fr. — acris, Fr. — deliciosus, Fr. — chrysorrhaeus, Fr. — piperitus, Fr. — subdulcis, Fr. — vietus, Fr. — aurantiacus, Fr. Genus 10. Russula, Fr. Russula nigricans, Fr. — rubra, Fr. Genus II. Cantharellus, Adams Cantharellus, cibarius, Fr. ^ — tubseformis, Fr. — infundibuliformis, Fr. — cinereus, Fr. — muscigenus, Fr. — lobatus, Fr. Genus 13. Marasmius, Fr. Marasmius peronatus, Fr. — porreus, Fr. — oread es, Fr. — rotula, Fr. — foetidus, Fr. — epiphyllus, Fr. Genus 14. Lentinus, Fr. Lentinus tigrinus, Fr. — flabelliformis, Fr. Genus 15. Panus, Fr. Panus conchatus, Fr. — stypticus, Fr. Genus 17. Schizophyllum, Fr. Schizophyllum commune, Fr. Family I. Hymenomycetes [continued) Order 1. Agaracini (continued) Genus 18. Lenzites, Fr. Lenzites betulina, Fr. — flaccida, Fr. Order II. Polyporei Genus 19. Boletus, Fr. Boletus flavus. With. — piperitus. Bull. — chrysenteron, Fr. — edulis. Bull. — scaber, Fr. — cyanescens. Bull. — castaneus. Bull. Genus 20. Polyporus Polyporus fuscidulus, Fr — perennis, Fr. — squamosus, Fr. — elegans, Fr. — sulfureus, Fr. — heteroclitus, Fr. — caesius, Fr. — hispidus, Fr. — cuticularis, Fr — betulinus, Fr. — ignarius, Fr. — ulmarius, Fr. — fraxineus, Fr. — variegatus, F r. — annosus, Fr. — versicolor, Fr. — abietinus, Fr. — Vaillantii, Fr. — hybridus, Fr. — trabeus, Fr. Genus 21. Trametes, Fr. Trametes pini, Fr. — suaveolens, Fr. — odora, Fr. Genus 22. Daedalea, Fr. Daedalea quercina, P. — confragrosa, P. — unicolor, Fr. Genus 23. Merulius, Fr. Merulius corium, Fr. — lacrymans, Fr. Genus 27. Fistulina, Bull. Fistulina hepatica, Fr. Order III. Hydnei Genus 28. Hydnum, L. Hydnum repandum, L. — auriscalpium, L. — squalinum, Fr. — membranaceum, Bull. Order IV. Auricularini Genus 36. Craterellus, Fr. Craterellus cornucopioides, Fr. Genus 37. Thelephora, Fr. Thelephora cristata, Fr. 78 BOTANY Family I. Hymenomycetes {continued) Order IV. Auricularini (continued) Genus 37. Thelephora, Fr. {continued) Thelepliora anthocephala, Fr. — laciniata, Fr. — biennis, Fr. Genus 38. Stereum, Fr. Stereum purpureum, Fr. — hirsutum, Fr. — spadiceum, Fr. — quercinum, Potter Genus 39. Hymenochaete, Lev. Hymenochaete rubiginosa, Lev. Genus 40. Auricularia, Fr. Auricularia mesenterica, Bull. Genus 41. Corticium, Fr. Corticium caeruleum, Fr. — lacteum, Fr. Order V. Clavariei Genus 45. Clavaria, L. Clavaria amethystina, Bull. — fastigiata, DC. — muscoides, L. — coralloides, L. — - rugosa, Bull. — fusciformis, Sow. - fragilis, Holmsk. — pistillaris, L. Genus 46. Calocera, Fr. Calocera cornea, Fr. Genus 47. Typhula, Fr. Typhula erythropus, Fr. — phacorrhiza, Fr. — filiformis, Fr. Genus 49. Tremella, Fr. Tremella frondosa, Fr. — mesenterica, Retz. — vesicaria. Bull. Genus Dacryomyces, Nees. Dacryomyces chrysocomus, Tul. Family II. Gasteromycetes Order VIII. Phalloidei Genus 66. Phallus, Linn. Phallus impudicus, Linn. Cynophallus caninus, Fr. Order IX. Trichogastres Genus 67. Tulostoma, P. Tulostoma mammosum, Fr. Genus 68. Geaster, Mich. Geaster coliformis, P. — Bryantii, Berk. — fornicatus, Fr. — limbatus, Fr. — mammosus, Chev. Genus 69. Bovista, Dill. Bovista nigrescens, P. — plumbea, P. Genus 70. Lycoperdon, Tourn. Lycoperdon giganteum, Batsch. Family II. Gasteromycetes {continued) Order IX. Trichogastres (continued) Genus 70. Lycoperdon, Tourn. {cont.) Lycoperdon pusillum, Fr. — gemmatum, Fr. — pyriforme, SchjefiF. Genus 71. Scleroderma, P. Scleroderma vulgare, Fr. — verrucosum, Pers. Order X. Myxogastres Genus 74. Lycogala, Mich. Lycogala epidendrum, Fr. Genus 75. Reticularia, Bull. Reticularia umbrina, Fr. — lycoperdon. Bull. Genus 76. iTthalium, Link. .^thalium vaporarium, Fr. — septicum, Fr. Genus 79. Diderma, P. Diderma vernicosum, P. Genus 85. Dichasa, Fr. Dichaea elegans, Fr. Genus 86. Stemonitis, Gled. Stemonitis ferruginea, Ehrb. — typhoides, DC. Genus 90. Arcyria, Hill. Arcyria cinerea, Schum. Genus 92. Trichia, Hall. Trichia fallax, P. — nigripes, P. — turbinata. With. — varia, P. Genus 94. Licea, Schrad. Licea cylindrica, Fr. Order XI. Nidulariacei, Tul. Genus 96. Cyathus, Pers. Cyathus vernicosus, DC. Genus 97. Crucibulum, Tul. Crucibulum vulgare, Tul. Genus 99. Sph^robolus, Tode. Sphasrobolus stellatus, Tode. Family III. Coniomycetes Order XII. Spharonemei Genus 104. Phoma, Fr. Phoma napo-brassicae, Rost. Genus 125. Ascochyta, Lib. Ascochyta metulispora, B. et Br. Genus 132. Asteroma, DC. Asteroma rosae, DC. Order XV. Pucciniai Genus 167. Puccinia, Pers. Puccinia graminis, Pers. — betonicas, DC. — sparsa, Cooke. — anemones, Pers. — epilobii, DC. Order XVI. Cesomacei Genus 1 7 1. Ustilago, Link. Ustilago carbo, Tul. 79 A HISTORY OF DURHAM Family III. Coniomycetes (^continued) Order XVI. Ceeortiacei (continued) Genus 1 7 1. Ustilago, Link, [continued) Ustilago hordei, Kell, et Swing. — avenae, Jensen — antherarum, Fr. Genus 174. Urocystis, Rabh. Urocystis agropyri, Preuss. — pompholygodes, Schlecht. Genus 175. Uromyces, Lev. Uromyces ficarias, Lev. — alchemillae, Pers. Genus 176. Coleosporium, Lev. Coleosporium tussilaginis, Lev. Genus 177. Melampsora, Cast. Melampsora salicina, Lev. Genus 178. Cystopus, de Bary. Cystopus candidus, Lev. Genus 179. Uredo, Lev. Uredo potentillarum, DC. — pustulata, P. Genus 180. Trichobasis, Lev. Trichobasis suaveolens, Lev. Order XV 11. Mcidiacei Genus 184. iS^cidium, Pers. .Sscidium tragopogonis, Pers. — » leucospermum, DC. — epilobii, D.C. — ranunculacearum, DC. Order XIX. Stilbacei Genus 195. Tubercularia, Tode. Tubercularia persicina, Ditm. Order XXI. Mucedlnes Genus 230. Peronospora, de Bary. Peronospora (Phytophthora) infestans, Mont. — parasitica, Pers. Genus 234. Polyactis, Link. Polyactis cinerea, Berk. Order XXII. Sepedoniei Genus 256. Sepedonium, Link. Sepedonium chrysospermum, Link. Genus 257. Fusisporium, Link. Fusisporium roseolum, Steph. Order XXIV. Mucorini Genus 266. Mucor, Mich. Mucor mucedo, L. Genus 267. Pilobolus, Tode. Pilobolus crystallinus Tode. — roridus, Schum. Family VII. Ascomycetes Order XXVII. Perisporiacei Genus 277. Sphaerotheca, Lev. Sphaerotheca pannosa, Lev. — castagnei, Lev. Genus 282. Erysiphe, Hedw. Erysiphe graminis, DC. — Martii, Lk. Genus 283. Chaetomium, Kze. Chastomium elatum, Kze. Family VII. Ascomycetes [continued) Order XXVIII. Elvellacei Genus 286. Morchella, Dill. Morchella esculenta, Pers. — semilibera, DC. Genus 288. Helvella, Linn. Helvella crispa, Fr. — elastica, Bull. Genus 291. Spathularia, P. Spathularia flavida, Pers. Genus 292. Leotia, Hill. Leotia lubrica, Pers. Genus 294. Geoglossum, P. Geoglossum glabrum, P. Genus 296. Peziza, Linn. Peziza macropus, Pers. — cochleata, Huds. — onotica, P. — aurantia, Fr. — humosa, Fr. — granulata, Bull — coccinea, Jacq. — melastoma, Sow. — hemispherica, Wigg. — scutellata, L. — stercorea, Pers. — virginea, Batsch. — bicolor, Bull — firma, Pers. — inflexa. Bolt. — cinerea, Batsch. — (Dasyscypha) Wilkommii, Wilk, Genus 297. Helotium, Fr. Helotium citrinum, Fr. — lenticulare, Fr. — serotinum, Fr. Genus 304. Ascobolus, Tode. Ascobolus furfixraceus, Pers. Genus 305. Bulgaria, Fr. Bulgaria inquinans, Fr. — sarcoides, Fr. Genus 307. Stictis, Pers. Stictis radiata, Pers. Order XXX. Phacidiacei Genus 320. Phacidium, Fr. Phacidium coronatum, Fr. Genus 322. Rhytisma Fr. Rhytisma acerinum, Fr. Genus 326. Colpoma, Wallr. Colpoma quercinum, Wallr. Genus 330. Stegia, Fr. Stegia ilicis, Fr. Order XXXI. Sphariacei Genus 332. Torrubia, Lev. Torrubia militaris, Fr. Genus 334. Epichloe, Fr. Epicbloe typhina. Berk. Genus 335. Hypocrea, Fr. Hypocrea rufa, Fr. 80 BOTANY Family VII. Ascomycetes {continued) Order XXXI. Sphariacei (continued) Genus 338. Nectria, Fr. Nectria cinnabarina, Fr. — coccinea, Fr. — sanguinea, Fr. Genus 339. Xylaria, Fr. Xylaria hypoxylon, Grev. Genus 340. Poronia, Fr. Poronia punctata, Fr. Genus 342. Ustulina, Tul. Ustulina vulgaris, Tul. Genus 343. Hypoxylon, Fr. Hypoxylon multiforme, Fr. — fuscum, Fr. — concentricum, Grev. — coccineum. Bull. Family VII. Ascomycetes {continued) Order XXXI. Sphariacei (continued) Genus 344. Nummularia, Tul. Nummularia Bulliardi, Tul. Genus 345. Eutype, Tul. Eutype Acharii, Tul. Genus 348. Dothidea, Fr. Dothidea graminis, Fr. Genus 349. Diatrype, Fr. Diatrype disciformis, Fr. — bullata, Fr. Genus 351. Valsa, Fr. Valsa coronata, Fr. Genus 356. Sphteria, Hall Sphaeria ovina, Pers. — spermoides, Hoffm. — acuta, Moug. 1 81 II ZOOLOGY MARINE ZOOLOGY The investigations of marine zoologists of world-wide reputation have been carried out on the coasts of Northumberland and Durham. Such men were Joshua Alder and Albany Hancock. Contemporary with these, though younger men, were Richard Howse (better known as a geologist), Henry Brady, who studied the Foraminifera, and George Hodge. All these are deceased, the last dying when he was quite young. Others are still living. Canon A. M. Norman, Professor G. S. Brady, and A. Meek, the last having, during the past three years, worked perseveringly at some groups of the Crustacea and at the Fishes. On the labours of all these and their publications, as well as on some hitherto unrecorded observations, the lists here given of the various classes of the marine fauna are based. The Durham coast-line is most unfavourable for the life of shore and shallow-water animals, since it is utterly devoid of sheltered bays, and subject to the constant beating of the waves of a sea which is rarely calm. The fauna of the North Sea has a decidedly boreal facies. Large numbers of southern forms which are to be met with at the same latitude on the western side of England being absent, while there is a larger infusion of Scandinavian species. The chief shore collecting ground of Alder, of Hancock, and of others has been that situated Just north of the mouth of the Tyne (Cullercoats, Whitley, etc.) and separated from the coast of Durham by only a few miles. It is probable therefore that all the species which are known from these localities live also on the Durham coast, but direct evidence of that fact being wanting, they are not here included in its fauna ; and this applies not only to the animals found living between tide-marks, but also to numerous small shells collected from shell-sand, which shell-sand, however, may have been drifted either from the south or from the north. On the other hand, species which have been recorded as obtained from the fishing-boats at Cullercoats are included, as it is quite as probable that they were brought in from the south as from the north of that harbour ; and moreover it may be safely assumed that at a distance from land the same animals, perhaps without exception, would be found for some miles on both sides of the mouth of the Tyne. 83 A HISTORY OF DURHAM FORAMINIFERA ‘ A Catalogue of the Recent Foraminifera of Northumberland and Durham,’ by H. B. Brady, F.R.S., etc., will be found in Tram. Nat. Hist. Soc. Northumberland and Durham^ i. (1867), 83-107, pi. xii. The list contains seventy-four forms, of which the following fifty-eight have occurred off the Durham coast : — Comuspira foliacea, Phil. Biloculina ringens, Lamk. — depressa, d’Orb. — elongate, d’Orb. Spiroloculina limbata, d’Orb. — planulata, Lamk. — excavate, d’Orb. Triloculina trigonula, Lamk. — oblonga, Mont. Quinqueloculina seminulum, Linn. — bicornis, W. and J. — secans, d’Orb. — subrotunda, Mont. — fusca, H. B. Bra. Trochammina inflate, Mont. Reophax scorpiurus, Mont. Haplophragmium canariense, d’Orb. Valvulina fusca. Will. Textularia variabilis. Will. — compkxa, H. B. Bra. Textularia pygmaa, d’Orb. — sagittula, Defrance — trochus, d’Orb. Bigeneraria digitate, d’Orb. Verneuilina polystropha, Reuss Bulimina pupoides, d’Orb. — aculeate, d’Orb. — margmata, d’Orb. Lagana sulcata, W. and J. — Icevis, Mont. — striata, Mont. — semistriata. Will. — globose, Mont. — margmata, Mont. — squamosa, Mont. — caudata, d’Orb. — distorta. Par. and Jones Hodosaria scalaris, Batsch. — pyrula, d’Orb. — communis, d’Orb. Vagnulina legumem, Linn. — linearis, Mont. Polymorphina lac tea, W. and J. — compressa, d’Orb. — tubulosa, d’Orb. Vvigerina angulosa. Will. Orbulina universa, d’Orb. Globigerina bulloides, d’Orb. Discorbina globularis, d’Orb. — rosacea, d’Orb. Planorbulina mediterranea, d’Orb. Truncatulina lobatula. Walker. Rotalia beccarii, Linn. Polystomella crispa, Linn. — striato-punctata. Fich. and Moll. Nonionina umbilicata, Mont. — depressula, W. and J. — scapha, Fich. and Moll. PORIFERA {Sponges) The following species are recorded in Bowerbank’s Monograph of British Spongiada from off the Durham coast, in vol. iv. 1882 ; but the sponges have not been studied in the North Sea, and very much remains to be done with respect to this class. Hymeniacidon coccineus. Bow. Halichondria virgea. Bow. The type of a new species — virgulatus. Bow. The type of a new species Isodictya pygnaa. Bow. Halichondria cylindrica. Bow. The type of a new — fucorum, Johns. species — lurida. Bow. — panicea, Pall. Spongionella pulchella. Sow. CCELENTERATA {jellyfish. Sea Anemones., etc.) See Alder (J.) ‘Catalogue of Zoophytes of Northumberland and Durham’ {Trans. Tyneside Nat. Field Club,vo\. iii. 1857) and ‘ Supplement to Catalogue of the Zoophytes of Northumber- land and Durham’ {Trans. Tyneside Nat. Field Club, vol. v. 1863). Some additional species will be found in papers by Mr. J. Alder and Canon A. M. Norman in Nat. Hist. Trans. Northumberland and Durham, i. (1867), 45-64. The nomenclature has been brought up to the present time. Clava multicaulis, Forskal Merona cornucopies, Norman Coryne pusilla, Gaertner Syncoryne sarsi, Lov^n — eximia, Allman Gemmaria implexa, Alder Dicoryne conferta, Alder Bougainvillia ramose. Van Beneden Perigonimus repens, St. Wright — linearis, Alder Atractylis arenosa, Alder Eudendrium ramosum, Linn. — rameum, Pall. — capillare. Aid. Hydractinia echinata, Fleming Podocoryne areolata. Aid. Corynopsis Alderi, Hodge Corymorpha nutans, M. Sars Tubularia indivisa, Linn. — larynx. Ell. and Sol. — simplex. Aid. — gracilis, Harvey Clytia johnstoni. Aid. Obelia geniculate, Linn. — gelatinosa, Pall. — longssima, Pall. — dichotoma, Linn. Campanularia volubilis, Linn. 84 Campanularia, hincksii. Aid. — verticillata, Linn. — flexuosa, Hincks — neglecta. Aid. — raridentata. Aid. Campanulina acuminata. Aid. Cuspidella humilis, Hincks Salacia abietina, M. Sars Filellum serpens, Hass. Halecium halecinum, Linn. — beanii, Johnst. — labrosum. Aid. — tenellum, Hincks — filiforme. Aid. (?) MARINE ZOOLOGY Hakcium muricatum. Ell. and Sol. Sertularia pumila, Linn. — operculata, Linn. — filicula. Ell. and Sol. — abietina, Linn. — polyzonias, Linn. — gayi, Lamx. — tricuspidata. Aid. — rugpsa, Linn. — tenella. Aid. Diphasia rosacea, Linn. — fallax, Johnst. — pinaster. Ell. and Sol. — tamarisca, Linn. Hydrallmannia fakata, Linn. Selaginopsis fusca, Johnst. ‘Thuiaria argentea. Ell. and Sol. Thuiaria cupressina. Ell. and Sol. — thuia, Linn. — articulata, Pall. Aglaophenia pluma, Linn. Plumularia pinnata, Lamk. — Jrutescens, Lamk. — setacea, Ellis — catherina, Johnst. — hakcioides. Aid. — echinulata, Lamk. Heteropyxis ramosa, Lamx. Antennularia antennina, Linn. Cyanea caplllata, Linn. — imporcata, Norman Haliclystus auricula, Rathke Lucernaria campanulata, Lamx. Akyonium di^tatum, Linn. Pennatuta phospborea, Linn. Pirgularia mirabilis, O. F. Mull. Metridium senile, Linn. Sagartia pura. Aid. = pelluicida. Aid. — troglodytes, Johnst. Phellia glausapata, Gosse Actinia equina, Linn. Bulocera tuedia, Johnst. Chondracanthia di^tata, O. F. Mull. Urtacina crassicomis, O. F. Miill. Stomphia churchice, Gosse Epizoanthus incrustatus, DUb. and Kor. ECHINODERMATA {Star-fishes, Sea-urchins, etc.) The following list is based on the catalogue of Mr. G. Hodge the exact nomenclature in some instances being changed. Antedon rosacea, Linck. Ophiura lacertosa, Penn — albida, Forbes — affinis, Liitk. — squamosa, LUtk. Ophiopholis aculeata, Mull. Ophiactis ballii, Thomp. Amphiura elegans, Leach — filiformis, Milll. — chiajei, Forbes Ophiocoma nigra, Abild. Ophiothrix fra^lis, Abild. Astropecten irregularis, Penn Luidia sarsi, Dub. and Kor. Goniaster phry^anus. Par. Crossaster papposus, Fabr. Solaster endeca, Linn. Cribrella sanguinolenta, Mtlll. Asterias rubens, Linn. — violacea, Milll. — hispida, Penn — mulleri, M. Sars Echinus escukntus, Linn. Parechinus miliaris, Leske Strongylocentrotus drobachiensis,'M.\!L\\. — var. pictus, Norman Echinocyamus pusillus, Milll. Spatangus purpureus, Milll. Brissopsis lyrifera, Forbes Echinocardium cor datum, Penn. — ovatum, Leske. Cucumaria elongata. Dilb. and Kor. — lactea, Forbes and Goods. P by llophorus dr ummondii,'W .Thom. Thyone fasus, Milll. — raphanus, Diib. and Kor. Psolus phantapus, Linn. ANNELIDA Scarcely anything is known of the Annelida of the Durham coast. The few species of the following list have been recorded by Professor McIntosh.* The meagreness of this report may perhaps induce some naturalist in the county to take up the study of this much neglected group. Eurykpta vittata, Mont. Planaria angulata, Milll. Ommatopka pukbra, John. Meckelia annuksta, Mont. Eupbrosyne foliosa, Aud. and Edw. Aphrodite acukata, Linn. Lepidonotus squamatus, Linn. Nychia cirrhosa, Pall. Harmothoe imbricata, Linn. Polynoe lon^setis, Gr. Halosydna gelatinosa, Sars Sthenelais boa, Johnst. Pboloe minuta, Fabr. Notophyllum polynoides, CErst. Ophiodromsu vittatus, Sars. Scyllis armillaris, Miill. Notocirrus scoticus, Macint. Nereis pela^ca, Linn. Leodice norvegyca, Linn. Nothria conchykga, Sars Hyalinaecia tubicola. Mull. Goniada maculate, CErst. Glycera goesi. Mgr. Scolophos armiger, Mull. Eumenia jeffreysii, Meint. Ephesia gracilis, H. Rath. Trophonia plumosa. Mull. — glauca. Mgr. Cirratulus cirratus. Mull. Capitella capitate, Fabr. Ammochares ottonis, Grube Amphictene auricula, Mull. Amphiteis gunneri, Sars Sabellides octorirrata, Sars Amphitrite cirrata, Mull. Terebella Ji^lus, Dalyell. — littoralis, Dalyell. Pista cristate. Mull. Trichobranchus glacialis. Mgr. Sabella penicillus, Linn. Chone infundibuliformis, KrOyer Protula protensa, Grube Filigrana impkxa. Berk. 1 ‘ Catalogue of the Echinoderms of Northumberland and Durham,’ Trans. Nat. Hist. Soc. Northumb. and Durham, iv. (1871), 1 20-149. 2 McIntosh (W. C.), ‘ Report on a Collection of Annelids dredged off Northumberland and Durham,’ Trans. Nat. Hist. Soc. Northumb. and Durham, iv. (1871), 118-120. 85 A HISTORY OF DURHAM PODOSOMATA (Leach) ( = Pycnogonoidea) Papers on the Podosomata by Mr. George Hodge will be found in vols. v, and vi. of Trans. Tyneside Nat. Field Club and vol. i. of Nat. Hist. Trans. Northutnberland and Durham. Pycnogonutn littorale, StrSm Phoxichilidium femoratum, Rathke Amplodactylus petiolatus, Kr5yer = Pallene attenuata and pygmcea, Hodge Ammothea echinata, Hodge = Achelia brevipes,Yio6igc (the young.) Nymphon brevirostre, Hodge — rubrum, Hodge — tbrevitarse, KrSyer Nymphon gracile, Leach — mixtum, KrOj'er — grossipes, O. Fab. — ilongtarse, KrOyer — giganteum, Johnst. Chcetonymphon hirtum, O. Fab. POLYZOA The following list is based on personal observations, but chiefly on Mr. Alder’s catalogue and its supplement {Trans. Tyneside Nat. Field Club, 1857 and 1863). The nomenclature used there has been corrected to that employed in Hinck’s of the British Polyzoa, 1880; although that nomenclature is at the present time undergoing much modification. j^tea anguina, Linn. Eucratea chelata, Linn. Getnellaria loricata, Linn. Cellularia couchii. Busk Menipea ternata. Ell. and Sol. Scrupocellaria scruposa, Linn. — scabra, T. Van Ben. — reptans, Linn. Bicellaria ciliata, Linn. Bugila avicularia, Linn. — turbinata, Aid. — Jlabellata, J. V. Thomp. — plumosa, Pall. — purpuroiincta, Norman — tnurrayana, Johnst. Cellaria fistulosa, Linn — sinuosa, Hass. Flustra foliacea, Linn. — securifrons, Pall. — carbasea, Ell. and Sol. Membranipora catenularia, Jameson — pilosa, Linn. — membranacea, Linn. — lineata, Linn. — craticula, Aid. — spinifera, Johnst. — unicornis, Fleming — dumerilii, Aud. — aurita, Hincks — flemingti. Busk Cribrilina punctata, Hass. Microporella ciliata, Pall. — malusii, Aud. Chorizopora brongniartii, Aud. Schizoporella linearis, Hass. — auriculata, Hass. — hyalina, Linn. — unicornis, Johnst. Umbonula verrucosa, Esper Porella concinna. Busk — compressa. Sow. Smittina landsborovii, Johnst. — reticulata, J. Macg. — trispinosa, Johnst. Mucronella peachii, Johnst. — ventricosa, Hass. — variolosa, Johnst. — coccinea, Abild. — pavonella. Aid. Palmicellaria skenei, Ell. and Sol. Rhyncopora bispinosa, Johnst. Retepora beaniana. King. Cellepora pumicosa, Linn. — ramulosa, Linn. — die ho tom a, Hincks — avicularis, Hincks Crisia comuta, Linn. — ebumea, Linn. — denticulata, Lamk. Stomatoporag'anulata,y{.. M.-Edw. — major, Johnst. — dilatans, Johnst. — funga. Couch Tubulipora flabellaris. Fab. Idmonea serpens, Linn. Diastopora patina, Lamk. — obelia, Johnst. Lichenopora hispida, Flem. Alcyonidium gelatinosum, Linn — hirsutum, Flem. — mamillatum. Aid. — lineare, Hincks — mytili, Daly. — albidum. Aid. — polyoum, Hass. — parasiticum, Flem. Flustrella hispida. Fab. Vesicularia spinosa, Linn. Amathia lendigera, Linn. Bowerbankia imbricata, Adams. Avenellafusca, Daly. Buskia nitens. Aid. Cylindraecium dilatatum, Hincks Friticella pedicillata. Aid. Valkeria uva, Linn. Pedicellina cernua, Pall. — belgica, Gosse — gracilis, Sars TUNICATA {Sea-squirts or Ascidians) On the authority of Alder and Hancock. Ascidia elliptica. Aid. and Han. — depressa. Aid. and Han. — ? aculeata. Aid. — elongata. Aid. and Han. — men tula, Miill. — sordida. Aid. and Han. — amcena, Han. Ciona intestinalis, Linn. Corella parallelogamma, Mull. Molgula siphonata. Aid. — citrina, Aid and Han. Eugyra arenosa. Aid. and Han. Cynthia echinata, Linn. Styela tuberosa, Macg. — coriacea. Aid. and Han. — sulcata. Aid. — g-anulata. Aid. — comata. Aid. 86 Styela vestita. Aid. — grossularia. Van Ben. Thylacium variolosum, Gaert. Pelonaia corrugata, Forbes and Goods. Parascidia Flemingti, Aid. Didemnaum gelatinosum, Milne- Edw. Botryllus schlosseri, Pall. MOLLUSCS MARINE In 1848 Mr. J. Alder gave a‘ Catalogue of the Mollusca of North- umberland and Durham,’ in the Trans. Tyneside Nat. Field Club. Subse- quently Alder and Hancock published through the Ray Society their magnificent monograph on the Nudibrancliiate Mollusca., and in that work a large number of species were described or recorded from the north-east coast. Other lists of mollusca were subsequently added by Mr. Alder in vols. V. and vi. of the Trans. Tyneside Nat. Field Club, and vol. i. of the Trans. Nat. Hist. Soc. Northumberland and Durham. The Editor also possesses a MS. list given to him by Mr. Alder which contains additions to the fauna of the district as well as a list of certain names which were contained in Mr. Alder’s original catalogue, and which he considered ought to be struck out. From these various sources the following list of Durham species has been compiled. The North Sea has long been famous for the very fine and rare species of mollusca which were brought in to the north-east coast by the long-line fishers, and were sold at very high prices, since at that time they were unknown elsewhere ; and at the present day, though most of them have been found in some other places, they are still rare, and highly esteemed by conchologists. These shells are Fanopoea norvegica, Natica pallida, Amauropsis islandica, Liomesis da lei, Volutopsis norvegicus, Beringius turtoni, and Buccinofusus berniciensis ; more recently Calliostoma occidentale has been added. They are all high-boreal forms which are found on the Norwegian coast. Although most of them are known now also to occur off the Aberdeenshire coast, in the sea around Shetland, and off the north-west of Scotland, nevertheless, the Dogger Bank neighbourhood is still likely to remain the chief locality from which collectors may hope to obtain specimens. AMPHINEURA Hanleya hanleyi (Bean) Callochiton lavh (Mont.) Craspedochilus albus (Linn.) T^onicella marmorea (Fab.) Craspedochilus onyx (Speng) Acanthochites fascicularis (Linn.) — rubra (Lowe) — cinereus (Linn.) PELECYPODA [Oysters, mussels, &c.) Nucula nitida. Sow. — nucleus (Linn.) — tenuis (Mont.) Nuculana minuta (Mull.) Anomia patelliformis, Linn. — ephippium, Linn. Area tetragpna, Poli. Mytilus edulis, Linn. Volsella modiolus, Linn. var. ^gas, Norman Modiolaria marmorata (Forbes) — discors (Linn.) — discrepans (Leach) Ostrea edulis, Linn. 87 Pecten maximus (Linn.) — pusio (Linn.) — varius (Linn.) — opercularis (Linn.) — tigrinus (Mull.) — striatus (Mull.) — similis (Laskey) A HISTORY OF DURHAM Lima subauriculata (Mont.) — Loscombi, Sow. Turionin mlnuta (Fab.) Astarie sulcata (da Costa) var..ff(?*V(3(Mat.and Rac.) — compressa (Mont.) Cyprina islandica (Linn.) Lucina borealis (Linn.) Thyasira Jlexuosa (Mont.) Montacuta substriata (Mont.) — - bidentata (Mont.) Tellimya furru^nosa (Mont.) Kellia suborbicularis (Mont.) Lasaa rubra (Mont.) Syndosmya prismatica (Mont.) — nitida (Mtlll.) — • alba (Wood) ? — tenuis (Mont.) Scrobicularia plana (da Costa) Tellina crassa (Gmelin) — tenuis, da Costa Tellina fabula, Gron. Donax vittatus (da Costa) Mactra stultorum, Linn. Spisula soUda (Linn.) — elliptica (Brown) — subtruncata (da Costa) Lucinopsis undata (Penn.) Dosinia exoleta (Linn.) — lupina (Linn.) Venus fasciata (da Costa) — casina, Linn. — ovata, Penn. — gallina, Linn. Tapes vir^neus (Linn.) — pullastra (Mont.) Cardium echinatum, Linn. — fasciatum, Mont. — nodosum, Turton — edule, Linn. Lavicardium norvegicum (Speng.) Psammobia tellinella, Lamk. Psammobia ferroensis (Chemn.) — depressa, Penn. Mya arenaria, Linn. — truncata, Linn. Corbula gibba (Olivi) Cultellus pellucidus (Penn.) Ensis ensis (Linn.) — siliqua (Linn.) Panopea norvepca (Speng.) Saxicava rugosa (Linn.) — arctica (Linn.) Bamea Candida (Linn.) Zirfcea crispata, Linn. Xylophaga dorsalis (Turton) Lyonsia norvegtca (Chemn.) Cochlodesma pratenue (Pult.) Thracia fra^lis, Penn. var. villosiuscula, Macg, — convexa (W. Wood) — distorta (Mont.) Cuspidaria cuspidata (Olivi) SCAPHOPODA. Dentalium entalis, Linn. GASTROPODA {Whelks, winkles, &c.) I. PROSOBRANCHIA Patella depressa, Penn. — vulgata, Linn. Helcion pellucidus (Linn.) var. kevis, Penn. Acmaa testudinalis (Mull.) — vir^nea (Mull.) Puncturella noachina (Linn.) Emar^nula fissura (Linn.) Eumargarita helicina (Fab.) Gibbula magus (Linn.) — tumida (Mont.) — cineraria (Linn.) Calliostoma montagui, W. Wood. — miliare (Broc.) — ziz,yphinus (Linn.) — Occident ale, Migh. Lacuna divaricata (Fab.) — parva (da Costa) — pallidula (da Costa) Littorina neritoides (Linn.) — nidis (Maton) — obtusata (Linn.) — lit tor ea (Linn.) Rissoa inconspicua, Alder — parva (da Costa) Alvania reticulata (Mont.) — punctura (Mont.) Manxonia costata (J. Adams) Onoba striata (J. Adams) Hyala vitrea (Mont.) Cingula semistriata (Mont.) Paludestrina stagnalis (Baster.) Jeffreysia diaphana (Alder) Skenea planorbis (Fab.) Capulus hungaricus (Linn.) Trivia europo’a (Mont.) N a tic a pallida, Brod. and Sow. — catena (da Costa) — alderi, Forbes — montagui, Forbes Amauropsis islandicus (Gmelin) Lamellaria perspicua (Linn.) Velutina lavigata (Penn.) Velutella flexilis (Mont.) ^cala turtonis (Turton) — trevelyana (Leach) Odostomia conspicua, Alder — unidentata, Forhesand Hanley — turrita, Hanl. Brachystomia ambigua (Maton and Rack.) Ondina divisa (J. Adams) Pyrgulina indistincta (Mont.) — interstincta (Mont.) Spiralinella spiralis (Mont.) Pyrgostelis interrupta (Totten) Eulimella scillce (Scac.) — commutata, Monterosato Eulima intermedia. Cant. — incurva (Ren.) — gracilis, Forbes — bilineata (Alder) 88 Stilifer turtoni (Turt.) Cacum glabrum (Mont.) Turritella communis, Lamk. Trichotropsis borealis, Brod. and Sow. Aporrhais pes-pelecani (Linn.) Buccinum undatum, Linn. var. littoralis. King var. striata, Penn, var. pelagica. King var. magia. King Liomesus dalei (J. Sow.) Neptunea antiqua (Linn.) Volutopsis norvegicus (Chem.) Beringius turtoni (Bean) Tritonofusus gracilis (da Costa) — propinquus (Alder) Buccinofusus berniciensis (King) Trophon barvicensis, Johnst. — truncata, StrOm Purpura lapilltis (Linn.) Nassa incrassata (Strom) Bela turricula (Mont.) — trevelyana (Turt.) — rufa (Mont.) Mangilia costata (Don.) — brachystoma (Phil.) Teretia anceps (Eichw.) Clathurella leufroyi (Mich.) — linearis (Mont.) MOLLUSCS Actaon totnatilis (Linn.) Tomatina truncatula (Brug.) — umbUkata (Mont.) var. strigella, Lovdn Bullinella cylindracea (Penn.) Roxania utriculus, Broc. Acera bullata (Mull.) Philine scabra (Mull.) — quadrata (S. V. Wood) — punctata (Clark) — pruinosa (Clark) Aplysia punctata, Cuv. Alderia modes ta, Lov^n Limapontia capitata (Mull.) — depressa. Aid and Hanc. Cenia cocksi (Aid. and Hanc.) II. OPISTHOBRANCHIA Eolis papulosa (Linn.) Cuthona nana (Aid. and Hanc.) Cratena olivacea (Aid. and Hanc.) — peachii (Aid. and Hanc.) — northumbrica (Aid. and Hanc.) Galvina cingulata. Aid. and Hanc. — tricolor (Forbes) — exigua (Aid. and Hanc.) Facelina coronata, Forbes and Goodsir — drummondi, Thomp. Hero formosa (Lov6n) Doto fragilis (Forbes) — coronata (Gmelin) Dendronotus frondosus (Asc.) Pleurophyllidia loveni, Bergh. Tritonia bomber^, Cuv. — alba. Aid. and Hanc. — plebeia, Johnst. Archidoris tuberculata (Cuv.) J orunnajohnstoni (Aid. and Hanc.) Acanthodoris pilosa (Mull.) Lamellidoris bilamellata (Linn.) Triopa clavigera (Mull.) Palio lessoni (d’Orb.) Polycera quadrilineata (Mull.) Goniodoris nodosa (Mont.) Idalina elegans (Leuckart) — aspersa (Aid. and Hanc.) Alexia myosotis (Drap.) CEPHALOPODA {Cuttle-fishes) Lolig) forbesi, Steenst. ^epia officinalis, Linn. Sepiola atlantica, d’Orb. — media (Linn.) — ruppellaria, d’Orb. Moschites cirrosa (Lamarck) — marmorce,V6Tnny. Sepiola scandica, Stetnst. I 89 12 MOLLUSCS NON-MARINE Durham is not a county in which the non-marine mollusca find conditions suitable for their abundant development. In the large tract of Magnesian Limestone that extends from South Shields to Hartlepool along the coast, and is bounded on its inland exten- sion by an almost straight line from the latter place to Darlington, and by an irregular line from South Shields to Gainford (about seven miles west of Darlington), there are numerous valleys that produce a considerable number of land species. To the west, however, though the land surface is a good deal diversified, it is on the whole too hilly to afford suitable habitat. The small extent of marshes and ditches and the absence of canals or slow-running rivers account for the fact that the freshwater species are much less abundant here than in the more southern parts of England. Still, out of 140, or so, species met with in the British Islands, 94 have been recorded for Durham, nor is this number likely to be much increased by further research. The most interesting form is Limax tenellus. Mull., which was first described as British from a specimen procured in a wood at Allansford. It was generally supposed for some time that the individual so identified was merely the young of some other species ; quite recently, however, this slug has been re-discovered in several localities in the British Isles. Certain species that have been chronicled are excluded from the list. Helix liicida is an old record for a form of Vitrea^ usually V. alliaria, the true V. lucida being until lately unknown to our conchologists. Unio pictorum and Planorbis vortex were recorded by Hogg (in Brewster’s History of Stockton-on-Tees^ 1827), but these identifications are doubt- ful. Similar uncertainty attaches to the record of L. brunneus^ Drap., which was said to be frequent in damp woods. Dead shells of Vivi- para vivipara and Neritina fuviatilis have been met with on the coast, but have evidently been brought in ballast by ships. Pomatias elegans is found in Yorkshire, and has been recorded for Northumberland, so that its absence from Durham is noteworthy. Heli- cella cantiana^ although included in our list, is not common, and is by some suspected to be a latter-day introduction, but then it has as yet not been found in the fossil state anywhere in Britain. With the exception of this last-named species there is an absence of ail continental and south-western (or Lusitanian) forms, so that the assem- blage is of the normal north-British type. The literature of the subject is not very extensive, and mostly scattered, the two more important papers being that by J. Alder (the discoverer of several, and author of four British species) in the Trans- 90 MOLLUSCS actions of the Tyneside Naturalists Field Club^ i. 1848 ; and one by Mr. W. D. Sutton in the Quarterly Journal of Concliology, i. 1874. From these and minor articles, as well as from the Records of the Conchological Society, the following list has been compiled. For the sake of uniformity in the several County Histories the same nomenclature is here followed as in precursors in the series, but for the most recent information on this subject reference should be made to the List published by the Conchological Society. A. GASTROPODA I. PULMONATA a. Stylommatophora Testacella scutulum, Sby. Bensham, near Gateshead Umax maximus, Linn. — tenellus, Mull. — flavus, Linn. — arborum, Bouch. -Chant Agr'tolmax agrestis (Linn.) — Levis (Mull.) Amalia sowerbii (Per.) — Sflg^Us (Drap.) South Shields. Vitrina pellucida (Mull.) Fitrea crystallina (Mull.) — alliaria (Miller). Whitburn ; Cleadon ; Gates- head ; Durham — glabra (Brit. Auct.). East Thickley — cellaria (MUll.) — nitidula (Drap.) — pura (Aid.) — radiatula (Aid.) — excavata (Bean). Great High Wood ; Stella ; Gibside ; Durham — nitida (Mull.). Not common. — fulva (Mull.) Arion ater (Linn.) — hortensis, F6r. — circumscriptus, John. Middleton-one-Row — subfuscus (Drap.). Middleton-one-Row Punctum pygmeum (Drap.). Rare and local. Pyramidula rupestris (Drap.). Local ; Marsden, etc. — rotundata (Mull.) Hellicella virgata (Da. C.) 1 , 1 — itala (Linn.) J — caper ata (Mont.) — cantiana (Mont.). Not common ; more plen- tiful near Sunderland Hygomia fusca (Mont.). High Force, Teesdale ; M iddleton-one-Row — granulata (Aid.). Rare : Tanfield ; Dinsdale — hispida (Linn.) — rufescens (Penn.). Sunderland and other parts of the magnesian limestone district Acanthinula aculeata (Mull.). Rare : Ryhope Dean ; Castle Eden Dean — lamellata {]tS.). Rare: Gibside Woods ; Tan- field Woods ; Walbottle Dean Vallonia pulchella (Mull.). Uclicigona arbustorum (Linn.) Helix aspersa, MUll. Helix memoralis, Linn. — hortensis, MUll. BuUminus obscurus (MUll.) Cochlicopa lubrica (Mull.) Azeca tridens (Pult.). Rather rare : Castle Eden ; Tanfield ; Stella ; Middleton-one-Row Ceecilianella acicula (Mull.). Darlington Pupa anglica (Fer.). Castle Eden ; Walbottle Dean ; Ryhope — cylindracea (Da. C.). Frequent on sea banks — muscorum (Linn.). Rare : Sunderland ; Ry- hope, etc. ^phyradium edentulum lyixz'pl). Rather rare : Castle Eden ; Ryhope Dean Vertigo minutissima, Hartm. Rare : Clanheugh ; Durham — substriata (Jeff.). Near Newcastle ; Gibside Wood ; Heaton Dean ; Tanfield ; Stella — pygnicea (Drap.) — pnsilla. Mull. Rather rare ; Tanfield ; Crow- hall MiU Balea perversa (Linn.). Castle Eden Dean ; Ry- hope Dean Clausilia laminata (Mont.) — bidentata (Strom.) Succinea putris (Linn.) b. Basommatophora Carychium minimum. Mull. Melampus denticulatus (Mont.). South Shields ; Whitburn Alexia myosotis (Drap.). Seaton Carew Ancylus Jluviatilis, Mull. Velletia lacustris (Linn.). Rather rare : Middleton- one-Row Limneea auricularia (Linn.). Rather rare : near Darlington — pereger (Mull.) — palustris (Mull.) — truncatula (Mull.) — stagnalis (Linn.) — glabra (Mull.). Elwick Hall ; Sedgcfield Planorbis corneus (Linn.). Rare : near Darlington — albus, Mull. Local — glaber, Jeff. Sedgefield ; Whitburn — nautileus (Linn.). Whitburn — carinatus. Mull. In addition to the ordinary form a white variety has been taken at Bluestone Mill, near Norton — margnatus, Drap. A HISTORY OF DURHAM Planorbis spirorbis, Mtlll. — contortus (Linn.) Local : Ryton Haughs ; near Stockton — fontanus (Lightf.). Rather rare : Middleton- one-Row ; Stockton Physa fontinalis (Linn.) — hypnorum (Linn.) 11. PROSOBRANCHIATA Paludestrina stagnalh (Bast.). Mouth of the Tees ; Seaton Carew Bithynia tentaculata (Linn.) Valvata pucinalis (Mull.) — cristata, MUll. Actcula lineata (Drap.). Rare : Castle Eden Dean B. PELECYPODA Unio margaritifer (Linn.). In the head waters of some streams Anodonta cyfftcea (Linn.) Spharium comeum (Linn.) — lacustre (Mull.) Pisidium amnicum (Mull.). Rare : near Stockton- on-Tees, Jesmond Dean — pusillum (Gmel.). Besides the typical form the variety, by some held to be a distinct species, P. obtusale, has been taken near Darlington Pisidium nitidum, Jenyns. Near Darlington — fontinale (Drap.). In addition to the typical form, the variety P. pulchellum, by some held to be a distinct species, is plentiful — milium (Held.). Brastide, near Durham ; Ryton Haughs 92 INSECTS Considering its comparatively small area and northern situation, the county of Durham possesses a fairly numerous insect fauna, although of course not to be compared with more southern districts. The surface of the county is exceedingly varied. Passing inland from the sea all kinds of situations are met with, from the grassy sand-dunes or flower-clad banks of the coast line, up through the highly-cultivated central districts, to the upper dales with their wooded glens and grassy or heather-clad hills. Marshland also is found along the Skern and Lower Tees. Thus maritime, marsh-loving, and Alpine species, as well as those preferring ordinary inland conditions, can all find a congenial habitat within the county. Again, with its three great seaports, through which pass large quantities of foreign timber and produce of various kinds, the county is continually receiving insect stowaways in one or other of their life stages, aliens — in many cases undesirable aliens — some of whom become naturalized in the land of their exile, and thus add to the variety of its insect life. Though far to the north and therefore outside the fringe of European Continental species which spread themselves over the southern counties, Durham, with its eastern situation, receives, at least at its southern border, part of the great migration stream which crosses the German Ocean from the Continent, and there is reason to believe that along with the birds there come from time to time insect immigrants, who either recruit the ranks of former arrivals or add new species to the county list. But, except among the Lepidoptera, the students of insect life within the county have been few. So much so, that almost on the eve of publication I was applied to by the editor to supply some account of the insects of Durham outside of the Lepidoptera and the Diptera, as he had been unable to get anyone to undertake the other orders. Only a few weeks were allowed to complete the work, and I had not made a special study of these other orders, having only undertaken to be respon- sible for the Diptera. Under these difficult circumstances, I must therefore plead for the indulgence of critics as regards any omissions or mistakes in the following lists, which, however, I believe very fairly represent our actual knowledge of the insect inhabitants of the county up to the present. ORTHOPTERA Earwigs^ Grasshoppers^ Crickets^ Cockroaches^ etc. This order has been entirely neglected in Durham, but it is very poorly represented as far as native or naturalised kinds are concerned, and there are probably under a dozen species in the county altogether. But occasionally curious foreigners make their appearance in fruit or cargoes of produce, and some make a vain attempt to obtain a footing, establishing them- selves for a time in some sheltered nook and apparently breeding, but eventually destroyed by the severity of the climate or the want of their natural food. 93 A HISTORY OF DURHAM FORFICULARIA Earwigs The common earwig — Forficula auricularia^ Linn, — is exceedingly common everywhere. Outside of the Hymenoptera comparatively few insects ever see their progeny, and the exhibi- tion of parental care beyond the selection of a food plant is very rare. But the female earwig is a most devoted mother, ready to sacrifice her life in the protection of her brood. The Lesser Earwig — Labia minor^ Linn. — is met with at several places, Birtley and near Hartlepool, etc. Anisolahia tnaritina was abundant at one place. South Shields, in 1857, and during the next two years Alphitobius picipes-wss found in numbers in cavities of Slag in the neighbourhood of the same town. BLATTODEA Cockroaches There are 800 species of cockroaches, but only five or six inhabit Britain, of which there may be probably two or three in Durham, but there is no record of any except Blatta orientalis, Linn., the common house Cockroach or Black Beetle, only too abundant in old houses through- out the county. Blatta madera has occurred at South Shields, introduced in cargoes. Panchlora exoleta^ Burn., was taken alive this year at Bishop Auckland, introduced undoubtedly among bananas from South America. ACRIDIODEA Grasshoppers There are two or three green species, probably Stenobothrus bicolor. Chap., and S. parallelus, Zett., and the dark Gomphocerus maculatus, Thunb., is common on the moors, but they have not been observed with any care. Gomphocerus rufus is recorded by Backhouse as taken at Sunderland and Waskerley. LOCUSTODEA Locusts I do not know of any of the British species having been found in the county, but two foreign species have been taken at Hartlepool, and in 1858 Pachytylus migratorius occurred at Sunderland and other places on the coast. GRYLLODEA Crickets Gryllotalpa vulgaris, the Mole Cricket, has been found near Hartlepool, probably intro- duced. Gryllus domesticus, Linn., is not uncommon in old country houses. NEUROPTERA Dragonflies, Stone-flies, Lacewings, Caddis-flies, etc. This is a very varied group, which contains many of our most splendid insects, but there is no record of its having received any systematic attention in this county. Everyone knows the great Mschna, the Horse stingers, as they are called, although perfectly innocent of hurting either man or beast, and the gorgeous little Agrions that flit in numbers over almost every pond in summer ; but local entomologists seem to have been content with mere general observation. Of the LibelluUdcs, the only ones that have been recorded are Platetrum depressum, a bold, defiant insect of an inquisitive turn of mind, which often brings about its capture where pursuit would be hopeless, and, Libellula quadrimaculata, Linn., and Sympetrum vulgatum, both of which are to be found in Castle Eden Dene and other localities. The only British member of the Cordulegastridce, Cordulegaster annulatus, Latr., may also be seen in several places, but it is not often captured. Of the Mschnida, JEschna juncea, Linn., is fairly common in Hesleden, by the side of the Wear, and at Gibside, and Adschna grandis is recanded in Ornsby’s Durham as having been taken in that neighbourhood. In the beautiful family of the Calopterygidce we have only one species as yet recorded, Calopteryx virgo, Linn., but that is said to be common in the Browney valley. 94 INSECTS The last family of Dragonflies, containing the more numerous but smaller species, is that of the Agrionida. I only know of three species, the common Agrion puella^ Linn., which is abundant by most streams and ponds, Pyrrhosoma minium^ also common at Gibside and else- where, and hchnura elegans^ Lind. Ephemeridee^ox May-flies, Perl'idcs^ or Stone-flies, such as Perla marginata^ Nemoura var 'iegata^ Chloroperla viridisy and many other species abound along all the numerous water-courses, as do also the Slalida or Alderflies and the moth-like TrichopterayOX Caddis-flies, whose curious larvse cases, composed of a variety of material according to the species, are very common in every pond and stream. The Scorpion-fly, Panorpa communhy is very common everywhere, and the beautiful Lacewing-fly, or Golden Eye, Chrysopa vulgarhy is often to be met with. Chrysopa perloy Megalomus hirtuSy L., Hemerobius marginatuSy Ephemera vulgatOy Leptlphlebia marginatay L., Leptocerus albifronSy L., Rhyacophila dorsalisy Curt., and Anabolia nervosa are also recorded locally by Backhouse. HYMENOPTERA Although the most interesting of all the insect tribes, the Hymenoptera have had but little attention paid to them in this county. What has been done has been chiefly in the aculeate section, in which only lOi species or varieties have so far been noted, while the Entomo- phaga are almost a blank, and the Phytophaga have a list of only twenty-three names. Yet there are nearly 400 Aculeata, about 600 Phytophaga, and a vast host of Entomophaga in the British Isles, and no doubt Durham possesses its fair share for a northern county, but it waits the advent of some painstaking entomologist to lay bare its riches in this deeply interesting order. ACULEATA AntSy IVaspSy and Bees This is the highest section of the order. Their habits, especially those of the Social species, suggest the possession of something very like a reasoning faculty, and their life histories abound in interesting details. The wonderful adaptations of the various parts to the diflFerent needs of each species also supply numberless points of fascinating study. The following list of local species is chiefly that of Bold, to which but a few species have been added in the last fifty years. Only one or two call for special notice. The tiny little red ant Monomorium pharaonisy Linn., although not a native, has become a pest in several parts of the county, and especially in the Dipton district, where some of the miners’ houses have been rendered uninhabitable by its abundance, and the District Council have had to attempt its destruction. They seem to be incapable of living away from inhabited houses. The rare ant Ponera contractay Latr., is said to have been taken at South Shields, where also Mutilla europaay Linn., has occasionally been found, both probably introduced. Fespa austriacay Pz., has been taken at two places in the Derwent Valley by Mr. Robson of Birtley. As might be expected with its cold northern situation and clayey soil, the county of Durham is weak in the section of the sand wasps and solitary bees, whose habits require a light or sandy soil and the warm, sunny south ; but it is strong in the more robust species, and nearly all the Bombi occur in the county. HETEROGYNA FoRMICIDjE Formica, Linn. — rufa, Linn. Common — fusca, Linn. Abundant Lasius, Fab. — fulginosus, Latr. Not com- mon — flavus, De Geer. Com- mon — niger, Linn. Not very common Campanotus sylvaticushas been taken alive at Bishop Auckland in bananas 95 PONERID.® Ponera, Latr. — contracta, Latr. ^outh Shields, very rare Myrmicid^ Myrmica, Latr. — rubra, Linn. r. laevinodis, Nyl. The commonest here r. ruginodiSjNyl. Abun- dant r. scabrinodis, Nyl. Common r. lobicornis, Nyl. ^outh Shields, rare Myrmicid^ (continued) Monomorium, Mayr — pharaonis, Linn. Intro- duced, but firmly estab- lished FOSSORES Mutillid^ Mutilla, Linn. — europjea, Linn. Has been taken occasionally at South Shields (Bold) and Shull (Backhouse) A HISTORY OF DURHAM PoMPILID^ Pompilus, Fab. — plumbeus, Fab. ^outh Shields — gibbus, Fab. Abundant. — pectinipes, V. de L. ^outh Shields, rare Salius, Fab. — exaltatus, Fab. Not com- mon Sphegid.® Pemphredon, Latr. — lugubris, Latr. Common. — shuckardi, Mor. Very common — lethifer, Shuck. Common. Mimesa, Shuck. — bicolor. Fab. Derwentstde Gorytes, Latr. — tumidus, Panz. Gibside — mystaceus, Linn. Abun- dant — quadrifasciatus, Fab. Der~ wentside Nysson, Latr. — spinosus, Fab. Swaltvell Mellinus, Fab. — arvensis, Linn. Common Crabro. Fab. — leucostomus, Linn. Not uncommon at Gibside — podagricus, V. de L. — quadrimaculatus, Dhlb. Gibside, rare ; Birtley (Robson) — dimidiatus, Fab. Abundant — chrysotomus,Lep. Common — vagus, Linn. Common — cribrarius, Linn. Common — peltarius, Schieb. Axwell Park, rare DIPLOPTERA Vespid.® Vespa, Linn. — vulgaris, Linn. Very abundant — germanica. Fab. Not rare. Birtley (Robson) — rufa, Linn. Common — austriaca, Pz. Shotley Bridge and Ebchester (Robson) — sylvestris, Scop. Hesleden, Birtley (Robson) — norv'egica. Fab. Common EuMENIDiE Odynerus, Latr. — spinipes, Linn. Common — pictus, Curt. Gibside, rare ; Birtley (Robson) ; Bishop Auckland — trimarginatus, Zett. Com- mon — trifasciatus,01iv. Common — parietinus, Linn. Very common ANTHOPHILA OBTUSILINGUES COLLETID.® Colletes, Latr. — daviesana, Smith. Gibside ACUTILINGUES Andrenid.® Sphecodes, Latr. — gibbus, Linn. Castle Eden, Axwell Park — ephippia, Linn. Common — subquadratus. Smith. Birt- ley (Robson) Halictus, Latr. — rubicundus, Christ. Com- mon — cylindricus. Fab. Com- mon — albipes,Kirb. Gibside, scarce — subfasciatus, Nyl. Gib- sonees — villosulus, Kirb. Gibside — nitidiusculus, Kirb. Rare — minutus, Kirb. Common Andrena, Fab. — albicans, Kirb. Very com- mon — rosae, Ps. var. trimmerana, Kirb. Common — cineraria, Linn. Common — fulva, Schr. Derwent Valley (Robson) and Bishop Auckland district — clarkella, Kirb. Common — nigroaenea, Kirb. Not un- common — gwynana, Kirb. Not common — furcata. Smith. Birtley (Robson) — cingulata. Fab. Ravens- worth — analis, Panz. Swalwell, not uncommon — coitana, Kirb. Gibside, &X.c., not uncommon — minutula, Kirb. Common — proxima, Kirb. Gibside (Bold) — wilkella, Kirb. Birtley (Robson) Nomada, Fabr. — succinta, Panz. Swalwell — alternata, Kirb. Abundant — ruficornis, Linn. Common — bifida, Thoms. Bishop Auckland (W. J. W.) — borealis, Zett. Winlaton, not uncommon Apid® Chelostoma, Latr. — florisomne, Linn. Com- mon Apid® (continued) Ccelioxys, Latr. — elongata, Lep. On the Bents at South Shields Megachile, Latr. — willughbiella, Kirb. Mar- ley Hill — circumcincta, Lep. Abun- dant on the sea coast. Birtley (Robson) — centuncularis, Linn. Not common Osmia, Panz. — rufa, Linn. Not uncom- mon — xanthomelana, Kirb. Rare — caerulescens, Linn. Spar- ingly Anthophora, Latr. — pilipes. Fab. Not uncom- mon. Birtley (Robson) — furcata, Panz. Gibside Psithyrus, Lep. — rupestris. Fab. Rare, al- though its host, Bombus lapidarius, is very com- mon — vestalis, Fourc. Like its host, Bombus terrestris, it is abundant through- out the county — barbutellus, Kirb. Com- mon. It associates with B. pratorum — campestris, Panz. Very common in association with B. hortorum Bombus, Latr. — venustus. Smith. Not common. Birtley (Rob- son) — agrorum. Fab. Very common — hortorum, Linn. Very common — latreillellus, Kirb. Gibside. On the coast, etc. r. distinguendus, Mor. Birtley (Robson) — sylvarum, Linn. Not rare — derhamellus, Kirb. Rare. Birtley (Robson) — lapidarius, Linn. Com- mon — jonellus, Kirb. Gibside. Not common — pratorum, Linn. Com- mon — terrestris, Linn. Not very common. Birtley (Rob- son) r. lucorum. Smith. The commonest of the genus Ap is, Linn. — mellifica, Linn. Abundant 96 INSECTS ENTOMOPHAGA Ichneumon-Jlies^ etc. The members of this large section have not been studied in the county. A good number of species are to be found in the miscellaneous drawers of Lepidopterists and others, but they await identification. The following are recorded from Durham in Buckler’s Lepidopterous Larva. Platylabtus trlcingulatus, Grav., bred by Mr. Robson at Hartlepool from Eupithecia pulchellata^ Steph. (the Foglove Pug). Panheus testaceus^ Grav., bred from Tethea subtusa (the Olive Moth). Meteorus pulchricornls, Wesm., bred from Agroth agathina, Dup. (the Heath Rustic Moth). Pimpla graminella^ Schr., bred from Orgyia antiqua^ Linn, (the Vapourer Moth). Apanteles astrarche. Mar., bred from Lycana agestis^ Hub. (the Brown Argus Butterfly). Ichneumon rujiceps, Grav., bred from Selenia illunaria. Hub. (the Early Thorn Moth). The last five were all bred by Mr. Gardner at Hartlepool. Pimpla instigator y bred from pupa of Orgyia antiquoy Linn, (the Vapourer Moth), by Mr. Robson of Hartlepool. PHYTOPHAGA Saw-JlieSy Wood-waspSy and Gall-flies This section of the Hymenoptera has received very little attention in Durham, although the species are often large and showy, and the variety in the shaping of the saw-like ovipositor exceedingly interesting. No local entomologist has yet made a study of these insects, which are entirely absent in the older county lists. A few of the larger forms, which had forced themselves, so to speak, on local lepidopterists, I have found in their boxes of rejectamenta. The Great Yellow Sirex or Wood-wasp {Sirex gigaSy Linn.) is not uncommon in coal- mines and woodyards, where it has been imported in the pit timber, and it is common in the Shull woods, where it has undoubtedly bred. The Blue Sirex {Sirex juvencus) has also been taken in pine woods on the upper Bedburn in such circumstances as to lead to the reasonable probability of its being county bred. There, also, have been taken on birch these other giants of the section, Cimbex and Trichiosoma. The following meagre list contains all the local species that I have been able to verify, but is probably scarcely a tithe of the number inhabiting the county. TENTHREDINID^ Tenthredo, Htg. — livida, Linn. (Backhouse) Bishop Auckland (W.) — maculata, Fourc. (Backhouse) Bishop Auckland (W.) — dispar, Klug. Shull (Back- house) — atra, Linn. Darlington (Back- house) — mesomela, Linn. Bishop Auckland (W.) — obsoleta, Klug. Birtley (Rob- son) Tenthredopsis, Costa. — scutellaris, Fab. Bishop Auck- land (W.) — tristis, Ste. Bishop Auckland (W.) — inornata, Cam. Hesleden (W.) — nassata, Linn. Bishop Auck- land (W.) Macrophya, Dbm. — neglecta, Klug. (Backhouse) Allantus, Jurine — scrophulariae, Linn. Birtley (Robson), Bishop Auckland (W.) Allantus, Jurine — tricinctus. Fab. Castle Eden (Backhouse), Hesleden (W.) — arcuatus, Forst. Darlington Wear dak (W.) Dolerus, Jurine. — lateritius, Klug. (Backhouse) — fulviventris. Scop. Darling- ton (Backhouse), Harper ley (W.) — palustris, Klug. Shull (Back- house) — anticus, Klug. Shull, etc. (Backhouse), Gibside (W.) — gonagra. Fab. Shull (Back- house), Gibside (W.) — I\%%yxs,^x.g.BishopAucklandpN Selandria, Leach — serva. Fab. Gibside (W.) Blennocampa, Htg. — nigrita. Fab. (Backhouse) Athalia, Leach — lugens, Klug. (Backhouse) Cladius, 111. — pectinicornis, Fourc. (Back- house) — vimtnalis. Fall. (Backhouse) Nematus, Panz. — leucogaster, Htg. Marky Hill (W.) 97 Bedburn Stockton Bedburn Nematus, Panz. — ribesii. Scop. Bishop Auck- land, etc. (W.) Cimbex, Oliv. — sylvarum. Fab. (Greenwell) Trichiosoma, Leach. — lucorum, Linn. (Backhouse), (Greenwell) — betuleti, Klug. Stockton (Back- house), Bedburn (Green- well), Birtley (Robson) Abia, Leach. — sericea, Linn. (Backhouse) Hylotoma, Leach. — enodis, Linn. — ustulata, Linn. — pagana, Panz. Darlin^on (Backhouse) (Backhouse) (Backhouse) SIRICIDiE Sirex, Linn. — gigas, Linn. About ports, woodyards, and in coal- pits, imported. Breeds in Shull woods — juvencus, Linn. Bedburn (Greenwell) I 13 A HISTORY OF DURHAM COLEOPTERA Beetles In the county of Durham, the Coleoptera rank next after the Lepidoptera in the attention they have received from local entomologist';, but with two or three notable exceptions that attention has been very slight. Fourteen species were recorded for the south of the county in Hogg’s Natural History of the Vicinity of Stockton in 1827. The Rev. George Ornsby gives a list of 194 beetles in his sketches of Durham in 1846, but as some are included which have not since been recorded they must be looked upon as somewhat doubtful. In the middle of last century, Mr. J. T. Bold of Newcastle began issuing his lists of insects, mostly beetles, of Northumberland and Durham, which he revised and completed in 1870. His catalogue, omitting the species with only Northumberland localities, forms the foundation of the following county list. The work was then carried on by Mr. J. Gardner of Hartlepool, who worked hard for many years and added several new records for the county. And now, when failing eyesight has compelled him to desist, the work has been taken up in the northern part of the county by a most promising young entomologist, Mr. R. S. Bagnall of Winlaton, who has not only confirmed several hundreds of Bold’s records, but has added a considerable number of new and rare species to the list. To both of these gentlemen, and also to Mr. C. S. Robson of Birtley, I am indebted for a large amount of information which renders the following list, though hurriedly compiled, a fairly correct record of the county species as at present known. The order is that followed in Beare and Donnisthorpe’s Catalogue of British Coleoptera published last year (1904). The names of the authorities for the records are appended, as they give a general indication of the locality. Bold’s name standing for the north of the county in the middle of the 19th century, Gardner’s for the south of the county in the later half of the same century, and Bagnall’s for the north of the county in the beginning of the 20th century.^ CICINDELID^ CIcindela, L. — campestris, L. (Bold, Bag- nall, Gardner) CARABID^ Cychrus, F. — rostratus, L. (Bold, Robson, Bagnall) Carabus, L. — catenulatus. Scop. (Bold, Bagnall, Gardner) — nemoraliSjMull. (Bold) Near Blanchland, Apr. , 1903, by Mr. Campbell (Bagnall) — violaceus, L. (Bold, Robson, Bagnall, Gardner) — nitens, L. (Bold, Bagnall Gardner) V. niger, Sem. Teesdale (Gardner) — granulatus, L. (Bold) — monilis, F. (Corder, Gardner) — arvensis, Hbst. (Bold, Corder) Notiophilus, Dum. — biguttatus, F. (Bold, Robson, B.agnall, Gardner) — substriatus, Wat. (Bold, Gardner) — aquaticus, L. (Bold, Bagnall, Gardner) — palustris, Duft. (Bold, Bagnall) Leistus, FrOh. — spinibarbis, F. (Bold, Bagnall, Gardner) — fulvibarbis, Dj. (Bold, Bagnall, Gardner) — ferrugineus,L. (Bold, Bagnall, Gardner) — rufescens, F. (Bold, Bagnall, Gardner) Nebria, Lat. — brevicollis, F. (Bold, Gard- ner) Also Red variety occasionally (Bagnall) — gyllenhali, Sch. (Bold, Gard- ner) Elaphrus, F. — riparlus, L. (Bold, Bagnall) — cupreus, Duft. (Bold, Bagnall) Loricera, Lat. — pilicornis, F. (Bold, Bagnall) Clivina, Lat. — fossor, L. (Bold, Bagnall, Gardner) — collaris, Hbst. (Bold, Bagnall, Gardner) Dyschirius, Bon. — globosus, Hbst. (Bold) Broscus, Pz. — cephalotes, L. (Bold, Bag- nall, Gardner) Badister, Clair. — bipustulatus, F. (Bold, Bag- nall, Gardner) — sodalis, Duft. Rare. Castle Eden Dene (Bold) Licinus, L. — depressus, Pk. Very rare (Bold, Gardner) Stenolophus, Dj. — vespertinus, Pz. Near Ryton (Perkins) Bradycellus, Er. — placidus, Gyll. (Bold, Bagnall, Gardner) — cognatus,Gyll. Rare. On the mountains (Bold, Bagnall, Gardner) — distinctus, Dj. Very rare (Bold). West Hartlepool, one specimen (Gardner) — verbasci, Duft. (Bold, Bag- nall, Gardner) — harpalinus, Dj. (Bold, Gard- ner) — collaris, Pk. (Bold, Gard- ner) — similis, Dj. (Bold, Bagnall, Gardner) Harpalus, Lat. — puncticollis, Pk. (Bold, Gardner) — ruficornis, F. (Bold, Bagnall, Gardner) — xneus, F. (Bold, Bagnall, Gardner) — tenebrosus, Dj. Very rare (Bold) — rubripes, Duft. (Gardner) — latus, L. (Bold, Bagnall, Gardner) 1 For further list of Coleoptera see Addenda at end of this article. 98 INSECTS Harpalus, Lat. — froelichi, Stm. Winlaton (Bagnall) Dichirotrichus, Duv. — pubescens, Pk. (Bold, Gard- ner) Stomis, Clair. — pumicatus,Pz. (Bold, Bagnall, Gardner) Platyderus, Steph. — ruficollis. Marsh. On the coast (Bold, Gardner) Pterostichus, Er. — cupreus, L. (Bold, Bagnall) — versicolor, Stm. (Bold, Bag- nall, Gardner) — madidus, F. (Bold, Bagnall, Gardner) — aethiops, Pz. (Bold, Gardner) — vitreus, Dj. (Bold, Gardner) — parumpunctatus. Germ. (Bold, Bagnall) — niger, Schal. (Bold, Bagnall, Gardner) — vulgaris, L. (Bold, Bagnall, Gardner) — nigrita, F. (Bold, Bagnall, Gardner) — strenuus, Pz. (Bold, Bagnall, Gardner) — diligens, Stm. (Bold, Bagnall, Gardner) — picimanus, Duft. Greatham, very rare (Gardner) — vernalis, Pz. (Bold, Bagnall) — striola, F. (Bold, Bagnall, Gardner) Amara, Bon. — fulva, De G. (Bold, Bagnall, Gardner) — apricaria, Pk. (Bold, Bagnall, Gardner) — consularis, Duft. Rarely met with (Bold). Hartlepool, very rare (Gardner) — aulica, Pz. (Bold, Robson, Bagnall, Gardner) — convexiuscula. Marsh ballast \vt^p%2.x.^outh Shields (Bold), Hartlepool (Gardner) — rufocincta, Dj. Rare, Hartle- pool (Gardner) — bifrons, Gyll. Mostly on sea coast (Bold) — ovata, F. Hartlepool (Gard- ner) — similata,Gyll. (Bold, Bagnall, Gardner) — acuminata, Pk. (Bold, Bag- nall) — tibialis, Pk. Bents near South Shields (Bold) — lunicollis, Schi5d. (Bold, Bagnall, Gardner) — spreta, Dj. Hartlepool, local (Gardner) Amara, Bon. — familiaris, Duft. (Bold, Bag- nall, Gardner) — lucida, Duft. Not un- common,(Gard- ner) — trivialis, Gyll. (Bold, Bagnall, Gardner) — communis, Pz. (Bold, Bag- nall, Gardner) — plebeia, Gyll. (Bold, Bag- nall, Gardner) Calathus, Bon. — cisteloides, Pz. (Bold, Bag- nall, Gardner) — fuscus, F. (Bagnall, Gardner) — flavipes, Fourc. (Bold, Bag- nall, Gardner) — mollis. Marsh. (Bold, Bag- nall, Gardner) — melanocephalus, L. (Bold, Bagnall, Gardner) V. nubigena, Hal. On the moors (Bagnall) — micropterus, Duft. (Bagnall, Gardner) Amphigynus, Hal. — piceus. Marsh. (Bold, Bag- nall, Gardner) Taphria, Bon. — nivalis, Pz. (Bold) Pristonychus, Dj. — terricola, Hbst. (Bold, Bag- nall, Gardner) Sphodrus, Clair. — leucophthalmus, L. (Bold) Anchomenus, Er. — angusticollis, F. (Bold, Bag- nall) — dorsalis, Mttll. (Bold, Bag- nall, Gardner) — albipes, F. (Bold, Bagnall, Gardner) — oblongus, F. (Bold, Bagnall) — marginatus, L. Near South Shields (Bold). In the old slake, Hartlepool, now a dock (Gardner) — sexpunctatus, L. Blanchland moors (Campbell) — parumpunctatus, F. (Bold, Bagnall, Gardner) — atratus, Duft. (Bold) — viduus, Pz. V. moestus, Duft. (Bold) Evidently com- moner than the type (Bagnall, Gardner) — m leans, Nic. (Bold, Bagnall, Gardner) — fuliginosus, Pz. (Bold, Bag- nall, Gardner) — gracilis, Gyll. Near Burnop- field (Bagnall) — piceus, L. (Bold, Bagnall) — expunctatus, L. Blanchland Moors (Campbell, Bagnall) 99 Olisthopus, Dj. — rotundatus, Pk. (Bold, Bag- nall, Gardner) Tachys, Schaum. — focki, Hum. South Shields (Bold) — bistriatus, Duft. South Shields (Bold) — quadrisignatus, Duft. A single specimen has been taken at South Shields, probably introduced (Bold) Cillenus, Sam. — lateralis, Sam. (Bold) Bembidium, Lat. — rufescens, Guer. (Bold, Bag- nall, Gardner) — quinquestriatum,Gyll. (Bold) — obtusum, Stm. (Bold, Gard- ner) — guttula, F. (Bold, Bagnall, Gardner) — mannerheimi, Sahl. Hartle- pool (Gardner) — biguttatum, F. (Bold, Gard- ner) — aeneum, Germ. (Bold, Bag- nall, Gardner) — clarki. Daws. (Bold, Gard- ner) — minimum, F. (Bold, Gard- ner) — schUppeli, Dj. ( ? Bold) — gilvipes, Stm. (Bold, Gard- ner) — lampros, Hbst. (Bold, Bag- nall) — nigricorne, Gyll. Blanchland Moors (Bagnall) — tibiale, Duft. (Bold, Bag- nall) — atrocaeruleum, Steph. (Bold, Bagnall, Gardner) — decorum, Pz. (Bold, Bagnall, Gardner) — nitidulum. Marsh. (Bold, Gardner) — affine, Steph. (Bold) — monticola, Stm. (Bold, Harris, Gardner) — stomoides, Dj. Rare (Bold, Bagnall). Tleesdale, rare (Gardner) — quadriguttatum, F. (Bold) Hartlepool, local (Gardner) — lunatum, Duf. (Bold) Hartle- pool, scarce (Gardner) — testaceum, Duft. (Bold) — concinnum, Steph. (Bold, Bagnall, Gardner) — femoratum, Stm. (Bold, Bag- nall, Gardner) — bruxellense, Wesm. (Bold) — saxatile, Gyll. (Bold, Bag- nall) — andreae, F. (Bold, Gardner'' A HISTORY OF DURHAM Bembidium, Lat. — littorale, Ol. (Bold, Bagnall, Gardner) — bipunctatum, L. (Bold, Bag- nall) — punctulatum, Drap. (Bold, Bagnall, Gardner) — prasinum, Duft. (Bold, Bag- nall) — paludosum, Pz. (Bold, Bag- nall, Gardner) Tachypus, Lac. — flavipes, L. (Bold, Bagnall) Greatham (Gardner) ASpus, Sam. — marinus, StrOm. (Bold) — robini. Lab. Confined to the coast (Bold) Trechus, Clair. — discus, F. Greatham, one specimen (Gardner) — micros, Hbst. (Bold) — lapidosus. Daws. (Bold) — rubens, F. Winlaton Mill (Bold) — minutus, F. (Bold, Bagnall, Gardner) — obtusus, Er. (Bold, Gardner) — secalis, Pk. (Bold, Bagnall ?) Patrobus, Dj. — excavatus, Pk. (Bold, Bagnall, Gardner) — assimilis, Chaud. Teesdale (Gardner) Cymindis, Lat. — vaporariorum, L. Blanchland Moors (Bagnall) Teesdale, very rare (Blatch) Lebia, Lat. — chlorocephala, Hoff. (Bold) Sunderland (Corder), Har- tlepool (Gardner) Demetrias, Bon. — atricapillus, L. Rare (Bold, Gardner) Dromius, Bon. — linearis, Ol. (Bold, Bagnall, Gardner) — agilis, F. Rare (Bold) — meridionalis, Dj- Gibside, (Bold, Bagnall, Gardner) — quadrimaculatus, L. (Bold, Bagnall, Gardner) — quadrinotatus, Pz. (Bold, Bagnall, Gardner) — melanocephalus, Dj. (Bold, Bagnall, Gardner) — nigriventris,Th. (Bold, Bag- nall, Gardner) Metabletus, Schl. — foveola, Gyll. Marsden (Bold) HALIPLIDiE Brychius, Th. — elevatus, Pz. (Bold) Haliplus, Lat. — obliquus, F. (Bold, Bagnall, Gardner) — confinis, Steph. Marsden (Bold, Gardner) — mucronatus, Steph. — flavicollis, Stm. (Bold) — fulvus, F. (Bold, Bagnall, Gardner) — variegatus, Stm. Very rare (Bold) — cinereus, Aub. (? Bold) — ruficollis, De G. (Bold, Gardner) — fluviatilis, Aub. (Bold, Gard- ner) — striatus, Shp. Common at Greatham (Gardner) — lineatocollis. Marsh. (Bold, Bagnall, Gardner) DYTISCID^ Noterus, Clair. — sparsus. Marsh. Greatham common (Gardner) Laccophilus, Leach — interruptus, Pz. (Bold, Gard- ner) Hyphydrus, 111. — ovatus, L. (Bold, Gardner) Coelambus, Th. — versicolor, Schal. (Bold) — inaequalis, F. (Bold, Gardner) — confluens, F. (Bold, Gardner) — parallel ogrammus,Ahr. (Bold, Gardner, Bagnall) — impressopunctatus, Schal. (Gardner) Deronectes, Shp. — latus, Steph. Hartlepool sands, rare (Gardner) — assimilis, Pk. (Bold, Bagnall, Gardner) — depressus, F. (Bold, Gard- ner) — i2-pustulatus, F. (Bold, Gardner) Hydroporus, Clair. — pictus, F. (Bold, Gardner) — granularis, L. (Bold) — lepidus, Ol. (Bold, Bagnall, Gardner) — rivalis, Gyll. (Bold, Bagnall, Gardner) — septentrionalis, Gyll. (Bold, Gardner) — davisi. Curt. (Bold, Bagnall, Gardner) — dorsalis, F. (Bold, Gardner) — lineatus, F. (Bold, Bagnall, Gardner) — tristis, Pk. (Bold) — angustatus, Stm. (Bold) — gyllcnhali,Schi6d. Rare (Bold) — morio, Dj. (Bold) Hydroporus, Clair. — vittula, Er. (Bold, Gardner) — palustris, L. (Bold, Gard- ner) — incognitus, Shp. Rare (Bold) — erythrocephalus, L. (Bold, Bagnall, Gardner) — rufifrons, Duft. Boldon Flats (Bold) — melanarius, Stm. Rare (Bold, Bagnall) — memnonius, Nic. (Bold, Gardner) — obscurus, Stm. (Bold) — nigrita, F. (Bold) — discretus. Fair. (Bold, Gard- ner) — pubescens, Gyll. (Bold, Gardner) — planus, F. (Bold, Gardner) — lituratus, F. (Bold, Gardner) — marginatus, Duft. Greatham (Gardner) — obsoletus, Aub. Greatham (Gardner) Agabus, Leach. — guttatus, Pk. (Bold, Bagnall, Gardner) — biguttatus, Ol. Hartlepool (Gardner) — paludosus, F. (Bold, Bagnall, Gardner) — uliginosus, L. Boldon Flats (Bold) — unguicularis, Th. (Bold) — didymus, Ol. Hartlepool and Heskden (Gardner) — nebulosus, Forst. (Bold, Bagnall, Gardner) — conspersus. Marsh. (Bagnall, Gardner) — femoralis,Pk. (Bold, Bagnall) — sturmi, Gyll. (Bold, Bagnall, Gardner) — chalconotus, Pz. (Bold, Bag- nall) — bipustulatus, L. (Bold, Bag- nall, Gardner) Platambus, Th. — maculatus, L. (Bagnall ?) Ilybius, Er. — fuliginosus,F. (Bold, Bagnall, Gardner) — fenestratus, F. Greatham (Gardner) — ater, De G. (Bold, Bagnall) — obscurus. Marsh. (Bold) — guttiger, Gyll. (Bold) Rhantus, Lac. — exoletus, Forst. (Bold, Bag- nall) — pulverosus, Steph. Rare, (Bold, Gardner) Colymbetes, Clair. — fuscus, L. Bold, Bagnall, Gardner) 100 INSECTS Dytiscus, L. — punctulatuSjF. (Bold,Bagnall, Gardner) — marginalis,L. (Bold, Bagnall, Gardner) Acilius, Leach. — sulcatus, L. (Bold, Bagnall, Gardner) GYRINID.E Gyrinus, Geof. — minutus, F. Not common (Bold) — natator. Scop. (Bold, Rob- son, Bagnall, Gardner) — elongatus, Aub. (Bold) — bicolor, Pk. (Bold, Gardner) — marinus, Gyll. (Bold, Bagnall) — opacus, Sahl. (Bold) Orectochilus, Lac. — villosus. Mull. (Bold, Bag- nall, Gardner) HYDROPHILID^ Hydrobius, Leach. — fuscipes, L. (Bold, Gardner) Philhydrus, Sol. — maritimus, Th. Greatham, one specimen (Gardner) — minutus, F. (Bold) Anacsena, Th. — globidus, Pk. (Bold, Bagnall) — limbata, F. (Bold, Gardner) Laccobius, Er. — alutaceus, Th. Hartlepool (Gardner) — minutus, L. (Bold, Bagnall) — bipunctatus, F. Hartlepool (Gardner) Limnebius, Leach. — truncatellus, Thunb. (Bold, Gardner) Chsetarthria, Steph. — seminulum, Pk. Winlaton Mill (Hardy) Helophorus, F. — rugosus, Ol. (Bold, Bagnall) — nubilus, F. (Bold, Bagnall, Gardner) — aquaticus, L. (Bold, Bagnall, Gardner) V. aequalis, Th. Greatham (Gardner) — seneipennis,Th. (Bold, Gard- ner) — obscurus, Muls. v. shetland- icus, Kuw. (Bold) — affinis. Marsh. Greatham (Gardner) — brevicollis, Th. (Bold, Gard- ner) Hydrochus, Leach. — elongatus, Schal. Boldon Flats (Bold) Henicocerus, Steph. — exsculptus. Germ. (Bold, Gardner) Ochthebius, Leach. — marinus, Pk. Greatham (Gardner) — pygmreus, F. (Bold) — bicolon. Germ. (Bold, Bag- nall, Gardner) Hydraena, Kug. — riparia, Kug. (Bold, Bagnall) — nigrita,Germ. (Bold,Gardner) — angustata, Stm. (Gardner) — gracilis. Germ. (Bold) — pygmaea, Wat. Fjne (Bold) — pulchella. Germ. (Bold) Cyclonotum, Er. — orbiculare, F. (Bold, Bagnall) Sphaeridium, F. — scarabaeoides, L. (Bold, Bag- nall, Gardner) — bipustulatum, F. (Bold, Bag- nall, Gardner) Cercyon, Leach. — littoralis, Gyll. (Bold, Gard- ner) — depressus, Steph. Very rare (Bold) — haemorrhoidalis, F. (Bold, Bagnall, Gardner) — flavipes, F. (Bold, Bagnall, Gardner) — lateralis. Marsh. (Bold, Bag- nall) — melanocephalus, L. (Bold, Bagnall, Gardner) — unipunctatus, L. (Bold, Bagnall, Gardner) — quisquilius, L. (Bold, Bag- nall, Gardner) — nigriceps. Marsh. (Bold) — pygmseus. 111. (Bold, Bagnajl) — terminatus. Marsh. (Bold, Gardner) — analis, Pk. (Bold, Bagnall) Megasternum, Muls. — boletophagum. Marsh. (Bold, Bagnall, Gardner) Cryptopleurum, Muls. — atomarium, Ol. (Bold, Bag- nall, Gardner) STAPHYLINIDiE Aleochara, Gr. — ruficornis, Gr. (Bold, Gard- ner) — fuscipes, F. (Bold, Gardner) — lanuginosa, Gr. (Bold, Gard- ner) — moesta, Gr. (Bold, Gardner) — nitida, Gr. (Bold, Gardner) V. bilineata, Gyll. Somewhat rare. Confined to the coast (Bold) — morion, Gr. (Bold, Gardner) Aleochara, Gr. — grisea, Kr. Rare. Amongst the algae on the shore (Bold, Gardner) — algarum, Fauv. (Bold) — obscurella, Er. Hartlepool Microglossa, Kr. — pulla, Gyll. Gibside (Bold) Oxypoda, Man. — spectabilis, Milrk. (Gardner, Bagnall) — lividipennis, Man. (Bold, Bagnall) — opaca, Gr. (Bold, Gardner) — alternans, Gr. (Bold, Gardner) — exoleta, Er. Very rare. Near ^outh Wields (Bold) — lentula, Er. Near Ravens- worth (Hardy) — umbrata, Gyll. (Bold) — nigrina, Wat. (Bold) — longiuscula, Gr. (Bold) — annularis, Sahl. (Bold) Ischnoglossa, Kr. — prolixa, Gr. Saltzvell, very rare. (Bold) Phloeopora, Er. — reptans, Gr. (Bold) Ocalea, Er. — castanea, Er. (Bold, Gard- ner) — badia, Er. Hartlepool (Blatch) Ilyobates, Kr. — nigricollis, Pk. Coast and Gibside (Bold) Chilopora, Kr. — longitarsis, Er. (Bold) — rubicunda, Er. (Bold) Drusilla, Leach. — canaliculata, F. (Bold, Gard- ner) Callicerus, Gr. — obscurus, Gr. (Bold) Homalota, Man. — pavens, Er. (Bold) — cambrica, Woll. Hartlepool (Gardner) — planifrons, Wat. Sands, ^outh Shields (Bold) — gregaria, Er. (Bold) — imbecilla, Wat. Hartlepool (Blatch) — luridipennis, Man. (Bold) — gyllenhali, Th. Feam side (Bold) — hygrotopora, Kr. (Bold) — elongatula, Gr. (Bold) — volans, Scrib. (Bold) — vestita, Gr. (Bold, Gardner) — oblongiuscula, Shp. Feam side (Hardy) — silvicola. Fuss. Hartlepool (Gardner) — vicina, Steph. (Bold) — pagana, Er. (Bold) — graminicola, Gr. (BoldV lOI A HISTORY OF DURHAM Homalota, Man. — halobrectha, Shp. (Bold) — puncticeps, Th. (Bold) — occulta, Er. (? Bold) — fungivora, Th. Team side (Hardy) — picipes, Th. Rare (Bold) — caesula, Er. South Shields and Marsden (Bold) — circellaris, Gr. (Bold) — immersa, Er. Rare (Bold) — analis, Gr. (Bold, Gardner) — depressa, Gyll. (Bold, Gard- ner) — xanthoptera, Steph. (Bold) — euryptera, Steph. (Bold) — trinotata, Kr. (Bold) — corvina, Th. (f Bold) — atricolor, Shp. (Bold) — nigra, Kr. (Bold) — - germana, Shp. (Bold) — cauta, Er. (Bold, Gardner) — villosula, Kr. Saltwell, rare (Bold) — atramentaria, Gyll. (Bold, Bagnall, Gardner) — longicornis, Gr. (Bold, Bag- nall) — sordida. Marsh. (Bold, Gard- ner) — aterrima, Gr. (Bold, Bagnall) — pygmaea, Gr. (Bold) — muscorum, Bris. (Bold) — pilosiventris, Th. Rare (Bold) — laticollis, Steph. (Bold, Gard- ner) — fungi, Gr. (Bold, Bagnall, Gardner) V. clientula, Er. (Bold) Ischnopoda, Th. — coerulea, Sahl. (Bold) Tachyusa, Er. — flavitarsis, Sahl. (Bold) — umbratica, Er. (Bold) Myrmecopora, Saulcy. — uvida, Er. Marsden (Hardy) Falagria, Steph. — sulcata, Pk. (Bold) — thoracica. Curt. Very rare. (Bold) — obscura, Gr. (Bold) Autalia, Steph. — impressa,01. (Bold, Gardner) — rivularis, Gr. (? Bagnall) Gyrophaena, Man. — pulchella, Heer. Hartlepool (Gardner) — affinis, Man. (Bold) — gentilis, Er. (Bold, Gardner) — nana, Pk. (Bold, Gardner) — minima, Er. (Bold) — laevipennis, Kr. (Bold) — manca, Er. Rare (Bold, Gardner) — strictula, Er. Hartlepool (Gard- ner) Agaricochara, Kr. — laevicollis, Kr. Ravensworth (Hardy) Leptusa, Kr. — fumida, Er. (Bold) Sipalia, Rey. — ruficollis, Er. (Bold) Bolitochara, Man. — lucida, Gr. Castle Eden Dene (Bold) — lunulata, Pk. (Bold) — obliqua, Er. (Gardner, Bag- nall) Phytosus, Curt. — spinifer. Curt. Hartlepool (Blatch) — balticus, Kr. Hartlepool (Gard- ner) Oligota, Man. — inflata, Man. (Bold) Myllaena, Er. — dubia, Gr. (Bold) — elongata. Mat. (Bold) — brevicornis. Mat. Hartlepool (Gardner) Gymnusa, Gr. — brevicollis, Pk. (Bold) — laeviusculus, Man. Hartlepool (Gardner) Conosoma, Kr. — littoreum, L. (Bold, Bag- nall) — pubescens,Gr. (Bold, Bagnall, Gardner) — immaculatum, Steph. Marsden (Perkins) — lividum, Er. (Bold, Bagnall, Gardner) Tachyporus, Gr. — obtusus, L. (Bold, Bagnall, Gardner) — solutus, Er. Very rare. (Bold, Gardner ?) — chrysomelinus, L. (Bold, Bagnall, Gardner) — humerosus, Er. (Bold, Gard- ner) — hypnorum, F. (Bold, Gardner) — pusillus, Gr. (Bold, Gardner) — brunneus, F. (Bold, Bagnall, Gardner) — transversalis, Gr. (Bagnall) Lamprinus — saginatus, Gr. Hartlepool, v&xy rare (Gardner) Cilea, Duv. — silphoides, L. (Bold, Gardner) Tachinus, Gr. — flavipes, F. Hartlepool (Gard- ner) — humeralis, Gr. (Bold, Gard- ner) — proximus, Kr. Very rare (Bold, Gardner) — pallipes, Gr. Hartlepool (Gard- ner) Tachinus, Gr. — rufipes, De G. (Bold, Bagnall, Gardner) — subterraneus, L. (Bold, Bag- nall, Gardner) — marginellus, F. (Bold, Gard- ner) — laticollis, Gr. (Bold, Gard- ner) — collaris, Gr. (Bold, Bagnall, Gardner) — elongatus, Gyll. (Bold, Bag- nall, Gardner) Megacronus, Th. — analis, Pk. (Bold, Bagnall, Gardner) — inclinans, Gr. Ravensworth, I spec. (Bold) ; Hartlepool, rare (Gardner) Bryoporous, Kr. — castaneus. Hardy. Hartlepool, rare (Gardner) Bolitobius, Steph. — lunulatus, L. (Bold, Gardner) — trinotatus, Er. (Bold, Bagnall, Gardner) — exoletus, Er. (Bold, Gardner) — pygmaeus, F. (Bold, Gardner) Mycetoporus, Man. — splendens. Marsh. Rare (Bold, Gardner) — lepidus, Gr. (Bold, Gardner) — longulus, Man. Rare, (Bold, Gardner) — nanus, Er. Hartlepool, abun- dant (Gardner) Quedius, Leach. — longicornis, Kr. Hartlepool and Teesdale, rare (Gardner) — lateralis, Gr. (Bold, Gardner) — mesomelinus. Marsh. (Bold) — fiilgidus, F. (Bold, Gardner). — cinctus, Pk. (Bold, Gardner) — fuliginosus, Gr. (Bold, Bag- nall, Gardner) — tristis, Gr. (Bold, Gardner) — molochinus, Gr. (Bold, Gard- ner) — picipes, Man. (Bold, Bagnall, Gardner) — nigriceps, Kr. Rare (Bold) — fumatus, Steph. (Bold, Gard- ner) — maurorufus, Gr. Gibside (Bold) — umbrinus, Er. Rare (Bold, Gardner) — scintillans, Gr. Very rare (Bold, Gardner) — auricomus. Kies. Hartlepool and Teesdale (Gardner) — rufides,Gr. Sca/i S^/>/i/r(Bold, Bagnall, Gardner) — attenuatus, Gyll. (Bold, Gard- ner) — semixneus, Steph. (Bold, Bagnall) 102 INSECTS Quedius, Leach. • — fulvicollis, Steph. Rare (Bold, Bagnall) — hoops, Gr. (Bold, Bagnall, Gardner) Creophilus, Man. — maxillosus, L. (Bold, Bagnall, Gardner) V. ciliaris, Steph. Derwent valley, rare (Bagnall) Leistotrophus, Pert. — nebulosus, F. (Bold, Bagnall, Gardner) — murinus, L. Very rare (Bold) Staphylinus, L. — pubescens, De G. (Bold, Gardner, Bagnall) — stercorarius, Ol. (Bold, Gard- ner) — erythropterus, L. (Bold, Bag- nall) — caesareus, Ceder. Not fre- quent (Bold) Ocypus, Er. — olens. Mull. (Bold, Robson, Bagnall, Gardner) — similis, F. Rare. (Bold) — brunnipes, F. (Bold, Bagnall, Gardner) — fuscatus, Gr. (Bold, Bagnall, Gardner) — cupreus, Ross. (Bold, Bagnall, Gardner) — ater, Gr. (Bagnall ?) Greatham (Gardner) — morio, Gr. (Bold, Bagnall, Gardner) Philonthus, Curt. — splendens, F. (Bold, Bagnall, Gardner) — intermedins, Bois. Very rare. Hartlepool (Hardy) — laminatus, Creutz. (Bold, Bagnall) — aeneus, Ross. (Bold, Gardner) — proximus, Kr. (Bold) — addendus, Shp. (Bold) — carbonarius,Gyll. Rare (Bold) — scutatus, Er. Sparingly (Bold) — decorus, Gr. (Bold, Gardner) — politus, F. (Bold, Gardner) — varius, Gyll. (Bold, Bagnall, Gardner) — marginatus, F. (Bold, Gard- ner) — albipes, Gr. Rare and local (Bold) — umbratilis, Gr. Not common (Bold, Gardner) — cephalotes, Gr. (Bold, Gard- ner) — fimetarius, Gr. (Bold, Bag- nall, Gardner) — sordidus, Gr. (Bold) — ebeninus,Gr. (Bold, Gardner) — fumigatus, Er. (Bold) Philonthus, Curt. — debilis, Gr. (Bold, Gardner) — sanguinolentus, Gr. Rare. Coast (Bold, Gardner) — longicornis, Steph. (Bold) — varians, Pk. (Bold, Gardner) — ventralis, Gr. (Bold) — discoideus, Gr. (Bold, Gard- ner) — micans, Gr. Boldon Flats (Bold) — nigritulus, Gr. (Bold) — trossulus, Nor. (Gardner) — puella. Nor. Not common. (Bold, Gardner) Cafius, Steph. — fucicola. Curt. (Hardy, Gard- ner) — xantholoma, Gr. (Bold, Bag- nall, Gardner) Xantholinus, Ser. — fulgidus, F. Rare. (Bold) — glabratus, Gr. (Bold, Bagnall, Gardner) — punctulatus, Pk. (Bold, Bag- nall, Gardner) — ochraceus, Gyll. (Bold) — tricolor, F. (Bold, Gardner) — linearis, Ol. (Bold, Bagnall, Gardner) — longiventris, Heer. (Bagnall) Leptacinus, Er. — parumpunctatus, Gyll. Not frequent (Bold) — batychrus, Gyll. Rather rare (Bold) — linearis, Gr. (Bold) Baptolinus, Kr. — alternans, Gr. (Bold, Bag- nall, Gardner) Othius, Steph. — fulvipennis, F. (Bold, Bag- nall, Gardner) — melanocephalus, Gr. (Bold, Bagnall, Gardner) — myrmecophilus, Kies. (Bold, Gardner) Lathrobium, Gr. — elongatum, L. (Bold, Gard- ner) — boreale, Hoch. (Bold, Gard- ner) — fulvipenne, Gr. (Bold, Bag- nall, Gardner) — brunnipes, F. (Bold, Bag- nall, Gardner) — multipunctum, Gr. Rare, Derwent, Tyne, etc. (Bold) Cryptobium, Man. — glaberrimum, Hbst. (? Bold) Stilicus, Lat. — rufipes. Germ. Rare (Bold) — orbiculatus, Pk. (Bold) — affinis, Er. (Bold, Gardner) Medon, Steph. — pocofer, Peyr. Rare. South Shields (Bold) 103 Medon, Steph. — fusculus, Man. Rare. South Shields (Bold). The only north record (?) — melanocephalus, F. Not common (Bold) — obsoletus. Nor. Very rare. South Shields (Bold) Lithocharis, Lac. — ochracea, Gr. (Bold) Evassthetus, Gr. — rcaber, Gr. (Bagnall ?) Dianous, Curt. — coerulescens, Gyll. (Bagnall, Gardner) Stenus, Lat. — biguttatus, L. (Bold, Bag- nall) — guttula, Mflll. (Bold) — bimaculatus, Gyll. (Bold, Bagnall, Gardner) — juno, F. (Bold, Bagnall, Gardner) — speculator. Lac. (Bold, Bag- nall, Gardner) — providus, Er., v. rogeri, Kr. Rare (Bold, Bagnall) — buphthalmus, Gr. (Bold, Bagnall) — melanopus. Marsh. (Bold) — atratulus, Er. (Bold) — canaliculatus, Gyll. (Bold) — pusillus, Er. (Bold, Bagnall) — declaratus, Er. (Bold) — argus, Gr. Very rare (Bold) — nigritulus, Gyll. Rare (Bold, Gardner) — brunnipes, Steph. (Bold, Bagnall) — subaeneus, Er. (Bold,Gardner) — ossium, Steph. (Bold, Gard- ner) — impressus. Germ. (Bold, Bagnall, Gardner) — pallipes, Gr. Rare. Gibside and Ravensworth (Hardy) — flavipes, Steph. (Bold, Bag- nall, Gardner) — pubescens, Steph. (Bold) — binotatus, Ljun. (Bold, Bag- nall) — pallitarsis, Steph. (Bold, Bagnall) — bifoveolatus, Gyll. (Bold, Bagnall) — nitidiusculus, Steph. (Bold) — picipes, Steph. (Bold, Gard- ner) — similis, Hbst. (Bold, Bagnall) — paganus, Er. Rare. Gibside and Ravensworth (Bold) Bledius, Man. — arenarius, Pk. (Bold) — subterraneus, Er. Derwent (Bold) — opacus. Block. Derwent A HISTORY OF DURHAM Platystethus, Man. — arenarius, Fourc. (Bold, Gardner) Oxytelus, Gr. — rugosus, F. (Bold, Bagnall, Gardner) — sculptus, Gr. (Bold) — laqueatus. Marsh. (Bold, Gardner) — sculpturatus, Gr. (Bold, Gardner) — maritimus, Th. (Bold, Gard- ner) — nitidulus, Gr. (Bold, Gard- ner) — complanatus, Er. (Bold) — tetracarinatus. Block. (Bold) Haploderus, Steph. — caelatus, Gr. Rare (Bold) Trogophloeus, Man. — arcuatus, Steph. Very rare (Bold) — bilineatus, Steph. (Bold) — elongatulus, Steph. Rare. Algae on coast (Bold) — pusillus, Gr. (Bold) Syntomium, Er. — aeneum, Miill. (Bold, Gard- ner) Coprophilus, Kr. — striatulus, F. (Bold, Bagnall, Gardner) Anthophagus, Gr. — testaceus, Gr. (Bold, Bag- nall, Gardner) Geodromicus, Redt. — plagiatus, Heer., v. nigrita. Mull. Derwent (Bold) Lesteva, Kr. — longelytrata, Goez. (Bold, Bagnall, Gardner) — punctata, Er. (Bold, Gard- ner) Acidota, Steph. — crenata, F. (Hardy, Gard- ner) — cruentata, Man. ‘Teesdale (Gardner) Olophrum, Er. — piceum, Gyll. (Bold, Bag- nall, Gardner) — fuscum, Gr. Hartlepool (Gardner) Lathrimxum, Er. — atrocephalum, Gyll. (Bold, Bagnall, Gardner) — unicolor, Steph. (Bold, Bag- nall, Gardner) Deliphrum, Er. — tectum, Pk. (Bold, Bagnall, Gardner) Micralymma, West. — brevipenne, Gyll. Sparingly. On coast (Bold) Philorinum, Kr. — sordidum, Steph. (Bold) Coryphium, Steph. — angusticolle, Steph. (Bold) Homalium, Gr. — rivulare, Pk. (Bold, Bagnall, Gardner) — rugulipenne. Rye. Hartle- pool (Gardner) — laeviusculum, Gyll. (Bold, Gardner) — riparium, Th. (Bold, Gard- ner) — allardi. Fair. (Bold) — exiguum, Gyll. Rare (Bold) — oxyacanthae, Gr. (Bold, Gardner) — excavatum, Steph. (Bold) — caesum, Gr. (Bold) — pusillum, Gr. (Bold) — rufipes, Fourc. Not com- mon (Bold) — vile, Er. (Bold, Bagnall, Gardner) — iopterum, Steph. Rare (Bold) — concinnum. Marsh. (Bold, Bagnall, Gardner) — striatum, Gr. Boldon Flats (Bold) Acrulia, Th. — inflata, Gyll. Ravensworth (Hardy) Eusphalerum, Kr. — primulae, Steph. Gibside (Bold), Primrose and Guelderrose ; Gibside (Bag- nall) ; Hartlepool (Gard- ner) Anthobium, Steph. — mmutum, F. (Bold, Gard- ner) — ophthalmicum, Pk. (Bold, Gardner) — torquatum. Marsh. (Bold, Bagnall) — sorbi, Gyll. (Bold, Bagnall) Proteinus, Lat. — ovalis, Steph. (Bold, Bag- nall) — brachypterus, F. (Bold, Bag- nall, Gardner) Megarthrus, Steph. — denticollis. Beck. (Bold) — affinis. Mull. (Bold) — depressus, Pk. (Bold, Bagnall, Gardner) — sinuatocollis. Lac. (Bold, Gardner) Phloeocharis, Man. — subtilissima, Man. (Bold) Clambus, Fisch. — armadillo, De G. (Bold) — minutus, Stm. (Bold) SILPHID^ Agathidium, 111. — nigripenne, Kug. (Bold, Bagnall, Gardner) 104 Agathidium, 111. — atrum, Pk. (Bagnall ?) — marginatum, Stm. (Bold, Gardner) — varians. Beck. (Bold, Bag- nall ?) — rotundatum, Gyll. Rare (Bold). Lockhaughi^z^oW') — nigrinum, Stm. Gibside (Bold) Liodes, Lat. — humeralis, Kug. (Bold, Bag- nall, Gardner) — glabra, Kug. Rare (Bold, Bagnall) Cyrtusa, Er. — minuta, Ahr. One specimen in a pond near Hartlepool (Gardner) Anisotoma, 111'. — dubia, Kug. (Bold, Gard- ner, Bagnall) — badia, Stm. Hartlepool (Gard- ner) — ovalis, Schm. (Bold) — punctulata, Gyll. (Bold, Gardner) — calcarata, Er. (Gardner) — curvipes, Schm. Hartlepool, one specimen (Gardner) — triepkei, Schm. Hartlepool, one specimen (Gardner) — rugosa, Steph. Hartlepool (Gardner) Colenis, Er. — dentipes, Gyll. (Bold) Hydnobius, Schm. — perrisi,Fair. Gateshead, very rare (Bold) ; Hartlepool, numerous (Gardner) — punctatissimus, Steph. Very rare. Saltwell (Kirwood) — punctatus, Stm. Hartlepool, one specimen (Gardner) Necrophorus, F. — humator, Goez. (Bold, Rob- son, Bagnall, Gardner) — mortuorum, F. (Bold, Bag- nall, Gardner) — vestigator. Hers. Birtley (Robson) — ruspator, Er. (Bold, Bag- nall, Gardner) — vespillo, L. (Bold, Bagnall) Necrodes, Wilk. — littoralis, L. (Bold, Bagnall, Gardner) Silpha, L. — tristis. 111. (Bold, Bagnall, Gardner) — nigrita, Cr. (Bold, Bag- nall) — obscura, L. Rare (Bold, Gardner) — quadripunctata, L. Rare Gibside (Perkins) INSECTS Silpha, L. — thoracica, L. (Bold, Bagnall, Gardner) — rugosa, L. (Bold, Bagnall, Gardner) — sinuata, F. Rare (Bold, Gardner) — dispar, Hbst. 5outh Shields, rare (Bold) — Isevigata, F. (Bold, Gard- ner) — atrata, L. (Bold, Robson, Bagnall, Gardner) V. brunnea, Hbst. Uncom- mon, Derwent Valley (Bag- nall, Gardner) Choleva, Lat, — angustata, F. (Bold, Bagnall, Gardner) — cisteloides, Fr6h. (Bold, Bag- nal, Gardner) — spadicea, Stm. (Bagnall) — agilis. 111. Marsden (Hardy, Bagnall, Gardner) — velox, Spence. (Bold, Bag- nal, Gardner) — wilkini, Spence. (Bold, Bag- nal, Gardner) — anisotomoides, Spence. (Bold) — fusca, Pz. (Gardner) — nigricans, Spence. (Bold, Bagnall, Gardner) — longula, Kell. Hartlepool, very rare. (Gardner) — morio, F. Rare (Bold, Bag- nall, Gardner) — grandicollis, Er. (Bold, Bag- nall, Gardner) — nigrita, Er. (Bold, Bagnall) — tristis, Pz. (Bold, Gardner) — kirbyi, Spence. (Bold) — chrysomeloides, Pz. (Bold, Bagnall, Gardner)- — fumata, Spence. (Bagnall, Gardner) — watsoni, Spence. (Bold) Catops, Pk. — sericeus, Pz. (Bold, Bagnall, Gardner) Colon, Hbst. — brunneum, Lat. Rare (Bold) — denticulatum, Kr. Hartlepool, one specimen. (Gardner) SCYDM^NID^ Scydmxnus, Lat. — - collaris, Miill. (Bold) — pusillus, Miill. Hotbeds, Gilesgate Moor, Durham. (Little) Euconnus, Th. — hirticollis. 111. Hotbeds, Gilesgate Moor, Durham. (Little) — fimetarius, Chaud. (Bold) Eumicrus, Lap. — tarsatus,Mllll. Durhami^oXdl), Tleesdale (Gardner) PSELAPHID^ Bythinus, Leach. — puncticollis. Den. (Bold) — bulbifer, Reich. (Bold, Bag- nall ?) — curtisi. Den. Gibside (Hardy) — securiger, Reich. Ravensworth (Bold) — burrelli. Den. Hartlepool (Blatch) Bryaxis, Leach. — juncorum, Leach. (Bold) Euplectus, Leach. — nanus, Reich. (Bold) — minutus. Marsh. (Bold) Trichopteryx, Kirb. — thoracica, Waltl. (? Bold) — atomaria, De G. (Bold) — grandicollis, Man. (? Bold) — lata. Mots. Rather rare (Bold) — fascicularis, Hbst. Very rare (Bold) — sericans, Heer. Very rare (Bold) — picicornis, Man. Rare (Bold) — montandoni. All. Very rare (Bold) — chevrolati. All. Rare (Bold) Nephanes, Th. — titan. New. Very rare (Bold) Ptilium, Er. — foveolatum. All. Rare (Bold) Ptenidium, Er. — punctatum, Gyll. Coast, on Algae (Bold) — nitidum, Heer. (Bold) — evanescens. Marsh. (Bold) — wankowiezi. Mat. (?Bold) — formicetorum, Kr. Very rare (Bold) PHALACRID.E Phalacrus, Pk. — corruscus, Pk. South Shields (Hardy) Olibrus, Er. — aeneus, F. Winlaton Mill (Bagnall) COCCINELLID^ Hippodamia, Muls. — 1 3 -punctata, L. (Bold, Bag- nall) Adalia, Muls. — obliterata, L. (Bold, Bag- nall) — bipunctata, L. (Bold, Bag- nall, Gardner) 105 Mysia, Muls. — oblongoguttata, L. (Bold, Bagnall, Gardner) Anatis, Muls. — ocellata, L. Not common (Bold, Bagnall, Gardner) Coccinella, L. — lo-punctata, L. (Bold, Bag- nall, Gardner) — hieroglyphica, L. Rare (Bold) — 1 1 -punctata, L. (Bold, Rob- son, Bagnall, Gardner) — 5 -punctata, L. (Bold) Rare (Bagnall) — 7-punctata, L. (Bold, Rob- son, Bagnall, Gardner) Halyzia, Muls. — 14-guttata, L. (Bold) — i8-guttata, L. (Bold, Bag- nall) — 22-punctata, L. (Bold, Bag- nall, Gardner) Micraspis, Redt. — i6-punctata, L. (Bold) Scymnus, Kug. — pygmaeus, Fourc. Hartlepool (Hardy) — suturalis. Thumb. (Bold) — testaceus. Mots. (Bold) Exochomus, Redt. — quadripustulatus, L. (Bold) Rhizobius, Steph. — litura, F. (Bold, Bagnall) Coccidula, Kug. — rufa, Hbst. (Bold, Bagnall, Gardner) ENDOMYCHID^ Mycetaea, Steph. — hirta, Marsh. (Bold, Bagnall, Gardner) Endomychus, Pz. — coccineus, L. (Bold) EROTYLID^ Triplax, Pk. — russica, L. Gibside (Bagnall) — asnea, Schal. (Bold, Bagnall) — bicolor, Gyll. Gibside (Bag- nall) COLYDIID^ Cerylon, Lat. — histeroides, F. Rare (Bold, Bagnall) — fagi, Bris. Winlaton Mill, rotten wood, one specimen (Bagnall) — ferrugineum, Steph. Win- laton, Gibside, &c., in rotten oak (Bagnall) Murmidius, Leach. — ovalis. Beck. Has been found alive in Bengal rice (Bold) 14 I A HISTORY OF DURHAM HISTERID^. Hister, L. — unicolor, L. (Bold, Bagnall) — cadaverinus, HofF. (Bold, Bagnall, Gardner) — succicola, Th. (Bold, Bag- nall, Gardner) — purpurascens, Hbst. Very rare (Bold) — neglectus. Germ. Very rare (Bold) — carbonarius. 111. (Bold, Bag- nall ?) — i2-striatus, Schr. (Bold) — bimaculatus, L. (Bold, Bag- nall, Gardner) Carcinops, Mars. — 1 4-striata, Steph. Rare, ^outh Shields and Jarrozv (Bold) Gnathoncus, Duv. — nannetensis. Mars. Rare. Roker (? Peacock) Saprinus, Er. — nitidulus, Pk. (Bold, Gard- ner) — seneus, F. (Bold, Gardner) — virescens, Pk. Marsden (Wailes, Gardner) Hypocaccus, Th. — rugifrons, Pk. South Shields (Bold) Pachylopus, Er. — maritimus, Steph. (Bold) Stockton Acrltus, Lee. — minutus, Hbst. (Bold) Onthophilus, Leach. — striatus, F. (Bold, Gardner) MICROPEPLID^. Micropeplus, Lat. — porcatus, Pk. (Bold, Gard- ner) — staphylinoides. Marsh. Rare (Bold, Gardner) — margaritae, Duv. Rather rare (Bold, Gardner) NITIDULID^. Brachypterus, Kug. — gravidus. 111. Winlaton (Bag- nall) — pubescens, Er. (Bold, Bag- nall) — urticae, F. (Bold, Bagnall) Cercus, Lat. — pedicularius, L. (Bold) Gib- side (Bagnall) — bipustulatus, Pk. (Bold, Bag- nall) — rufilabris, Lat. (Bold, Bag- nall) Carpophilus, Leach. — hemipterus, L. (Bold) Epuraea, Er. — aestiva, L. (Bold, Bagnall) — melina, Er. Very rare (Bold, Bagnall) — longula, Er. Gibside, one male (Bagnall) — deleta, Er. (Bold, Bagnall, Gardner) — parvula, Stm. Rather rare (Bold, Bagnall) — obsoleta, F. (Bold, Bagnall, Gardner) — pusilla. 111. (Bold, Bagnall, Gardner) Nitidula, F. — bipustulata, L. (Bold, Bag- nall) — rufipes, L. Tyneside (Hardy) — flexuosa, F. South Shields, in- troduced (Bold) Soronia, Er. — punctatissima. 111. (Bold) — grisea, L. (Bold, Bagnall, Gardner) Omosita, Er. — depressa, L. (Bold, Bagnall) — colon, L. (Bold, Bagnall) — discoidea, F. (Bold, Bagnall, Gardner) Pocadius, Er. — ferrugineus, F. Gibside (Bold) Meligethes, Kirb. — rufipes, Gyll. Rare (Bold, Bagnall) — lumbaris, Stm. Not common (Bold, Gardner) — aeneus, F. (Bold, Gardner) — viridescens, F. (Bold, Bag- nall, Gardner) — pedicularius, Gyll. Very rare (Bold) — flavipes, Stm. (Bold, Bagnall) — picipes, Stm. (Bold, Bag- nall ?) — obscurus, Er. Near Winlaton (Bagnall) — erythropus, Gyll. (Bold, Gardner) — brevis, Stm. (Bold) V. mutabilis, Rosen. Hartle- pool (Gardner), rare Cychramus, Kug. — luteus, F. Rare (Bold, Bag- nall, Gardner) — fungicola, Heer. (Bold, Bag- nall, Gardner) Ips, F. — quadriguttata, F. Rare (Bold) — quadripunctata, Hbst. (Bold) Rare. Winlaton Mill (Bag- nall) — quadripustulata, L. (Bold) Teesdale (Gardner) Pityophagus, Shuck. — ferrugineus, F. (Bold) io6 Rhizophagus, Hbst. — cribratus, Gyll. Teesdale (Gardner) — depressus, F. (Bold, Bag- nall) — perforatus, Er. Rowland’s Gill (Bagnall) — parallelocollis, Gyll. (Bold) — ferrugineus, Pk. (Bold, Bagnall) — dispar, Pk. (Bold) Lock- haugh (Bagnall) — bipustulatus, F. (Bold) Der- went Valley, common (Bag- nall) — coeruleipennis, Sahl. Rare. Derwent (Hardy) TROGOSITID^ Tenebrioides, Pill. — mauritanicus, L. Imported in rice (Bold). Byermoor{¥ Johnson) Thymalus, Lat. — limbatus, F. Very rare. Ravensworth (Bold) MONOTOMIDyE Monotoma, Hbst. — picipes, Hbst. (Bold) — rufa, Redt. Very rare. South Shields (Bold) — longicollis, Gyll. (Bold) LATHRIDIID^ Holoparamecus, Curt. — depressus. Curt. Sunderland (Bold) Lathridius, Hbst. — lardarius, De G. (Bold, Bagnall) — bergrothi, Reit. Common in cellars of Winlaton (Bag- nall) Coninomus, Th. — nodifer. West. (Bold, Bag- nall) Eniemus, Th. — transversus, 01. (Bold, Bag- nall) — brevicornis, Man. (Bold, Bagnall) Corticaria, Marsh. — pubescens, Gyll. (Bold, Bag- nall) — crenulata, Gyll. (Bold, Bag- nall) — denticullata, Gyl. (Bold, Bagnall) — serrata, Pk. (Bold) — umbilicata. Beck. Sea banks (Bold) — fulva. Com. (Bold, Bagnall) — elongata, Gyll. (Bagnall) — fenestralis, L. (Bold) INSECTS Melanophthalma, Mots. — gibbosa, Hbst. (Bold) — fuscula, Hum. (Bold, Bag- nall) CUCUJID.E Lasmophloeus, Er. — ferrugineus, Steph. Imported in grain (Bold, Gardner) Nausibius, Redt. — dentatus. Marsh. Imported (Bold) Silvanus, Lat. — surinamensis, L. (Bold) BYTURID^ Byturus, Lat. — sambuci. Scop. Not frequent (Bold) — tomentosus, F. (Bold, Bag- nall, Gardner) CRYPTOPHAGIDiE Antherophagus, Lat. — nigricornis, F. (Bold) — pallens, Ol. (Bold, Bagnall) Cryptophagus, Hbst. — setulosus, Stm. (Bold, Bag- nall, Gardner) — pilosus, Gyll. (Bold, Bag- nall, Gardner) — punctipennis, Bris. 5outh Shields (Bold) — saginatus, Stm. (Bold) — umbratus, Er. (Bold) — scanicus, L. (Bold, Bagnall, Gardner) — badius, Stm. Rare (Bold) — validus, Kr. ^outh Shields (Bold) — dentatus, Hbst. (Bold, Bag- nall, Gardner) — distinguendus, Stm. Rare (Bold) — acutangulus, Gyll. (Bold, Gardner) — fumatus, Gyll. Very rare (Bold) — cellaris. Scop. (Bold, Bag- nall) — afhnis, Stm. (Bold, Gardner) — pubescens, Stm. Winlaton Mill (Bagnall) Micrambe, Th. — vini, Pz. (Bold) Henoticus, Th. — serratus, Gyll. Washington, very rare (Bold) Paramecosoma, Curt. — melanocephalum,Hbst. (Bag- nall) Atomaria, Steph. — fumata, Er. (Bold) — nigriventris, Steph. (Bold) Automaria, Steph. — umbrina, Gyll. Very rare (Bold) — fuscipes, Gyll. (Bold) — nigripennis, Pk. (Bold) — fiiscata, Sch. (Bold) — pusilla, Pk. (Bold) — atricapilla, Steph. (Bold) — berolinensis, Kr. (Bold, Gardner) — apicalis, Er. (Bold) — analls, Er. (Bold) Ephistemus, West. — gyrinoides. Marsh. (Bold) SCAPHIDIID^ Scaphidium, Ol. — quadrimaculatum, Ol. Gib- r/Vi<’(Handcock andTaylor), Winlaton Mill (Bagnall) Scaphisoma, Leach. — agaricinum, L. (Bold) MYCETOPHAGIDiE Typhaea, Curt. — fumata, L. (Bold, Bagnall, Gardner) Triphyllus, Lat. — suturalis, F. (Bold) Mycetophagus, Hell. — quadripustulatus, L. Teesdale (Gardner) DERMESTIDiE Dermestes, L. — vulpinus, F. (Bold) — frischi, Kug. South Shields (Bold) — murinus, L. (Bold) — lardarius, L. (Bold, Bagnall) Attagenus, Lat. — pellio, L. (Bold) Florilinus, Muls. — musaeorum, L. Gib side (W ailes) BYRRHIDiE Byrrhus, L. — pilula, L. (Bold, Bagnall, Gardner) — fasciatus, F. (Bold, Gardner) — dorsalis, F. (Bold) Cytilus, Er. — varius, F. (Bold, Bagnall, Gardner) Simplocaria, Marsh. — semistriata, F. (Bold, Bag- nall, Gardner) Aspidiphorus, Lat. — orbiculatus, Gyll. Rare (Bold) GEORYSSID^ Georyssus, Lat. — pygmaeus, F. (Bold) PARNID^ Elmis, Lat. — aeneus, Mull. (Bold, Bag- nall, Gardner) — volkmari, Pz. (Bold, Gard- ner) — cupreus, Mull. Hesleden (Gardner) — nitens. Mull. Hesleden (Gardner) Limnius, Mull. — tuberculatus. Mull. (Bold, Bagnall, Gardner) Parnus, F. — prolifericornis, F. (Bold, Bagnall, Gardner) — auriculatus, Pz. (Bold, Bag- nall, Gardner) HETEROCERIDiE Heterocerus, F. — marginatus, F. (Bold, Gard- ner) LUCANID^ Lucanus, L. — cervus, L. Sunderland, intro- duced (Bagnall) Sinodendron, F. — cylindricum, L. (Bold, Rob- son, Bagnall, Gardner) SCARAB^ID^ Onthophagus, Lat. — nuchicornis, L. Very rare. South Shields (Bold) Aphodius, 111. — erraticus, L. (Bold, Gardner) — subterraneus, L. (Bold, Gardner) — fossor, L. (Bold, Robson, Bagnall, Gardner) — haemorrhoidalis, L. (Bold, Gardner) — foetens, F. (Bold) — fimetarius, L. (Bold, Rob- son, Bagnall, Gardner) — scybalarius, F. (Bold,Gardner) — ater, De G. (Bold, Bagnall, Gardner) — granarius, L. Rare. South Shields (Bold), Hartlepool (Gardner) — sordidus, F. (Bold, Bagnall) — rufescens, F. (Bold, Gardner) — lapponum, Gyll. (Bold, Gardner) — foetidus, F. (Bold, Gardner) — borealis, Gyll. (Bold) 107 A HISTORY OF DURHAM Aphodius, III. — pusillus, Hbst. (Bold, Bagnall) — merdarius, F. (Bold, Bagnall, Gardner) — inquinatus, F. (Bold, Bag- nall, Gardner) — tesselatus, Pk. Hartlepool (Gardner) — conspurcatus, L. (Bold, Bag- nall, Gardner) — - punctato-sulcatus,Stm. (Bold, Bagnall, Gardner) — prodromus, Brahm. (Bag- nall, Gardner) — contaminatus, Hbst. (Bold, Bagnall, Gardner) — luridus, F. (Bold, Gardner) — rufipes, L. (Bold, Gardner) — depressus, Kug. (Bold, Bag- nall, Gardner) JEgia\h, Lat. — sabuleti, Pk. (Bold, Bagnall) — arenaria, F. (Bold, Bagnall, Gardner) Geotrupes, Lat. — stercorarius, L. (Bold, Rob- son, Bagnall, Gardner) — sylvaticus, Pz. (Bold, Bag- nall, Gardner) — vernalis, L. (Bagnall, Gard- ner) Serica, McL. — brunnea, L. (Bold, Bagnall, Gardner) Melolontha, F. — vulgaris, F. (Bold, Robson, Bagnall, Gardner) — hippocastani, F. (Bagnall) Phyllopertha, Kirk. — horticola, L. (Bold, Bagnall) Anomala, Sam. — frischi, F. (Bold, Bagnall, Gardner) ELATERIDiE Lacon, Lap. — murinus, L. (Bold, Gardner) Cryptohypnus, Esch. — maritimus. Curt. Rare (Bold) — riparius, F. (Bold, Bagnall, Gardner) — dermestoides, Hbst. (Bold) Elater, L. — balteatus, L. Not common (Bold) Melanotus, Esch. — rufipes, Hbst. (Bold, Gard- ner) Athous, Esch. — niger, L. (Bold, Bagnall) — longicollis, Ol. (Bold, Bag- nall) — hasmorrhoidalis, F. (Bold, Robson, Gardner) — vittatus, F. (Bold) Limonius, Esch. — cylindricus, Pk. (Bold, Bag- nall, Gardner) — minutus, L. (Bold, Bagnall, Gardner) Adrastus, Esch. — limbatus, F. (Bold, Bagnall, Gardner) Agriotcs, Esch. — sputator, L. (Bold, Bagnall, Gardner) — obscurus, L. (Bold, Bagnall, Gardner) — lineatus, L. (Bold, Bagnall, Gardner) — sobrinus. Kies. (Bagnall, Gardner) — pallidulus. 111. (Bold, Bag- nall, Gardner) Dolopius, Esch. — marginatus, L. (Bold, Bag- nall, Gardner) Corymbites, Lat. — castaneus, L. Rare. On the coast near Hawthorne Dene (Kirwood) — pectinicornis, L. (Bold, Bag- nall, Gardner) — cupreus, F. (Bold, Robson, Bagnall, Gardner) V. aeruginosus, F. Not so common as type (Bagnall) Corymbites, Lat. — tessellatus, F. Not common (Bold) — quercus, Gyll. (Bold, Bag- nall, Gardner) — holosericeus, F. (Bold, Bag- nall) Campylus, Fisch. — linearis, L. (Bold, Bagnall, Gardner) DASCILLIDiE Dascillus, Lat. — cervinus, L. (Bold, Bagnall, Gardner) Helodes, Lat. — minuta, L. (Bold, Bagnall) — marginata, F. (Bold, Bagnall, Gardner) Microcara, Th. — livida, F. (Bold, Bagnall ?) Cyphon, Pk. — coarctatus, Pk. (Bold, Bag- nall, Gardner) — nitidulus,Th. (Bold, Bagnall) — variabilis, Thunb. (Bold, Bagnall, Gardner) — padi, L. (Bold, Bagnall) Hydrocyphon, Redt. — deflexicollis, Mull. Rare (Bold) Eubria, Germ. — palustris. Germ. Near Castle Eden Dene (Bold) io8 LAMPYRIDiE Lampyris, L. — noctiluca, L. (Bold, Bagnall) TELEPHORID^ Podabrus, West. — alpinus, Pk. (Bold, Bagnall) Ancistronycha, Mark. — abdominalis, F. (Bold) Tees- dale (Harris and Blatch), (Bagnall) Telephorus, Schsef. — rusticus. Fall. (Bold, Bagnall, Gardner) — lividus, L. (Bold, Bagnall, Gardner) — pellucidus, F. (Bold, Bagnall, Gardner) — nigricans, MUll. (Bold, Bag- nall) — lituratus. Fall. (Bold, Bag- nall, Gardner) — figuratus, Man. (Bold, Bag- nall ?, Gardner) — bicolor, F. (Bold, Bagnall, Gardner) — haemorrhoidalis, F. (Bold, Bagnall, Gardner) — flavilabris. Fall. (Bold, Bag- nall, Gardner) Rhagonycha, Esch. — unicolor. Curt. (Bold) — fulva. Scop. (Bold, Bagnall, Gardner) — testacea, L. (Bagnall ?, Gard- ner) — limbata,Th. (Bold, Bagnall) — pallida, F. (Bold, Bagnall, Gardner) — elongata. Fall. (Bold) Malthinus, Lat. — punctatus, Fourc. (Bold, Bagnall) — frontalis. Marsh. Rare. Win- laton Mill (Bagnall) Malthodes, Kies. — marginatus, Lat. (Bold, Bag- nall, Gardner) — mysticus. Kies. (Bold) — pellucidus. Kies. Not com- mon. Gibside (Bold) — minimus, L. (Bold, Bag- nall) — atomus, Th. Rare (Bold) Malachius, F. — tcneus, L. Rare. Stockton (Hogg’s Stockton) ? — bipustulatus, L. (Bold, Bag- nall) Dasytes, Pk. — serosus. Kies. Rare. (Bold) Psilothrix, Redt. — nobilis. 111. Has been re- corded from Durham (Bun- gey), but is probably an error INSECTS Phloeophilus, Steph. — edwardsi, Steph. Rare (Bold) CLERID^ Tillus, Ol. — elongatus, L. Durham (Orns- by’s Durham) ? Thanasimus, Lat. — formicarius, L. (Bold, Bag- nall, Johnson, Gardner) Necrobia, Lat. — ruficollis, F. (Bold, Bagnall) — violacea, L. (Bold, Bagnall) — rufipes, De G. (Bold) — quadra. South Shields, intro- duced (Bold) PTINID^ Ptinus, L, — fur, L. (Bold, Bagnall, Gardner) Niptus, Boiel. — hololeucus. Fall. (Bold, Rob- son, Bagnall, Gardner) — crenatus, F. (Bold, Bagnall) Gibbium, Scop. — scotias, F. (Bold, Robson, Gardner) ANOBIID^ Priobium, Mots. — castaneum, F. (Bold) Anobium, F. — domesticum, Fourc. (Bold, Robson, Bagnall, Gardner) — paniceum, L. (Bold, Bagnall) Introduced Frnobius, Th. — mollis, L. (Bold) Ptilinus, Geof. — pectinicornis, L. (Bold, Bag- nall) BOSTRICHIDiE Rhizopertha, Steph. — pusilla, F. (Bold, Bagnall, Gardner) LYCTID^ L)xtus, F. — canaliculatus, F. Rare (Bold) CISSID^ Cis, Lat. — boleti. Scop. (Bold, Bagnall, Gardner) — bidentatus, Ol. (Bold, Bag- nall, Gardner) — nitidus, Hbst. T^eesdale (Gardner) — festivus, Pz. Ravensworth (Bold) Octotemnus, Mel. — glabriculus, Gyll. (Bold, Bagnall, Gardner) CFRAMBYCID^ Tetropium, Kirb. — castaneum, L., black form (Gardner) Callidium, F. — violaceum, L. Hartlepool (Gardner), probably im- ported — variabile, L. Hartlepool (Gardner), probably im- ported — alni, L. Gibside (Wailes) Clytus, Laich. — arcuatus, L. (Bold). Hartlepool (Gardner) — arietis, L. (Bold, Bagnall, Gardner) Gracilia, Serv. — minuta, F. Sunderland (Pea- cock), Hartlepool (Gardner) Molorchus, F. — minor, L. Hartlepool (Gard- ner) Rhagium, F. — inquisitor, F. (Bold, Bagnall, Gardner) — bifasciatum,F. (Bold, Bagnall, Gardner) Toxotus, Ser. — meridianus, L. Red variety once at Lockhaugh (Bagnall) (Gardner) Pachyta, Ser. — cerambyciformis, Schr. (Bold, Bagnall) Strangalia, Ser. — quadrifasciata, L. (Bold, Bagnall) — armata, Hbst. (Bold, Bagnall) — melanura, L. (Bold, Bagnall) Grammoptera, Ser. — tabacicolor, De G. (Bold, Bagnall) — ruficornis, F. (Bold, Bagnall) LAMIID^ Acanthocinus, Steph. — aedilis, L. (Bold, Robson, Johnson, Gardner) Leiopus, Ser. — nebulosus, L. (Bold, Robson, Bagnall) Pogonochaerus, Lat. — fasciculatus, De G. Hartlepool, common (Gardner) — bidentatus, Th. (Bold). IVin- laton Mill, under bark (Bagnall) ; HartlepooH(jo.xdi- ner) — dentatus, Fourc. Hartlepool, very rare (Gardner) Monohammus, Muls. — sartor, F. Sunderland, intro- duced (Corder) ; Hartlepool (Gardner) 109 Monohammus, Muls. — sutor, L. Bumopfield, intro- duced (Johnson) ; Hartle- pool, shipyards (Gardner) Saperda, F. — scalaris, L. Langley, pasture (Ornsby’s Durham), rare ; Hartlepool (Gardner) Tetrops, Steph. — praeusta, L. Gibside (Wailes) Stenostola, Muls. — ferrea, Schr. (Hardy), Derwent Valley (Bagnall) BRUCHIDiE Bruchus, L. — pisi, L. In pea introduced (Bagnall) — rufimanus. Boh. Introduced (Bold, Gardner) CHRYSOMFLIDyE Donacia, F. — versicolora, Brahm. (Bold, Bagnall) — simplex, F. (Bold) — vulgaris, Zsch. (Bold) — sericea, L. (Bold, Bagnall) — discolor, Pz. (Bold) Haemonia, Curt. — curtisi,Lac. Greatham {Gnrd- ner) Lema, F. — cyanella, L. (Bold) — lichenisjVoet, G/^r/(/i?(Bagnall) — melanopa, L. (Bold) Clythra, Laich. — quadripunctata, L. (Bold, Cryptocephalus, Geof. — bipunctatus, L.; v. lineola, F. Castle Eden Dene (Ornsby’s Durham) — aureolus, Suf. Not common (Bold) — hypochasridis, L. Marsden (Handcock) — moraei, L. Castle Eden Dene (Wailes) — fulvus, Goez. One specimen, near Winlaton (Bagnall) — labiatus, L. (Bold, Bagnall) Chrysomela, L. — marginata, L. (Bold) — staphylea, L. (Bold, Bagnall, Gardner) — polita, L. (Bold, Robson, Bagnall, Gardner) — orichalcia. Mull. (Bold, Bagnall) V. hobsoni, Steph. South Hyl- ton, very rare and local (Bagnall) — hasmoptera, L. (Bold) — varians, Schal. (Bold, Gard- ner) A HISTORY OF DURHAM Chrysomela, L. — fastuosa, Scop. (Bold) — didymata, Scrib. (Bold, Gardner) — hyperici, Fbrst. (Bold, Gard- ner) Melasoma, Steph. — aeneum, L. Durham (Orns- by’s Durham), Sharnberry Gill, not uncommon on alders (Gardner) Phytodecta, Kirb. — viminalis, L. Durham (Orns- by’s Durham) — olivacea, Forst. (Bold) — pallida, L. (Bold) Gastroidea, Hope. — viridula, De G. (Bold) — polygon!, L. (Bold) Winlaton (Bagnall, Gardner) — tenella, L. (Bold, Gardner) Adimonia, Laich. — tanaceti, L. (Bold, Gardner) Sermyla, Chap. — halensis, L. (Bold, Gard- ner). Also greenish purple variety Longitarsus, Lat. — luridus. Scop. Near Swalwell (Bagnall) — brunneus, Duft. (Bold, Bag- nall) Longitarsus, Lat. — suturellus, Duft. v. fusci- collis, Steph. (Bold, Bag- nall) — atricillus, L. (Bold, Bagnall) — melanocephalus,DeG. (Bold, Bagnall) — suturalis. Mars. Rare (Bold) — femoralis. Marsh. Not com- mon (Bold, Bagnall) — pusillus, Gyll. (Bold) — jacobaeae, Wat. (Bold, Bag- nall) — ochroleucus. Marsh. Sparing- ly on the coast (Bold) — laevis, Duft. (Bold) Haltica, Geof. — ericeti, Al. (Bold, Bagnall, Gardner) — pusilla, Duft. (Bagnall, Gardner) Phyllotreta, Foud. — undulata, Kuts. This is the Turnip Fly of this district. (Bold, Bagnall, Gardner) — nemorum, L. Rare (Bold, Gardner) — tetrastigma. Com. (Bold) — exclamationis,Thunb. (Bold) Aphthona, Chev. — atrocoerulea, Steph. Hartle- pool (Hardy) Batophila, Foud. — rubi, Pk. (Bold, Bagnall) Sphaeroderma, Steph. — testacea, F. (Bold, Bagnall, Gardner) — cardui, Gyll. (Bold, Bag- nall, Gardner) Apteropeda, Redt. — orbiculata. Marsh. (Bold) Mniophila, Steph. — muscorum, Koch. (Bold) Mantura, Steph. — rustica, L. (Bold, Bagnall) Crepidodera, Chev. — tranversa. Marsh. (Bold, Bagnall, Gardner) — ferruginea. Scop. (Bold, Bag- nall, Gardner) — rufipes, L. (Bold, Bagnall, Gardner) — helxines, L. (Bold, Gardner) — aurata. Marsh. (Bold, Bag- nall) Hippuriphila, Foud. — modeeri, L. (Bold, Bagnall) Plectroscelis, Redt. — concinna. Marsh. (Bold, Bagnall) Psylliodes, Lat. — chrysocephala, L. (Bold, Bagnall) — napi, Koch. (Bold, Bag- nall) — cuprea, Koch. Coast (Bold) — affinis, Pk. (Bold) — marcida. 111. Coast (Bold) — picina. Marsh. Rare (Bold) Cassida, L. — sanguinolenta, F. Very rare (Bold) — flaveola, Thunb. Not com- mon (Bold) — viridis, L. (Bold, Bagnall, Gardner) TENEBRIONID^ Blaps, F. — mucronata, Lat. (Bold, Bag- nall, Gardner) Scaphidema, Redt. — metallicum, F. (Bold, Gard- ner, Bagnall) Tenebrio, L. — molitor, L. (Bold, Bagnall, Corder) — obscurus, F. (Bold) Alphitobius, Steph. — diaperinus, Pz. In shops, im- ported, and in deep hot coalmines (Bold) — piceus, Ol. In grain ware- houses, Hartlepool (Gard- ner) Gnathocerus, Thunb. — cornutus, F. In bakehouses (Bold) Tribolium, McL. — ferrugineum, F. Imported in sugar (Bold). Hartlepool (Gardner) Palorus, Duv. — ratzeburgi, Wiss. In shops. Introduced. (Bold) Helops, F. — striatus, Fourc. Gtbside (Handcock) ; Lockhaugh, one specimen in grass (Bagnall) LAGRIIDiE Lagria, F. — hirta, L. (Bold, Gardner) CISTELIDiE Cistela, F. — murina, L. Winlaton Mill (Bagnall), Hartlepool (Gard- ner) MELANDRYIDiE Tetratoma, F. — fungorum, F. ^eesdale (Gard- ner) — ancora, F. (f Wailes) Orchesia, Lat. — micans, Pz. (Bagnall, Gard- ner) Clinocara, Th. — tetratoma, Th. Swalwell (Bold) — undulata, Kr. Very local, often in numbers (Bagnall) Melandrya, F. — caraboides, L. (Bold, Bag- nall) — flexuosa, Pk. leesdale (Gard- ner) PYTHIDiE Salpingus, Gyll. — castaneus, Pz. (Bold, Bag- nall, Gardner) — aeratus, Muls. (? Gardner) — ater, Pk. (Bold) Rhinosimus, Lat. — ruficollis, L. (Bold, Bagnall, Gardner) — viridipennis, Steph. (Bold, Bagnall) — planirostris, F. (Bold, Bag- nall, Gardner) CEDEMERID^ CEdemera, Ol. — lurida. Marsh. Durham (Ornsby’s Durham) 1 10 INSECTS Nacerdes, Schm. — melanura, L. Sunderland and South Shields (Bold). Very abundant on Quayside, Hartlepool (Gardner) PYROCHROID^ Pyrochroa, Geof. — serraticornis. Scop. (Bold, Gardner) MORDELLIDiE Anaspis, Geof. — frontalis, L. (Bold, Bagnall, Gardner) — pulicaria, Costa. Very rare (Bold) — rufilabrls, Gyll. — geoffroyi. Mull. Rare (Bold) — ruficollis, F. (Bold, Bagnall) — costae, Emery. Rare (Bold) — subtestacea, Steph. (Bold) — maculata, Fourc. (Bold, Bag- nall) RHIPIDOPHORIDvE Metcecus, Gers. — paradoxus, L. Not common (Bold) Lockhaugh. V ery rare (Bagnall), Castle Eden Dene (Trechmann) ANTHICID^ Anthicus, Pk. — floralis, L. (Bold, Robson, Bagnall, Gardner) MELOlD^ MeloS, L. — proscarabaeus, L. (Bold, Bagnall) — violaceus. Marsh. Blanchland Moor (Bagnall), Eeesdale (Gardner) ANTHRIBID^ Macrocephalus, Ol. — albinus, L. Gibside, of old, not lately (Bold, Corder) CURCULIONID^ Apoderus, Ol. — coryli, L. Castle Eden Dene (Ornsby’s Durham) Attelabus, L. — curculionoides, L. Winlaton Mill, on hazel ; Lockhaugh, etc. (Bagnall) Byctiscus, Th. — betuleti, F. (Bold, Bagnall) Teesdale (Gardner) Rhynchites, Schn. — aeneovirens. Marsh. Winlaton Mill (Bagnall) — coeruleus, De G. Rare (Bold) — minutus, Hbst. (Bold, Bag- nall) — pauxillus. Germ. Very rare (Bold) — nanus, Pk. Not common (Bold, Bagnall) — uncinatus, Th. Rather rare (Bold) DeporaUs, Leach. — megacephalus. Germ. Dur- ham (Ornsby’s Durham) Apion, Hbst. — craccae, L. Swalwell (Hardy) — cerdo, Gers. Gibside (Bold) — subulatum, Kirb. (Bold) — ulicis, FOrst. (Bold) — cruentatum, Walt. (Bold) — haematodes, Kirb. (Bold) — palllpes, Kirb. Very rare. (Bold) Hartlepool (Gardner) — rufirostre, F. Very rare (Bold) — viciae, Pk. (Bold) — varipes. Germ. Very rare (Bold) — apricans, Hbst. (Bold, Bag- nall, Gardner) — assimile, Kirb. (Bold, Gard- ner) — trifolii, L. Rare (Bold) — dichroum, Bed. (Bold, Bag- nall, Gardner) — nigritarse, Kirb. (Bold) — sorbi, F. Very rare (Bold) — aeneum, F. (Bold) — radiolus, Kirb. (Bold) — onopordi, Kirb. (Bold, Gardner) — carduorum, Kirb. (Bold, Bagnall, Gardner) — vIrens, Hbst. (Bold, Gardner) — punctigerum, Pk. (Bold) — pisi, F. (Bold, Bagnall) — aethiops, Hbst. (Bold, Gard- ner) — striatum, Kirb. (Bold) — immune, Kirb. (Bold) — ononis, Kirb. (Bold, Gard- ner) — spencei, Kirb. (Bold) — ervi, Kirb. (Bold) Apion, Hbst. — vorax, Hbst. (Bold, Gard- ner) — gyllenhali, Kirb. Very rare (Bold) — unicolor, Kirb. (Bold) — loti, Kirb. (Bold, Gardner) — seniculum, Kirb. (Bold) — marchicum, Hbst. Rare (Bold, Bagnall, Gardner) — affine, Kirb. (Bold, Bagnall) III Apion, Hbst. — violaceum, Kirb. (Bold, Bag- nall, Gardner) — humile. Germ. (Bold, Bag- nall, Gardner) Otiorhynchus, Germ. — atroapterus, De G. (Bold) Hartlepool (Gardner) — maurus, Gyll. (Corder) — raucus, F. Hartlepool (Gard- ner) — ligneus, Ol. (Bold, Bagnall, Gardner) — picipes, F. (Bold, Bagnall, Gardner) — sulcatus, F. Winlaton (Bagnall) — ligustici, L. Hartlepool, rare (Gardner) — rugifrons, Gyll. (Bold, Corder, Gardner) — ovatus, L. (Bold, Bagnall, Gardner) — muscorum, Bris. (Bold, Gardner) TrachyphlcEus, Germ. — aristatus, Gyll. Hartlepool (Gardner) — scaber, L. (Bold, Gardner, Bagnall) — scabriculus, L. (Hardy, Gardner) Strophosomus, Sch. — coryli, F. (Bold, Bagnall, Gardner) — capitatus, De G. (Bold, Bag- nall, Gardner) — retusus. Marsh. (Bold) — faber, Hbst. (Bold, Bagnall) — ■ lateralis, Pk. (Bold, Bagnall, Gardner) Omias, Sch. — mollinus. Boh. Near Swalwell (Hardy), Hartlepool (Gard- ner) Brachysomus, Steph. — echinatus, Bons. (Bold, Gardner) Sciaphilus, Steph. — muricatus, F. (Bold, Bagnall) Tropiphorus, Sch. — tomentosus. Marsh. (Bold, Bagnall, Gardner) Liophloeus, Germ. — nubilus, F. (Bagnall, Gard- ner) Polydrusus, Germ. — micans, F. (Bold, Gardner) — tereticollis, De G. (Bold, Gardner) — pterygomalis, Sch. (Bold, Bagnall) — cervinus, L. (Bold, Bagnall, Gardner) Phyllobius, Sch. — oblongus, L. (Bold, Bagnall, Gardner) A HISTORY OF DURHAM Phyllobius, Sch. — calcaratus, F, (Bold, Bagnall) — urticae, De G. (Bold, Rob- son, Bagnall, Gardner) — pyri, L. (Bold, Bagnall, Gardner) — argentatus, L. (Bold, Bag- nall, Gardner) — maculicornis. Germ. (Bold, Gardner) — pomonae,01. (Bold, Gardner) — viridiaeris, Laich. (Bold, Rob- son, Bagnall, Gardner) — viridicollis, F. (Bold, Bag- nall, Gardner) Tanymecus, Sch. — palliatus, F. (Bold). Great- ham, one specimen (Gard- ner) Philopedon, Steph. — geminatus, F. (Bold, Bag- nall, Gardner) Atactogenus, Tourn. — exaratus, Marsh. (Bold) Barynotus, Germ. — obscurus, F. (Bold, Bagnall, Gardner) — schOnherri, Zett. (Bold, Bagnall, Gardner) — elevatus. Marsh. (Bold, Bag- nall, Gardner) Alophus, Sch. — triguttatus, F. (Bold) Sitones, Sch. — griseus, F. (Bold, Bagnall, Gardner) — regensteinensis, Hbst. (Bold, Bagnall) — lineellus, Gyll. Hartlepool (Blatch, Gardner) — tibialis, Hbst. (Bold,Gardner) — hispidulus, F. (Bold, Gard- ner) — humeralis, Steph. (Bold, Gardner) — meliloti, Walt. Rare, ^outh melds (Bold) — flavescens. Marsh. (Bold) — puncticollis, Steph. (Bold, Gardner) — suturalis, Steph. (Bold, Gard- ner) — lineatus, L. (Bold, Bagnall, Gardner) — sulcifrons, Thunb. (Bold, Gardner) Limobius, Sch. — dissimilis, Hbst. Not com- mon (Bold). Hartlepool, at the roots of Geranium sanguineum (Gardner) Hypera, Germ. — punctata, F. (Bold, Bagnall, Gardner) — fasciculata, Hbst. Hartlepool (Gardner) Hypera, Germ. — rumicis, L. (Bold) — polygon!, L. (Bold, Gard- ner) — suspiciosa, Hbst. (Bold, Bagnall) — variabilis, Hbst. (Bold) — plantaginis, De G. (Bold) — trilineata. Marsh. Not fre- quent (Bold). plen- tiful (Robson, Gardner) — nigrirostris, F. (Bold, Bag- nall, Gardner) Cleonus, Sch. — sulcirostris, L. (Bold). Com- mon (Gardner) Liosoma, Steph. — ovatulum, Clair. (Bold, Gardner) Curculio, L. — abietis, L. (Bold, Bagnall, Gardner) Pissodes, Germ. — pini, L. (Bold, Bagnall, Gardner) — notatus, F. Sunderland, pro- bably introduced in Scotch timber ships (Kirwood) — gyllenhali, Schbn. Found by a miner in a colliery woodyard, who exhibited it as ‘The Norway Wood Louse ’ (Bold) — piniphilus, Hbst. Sunderland, imported in timber ships ; {^o\dl).Hartlepool (Gardner) Orchestes, 111. — quercus, L. (Bold, Bagnall, Gardner) — scutellaris, Gyll. (Bold, Bag- nall) — fagi, L. (Bold, Bagnall, Gardner) — rusci, Hbst. (Bold) — stigma. Germ. (Bold, Bag- nall) — salicis, L. (Bold, Bagnall, Gardner) — saliceti, F. (Bold, Bagnall) Rhamphus, Clair. — flavicornis, Clair. (Bold, Bag- nall) Orthochaetes, Germ. — setiger, Beck. Durham (Bold) Grypidius, Steph. — equiseti, F. (Bold, Bagnall, Gardner) Erirhinus, Sch. — bimaculatus, F. Greatham, one specimen (Gardner) — acridulus L. (Bold, Bagnall) Dorytomus, Steph. — vorax, F. Rare (Bold, Gard- ner) — tortrix, L. Durham (Bold, Bagnall) Dorytomus, Steph. — hirtipennis. Bed. Castle Eden Dene (Ornsby’s Durham) — validirostris, Gyll. (Bagnall, Gardner) — maculatus. Marsh. (Bold, Bagnall, Gardner) — melanophthalmus, Pk. v. agnathus. Boh. Axuiell Park (Bold) — pectoralis, Gyll. (Bold, Bag- nall) — majalis, Pk. Castle Eden Dene (Bold) Bagous, Sch. — alismatis. Marsh. (Bold) Anoplus, Sch. — plantaris, Naez. (Bold) Miccotrogus, Sch. — picirostris, F. Very rare. Marsden. (Hardy) Gymnetron, Sch. — beccabungae, L. Not abun- dant (Bold) — labilis, Hbst. (Bold) Mecinus, Germ. — pyraster, Hbst. (Bold, Gard- ner) Anthonomus, Germ. — ulmi, De G. (Bold, Bag- nall) — pedicularius, L. (Bold, Bag- nall) — pomorum, L. (Bold, Bag- nall) — rubi, Hbst. (Bold) — comari. Crotch. (Bold) Cionus, Clair. — scrophulariae, L. (Bold, Rob- son, Bagnall, Gardner) — blattariae, F. Durham (Orns- by’s Durham) — pulchellus,Hbst. (Bold, Rob- son, Bagnall, Gardner) Orobitis, Germ. — cyaneus, L. Not common (Bold) Cryptorhynchus, 111. — lapathi, L. (Bold) Acalles, Steph. — ptinoides. Marsh. Gibside, very rare. (Bold) Coeliodes, Sch. — rubicundus, Hbst. (Bold, Bagnall, Gardner) — quercus, F. (Bold, Bagnall) — ruber. Marsh. (Bold, Bagnall) — cardui, Hbst. (Bold, Gard- ner) — quadrimaculatus, L. (Bold, Bagnall, Gardner) — geranii, Pk. (Hardy, Bagnall, Gardner) — exiguus, Ol. (Bold) Poophagus, Sch. — sisymbrii, F. (Bold) 112 INSECTS Ceuthorhynchus, Duv. — assimilis, Pk. (Bold, Bagnall, Gardner) — ericae, Gyll. (Bold) — erysimi, F. (Bold) — contractus. Marsh. (Bold, Bagnall, Gardner) — quadridens, Pz. (Bold, Bag- nall, Gardner) — geographicus, Goez. Rare. (Bold) — pollinarius, FOrst. (Bold, Bagnall) — pleurostigma. Marsh. (Bold, Bagnall, Gardner) — marginatus, Pk. (Bold) — rugulosus, Hbst. Rare (Bold, Gardner) — asperifoliarum, Gyll. (Bold, Bagnall) — litura, F. (Bold) Deixvent Valley and Wear dale (Bag- nall) Ceuthorhynchidius, Duv. — floralis, Pk. (Bold, Bagnall) — pyrrhorhynchus. Marsh. Not common (Bold) — melanarius, Steph. Durham (Ornsby’s Durham) — terminatus, Hbst. Rare. (Bold) Ceuthorhynchidius, Duv. — horridus, F. Very rare. Westoe (Bold) — troglodytes, F. (Bold, Gard- ner) Rhinoncus, Steph. — pericarpius, L. (Bold, Gard- ner) — gramineus, F. Very rare. ^outh Shields (Bold), Har- tlepool (Gardner) — perpendicularis, Reich. (Bold) — castor, F. Gibside, rare. (Bold) Litodactylus, Redt. — leucogaster, Marsh. (Bold) Phytobius, Schm. — 4-tuberculatus, F. (Bold, Gardner) Limnobaris, Bed. — t-album, L. (Bold) Balaninus, Germ. — villosus, F. Rare. (Bold) — salicivorus, Pk. (Bold, Bag- nall) Calandra, Clair. — granaria, L. (Bold) — oryzae, L. Imported (Bold) Magdalis, Germ. — carbonaria, L. Near Gibside (? Bold) Magdalis, Germ. — armigera, Fourc. (Bold) SCOLYTID^ Scolytus, Mull. — destructor, Ol. (Bold) Hylastes, Er. — ater, Pk. (Bold) — opacus, Er. Rare (Bold) — palliatus, Gyll. (Bold) Hylesinus, F. — crenatus, F. (Bold, Bagnall) — fraxini, Pz. (Bold, Bagnall) — vittatus, F. Gibside (Hardy) Myelophilus, Eich. — piniperda, L. (Bold, Bag- nall) Phloeophthorus, Mull. — rhododactylus. Marsh. (Bold, Bagnall) Dryocastes, Eich. — villosus, F. Gibside (Bold) Tomicus, Lat. — laricis, F. Byermoor (John- son) imported Pityogenes, Bed. — chalcographus, L. Sunderland (Kirwood) — bidentatus, Hbst. (Bold) Trypodendron, Steph. — domesticum,L.(Bold,Bagnall) LEPIDOPTERA Butterflies and Moths Though the surface characteristics of Durham will be discussed under other heads, it appears desirable to refer briefly here to those affecting the Lepidopterous fauna. Durham is not one of the larger counties of England, having a superficial area of less than a thousand square miles, but this includes an unusual diversity of surface. It has a coast-line of some thirty-five miles. The river Tees is the southern boundary of the county, and on the Durham side of the river mouth is an extensive salt marsh, with characteristic plants and insects. From this point to Seaton Carew, the southern boundary of the Hartlepools, is about six miles. Following the windings of the shore, the Hartlepools take about other six miles ; from their northern boundary it is nearly ten to Seaham Harbour, this distance being occupied with banks of blown sand, alternating with limestone cliffs and earthy banks. The cliffs are worn in several places, by the action of small streams of water, into ravines, locally called ‘ Denes.’ Some of these are of considerable length, have well-wooded sides, and afford shelter to a great variety of insects. Castle Eden Dene, the largest of these ravines, winds inward for several miles. It is not only the longest, but is the widest of all, and has long been known as a famous habitat of Lepidoptera. Hesleden Dene, a few miles nearer Hartlepool, is of considerable length, but is not nearly so wide, nor so favourable for collectors, being without open paths. Hawthorn Dene is nearer Seaham Harbour, but is less extensive and has been very little examined, being inconvenient of access. There are many other smaller places along the coast, the shorter ravines being called ‘ Gills.’ After this range of cliffs and sand banks, we reach Seaham Harbour, over ten miles to the north of Hartlepool. A few miles further north, and we reach Sunderland, Ryhope Dene lying between these towns. Seven or eight miles further is South Shields, on the south side of the river Tyne, which forms the boundary to the north. The longest stretch of shore, unbroken by town or even village, is between Hartlepool and Seaham Harbour, and there, and in the Denes, a great variety of insects may be found. At Hartlepool, Sunderland, and South Shields are extensive ‘ Ballast Hills,’ formed 113 15 I A HISTORY OF DURHAM of dredgings from various rivers and other materials brought as ballast by sailing ships. These, as laid down, are overgrown with a vast variety of plants, many of which are not indigenous to Durham ; and it would almost appear as though pupae had been brought in the ballast, as well as seeds of strange plants, for many insects have occurred at these places that are not otherwise known, some of which appear to have established themselves. Westward from the coast the land gradually rises, and after a wide expanse of arable and pasture land, well wooded in places, we reach boggy moors, and high basaltic cliffs, almost mountainous in altitude. Thus we have in Durham a littoral fauna, that pertaining to cultivated land and to woods, and the fauna more closely allied with moor and mountain. A deposit of coal underlies much of the county, which has been extensively mined, and in all places where the pits open, large piles of waste accumulate. These take fire and burn for many years, sending forth volumes of sulphurous smoke, which exercises a very deleterious influence on all vegetable life for a considerable distance around. These have unquestionably caused the disappearance of Lepidoptera in their districts. The growth of towns, and increase of large works, sending forth volumes of smoke and vapour, have also had a very injurious effect. In the suburbs, white butterflies and similar species occur freely enough, but others need more secluded haunts. In many other ways the district is being altered. Even the swamp at the mouth of the Tees is being pumped for brine, and roads and railways are reaching even the most out-of-the-way places. RHOPALOCERA Butterjiies The most noteworthy fact with regard to the butterflies of Durham to-day is the large number that have disappeared during the Victorian era. Of the thirty-five butterflies enumerated below, it would now be quite impossible to capture half of that number, even in a most favourable season ; in fact, I doubt if many more than a dozen could be got with certainty, even by visiting certain restricted haunts. The Common Whites, Pieris brassica and rapa, are found everywhere except on the higher moorland. They are most abundant in the outskirts of towns and villages, and about market gardens, where cabbage and nasturtium are grown. The Green-veined White, P. napi^ is also common, but it is more frequently found in woods and country lanes than near towns. The Orange-tip, Anthocarh cardamines^ is generally common, but never so plentiful as the preceding. It disappeared from the coast district about i860, but has gradually returned to its old haunts and is again plentiful there. The Clouded Yellow, Colias edusa^ is but a casual, occasional visitor, generally appearing when extra large swarms are visiting the south. In 1870, the great Edusa year, it was quite common in all parts of the county, and certainly bred here, the imago, in perfect condition, being plentiful in the autumn, and a few apparently hybernating, and appearing in the following spring. The Brimstone, Gonopteryx rhamni^ is not a native of this part of England ; indeed, the food-plant does not grow wild in Durham, and only one or two stray specimens of the butterfly have been noticed within the boundaries of the county. The Silver-washed Fritillary, Argynnh paph'ta^ was taken in Castle Eden Dene at least as late as 1855. It also occurred at Gibside and other places in the north-west of the county. In 1853 it was taken at Darlington, but I have seen no more recent records than these, even of stray specimens. The Dark Green Fritillary, A. aglaia^ was formerly comparatively common, occurring in Castle Eden and Hesleden Denes, and on the coast at Black Hall Rocks, and elsewhere. It was common, also, in most of the cultivated area within the county. Bishop Auckland, Chester-le-Street, and various places in the Derwent Valley. It has now quite left the coast, but is still plentiful in the Wear Valley, and westward. At Byers Green a very fine dark variety was taken some years ago by Mr. Thomas Hann. It was all suffused with dark scales, not like the Valezina variety of Paph'ia^ but a rich, dark fulvous. The Pearl-bordered Fritillary, A. euphrosyne^ was formerly common in all parts of the county. It disappeared from Castle Eden Dene and other coast localities in the early sixties, but it is still common in the west, and especially in the north-west. It is abundant about Stanley, and larvEe may be found freely. The small Pearl-bordered Fritillary, A. Selene^ was also widely distributed and common, but not so abundant as Euphrosyne, It still occurs about the western portions of the county and adjoining district. A specimen was taken in Hesleden Dene some 114 INSECTS fifteen years ago, the only one I know of there. A. adippe has been several times recorded as occurring in the Wear Valley. I have investigated every case that came under my notice, and always found the examples so-called were only Aglaia. I mention this here to avoid subsequent error. The Greasy Fritillary, Melitesa artemisy was formerly common at Black Hall Rocks, near Hartlepool ; at Flass, near Durham ; at High Force, Upper Teesdale, and a few other places. It disappeared from Black Halls in the early sixties, and I have seen no record of its appearance elsewhere since 1872. The Comma, Fanessa c-albuniy was an abundant insect in Castle Eden Dene fifty years ago, and occurred more sparingly in a few places in the west of the county. I have seen it so plentiful that they were shouldering each other on the Scabious flowers, and I have taken five specimens at one stroke of my net. I know of no records for at least forty years. The Small Tortoiseshell, V. urtic^y is common everywhere, and the larvae may be found on every bed of nettles. It is locally called the King William. Of the Large Tortoiseshell, F. polychlorosy an old work speaks as if it were a regular resident in the woods in the vale of the North Tyne. During the last fifty or sixty years but one or two wandering specimens have been seen. The Camberwell Beauty, F. autiopOy has been casually taken in all parts of the county, especially near the coast. ‘ About the year 1820 ’ the late William Backhouse found this species in vast numbers on the sands at Seaton Carew, washing in with the tide. Some were dead, but many were still living. The late George Wailes, who wrote a ‘ List of the Butterflies of Northumberland and Durham ’ in the Transactions of the Tyneside Natural History Societyy referred to a friend who professed to know the species well and called it the ‘ White Petticoats.’ This is a very appropriate name, and Mr. Wailes argued from these facts that the species was then a well-known and regular resident. I doubt if Lepidopterists would consider these sufficient evidence now. On 8 February, 1869, a specimen was taken near Castle Eden, by Mr. Barron, a woodman, who was burning some undergrowth, among which the insect had evidently retired for hybernation. It was much worn, but was evidently hybernating. The Peacock, F. ioy was widely distributed half a century ago, but it left us with the others in the early sixties, and only odd specimens have been seen since. Mr. Barrett thinks this species dislikes manufacturing districts and large towns ; but that would not explain its absence from the west and north-west of the county, nor from the wide coast area between Hartlepool and Seaham Harbour. The Red Admiral, F. atalantay disappeared with the last, but it has gradually returned, and occurs in all parts of the county now. I have seen it far up the Teesdale Hills. The Painted Lady, F. carduiy appears at intervals, occasionally in large numbers, and is met with in every part of the county. It does not appear able to perpetuate its race, and long intervals sometimes elapse without it being seen. I have observed the larvae in November on withered thistles, where there was no chance of their being able to feed up. It was unusually abundant in the autumn of 1903, after several years of absence. The Mountain Ringlet, Erebia blandinay was, I believe, first described as a British insect from specimens taken at Castle Eden Dene. It still occurs there, even down to the mouth of the Dene, scarcely above the level of the sea, and all the way up the gill to open woods at Thornley and Wellfield stations. There it is plentiful, and in the wood to the west of the railway, but it does not occur beyond the turnpike road to Wingate, which passes through the wood, though the portion to the west of this road appears to be of precisely the same character. The Speckled Wood, Satyrus ageriay was the earliest butterfly to leave the county. It formerly occurred in all the woods and denes, but left us altogether quite ten years prior to any other species. The Wall, S. megaray was plentiful all over the county up to 1861. On the coast it was perhaps the commonest butterfly. It disappeared quite suddenly in 1861, and has never returned. The Grayling, S. semehy was also well distributed along the coast, wherever the locality was suitable. It was plentiful on the limestone cliffs, and equally so on the ballast hills. It left us gradually, seeming slowly to die out. The last was seen at Black Hall Rocks some ten or twelve years ago. The Meadow Brown, S. janiray is yet common in all grassy places, continuing on the wing till September. The Gate Keeper, S. tithonusy is still plentiful in many places, but it has gone from some of its old haunts, and seems to be gradually disappearing. The Ringlet, S. hyperanthuSy has gone altogether. It was common enough fifty years ago. The last specimen I took was the variety aretCy being entirely without rings. This was taken on the railway side, near Hart Station. The Marsh Ringlet, Chortobius davuSy is common on the higher moors in the west. It is fairly intermediate between the dark Lancashire form, with many distinct rings, and the light Scotch form, with few or none. The Small Heath, C, pafuphilusy occurs everywhere, and is common from June to September. A variety of the underside with a dark fascia behind the tip spot is comparatively common. This ii5 A HISTORY OF DURHAM fascia sometimes spreads and makes the entire underside dark. It does not appear to affect the upper side at all. The Purple Hair Streak, Theda quercus^ occurs only in the north-west of the county, about Gibside and the Derwent Valley. It is far from common, and is the only Hair Streak occurring in the county. The Copper, Polyommatus phlaas^ is plentiful. Varieties approaching Schmidtii have been met with near Hartlepool and elsewhere. The Brown Argus, Lyceena agestls^ occurs on the coast, extending up the Denes almost as far as they run. The local form, which is generally without the orange marginal spots, was considered distinct, and was named salmads by Stephens. Artaxerxes^ the Scotch White Spot, occurs occasionally, and sometimes has, as well as the type, the marginal row of orange spots. I have twice taken a variety in which the spots on the underside are without the white line around them. The insect is slowly disappearing from the banks at Black Halls. It has already left Marsden, but it is still plentiful between Black Halls and Seaham Harbour. The Common Blue, Lycana alexis, is very common everywhere. The Little Blue, L. ahus^ was well distributed over the county, and still occurs at a few places. The Holly Blue, L. argiolus^ was also well dis- tributed, occurring apparently everywhere. There has been no record of its capture for over fifty years. The Dingy Skipper, Thanaos tages^ is tolerably well distributed, and there are few places where it may not be taken. The Common Skipper, Hesperia sylvanus, has been taken at Darlington, Castle Eden Dene, and other places. The last I know of were taken in Castle Eden Dene in i860, and in Hesleden Dene in 1861. HETEROCERA Moths NOCTURNI The Eyed Hawk Moth, Smerinthus ocellatuSy has occurred occasionally, but it is not a resident species, though the larvae have been met with more than once. The Poplar Hawk Moth, S. populiy is abundant everywhere. The Death’s Head, Acherontia atropos^ occurs all over, not regularly, but almost every year. I have had the imago brought me that had come on board fishing boats at sea. The larvae is also occasionally found. The Convolvulus Hawk, Sphinx convolvuli^ is rarer than the last, and generally occurs singly. The larva has never been met with, but in the adjoining county more than fifty were found on a hedge overgrown with Convolvulus sepium. The Privet Hawk, S. ligustri^ was once found, unexpanded, in a street in Hartlepool. It ought to occur in the Denes, where privet abounds, but we have never found it. The Bedstraw Hawk, Deleiphila galii^ has been taken on the coast whenever the insect has appeared in Britain. The larvae has also been found on the Bedstraw more than once. D. lineata has been recorded three times — near Sunderland, by the late William Back- house, on the moor at Hartlepool in 1888, and again there in 1896. Chcerocampa celerio has been met with a few times in the same way. The Small Elephant, C. porcellus, was formerly common along the coast, and may probably occur yet, between Black Halls and Seaham Harbour, but there are no records for several years. A single specimen of C. nerii was taken by Mr. Gardner at Hartlepool on 23 July, 1885. The Humming Bird Hawk, Macroglossa stellatarum^ is generally common on the coast, but much rarer inland. M. bombyliformis appears to occur near Durham city. It was taken at Shull over fifty years ago by the late William Backhouse ; Mr. Wood also took it near Durham (E. W. I., i. 150). Mr. Hedworth saw it in May, 1869, near Winlaton Mill. I know of no more recent records. Sesia formicee- formis, the Red-tipped Clearwing, has been taken once, by Mr. Thomas Pigg, who took three on an umbelliferous plant at Gibside. It also occurs in the Chester-ie-Street district. S. tipuli- formis, the Currant Clearwing, is commoner, and no doubt occurs in old gardens in many parts of the county. It has been taken at Darlington, Wolsingham, and Durham city. S. bembecifortnis occurs commonly in most parts of the county. 5. apiformis was taken once near High Force, Upper Teesdale, by the late William Backhouse, over fifty years ago. The Goat Moth, Cossus Hgniperday is sparingly distributed about the county. All the genus Hepialus occur freely. The Golden Swift, H, hcctus^ in woods and denes, flying at sunset for a few minutes only. The Common Swift, H. lupulinus, is most abundant everywhere. The Beautiful Swift, H. sylvinus^ is perhaps the least plentiful ; it occurs in open ground in August. The Northern Swift, H. vclleda^ in woods and open ground. The Ghost, H, humuli^ is the most abundant of all, the male flying everywhere in its endeavour to attract the female. The 1 16 INSECTS Forester, Ino statices^ occurs at Gibside ; near Darlington ; and at other places away from the sea. I. geryon is abundant on the sea banks from Black Halls, northward, but not inland. Zyg^ena lonicerce at Shull and other places well in the centre of the county. Z. filipendula appears to be common everywhere. The Lithosida are very sparingly represented, most of the specimens captured being but single stray specimens. Nudaria mundana is the only common member of the family. It does not occur on nor even very near the coast, but is very abundant west- ward. The late John Sang took Lithosia helveola once at lamps at Darlington. L. complana was taken by the late William Backhouse, both at Darlington and Seaton Carew, over fifty years ago, but it has not been recorded again. L. complanula was taken at Hartlepool in 1873. I took it again in 1876, and one or two more were taken by others at the same time. Common as it is generally, I have seen no later record. CEnisth quadra occurred oddly, in different parts of the county, from 1872 to 1875, in which year I took six. It has not been seen since. Euchelia jacobaa^ the Cinnabar, occurs all along the coast, but is not nearly so common as it was fifty years ago. It has not been recorded inland. Euthemonia russula^ the Clouded Buff, is found on the moors in the extreme west of the county. It has been recorded for Shull and for Wolsingham, and occurs elsewhere. Nemeophila plantaginisy the Wood Tiger, occurs on the coast and on the moors. It is especially abundant on the railway banks near Hartlepool, but is being gradually driven away by the growth of the town. The Common Tiger, Arctia caja, abounds everywhere in the larval state. Specimens with dark and yellow hind wings have been reared. An example, entirely black, was reared from a Hartlepool larvae. The Ruby Tiger, Phragmatohia fuliginosa^ occurs all over the county, generally in some numbers. The Muslin [Spilosoma mendicd) occurs all over the county, extending quite to Upper Teesdale. The Buff and White Ermines (S. lubrkepeda and menthrastri) are generally common. I have taken the dark form of menthastri near Throston. The Brown Tail {Liparis chrysorrhaa) is but a casual visitor. It was taken at Darlington quite fifty years ago by the late William Back- house. In 1875 several were taken, two at South Shields and I got about a dozen at Hartlepool. It has not been seen since. The Gold Tall {L. auriflua) was taken in 1875 at South Shields and recorded as new by Mr. Eales in error. It is common about Hartlepool and Greatham and westward to Bishop Auckland and Upper Teesdale. The Satin Moth [L. salicis) occurred in 1875 both at South Shields and Hartlepool, but it has not been recorded since. The Dark Tussock {Orygia fascelina) is found in the west of the county, about Shull, Wolsingham, etc. A solitary larva was found on the Sea Banks near Hesleden Dene mouth in 1859. The Vapourer (0. antiqud) is common in all the county, the larva feeding on hawthorn generally, and on Rosa spinosissima on the sand banks. The Pale Oak Eggar {Trichtura cratagi) is given in Stainton’s Manual as occurring at Darlington, and it is in the list in Ornsby’s Durham^ but I have no other knowledge of its appearance in the county. The December Moth [Poecilo- campa populi) is well distributed over the county, but it is in the perfect state at a time when collectors are not much on the look out, and most of our specimens are bred. The Small Eggar [Eriogaster lanestris) is common, but, emerging in February, it is seldom seen on the wing, and, like the last, most of our specimens are reared. The Lackey {JBombyx neustria) has only twice been taken at South Shields. The Oak Eggar {B. quercus) is tolerably common. It generally passes one winter as a larva and the next as pupa. The Fox Moth {B. rubi) is common on the sandhills and on all moors and heaths, sometimes very abundant. I bred some very curious varieties a few years ago. The Drinker [Odonestis potatoria) is common generally, out does not occur in the Auckland district. A specimen of the Small Lappet {Gastropacha ilicifo/ia) WHS sold in 1895 in Dr. Wheeler’s collection, labelled ‘ Castle Eden, J. Sang.’ I have grave doubts, not that the specimen was British, but as to the place where it is said to have occurred, and of its reputed captor. It was much more likely to have been taken in Upper Teesdale, but it certainly was not a species that Mr. Sang ever had in duplicate or ever took. The Emperor Moth '{Saturnia carpini) is abundant on the moors in the west, but rarely occurs elsewhere. GEOMETRY The Swallow-Tail Moth {Ourapteryx sambucata) is well distributed in Durham, but never very common. Ep'tone vespertaria has occurred sparingly in most parts of the county. Rumia cratcegata^ the Brimstone, is abundant everywhere. Venilia maculata was taken by Mr. Sang around Darlington, but no one else appears to have met with it. The Light Emerald [Metrocampa margaritata) is common in woods everywhere. The Barred Red {Ellopia fasciaria) is rare in Durham. It has been taken in Upper Teesdale ; at St. John’s, Weardale ; and at Edder Acres, near Hartlepool. ^ single specimen also came to the 117 A HISTORY OF DURHAM Hartlepool lighthouse. A solitary example of Eurymene dolobraria was taken at little Polam, Darlington, many years ago, by the late William Backhouse. Pericallia syringaria also lias only once been met with, a single specimen being taken by Mr. Hcdworth in the north-west of the county. It ought to occur in the denes on the coast, where privet grows freely. The Common Thorn [Selcnia illunaria) is common in most parts of the county. The Lunar Thorn (5. lunaria) is decidedly rare. It has been recorded from several places, but appears only to occur singly, and less than a dozen local specimens are known. Odontopera bidentata and Crocallis elinguaria are both common, but least so near the coast. Four of the genus Ennomos have been taken within the county, but none appear to have any station where they may always be found. E. tiliarla^ the Canary-Shouldered Thorn, has occurred over most of the county, but always singly or very sparingly. E. fuscantaria was taken at Darlington in 1855. Two speci- mens of E. erosaria are recorded : one in August 1873, at Hartlepool, by the late P. W. Robson, and one atThornley,inthe north-west corner of the county, by the late W.Maling, two years later. E. angularia has been taken only in the Derwent Valley, and very rarely there. The Feathered Thorn {Himera pennaria) is widely distributed, but has only been taken singly. The Pale Brindled Beauty {Phigalia pilosaria) is well distributed and not uncommon, occurring from February to April, according to the weather and locality. Nyssia hhpidaria was reared recently from larvae found by Mr. Sticks at Lintz Green. The Peppered Moth {^Amphidasis betularia) is well distributed, and the black variety. Doubleday aria, also occurs freely in most places. Intermediate forms are quite rare. The Barred Umber [Hemerophila abruptaria) has occurred at Darlington and Hartlepool. Chora lichenaria is marked in Stainton’s Manual as being taken at Darlington. I do not know the authority. Boarmia repandata is common everywhere, and the banded variety conversaria is not very uncommon. B. rhomboidaria is equally plentiful, except on the coast, where it is not often seen. Dephrona crepuscularia is common in the denes, Castle Eden and Hesleden particularly. I have seen no other record, but it is sure to occur. The Little Emerald [lodls lactearia) is met with in the north-west and in the south-east of the county, but is not common in either. The Common Emerald {Hemhhea thymiaria) has occurred once at Darlington. Ephyra trilinearia has only once been taken in the north of the county. E.punctaria is distributed over almost all the county, but is of very rare occurrence. Asthena luteata occurs in the far west — Upper Teesdale — and along to Thornley Wood (near Newcastle) in the north. It has never been seen near the coast. A. Candida ta occurs commonly in the denes, and in the Derwent area. It is not recorded elsewhere, but almost certainly will be found. A. sylvata is recorded from Darlington in Stainton’s Manual. A. blomeri was first taken in Castle Eden Dene, in July 1831. It may still be found there and in Hesleden Dene. Eupisteria heparata occurs sparingly in damp places. It has been met with at Darlington, Hartlepool, and in the north-west of the county. Venusia cambrica is scarce and very local, and only seems to have been taken in the south of the county. The rare Acidalia rubricata was taken at Winch Bridge, Upper Teesdale, in 1875, by Dr. Lees. The specimens are in my possession. A. scutulata is widely distributed, but never very common. A. bisetata is more numerous. A. trigeminata was taken once, two specimens. A. osseata is common on the coast. It does not appear to have been taken elsewhere. A. virgularia is well distributed and common. A. subsericeata is very abundant around Hartlepool, but does not occur else- where within a distance of at least 100 miles. I took a single specimen of A. immutata at Black Hall Rocks in 1895, and one only of A. remutata was taken nearer Hartlepool. A. fumata, the Smoky Wave, is found in Upper Teesdale, as also is A. imitaria, the Small Blood Vein. This has also been found at Darlington, and I took one in Hart Lane, Hartlepool, and one in Upper Teesdale. A. aversata is the commonest of the genus in Durham, occurring everywhere, and generally fairly plentiful. A. inornata occurs at Black Hall Rocks and at Wolsingham, always sparingly. The Blood Vein [Bradypetes amatarid) is given in the Manual as occurring at Darlington. I have no personal knowledge of it. The Cabera occur everywhere ; pusaria among birch, exanthemaria among willow. The variety of pusaria — rotundaria is bred occasionally ; I have not known it taken on the wing. Macaria liturata is well distributed, but not common. Halia wavaria is generally a garden insect, but not always. It is tolerably common. Strenia clathrata is common on the coast, and occurs occasionally elsewhere. A variety without cross-bars has been taken. Lozogramma petraria is a moor insect, but is recorded here only from the coast at Ryhope Dene, Numeria pulveraria is recorded from tlic woods on the Derwent, from HofFall Wood, from Darlington, and from Hesleden Dene. It is quite a scarce species. Mcesia belgiaria is common on the moors both of Teesdale and Wcardalc. It does not occur anywhere else. Only the two common Fidonia occur ; atomaria on all the moors, piniaria in woods where there is plenty of 118 INSECTS Scotch fir. Aspilates strigillaria was recorded at Shull by the late W. Backhouse over fifty years ago. There are no more recent records, but it is certain to occur in the west. Abraxas grossulariata occurs everywhere, and some curious varieties have been taken ; one with a deep yellow ground at Byers Green, one nearly black at Throston, and others elsewhere. Larvae nearly black occur at Shields and Sunderland, producing absolutely ordinary forms of the imago. A. ulmata occurs plentifully in the denes and woods ; it varies considerably in the depth and extent of the markings; but extreme forms do not occur, except that one specimen was taken in Castle Eden Dene of an unusually pale character. Lomaspilis marginata is common in woods. It is an excessively variable species, but extreme forms are rare. All the Hybernidce occur : rupicapraria and progremmaria common everywhere, kucophearia and aurantiaria rare, defol'iaria and Anisopteryx ascularla rare on the coast, but common inland. The Winter Moth {Cheimatobia brumata) is abundant everywhere. C. boreata has only been reported from Darlington, but it is certain to occur elsewhere. It occurs in Northumberland. Oporabia dilutata is common everywhere ; O. filigrammaria common on the moors ; O. autumnaria has been taken only once or twice. Larentia didymata abounds everywhere. L. multistrigaria is common along the coast, and wherever Galium verum grows freely. L. ctesiata absolutely swarms on the higher moors in Upper Teesdale and Weardale. L. Jlavlcinctata is at present only recorded from the Middleton-in-Teesdale district. It probably occurs in all the higher land. L. salicaria has also been taken in Upper Teesdale, but not commonly ; L. oUvaria is tolerably common inland, but has not been taken near the coast. L. miaria is the most generally distributed, and most plentiful of the genus, except didymata. It occurs in woods all over the county. Nearly all the Emmelesia occur : affinitata and alchemillata in denes and woods, but neither very common ; albulata plentiful among Rhinanthus christa-gaUi } decolorata decidedly scarce, but occurring, generally singly, almost everywhere. Taniata was first taken in Castle Eden Dene by the late J. C. Dale; many years passed and the late George Wailes was in the dene and found an Emmelesia flying very freely ; thinking it to be albulata^ he took two or three only, but on arriving at home, he found they were taniata ; he went the next day, but never saw one, nor did he meet with it again. Hundreds of collectors have been since, but no one has taken it there again. Dr. Lees met with it far up the hills in Upper Teesdale. Unifasciata was common at the foot of Hart Lane, near Hartlepool, some forty years ago. It has not been taken recently, but is certain to occur. Blandiata was once taken at Hartlepool. No less than twenty-eight species of the genus Eupithecia have been met with in the county, viz., venosata., which has an old record for Darlington, and has been taken at Hartlepool once or twice. Linariata has been reared at Seaham Harbour and Hartlepool. Pulchellata^ common wherever foxglove grows, more particularly in the extreme west. It is never seen on the coast limestones. Centaureata is well distributed, but local, and never very plentiful. Subfulvata is fairly common, occurring in most places. Pygmaata is given in the Manual as occurring at Darlington. Satyrata and castigata are generally common. Lariciata is well distributed, but not very abundant. Pimpinellata was only once taken at Hartlepool. Albipunctata and valerianta have been taken at Hesleden Dene. Innotata has a little doubt attached to its occurrence, as only melanic specimens are known, and they might be some other species, but there is every reason to believe that it does occur. Indigata is widely distributed. Nanata is abundant on the moors, and common on the coast wherever heather grows. Subnotata has been taken occasionally about Hartlepool. Vulgata is tolerably common and is found all over the county. Absynthiata is only recorded from the coast, where it occurs for the entire length ; Minutata only in the west, where it is plentiful on the moors. Assimilata is a garden insect, and widely distributed, but never very common. Eenuiata is to be found in the larval state in all woods, but the imago is seldom seen at large. Subciliata is given in the Manual as occurring at Darlington. Abbreviata has occurred in most places, but always scarce. Exiguata is generally common among whitethorn. Sobrinata occurs all along the coast and again on the hilly land in the west. The food plant appears to be dying off on the cliflFs, and the insect must of course disappear also. Togata is on the list from a solitary specimen taken at a gas lamp at Darlington by the late John Sang. It is likely to occur in the many fir woods of the county. Rectangulata occurs in orchards and is far from common. The black variety, nigrosericeata, has not been recorded, but is sure to occur; it is plentiful at Newcastle-on-Tyne. Lobophora viretata was taken freely in 1 88 1, at Gibside, by the late Mr. Hedworth. I do not know that it has been taken since, but the large number that were taken then could not have been immigrants. L. lobulata occurs in Castle End Dene and many of the larger woods. Thera juniperata occurs in Upper Teesdale, above High Force Fell. Except that it was once 119 A HISTORY OF DURHAM taken at Sunderland, it has never occurred on the coast, and as the juniper is dying off there it is not likely to occur now. T, umulata occurred on the coast, wherever Eupithecia sobrinata was found. This also has not been taken there lately. It occurs, not very commonly, among juniper on the high land in the west. T. variata occurs in fir woods, is not very plentiful, though generally distributed. T. firmata has only been taken in the west of the county, Witton le Wear, Upper Teesdale, etc. Tpsipetes ruheraria occurs in the Derwent Valley and in Hesleden Dene. Wonderful varieties may be reared. Y. impluviata occurs both in Castle Eden and Hesleden Denes, also at South Shields and in Upper Teesdale. T. elutata is generally distributed all over the county and is very common. Melanthia ruhiginata is well distributed over the county, but never very abundant. M. ocellata is also widely spread, occurring almost everywhere, but, like the last, it is never in great numbers. M. albicillata is decidedly scarce, but has been met with, generally singly, almost all over the county. M. hastata has not been taken for quite fifty years. It was then found at Hoppylands. M. tristata appears to avoid the coast, but it is fairly common elsewhere. M. unangulata and rivata were both taken by the late William Backhouse in Houghall Wood near Durham. It does not occur there now. A coal mine near has destroyed much of the lepidoptera in this wood. There is no other locality in the county for either. M. birivtata and montanata are abundant everywhere. M. galiata has only occurred once or twice, but at distant localities. M. Jiuctuata is abundant all over the county. The specimens are large and darker than those from the south. The variety Neapolisata occurs. Antklea badiata is common everywhere, by hedges mixed with rose, and similar places. A derivata is widely distributed but rare. Coremia munitata is even more widely distributed, and rather more plentiful than the last, but it is still a rare species. It is generally found in or near marshy ground. C. propugnata has occurred in the west of the county, but never elsewhere. C. ferrugaria is common in Upper Teesdale, but scarcely taken else- where. Camptogramma bilineata is abundant everywhere. A variety with a black band is not uncommon. Phibalapteryx lignata has occurred near Sunderland and at Hell Kettles, Darlington. Scotosia dubitata has occurred, generally singly, in most parts of the county. A single specimen of 5. certata was taken at Hartlepool in 1864, and of S. undulata in Upper Teesdale in 1875. Cidaria psittacata is widely distributed, but is very scarce. C. miata is also widely distributed and often common. C. corylata is in all the woods and denes, and never rare. The variety albo-crenata occurs occasionally. C. russata is everywhere, always common. The variety comma-notata, with red centre to the fore-wings occurs also, but not very abundantly. C. immanata is also common in woods and denes, to which it appears to be more closely confined than is russata. C. suffumata., the earliest of the genus, occurs everywhere ; a dark variety, plceata., is also very common. C. silaceata is very generally distributed, but not so common as the last few species. A second brood may be reared in confinement, but is never found at large. C. prunata is only recorded from the south-west of the county. I think it must occur elsewhere, as it is commonly distributed both in Yorkshire and Northumberland. C. testata is common all over. Moorland specimens are generally dark. C. populata occurs over the entire county, most plentifully in the west. C. fulvata appears everywhere among rose. C. pyraliata^ like so many others, may be met with any- where, but it is least plentiful near the coast. C. dotata is scarce and very local, appearing only in the west of the county. Pelurga comitata is well distributed, but rarely abundant. Eubolia cervinata is scarce and very local. An erroneous idea that the food plant of this insect [Malva sylvestris) is marsh mallow {Althaa officinalis), much used by herbalists, has almost led to its extermination, and has greatly reduced the number of the insect, which was common when I began collecting. E. mensuraria is abundant everywhere. E.plumbaria\% common on waste ground. E. bipunctaria appears confined to limestone. It occurs all along the coast on Magnesian limestone, and in Upper Teesdale on Mountain limestone. It is plentiful where it occurs, easily disturbed by day, and flying freely at dusk. Anaitis plagiata is well distributed, and occurs regularly, but is never very abundant. It is found well up the hills in the west. Chesias spartiata occurs wherever there is broom. This excludes the coast, where broom does not grow. Odezia charophyllata is common everywhere in meadows, pastures, hedgesides, and similar places where the food plant grows. DREPANULID^ Platypteryx lacertula, the Scalloped Hook-tip, is widely distributed, but never plentiful. P. falcula, the Pebbled Hook-tip, occurs sparingly over most of the county. Cilix spinula, the Goose-egg, may be found all over the county among hawthorn. It does not occur on the higher moorland. 120 INSECTS PSEUDO-BOMBYCES Cerura furcula^ the Sallow Kitten, occurs sparingly in the larval state in most parts of the county. I do not know that the imago has been taken. C. bifida^ the Poplar Kitten, has occurred about Hartlepool, but it is much rarer than it was twenty-five or thirty years ago. Like the last the imago is never seen. C. vinula^ the Puss Moth, occurs everywhere on willow and poplar in the larval state. The moth is seen now and then at rest. Petasia casiinea occurred at Darlington in 1853, when the late John Sang took it at gas lamps. Mr. Winter, of Beccles, told the writer that he had taken it at Hartlepool. I can only say I never saw or heard of it. Pygara bucephala, the Buflf-tip, was very common half a century ago. It has now almost, or entirely, left the coast area, but is plentiful enough elsewhere. Clostera curtula, the Chocolate-tip, was once taken at South Shields — a stray specimen. C. reclusa, the Small Chocolate-tip, occurs at Wolsingham, and, probably, elsewhere, where dwarf-willow grows. It has not, however, been taken on the sea banks, north of Black Halls, where the plant grows very freely. Ptilodontus palpina has only once been found. I took a larva many years ago in Crimdon Cut, near Hartlepool. Notodonta camelina is to be found over all the county ; never abundantly, but of regular occurrence. N. dictaay the Swallow Prominent, occurs all over the county, wherever there is plenty of poplar. N. dictaoides is much rarer, but appears to be very generally distributed, especially to the west of the county, where birch is more plentiful. I have beaten the larva both in Castle Eden and Hesleden Denes. N. dromedarius is also widely distributed, but never common. N. ziczac is the most plentiful of the group. It may be found in the larval state on poplars anywhere in the county. N. chaonia is rare. Larvae have been taken in Upper Teesdale and in Hesleden Dene, but only once or twice. Diloba cceruleocephala is uncommon, but has been met with inland mostly. My brother found larvae near Stockton-on-Tees, and a single imago was taken at Hartlepool in 1874, which is the only coast record. NOCTUiE Thyatira derasa is rare ; it has only occurred near the River Tyne. T. bath is much more plentiful, and has occurred in most places ; never abundantly. Cymatophora duplarh is widely distributed, but not common. C. or is recorded in Ornsby’s Durham, but no other record is known. C. diluta is common in the north-west, but has not been met with else- where, the variety nubilata with three or more dark bands is not uncommon about Gibside. C.jiavicornh is generally distributed. C. ridens was bred from a larva found at Gibside. The specimen is now in the Museum at Newcastle-on-Tyne. Bryophila perla is generally common. Acronycta tridens is recorded, but I feel some doubt as to the correctness of the name. A. psi is common generally, and it may be that it has been mistaken for tridens. A. leporina is widely spread, but is either rare, or we have not learned how to find it. A. aceris has occurred once at Sunderland. A. megacephala, not at all common, though widely spread. A. rumicis is plentiful everywhere ; the dark variety salich has been reared. A. menyanthidis occurs freely on the moors in the west. Leucania conigera, Hthargyria, comma, impura, and pallens are all very common. Nonagria fulva is tolerably plentiful in September. N. elymi formerly occurred at South Shields. So far as I know it is now found only at Hartlepool, where it is fairly common in its now much-restricted habitat. iV. lutosa has been taken at Greatham only, where it was sometimes abundant ; the reed has disappeared there, but it is quite likely to exist in other places. Gortyna Jlavago is generally common. Hydroecia nictitans occurs all over the county, but is most plentiful in the higher lands in the west. H. petasitis occurs at Greatham, and at Dalton le Dale, near Seaham Harbour, and, probably, in all places where the food is plentiful. H. micacea is common everywhere. Xylophasia rurea and the unicolorous variety combusta are generally plentiful. X. lithoxylea is very uncertain, sometimes plentiful, and at other times not seen at all. X, polyodon and the black variety infuscata are generally common. The variety is just as uncertain as lithoxylea and very similar in its manners. H, hepatica is much rarer than the others of the genus, though widely distributed. Heliophobus popularis is sometimes common. Charaas graminis occurs everywhere, but is seldom plentiful. Cerigo cytherea is often common. Luperina testacea is always plentiful. L. cespitis is rare. It was taken at Shotley Bridge by the late W. Backhouse, and in Upper Teesdale by Dr. Lees. Single specimens have occurred at South Shields and Hartlepool. Mamestra abjecta occurs about Hartlepool and Greatham, probably all along the coast. It is decidedly rare. M. anceps is taken regularly at Hartlepool, and has been met with at South Shields and Darlington. This also is rare. M. albicolon is rather common at Hartlepool and South Shields. I have seen no I 1 21 16 A HISTORY OF DURHAM other record, but it will be found all along the coast. It comes freely to campion flowers. M. furva has occurred in small numbers, at campion flowers, along the coast. M. braaica;^ of course, is abundant everywhere. M. penkarice is very rare, one or two only having been taken at sugar at Ryhope, Durham, and Bishop Auckland. Apamea basilinea is generally plentiful, as is A. gemina and the variety remlssa. A. unanlmh is generally distributed, but not often plentiful. A. ophiogramma was once recorded from Hartlepool. A, fibrosa was taken in 1875, which was a very marvellous year for lepidoptera at sugar, but it has not been seen since. A. oculea is always abundant. The black variety only occurs now. Fifty years ago light forms were commonest. All the genus Mlana occur, strigilisy fasciuncula, Uterosa^ and furuncula are common. Expolita has been taken freely at Darlington and Hartlepool. It probably occurs elsewhere, but it is not easy to find unless its habits are known. M. arcuosa is not very rare ; it occurs in grassy places. Celana haworthii is common on the moors in the west. Grammesia trllinea^ though generally plentiful, is very rare in Durham. It has been taken once or twice on the Derwent, and once only at Hartlepool. Caradrina morpheus is not uncommon on the coast, but it is not recorded elsewhere. C. blanda is scarcer, and has only been taken at Darlington and Hartlepool. C. cubicularh is abundant everywhere. Rus'ina tenebrosa rather common in most places. Agrotis valligera plentiful on the coast. A, suffusa is neither common nor well distributed. It occurs sparingly on the coast, and has been taken at Bishop Auckland. A. saucia has only been twice taken at Bishop Auckland. A. segetum and exclamationis are both common everywhere. A. corticea appears numerously at Bishop Auckland, but not elsewhere. A. cursoria is a coast species, much rarer now than fifty years ago. A. nigricans general in the county, and far from uncommon. A. triticiy another coast insect, and generally abundant. A. agathina rare on the moors. A. porphyrea is another moorland species, but much more abundant, occurring where there is very little heather. A. pracox has been twice met with at South Shields. A. ravida occurs on the coast, but is never very plentiful. Axylia putris is exceedingly rare, only four specimens, all taken in the west of the county, having been recorded. Tripheena fimbria is rather scarce, but appears to occur in most places. T. janthina seems to be a garden insect in Durham. It is well distributed, but never plentiful. T. interjecta occurs in August on Hartlepool sand hills, which appear to be the northern limit of its range. T. orbona is common everywhere. T. pronuba is also common everywhere and very variable. Noctua glareosa is found all over the county, but it is scarce near the sea. AT. augur, plecta,2LnA c.-nigrum are all abundant. N. depuncta occurs at Bishop Auckland, and has been taken in Hesleden Dene ; it is a rare insect. N. triangulum is widely distributed, but, perhaps, is only a wanderer. It is generally a common insect, but here has only occurred singly. N. brunnea is well distributed, occurring at edges of woods and open places. N. festiva is common, and the variety confiua is equally plentiful on the moors. TA. rubi is widely spread, but never common ; it appears rarest near the coast. N. umbrosa and baja are fairly well distributed, and generally plentiful, but not always. N. xanthographa is always much too numerous. Trachea piniperda, in pine woods, generally distributed, but not very common. Tanio- campa gothica, abundant everywhere and wonderfully variable. T. leucographa is only recorded by one collector, who says it is decidedly scarce. T. rubricosa is generally common and well spread. T. instabilis is plentiful everywhere and very variable. T. opima has been taken at Darlington once, but occurs regularly about Hartlepool — never common, but a few each year. T. populeti is very scarce. T. stabilis is the most abundant of the genus, always plentiful everywhere. T. gracilis is common at Hartlepool, and has been taken once or twice in the west. T. munda is recorded from Hartlepool only, where it is very rare.' T. cruda is generally common, but does not appear to associate much with the other members of the genus. Orthosia suspecta is very scarce and local. In occurs in Hesleden Dene. 0. ypsilon has occurred in Teesdale and Hartlepool, but very seldom. 0. Iota is more generally distributed, but never abundant. O. macilenta is tolerably common, except on the coast, where it is never seen. Anchocelis rufina is well spread over the county, but has not often been recorded. A. pistacina also occurs sparingly in most places. A. lunosa is very scarce and has only occurred singly. Cerastis vaccinii and spadicea are generally plentiful, but not common on the coast. Scopelosonia satellitia, common generally in autumn, not often seen in spring. Xanthia citrago occurs in the neighbourhood of Durham only. X. cerago and silago are common in autumn, and ferruginea appears everywhere, though not so plentiful as the other two. Cirreedia xerampelina occurs occasionally, but has not yet been taken more than once at any place. Tethea subtusa is very rare, and has only been met with at Darlington and near Hartlepool. Cosmia trapezina is common and well distributed, least plentiful near the sea. C. diffinis was taken in 1898 near Hartlepool by Mr. Gardner — one specimen only. 122 INSECTS Dianthescia carpophaga is common on the coast, but does not occur inland. D. cucubali, also a coast species, but not so plentiful as the last. D. capsincola^ commoner than either, and much more generally distributed. D. conspersa is a rare insect and very irregular in its appearance. It has only been taken at Hartlepool and Durham. Polia chi is tolerably common, and the variety olivacea occurs in most places ; the variety is scarcest on the moors. P. fiavocincta is very general, but never very common. Dasypolia templi is perhaps more plentiful than appears. Its habits are peculiar, and it comes out so late in the year that it is seldom seen. It is recorded from Barnard Castle, Darlington, Durham, and Hartlepool, and probably occurs everywhere. Epunda lutulenta, on the sandhills and about Hartlepool generally. It comes freely to light. It probably occurs all along the coast, but it also flies late in the year, though earlier than templi. E. nigra is reported from Bishop Auckland. E. viminalis is not very common, but well distributed. Miselia oxyacanthee^ generally common. Agriopis aprilinay common in the centre and west of the country, but very rare on the coast. Phlogophora meticulosa is common enough in the autumn, but much rarer everywhere in spring. Euplexia lucipara is generally distributed, but abundant nowhere. Aplecta herbida is not common, but occurs all over the county. A. occulta is but an occasional visitor, sometimes disappearing for years. A. nebulosa is fairly common in woods and denes. A. advena is a rare species. Mr. Sang took three between 1853 and 1857. A single specimen was taken at Elwick near Hartlepool about the same time, but there are no more recent records. Hadena adusta has been taken around Hartlepool and once in Teesdale. H. protea has only been met with in the west — Upper Teesdale and Weardale. H. dentina^ generally distributed and not uncommon. H. chenopodiiy very rare, odd specimens only have been met with. H. suasa appears to occur only on Greatham salt marsh, where it is rare. H. oleracea swarms every- where. H. phi is common in most places, perhaps more abundant on the coast. H, thalassina, well distributed, but never very common. Xylocampa lithorizay not uncommon in early spring. Calocampa vetusta is very rare, only occurring singly. C. exoleta, common generally in autumn and spring. A single specimen of Xylina petrificata ve2& taken in Hesleden Dene in 1898 by Mr. Gardner. Cucullia chamomilla has occurred occasionally at Hartlepool, both larvae and imagines. C. umbratica is generally distributed and never very rare. Heliothis marginata is very common on the coast. In some years it is quite the commonest noctua at Hartlepool. The larvae are abundant on Rest-harrow, and are most persistent cannibals. H. peltigera has been taken, singly only at South Shields and Byers Green and twice at Hartlepool. H. armigera has also been taken twice at Hartlepool and once at Sunderland. Anarta myrtilli is common on the moors and not unfrequent wherever there is ling. Brephos parthenias occurs at Wolsingham and in that district, but has not been observed elsewhere. Abrostola urticee is common in the south-west of the Tyne river, and occurs occasionally elsewhere. It is not very rare about Hartlepool. A. triplasia is a scarce insect. It was taken by Dr. Lees in Upper Teesdale occasionally, and I took one at Hartlepool long ago. Plusia chrysitis is generally distributed, but never very common. P. bractea is a great rarity. It has been taken only at Darlington and at Durham. P. festuces is also very scarce, but it may be that it has not been sought for in the right places. Mr. Sang took it at Hell Kettles in 1880. Near Hartlepool I have taken three, but no one else has met with it. P. iota is generally distributed and common. P. v-aureumy even more plentiful than the last. P. gamma swarms in autumn and spring. P. interrogationisy on the moors. A solitary specimen was taken at rest on palings at Hartlepool some years ago. Gonoptera Matrix is well distributed, but not common anywhere, and apparently becoming scarcer ; it has almost left the coast. Amphipyra tragopogonis is generally plentiful in autumn. Mania typica is another generally abundant insect. Its larger relation M. maura is very much rarer than typicay but occurs all over the county. Stilbia anomala was once taken at Black Hall Rocks by Mr. Gardner, flying in the sun. Catocala fraxini was taken at Hartlepool by the same gentleman, at rest on the paling of his own timber yard. EucUdia mi is generally common in rough pastures and grassy places. E. glyphicay not plentiful and very local, occurring on railway banks and similar places. Phytometra cenea is well distributed, but never abundant. It occurs all along the coast and in many places inland. DELTOIDES PYRALIDES Hypena proboscidalis. Common among nettles Pyralis glaucinalis. Once in Hesleden Dene Rivula sericealis. Once in Hesleden Dene — farinalis. Generally common Herminia grisealls. Common in woods Aglossa pinguinalis. Common in stables 123 A HISTORY OF DURHAM Pyrausta punicealis. Common in Heskden Dene — purpuralis. Bhck Hall Rocks — ostrinalis. Black Hall Rocks. Rare, probably not distinct Herbula cespitalis. Dry banks and pastures Ennychia cingulalis. Darlington (Stainton’s Manual) Cataclysta lemnata. Not very plentiful Hydrocampa nymphaeata. Generally common — stagnata. Not very common. Botys lupulina. Once at Hartlepool — verticalis. Generally common — fuscalis. Very common — urticata. Very common Ebulea crocealis. Common among flea-bane — sambucalis. Darlington. Once at Hartlepool Pionea forficalis. Common in gardens Spilodes sticticalis. Once at Hartlepool Scopula lutealis. Very common — olivalis. Very common — prunalis. Common about Hartlepool — ferrugalis. Once at Darlington Stenopteryx hybridalis. Generally distributed Nola cuculatella. Darlington and Greatham — cristulalis. Generally common Scoparia ambigualis. Generally distributed — ulmella. Common in woods, etc., around Hartlepool — cembrae. Common among coltsfoot — pyralalis. Generally common. — murana. Common in the west of the county — lineola. Hoffal Wood, near Durham — mercurella. Common in Upper Teesdale — crataegella. Common in Upper Teesdale — truncicolella. Common in Upper Teesdale — angustea. Hartlepool CRAMBITES Crambus pratellus. Abundant everywhere — hamellus. Hartlepool, once or twice — pascuellus. Very local — margaritellus. Has been taken at Wokingham — perlellus. Occurs freely on a dry bank near Hesleden church — warringtonellus. Occurs on Gr^i7//5^?OTsaltmarsh, a low damp locality, totally different from that where perlellus is found. The specimens too are always smaller. — selasellus. Hell Kettles, Darlington — tristellus. Common generally — geniculeus. Sand banks, Hartlepool — culmellus. Very common — hortuellus. Very common Chilo phragmitellus. Hell Kettles, Darlington Anerastia lotella. Sand banks, Hartlepool Homoeosoma nimbella. Along the coast — cretacella. Hartlepool Ephest'a ficulella. Recorded by Mr. Sang as bred from a larva found in a growing hazel nut. The larva feeds on dried fruits generally, and there may be a mistake. There is no other record. Plodia interpunctella. Darlington and Hartlepool Phycis betulella. Once in Upper Tleesdale — carbonariella. Wokingham and Hartlepool — dilutella. Near Darlington Phycis genistella. Bred from larvae found near Wok- ingham — roborella. Darlington Dioryctria spendidella. Once at Hartlepool Rodophaea advenella. Darlington — tumidella. Hesleden Dene Onocera ahenella. Black Hall Rocks Aphomia colonella. One at Hartlepool \n 1874 For the remainder, the arrangement of Stainton’s Manual will be followed. CHLCEPHORID^ Chloephora prasinana. Generally common in woods. TORTRICINA TORTRICID^ Sarrothripa revayana. One at Hartlepool Amphisa gerningana. On moors in the west — prodromana. Abundant on the moors and on coast sand hills Hypermecia angustana. The true angustana was first taken at High Force, Upper Teesdale, in 1866, by Lord Walsingham. It has been taken there by others subsequently, and also at Darlington and Hartlepool — cruciana. Common amongst sallows Eulia ministrana. Woods and denes Brachytsenia semifasciana. Castle Eden Dene Antithesia corticana. On birch trunks, not un- common — betuletana. Hesleden Dene — praelongana. Generally distributed, but not common — cynosbatella. Common — pruniana. Common — dimidiana. Boggy places in the west — marginana. Feesside near Darlington, etc. — palustrana. Upper Feesdale Penthina salicella. Darlington Clepsis rusticana. Boggy moors in the west Tortrix icterana. Generally distributed, but not very common — viburnana. Swarms on the moors in Upper Feesdale, etc. — viridana. Common everywhere — forsterana. Darlington, Hartlepool, etc. — heparana. Generally common — ribeana. Generally common — cinnamoneana. Darlington — corylana. Generally common PLICATE Lozotxnia sorbiana. Hell Kettles, near Darlington and Wokingham — musculana. Generally common — latiorana. This, I presume, is but a variety of costana, but being given separately in Stain- ton, I give it separately here. Mr. Gardner took a single specimen at Greatham — costana. Common in marshy places — unifasciana. Common among privet — fulvana. Common generally — roborana. Common generally 124 INSECTS Lozotaenia xylosteana. Common generally — rosana. Common generally DItula angustiorana. Darlington Ptycholoma lecheana. Common generally Notocelia udmanniana. Recorded only from Durham and Hartlepool, but probably com- mon generally Pardia tripunctana. Swarms in gardens Spilonota roborana. Hartlepool — rosaecolana. Darlington and Hartlepool — trimaculana. Common among elm — amoenana. On the coast among Rosa spinosis- sima Lithographia compoliliana. Common among willows — cinerana. Darlington — nisella. Larvae common in sallow catkins. — penkleriana. Among birch Phlaeodes tetraquetrana. Abundant among birch — crenana. Mr. Sang found this insect at Waskerley Poedisca piceana. Wolsingham, High Force, and Fhorp Bulmer near Hartlepool. Probably in other marshy places — stabilana. Hell Kettles near Darlington — solandriana. Common among birch — opthalmicana. On black poplar in Castle Eden Dene Catoptria scopoliana. Common among thistles — fulvana. Hesleden Dene — hohenwarthiana. Generally distributed, but not common — expallidana. Darlington Halonota bimaculana. Generally distributed, but not common — trigeminana. Seaton Carew — cirsiana. Among thistles and centaurea. — scutulana. Among thistles and centaurea. — grandaevana. Confined as a British species to South Shields and Hartlepool. I believe it is extinct at South Shields, but it still occurs about Hartlepool — brunnichiana. Plentiful amongst coltsfoot. A curious variety, without the white spot on the forewings, was common in a quarry in Hesleden Dene a few years ago. The colts- foot disappeared there and the insect with it, nor have I seen the variety since — tetragonana. Very local. Wolsingham, Darling- ton, Hesleden Dene. The larvae is said to be found under moss at the roots of beech trees. Mr. Gardner bred a specimen from a larva found on Lotus corniculatus — turbidana. ‘ Teeside from Coniscliffe to Black- well.' (J. Sang) — inopiana. Taken at Seaton Carezo in 1874 ^7 the late John Sang — fcenella. Hesleden Dene, once or twice Dicrorampha petiverella. Darlington and Hartlepool — politana. Eggleston, Upper Feesdale — alpinana. Mr. Sang took this southern species at Coniscliffe — tanaceti. Coniscliffe, Darlington, and near Hartlepool — plumbagana. Hartlepool — acuminitana. Coniscliffe Moor, Darlington, and Hartlepool Dicrorampha consortana. Darlington Coccyx hyrciniana. Coniscliffe Moor Capua ochraceana. Eggleston, Upper Feesdale Cartella bilunana. Hesleden Dene ANCHYLOPERID^ Hedya paykulliana. Wolsingham Hesleden Dene — ocellana. Darlington and Coniscliffe Moor — dealbana. Dinsdale Wood and Neasham Lane near Darlington, and in Hesleden Dene — neglectana. — aceriana. Gas lamps, Darlington, by Mr. Sang in i860 — trimaculana. I know of no record for this insect and never met with it, but it is cer- tain to occur Steganoptycha naevana. Castle Eden Dene and Cockerton near Darlington — geminana. Wolsingham Anchylopera mitterbacheriana. Gibside, and prob- ably elsewhere — biarcuana. Winch Bridge, Upper Fecsdale, near Darlington, and probably elsewhere — myrtillana. — lundana. South Shields, Sunderland, Barnard Castle, and Hartlepool, probably everywhere — paludana. Meyrick limits the range of this species to the fens of Norfolk and Cam- bridge, but Mr. Sang took it at Hell Kettles near Darlington — comptana. Chiefly a chalk down species, but extending on the west coast to Cheshire. Mr. Sang took it in a lane near Darlington in 1859, but never met with it again. It may only have been a stray specimen — unguicella. On the moors in the west. Has been taken at Wolsingham and on the Fees- dale Moors Bactra lanceolana. Abundant among rushes Argyrotoza conwayana. Generally among privet, but not a common insect Dictyopteryx contaminana. Very common by hedge sides — loeflingiana. Lanes and woods Croesia bergmanniana. Common everywhere among rose — forskaleana. Common among maple — holmiana. Generally common Hemerosia rheediella. Not scarce, has been re- corded at Sunderland, Darlinffon, and Hartlepool PERONEID^ Cheimatophila mixtana. Rather common in heathery places. Is recorded from Waskerley, Wolsingham, and the Feesdale Moors Oxygrapha literana. Mr. Sang took this at Eggles- ton and near Darlington ; I took a single specimen at Hartlepool, and Mr. Gardner another near the mouth of Castle Eden Dene Peronea schalleriana. Generally common. — perplexana. Of this comparatively new species Mr. Gardner took two at Greatham, near Hartlepool — commariana. Mr. Gardner took a single specimen of this on the Feesdale Moors 125 A HISTORY OF DURHAM Peronea comparana. Generally common — tristana. This insect has occurred at G'tbside and at Darlington, both records being sixty or seventy years ago. I know of no recent occurrence — rufana. Has occurred very generally, and in places such as Hartlepool sand hills, where there is neither poplar nor willow — favillaceana. Hesleden Dene, etc. — maccana. Upper Tynedale — hastiana. Black Hall Rocks among dwarf sallow, and Cole Hill Wood near Hartlepool — umbrana. Taken by Mr. Maling in 1875 in Thornley Dene in the valley of the Derwent — variegana. Very common everywhere Paramesia aspersana. Generally distributed and common — ferrugana. Generally distributed and common — caledoniana. Common on the moors of Upper Teesdale Teras caudana. Generally common among sallows STIGMONOTID^ PcEcilochroma corticana. Well distributed, but not very common — bouchardana. Among fir trees — tenerana. Coniscliffe Moor, near Darlington, and once in Hesleden Dene Anisotaenia ulmana. Has only been taken in Hesleden Dene by Mr. Gardner, but is cer- tain to occur elsewhere Semasia populana. I found larvae and bred this insect at Hartlepool in 1884 — woeberana. Darlington, in gardens — rufillana. Common in the south of Durham, though limited to York by Mr. Meyrick — nanana. Among spruce fir in Yeesdale — vacciniana. Has only been met with at Wol- singham Eucelis aurana. Castle Eden Dene and the railway cutting north of Hart station Ephippiphora regiana. Eggleston, Upper Yeesdale, and Hesleden Dene ; probably all woods where there is sycamore — argyrana. Generally distributed among oaks Stigmonota internana. Among whins as far as Castle Eden. I do not know if it occurs further north. Meyrick limits it to York — perlepidana. Darlington (J. Sang). The re- puted food plants Orobus niger (Wilk) and Lathyrus macrorrhizus (Meyr) do not grow in the county — dorsana. Railway banks near Croft. Sang bred this species from larvae found on Lathyrus sylvestris. Meyrick says Lathyrus macror- rhizus and perhaps L. pratensis. This gives an additional food, on which perhaps Perlepidana also feeds Asthenia coniferana. Mr. Sang bred this insect from larv'ae in bark of Scotch fir. (Ent. W. In tell. vii. 76) — splendidulana. Occurs around Darlington and in Upper Yeesdale Retinia pinicolana. Has only been taken near Darlington Retinia pinivorana. Coniscliffe Moor and near Darlington — occultana. Castle Eden Dene, Edder Acres, and near Darlington Pamplusia monticolana. This insect occurs freely on the moors \n Northumberland and in York- shire, and is certain to occur in Yeesdale, but I know of no records CARPOCAPSID^ Endopisa ulicana. On railway banks at Darlington and Hartlepool — germarana. Meyrick limits the range of this species to York, but it certainly reaches Durham, for Mr. Sang took it in a lane near the railway at Darlington — nigricana. Mr. Sang reared this insect from larvae found at Coniscliffe feeding on Vicia sylvatica. This is not the food generally named — proximana. Probably the same species as nigricana. Occurring at the same place and time Carpocapsa splendana. Near Darlington — pomonella. No records except at Hartlepool, and these are probably from apples grown elsewhere, as no apple trees grow there now Grapholita albersana. Bred by Mr. Sang from larvae found near Darlington. {E.M.M., vi. 170) — ulicetana. Swarms everjTvhere around whin — hypericana. Common in Castle Eden and Hesleden Dene, and probably elsewhere among Hypericum CNEPHASID^ Cnephasia hybridana. Among fir trees, not un- common — subjectana. Generally common — virgaureana. ,, „ — alternella. Rather local and only recorded from Darlington and Seaton Carew — conspersana. Generally distributed — octomaculana. Only recorded around Hartle- pool, but certain to occur elsewhere Ablabia pratana. Rough pastures and moors. Very plentiful where it occurs. On the wing about mid-day and later SERICORID^ Euchromia ericetana. I took this species regularly in my garden at West Hartlepool, some twenty years ago. The garden was surrounded by fields, &c. There is no other record — striana. Middleton-One-Row and Greatham Orthotaenia antiquana, Hell Kettles near Darlington Sericoris conchana. Castle Eden Dene, Darlington, &c. — lacunana. Generally common — urticana. Plentiful in most places — micana. In boggy places near Darlington, Hartlepool, &c. — cespitana. I know of no records except near Hartlepool — politana. Moors in the west of the county 126 INSECTS Sericoris bifasciana. The late John Sang took this species near Darlington in 1870 and again in 1872, according to his diary Mixodia schultziana. Boggy places on the moors in the west of the county — palustrana. Mr. Gardner found this insect abundant in one locality on the ^eesdale Moors. I do not know any other English habitat. LOZOPERID.^. Phtheochroa rugosana. Dinsdale Wood and Conis- cliffe. The food plant Bryonia , dioica only grows in extreme South Durham Eriopsela fractifasciana. A single specimen was taken by Mr. Gardner at Black Hall Rocks — quadrana. Taken in 1896 by Mr. Gardner at Winch Bridge, Upper Teesdale. This is, perhaps, its most northern habitat Chrosis tesserana. Has only been taken near Dar- lington. The food plant scarcely occurs in the county Argyrolepia baumanniana. Generally distributed and not uncommon — subbaumanniana. Only taken by Mr. Sang nearly fifty years ago — badiana. Among burdock in the denes Argyrolepia cnicana. Rather common amongst thistles Calosetia nigromaculana. Hartlepool, on the rail- way side, among ragwort Eupoecilia maculosana. Taken by Mr. Sang, pro- bably only a casual, as the insect docs not occur so far north — atricapitana. Darlington, Hartlepool, See., among ragwort — nana. Wolsingham is the only district where this has occurred — angustana. Common about Hartlepool. No other records — rupicola. Only in South Durham, Hesleden Dene, and Darlington — vectisana. Greatham saltmarsh, very plentiful — manniana. Occurred on the railway banks at Darlington — affinitana. Occurs at Greatham saltmarsh, the larvae feeding on Aster tripolium — ruficiliana. Common among cowslips at Dar- lington, Hartlepool, Sec. Lozopera straminea. Generally common Xanthosetia hamana. Generally distributed, but not very abundant — zeegana. Generally distributed, but not very abundant Tortricodes hyemana. Common in oak woods TINEINA This group has been very little collected in Durham, The following list has been compiled principally from notes left by the late John Sang, which appear to have been memoranda for future guidance rather than a regular diary, and from a list supplied by Mr. John Gardner, F.E.S., of his own captures. Stainton’s Manual has references to ^ Da,' Darlington, but as these referred rather to the residence of the captor than to the actual place where the species were found I have added Stainton’s Manual, in all cases where I have no other knowledge of its occurrence. Sang, who, I believe, supplied Stainton with the list, collected in Yorkshire — as far as Richmond inland, and down the coast to Redcar and Salt- burn, and it is possible that some of these references ought to have been in the Yorkshire list. No one has collected the Tineina in North Durham since the late George Wailes, and his records are given in the Manual as ‘ 'Ne^ Newcastle, so that it is impossible now to say which were Durham species, and which Northumberland. EXAPATID^ Exapate gelatella. Generally common Chimabacche phryganella. In woods, but not common — fagella. Abundant everywhere. Dark forms often occur, but not so black as those I have seen at Liverpool and elsewhere Semioscopis avellanella. Occurs in Upper Teesdale. Not common — steinkellneriana. The Manual gives Darlington, but Sang does not appear to have met with it. I took a single specimen near the work- house, Hartlepool, many years ago TINEID^ Talasporia pseudo-bombycella. Barnard Castle and Castle Eden Dene Solenobia clathrella. This insect was found by Dr. Mason in a small collection formed by John Sang, and purchased at his death by Dr. Mason. They were all taken after Sang’s return to Darlington, and these (two ^s and three 2 s) were there named Triquetrella, as Clathrella had never been recorded as British. Dr. Mason wrote me of his discovery that they were a new species as soon as he had satisfied himself. There is an incorrect reference to these specimens in Tutt’s work (vol. ii. 197). The syno- nomy of the genus is much confused Diplodoma marginepunctella. Sang found cases of this insect ‘ low down on tree trunks ’ near Darlington Ochsenheimera birdella. Taken by Mr. Gardner near the mouth of Hesleden Dene — bisontella. Found by Mr. Gardner with the last, and also in Teesdale by Mr. Sang — vacculella. Found by Mr. Gardner with the last, and also in Leesdale by Mr. Sang 127 A HISTORY OF DURHAM Euplocamus boleti. I took a single specimen of this insect in my own house in Hartle- pool in 1 862 Tinea rusticella. Generally common — fulvimitrella. Teesdale and Hesleden Dene — tapetzella. Generally common — arcella. Middleton-One-Rozv and Hesleden Dene — picarella. A very rare insect. Bred by Mr. Gardner from fungi in Upper Teesdale — corticella. Taken by the late W. Backhouse in Kepler Wood near Durham — parasitella — granella. Common in granaries — cloacella. Common — albipunctella. Darlington and Seaton Carew — confusella. I took a single specimen of this insect on the wing near the mouth of Hes- leden Dene — miscella. Castle Eden Dene and Black Hall Rocks — pellionella. Common in houses — pallescentella. Common generally, especially in timber yards — lapella. Darlington (Stainton’s Manual). Mr. Gardner bred it from a bird’s nest found in Hesleden Dene — biselliella. Very common in houses — semifulvella. Birds’ nests and in houses — bistrigella. Generally distributed Lampronia quadripunctella. Not uncommon in South Durham — luzella. Darlington, Castle Eden and Hesleden Denes — prcclatella. Local, but plentiful where it occurs — rubiella. Common among both wild and garden raspberries Teichobia verhuellella. Mr. Sang found this both at Castle Eden and Black Halls, and reared it from larvae found there Incurvaria musculella. Generally common — canariella. Taken by Mr. Gardner among Rosa spinosissima — pectina. Teesdale, among birch. Not very common Nemophora swammerdammella. General in plan- tations — schwarziella. General in plantations Adela fibulella. Darlin^on, Castle Eden Dene, and Hartlepool — rufimitrella. Generally distributed — viridella. Darlington. Common in the denes — cuprella Nematois cupriacellus. Darlington MICROPTERYGID^ Micropteryx calthella. Common — seppella. Common — allionella. Wolsingham — thunbergella. Darlington — purpurella — salopiella. High Force — semipurpurella. Teesdale. Common in Hes- leden Dene — sangii. Darlington Micropteryx unimaculella. Teesdale — sparmannella. High Force — subpurpurclla. Generally distributed Swammerdamia apicella. Darlington, Hesleden Dene, etc. — caesiella. Darlington (Stainton’s Manual) — griseo-capitella. Darlington, Wolsingham, Hesle- den Dene — lutarea. Darlington, Whessoe, etc. — pyrella. Darlington, Hesleden Dene Hyponomenta padellus. Teesdale and Weardale — evonymellus. Among spindle near Hartlepool — padi. Not uncommon Anesychia funerella. Barnard Castle Prays curtisellus. Common in woods PLUTELLID^ Plutella cruciferarum. Common. This some- times appears in myriads — porrectella. General in gardens — annulatella. Hartlepool — dalella. Waskerley Cerostoma sequella. Teesdale — radiatella. Common — costella. Common — lucella. Darlington, among young oaks — scabrella. Generally common — nemorella. Castle Eden and Hesleden Denes — xylostella. Generally common GELECHID^ Orthotaelia sparganella. Hell Kettles Anacampsis sangiella. Darlington Phibalocera quercana. Darlington (Stainton’s Manual) Exaeretia allisilla. Hartlepool and Durham Depressaria costosa. Generally distributed — liturella. Generally distributed — umbellana. Generally distributed — assimilella. Darlington (Stainton’s Manual) — nanatella. Hartlepool — atomella. Darlington — arenella. Darlington, Castle Eden and Hesleden Denes — subpropinquella. Black Halls — alstrcemeriella. Common among hemlock — conterminella. Darlington — hypericella. Darlington, Hartlepool, and the denes. Common among Hypericum — angelicella. Darlington, Hartlepool, and the denes — ocellana. Darlington (Stainton’s Manual) — applana. Very common — ciliella — pulcherrimella. Teesdale, Darlington, and the denes — weirella. Teesside — chaerophylli. Darlington — nervosa. Greatham — badiella. Darlington — pastinacella. Greatham — heracliana. Generally common Gelechia cinerella. Generally common — rufescens. Greatham, Seaton Carew — populella — ericetella. Common on the moors 128 INSECTS Gelchia mulinella. Generally distributed — longicornis. Wolsingham — terrella. Generally common — desertella. Shields, Hartlepool, Seaton Carew, probably on all coast sandhills — politella. Teesdale, Hartlepool — intaminatella. Darlington — accuminatella. Generally common — gracilella. South Shields — senectella. Greatkam — obscurella. Crimdon Cut — similis. Crimdon Cut — affinis. Teesdale — tetragonella. A new species, taken at Creatham by Mr. Sang. It has been erroneously recorded as occurring at Redcar (Yorks.) — umbrosella. South Shields — rhombella. Common in crab-apple. The insects are very dark grey, none light like those in the south. — proximella. Teesdale and Hesleden Dene — notatella. Darlington and Hesleden Dene — vulgella. Darlin^on and Hesleden Dene — fugitivella. Darlington — aethiops. Teesdale and Weardale — solutella. Wolsingham — distinctella. South Shields — celerella. Hartlepool. Rare — maculea. Darlington and Hesleden Dene — tricolorella Darlington — fraternella. Darlington and Hartlepool — viscariella. Darlington and Hesleden Dene — marmorea. Castle Eden, Black Halls, Seaton Carew. On the sea banks, probably all along the coast — instabilella. Black Halls, Hartlepool, Creatham — salicorniae. Creatham Salt marsh — atriplicella. Creatham and Hartlepool — obsoletella. Darlington, Creatham, and Seaton Carew — plantaginella. Creatham. Plentiful — sequax. Castle Eden to Hartlepool — mouffetella. Darlington — dodecella. Darlington and Cole Hill — tenebrella. Darlington and Wolsingham — tenebrosella. Darlington — ligulella. Darlington and Creatham — vorticella. Darlington — taeniolella. Darlington (Stainton’s Manual) — sircomella. Darlington — anthyllidella. Darlington and Creatham — sangiella. Darlington and Hartlepool — albipalpella. Darlington — atrella. Darlington, Castle Eden and Hesleden Denes — intaminella. Darlington and Wolsingham — naeviferella. Darlington and Barnard Castle — hermanella — pictella. Railway bank, Hartlepool — osseella. Darlington — brizella. Creatham — subocella. Hesleden Dene Parasia lappella — metzneriella. Darlington, Seaton Carew, and Hartlepool — carlinella. Darlington (Stainton’s Manual) Chelaria hubnerella. Castle Eden and Hesleden Denes Ypsolophus marginellus. Among juniper in the dales Sophronia humerella. Castle Eden Dene Pleurota bicostella. High Force Harpella bracteella. This species was recorded as British in the E. W. I. (iii. 179) from specimens taken and bred at Shotley near Gateshead, and I took a beautiful specimen at light near Throston, Hartlepoolin ]\ine 1 880. It is therefore widely spread in the county, but not enough is known of its habits for it to be often taken. I believe less than a dozen British specimens exist, all from Durham but one. The larva feeds on rotten wood Hypercallia christiernella. Castle Eden Dene CECOPHORIDzE Dasycera sulphurella. Generally common about old hedges CEcophora flavimaculella. Darlington, Castle Eden and Hesleden Denes — similella. High land in west of county, Wol- singham, Eggleston, etc. •— subaquilea. High land in west of county. One at Black Halls — pseudospretella. Swarms everywhere. I once had larvae brought me from Stockton-on-Tees, where they had been feeding on flour in casks. I expected to rear Kuhniella, but this species only emerged Endrosis fenestrella Butalis fuscocuprea. Darlington — incongruella. Waskerley Atemelia torquatella. Wolsingham, Castle Eden and Hesleden Denes Pancalia lewenhoekella. Wolsingham, Castle Eden and Hesleden Denes GLYPHIPTERYGIDzE Acrolepia granitella. Darlington — betuletella. This rarity was first taken at Castle Eden Dene, and has only been met with there and once at High Force. Most of the specimens in existence were taken by the late John Sang. I have taken it but once, my specimen being beaten out of yew in October Glyphipteryx fuscoviridella. Black Halls, dry banks — cladiella. Darlington — thrasonella. Darlington, Hesleden Dene, etc. — fischeriella. Darlington, Hartlepool, etc. Tinagra staneellum. Darlington — resplendellum. Darlington, at Holl Kettles Douglasia ocnerostomella. Darlington ARGYRESTHIDzE Argyresthia ephippella. Darlington, common — nitidella. Very common — semitestacella. Generally distributed — spiniella. High Force — albistria. Not scarce among sloe 129 17 A HISTORY OF DURHAM Argyresthia conjugella. Teesdale, etc. — semifusca. Darlington, Hesleden Dene — mendica. Darlington (Stainton’s Manual) — retinella. Darlington, Castle Eden Dene — dilectella. High Force, among juniper — curvella. Cole Hill near Hartlepool — sorbiella. Wolsingham and Teesdale — pygmasella. Darlington, Edder Acres, Hesleden Dene, etc. — goedartella. Darlington, Hartlepool, etc. — brockeella. Generally distributed among birch — arceuthinella. Wolsingham, among juniper Cedestis farinatella. Darlington Ocnerostoma piniariella. Woods near Darlington, Hartlepool, etc. Zellaria hepariella. Darlington, Castle Eden Dene, etc. — insignipennella. Probably the same as last, occurring at same places Gracillaria swederella. Generally common — stigmatella. Darlington — stramineella. Upper Teesdale — elongella. High Force, Darlington, Castle Eden, Black Halls, etc. — tringipennella. Generally distributed — syringella. Generally distributed — aurogutella Darlington, Castle Eden and Hes- leden Denes Coriscum cuculipennellum. Castle Eden Dene Ornix avellanella. Darlington, Hesleden Dene — anglicella. Darlington, Hesleden Dene — betulae. Wolsingham, High Force — torquillella. Darlington — scoticella. Barnard Castle — loganella. Wolsingham and Hesleden Dene — guttea. Darlington COLEOPHORIDiE Coleophora tengstromella. Darlington, Seaton Carew — laricella. General among larch — lutipennella. Darlington, Barnard Castle, etc. — fuscedinella. Darlington (Stainton’s Manual) — viminetella. Darlington, Hartlepool — siccifolia. Darlington — gryphipennella. Darlington, Hartlepool, pro- bably everywhere on rose — nigricella. Darlington — orbitella. High Force, Stanhope, Wolsingham, etc, — paripennella. High Force — albitarsella. Darlington, Hesleden Dene — alcyonipennella. Stockton-on- Tees, Castle Eden, etc. — frischella. Darlington, Hartlepool, etc. — fabriciella. Darlington — anatipennella. Darlington — al bicosta. Darlington, Wolsingham — pyrrhulipennella. Wolsingham — lixella. Castle Eden Dene and Black Halls — discordella. Generally distributed — onosmella. Darlington — therinella. Darlington, Black Halls — troglodytella. Darlington, Crindon Cut, etc. — apicella. Darlington — annulatella. Darlington, Castle Eden, and Black Halls — murinipennella. Darlington, Greatham — glaucicolella. Greatham — cespititiella. Darlington ELACHISTID^ Bidella somnulentella. Generally distributed Batrachedra preangusta. Darlington, Castle Eden and Hesleden Denes — pinicolella. Coniscliffe Moor Oinophila v-flava. Wine cellar in Darlington Chauliodus chaerophyllellus. Generally com- mon Laverna propinquella. Coniscliffe Moor, Castle Eden and Hesleden Denes, 8cc. — lacteela. Darlington, Dinsdale, Hesleden Dene — miscella. Black Halls — ochraceella. Rather common — atrai. Rather common Chrysoclysta shrankella. Hesleden Dene — flavicaput. Darlington, Greatham, Hesleder Dene Asychnia profugella. Darlington — terminella. Castle Eden Chrysocorys festaliella. High Force, on wild rasp- berries Stephensia brunnichella. Generally distributed Elachista trapeziella. Barnard Castle — gleichenella. Barnard Castle — apicipunctella. Darlington, Crimdon Cut — albifrontella. Generally common — cinereopunctella. Stockton-on-Tees — luticomella. Darlington, Stockton, Hesleden Dene, See. — atricomella. Darlington, Stockton, Hasleden Dene, See. — kilmunnella. Hartlepool — monticola. Darlington and Teesdale — nigrella. Darlington and Hasleden Dene — gregsoni. Darlington — obscurella. Darlington, var. subobscurella. The type occurs in Teesdale commonly — perplexella. Generally distributed — adscitella. Darlington, Stockton, Castle Eden, &c. — megerella. Darlington, Castle Eden, See. — zonariella. Generally common — tseniatella. Darlington, See. — cerusella. Darlington (Stainton’s Manual) — rhyncosporella. Darlington and Hartlepool — paludum. Hell Kettles — biatomella. Darlington — triatomea. Darlington, Greatham, See. — pollinariella. Darlington, Castle Eden and Hesleden Denes — subocellea. Castle Eden — rufocinerea. Abundant everywhere — cygnipennella. Abundant everywhere Tischeria complanella. Generally distributed — marginea. Darlington LITHOCOLLETID^ Lithocolletis amyotella. Darlington — roboris. Darlington — sylvella. Darlington — cramerella. Darlington, Hesleden Dene — heegeriella. Darlington, Barnard Castle — alnifoliella. General among alder — nigrescentella. Darlington INSECTS Lithocolletis insignitella. Very abundant between Hart Station and Castle Eden, but not recorded elsewhere in England. It is so very plenti- ful that I have collected i,ooo mines within twenty yards. It feeds here only on Trifolium pratense, though medium and repens are common. The insect occurs by hedges or waste ground, and is especially common on the railway side — irradiella. Darlington — bremiella. Darlington, Barnard Castle, &c. — ulmifoliella. Generally common — - spinolella. Generally common — sorbiella. Upper ^eesdale — salicicolella. Black Halls — pomifoliella. Darlington and Greatham — spinicolella. Darlington and Hesleden Dene — faginella. Darlington, Hesleden Dene and Teesdale — coryli. Darlington, Barnard Castle, See. — vacciniella. Stockton-on-Tees — quinqueguttella. Castle Eden and Black Halls — quercifoliella. Generally common — messaniella. Darlington (Stainton’s Manual) — scopariella. Teesdale and Coniscliffe Moor — viminiella. Darlington — corylifoliella. Generally common — caledoniella. Darlington and Hesleden Dene — nicellii. Darlington and Hesleden Dene — dunningiella. Barnard Castle — frolichiella. Stanhope, Darlington, Hartlepool. Not common — stettinensis. Darlington (Stainton’s Manual) — Klemannella. Stanhope, Darlington, Edder Acres, 8cc. — emberizaepennella. Darlington, Barnard Castle, Hesleden Dene, &c. — tristrigella. Darlington, Hesleden Dene, &c. — trifasciella — compariella. Aycliffe LYONETID^ Lyonetia clerkella. Generally distributed. Cemiostoma spartifoliella. Darlington — wailesella. Darlington — scitella. Darlington, Barnard Castle mA. Greatham Opostega salaciella — crepusculella. Darlington, Castle Eden, &c. Bucculatrix aurimaculella. Darlington Bucculatrix cidarella. Hell Kettles — crataegi. Dinsdale Wood — maritima. Greatham NEPTICUL^ Nepticula atricapitella. Darlington — ruficapitella. Darlington — pygmaeella. Darlington, Castle Eden — pomella. Darlington — oxyacanthella. Darlington — viscerella. Darlington — aucupariella. Stanhope, Barnard Castle, See. — lapponica. High Force, &c. — anomalella. Darlington — septembrella. Darlington, Castle Eden, &c. — cryptella. Darlington, Castle Eden, &c. — ulmivoriella. Darlington — subbimaculella. Darlington — argyropeza. Darlington — trimaculella. Darlington — salicis. Darlington — myrtillella. Barnard Castle — floslactella. Barnard Castle, Darlington — luteella. Barnard Castle, Darlington, Wolsingham, &c. — ignobilella. Darlington — arcuata. Darlington — angulifasciella. Darlington — atricollis. Darlington — microtheriella. Darlington, Barnard Castle — argentipedella. Among birch in the west. Wolsingham, High Force, Barnard Castle, &c. — betulicola. General in the west — plagicolella. Darlington, See. — malella. Darlington — tityrella. Darlington, See. — glutinosae. Stanhope — gratiosella. Darlington, &c, — ulmivorella. Darlington, &c. — splendidellum. Darlington, &c. — regiella. Darlington, &c. — aeniofasciella. Darlington, Castle Eden — alnetella. Darlington, Barnard Castle, Stanhope — marginicolella. Darlington — aurella. Darlington, &c. — splendidissima. Darlington Trifurcula immundella. Darlington, &c. — pulverosella. Darlington PTEROPHORINA These insects are now placed elsewhere and divided into other genera. I follow Stainton for convenience only. Adactyla bennetii. Salt marsh at Greatham Pterophorus ochrodactylus. Tees Side, near Dar- lington — bertrami. Low Coniscliffe — trigonodactylus. Generally distributed and common — parvidactylus. Black Halls, very scarce, but abundant on the sides of the railway-cutting near Hesleden Dene — hieracii. Darlington — bipunctidactylus. Darlington, Hesleden Dene, Edder Acres, &c. — plagiodactylus. South Shields, Black Halls, Dar- lington, See. I Pterophorus fuscus. Castle Eden and Hesleden Denes, Darlington, &c. — lithodactylus. Darlington, Edder Acres, Black Halls, &c. — pterodactylus. Darlington, Castle Eden, Durham, Hesleden Dene, 8cc. — microdactylus. Hesleden Dene, Black Halls, Crim- don Cut, &c. — tetradactylus. Darlington, Black Halls, 8cc. — pentadactylus. Very common wherever con- volvulus grows ALUCITINA Alucita polydactyla. Common I A HISTORY OF DURHAM DIPTERA Flies In this county the two-winged flies have been neglected. The following list of species is the result of observations and collections made during the six years which formed the close ot the nineteenth century and the beginning of the twentieth, before which time no collections had been made or records kept for this county. It is, therefore, very imperfect. But it shows that the county, with its great diversity of natural features, is the home of a large variety of flies. Among the long grasses on the sand hills of the southern coast-line Asilidae and Therevidae lie waiting for their prey. Along the flower-clad cliff-tops bright Syrphids and more homely Anthomyids disport themselves in the sunshine. In the rush-lined gullies worn in the boulder clay, Leptidae and the larger Crane flies abound, while on the beach, among the heaps of seaweed left by the receding tide are many species of shore flies, both the Fucellias, Orygma, Chersodromia, and others. The deep wooded denes, so characteristic of this part of the coast, are the haunts of swarms of sandflies and midges of many kinds. Farther inland, along the marshy flats through which runs the sluggish Skerne, and on the upland burns and among the rushes of the hill pastures, the water-loving Dolichopods skim over the streams and pools or lurk among the herbage. By the banks of the numerous brooks and rivers where willows hang over the waters, the black Bibio of St. Mark may be found, while its smaller relative of St. John and several other species swarm among the herbage. Along the field borders, and in the meadows or in the neglected corners, the numerous tribes of Acalypterous Muscids, hovering Syrphids, and indeed flies of almost every family, hide them- selves beneath the leaves, or feed on the yellow pollen. The upper dales and the many glens which seam the hillsides are the resort of great numbers of the Limnobidae. And on the heathery moors the hum of the bright wasp-coloured Sericomyia mingles with that of the bees. The county, therefore, with its considerable range of altitudes from the sea level to over 2,000 feet, and its varied topography and vegetation, is well calculated to possess a fairly wide range of insect life, notwithstanding its northern latitude, its eastern exposure, and its often smoke-laden atmosphere. The following lists of species probably give only a small proportion of those inhabiting the county. cecidomyida: The Gall Gnats of the county have not yet been studied, and although many species have been collected and the galls of many more observed, the names of the species have not been determined. MYCETOPHILID^ The Fungus Gnats also have been but little worked out. The following very meagre list contains all that have as yet been identified. Sciara praecox, Mg. Mycetophila punctata, Mg. — signata, Mg. — cingulum, Mg. Glaphyroptera fascipennis. Mg. Laslosoma luteum, Mcq. — hirtum. Mg. Sciophila ornata. Mg. Macrocera fasciata. Mg. — lutea. Mg. Macrocera centralis. Mg. — stigma. Curt. Bolitophila fusca. Mg. — cinerea. Mg. bibionida: Several of this family are common throughout the county, especially the Fever Fly, and the black, heavy-looking St. Mark’s Fly. Its red-legged cousin is not uncommon in the upper dales, and the smaller St. John’s Fly and its woolly relative are generally to be found near wooded streams. This county is the only recorded locality for D. femoratus. Scatopse notata, L. Dilophus femoratus. Mg. Bibio nigriventrls, Hal. — brevicornis. Mg. Bibio pomonae, F. — laniger. Mg. Dilophus febrilis, L. — marci, L. — johannis, L. 132 INSECTS SIMULID.E Reptans is the only common species of the Sandflies, and is sometimes to be met with in countless swarms in the coast denes. Simulium reptans, L. Simulium latipes, Mg. CHIRONOMIDiE The beautiful and delicately-coloured members of the Midge family are everywhere present. The local species are very numerous, but the difficulty of preserving their colours and the confused state of the British list render their identification difficult. Chironomus plumosus, L. — annularis, Deg. — flaveolus, Mg. — venustus, Stasg. — pedellus, Deg. — brevitibialis, Ztt. — pictulus, Mg. — nubeculosus, Mg. Cricotopus tremulus, L. — bicinctus, Mg. — annulipes, Mg. — sylvestris, F. Orthocladius niveipennis, Ztt. — stercorarius, Mg. Tanytarsus tenuis, Mg. Tanytarsus flavipes. Mg. Metriocnemus fuscipes. Mg. Tanypus varius, F. — nebulosus, Mg. — choreus, Mg. — carneus, F. — melanops, Mg. The following small families have not been studied. The individuals of several species of Gnats and Psychods are numerous enough, but at present they remain mostly unidentified. CULICIDiE Culex nemorosus, Mg. Culex pipiens, L. Culex ciliaris, L. DIXIDiE Dixa aprilina. Mg. TIPULIDiE (Sensu lato) The Crane flies, large and small, are very abundant, and a fair number of species have been observed. The four kinds of Winter Gnats may all be seen on fine days throughout the winter. The beautiful little Idioptera is to be found on the moors, and the Spotted Acyphona in the woods of the coast denes. The large and handsome Pedicia and the Great Crane fly are not uncommon. The Marsh Tipula (T. paludosa) seems to be more abundant than the common Daddy Long-legs, and the large Orange Tipula is plentiful. PTYCHOPTERIDiE Ptychoptera contaminata, L. Ptychoptera albimana, F. — lacustris, Mg. — scutellaris, Mg. Limnobia quadrinotata, Mg. — nubeculosa, Mg. — flavipes, F. — tripunctata, F. — trivitta, Schm. Dicranomyia modesta. Mg. — chorea. Mg. — dumetorum. Mg. Rhiphidia maculata. Mg. Antocha opalizans, O.Sack. Empeda flava, Schum. — nubila, Schum. Gonomyia tenella. Mg. — scutellata. Egg. Acyphona maculata. Mg. Molophilus appendiculatus, Stxg. — propinquus. Egg. LIMNOBIDiT Molophilus bifilatus, Verr. — obscurus. Mg. Rhypholophus lineatus. Mg. — nodulosus, Mcq. — varius. Mg. — hoemorrhoidalis, Ztt. Erioptera flavescens. Mg. — macrophthalma, Lw. — toenionota. Mg. — fuscipennis. Mg. — trivialis. Mg. Lipsothrix errans, Wlk. Idioptera pulchella. Mg. Dactylolabis gracilipes, Lw. Limnophila Meigenii, Verr. — dispar. Mg. — lineola. Mg. 133 Limnophila lineolella,' Verr. — ochracea. Mg. — discicollis. Mg. — lucorum. Mg. — nemoralis. Mg. Trichocera annulata. Mg. — hiemalis. Deg. — fuscata. Mg. — regelation is, L. Ula pilosa, Schm. Dicranota bimaculata, Schm. Amalopis immaculata. Mg. — unicolor, Schm. Pedicia rivosa, L. Pachyrrhina crocata, L. — histrio, F. — maculosa. Mg. A HISTORY OF DURHAM Pachyrrhina cornicina, L. — guestfalica, Westh. — analis, Schm. — quadrifaria, Mg. — lunulicornis, Schm. — annulicornis, Mg. Tipula pagana, Mg. — confusa, V. de Wulp — longicornis, Schm. Tipula truncorum, Mg. — hortensis, Mg. — varipennis, Mg. — scripta, Mg. — plumbea, F. — lunata, L. — lateralis, Mg. — vernalis, Mg. RHYPHID^ Tipula vittata, Mg. — gigantea, Schrk. — lutescens, F. — oleracea, L. — paludosa, Mg. — fascipennis, Mg. — peliostigma, Schum, — ochracea, Mg. Rhyphus punctatus, F. Rhyphus fenestralis, Scop. STRATIOMYIDiE The Soldier-flies are not largely represented in this county. None of the three first sub- families have as yet been observed, and of the rest only S. cuprarius and irridatus and B. chalybeata are common. Chrysonotus bipunctatus, Scop. Sargus iridatus, Scop. Beris vallata, Forst. Sargus flavipes, Mg. Microchrysa polita, L. — chalybeata, Forst. — cuprarius, L. — flavicornis. Mg. — geniculata. Curt. Of the next five families only the Cleg is common among the Tabanida^ although C. ccecuticm is sometimes fairly plentiful. All the Leptidce are common, except L. lineola and S. crasiicornis. D. rufipes^ among the Anlida^ is generally distributed and very common along the banks of the Gaunless. Philonicus is only found on the sand hills near Hart. Our only Bee-fly is common in April where primroses abound, and the two Therevida are fairly abundant among the Bent grass on the coast. Haematopota pluvialis, L. Therioplectes montanus. Mg. Leptis scolopacea, L. — tringaria, L. TABANID^ Therioplectes solstialis. Mg. Tabanus autumnalis, L. LEPTIDiE Leptis conspicua. Mg. — lineola, F. Chrysops coecutiens, L. Chrysopilus auratus, F. Symphoromyia crassicornis Dioctria rufipes. Deg. ASILID^ Philonicus albiceps. Mg. Dismachus trigonus. Mg. BOMBYLIDiT Bombylius major, L, Thereva nobilitata, F. THEREVIDiT EMPID^ Thereva annulata, F. Several species of these two-winged robbers are among our commonest flies. They may often be seen with their long snipe-like beaks buried deeply in the body of some unfortunate victim. Most of them are generally distributed, but Chersodromia is confined to the shore rocks, while Clinocera and Ardoptera have only as yet been found in the upper dales. Hybos grossipes, L. — femoratus. Mull. Cyrtoma spuria. Fin. Rhamphomyia nigripes, F. — sulcata. Fin. — dentipes, Ztt. — variabilis. Fin. — umbripennis. Mg. - flava. Fin. Empis tessellata, F. - livida, L. Empis borealis, L. — stercorea, L. — trigramma. Mg. — punctata. Mg. — pennipes, L. — vernalis, Mg. — vitripennis. Mg. — chioptera. Fin. Hilara maura, F. — manicata. Mg. — quadrivittata. Mg. ^34 Hilara chorica. Fin. — thoracica, Mcq. CEdalia holmgreni, Ztt. Oxydromia glabricula. Fin. Clinocera fontinalis, Hal. — bistigma. Curt. Ardoptera irrorata. Fin. Chersodromia arenaria, Hal. Tachydromia flavipes, F. — cursitans, F. — bicolor, F, INSECTS DOLICHOPODIDiE Several of the genus DoUchopus are very common. The first five are numerous in marshy places in the dales ; trivialh^ aneus, and G. aroius are common everywhere ; of the others, only a few have been met with here and there. Psilopus platypterus, F. Neurigona quadrifasclata, F. Dolichopus atripes, Mg. — vitripennis, Mg. — atratus, Mg. — picipes, Mg. — plumipes, Scop. — pennatus, Mg. — popularis, W. Dolichopus urbanus, Mg. — griseipennis, Stan. — trivialis, Hal. — brevipennis, Mg. — asneus, Deg. Hercostomus nigripennis, Fin. Gymnopternus cupreus, Fin. — aerosus. Fin. Chrysotus gramineus, Fin. Argyra diaphana, F. — argentina, Mg. Syntormon pallipes, F. Xiphandrium caliginosuni, Mg. — monotrichum, Lw. Scellus notatus, F. Hydrophorus pra:cox, Lehm. Liancalus virens, Scop. Campsicnemus curvipes. Fin. LONCHOPTERIDiE Flies of this family are very common everywhere, and they seem to be of four varieties, but whether these are really different species is open to question. Lonchoptera punctum, Mg. Lonchoptera lacustris, Mg. — trilineata, Ztt. — tristis, Mg. The individuals of the next two families are by no means common ; one or two specimens of a few species are all that have as yet been observed. PLATYPEZID^ Callimyia speciosa, Mg. Callimyia amoena. Mg. Verrallia pilosa, Ztt. PIPUNCULIDiE Pipunculus furcatus, Egg. Pipunculus campestris, Ltr. — terminalis, Thoms. — pratorum, Fin. SYRPHID^ The Hoverer or Hawk-flies are fairly well represented in this county, about 40 per cent, of the British species having been taken within its borders. Ischyrosyrphus glaucius was very abundant at Gibside in 1896, but usually it is rather uncommon, though generally distributed. Arctophila mussitans is a strangely local fly. It has appeared year after year in fair numbers within a day or two of the 28th August, at the corner of a certain field near Hesleden, but has only once been observed at any other time or place. Merodon has been getting commoner of late, doubtless owing to the importation of foreign bulbs. Pipizella virens, F. Pipiza noctiluca, L. Liogaster metallina, F. Chrysogaster hirtella, L. Chilosia maculata, Fin. — sparsa, Lw. — pulchripes, Lw. — variabilis, Panz. — intonsa, Lw. — illustrata, Har. — impressa, Lw. — albitarsis, Mg. — fraterna, Mg. — vernalis, Fin. ■ — proxima, Ztt. Platychirus manicatus, Mg. — peltatus, Mg. — scutatus. Mg. — albimanus, F. Platychirus clypeatus, Mg. — angustatus, Ztt. Pyrophaena granditarsa, Forst. — rosarum, F. Melanastomum mellinum, L. — scalare, F. Leucozona lucorum, L. Ischyrosyrphus glaucius, L. Catabomba pyrastri, L. — selenitica, Mg. Syrphus albostriatus, Fin. — albostriatus var. confusus — tricinctus. Fin. — venustus. Mg. — lunulatus. Mg. — torvus, Ost. Sack. — vittiger, Ztt. — grossulariae. Mg. — ribesii, L. 135 Syrphus vitripennis, Mg. — latifasciatus, Mcq. — corollte, F. — luniger. Mg. — bifasciatus, F. — balteatus. Deg. — cinctellus, Ztt. — cinctus. Fin. — auricollis. Mg. — auricollis var. maculicornis, Ztt. — umbellatarum, F. — compositarum, Verr. — labiatarum, Verr. Sphaerophoria scripta, L. — scripta var. nigricoxa, Ztt. — menthastri, L. — menthastri var. picta. Mg. — menthastri var. taeniata. Mg. A HISTORY OF DURHAM Baccha elongata, F. Sphegina clunipes, Fin. Ascia podagrica, F. — floralis Brachyopa bicolor, Fin. Rhingia campestris, Mg. Volucella bombylans, L. — bombylans var.plumata,DeG. — bombylans var. (a) haemor- rhoidalis, Ztt. — pellucens, L. Eristalis aeneus, Scop. Eristalis tenax, L. — intricarius, L. — arbustorum, L. — nemorum, L. — pertinax, Scop. — rupium, F. — horticola, Deg. Myiatropa florea, L. Helophilus pendulus, Mg. Merodon equestris var. narcissi, F. — equestris var. validus, Mg. CONOPIDiE Criorrhina floccosa. Mg. Xylota segnis, L. — lenta. Mg. — sylvarum, L. — abiens, W. Syritta pipiens, L. Chrysochlamys cuprea. Scop. Arctophila mussitans, F. Sericomyia borealis. Fin. — lappona, L. Chrysotoxum arctuatum, L. — bicinctum, L. Myopa buccata, L. TACHINID/E With the exception of Ones'ia and Sarcophaga^ most of the T'achinida are not common. They are, during the larval stage, mostly parasitic in the larvae of Lepidoptera, and the breeding cages of local lepidopterists have been the chief source of supply. Ceromasia spectabilis. Mg. Gymnochaeta viridis. Fin. Parexorista fugax, Rnd. ? — grossa, B. and B. Blepharidea vulgaris. Fin. Phorocera cilipeda, Rnd. Aporomyia dubia. Fin. Somolia simplicitarsis, Ztt. Melanota volvulus, F. Olivieria lateralis, F. Micropalpus vulpinus, Fin. — pictus. Mg. Erigone rudis. Fin. — consobrina. Mg. Plagia ruralis. Fin. Urophylla seria. Mg. Digonochaeta setipennis. Fin. Thryptocera crassicornis. Mg. Siphona cristata, F. — geniculata. Deg. Stevenia maculata. Fin. Brachycoma devia. Fin. Cynomyia alpina, Ztt. — mortuorum, L. Onesia sepulchralis, L. — cognata. Mg. Sarcophaga carnaria, L. — atropos. Mg. — cruentata. Mg. Of the remaining numerous families, the Muscida proper, the nearer relations of the House-fly, are well represented, most of them very common. The list of Anthomyds is, probably, very incomplete, and the same applies to the Acalypterous Muscida. The more noticeable species are, among the Anthomyida, Canosia elegantula and tricolor and Lisporephala alma. The red-legged variety of Fucellia {F. maritima) was fairly common on the shore, 1900, but it has not been observed since. Fdelomyza ustulata is a very rare species in this county. The smaller Muscidce, sensu latOy have been very little collected, and there is nothing in the following lists calling for further notice. MUSCIDA Stomoxys calcitrans, L. Haematobia stimulans. Mg. Pollenia vespillo, F. — rudis, F. Mysospila meditabunda, F. Graphomyia maculata. Scop. Musca domestica, L. — corvma, F. Polietes lardaria, F. — albolineata. Fin. Hyedotesia incana, W. — lucorum. Fin. — marmorata, Ztt. — serva. Mg. — nivalis, Rnd. — obscurata. Mg. — variabilis. Fin. — longipes, Ztt. — umbratica. Mg. Cyrtoneura stabulans. Fin. — pabulorum. Fin. Morellia simplex, Lw. — hortorum. Fin. Mesembrina merldiana, L. Pyrellia cyanicolor, Ztt. — lasiophthalma, Mcq. ANTHOMYID.® Hyedotesia lasiophthalma, Mcq. — rufipalpis, Mcq. — populi. Mg. — variegata. Mg. — palida, F. Alloeostylus flaveola. Fin. Mydea vespertina. Fin. — nigritella, Ztt. — urbana. Mg. — tincta, Ztt. — pagana, F. 136 Protocalliphora grcenlandica, Ztt. Calliphora erythrocephala. Mg. — vomitoria, L. Euphoria cornicina, F. Lucilia cassar, L. — sericata. Mg. — ruficeps. Mg. Mydea impuncta. Fin. — separata. Mg. Sphecolyma inanis. Fin. Spilogaster nlgrinervis, Ztt. — duplicata. Mg. — communis, Dsv. — duplaris, Ztt. — ciliatocosta, Ztt. Limnophora compuncta, W. — solitaria, Ztt. Melanochila riparia. Fin. INSECTS Macrorchis meditata, Fin. Hydrotasa occulta, Mg. — irritans, Fin. — dentipes, F. Ophyra leucostoma, W. Drymia hamata, Fin. Trichopticus hirsutulus, Ztt. — pulcher, Mde. Hydrophoria conica, W. — linogrisea, Mg. Flylemyia variata, Fin. — seticrura, Rnd. — pullula, Ztt. — strigosa, F. — nigrimana, Mg. — coarctata, Fin. Mycophaga fungorum, Deg. Lasiops adelphe, Kow. Parallelomma albipes, Fin. Amaurosoma tibiella, Ztt. Norellia spinimana, Fin. Helomyza rufa, Lw. — pectoralis, Lw. — similis, Mg. — laevifrons, Lw. — ustulata, Mg. Neuroctena anilis, Fin. Dryomyza flaveola, F. Sciomyza albocostata, Fin. Psila fimentaria, L. — rufa, Mg. Calobata cibaria Pteropaectria afflicta, Mg. Acidia cognata, W. — heraclei, L. Spilographa zog, Mg. Trypeta onotrophes, Lw. Lonchaea vaginalis, Fin. — chorea, F. — albitarsis, Ztt. Lasiops ctenoctema, Kow. Anthomyia pluvialis, L. — radicum, L. Chortophila trapezina, Ztt. — sepia. Mg. Phorbia floccosa, Mcq. — pudica, Rnd. — intersecta. Mg. — trichodactyla, Rnd. — ignota, Rnd. Pegomyia rufipes. Fin. — transversa. Fin. — bicolor, W. — nigritarsis, Ztt. Homalomyia hamata, Mcq. — manicata. Mg. — scalaris, F. — canicularis, L. CORDYLURIDvE Spathiophora hydromyzinae. Fin. Scatophaga inquinata. Mg. — lutaria, F. PHYCODROMIDiE Orygma luctuosum. Mg. HELOMYZIDiE Helomyza montana, Lw. — zetterstedtii, Lw. — montana, Lw. — palida. Fin. SCIOMYZIDiE Sciomyza cinerella. Fin. Tetanocera elata, F. — laevifrons, Lw. PSILID^ Psila palida. Fin. — nigricornis. Mg. MICROPEZID^ , L. Calobata ORTALID^ Pteropaectria nigrini. Mg. TRYPETID^ Urophora solstitialis, L. Sphenella marginata. Fin. Tephrites miliaria, Schrk. LONCH^ID^ Palloptera ustulata. Fin. — umbellatarum, F. Homalomyia afirea, Ztt. — coracina, Lw. — serena. Fin. — incisurata, Ztt. Azelia macquarti, Staeg. — zetterstedti, Rnd. — triquetra, W. — aterrima. Mg. Coelomyia mollissima, Hal. Caricea tigrina, F. — intermedia. Fin. Coenosia elegantula, Rnd. — tricolor, Ztt. — sexnotata. Mg. Lisporephela alma. Mg. Fucellia fucorum. Fin. — maritima, Hal. Scatophaga stercoraria, L. — squalida. Mg. Helomyza parva, Lw. Blepharoptera serrata, L. — iners. Mg. Tephrochlamys rufiventris, Mg. Tetanocera punctulata. Scop. Limnia rufifrons, F. Elgiva dorsalis, F. Psila villosula. Mg. Loxocera aristata, Pz. petronella, L. Pteropaectria frondescentiae, L. Tephrites hyoscyami, L. — vespertina, Lw. — bardanae, Schrk. Palloptera saltuum, L. — arcuata. Fin. I 137 18 A HISTORY OF DURHAM Sapromyza lupulina, F. — decempunctata, F. Balioptera tripunctata, Fin. — combinata, L. Sepsis violacea, Mg. SAPROMYZIDi^: Sapromyza pallidiventris, Fin. — obsoleta, Fin. OPOMYZIDiE Opomyza germinationis, L. — florum, F. SEPSID.^: Sepsis cynipsea, L. PIOPHILIDzE Piophila casei, L. GEOMYZID.^: Diastata nebulosa. Fin. Sapromyza rorida, Fin. Lauxania senea, Fin. Pelethophila flava, L. Nemopoda cylindrica, F. EPHYDRID/E Parhydra aquila, Fin. DROSOPHILIDiE Drosophila confusa, Staeg. Drosophila funebris, F. Meromyza laeta, Mg, Centor cereris, Fin. Chlorops didyma, Ztt. — scutellaris, Ztt. CHLOROPID^ Chlorops taeniopus, Mg. — laeta, Mg. — scalaris, Mg. AGROMYZID^ Chlorops gracilis, Mg. Oscinis albiseta, Mg. Elachyptera cornuta, Fin. Agromyza pusilla, Mg. Ochthiphila polystigma, Mg. PHYTOMYZIDi^: Napomyza lateralis. Fin. Phytomyza notata. Mg. Phytomyza flava. Mg. Phytomyza fuscula, Ztt. Borborus longipennis, Hal. — equinus. Fin. — nigrifemoratus, Mcq. Trineura aterrima, F. Ornithomyia avicularia, L. BORBORIDiE Borborus geniculatus, Mcq. Limosina fontinalis. Fin. — lutosa, Stnh. PHORIDvE Phora rufipes. Mg. HIPPOSCIDz?: Stenopteryx hirundinis, L. Limosina pumilio. Mg. — vitripennis, Ztt. Phora incrassata. Mg. Melophagus ovinus, L. HEMIPTERA Practically nothing has been done in the Hemiptera in Durham since Bold’s time, and the following list is chiefly his. The very names, Bugs, Plant Lice, and Cuckoo Spit, seem to be enough to frighten young entomologists, although there is but one seriously objectionable bug, while there are hundreds of others of great beauty both in form and colour; and the life histories of the Plant Lice or Aphides, with their deeply interesting instances of parthenogenesis, and their curious alternations of form and domicile, present most alluring objects for investigation. 138 INSECTS HEMIPTERA— HETEROPTERA GYMNOCERATA Pentatomid^e Cydnina Sehirus, Am. S. — bicolor, Linn. Hedge- banks (Backhouse) Gnathoconus, Fieb. — albomarginatus, Fab. Gib- side, very rare (V. R. Perkins) Pentatomina Pentatoma, Oliv. — prasina, Linn. Shull (Back- house) Tropicoris, Hahn. — rufipes, Linn. Common on trees Asopina Zicrona, Am. S. — caerulea, Linn. S^z2 Ann. Nat. Hist., ser. 7, v. 345. 158 A HISTORY OF DURHAM for burrowing, the beautifully setose sand-furrowing Haustorius arenarim (Slabber) is recorded by Dr. Norman from near Sunderland, the allied Urothoe marina (Bate) from near Holy Island, and Bathyporeia guilllamsoniana (Bate), doubtfully under the name B. norvegica^ Sars, as having been taken by Dr. Brady at Whitburn, co. Durham. ^ In this family the fourth pair of peraeopods are not greatly longer than the fifth, as they are in the next family, the Phoxocephalidae. This latter supplies Harpmia neglecta^ Sars (more properly called H. anten- naria^ Meinert) from Durham coast, Norman.2 It may be remarked that the Amphipoda, like the Isopoda, have seven pairs of trunk-legs, the first two pairs known as gnathopods being homologous with the second and third maxillipeds in the crabs and other higher crustaceans.* Of the Amphilochidae Meek reports Amphilochoides pusillus from 2 1 fathoms oflF Souter Point. A species was indeed so named by Sars in 1892, but that distinguished author in 1895 recognised that the form in question was A. odontonyx (Boeck), which is probably therefore the species intended also by Mr. Meek.^ In the Metopida Meek records Metopa palmata^ Sars, from 5-6 miles off Souter Point, 2 1 fathoms.® Of the Stenothoidae, which are distinguished from the Metopidas by having no palp to the mandibles, Norman mentions Stenothoe marina (Bate) from Durham coast, and 5. monoculoides (Montagu) from Fame Islands.® Of the Iphimediidae Iphimedia obesa^ Rathke, appears in Mr. Meek’s list from the often quoted station 2J miles off Souter Point. The very extensive family of the CEdicerotidae, which have no accessory flagellum to the first antennas, and the fifth peraeopods much longer than the fourth, are represented in Mr. Meek’s lists by ^ Hallmedon mulleri (Boeck),’ which, in my opinion, should be called by the earlier name JVeitwoodilla cacula^ Bate, from 2|- miles off Souter Point Monoculodes cartnatus (Bate), ‘ a young specimen from near the inner Fame Island, 22nd June, 1898 ’ ; 8 Synchelidium brevicarpum (Bate), ‘ specimens from near Inner Fame ’ * ; and Perioculodes longimanus (Bate), from ‘ 5-6 miles off Souter Point in 30 fathoms.’ The last species was taken also by Dr. Norman, ‘ off Marsden, co. Durham, i o fathoms.’ It has bright scarlet eyes, and the genus owes its name to the arrangement of the lenses all round the front of the head, producing the effect of a single eye rather than a confluent pair, such as are found in the genus Monoculodes. In the Tironidae (formerly called Syrrhoidae), which also have more or less coalescent eyes, Tiron acanthurus (Lilljeborg) is remarkable as having a pair of minute accessory eyes below the prin- cipal pair. It is recorded by Meek in 1892 from 5-6 miles off Souter Point. The Gammaridte may be considered the central family of the Amphipoda, as representing the forms from which the rest have in various ways diverged. Whatever in other families may be regarded as commonplace and not peculiar is to be expected in the genus Gammarus. That genus also in itself shows considerable adaptability, a character of no mean advantage for the dispersion of a numerous progeny. We find the species Gammarus locusta (Linn.) quite at home in deep water, G. marinus (Leach) mixing with it on the shore, and G. pulex (de Geer) inhabiting fresh water in great abundance, yet all the three are closely alike in appearance and structure. The last of these, under the name of Gammarus aquaticus^ is evidently intended in Dr. Johnston’s Lindisfarne catalogue. It is no doubt only the commonness of all three that has hindered authors from specifying localities where they occur. ‘ Niphargus subterraneus (Leach),’ another freshwater Gammarid, one of the well-shrimps, occurs in this county, as Dr. Norman kindly informs me by letter, but as to the name he agrees with me in thinking that ‘ AT. aquilexy Schiodte,’ should be preferred, Leach’s description of subterraneus being too vague to be relied on. To the same family belong Amathilla homari (J. C. Fabricius), Durham coast, Norman^*; Mara othonis (Milne-Edwards), from the same coast ^* ; Cheirocratus assimilis (Lilljeborg), off Holy Island,^^ described as ‘ Ch. mantis, n. sp.,’ by Norman in 1865 from the locality mentioned 1® ; Ch. sundevalli (Rathke), off Holy Island (Norman),^® and 2^ miles off 1 Loc. cit., pp. 330-333. 2 Loc. cit., p. 337. ^ Nat. Hist. Trans. Nortbumb. xiv. (i), 97. ^ Crustacea of Norway, i. 222, 690. ® Nat. Hist. Trans. Nortbumb. etc., xiv. (i), 97. ® Ann. Nat. Hist., ser. 7, vi. 39. 7 Nat. Hist. Trans. Nortbumb., etc., xiv. (i), 97. 8 Nortbumb. Sea Fisheries Committee Rep. for 1901, p. 56 (1901). 2 Loc. cit., p. 56. Ibid., p. 56. n Ann. Nat. Hist., ser. 7, vi. 51. Ann. Nat. Hist., ser. 6, iv. 120. 1* Loc. cit., p. 126. Loc. cit., p. 130. ^^Nat. Hist. Trans. Nortbumb. and Dur., i. 13. 1® Ann. Nat. Hist., ser. 6, iv. 132. 159 CRUSTACEANS Souter Point (Meek),i In the neighbouring family Calliopiida^ Meek records Apherusa borealis (Boeck), which is probably identical with the earlier A. cirrus (Bate), from off Souter Point at 5—6 miles and 2^ miles ; and from the latter station A.jurinei (Milne-Edwards). From the same two stations the same author notifies Melphidippella macra (Norman), belonging to the family Melphidippidce. Of the Aorida he records in his earlier list Aora gracilis. Bate, found in Holy Island harbour, and in his later list the same species together with Lembos websteri. Bate, at 2^ miles off Souter Point ; also from the latter locality several members of the Photidse, Photis reinhardi (Kroyer), Gammaropsis maculata (Johnston) under the later name G. erythroph- thalmusy Lilljeborg, the same species also appearing as Eurystheus erythrophthalmus, Lilljeborg, in Norman’s dredging list for 1864 ; G. palmata (Stebbing and Robertson) under the later name G. nana (Sars) ; Podoceropsis excavata (Bate), for which P, rimapalma (Bate) is to be preferred ; and, lastly, Megamphopus cornutus, Norman. He also gives from this locality Ericthonius hunteri (Bate) in the family Podocerid*, from which it should be transferred to the Corophiidae, to which also belongs Unciola planipes, Norman, ‘dredged in July, 1864, off Holy Island.’ 2 All the preceding Amphipoda are included in the tribe Gammaridea. From these the Hyperiidea are distinguished, among other things, by having no ‘ palp’ to the maxillipeds. In other words, the fourth pair of mouth organs are here devoid of all the last four joints. In most Gammaridea these joints are well developed, and are never all of them wanting. Norman records that the Hyperiid Parathemisto oblivia (Kroyer) has been taken by Dr. Brady off the mouth of the Tees.® The tribe Caprellidea, distinguished from the other two by the degradation of the tail- part or pleon, has a rather less niggardly representation. From the often-mentioned stations off Souter Point Mr. Meek’s list contains, of the family Caprellidae, Pariambus typicus (Kroyer), a skeleton shrimp of the most unassuming proportions, with a length not a third of an inch, no breadth worth speaking of, and of its legs one pair dwindled and two pairs altogether lost. Phtisica marina (Slabber), taken at 2^ miles off Souter Point, is better off in the matter of legs, and longer, but still a poor wisp of a thing, the generic name implying that nothing but a severe attack of phthisis could account for its wasted appearance. The whale-lice are first cousins to these skeletons, but have a more flourishing aspect, due perhaps to easy feeding on the oleaginous skin of the whale. That some of these Cyamidae have been at times found on the Durham coast may be fairly argued from the circumstance that ‘In 1387 Bishop Fordham issued a Commission, . . . stating in the preamble that all whales, sturgeons, porpeis, and thulepolls, wrecked on the coast of the royal franchise of Duresme by violence of the Sea, were the undoubted right of himself and his predecessors.’* It could not have been worth the bishop’s while to claim for his predecessors the right to whales, if none of these monsters had ever been known to arrive. But if the whales came, the suitable species of Cyamus would certainly have made it their business to come with them. The Entomostraca are far from having that fixed number of segments which forms so remarkable a bond of union among the Malacostraca. On the contrary, the segments here may be either fewer than these or considerably more numerous. They are fewer in all the groups at present recorded from this county. These groups contain as a rule animals of very small size, some of them quite minute. To discriminate the numerous species would be impracticable without a fulness of detail which is here out of the question. Three orders have to be discussed, the Cladocera, Ostracoda, and Copepoda. The Cladocera are named from their biflagellate second antennas. These form conspicuous appendages of the more or less distinct head, which carries also the first antennas, the single eye, the palpless mandibles and the one pair of maxillae, the body with from four to six pairs of legs being for the most part included in the bivalved chitinous cover or carapace. About three dozen species of these little ‘ water-fleas,’ as the ignorant are pleased to call them, have been recorded from the waters of Durham. The division of the Calyptomera embraces those in which the feet are well covered by the shell, though that is often too transparent to conceal them. This division is subdivided into two tribes, the Ctenopoda and Anomopoda. In the former stands the family Sididae, to which belong Sida crystallina (O. F. Muller) and 1 Nat. Hist. Trans. Northumb. etc., xiv. (i), 98. 2 Op. cit., i. I 5. ® Ann. Nat. Hist., ser. 7, v. 131 (1900). * Surtees, Hist. Dur., i. (2), 1 7 160 A HISTORY OF DURHAM Diaphanosoma brachyurum (Lidvin ; Norman in The four following families belong to the second tribe. The Daphniidae furnish this county with Daphnia pulex (de Geer) from Shotton (Brady) ; D. obtusa, Kurz, taken by the Rev. Canon Norman at Bishopton (Brady) ; D. hamata, Brady, taken by Norman ‘ in a pond near the East Gate of Lambton Park ’ (Brady) ; D. lacustris, Sars, from Holy Island Lough (Meek and Brady) ; D. magna, Straus, which Brady calls Dactylura magna^ remarking as to its occurrence : ‘ Dr. Norman has found it at Layton Farm, near Sedgefield, co. Durham, and I have myself taken it in a pond at Canal Farm, High Barnes, near Sunderland ’ (Brady) ; D. Imghpina (O. F. Muller) ; (Norman in litt.) ; Ceriodaphnia quadrangula (O. F. Muller), Holy Island Lough (Meek and Brady) ; C. reticulata (Jurine) ; C. pulchella, Sars ; C. laticaudata (O. F. Muller) ; this and the two preceding from Durham county proper (Norman in litt.) ; Simocephalus vetulus (O. F. Muller), Holy Island Lough (Meek and Brady), and from Durham proper (Norman in litt.) under the new name Simosa vetula, recently substituted by Norman, Simocephalus being preoccupied. The Bosminidae are represented hy Bosmina longirostris (O. F. Muller) ; (Norman in litt.). The Macrotrichidas comprise Macrothrix (Jurine), found ‘at Fardingslake, and in the Glebe Engine Pond, Sunderland,’ by G. S. B. (Norman and Brady) ; M . hirsuticornis^'i^ormzn and Brady, concerning which these authorities say in 1867, ‘ the only locality at present known for this new species is a slowly running stream at Ashburn, Sunderland, where it was found by G. S. B. in 1864’ ; Ilyocryptus sordidus^ Litvin, for which the same writers report ‘two localities in the neighbourhood of Sedgefield, where /. sordidus first occurred in Britain, and was noticed by Mr. Norman.’ The Chydoridas are numerously represented, containing Chydorus spheericus (O. F. Muller) ; Eurycercus lamellatus (O. F. Muller) ; Acroperus harpee^ Baird ; all three signalised alike by (Meek and Brady) and by (Norman in litt.) ; Alona tenuicaudis^ Sars, from Sedgefield ; A. costata^ Sars, ‘ found in old colliery pond at Bishop Middleham, and in a pond near Houghton-le-Spring ’ ; A. guttata^ Sars, ‘ first found in Great Britain in a small pool at East Herrington,’ subsequently ‘ also in ponds at Marsden ’ ; A. testudinaria (Fischer), since transferred to Graptoleberis^ from ‘ Boldon Flats, Fardingslake, and Hardwicke ’ ; Alonopsis elongata, Sars ; Acroperus nanus^ Baird, which has since become Alonella nana (Baird) ; Pleuroxus lavis, Sars, ‘ at “ Hell Kettles,” near Darlington ’ ; P. trigonellus (O. F. Muller), found ‘ by A. M. N. in Hardwicke Lake and the Forge Dam, near Sedgefield,’ and by ‘ G. S. B. at “Hell Kettles,” county of Durham’ ; the foregoing eight species being recorded in 1867 (Norman and Brady), and Alona costata also in 1902 (Meek and Brady). Norman’s manuscript list adds Alona quadrangularis (O. F. Muller) ; A. affinis^ Leydig ; Pleuroxus aduncus (Jurine) ; P, uncinatus, Baird ; Peracantha truncata (O. F. Muller) ; Leydigia leydigii^^olno^^x. As a sample of the characters which distinguish these families, it may be mentioned that the first antennas of the female are fixed in the Bosminidae, but movable in the Macrotriehidae ; the five pairs of feet are equally spaced in those two families, but in the Daphniidae the fifth pair is remote from the others ; in all the three the second antennae have the dorsal branch or flagellum four-jointed and the ventral one three-jointed, but in the Chydoridae both branches are three-jointed. From the first two families and part of the third the Chydoridae are also separated by the curious characteristic of having a looped intestine. To maintain the extra-- ordinary activity which some species in this family display, one may surmise that a largq supply of food is needed, and the storage of this within their minute shells may well need an unusual arrangement of the digestive apparatus. The Gymnomera are distinguished from the Calyptomera by having the carapace small, not covering the thoracic feet, of which in the tribe Onychopoda there are but four pairs. Its single family, the large-eyed Polyphemidae, is represented in the fresh waters of Durham by Polyphemus pediculus (Linn.), (Norman in litt.) ; and in the sea by Evadne nordmanni^ Lov^n, and Pleopis polyphemoides^ Leuckart, both reported by Brady from ‘ Durham coast (off Ryhope), common.’^ For Pleopis the generic name now accepted is Lilljeborg’s Podon. This has the marsupial part round-ended, as distinguished from Evadne^ in which that part is triangular. ^ To save a confusing repetition of references it may be expedient here to note that ‘ Norman in litt.’ applies to a manuscript list kindly supplied me by Dr. Norman ; localities attested by the name of ‘ (Brady) ’ are from that author’s paper ‘ On the British species of Entomostraca belonging to Daphnia and other allied genera,’ in Nat. Hist. Tlrans. Northumb., Dur., and N ezvcastle-upon-Pyne, xiii. (2), 217-248 ; the localities given from ‘ (Meek and Brady) ’ refer to Mr. Meek’s Holy Island collection determined by Dr. Brady, in the Report for 1902 of the Northumberland Sea Fisheries Committee, p. 49 (1902); the data referred to ‘(Norman and Brady)’ are from the Nat. Hist. Trans. Northumb. and Dur., \. 354, etc. (1867). ^Nat. Hist. Trans. Northumb. and Dur., i. 30 (1867). 21 CRUSTACEANS They are both devoid of the neck-like constriction which distinguishes head from trunk in Polyphemus. As to the Entomostraca taken from Holy Island Lough by Mr. Meek the following explanations are given ; — ‘ This gathering was made on 27th June. The pond is a shallow one. The average depth is about 3 feet, and the bottom consists of soft black mud. It is to a large extent overgrown with Equisetum limosum^ amongst which the coot and the black- headed gull meet. It gives origin to a small stream which runs close to the village, and was until recently used more or less for domestic purposes. The only fish life obtained was the three-spined stickle-back. . . The gatherings were made by means of a bottom net worked from a canvas boat kindly lent for the purpose by Mr. Newbigin. The proceeds consisted chiefly of Simocephalus vetulus, all the other species, with the exception of Pionocypris vidua^ Cyclops viridis, and C. serrulatuSy being very poorly represented.’ The Ostracoda are so completely enclosed between their valves that externally they might be taken for little molluscs rather than crustaceans. The body is seldom segmented, and never carries more than seven definite pairs of appendages. The tribe Myodocopa generally have a heart, which the other tribe, the Podocopa, manage to do without. From the former Brady and Norman report Philomedes brenda (Baird), belonging to the family Cypridinidee., off the coast of Durham, near the Dogger Bank, 1862 (A. M. N.),i and in the family Polycopidas Polycope orbicularis^ Sars, at ‘ several points off" the coasts of Durham and North Yorkshire.’® These are interesting marine species, over which it is impossible to linger, in view of the vast number of species, both freshwater and marine, from the other tribe, which the researches and writings of Brady and Norman have brought to light in connexion with this county. In the Podocopa the family Cyprididae supplies the district with Cypria exsculpta (Fischer), found at Seaton Carew ; 3 C, ophthalmica (Jurine), (N. in litt.) ; C. lavis (O. F. Muller) and C. Serena (Koch), from Holy Island Lough (Meek and Brady), the two latter species, under the more recently accepted name Cyclocypris^ being reported also from Durham proper (N. in litt.) ; Cypris fuscata^ Jurine (N. in litt.) ; C, incongruens, Ramdohr (transferred to Cyprinotus by Sars),* Rainton and Seaton Carew ; C. pubera^ O. F. Muller, freshwater pond on Seaton Marsh ; C. virens (Jurine), between the typical shape of which and the variety ventricosa ‘ an intermediate form has been found by A. M. N. at Lumley Dene; C. elliptica^ Baird, ‘ found in a pond in Foxton Lane, Sedgefield, co. Durham (A. M. N.) ’ ; C. reticulata., Zaddach, at Foxton, near Sedgefield ; C. ornata, O. F. Mtiller, ‘the only known British specimens of this species were taken in a pond at Shotton Hall, co. Durham, in May, 1855 (G. S. B.) ’ ; Cypri- notus salinus (Brady), originally established as Cypris salina, of which Brady says, ‘ I first met with C. salina in a cooling pond at Monkwearmouth Colliery, where it lives in great numbers together with Cypridopsis aculeata, Cypris reptans, and other species, in water which often reaches a temperature of 100° Fahr., and is so impregnated with earthy salts as to deposit a thick coating of carbonate of lime on the leaves of the plants which it supports’;® Erpetocypris reptans (Baird), the species just mentioned as Cypris reptans ; E. strigata (O. F. Muller), ‘stream in Fulwell Cemetery, Sunderland (G. S. B.) ’ ; E. tumefacta (Brady and Robertson), ‘ near Sunderland (G. S. B.) ’ ; llyodromus oHvaceus (Brady and Norman) (N. in litt.) ; 6 Prionocypris serrata (Norman)^ (N. in litt.) ; Pionocypris vidua (O. F. Muller), Holy Island (Meek and Brady), Durham proper (N. in litt.) ; P. obesa (Brady and Robertson) (N. in litt.) ; Cypridopsis aculeata (Lilljeborg), Cowpen Marshes (A. M. N. 1868), Monkwearmouth Colliery, and very ‘ abundant at Monkton Paper Mills, co. Durham (G. S. B.) ’ ; C. villosa (Jurine), found by Brady ‘in ponds at Silkswell and Fulwell, near Sunderland’;® Pota- mocypris fiilva, Brady, ‘ at Fulwell Cemetery, Sunderland ’ ; Notodromas monachus (O. F. Muller), many places in Durham ; ® Candona Candida (O. F. Muller), of which ‘ the variety claviformis * Prans. R. Dublin Soc., ser. 2, v. 655 (1896). ® Loc. clt., p. 707. * Trans. R. Dublin Sor., ser. 2, iv. (1889). Monograph of the Rodocopahy Where no other reference is given the reader is requested to understand that the special localities for the Podocopa are taken from this work. (N. in litt.) signifies that the occurrence of the species in the county of Durham proper is guaranteed by Dr. Norman’s manuscript list. * Crustacean Fauna of Central Asia, pt. iii, p. 28 (1903). ® Trans. Linn. Soc., London, xxvi. 368 (1868). Brady’s Monograph of the British Ostracoda. This work will be cited as Mon. Brit. Ostrac. <* Trans. R. Dublin Soc. ser., 2, v. 724. 7 Loc. cit., p. 725. ® Mon. Brit. Ostrac., p. 377. ® Loc. cit., p. 381. 162 1889 give among other localities, ‘pond in Lumley Dene, Seaton Carew Marshes, and Sedgefield, all in the county of Durham ’ ; C. zetlandica, G. S. Brady, with which C. IVeltneriy Harting, is synonymous (N. in litt.) ; Ilyocypris gihba (Ramdohr) (N. in litt.) ; /. hradyi, Sars (N. in litt.) ; the rare marine species Pontocypris acupunctata^ Brady, ‘ oflf Marsden, Durham, 10 fathoms (G. S. B.) ’ ; Ar^llcecia cylindrtca^ Sars, ‘off Seaham and Marsden, Durham coast (G. S. B.).’ The family Cytheridae enriches the county with Cythere lutea, O. F. Muller, ‘ abundant in tide pools on the coasts of Northumberland and Durham,’ 3 including C. viridis, Brady (not Muller), ‘in tide-pools near Sunderland’;^ C. pellucida, Baird, on the union of which with C. castanea^ Sars, and its distinction from C. confusa^ Brady and Norman, the monograph of 1889 should be consulted ; C. tenera^ Brady, ‘off Seaham Harbour, Durham, 15 fathoms’ ; C. alhomaculatay Baird, ‘ on the Durham coast ’ ; ^ the blind mud-lark C. limicola (Norman), Durham coast ; ® C. (?) semipunctata^ Brady, off coast of Durham ; C. gibbosa^ Brady and Robertson, ‘ Seaton Carew Marshes ’ ; C. borealisy Brady, of which it is said that ‘ the only British station in which this species has been found is at Seaton Carew, in the county of Durham, on mud-covered rocks, near low-water mark (G. S. B.) ’ ; C. quadridentata^ Baird, off coast of Durham ; C. emaciata^ Brady, off Durham ; C. tuberculata^ Sars, ‘ in 40 fathoms,’ 7 this and the next five species from the same coast being referred to Cythere in 1889, but in 1896 transferred to Cythereis ; C. concinna (Johnston) ; C. finmarchica (Sars); C. angulata (Sars) ; C. dunelmensis (Norman) ; C. jonesii (Baird) ; the freshwater species Limnicythere inopinata (Baird), from ‘ Hardwick Lake and Raby Park, county Durham (Rev. A. M. Norman); Fulwell Cemetery, Gibside, and in a millstream at Hedworth, county Durham (G. S. B.) ’ ; * Cytheridea elongata^ Brady, ‘ in tide-pools at Sunderland,’ ‘ in all probability a washed-up specimen, as the valves were empty ’ ; ® C. papillosa. Bosquet, off the coast of Durham ; C, torosa (Jones), Sedgefield, in freshwater (A. M. N.);i'> C. punctillata^ Brady, Seaton Carew; Eucythere declivis (Norman), Durham coast, including Eu. argus (Sars), from ‘ off Holy Island,’ and Eu. anglica^ Brady, ‘ dredged off the Durham coast (G. S. B.) ’ ; Krithe bartonensis (Jones), off the coast of Durham ; Loxoconcha impressa (Baird), rock-pools, Sunderland ; L. tamarindus (Jones), ‘ in tide-pools, Sunderland,’ as well as in 30 fathoms depth off Durham coast ; L. guttata (Norman), deep water off Durham coast ; L. multifora (Norman), Durham coast ; L. pusilla, Brady and Robertson, ‘ off Seaton Carew, co. Durham, 4 fath.’ ; Xestoleberis depressa^ Sars, Durham coast ; ^6 Cytherura nigrescens (Baird), ‘ in rock-pools at Sunderland ’ ; ^7 C. producta., Brady, ‘ off the coast of Durham ’ ; C. clathrata^ Sars, coast of Durham ; C. acuti- coitata^ Sars, ‘ off Holy Island ’ ; is Cytheropteron latissimum (Norman), Durham coast ; i® C. nodosum^ Brady, off coast of Durham ; Bythocythere constricta^ Sars, B. turgida^ Sars, and B. simplex (Norman), all three off the aforesaid coast, the last having also been taken off Holy Island in 45 fathoms ; Pseudocythere caudata^ Sars, off Holy Island ; 21 Sclerochilus contortus (Norman), Durham coast.22 To the family Paradox ostomatidas are assigned Paradoxostoma varlabile ; P. normaniy Brady ; P. hibernicumy Brady ; P. hodgeiy Brady ; P. fiexuosumy Brady ; all from various depths off the coast of Durham ; and Machartna tenuissima (Norman), taken off the same coast between 15 and 30 fathoms. From the vast and ancient group of the Ostracoda we pass to another which is also very extensive, but less adapted for fossil preservation. The Copepoda are not enclosed in a bivalved 1 “Trans. R. Dublin Soc., ser. 2, v. 730. 3 Mon. Brit. Ostrac., p. 396. 5 Loc. cit., p. 403. 2 Loc. cit., p. 728. * Loc. cit., p. 397. ® Loc. cit., p. 406. ® Loc. cit., p. 420. 1® Loc. cit., p. 426. 12 Loc. cit., p. 434. 7 Ibid. ® Loc. cit., p. 422. 11 Loc. cit., pp. 430, 431, 475. 1® Loc. cit., p. 436. 14 Ibid. 1® Loc. cit., p. 450 (compared with Mon. 1889, p. 185). 1® Mon. Brit. Ostrac., p. 438. 17 Loc. cit., p. 440. 19 Loc. cit., p. 448. 21 Loc. cit., p. 454. 18 Loc. cit., p. 446. 20 Loc. cit., p. 45 1 22 Loc. cit., p. 456. 163 CRUSTACEANS shell, but allow us to distinguish eleven segments, the first, however, being composite, to form what may be called the head, carrying the two pairs of antennae, the mandibles, first and second maxillae, and the maxillipeds. The next five segments are thoracic, each normally with its pair of appendages, and these are followed by five which bear no appendages, forming the tail, abdomen, or pleon. Still it sometimes happens that the last thoracic segment seems more closely united with the pleon than with the rest of the thorax. Hence Giesbrecht draws a line between the Gymnoplea which have the pleon bare of limbs, and the Podoplea, which have, or, more strictly speaking, seem to have a pair of limbs on the pleon. Since it will be impossible here to explain or discuss all the latest changes in classification, and since our knowledge of Durham localities for most of the species about to be mentioned is derived from the Monograph of British Copepoda which Dr, G. S. Brady wrote for the Ray Society, it will be convenient to follow the arrangement adopted in the volumes of that learned and well-known work. The distribution, however, of the genera into families is based on systematic essays of later date, which still show some variety of opinion among leading experts, and make it clear that new students of the Copepoda will not find their field of research already exhausted. To the family Temoridas are assigned Eurytemora velox (Lilljeborg), recorded by Brady as found ‘ in salt-marshes at Hylton (county Durham),’ with the added remark, ‘the few specimens which I have recorded as being taken in the sea at Sunderland, must, I think, be looked upon as waifs and strays ’ ; ^ Eu. affinis (Poppe), ‘ in pools near Hartle- pool Slake, county Durham,’ this being, according to Brady, a species apparently very liable to be confused with neighbouring forms,^ The family Diaptomidae includes Diaptomus castor (Jurine), from ‘ ponds at Chester Road, Sunderland ; Shotton and Wardley, county Durham (G. S. B,).’3 The family Centropagidae offers Centropages hamatus (Lilljeborg), of which Brady says that it is not uncommon at the surface in the open sea, adding, ‘ I have once taken it between tide-marks, amongst Algae in rock-pools, near Ryhope.’ ^ The family Parapontellidae is represented by Parapontella brevicornis (Lubbock), ‘ in tide-pools on the Durham coast.’ For Misophria pallida^ Boeck, ‘ taken off Hawthorn (Durham coast) on a sandy bottom in a depth of 27 fathoms,’ Sars establishes a family Misophriidae in the great group of Arpacti- coida.® The family Pseudocyclopidae (not to be confused with the iPseudocyclopiidae) has Pseudocyclops crassicornis^ Brady, dredged off Seaham Harbour in 20— 30 fathoms. The family Cyclopidae is more copiously represented, containing Oithona spinifrons^ Boeck, possibly the same as the earlier O. helgolandica^ Claus, observed ‘ in the North Sea off Sunderland ’ ; Cyclopina littoralis, Brady, ‘ amongst weeds between tide-marks,’ Ryhope, and off the Durham coast in depths of 4-45 fathoms ; C. (?) ovalis^ Brady, ‘one specimen only taken ofFSunderland in the surface net ’ ; Cyclops strenuuSy Fischer, ‘ Seaton Marsh, county Durham ’ ; ® C. bicuspidatus^ Claus, ‘ in gatherings from Lambton Park (A. M. N.)’ ; 7 C. viridis (Jurine), with C. fuscus and C, albidus of the same author, reported in Norman’s manuscript list ; C. insignisy Claus, ‘ at Hartlepool, where it occurred in brackish pools near the border of the slake ’ ; C. serrulatusy Fischer (N. in litt.) ; C. fimbriatusy Fischer, ‘in gatherings by the Rev. Dr. Norman from Rainton Meadows, county Durham ’ ; 8 C. kaufmanniy Uljanin, a rare species hailing from Turkestan, taken freely by Norman from ‘pond in Lambton Park (Durham),’ and since found by Brady in Hampshire, not known elsewhere ; ® C. helleriy Brady, taken at Whitburn, but subsequently regarded with doubt ; C. phaleratuSy Koch, pond at Gibside ; C. salinusy Brady, ‘ got at Holy Island ’ ; Pterinopsyllus insignisy Brady, the earlier generic name, LophophoruSy being discarded on account of pre-occupation,^® ‘ three specimens only of this very distinct and beautiful Copepod occurred in a dredging made by Mr. Robertson and the Rev. A. M. Norman, six miles off the Durham coast, near Hawthorn, on a sandy bottom, and in a depth of 27 fathoms.’ 1 Nat. Hist. Trans. Northumb., Dur., and Nezocastle-upon-Tyne, xi. (i), 106 (1891). (For the synonymy of the species the student should compare Sars, Crustacea of Norway, iv. 100. 1903.) ® Loc. cit., p. 108. ® Loc. cit., p. 94. ^ Monograph of the Free and Semi-parasitic Copepoda of the British Islands, by G. Stewardson Brady, M.D., F.L.S., etc., vol. i. Ray Society (1878). It may be accepted that species named and explanatory quotations, without further reference, are given on the authority of this work. ® Crustacea of Norway, v. 4 (1903). ® Nat. Hist. Trans. Northumb. etc. xi. (2), 73. 7 Loc. cit., p. 79. ® Loc. cit., p. 91. 9 Loc. cit., p. 89. Loc. cit., p. 92. Nat. Hist. Trans. Northumb. etc., new ser. i. 5 (1903). 1® Monograph, iii. 23, Ray Soc. (1880). 164 A HISTORY OF DURHAM The family Notodelphyidae, in which the egg-pouch of the female forms a strange dorsal protuberance, furnishes Notodelpbys cerulaa^ Thorell, ‘ in Ascidia parallelogramma^ off Haw- thorn ’ ; iV. agtlis^ Thorell, in Ascidians taken off the coast of Durham, at depths of 20-30 fathoms. The family Doropygidas, with a like peculiarity, contains Doropygus pulex^ Thorell, of which many immature specimens have been found in Ascidians dredged off the coast of Durham ; D. porcicauda^ Brady, found in Ascidia parallelogramma dredged from 27 fathoms off Hawthorn. The family Ascidicolidae, which is extended by some authors to embrace a large assortment of families similar in their habits, in a restricted sense contains Ascidicola rosea, Thorell, from Ascidians dredged off the Durham coast, this species (as noted by Mr. Eugene Canu) sometimes occurring in great abundance actually in the stomach of a large Ascidiella^ a position one might suppose more suited for their sepulchre than their living- room. The great group of the Arpacticoida or family Arpacticidae in the large sense has been vari- ously divided into subfamilies or restricted families. As these are at present more or less in an evolutionary or revolutionary condition, it will be convenient to mention the following species simply as members of the higher assemblage. Longipedia coronata, Claus, is reported as taken by Brady ‘abundantly on a sandy bottom off Seaton Carew (Durham), four fathoms ; oflFMarsden, Sunderland, and Seaham, twenty to thirty fathoms ’ ; ® Ectinosoma sptnipes, Brady, with the preceding at various points, but not so abundant ; E. erythrops, Brady, dredged in 5— 30 fathoms off the coast of South Durham ; Zosime typica, Boeck (the identity of which is some- what doubted by Brady himself), off Hartlepool on sand in 25 fathoms ; Tachidius brevicornis (O. F. Muller), in brackish marsh pools, Hylton Dene and Hartlepool ; Robert sonia tenuis (Brady and Robertson), off Hawthorn on sand at 27 fathoms, and off Seaham amongst mud 10 fathoms deeper ; Amymone sphcerica, Claus, which in spite of its spherical surname has the ‘ body much compressed,’ entered as taken 4 miles off Marsden among rough sand, is corrected in 1903 to A. rubra, Boeck,® and in the same year has its pre-occupied generic name altered to Tegastes by Norman ; * T. longimanus (Claus), off Hawthorn in 27 fathoms depth, the creature itself a fiftieth of an inch in length ; Stenhelia hispida, Brady, off Hartlepool in 5 and off Marsden in 30 fathoms; 5. ima, Brady, in 10-35 fathoms off Marsden ; 5. herdmani, A. Scott, from ‘ Laminaria roots at Holy Island’; ® Ameira longipes, Boeck, in 25— 45 fathoms off Sunderland and Seaham ; Jonesiella spinulosa (Brady and Robertson), which, it appears, must yield precedence to the earlier named Danielssenia typica, Boeck,® ‘ dredged off Hartlepool on a sandy bottom ; and in a depth of thirty-seven fathoms sixteen miles off Hawthorn (Durham) on a muddy bottom ’ ; Delavalia reflexa, Brady and Robertson, 5 miles off Hartlepool on sand ; D. robusta, Brady and Robertson, in depths of 25-35 fathoms in several places off the coast of Durham ; Canthocampus minutus (O. F. Muller), of which the generic name is commonly but wrongly given as Canthocamptus, and of which as a species Brady says that it prefers shallow pools in which vegetation is abundant, its colouring varying, ‘ with the character of the plants and infusoria on which it probably feeds,’ adding, ‘ the only considerable pieces of water in which I have found it are the lake in Axwell Park near Gates- head, and Holy Island Lough (Northumberland) ; but both these are really, as to size and character of vegetation, big ponds rather than lakes ’ ; C. palustris, Brady, a brackish-water species (N. in litt.) ; Attheyella spinosa, Brady, of which the first specimens ‘were found in an old engine-pond at Murton Junction, near Sunderland ’ ; A. crassa, Sars (N. in litt.) ; A. pygmaea, Sars (N. in litt.) ; Laophonte similis, Claus, ‘ between tide-marks at Sunderland ’ ; L. longicaudata, Boeck, dredged off ‘ Hartlepool ; Seaham, 20—30 fathoms ; Hawthorn, 27 fathoms’; L. lameUifera (Claus), ‘on Laminaria and on muddy rocks near Sunderland’ ; L. hispida (Brady and Robertson), 4—10 fathoms off Durham coast ; Normanella dubia (Brady and Robertson), 10-30 fathoms off Marsden and Hartlepool ; Cletodes limicola, Brady, in 20- 24 fathoms off coast of Durham ; C. longicaudatus, Brady and Robertson, in 5 fathoms off Hartlepool ; C. propinquus, Brady and Robertson, in 35 fathoms off Marsden ; Dactylopusia tisboides (Claus), from ‘ Durham coast, amongst Laminaria^ the older generic name Dactykpus ^ Les Copepodes du Boulonnais, p. 209 (1902). 2 The references from this point are to the Mono^aph of Brit. Copepoda, vol. ii,, Ray Soc. (1880). ® Brady, Nat. Hist. Trans. Northumb. etc., new ser. i. 3. * Ann. Nat. Hist., ser. 7, xi. 368. ® Brady, Nat. Hist. Trans. Northumb. etc., new ser. i. 3. ® Sars, Cladocera, Copepoda, and Ostracoda of the Jana Expedition, p. 20. St. Petersburg. 165 CRUSTACEANS being now discarded as pre-occupied ; ^ D. tenuiremh (Brady and Robertson), in 45 fathoms 20 miles off Sunderland, amongst muddy sand ; D. flava (Claus), in 27 fathoms off Hawthorn ; D. hrevicornis (Claus), on Laminaria at Sunderland ; Thalestris helgolandicay Claus, in 27 fathoms off Durham coast; T. rufocincta^ Brady, ‘off Marsden, 10 fathoms. Hawthorn, 27 fathoms’ ; T. clausii, Norman, Durham coast, littoral among weeds, and from surface of open sea ; T. longimana, Claus, between tide-marks, ‘ Sunderland, Ryhope, etc. ’ ; IVestwoodia nobilis (Baird), a brilliantly coloured species with a pre-occupied generic name, found by Brady rarely on Laminaria near Sunderland ; Arpacticus chelifer (O. F. Mailer), from many places on coast of Durham, and as to the young from roots of Laminaria Brady notes that specimens from Holy Island and tide-pools at North Sunderland were generally ‘ extremely melanotic ’ ; ^ Pontopolites typicus, T. Scott, from Holy Island ; ® Zaus spinatuSy Goodsir, coast of Durham, usually amongst Laminaria saccharina or other fuci ; Alteutha depressa^ Baird, at Sunderland, chiefly from Laminaria^ the genus distinct from Peltidium A. interrupt a (Goodsir), in 10 fathoms off the Durham coast ; Scutellidium tisboides, Claus, at Roker, near Sunderland, on Laminaria ; and S. fasciatum (Boeck), plentiful on Durham coast wherever Laminaria sac- charina grows. Leaving at this point the Arpacticoida, we come to creatures of usually semi-parasitic habits, of which some have been already mentioned in the family Ascidicolidae. Cylindropsyllus lavisy Brady, was dredged by Brady off Hartlepool in muddy sand at 5 fathoms ; ® Lichomolgus fucicola (Brady), amongst fuci, near low-water mark, Ryhope, and 4 miles off Hawthorn and Marsden, amongst rough shelly sand, in about 25 fathoms ; L. liber y Brady and Robert- son, from the last-mentioned localities, in 20-27 fathoms; L. arenicolay Brady, off Seaton Carew, on sand in 4 fathoms ; L. thorelUy Brady and Robertson, off Marsden, in 25 fathoms, and off Hawthorn a little deeper ; Cyclopicera nigripeSy Brady and Robertson, from the same localities as the last-named species ; C. latay Brady, in tidal pool at Roker, near Sunderland ; Artotrogus normani (Brady and Robertson), 6 miles oflF Hawthorn, in 27 fathoms ; Dyspontius striatusy Thorell, at the last-named locality, where also was taken Acontiophorus scutatus (Brady and Robertson). From the foregoing catalogue it will be understood how numerous are the species which the enlightened industry of a very few enthusiasts can add to the known fauna of a county. But for the three or four naturalists whose names have so frequently recurred, Durham might have passed as a district singularly eschewed by the wide-ranging Copepoda, instead of being conspicuously rich in representatives of their microscopic multitudes. Small as the free-living and semi-parasitic forms usually are, there is another set derived from them, the truly parasitic, which sometimes attain a considerable size, and of these it may be said that Surtees in his history tells us something, without either intending to do so or being conscious that he was doing it. He informs us that Bishop Cosin in 1662, having had to pay a bill of I’js. id. for five sturgeon, which were chiefly given away in presents, desired his steward at Howden ‘ to catch no more sturgeons.’ ® The episcopal right once fought for was evidently becoming a burden. But relying on this unwelcome abundance of sturgeons, one may without hesi- tation add to the Durham fauna the singular parasitic Copepod L)ichelestium sturionisy Hermann, which frequents the gills of the great cartilaginous scale-armoured fish after which it is named. Similarly other fishes of the county, whether mentioned by Surtees or elsewhere, would in a general way justify the enumeration of their various ordinary parasites as belonging to the fauna of this region. Among the Thyrostraca, commonly called cirripedes or barnacles, certain parasitic forms of a very interesting character were recorded from Durham waters by Norman in his dredging list for 1863, namely, Peltogaster paguriy Rathke, as ‘very rare’; P. sulcatuSy Lilljeborg, ‘ rare ’ ; and Clistosaccus paguriy Lilljeborg, ‘ one specimen.’ 7 All these are parasitic on hermit- crabs, the first and third according to Lilljeborg being found on Eupagurus bernhardus (Linn.), 1 Norman, Ann. Nat. Hist., ser. 7, xi. 368. 2 Nat. Hist. Trans. Northumb. etc., new ser. i. 4. ® Loc. cit., p. 4, pi. i. figs. 4-12. ^ Brady in Fifth Ann. Rep. of the Fishery Board for Scotland, App. F, No. xi. p. 329. ® Mon. Brit. Copepoda, iii., Ray Soc. (1880). ® Surtees, Hist. o/Dur. i. (2), 17. 7 Nat. Hist. Trans. Northumb. and Dur. i. 26. 166 A HISTORY OF DURHAM though not confined to that species, while as hosts for the second he specifies the forms now known as Eupagurus cuanensh (Thompson) and Anapagurm chiracanthus (Lilljeborg).i Several species of normal cirripedes are no doubt to be found in the district, such as Balanus balanoides (Linn.) ; B. hameri (Ascanius) ; Coronula diadema (Linn.) on the immigrant whale ; Verruca stronna (O. F. Muller) ; Trypetesa lampas (Hancock), till recently known by the pre-occupied name Alcippe^ and Conchoderma auritum (Linn.), a common companion of Coronula. These and many more trophies of ardent investigation may be left for discovery or verification by some future chronicler. ^ Lilljeborg in Nova Acta Reg. Soc. Set. Upsala, ser. 3, iii. 27, 28 (Extr. 1859), and Supplement, pp. II, 22 (Extr. i860). 2 Norman, Ann. Nat. Hist., ser. 7, xi. 368. 167 FISHES Attempts have been made from time to time by the authors of the county and parochial histories to give accounts of the fishes, but the work of compiling the following list of Durham fishes has been rendered especially light by the excellent catalogue of the fishes of Northumberland and Durham published by the late R. Howse,M. A., curator of the Hancock Museum, Newcastle. I have, however, been able to add definitely to the list of our local fauna, species about which Mr. Howse was doubtful, and to add others which have come to our knowledge since his list was published (1890.) It is rather curious that while not infrequent records of rare stragglers have been made for the coasts of Northumberland and York- shire, the majority of these have not visited, or if they have visited have not been recorded for Durham. Such it has been necessary therefore to exclude from the present list, but I have ventured to add species which from their well-known occurrence to the north and the south may be presumed to belong also to the Durham coast. Fresh-water fishes are distinguished by an asterisk (*), and those which occur in both fresh and salt water by two asterisks TELEOSTEANS ACANTHOPTERYGII *1. Perch. Perea fluviatUU^ Linn. In the Tees, Billingham Beck, in lakes and ponds, and in artificial ponds. ‘ Probably introduced into the district.’ — Howse. **2. Bass. M or one labrax^ Linn ; Labrax lupus^ Cuv. Occasionally caught inshore and in the Tyne. 3. Common Sea Bream. Pagellus centrodontuSy Delaroche. Rare ; sometimes caught by trawlers. 4. Black Sea Bream. Cantharus HneatuSy Fleming. Hartlepool. — Sir Cuthbert Sharpe, 1816. Also said by the late Mr. J. F. Spence to be landed at North Shields by trawlers occasionally. A recent local record is wanting. 5. Gilthead. Chrysophrys aurata, Linn. ‘ Whitburn ? ’ ; — Howse. I 6. Norway Haddock. Sehastes norvegicus, Cuv. Rare. 7. Maigre. Bciana aquila, Lac^p. Rare ; ‘Jarrow Slake, on the Tyne, 1838, Rudd ; Sunderland.’ — Howse. 8. Swordfish. Xiphias gladtus, Linn. ‘ A specimen brought in by a trawler. North Shields, W. S. Corder.’ — Howse. 9. Red Mullet. Mullus harbatus, Linn. Occasionally landed at North Shields from off tlie coast. 10. Common or Ballan Wrass. Labrus maculatus^ Bloch. Locally, Sea Sow and Old Wife. Not uncommon from rocky ground near the coast. 11. Goldsinny Wrass. Ctenolabrus rupestris, Linn. Specimens have been got at Cullercoats (J. Hancock) and at Redcar (Meynell). A HISTORY *12. Miller’s Thumb. Cottus gobio^'Linn. Locally, Bullhend. Common in the Tees and most streams. Mentioned by Brewster and by Surtees. 13. Father-lasher or Bull Head. Coitus scorpius, Linn. In rock pools and near the rocks ; common. 14. Grey Gurnard. Tr 'tgla gurnardus, Linn. Very common. 15. Red Gurnard. Tr'igla cuculus, Linn. Occasionally visits the coast. Mentioned by Fordyce, 1857. 16. Streaked Gurnard. Trigla lineata, Linn. ‘ Occasionally taken on our coast.’ — Howse. 17. Sapphirine Gurnard or Tub-fish. Trigla hirundo, Linn. An occasional visitor. 18. Pogge or Armed Bull-head. Agonus cata- phr actus, Linn. Common. 19. Lump Sucker or Paddlecock. Cyclopterus lumpus, Linn. Common. 20. Sea Snail. Liparis vulgaris, Flem. Rare. 21. Montagu’s Sucker. Liparis montagui, •Donovan. Common. 22. Spotted Goby. Gobius minutus, Gmel. 23. Two-Spotted Goby. Gobius ruthensparri, Euphras. ; Gobius pusillus, J. Lowe. Common in rock-pools. 24. Blackfish. Centrolophus pompilus, Linn. ‘ One specimen from a Cullercoats fisherman, and another recorded from Redcar.’ — Howse. 25. John Dory. Teus faber, Linn. An occasional visitor. 26. Scad or Horse-mackerel. Caranx tra- churus, Linn. ‘ Frequently caught in the herring nets. — J. F. Spence.’ — Howse. 27. Ray’s Bream. Brama raii, Bloch. Occurs occasionally. 28. Opah or Kingfish. Lampris luna, Linn. Sometimes caught by trawlers and also rarely on the coast to the north and south. I I OF DURHAM 29. Mackerel. Scomber scombrus, Linn. Locally, Bret. Migrates to the coast, July to September. Recorded by Surtees, 1823. 30. Tunny. Orcynus thynnus, Linn. ‘Frenchman’s Bay in salmon nets — Mr. Clift, South Shields, August, 1885.’ — Howse, who also records a shoal of small tunnies to the coast near Cullercoats in June, 1884. 31. Bonito. Orcynus pelamys, Linn. A straggler caught off Sunderland recorded by Professor G. S. Brady, 1870. 32. Greater Weever. Trachinus draco, Linn. 33. Lesser Weever or Stinger. Trachinus viper a, Cuv. and Val. More common than preceding. 34. Fishing Frog or Angler. Lophius pisca- torius, Linn. Sometimes called ‘ Mermaid.’ Common and frequently sold like the cat-fish as ‘ rock- turbot.’ 35. Dragonet. Callionymus lyra, Linn. Locally, Gowdie. Common. 36. Wolf or Cat-fish. Anarrhichas lupus, Linn. Common, sold as ‘ rock-turbot.* 37. Gattorugine or Tompot. Blennius gattorugine, Bloch. Mentioned in the list of Hartlepool fishes by Sir Cuthbert Sharpe. 38. Shanny. Blennius pholis, Linn. Common in the rock-pools. 39. Yarrell’s Blenny. Carelophus ascanii, Walb. Rare. 40. Gunnel or Butter-fish. Centronotus gun- nellus, Linn. Common between tide marks. 41. Viviparous Blenny. Zoarces viviparus, Linn. Common between tide marks. 42. Sharp-tailed Lumpenus. Lumpenus lampe- triformis, Walb. An example was got at Cullercoats in Feb- ruary, 1 903 ; but it is more than likely gene- rally, if rarely, distributed in the district. 6g 22 FISHES ANACANTHINI 43. Cod, Gadus morrhua^ Linn. The young are called codling. 44. Haddock. Gadus aglejinus, Linn. 45. Bib or Pout. Gadus luscus^ Linn. Locally, Brassie and Scotch Haddock. Fairly common. 46. Poor Cod. Gadus minutus, Linn. Not uncommon. 47. Coal-fish, Saithe, or Black Jack. Gadus virens^ Linn. The successive stages of growth are named hallins, poddlers or billet, half-waxers, coal- saithe and black jack. 48. Whiting, Gadus merlangus, Linn. 49. Pollack or Lythe. Gadus pollachius, Linn. 50. Hake. Merluccius vulgaris^ Cuv. *51. Burbot or Eelpout, Lota vulgaris, C\iv . Surtees recorded this species as occurring in the Skerne, 52. Ling. Molva vulgarls^YXem. 53. Five-bearded Rockling. Motella rnustela, Linn. 54. Four-bearded Rockling. Motella cimbria, Linn. Common about 3 to 6 miles or more olF the coast. 55. Three-bearded Rockling. Motella tricir- rata, Bloch, Rare. 56. Lesser Fork-beard. Ranlceps raninus, Linn. Rare. 57. TorskorTusk. Brosmius brosme, yiuWtr. Rare. 58. Halibut. Hippoglossus vulgaris, Flem. Still frequently called ‘ Turbot.’ 59. Long Rough Dab. Hippoglossus Uman- doides, Bloch. 60. Turbot. Rhombus maxlmus, Linn. Locally, Brat. 61. Brill. Rhombus lavis, Linn. Not common. 62. Common Topknot. Zeugopterus punctatus, Bloch. Rare ; usually caught in crab-pots. It is more than likely this species some of the fishermen call ‘hard-ground soles.’ 63. Megrim, Lepidorhombus megastoma. V)ono\. Rare. 64. Plaice. Pleuronectes platessa, Linn. 65. Pole Dab or Witch. Pleuronectes cyno- glossus, Linn. 66. Lemon Dab, Pleuronectes microcephalus, Donov. Commonly called ‘ Lemon Sole.’ 67. Dab. Pleuronectes limanda, Linn. **68. Flounder. Pleuronectes fesus, Linn. 69, Sole. Solea vulgaris, Quensel. Small examples are called ‘ slips.’ PLECTOGNATHI 70. Short Sun-fish. Orthagoriscus mola, Linn. An occasional straggler reaches the coast. PERCESOCES **71. Grey Mullet. Mugil capito, Cuv. ‘ In the Tyne. — J. Hancock.’ — Howse, **72. Lesser Grey Mullet. Mugil chelo, Cuv. Said to visit the coast in the autumm 73. Larger Launce or Sand-Eel. Ammodytes lanceolatus, Le Sauv. 74. Lesser Launce or Sand-Eel. Ammodytes tobianus, Linn. More common than the preceding. 75. Garfish, Belone vulgaris. Flem. ‘Taken in the autumn by men and boys fishing with rod and line from the rocks in Frenchman’s Bay, on the Durham coast.’ — Howse. Also caught at the mouth of the Tees in the autumn. 76. Saury Pike or Skipper. Scombresox saurus, Walb. Rare. HEMIBRANCHII **77. Three-spined Stickleback. Gastrosteus aculeatus, Linn. Common at the seaside in some places, in brackish water, and in fresh water ponds, lakes, streams and ditches. The sea speci- 170 A HISTORY mens are usually ‘ mailed ’ or ‘ rough-tailed,’ and the fresh-water examples are ‘ smooth- tailed.’ *78. Ten-spined Stickleback. Gastrosteus pun- git ius^ Linn. Recorded in Sir Cuthbert Sharpe’s History of Hartlepool. Occurs in a pond at Picton, near Stockton. 79. Fifteen - spined Stickleback. Gastrosteus spinachia^ Linn. LOPHOBRANCHII 80. Greater Pipe-fish. Syngnathus acus^ Linn. 81. Snake Pipe-fish. Nerophis aquoreus^ Not so common as the preceding. HAPLOMI *82. Pike. Esox ludus^ Linn. Wynyard Park, and other ponds, Tyne, Tees, Billingham Beck, Skerne. Small ex- amples are called ‘Jack.’ OSTARIOPHYSI *83. Carp. Cyprinus carpio, Linn. Introduced into Wynyard Park and other ponds. ‘ In becks near Stockton, escaped from Wynyard ponds. — J. Hogg.’ — Howse. *84. Gudgeon. Gohio fluviatilh^ Flem. Common in the Tees and its tributaries, the Derwent, and other streams. Mentioned by Surtees. *85. Rudd. Leuchcm erythrophthalmus, Linn. ‘Introduced into ponds . . . formerly in ponds near Marsden.’ — Howse. *86. Roach. Leuciscus rutilus^ Linn. In the Tyne and the Tees. Recorded by Surtees. *87. Chub or Skelly. Leuciscus cephalus., Linn. In the Tyne and the Tees. Recorded by Surtees. *88. Dace. Leuciscus dohula. Linn. {L. vulgaris^ Yarrell, Day, &c.). Common in rivers. ‘ Recorded by Wallis, Surtees, and J. Hogg.’ — Howse. *89. Minnow. Leuciscus phoxinus^ Linn. Common in rivers and streams. *90. Tench. Tinea vulgaris., Cuv. Introduced into Wynyard Park and Raby Park ponds. 171 OF DURHAM *91. Bleak. Alburnus lucidus,\i^zL. Recorded by Clarke and Roebuck as com- mon in the lower waters of the Tees. *92. Loach. Nemachilus barbatulus, Linn. Common in small streams. MALACOPTERYGII 93. Argentine. Maurolicus borealis, Nilsson. ‘In former years (1859-60) I frequently found this little fish washed up on the shore at high-tide mark on South Shields sands and in Marsden Bay during winter.’ — Howse. **94. Salmon. Salmo salar, Linn. In the Tyne, the Tees, and more rarely in the Wear. Caught also near the coast with drift-nets. **95. Trout. Salmo trutta, Linn. The Brown Trout is common in rivers and streams. The Sea Trout and the Bull Trout ascend the Tyne, the Wear, and the Tees, and are caught also in drift-nets near the coast. The Bull Trout and the Sea Trout are more common in the Wear than in the Tyne or the T ees. Loch Leven T rout were introduced into the Tees ten years ago and are still caught. 96. American Brook Trout. Salmo fontinalis, Mitchill. Introduced into the Tees. *97. Grayling. Thymallusvexillifer, Linn. Rare. In the Tyne and the Tees. Intro- duced into the Tees in 1839 by J. C. Chaytor. ‘ Introduced into the Derwent about six years ago. — Rev. W. Featherston- haugh. May, 1890.’ — Howse. *98. Smelt or Sparling. Osmerus eperlanus, Linn. In the Tyne and the Tees. Recorded by Wallis and by Surtees. 99. Herring. Clupea harengus, Linn. 100. Pilchard or Sardine. Clupea pilchardus, Linn. An occasional visitor. Mentioned by For- dyce. 101. Sprat. Clupea sprattus, Linn. Occurs with young herrings in the summer, and in 1902 both were present in extraordi- nary abundance all along the coast. FISHES **102. Shad. Clupea alosa^ Linn. Rare. APODES **103. Eel. Anguilla vulgarlsy Turt. Common on the coast and in rivers and streams and ponds. The elvers ascend the rivers in vast numbers in early summer. 104. Conger Eel. Conger vulgaris^ Cuv. Common. The larva, Leptocephalus morrnii^ was obtained at Whitburn by W. Hutchinson, and recorded by R. Howse. GANOIDS **105. Sturgeon. Acipemer sturio, Linn. Landed by trawlers occasionally. Sometimes caught in the Tees. ‘A specimen weighing 141 lb. was caught at Scotswood on the Tyne in 1894. — Howse.’ Mentioned by Surtees and by recent writers. 106. Rough Hound or Small-spotted Dogfish. Scyllium cankula^ Linn. Sometimes caught by trawlers off the coast. 107. Porbeagle. Lamna cornubica^Gmel. Frequently recorded. 108. Thrasher. Alopias vulpes^ Gmel. An occasional visitor. 109. Smooth Hound. Mustelus lavis^ {M. vulgaris^ Day.) It has not been recorded for the Durham coast, but it occurs to the north and the south, and has therefore likely been over- looked. 110. Tope. Galeus vulgaris^ Ylem. ‘Whitburn.’ — R. Howse. Occasionally landed at North Shields by trawlers and liners from the nearer fishing grounds. 111. Picked Dogfish. Acanlhias vulgaris^ Risso. Common. 1 1 2. Greenland Shark. Leemargus microce- phalm^ Bl. Schn. ‘ OffSunderlandand the Tyne.’ — R. Howse. Occasionally caught by trawlers. 1 1 3. Spinous Shark. Echinorhinus spinosus^ Blainville. Taken off the mouth of the Tyne in 1869 and in 1876. — J. Wright. 114. Monk-fish or Angel-fish. Rhina squa- tlna., Linn. ‘ Occasionally brought in by the trawlers and fishermen — sometimes three feet in length.’ — R. Howse. This is still the case. 1 1 5. Torpedo or Electric Ray. Torpedo nobiliana^ Bonop. A large example caught in a trawl net off Sunderland, June 18, 1896, and preserved in the Hancock Museum. 1 1 6. True Skate. Raia batisyYmn. Common. 1 1 7. Sharp-nosed Skate or White Skate. Rata alba^ Lacep. Common. 1 18. Long-nosed Skate. Rata oxyrhynchus^ Linn ; R. fullonica, Yarrell. Fairly common. 1 1 9. Homelyn or Spotted Ray. Rata macu- lata^ Montagu. Not common. 120. Cuckoo Ray. Rata circularise Couch. Not common. 1 2 1 . Thornback. Raia clavatae Linn. Common. 122. Starry Ray. Raia radiata^ Donov. Locally, Jenny Hanover. Very common. 123. Sting Ray. Trygon pastinaca^Ymn. A rare straggler. 124. Eagle Ray. Myliobatis aquila, Linn. ‘ A small specimen was taken at Culler- coats, 1875.’ — R. Howse. A HISTORY OF DURHAM CYCLOSTOMES **125. Sea Lamprey. Petromyzon marlnus, Linn. Not common. *126. River Lamprey. Petromyzon fiuviat'ilh^ Linn. In the rivers and streams. *127. Mud Lamprey or Pride. Petromyzon branchialh^ Linn. In streams. Recorded by Surtees for the Skerne. 128. Hag. Myx 'ine glut 'mosay\S\nn. Locally, Sucker. Abundant. 173 REPTILES AND BATRACHIANS Little more than a list can be given of the reptiles and the batrachians of the county of Durham, as attention appears only to have been paid to them in a very general way. All the common species are known in the county with the exception of the grass snake {T'ropidonotus natrix) ; but there is no record of the natterjack toad {Bufo calamitd)^ and the remaining rarer British species are hardly likely to occur. REPTILES LACERTILIA 1. Common Lizard. Lacerta vviipara^ T^q. Bell — T^ootoca vivipara. Often to be seen in dry places and about old walls, and probably abundant in most parts of the county. 2. Slow-worm or Blind-worm. Anguis fra- gtlisy Linn. Common ; often seen on roads. OPHIDIA 3. Ringed Snake or Grass Snake. Tropi- donotus natrix^ Linn. Bell — Natrix torquata. It seems doubtful whether the grass snake has a real place in the fauna of the county. It has undoubtedly occurred as an ‘ escape ’ ; an instance of this at Sunderland was recorded by the late Richard Howse (quoted in Leighton’s British Serpents)^ but Howse did not believe the species ever occurred naturally. It has been described in certain newspaper articles as frequent, but no confirmation has ever been forthcoming. If the grass snake is an inhabi- tant of the county at all it is undoubtedly very scarce and by no means generally distributed. 4. Common Viper or Adder. Viper a herusj Linn. Bell — Pelias berus. Common, especially about dry, scrubby woods and the borders of moorlands. Full-sized local examples are in the Newcastle Museum. Colour variations are met with here as else- where, and Howse states {loc. cit.) that individuals of the extreme types known as the black and the red adder have been taken. BATRACHIANS The following appear to be as common 2. Common Toad. Bufo vulgaris^ Laur. here in suitable situations as they are in other parts of England. CAUDATA 3. Crested Newt. Molge cristata, Laur. 4. Common Newt. Molge vulgaris^ Linn. 174 EC AU DATA I. Common Frog. Rana temporaria^YAnn. BIRDS The county of Durham is not naturally, and still less in its present economical conditions, favourably adapted for either abundance or variety of bird life, except in certain districts. Roughly speaking, the county may be compared to a w^edge, an isosceles triangle, driven in between Northumberland and Yorkshire, having its base at the sea and its apex among the hills of the Pennine Chain, the Tyne forming its northern boundary from the coast for over twenty miles, and then generally the Derwent; and the Tees, from its source to its mouth, bounding it on the south. The Wear, for its whole length, divides it into two unequal parts. These and their tributaries are its only rivers. From the Tyne to the watershed of the Tees Valley extend the coal-measures, covering two-thirds of the county, the western portion of the apex being mountain limestone or millstone grit, while the new red sandstone forms a strip along the lower part of the Tees Valley. The coast line affords little encouragement, and no protection, for sea birds. While Northumberland has its islands. Holy Isle, the Fames, and Coquet, some of them with magnificent cliffs, as breeding resorts, and Yorkshire its bold headlands from Whitby to Flamborough Head, the Durham beach from the Tyne to Hartlepool is slightly elevated from 50 to 100 ft., frequently broken by the narrow openings of little glens, or ‘ denes ’ as they are locally termed. From Hartlepool to Teesmouth there is simply a succession of sand dunes. The Tyne and the Wear cannot be said to have any estuaries, and their banks are fringed by manufactories and docks down to the sea shore. The Tees has an estuary which has provided us with most of our water-fowl, but the river itself is now lined with ironworks and docks until it reaches the sea. Thus there is no shelter and little inducement for the passing sea- fowl to halt on our coasts. The little dells which open to the sea between Wearmouth and Hartlepool, some of which (as Castle Eden Dene) preserve remains of the primeval forest, afford refuge to many smaller birds, and a resting place to some few passing immigrants. When we leave the coast, the collieries and coke ovens which stud two-thirds of the county, destroying by their fumes trees and hedgerows, and bringing a vast population, have in many places driven away all the winged inhabitants save the house-sparrow. Happily there are not a few parks and sheltered river banks, shielded from the fumes, well stocked with the smaller passerines. The steep and often precipitous well-wooded banks of the Wear, even in the centre of the colliery districts, the sheltered trees escaping the effects of the smoke, are the resort of many 175 A HISTORY OF DURHAM of our common species. In spite of relentless persecution the kingfisher may still be found, though in diminishing numbers, all along the course of the Wear, the Tees, and the Browney ; and I know of one secluded spot, close to the river Wear, where the wild duck still breeds. It is needless to say that outside the parks and preserved plantations there is but little game in the central portion of the county ; while the mistaken zeal of the gamekeeper has wellnigh exterminated every raptorial bird, even the beautiful and harmless kestrel being but rarely seen. The lapwing, in my younger days most abundant, is now very scarce in the breeding season in the east of the county. From these remarks the lower Tees Valley, still agricultural and free from collieries, must be excepted. But when we pass from the coal-measures, to the west of Bishop Auckland and Barnard Castle, we are in a region which may well rejoice the ornithologist’s heart. As we get on the mountain limestone the features of the country are entirely changed. There is little arable culture, meadow land predominates, till we rise to the grand expanse of moorland, stretching to the watershed when we touch Cumberland. Here and there are scraps of primeval forest. We have evidence that prior to the denudation of the forests in the Roman times, for the working of the lead mines, the district was well wooded, chiefly with the Scotch fir, of which the stumps are found in the peat. Many streamlets run down tiny dells fringed with stunted oak, rowan, and other trees. The dipper or water-ousel may often be seen dipping and perching on a stone even on the smallest brooklet. The ring-ousel remains on the moors from early spring to late autumn, and fully appreciates the bird-cherry and the rowan berry. A careful observer, as he strolls by the bed of the upper Wear, may detect the pied flycatcher and perhaps the haw- finch. When he ascends on to the moors he is greeted by the shrill cry of the whaup (curlew) overhead, the wheatear jerks its tail as it drops among the stones of a crumbling dyke, the ring-ousel skims from a whin (furze) bush or perhaps at the foot of a neighbouring cliff; and if it be before the dreaded 1 2th of August the grouse springs from almost under his feet and startles him with its whirring flight. A few years ago the merlin might often be seen skimming over the heather ; now, alas, these beautiful little falcons are rarely seen, thanks to the ignorant zeal of game preservers and their keepers. The peewit and, on Kilhope Fell, the golden plover are plentiful, and occasionally a heron from Raby lazily flaps its wings as it soars up from some pool in a mountain burn. The true dotterel is said to have bred on the heights, but I can find no proof of this, and the nearest breeding locality I know of is Crossfell in Cumberland, where fifty years ago I took a nest of three eggs. In one part of the upper Wear valley there has been extensive planting of coniferas within the last forty years, and in these woods the crossbill has bred, and I believe does so still. One valuable game bird, the blackcock, has very much diminished of late years, owing probably to the reckless shooting of the hen birds by yearly game tenants, whose 176 BIRDS only idea is to swell their bags, and who are perhaps not aware that the blackcock is polygamous. The drainage of the marshy bottoms, with their clumps of marsh myrtle in which these birds delight, has also contributed to their threatened extinction. Excluding these few species, the avifauna of West Durham is not far different from what it was in past centuries except — but it is a very great exception — the raptorial birds. Of these the peregrine falcon, the kite, the buzzard, the marsh and hen harriers have vanished within living memory. Of the golden eagle as a resident we find no trace, though the name of Eaglescliffe, a village on the rocky bank of the Tees, may attest its former existence. It very rarely passes over the county. On one occasion, some thirty years ago, in the month of November, I was crossing on foot from Teesdale to Nenthead above the source of the Wear. In passing over Kilhope Fell a dense fog came on. The course, for there is scarcely a road, is marked by tall posts at intervals for the benefit of travellers during the winter snows. At the foot of one of them I sat down till the mist should lift, for I could not see a yard in front of me. Suddenly it lifted, I looked up, and to my amazement a golden eagle in young plumage with its white tail was perching on the top of the pole. I know not which of us was most astonished at the mutual recognition — it was off in a moment. A day or two after I read in a local paper that a golden eagle had been seen near Redcar, and soon afterwards, alas, that one had been shot in the East Riding. The exhaustion of the lead mines, for centuries the chief industry of West Durham, and the consequent diminution of the population, seem likely to promote the increase of all the feathered tribe, except the birds of prey, in our moorlands. What the ornithological fauna of the coast once was may be gathered from the following extract from the Cott. MS. (Grove’s Hist, of Cleve- land^ p. 399) about the date 1670. ‘ Neere unto Dobham the Porte of the mouth of the Teese,’ (now known as Cargo Fleet, and covered with iron and cement works) ‘ the shore lyes flatt, where a shelf of sand, raised above the highe water marke, entertaines an infynite number of sea-fowle, which lay theyr Egges heere and there, scatteringlie in such sorte, that in Tyme of Breedinge, one can hardly sett his foote so warylye, that he spoyle not many of theyr nests.’ The number of species which may be enumerated as of the county of Durham, in accordance with the custom which includes every bird which has ever occurred in a state of nature within its limits, is 249. Of these the number of species permanently resident or breeding is 105. Regular winter visitors, 33. Irregular but frequent visitors, 39. Merely accidental visitors, 72. The following are extinct as breeding species within our limits, though some of them still occur occasionally: — Nut- hatch, raven, marsh-harrier, hen-harrier, Montagu’s harrier, kite, buzzard, peregrine falcon, bittern, sheldrake, pintail duck, pochard, dotterel, ruff, black-headed gull, lesser black-backed gull. 177 I 23 A HISTORY OF DURHAM SYSTEMATIC LIST OF SPECIES 1. White’s Thrush. Turdm varius^ Pallas. A specimen, the eighth recorded in Britain, was taken 31 January, 1872, in Castle Eden Dene, having been shot and wounded a fort- night before, by Mr. Rowland Burdon. It lived three weeks after its capture. Mr. Bur- don gave it to me. On examination the furculum was found to have been long since fractured, but to have coalesced, though very clumsily. 2. Missel-Thrush. Turdus viscivorus, Linn. Resident, but not numerous, in suitable localities. Had largely increased within the last sixty years, but has latterly diminished, probably from the increase of human popu- lation. 3. Song-Thrush. Turdm musicus, Linn. Abundant except in winter, when most migrate. A few remain, even in the severest seasons, but they will not venture to come to the window sills for food until several days after the blackbirds have set them the example. I have observed that in a hard frost while numbers of redwings perish, the song-thrush survives. 4. Redwing. Turdus Uiacus^ Linn. A regular winter visitor. In mild seasons it generally disappears till the beginning of spring, while in severe winters many remain only to succumb to a long frost. 5. Fieldfare. Turdus pilaris^ Linn. A winter migrant, arriving generally in large flocks about the end of October. If there be a continuance of severe frost they disappear as soon as they have stripped the rowan and holly berries, halting again for a few days on their return north in spring. 6. Blackbird. Turdus merula^ Linn. Very abundant. Remains through the severest weather. 7. Ring-Ousel. Turdus torquatus, Linn. A regular summer resident, arriving in April and remaining till October in the moorlands of the west of the county. It is by no means gregarious during its stay. 8. Wheatear. Saxicola oenanthe (Linn.). Abundant in the ‘wild west’ of the county; a few in other parts arrive at the beginning of April. It affects the dry stone dykes of Wear- dale and Teesdale, where it nests. g. Whinchat. Pratincola ruhetra (Linn.). Locally, Haychat. A summer resident, not uncommon even in populous districts. Arrives towards the end of April and leaves in October. 10. Stonechat. Pratincola rubicola (Linn.). A resident in small numbers and generally distributed, especially about fox coverts. It builds almost always in whin (furze) bushes, and should really be called whinchat, rather than its congener. 11. Redstart. Ruticilla phanicurus {JAnn,), A regular spring and summer resident, arriving about the middle of April, but by no means numerous. A few years ago, a pair bred in an ivy-clad tree close to a public walk in the ‘Banks’ in the city of Durham. 12. Black Redstart. Ruticilla titysi^copoW). A rare occasional visitor. But while in the south of England it is looked upon rather as a winter visitor, here it has only been noticed from spring to autumn. In the year 1845 a pair built their nest on a cherry tree trained on a wall in the garden of the Rev. Dr. Raine, at Crook Hall, in the suburbs of Durham city. I regret to say the birds were shot. The male is in Durham Museum ; the nest and an egg were given to the late John Hancock. 13. Red-spotted Bluethroat. Cyanecula suecica (Linn.). One obtained by H. G. Stobart, Esq., at Wolsingham, 26 September, 1893. Another at Chester-le-Street about the same date, and another two or three years ago. 14. Redbreast, or Robin. Erithacus ruhecula (Linn.). Universal. 15. Whitethroat. Sylvia cinerea. (Bechstein). An abundant summer visitor everywhere. 1 6. Lesser Whitethroat. Sylvia curruca (Linn.). A summer visitor, breeding in several parts of the county, but extremely scarce and local. IVIr. Hancock mentions a nest taken close to Newcastle but in the county of Durham. 17. Blackcap. Sylvia atricapilla (Linn.). Very common from early spring to late autumn. Occasionally met with as late as December. 18. Garden- Warbler. Sylvia hortensis (Bech- stein). Not so common as the last, arriving later. 19. Goldcrest. Regulus cristatus,Yi. h.Yioch. A resident, and abundant in all our fir plantations. Its numbers are largely rein- forced towards the end of autumn. 178 BIRDS 20. Firecrest. Regulus ignicapillus (Brehm). A rare and accidental visitor. I possess a specimen shot at Brancepeth by Mr. Dale, keeper to Lord Boyne, in April, 1852. 21. ChiflFchafF. Phylloscopus rufus (Bechstein). Our first spring arrival, and abundant wherever there are old trees, and in pleasure grounds. 22. Willow-Warbler, or Willow -Wren. Phylloscopus trochilus (Linn.). The most abundant of all our summer visitors, arriving early in April. 23. Wood-Warbler, or Wood-Wren. Phyllo- scopus sib'ilatrix (Bechstein). Arrives about the beginning of May. Is plentiful in wooded districts only. 24. Reed- Warbler. Acrocephalus streperus (Vieillot). The only known instance of its occurrence is a nest of four eggs taken by Mr. T. Thomp- son, of W inlaton, nearly forty years ago, between Blaydon and Derwenthough. The nest has been carefully preserved, and is unmistakable. {N. H. Prans. Northurnh. and Dur. xiv. 119.) 25. Great Reed-Warbler. Acrocephalus tur- doides (Meyer). The first specimen of this species known to have been taken in Britain was shot at Swalwell on the Tyne on 28 May, 1847 [Ann. and Mag. xx. p. 135). It has not since occurred in the district. 26. Sedge-Warbler. Acrocephalus phragmitis (Bechstein). An abundant summer visitor. A few years ago a pair bred in the dwarf willows on the banks of the Wear in the city of Durham, close to the public walk. 27. Grasshopper- Warbler. Locust ella navia (Boddaert). A regular summer visitor to certain loca- lities, especially the banks of the Tyne and the Derwent. I once had three nests with their unmistakable eggs brought to me from near Gateshead. 28. Hedge-Sparrow. Accentor modularis, Linn. Common except on the moors. 29. Dipper or Water Ousel. C Indus aquatlcus (Bechstein). Resident on all the burns and rocky streams in the west and occasionally by the streams near the coast. Much persecuted through the ignorance of anglers. 30. British Long-tailed Tit. Acredula rosea (Blyth). Generally distributed throughout the county, but not very numerous. The whiteheaded continental form A. caudata (Linn.), though more than once taken on the north bank of the Tyne, has not yet been recorded within our limits. 31. Great Tit. Parus major., Linn. Abundant everywhere. Resident through- out the year. 32. Coal-Tit. Parus ater, Linn. Common, but by no means as numerous as the preceding species. 33. Marsh-Tit. Parus palustris, Linn. Plentiful, and I think more numerous in this county than the coal-tit, but more shy, resorting generally to ‘ woods and scrub.’ While the three other species come regularly to a window sill to be fed, it is only after a long continued frost that the marsh-tit ven- tures to approach. 34. Blue Tit. Parus ctsruleus, Linn. Quite as numerous as the great tit. Resident. 35. Nuthatch. Sitta casta. Wolf. Now only an accidental straggler. A cen- tury ago it appears to have been well known in suitable localities in the county. Sixty years ago it used to breed in Auckland Castle Park, but for the last fifty years the only record I can find of its occurrence is one shot at Wolsingham in 1873, another at Elton about ten years ago. 36. Wren. Troglodytes parvulus, Koch. Resident. Common everywhere. 37. Tree-Creeper. Certhia familiarts, Linn. A permanent resident wherever there are woods, and especially old trees. 38. Pied Wagtail. Motacilla lugubris, Tem- minck. Common. A few remain through the winter, but the majority go south. 39. White Wagtail. Motacilla alba, Linn. This, the continental form of the preceding, is an accidental visitor. One was brought to me in the spring of 1904. Noticed in the ‘ Banks ’ at Durham by Mr. Cullingford the same year. 40. Grey Wagtail. Motacilla melanope, Pallas. Generally distributed in summer. A few remain through the winter. 179 A HISTORY OF DURHAM 41. Blue-headed Wagtail. Motacllla flava^ Linn. An irregular spring and summer visitor. Has bred several times between the Tyne and the Derwent. 42. Yellow Wagtail. Motacilla rati (Bona- parte). A regular summer visitor arriving early in April, and leaving in September. 43. Tree-Pipit. Anthus trlvlalis (Linn.). A summer visitor. Abundant. Arrives in the middle of April. 44. Meadow-Pipit. Anthus pratensis (Linn.). A resident species, abundant in the west, but found wherever there is open ground. 45. Rock-Pipit. Anthus obscurus (Latham). Frequently obtained on our coast. I am not aware of its breeding here, though it does on the coasts of Northumberland and Yorkshire. 46. Golden Oriole. Oriolus galbula^ Linn. A female was taken at Hebburn in 1831, now in Newcastle Museum. 47. Great Grey Shrike. Lanius excuhitor^ Linn. A winter seldom passes without one or more captures being reported. A few years ago one remained for several days about the shrubberies and gardens near Durham city. The bird with only one bar on the wing, known as Lanius major (Pallas) has frequently occurred. 48. Red-backed Shrike. Laneus collurioy Linn. A rare accidental visitor. 49. Waxwing. Ampelis garruluSy Linn. An irregular winter visitor. When it does arrive, it is generally in considerable numbers. In 1849 and 1866 it was very numerous in South Durham. Though not in flocks, I noticed daily, walking in different directions, three or four perched on trees by the highway. Another flight was in 1876, and a few in 1871. 50. Pied Flycatcher. Linn. Muscicapa atricapilla^ A summer visitor, not so rare as is generally supposed. It breeds regularly in several parts of the county. One year a pair inhabited the ‘ Banks,’ a public wooded walk by the river side, in the city of Durham, for nearly a month. They were undoubtedly breeding when they were shot by a miscreant. In 1866 several pairs bred near Barnard Castle, and in 1901, many pairs about Wolsingham and Stanhope. 51. Spotted Flycatcher. Muscicapa grisola^ Linn. A most abundant summer visitor. Found anywhere from the end of April. 52. Swallow. Hirundo rustica^ Linn. Nothing can be more distressing to the lover of nature, than the rapid diminution of the swallow tribe within the last ten years. Where there used to be fifty skimming about, there are now but two or three. This year there is scarcely a swallow to be seen in the neighbourhood of the city of Durham. I am at a loss to account for the disappearance, for it is not from persecution on the spot, and the reduction has been gradual. Perhaps it is due to the awful slaughter of the returning migrants on the south coast of France. 53. House-Martin. Chelidon urbica (Linn.). Arrives generally a day or two later than the swallow. Formerly most abundant, but of late years becoming fewer and fewer, till now in the eastern and central parts of the county it is almost extinct. Ten years ago it nested in numbers about the Cathedral windows, and on many houses in and about the city of Durham. This year there is not one. The destructive instincts of urban housemaids, but chiefly the seizure of its nests by that avian rat, the house-sparrow, may partly, but only partly, account for the change. 54. Sand-Martin. Cotile riparia (Linn.). Generally arrives a few days before its con- geners. It seems to have maintained its num- bers fairly, wherever there are suitable banks for nesting. 55. Greenfinch. Ligurinus chloris (Linn.). A common resident. Often seen in flocks during the winter. 56. Hawfinch. Coccothraustes vulgaris^V3X\2iS. Formerly a rare casual visitor, but of late years steadily increasing, and that in all parts of the county. In 1902 I knew of nests in a garden near Durham, also in the most secluded part of Upper Weardale, and in other places too numerous to mention. 57. Goldfinch. Carduelis elegansy An occasional visitor, generally in autumn. I have been unable to find any proof of its having bred in the county, though it is said to have done so near the Tees. 180 BIRDS 58. Siskin. Carduelh sp'inus (Linn,). A regular winter visitor ; sometimes, but rarely, remaining to breed. The nest and eggs have been taken several times ; the first recorded was at Brancepeth, 5 May, 1848. I had a nest and four eggs from Weardale in 1874. 59. House-Sparrow, Passer domesticus (Linn.) Everywhere, except on the moors, an in- creasing nuisance. 60. Tree-Sparrow. Passer montanus (Linn,). A constant resident in a few localities, where it especially affects old trees. Always to be found among the trees on the ‘ Banks ’ of Durham city. 61. Chaffinch. FrtngiUa ccelebs^ Linn. Common and universal. The females, and apparently some of the males, leave us in winter. 62. Brambling. Fringilla montifringUla^ Linn. A regular winter visitor, but in very varying numbers ; in some seasons large flocks are met with. 63. Linnet. L'mota cannabina (Linn,). A common resident. 64. Meally Redpoll. Linota linaria (Linn.). A frequent winter visitor. 65. Greenland Redpoll. Linota hornemanni. Holboell. The only recorded example from the British Isles was taken on Whitburn sea banks on 24 April, 1855, It had been noticed flying about there for some days. It is now in the Hancock Museum, Newcastle-on- Tyne. 66. Lesser Redpoll. Linota rufescens (Vieillot). Not very plentiful except at the seasons of migration, but many are resident, and breed in young plantations and thickets. 67. Twite. Linota flavirostris (Linn.). A resident on all our moors, where it breeds. 68. Bullfinch. Pyrrhula europaa^ Vieillot. A constant resident, but not very abundant. 69. Crossbill. Loxia curvirostra^ Linn. A constant resident in woods and fir planta- tions in Weardale. It breeds as early as Feb- ruary. It was first noticed as a nesting bird in the county in 1838, but since then has certainly increased. 70. Corn-Bunting. Emberiza miliaria^ Linn. Common and resident. 71. Yellow Hammer. Emberiza citrinella^ Linn. Common and resident. Decreased much in numbers of late years. 72. Little Bunting. Emberiza pusilla^VTsWus. The second recorded occurrence of this Siberian wanderer in Britain was a male bird taken at Bishop Auckland, n October, 1902 {Zoologist^ 1902, p. 466). 73. Reed - Bunting. Emberiza schoeniclus^ Linn. Resident. Not uncommon by streams and in marshes. 74. Snow - Bunting. Plectrophanes nivalis (Linn.). A regular winter visitor, often in large flocks. 75. Lapland Bunting. Plectrophanes lapponicus (Linn.). An accidental winter visitor. One was shot in January i860, out of a flock of snow-buntings close to Durham, and is now in our Museum. 76. Starling. Sturnus vulgaris^ Linn. Most abundant. Has enormously increased of late years. Its numbers diminish in winter. 77. Rose-coloured Starling. Pastor roseus (Linn.). An accidental wanderer. More than a dozen instances of its capture in the county have been reported in the last few years. 78. Jay. Garrulus glandarius The misdirected energies of the game- keeper have all but exterminated the jay in the eastern and central parts of the county, where in the memory of man it was not uncommon. A few may be seen in Wear- dale and in Raby Park. 79. Magpie. Pica rustica (Scopoli). The magpie, like the jay, has almost dis- appeared, and from the same cause. Very occasionally a brood may be raised in some sequestered wood. 80. Jackdaw. Corvus monedula^ Linn. Abundant, though not so numerous as ten years ago. A HISTORY 81. Raven. Corvm corax^YJxnxx. Never now seen, save as a chance wan- derer. Within my memory bred in several places, but the native race has been utterly exterminated. 82. Carrion-Crow. Corvus corone^ Linn. Very rare except on the moors, where it may occasionally be seen. 83. Hooded Crow. Corvus cornix^ Linn. Very common in winter, especially on the sea coast. 84. Rook. Corvus frugtlegus, Linn. Abundant in every wooded domain. 85. Sky-Lark. Alauda arvensis, Linn. Common in spring, but in rapidly diminish- ing numbers. Many migrants from the north visit in late autumn. 86. Wood-Lark. Alauda arborea^ Linn. I know only of one instance of its capture in the county. A pair were shot at Swal- well in March 1844, and are now in the Hancock Museum, Newcastle. 87. Shore-Lark. Otocorys alpestris (Linn.). An irregular winter visitant. Several were captured in 1855, 1867. In the winter of 1870-71, four specimens were taken on Seaton Snook, and several others seen. 88. Swift. Cypselus apus (Linn.). This charming bird was very common twenty years ago, but alas, is now really rare. Formerly at least twenty pair nested in the western towers of Durham Cathedral ; but during a so-called restoration every resort of the swift, as of the barn-owl, was carefully plastered up, and not a bird remains. One solitary pair were the only ones left in the city or vicinity in 1903. 89. Nightjar. Caprimulgus europaus^ Linn. Not a very uncommon summer visitor, especially on our western moorlands. In the summer of 1862 a pair nested in a corner of Greatham churchyard, not far from the coast. 90. Wryneck. ‘Jynx torquilla^ Linn. Only an occasional visitor, though it has been known to breed several times in the county. 91. Green Woodpecker. Gecinus viridis (Linn.). Formerly common, now rare. It still breeds in a few woods and parks, as at Raby. OF DURHAM 92. Great Spotted Woodpecker. Dendro- copus major (Linn.). Occasionally met with at all times of the year in the wooded parts of the county, and breeds regularly in some few localities. 93- Kingfisher. Alcedo ispida^ Linn. In spite of relentless persecution the king- fisher maintains its existence, though in diminishing numbers, on all our rivers and streams. 94. Roller. Coracias garrulus^ Linn. A rare accidental visitor. One was taken in 1847 on the Tees, and another by Mr. Gornall at Bishop Auckland, 25 May, 1872. 95. Hoopoe. Upupa epops, Linn. A rare accidental visitor. Mr. T. H. Nel- son has one obtained by the late Mr. Gornall of Bishop Auckland, and Mr. Cullingford had one which was killed near Durham twenty years ago. 96. Cuckoo. Cuculus canorus^ Linn. A common spring visitor, universally dis- tributed. Arrives about the middle of April. 97. White or Barn-Owl. Strix flammea^ Linn. A resident species, formerly common, now becoming rare. 98. Long-eared Owl. Asio otus (Linn.). A resident in wooded districts, but threat- ened with extermination by gamekeepers. 99. Short -eared Owl. Asio accipitrinus (Pallas). Generally an autumnal visitor, but some remain on the moors throughout the year. It has been known occasionally to breed. I once took a nestling which I kept alive for two years. In the year of the visitation of field voles this owl was very common. Their numbers vary greatly in different years. 100. Tawny Owl. Syrnium aluco (Linn.). The least rare of all the owls. A perma- nent resident. Two or three pairs frequent the ‘ Banks ’ in the city of Durham, nesting in ivy-clad trees in the gardens close to the houses. Two years ago a pair bred in the garden of the Rev. Dr. Greenwell. He was in the habit of feeding them daily, and on leaving home charged his servant to feed them every evening. On his return after some weeks, the servant told him she had set por- ridge regularly for the owls, and that they had always eaten it. On his exclaiming BIRDS ‘ Nonsense ! ’ and going to the tree, he found abundance of pellets, showing that the por- ridge had been a successful bait for the rats and mice and saved the owls the trouble of going far afield. 1 01. Tengmalm’s Owl. Nyctala tengmalmi (J. F. Gmelin). An accidental visitor. One was taken at Whitburn, ii October, 1848, now in the Hancock Museum. Several others have been reported since that date. The Scops Owl, Scops giu (Scopoli), has been set down as occurring in Durham but with- out sufficient evidence. 102. Snowy Owl. Nyctea scandiaca One was shot near Bishop Auckland on 7 November, 1858. 103. Marsh-Harrier. Circus arugmosus{L\nn.). Formerly resident, and nesting. Now ex- terminated. The last bird of which I have heard was in 1840. In my youth I have several times taken the nest. 104. Hen-Harrier. Circus cyaneus (Linn.). Common and bred regularly in certain localities till about the year 1876. Now only an accidental visitor. 105. Montagu’s Harrier. Circus cineraceus (Montagu). Formerly a resident breeding, but now extinct. The last known nest was in 1835. Three or four specimens have been taken in the last fifty years. 106. Common Buzzard. Buteo vulgaris^ljQzch. Locally — Glede. Now a rare occasional straggler. Within living memory it regularly bred in many parts of the county, but has been exterminated by game preservers aided by egg collectors. I remember, when a boy, having taken three nests of four eggs each, in one season, I think in 1834, none of the nests being a mile apart. 107. Rough-legged Buzzard. Buteo lagopus (J. F. Gmelin). A rare winter visitor. One in Newcastle Museum was taken by the late G. T. Fox at Marsden. Several were shot on the Tees, and one at Bishop Auckland in 1840. I only know of one other instance since that date. The late Raph Carr Ellison of Hedge- ley informed me that in the seventies a solitary rough -legged buzzard took up its quarters for three winters running, in the woods close to his house. Being a keen naturalist, the bird was strictly preserved by him, and never left the place, which swarmed with rabbits. I saw the bird myself on one occasion. 108. Golden Eagle. Aquila chrysaetus ['Linn.). We have no record of the golden eagle nesting in this county, though it bred in North- umberland on Cheviot as late as about 1760. It is now the rarest of casual visitors. One in first year’s plumage was seen by me, as mentioned in the introduction, on Kilhope Fell. Seldom a year passes but there is a statement in the newspapers of an eagle being seen, generally near the coast, but of which species cannot be ascertained. 109. White-tailed or Sea Eagle. Haliaetus albicilla (Linn.). A very rare visitor. A specimen was shot on the Tees on 5 November, 1823. Mr. Hancock observed closely a bird of this species in Lambton Park for several days. It went thence on to Ravensworth, where it remained for some time, and finally departed unharmed. 1 10. Goshawk. Astur palumbarius {h\nn.). Does not seem ever in historic times to have been a resident. It is now the rarest of occasional visitors to the county. One, a female, shot in Castle Eden Dene in 1872, and which I saw in the flesh, now in the possession of Col. Rowland Burdon, is the only unquestioned instance I can find. 111. Sparrow-Hawk. Accipiter nisus Very rarely to be seen. In Upper Wear- dale, and in woods near the Tees, a few pairs have hitherto escaped destruction. 1 1 2. Kite. Milvus ictinus^ Savigny. Locally — Red Glebe. Formerly bred in our woods. Now extinct. Three were shot at Bishop Auckland in 1834, one of which is in Newcastle Museum. I have heard of one or two instances in later years of its occurrence near Stockton. 1 1 3. Honey-Buzzard. Pernis apivorus (Linn.). Occurs not infrequently on spring and autumn migration. Though it is known to have bred in Northumberland, I cannot ascer- tain that the nest has ever been taken in Durham. 114. Peregrine Falcon. Falco peregrinus, T unstall. Stated by Selby eighty years ago to be ‘not uncommon.’ Up to i860 it bred near Weardale Head. The late Mr. Rowland Burdon, of Castle Eden, has often pointed out 183 A HISTORY OF DURHAM to me the niche in the cliff above Gunner’s Pool in Castle Eden Dene, where the pere- grine annually bred in his boyhood (arc. i8io), strictly preserved by his father. When the falcons disappeared the little platform was taken possession of by a pair of kestrels, and for many years the kestrels reared their young there. Now the peregrine is seen occasionally on the coast and rarely on the moors, in any case only a passing stranger. 1 15. Hobby. Fa Ico suhbuteoy Ij'mn. A casual visitor, but has frequently occurred. Mr. Hogg mentions one shot at Norton ; Mr. Hancock had one taken in Streatlam Park ; a specimen in Durham Museum was shot at Thornley, in November 1822, and I obtained one at Greatham in 1868. It has been stated, though without sufficient proof, to have nested in Streatlam Park. 1 16. Merlin. Fa ko aesalon^ Tumt^iW. This beautiful little falcon was formerly one of the most interesting objects on all our moors, where it bred regularly among the heather or the rocks. It is now but rarely seen, owing to the exterminator, the game- keeper. There may be a few pairs on the Weardale moors, but I have not seen any of late years. 1 17. Red-footed Falcon. Falco vespertinus^ Linn. Once recorded from the county; a specimen, now in Newcastle Museum, in full male plumage, having been shot near South Shields in October 1836. 1 1 8. Kestrel. Falco tinnunculus, Linn. The commonest of our raptorial birds, though vastly reduced in numbers within the last fifty years. Some intelligent game pre- servers, recognising its value, have forbidden its destruction. I once met a gamekeeper who had just killed a kestrel, averring that its crop was full of young partridges. We opened it — it contained 127 wire-worms. The keeper was silent. 1 19. Osprey. Pandion haliaetus {h\nn.). A rare occasional visitor, and probably never resident. One, now in the Newcastle Museum, was taken near Heworth on 23 Sep- tember, 1841. Another was shot at Aldin Grange, near the city of Durham, on 22 Oc- tober, 1883. 1 20. Cormorant. Phalacrocorax carboa^ Linn. nested on Marsden rocks. It often ascends the rivers many miles into the interior. 1 21. Shag or Green Cormorant. Phalacrocorax graculus (Linn.). Not uncommon on the coast, but not so frequent as the former species. 122. Gannet or Solan Goose. Sula banana (Linn.). Frequently seen on the coast, occasionally far inland. 123. Heron. Ardea c'tnerea^ Linn. The only remaining heronry in the county is that in the park of Raby Castle. There was formerly another at Ravensworth, the seat of the Earl of Ravensworth, but some of the trees having been cut down the whole colony forsook the neighbourhood, and took to an island in Lake Derwentwater, where they nested on the brushwood. In the beginning of the nineteenth century there were heronries near Sedgefield and Gainford. 124. Little Bittern. Ardetta minuta (Linn.). Is recorded as having once been taken at Stanhope in 1869 {Zoologist^ 1884, p. lOi), though it has occurred several times in North- umberland and frequently in Yorkshire. The squacco heron Ardea ralloides^ Scopoli, is said by Seebohm to have occurred once in Durham, but I have been unable to verify this statement. Mr. Saunders (Yarrell, iv. 196) mentions Durham as an accidental locality for the night-heron Nycticorax griseus (Linn.). I think this is doubtful. 125. Bittern. Botaurus siellaris (Linn.). The bittern was a resident in some marshy districts within living memory. It is now only an irregular winter visitor, but always late, generally in the month of February. An aged fowler told me some forty years ago, that in his youth a pair always bred in Cowpen marshes, near Stockton. One was shot there in January 1901. Several have been taken near the Tees. 126. Black Stork. Ciconia nigra (Linn.). One morning in August, 1 862, my children came running into my study at Greatham Vicarage, to tell me a black stork was walk- ing about in the Seaton fields. (They were familiar with the bird, as a mounted specimen stood in the hall.) I went out and watched the bird for an hour, marching about in a swampy meadow. The next morning it was still there, but was shot in the afternoon by a man from Hartlepool. It is now in the Hartlepool Museum. Frequent on the coast. Does not now breed in the county. Many years ago it 184 BIRDS 127. Glossy Ibis. Plegadis falcinellus {Li\nn.), The only occurrence of this occasional straggler to our coasts, was one shot at Billing- ham, near Stockton on 25 November, 1900. 128. Grey Lag-Goose. Anser cinereus^yityer. Generally occurs in the marshes near Tees- mouth in winter, but in very small numbers. The scarcest of all our familiar wild geese, though for thirteen years that I lived close to the marshes seldom a season passed without one specimen at least being brought to me. 129. White-fronted Goose. Anser alhifrom (Scopoli). A not uncommon winter visitor on the coast, especially in hard weather. Seldom in any large number. 130. Bean-Goose. Amer segetum (J. F. Gmelin). The most abundant of all our geese in winter, arriving early in November. They often come far inland to feed, but always roost by the sea shore. 13 1. Pink-footed Goose. Anser brachyrhynchus Baillon. Frequent in winter on our coast and in the estuary of the Tees. 132. Red-breasted Goose. Bernicla ruficollis (Pallas). The first two specimens of this bird known to have occurred were taken at the beginning of the year 1776. One shot near London, which came into the possession of Mr. Tun- stall, is now with the rest of the WyclifFe Museum in Newcastle Museum, and is figured by Bewick ; the other was taken alive on the Tees, and lived for nine years with ducks on a pond near Mr. Tunstall’s residence. One is stated to have been shot in 1845 in Cowpen Marsh, which has produced so many rarities, by Mr. J. Hikely, and two are said to have been seen the same year on the Tees. 133. Bernacle Goose. Bernicla leucopsis (Bechstein). A winter visitor. Not so common as the brent. 134. Brent Goose. Bernicla brenta (Pallas). A common autumn and winter visitor to the coast. [Egyptian Goose. Chenalopex agyptiacus (Linn.). Shot several times on the coast, never inland. Three were brought to me at different times I 185 in twelve years by the gunners on Cowpen Marsh. None of them showed any signs of having been in captivity.] 135. Whooper Swan. Cygnus musicus^ Bech- stein. Frequently taken, especially in hard winters, on the coast. 136. Bewick’s Swan. Cygnus hewickt, Yzrr&W. By no means so rare as is frequently sup- posed. It visits us irregularly in hard winters, sometimes in flocks. Three were taken to- gether at Blaydon in February 1887. 137. Mute Swan. Cygnus olor (J. F. Gmelin). Not unfrequently shot in winter. These may very possibly be wild birds from their northern homes in Sweden and Denmark. 138. Common Sheldrake. Tadorna cornuto (S. G. Gmelin). Formerly a well-known breeding species on the sandhills and rabbit warrens by the coast, especially about Seaton and Teesmouth. Sixty years ago there were several pair in the rabbit warren of Middleton, now in the heart of West Hartlepool. The bird is now only an occasional straggler, though in Northumber- land it still breeds. 139. Ruddy Sheldrake. Tadorna casarca (Linn.). The only recorded occurrence is the appear- ance of a small flock in the interior of the county, one of which was shot and brought to Mr. Cullingford for preservation on 23 Sep- tember, 1892. 140. Mallard or Wild Duck. Anas boschas^ Linn. Still found in all suitable localities. In many, a breeding species. 14 1. Shoveller. Spatula clypeata (Linn.). A rather scarce spring and autumn migrant, sometimes breeding. A pair nested at Sal- holme in 1881. {Zoologist J 1882, p. 90.) 142. Pintail. Dafila aceta (Linn.). A rather scarce winter visitor. Said to have formerly bred in the county. 143. Teal. Querquedula crecca (Linn.). A resident. Still breeds in small numbers in Upper Weardale and Teesdale. 144. Garganey. Querquedula circia (Linn.). A rare visitor. One was shot in Cowpen Marsh on 3 September, 1882. 24 A HISTORY OF DURHAM 145. Wigeon. Mareca penelope {Li\nn.). A common autumn and winter visitor. 146. Pochard. Fuligula fer'ina (Linn.). Frequently met with throughout the winter. Said to breed here occasionally, but I have no certain proof, though it breeds sometimes in North Yorkshire and Northumberland. 147. Ferruginous Duck. Fuligula nyrocoy (Giildenstadt.). Has been shot twice at the mouth of the Tees. 148. Tufted Duck. Fuligula cristata (Leach). A not very common winter visitor, though breeding in Northumberland. A pair shot at Elton, near Stockton, by Mr. Sutton. 149. Scaup-Duck. Fuligula marila (Linn.). Abundant in winter on the coast. 150. Goldeneye. C langula glaucion {hmn.). A common winter visitor on the coast, generally females or young. 1 5 1 . Long-tailed Duck. Harelda glacialisy (Linn.). Occuis frequently on the coast in winter. Many were shot at Teesmouth in 1887. 152. Eider Duck. Somateria mollissima{Lmn.). Though largely increased, owing to protec- tion in its breeding places in Northumberland, it is only a winter straggler to the Durham coast. 153. Common Scoter. CEdemia nigra (Linn.). Common in winter on the coast. 154. Velvet-Scoter. CEdemia fusca (Linn.). An irregular winter visitor, often in com- pany with the common scoter. On the Tees one was taken 18 October, 1881, and another 19 November, 1889. These were early visi- tors. 155. Goosander. Mergus mer gamer y\J\nr\. A not uncommon winter visitor, often found some distance up our rivers, and on inland tarns. One was taken lately on the Wear in the city of Durham. 156. Red-breasted Merganser. Mergus ser- ratory Linn. Scarcely so common as the last species, nor does it habitually go so far inland, but found every winter. 157. Smew. Mergus albellusy Linn. taken in the city of Durham, and one at Bishop Auckland in January 1838. All those that I have known of have been taken inland. 158. Ring-Dove or Wood-Pigeon. Columba palumbuSy Linn. A permanent resident, rapidly increasing. In autumn its numbers are recruited by large flocks from the north. 159. Stock-Dove. Columba esnasy Linn. Formerly utterly unknown in the north. Its first recorded appearance was at Elton in 1862 or 1863. In 1867 and perhaps a year or two earlier it bred there. It was first noticed in Castle Eden Dene on 26 October, 1869. The specimen is now in Durham Museum. In 1871 it bred in Castle Eden Dene, as well as at Elton, and close to Dur- ham. Since then it has spread over the whole county as a spring and summer migrant. It nests regularly in the ‘ Banks ’ in the city of Durham. I should mention that the Wear forms a peninsula, and on both sides is the city. The banks of the river are steep and well wooded, with many old gardens sloping to the water’s edge. The stock-dove nests in the old trees and in drains. There were seven nests in 1902. A pair have regularly laid their eggs in a drain in the centre of the Prebends’ Bridge, entering by a gurgoyle quite out of the reach of boys. Another took possession of a drain by the side of the cathedral, entering by a similar gurgoyle in the face of the cliff, and made their nest immediately under a grating in the middle of the gravel walk in the monks’ garden. The eggs were swept away by a thunder shower. 1 60. Rock-Dove. Columba liviay], F. Gmelin. Breeds in decreasing numbers in Marsden Rocks, and occasionally in the Blackball Rocks near Castle Eden. 161. Turtle-Dove. Furtur communisy Selby. Formerly unknown save as an occasional straggler. Now a few are found every spring, and I have reason to believe have bred at Castle Eden, and near Sedgefield and Wol- singham. 162. Pallas’s Sand-Grouse. Syrrhaptes para- doxus (Pallas). This sand-grouse, first observed in Britain in 1859, occur in Durham till the great irruption of 1863. From the month of May to July many were seen and taken on the coast, on the sandhills of Seaton, and Cowpen marshes. I saw a flock of nearly twenty for several days, but I regret to say An irregular and rare visitor. In the winter of 1869—70 two males in full plumage were 186 BIRDS most of them were shot. Another irruption, during which numbers were shot all over the county, was in the spring of 1888, when Mr. Cullingford had over sixty specimens brought to him. 163. Black Grouse. Tetrao tetr'ix^ Linn. Locally — Moor-fowl. Formerly very abundant, and found in every suitable part of the county. Now re- stricted to a few wild localities in the west of the county, where its numbers are every year diminishing, chiefly from the indiscriminate slaughter of the hens by strangers who hire the shooting for a year. In the leases of the Prior and Monks of Durham in the fourteenth century we find conditions of supplying so many moor-fowl a year. The grandfather of the present Rowland Burdon, of Castle Eden, used to shoot black game on his estate close to the sea a hundred and twenty years ago. 1 64. Red Grouse. Lagopm scoticus (Latham). Abundant on the moors in the west. The Durham and North Yorkshire moors are said to be the best stocked in the country, and the birds are decidedly heavier than the Scottish ones. A hundred years ago grouse still lin- gered on the patches of heath and moorland in the east of the county, as at Hartbushes near Castle Eden. 165. Pheasant. Phasianus colchicuSy Linn. Universal wherever preserved. Generally shews traces of the ringnecked species. 166. Partridge. Latham. Plentiful in ordinary seasons. 167. Red-legged Partridge. Caccabh rufa (Linn.). A rare accidental straggler. Breeds in the East Riding of Yorkshire. A number were turned out by Prince Duleep Singh when he leased Mulgrave Castle, and since then they are occasionally shot north of the Tees, as at Elton. 168. Quail. Coturnix communhy Bonnaterre. An irregular spring and summer visitor, occasionally nesting. In the year 1868 a brood of at least eight was raised in a meadow at Greatham. Two young birds were shot in September. The remainder I have every reason to believe got away safely, but none returned the next year. 169. Corn Crake, or Land-rail. Crex pra- tensisy Bechstein. A regular spring and summer visitor, but much diminished of late years. 170. Spotted Crake. Porzana maruetta (Leach). A summer visitor, less rare than is com- monly supposed. It has not unfrequently nested in different parts of the county — near Durham city, and for several years on Bolden Flats. It has been taken as late as 19 No- vember. 171. Baillon’s Crake. Porzana bailloni (Vieillot). One specimen shot on the banks of the Derwent, 12 July, 1874. Bewick mentions the capture of the ‘ little crake,’ but there are no means now of ascertaining the species. 172. Water-Rail. Rallus aquaticuSy l^mn. Not uncommon in suitable localities. Breeds occasionally. 173. Moor Hen, or Water Hen. Gallinula chloropus (Linn.). Very abundant. Resident throughout the year. 174. Coot. Fulica atray Linn. By no means uncommon. Inhabits our larger ponds and tarns. 175. Pratincole. Glareola pratmcolay Linn. The only instance on record is one taken at Stanhope on 10 July, 1876. 176. Stone-Curlew. (Edicnemus scolopax (S. G. Gmelin). A rare accidental visitor. One was taken near South Shields on 4 February, 1864, and another at Teesmouth on ii January, 1901. 177. Dotterel. Eudromias mortnellus {hmn). Passes every year in some numbers both at spring and autumn migration. It is said to have bred formerly on Kilhope, but not in my memory. 178. Ringed Plover. /Egialitis hiaticula{h\nn.). A resident by the sea shore, where it breeds on gravelly beaches. 179. Golden Plover. Charadrius pluvialisy Linn. A resident on the moorlands in the west, where it breeds. In winter common by the sea shore along with the lapwing. 180. Grey Plover. Squatarola helvettca{h'mn.). Not uncommon, chiefly on the coasts in winter, but occurs at other seasons. In the collection at Elton is a specimen in full summer dress, shot there by Mr. Sutton. Mr. Hancock mentions several other instances. 187 181. Lapwing or Peewit. Bechstein, Locally — Peesweep. Common in the east, though in sadly diminishing numbers. In the wilder parts of the county very abundant. 182. Turnstone. Strepsilas interpret A regular visitor to the coast. 183. Oyster-catcher. Hamatopus ostralegus^ Linn. Not uncommon on the coast. Breeds here occasionally. 184. Avocet. Recurvirostra avocetta^ Linn. Saunders’ edition of Tarrell mentions its having been taken two or three times at Teesmouth. I have not been able to find the authority. It has been taken at Hartley, but that is in Northumberland. 185. Grey Phalarope. Phalaropm fuUcarius (Linn.). An irregular visitor on the coast. Two taken in 1824 at Haverton Hill are mentioned by Hogg. 186. Woodcock. Scolopax rusticula^ Linn. Has for over ten years bred in the county and does so still, but the number shot have considerably diminished of late years. Two years ago there was a nest close to Durham city. 187. Great Snipe. Galltnago major (J. F. Gmelin). Rarely an autumn passes without one or more specimens being recorded. Selby men- tions their appearance in 1826. I possess a specimen, adult, shot in that autumn by Lord Barrington’s keeper at Sedgefield. 188. Common Snipe. Galltnago ccelesth (Frenzel). Still breeds in a few favoured and undrained localities. By far the larger number are migrants. 189. Jack Snipe. Galltnago galllnula {lAnn.). A regular autumn and winter visitor, but in small numbers. 190. Pectoral Sandpiper. Tringa maculata^ Vieillot. Accidental. Has been recorded three times, from Hartlepool, Teesmouth, and Bishop Auckland. 188 Tringa alpina^ Linn In large numbers on the coast in winter. Formerly bred on the moors in the west, and possibly does so still in small numbers. 192. Little Stint. Tringa minuta^ Leisler. A rare visitor on its autumnal migration, generally in September. 193. Temminck’s Stint. Tringa temminct, Leisler. A very rare autumnal visitor. Has been taken in the estuary of the Tees. 194. Curlew-Sandpiper. Tringa subarnuata (Gtlldenstadt). In small numbers on the sea shore and estuaries in winter, often in company with dunlins. 195. Purple Sandpiper. Tringa striata^ Linn. Occurs occasionally on the sea shore in autumn and winter. 196. Knot. Tringa canutas, Linn. A fairly common autumnal migrant. A few remain on the coast through the winter. 197. Sanderling. Calidris arenaria ijLmn.). Common on the coast in autumn and winter, especially in October. It has been shot several times in June in full summer plumage at Seaton and Teesmouth. 198. RufF and Reeve. Machetes pugnax (Linn.). Now a rare and uncertain visitor. Bred in Northumberland up to 1853, and said on reliable authority to have formerly nested on Bolden Flats. Was taken in Cowpen Marsh on 3 September, 1881. 199. Common Sandpiper. Totanus hypoleucus (Linn.). A regular spring and autumn migrant, breeding in suitable localities. 200. Wood Sandpiper. Totanus glareola (J. F. Gmelin). A rare and uncertain autumn migrant. 201. Green Sandpiper. Totanus ochropus (Linn.). A rare and irregular visitor, generally inland. Has been recorded from Hilton Castle, Octo- ber, 1830; Streatlam Park, 1838; Elton, 188 ? Castle Eden Dene, i860 ; Bishop Auckland, 1849; Mainsforth, 1903. A HISTORY OF DURHAM Vanellus vulgaris^ 19 1. Dunlin. BIRDS 202. Redshank. Totanus calidrh (Linn). Common in winter ; a few remain through- out the year, but their former nesting resorts are now drained. I am assured a few still nest in Upper Weardale. 203. Spotted Redshank. Tetanus fuscus (Linn.). An accidental straggler, recorded from Blanchland 12 August, 1840, also Jarrow and Elton, dates uncertain. 204. Greenshank. Tetanus canescens (J. F. Gmelin). Occurs occasionally at spring and autumn migration. Taken at Castle Eden and Elton. 205. Bar-tailed Godwit. L'lmesa lapponka (Linn.). Not uncommon in autumn on the coast. A few occur occasionally in winter and spring. 206. Black-tailed Godwit. Limoso agecephala (Linn.). A rare visitor on autumnal and vernal migration. I find no trace of its ever having nested in the county. 207. Curlew. Nunienius arquata (Linn.). Local — Whaup. Resident. Many breed on the moors in the west. In winter great numbers frequent the sea shore and marshes. 208. Whimbrel. Numenius phoeepus (Linn.). Spends the winter regularly on the coast in small parties, frequenting the salt marshes of Cowpen. 209. Black Tern. Hydrecheliden nigra^ Linn. An occasional visitor. Specimens are in the Castle Eden and Elton local collections. One was taken in the Tees, 7 August, 1886. 210. White-winged Black Tern. Hydre- cheliden leucopteray Schinz. Once obtained at Port Clarence,Teesmouth, on 1 5 May (year unknown), now in the New- castle Museum. 21 1. Sandwich Tern. Sterna cantiaca^^. F. Gmelin. Not infrequent in summer, as numbers breed in Northumberland. 213. Arctic Tern. Sterna macrura^ Nau- mann. Common in summer and early autumn. 214. Little Tern. Sterna minuta^ Linn. A summer visitor, rather rare. 215. Sabine’s Gull. J. Sabine. One was shot at Seaham Harbour on 10 October, 1879, and is now in Newcastle Museum. 216. Little Gull. Larus minutus^ Pallas. An almost regular autumn and winter visitor, occurring in most local collections. I had three specimens brought to me from Cowpen Marsh in different years. Mr. Abel Chapman shot one in 1886, at Whitburn, as early as 28 August. 217. Black-headed Gull. Larus ridibundus^ Linn. Very common, though it has no breeding place left in the county. Comes far inland, and may be seen following the plough thirty miles from the coast. 218. Common Gull. Larus canuSy Linn. Abundant, and resident throughout the year, but does not breed in the district. 219. Herring Gull. Larus argentatusy J. F. Gmelin. A non-breeding resident. Abundant. 220. Lesser black-backed Gull. Larus fuscusy Linn. A very common species. Resident through- out the year, but breeding in Northumberland. 221. Great black-backed Gull. Larus mar inusy Linn. Not abundant, but always to be found off the coast in winter. 222. Glaucous Gull. Larus glaucuSyY7!i\iX\c\\x%. A not very rare winter visitor, generally in immature plumage. 223. Kittiwake. Rissa tridactylay Linn. Common throughout the year, but has no breeding station. 224. Ivory Gull. Pagephila ehurneay Phipps. A specimen in immature plumage was taken at Seaton Carew in February 1837, now in Sunderland Museum. 212. Common Tern. Sterna fiuviatilisy Naumann. In summer, but not so abundant as the Arctic tern. 225. Great Skua. Stercerarius catarrhacteSy Linn. A rare winter visitor. One was captured off the Tees on 14 October, 1887. 189 A HISTORY 226. Pomatorhine Skua. Stercorarius poma- torh'inm, Temminck. Occurs not unfrequently, especially in the estuary of the Tees. 227. Arctic or Richardson’s Skua. Sterco- rarius crepidatus, J. F. Gmelin. Frequent on the coast, chiefly in early winter. 228. Long-tailed or Buffbn’s Skua. Sterco- rarius parasiticus^ Linn. Occasionally in winter. At Whitburn in 1837. Several off the Tees in 1879. I know of five other specimens trken in the county, dates uncertain. [Great Auk. Aka impennis^ Linn. Though we have every reason to believe that the great auk was taken in Northumber- land in the early part or middle of the eighteenth century (Hancock, Birds of North- umberland and Durham^ p. 165), yet there is no trace of it in Durham in historic times. But it may claim a place here, from the dis- covery in the spring of 1878, in one of the seaworn caves in the face of the Whitburn Lizards, of the remains of the great auk. The birds had evidently been eaten by man, for many human bones, including five skulls, were found in the caves, as well as those of all our domestic animals, and of the red deer, roe, badger, marten-cat, and many others. The bones are now in the Newcastle Museum. See Nat. Hist. Trans.., Northumb., vii. 361, seqq.'] 229. Razorbill. Aka torda, Linn. Common on the coast throughout the year. 230. Common Guillemot. Uria troile, Linn. Abundant at all seasons, but, like the razor- bill, not breeding in our limits. 231. Black Guillemot. Uria grylle,H\nn. Occurs only in winter. Not uncommon. 232. Little Auk. Mergulus alle, Linn. An uncertain winter visitor, sometimes arriving in great numbers. One of these irruptions was in October 1841, when hun- dreds appeared off Hartlepool and the Tees, and many were picked up far inland. An- other invasion was on 5 December, 1895 to January 1896, when between thirty to forty specimens were brought to Mr. Culling- ford, Durham Museum, of which one at least was picked up dead in the city. OF DURHAM 233. Puffin. Fratercula arctica, Linn. Common on the coast. Resident, but has no breeding stations. 234. Great Northern Diver. Coiymbus gla- cialis, Linn. Occasional in winter. Seldom a season passes without one or two being taken at Teesmouth. Its occurrence in summer plum- age is very rare. 235. Black-throated Diver. Coiymbus arcticus, Linn. More frequent than the last. One was captured on the Wear, near Durham city, in full summer dress. 236. Red-throated Diver. Coly7nbus septen- trionalis, Linn. Not uncommon in winter, and occurs at other seasons. I have had three specimens from Cowpen Marsh in nuptial dress. 237. Great Crested Grebe. Podicipes cristatus, Linn. A rare straggler, only on the coast. One at Elton, another taken at Teesmouth, 12 January, 1901. 238. Red-necked Grebe. Podicipes griseigena, Boddaert. An occasional winter visitor. There are specimens in all our local museums, but with- out dates. Off the Tees, 19 November, 1892. 239. Slavonian Grebe. Podicipes auritus,U\nn. Not uncommon in winter. Hogg mentions one near Stockton in 1823, years it has been frequently taken. 240. Eared Grebe. Podicipes nigricoUis, Bre. A very rare visitor. I only know of one Durham specimen, in Mr. Sutton’s collection. 241. Little Grebe or Dabchick. Podicipes fluviatilis, Tunstall. Still breeds on the Tees, and occasionally on tarns and ponds throughout the county, generally distributed. 242. Storm-Petrel. Procellaria pelagica, Linn. Not unfrequently found after a storm, and has been picked up dead some distance inland. In December 1895 and January 1896 many were taken. One was picked up dead in an inn yard in the city of Durham. 243. Leach’s Fork-tailed Petrel. Oceano- droma leucorrhoa, Vieillot. Accidental. One specimen washed ashore north of Hartlepool, date uncertain. BIRDS 244. Great Shearwater. Puffinus major^ Fabri. One captured off the Tees, January or February 1874. A few years ago one was picked up dead about the same place and brought to Mr. Cullingford, Durham Museum. 245. Sooty Shearwater. Puffinus grlseus,].P. Gmelin. A single specimen shot on the Tees off Redcar. {Zoologist, 1884, p. 147.) The first recorded British example was shot at the mouth of the Tees in August, 1828 {Proc. Zool. Soc., 1832, p. 129), described by Strick- land. 246. Manx Shearwater. Puffinus anglorum, Temminck. An occasional visitor in winter. Has occurred at Castle Eden, Hartlepool, and Seaton Carew. 247. Fulmar. Fulmarus glacialis, Linn. A rare winter visitor. Has been obtained five times of late years on our coast. igi MAMMALS The varied surface of the county of Durham offers, or has offered in the past, congenial haunts for most of the British mammals. In the western part of the county the extensive moorlands and the secluded and wooded valleys have served as retreats for some of the wilder species ; and though the coal mining and other industries have had, from the naturalist’s point of view, an unfavourable influence on the eastern part, this has not been the case to nearly the extent that might have been expected. The coast line also enriches the fauna by the addition of a number of marine mammals, whilst the operations in caves and bogs, and in the dredging of the larger rivers, have brought to light many interesting evidences of the former presence of animals which have long since disappeared from the district. The paucity of records for the county of Durham in comparison with those for many other counties is regrettable. An excellent summary of the known facts relating to the mammal fauna up to the year 1863 is given in the catalogue by Messrs. Mennell and Perkins^; but since that time very little systematic observa- tion has apparently been attempted. An especially interesting field for investigation is presented by the local bats, to which hardly any critical attention has been paid for many years. A few points regarding particular animals are worthy of special note. The wild cat {Felis catus) appears to have survived in the county until about fifty years ago ; the pine marten {Mustela martes) and polecat {Putorius putorius) have only been exterminated within comparatively few years, and recent occurrences in the neighbour- ing counties even render it not altogether improbable that one or both may yet stray within the borders again ; the old English black rat is almost certainly still in existence in one or two towns within the county. In reference to the cetaceans, it is a curious fact that while I am only able to record five species for this county, at least double the number have been obtained on the coast between the Tyne and the Tweed. CHEIROPTERA 1. Long-eared Bat. Plecotus auritus^ Linn. This bat is abundant in the county, and is perhaps the commonest species. 2. Great or White’s Bat (Noctule). Piph- trellus noctula^ Schreber. Bell — Scotophilus nociula. White — VespertUio altivolans. I believe this fine species is not uncommon in the southern part of the county. It is plentiful in places a little south of the Tees, and I have the following records for the county itself : Mr. H. G. Stobart has shot it at Croft ; Mr. J. Greenwell describes a bat, evidently of this species, which he frequently sees at Es- combe ; in the Naturalist for 1 886, Mr. W. D. Roebuck records the taking of twenty-five noctules from an oak near Barnard Castle ; and 1 Trans. Tyneside naturalists' Field Clui, vi. 192 A HISTORY OF DURHAM in the same volume Mr. T. H. Nelson men- tions that one was shot at the Flats, near Bishop Auckland, in the summer of 1885. Mennell and Perkins do not give the species, but the bat taken at Cleadon in 1836 and referred to in their catalogue as a serotine has been examined in the Newcastle Museum by Messrs. Roebuck and Southwell and found by them to be a noctule {Zoologist, 1887). 3. Pipistrelle. Pipistrellus pipistrellu5,^c\iXc.hQT. Bell — Scotophilus pipistrellus. This species is common throughout the county. 4. Natterer’s Bat. Myotis nattereri, Kuhl. Bell — Vespertilio nattereri. Mennell and Perkins record the taking of a Natterer’s bat * on a tree in HofFal Wood, Durham,’ on the authority of the late W. Backhouse. I cannot hear of any subsequent instance of the capture of this species in the county. 5. Daubenton’s Bat. Myotis daubentoni, Leisler. Bell — V ispertlRo daubentonii. W. Backhouse, quoted by Mennell and Perkins, reported the occurrence of this bat at Darlington, apparently on good evidence. In the same catalogue a white variety is men- tioned, taken at ‘Auckland St. Andrew, Durham.’ As the species is widely distributed in Scotland and is also found in Yorkshire, there is a strong probability that it occurs fairly frequently in Durham. 6. Whiskered Bat. Myotismystacinus,l^&\s\er. Bell — VespertiRo mystacinus. The whiskered bat is pretty generally dis- tributed in Yorkshire (Roebuck and Clarke), and has been taken several times in Cumber- land 1890). It is therefore probably not rare in the county of Durham ; but the only records I know of are those of W. Back- house from ‘ Shotley Bridge (Darlington ?),’ quoted in Mennell and Perkins’ catalogue, and the allusion in the Zoologist for 1888 to a specimen from Durham. INSECTIVORA 7. Hedgehog. Ertnaceus europaus, Linn. This animal is common in all the more wooded parts of the county. 8. Mole. Talpa europaa, Linn. Moles are as abundant here as elsewhere. Varieties of a cream or silver-grey colour are by no means uncommon, and I have records of such from many parts of the county. These varieties often have a more or less brilliant tinge of orange on the under-side and flanks. Several instances of this have been reported from Winlaton by Mr. Thos. Thompson, and a silver-grey mole with the orange tinge was sent to the Newcastle Museum in 1903 from the Woodlands, Consett, by Mr. W. B. van Haansbergen. 9. Common Shrew. Sorex araneus, Linn. This species is very abundant, as in all parts of the country. 10. Pigmy Shrew. Sorex minutus, Pallas. Bell — Sorex pygptaus. The only positive evidence of the occur- rence of the pigmy shrew that I have been able to find is that aflPorded by a specimen in the Newcastle Museum. This is labelled as having been taken at St. John’s, Wolsingham, by Wm. Backhouse ; it was sent by him to John Hancock about 1850. The species is probably not so scarce as the absence of further records might suggest. II. Water Shrew. Neomys fodiens,P^[\ss. Bell — Crossopus fodiens. This species is probably distributed gene- rally through the county on quiet streams and ponds, but is not often noticed, as is fre- quently the case where it is quite common. Mennell and Perkins gave records from Castle Eden and Darlington ; Mr. R. Lofthouse mentions it {Naturalist, 1887) as occurring on the lower part of the Tees, and I have the following additional records : — near Wolsing- ham, common (W. Backhouse) ; Upper Teesdale, fairly common (W. Walton) ; on a pond close to the city of Durham (J. Culling- ford) ; on the small ‘ stells ’ about Hartlepool before these were built over (J. E. Robson). CARNIVORA 12. Wild Cat. Felis catus, Linn. land, as might have been expected from the The wild cat held its ground in the county character of much of the district. Exact re- of Durham down to considerably more recent cords are, however, almost entirely wanting ; times than was the case in most parts of Eng- but the fact stated by Canon Tristram, that it 193 25 1 MAMMALS was to be found up to about the year 1840 in Castle Eden Dene, by no means one of the most secluded parts of the county, renders it probable that in the more remote and unculti- vated parts the wild cat was not exterminated until at least the middle of the last century. It is rather remarkable that no remains of this animal appear to have been noticed in any of the limestone caves that have been explored, though bones of the wolf, badger, and even of the marten, are not scarce. 13. Fox. Vulpes vulpes^ Linn. Bell — Vulpes vulgaris. Foxes are plentiful in almost all parts of the county. 14. Pine Marten. Mustela martes^ Linn. Bell — Martes abietum. At the time when Mennell and Perkins were compiling their catalogue (1863) they were able to say of the pine marten that ‘ although the animal cannot be called common, it is widely distributed over both counties.’ It is difficult to imagine that the marten was not somewhat scarcer at that date than the word- ing of this statement might be taken to imply, though its final extermination, due largely to the increased use of steel traps, probably took place very rapidly. The last known capture in this county was on 31 May, 1882, at Hoppyland, a few miles west of Bishop Auckland ; it is recorded [Zoologist, 1882) by Mr.T. H. Nelson, who also refers to the taking of a nest with three young at the same place thirty-three years previously. It is an interest- ing fact that from among the remains of human and other occupants discovered in a cave near the coast at Whitburn, bones of the marten were identified by the late Mr. John Hancock [Nat. Hist. Trans. Northumb. and Durham, vii.). 15. Polecat. Putorius putorius,\J\xi\\. Bell — Mustela putorius. From the information I have been able to obtain, it would appear that the polecat has been exterminated in the county only within the last ten or twelve years. Mr. J. Culling- ford had several before that time, but has had none since ; and Mr. W. Walton reports two killed near Middleton-in-Teesdale about fifteen years ago, one being still in his possession. Mr. G. E. Crawhall tells me that up to forty years ago polecats were not infrequently killed in Weardale, but that he has heard of none there in more recent years. He remembers a female and litter of young being caught near Wolsingham. Mennell and Perkins de- scribe it (1863) as ‘still plentiful in both our counties ’ ; and the following is also quoted from their catalogue : ‘ The Rev. G. C. Abbes tells us that a very fine polecat visited his garden at Cleadon a few years ago, and was so bold and fearless that it came close to him when gardening, and suffered him to push it back with his rake when it interfered with his work.’ 1 6. Common Stoat. Putorius ermineus, Linn. Bell — Mustela erminea. The stoat is abundant in nearly all parts of the district. Examples in the white winter coat and in all stages of approach to it are frequently killed or seen. 17. Weasel. Putorius nivalis, Linn. Bell — Mustela vulgaris. As common here as elsewhere. An albino example from upper Teesdale is reported by Mr. W. Walton. 18. Badger. Meles meles, Linn Bell — Meles tax us. The badger has held its ground successfully in the county of Durham. It is fairly plentiful in the more secluded western half of the county, and also inhabits some of the quieter woodlands of the eastern half. The Rev. Canon Tristram has given me some interesting information regarding the badgers in Castle Eden Dene. They were common there at one time, but dis- appeared for some years ; for the last five 01 six years, however, several pairs have been known to be in the dene. A female with a litter of young was once kept there in confine- ment, living on good terms both with her captors and with the pigs. Canon Tristram tells me,‘ the local name of the badger is “ pate,” and a small subsidiary glen is known as the “Pate-priest’s Dene,” from a French refugee priest who lived a hermit life no years ago in the glen, and was much given to badger hunting.’ A large number of bones of the badger were found in the Whitburn cave. The late Richard Howse in mentioning this fact {pNat. Hist. Trans, vii.) states that the badger ‘ has now disappeared from our locality’ and only survives in some of the southern counties, an opinion which seems to have been general at the time (1878). 19. Otter. Lutra lutra, Linn. Bell — Lutra vulgaris. Otters are still plentiful on the streams and rivers of the county and frequently descend to the neighbourhood of the towns. They are occasionally seen near the bridges at Durham (J. Cullingford), and individuals have been 194 A HISTORY OF DURHAM captured in Middlesborough and Stockton (R. Lofthouse). 20. Common Seal. Phoca vitul'ma^ Linn. A large colony of seals formerly existed and bred on Seal Sand at the mouth of the Tees ; but the great development of the Cleveland iron industry and the consequent increase of traffic on the river, together with the extensive works of the Tees Commissioners, have led to the complete desertion of the place. Mennell and Perkins state that about a thousand seals frequented the Tees mouth between 1820 and 1830 ; from the excellent account of the colony given by Mr. R. Lofthouse in the Naturalist for 1887, it appears that it was reduced to twenty or thirty seals by about the year 1867. The final desertion probably took place not long afterwards. But seals are still frequently seen on the coast (Canon Tristram, R. Lofthouse, and others), and sometimes enter the rivers. They appear to retain a preference for the vicinity of Hartlepool and the Tees. 2 1 . Grey Seal. Halicharus grypuSy Fabr. This large seal probably visits the Durham coast only very rarely. One was found at Seaton Snook in 1871 (Clarke and Roebuck) ; and Mr. R. Lofthouse mentions several instances in which large seals, probably of this species, have been seen about the mouth of the Tees. RODENTIA 22. Squirrel. Sciurus leucouruSy Kerr. Bell — Sciurus vulgaris. The squirrel is plentiful in the wooded parts, though perhaps hardly so abundant on the whole as in the more southern counties. Formerly it appears to have been scarcer or at least less evenly distributed than at present. Canon Tristram writes, ‘ in my boyhood it was unknown here,’ that is, about the city of Durham, and in Mennell and Perkins’ catalogue he reported it as having been ‘ once seen ’ at Castle Eden. 23. Dormouse. Muscardinus avellanariuSy Linn. Bell — Myoxus avellanarius. The dormouse is certainly rare in the county, but the recorded instances of its occurrence suggest that it might be found more frequently by careful watching. Mennell and Perkins state that ‘ it has been taken occasionally in the woods which clothe the valley of the Derwent, at Gibside, Winlaton Mill, and nearEbchester (Tra«r. Nat. Hist. Sac. i., p. 335).’ It has also been seen by Mr. N. M’Lachlan at Headlam {Zoologisty 1885); Mr. J. Greenwell mentions ‘ one taken near Hamsterley about fifty years ago,’ and Mr. J. Cullingford in- forms me that he has had two from close to the city of Durham within the last four years. A mouse described by Mr. F. Fenwick from the Wolsingham district is most likely of this species — ‘ chestnut coloured, with white breast, builds its nest in hazel bushes of dried grass ; rare.’ 24. Brown Rat. APus decumanusy Pallas. As common here as elsewhere. Mr. R. Lofthouse {Naturalisty 1887) notes the fact that it ‘swarms in all the reclamation embankments constructed by the Tees Commissioners, par- ticularly those constructed of slag.’ 25. Black Rat. Mus rattusy Linn. This interesting species is probably not yet quite exterminated in the county of Durham. Mennell and Perkins, in 1863, were able to mention ‘ Stockton, where, as in many other places in our district, the species still lingers, though in constantly diminishing numbers.’ It still existed in old warehouses at Stockton in 1887 (Lofthouse), and in all probability survives there at the present day. Examples from Stockton (1868) are in the Newcastle Museum, and Canon Tristram also has one from there (1873). For particulars of its former presence in Durham I am again indebted to Canon Tristram, who tells me in a letter, ‘ There was a colony of black rats in and about Durham Cathedral which had been there from time immemorial. When at Durham School, in the thirties,! knew of them, and they were said to visit the school, which was then in the churchyard. The last known to have been taken was in the year 1879 ; a trap was set for it by the verger.’ Mr. J. Cullingford doubts whether the black rat is even now exterminated in Durham, and tells me that about seven years ago one was killed near the town by the late Mr. F. Greenwell. 26. House Mouse. Mus musculusy Linn. Very common about habitations everywhere. 27. Long-tailed Field Mouse. Mus sylvaticuSy Linn. This species is plentiful, at any rate in the wooded and cultivated parts of the county. 28. Harvest Mouse. Mus minutusy Pallas. The harvest mouse appears to have been very rarely noticed in the county of Durham 195 MAMMALS and is doubtless scarce ; though I have lately seen it myself a very short distance north of the Tyne. Mr. W. Backhouse found it at St. John’s, Weardale, 800 feet above sea level {Trans. Tyneside Nat. Field C/ub, iv.), and Mr. J. Cullingford has had the nest recently from a cornfield close to the city of Durham. 29. Water Vole. Microtus amphibius^ Linn. Bell — Aivicola amphibius. Common along all the streams. 30. Field Vole. Microtus agrestisy Linn. Bell — Arvicola agrestis. Very abundant. A quiet observer may often see it sitting at the entrance to its burrow in a hedge bank. Mr. V. A. Reppon records the killing of a black field vole in his park at Frosterley in 1889. 3 1 . Bank V ole. Evotomys glareoluSy Schreber. Bell — Arvicola glareolus. The bank vole is doubtless as common in the county of Durham as elsewhere ; for Mr. R. I. Pocock has shown {Zoologist, 1897) that its supposed scarcity was due to the fact that it is not to be trapped in the same way as the field vole. Before this became generally known the bank vole was sometimes recorded as a comparative rarity from the county. The Rev. H. H. Slater {^Zoologist, 1887) had, how- ever, found it to be by no means scarce in the eastern district. 32. Common Hare. Lepus europaus, Pallas. Bell — Lepus timidus. Hares are as numerous in many parts of the county as in other similar districts in England, though they seem to me to be hardly so abun- dant on the whole as in Yorkshire. They are naturally rather scarcer on the higher moorlands. Mr. R. Lofthouse mentions that they show a particular fondness for the reclaimed land about the estuary of the Tees. 33. Rabbit. Lepus cuniculus, Linn. Very numerous in all suitable places. UNGULATA 34. White Park Cattle. Bos taurus, Linn. Herds of white cattle, such as the one still maintained at Chillingham in Northumberland, were formerly kept at Bishop Auckland and Barnard Castle. A manuscript of the year 1635, quoted in the Annals of Nat. Hist. 1839, describes the park at Bishop Auckland as ‘ a daintie stately parke wherein were wild bulls and kine, wch had two calves runers ; there are about twenty wild beasts, all white, will nott endure yo’r approach, butt if they bee enraged or distressed, verye violent and furious ; their calves will bee wondrous fatt.’ The Barnard Castle herd is alluded to by Mr. J. Watson in the Naturalist for 1887. 35. Red Deer. Cervus elaphus, Linn. The former abundance of the red deer in the district is proved not only by old chronicles {e.g. Leland’s Itinerary, quoted by Mennell and Perkins), but also by the numerous remains found in all parts of the county in peat bogs, river beds, caves and ancient camps. The descendants of the original wild red deer of Weardale were maintained in the bishop’s park at Stanhope until about 1640; in Teesdale they were preserved to a somewhat later date, for four hundred are recorded to have perished there in the snow in 1673 (Egglestone’s Stanhope). Well preserved antlers and bones of red deer from Hartlepool, Whitburn Cave, and the bed of the Tyne, amongst other places in the district, are in the Newcastle Museum. 36. Fallow Deer. Cervus dama, Linn. This is an introduced species kept in some of the parks. 37. Roe Deer. Capreolus capreolus, Linn. Bell — Capreolus caprea. Apart from the known fact that the roe deer was once generally distributed in England, there is definite evidence of its former presence in the county of Durham. Its remains were found in the Heathery Burn Cave, near Stan- hope, and in the Whitburn Cave on the coast. Bones from the Whitburn Cave are in the Newcastle Museum. CETACEA 38. Cachalot — Sperm Whale. Physeter mac- was ‘ stranded near Hartlepool and sent to the rocephalus, Linn. Bishop of Durham in the days when he Mennell and Perkins allude to the bones of claimed “ Jura Regalia ” within the limits of a young cachalot deposited in the crypt of the See.’ Canon Tristram informs me that Durham Cathedral, and state that the animal some of the bones still remain, and that it was ig6 A HISTORY OF DURHAM in the reign of Charles II. that the stranding of this whale occurred. The authors quoted above also record that ‘ the atlas of another individual of this species was recently found by Edward Backhouse, Esq., buried at some depth in the sand near Seaton.’ 39. Bottle-Nosed or Beaked Whale. Hy- peroodon rostratus^ Chemnitz. Bell — Hyperoodon Butxkopf. A skeleton of this species was found in the bed of the Tyne near Newcastle in 1857, is described in the Transactions of the Tyneside Field Cluby iv. This is one of the commoner whales in British seas and has probably often visited the Durham coast. One was captured only just north of the Tyne about 1850. 40. White Whale — Beluga. Delphinapterus leucaSy Pallas. Bell — Beluga leucas. This forms the most recent and perhaps the most interesting addition to the cetacean fauna of the county. A full grown male, fourteen feet in length, was captured at the South Shields sands on 10 June, 1903, and after a prolonged struggle was landed at North Shields. Its skeleton is in the Newcastle Museum. Full details and a photograph are given in the Transactions of the local natural history society ^ by Mr. A, Meek, M.Sc., who also reports the fact that since this capture another white whale, possibly the mate, has been seen at various points off the coast from Northumberland down to Flamborough Head. This is the first recorded occurrence of the species on the east coast south of the Forth. 41. Grampus. Orca gladiator^ Bell — Phoccena area. I know of no instance of the actual strand- ing of an individual of this species on the Durham coast, but it is by no means uncom- mon in the North Sea. I saw a grampus, or at least its unmistakable dorsal fin, on one occasion during the summer of 1901 a few miles off the coast. Sir Cuthbert Sharp ^ men- tions the grampus in a list of local animals. 42. Porpoise. Phocana communisy Cuvier. Porpoises are abundant off the Durham coast. * Frans. Nat. Hist. Soc. Northumb. and Durham (new ser.), i. ® History of Hartlepool, 1816. 197 m lllSTOIiY OK MUUIIAM PRE-HISTO^ M.rtTfn JlUffTt' ihrp^fffi Nt wbriH W^iilrtirsU ton iMi/t UiUmnUI ^ Mht i ■ ' li . O'JtnJioll 'oti/rbUfv '-^A/iirh j^ipyrooiLJ^ ' ) ' / - -'' ^ ^trrurh '• ‘^ -■'T ^^j^ootnii’ J"" .;.' / «.■ nini Uta- *s=J'' ^ ‘\w''']Pell}ioURe Fell SlaJjey X some' laheFle , ^'S.Uru Kjips^tiii* --il i^vj V^tt>j)i^e fsL. 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