The Naturalist Volume 124(1) February 2007 Published by The Field Naturalists Club of Victoria since 1884 From the Editors We are pleased to begin the year with a collection of papers that are sure to be of interest to a wide readership. As ever, the range of subject matter included in this issue is a reflection of the natural world as a whole, as well as of the diverse interests of the journal and its readership. Papers on aspects of the plant world (Meagher, Muller, Johnston, Hill and Pickering, White and Gibson); birds (Murphy, Overeent and Wallis); snakes (Clemann et al.)\ and fungi (Schleiger), together with reviews of recently published works in an equally-wide spectrum of areas, ensure that this issue caters to most tastes. The reviews may trend to books on various elements of vegetation, but there is also something on photography and history - all within the ambit of the natural world. We were saddened by the sudden passing of a former President of the FNCV, Dr Jack Douglas, in February, and a tribute to him is included in the pages of this issue. The Victorian Naturalist is published six times per year by the The Field Naturalists Club of Victoria Inc. Registered Office: FNCV, 1 Gardenia Street, Blackburn, Victoria 3130, Australia. Postal Address: FNCV, Locked Bag 3, Blackburn, Victoria 3130, Australia. Phone/Fax (03) 9877 9860; International Phone/Fax 61 3 9877 9860. email: fncv@vicnet.net.au www.vicnet.net.au/~fncv Editors : Mrs Anne Morton, Dr Gary Presland and Dr Maria Gibson Address correspondence to: The Editors, The Victorian Naturalist , FNCV, Locked Bag 3, Blackburn, Victoria Australia 3130. Phone: (03) 9877 9860. Email: vicnat@vicnet.net.au All subscription enquiries should be sent to FNCV, Locked Bag 3, Blackburn, Victoria Australia 3130. Phone/Fax:61 3 9877 9860. Email fncv@vicnet.net.au Yearly Subscription Rates - The Field Naturalists Club of Victoria Inc. Membership Metropolitan $60 Concessional ( pensioner/student/unemployed) $49 Country (more than 50 km from GPO) $49 Junior $17 Family (at same address) $77 Institutional Libraries and Institutions (within Australia) $1 15 Libraries and Institutions (overseas) AU$120 Schools/Clubs $60 The Victorian N aturali Volume 124(1)2007 February Editors: Anne Morton, Gary Presland, Maria Gibson From the Editors 2 Research Reports The bird communities of Berry Jerry State Forest and The Rock Nature Reserve near Wagga Wagga, New South Wales in 1975-1981 and 1995-2003 , by Michael J Murphy 4 Studies on Victorian bryophytes 7. The genus Triandrophyllum Fulf. & Hatch, by David Meagher 48 Distribution, frequency and density of the weed Achillea millefolium Yarrow in the Snowy Mountains, Australia, by Frances Johnston, Wendy Hill and Catherine Marina Pickering 52 Contributions Decline in numbers of the Little Penguin Eudyptula minor at Middle Island, Warrnambool, Victoria, by Rebecca Overeem and Robert Wallis 19 An exercise in lichenometry at Point Lonsdale, by Noel Schleiger . 23 Heidelberg mistletoes revisited: decadal changes in the distribution of Creeping Mistletoe Muellerina eucalyptoides on introduced trees in suburban Melbourne, by Gregg Muller 27 An addition to the snake fauna of Victoria: De Vis’ Banded Snake Denisonia devisi (Serpentes: Elapidae) Waite and Longman, by Nick Clemann, Peter Robertson, Dale Gibbons, Geoffrey Heard, David Steane, A John Coventty and Ryan Chick 33 Book Reviews Woodlands: a disappearing landscape, by David Lindenmayer, Mason Crane and Damian Michael, reviewed by Rebecca J Steer . 38 As if for a thousand years: a history of Victoria’s Land Conservation and Environment Conservation Councils, by Danielle Clode, reviewed by Ian Mansergh 39 Flora of the Otway Plain and Ranges 1. Orchids, Irises, Lilies, Grass-trees, Mat-rushes and other petaloid monocotyledons, by Enid Mayfield, reviewed by Helen M Cohn 41 Exposing nature: a guide to wildlife photography, by Frank Greenaway, reviewed by Anne Morton 42 Software Review Supplement to native trees and shrubs in south-eastern Australia, by Leon Costermans, reviewed by Mary Gibson and Kevin Rule 43 Tribute Dr John (Jack) Gordon George Douglas, by Anne Douglas and Rob Wallis 45 Naturalist Note Notes on recruitment in Sphacelaria biradiata Askenasy (Sphacelariales, Phaeophyceae), by Rebecca White and Maria Gibson 46 ISSN 0042-5184 Front cover: Sacred Kingfisher Todiramphus sanctus: a woodland bird species at risk of future decline. Photo by Michael Murphy. See p. 4. Back cover: De Vis’ Banded Snake Denisonia devisi from Wallpolla Island, north-western Victoria. Photo by Nick Clemann. See p. 33. Research Report The bird communities of Berry Jerry State Forest and The Rock Nature Reserve near Wagga Wagga, New South Wales in 1975-1981 and 1995-2003 Michael J Murphy Blackbird Grange, 2 Rundle Street, Coonabarabran NSW 2357 Abstract A study of the bird communities of two public reserves near Wagga Wagga on the NSW South Western Slopes recorded 127 species including 26 woodland species considered to be declining in the region (seven of which are currently listed as threatened under NSW state legislation) and 49 woodland species at risk of decline, as well as a range of agricultural species and waterbirds. Ninety- three species were recorded in Berry Jerry State Forest and 1 08 species in The Rock Nature Reserve, with 74 species found in both. Differences between the bird communities of the two reserves are in part a reflection of the different habitats available, with Berry Jerry State Forest supporting a diverse aquatic bird community in addition to the terrestrial bird community. Species in the ‘declining’ and ‘at risk’ categories made up approximately two thirds of the terrestrial bird communities of both reserves, and both reserves are considered to be close to losing a number of these species. Comparison of records from 1995-2003 and 1975-1981 suggests that Berry Jerry State Forest may have lost four species of its declining woodland bird community (Speckled Warbler Chthonicota sagittate ;, Eastern Yellow Robin Eopsaltria australis , White-browed Babbler Pomatostomus super- ciliosus and Diamond Firetail Stagonopleura guttata) over the past two decades. Both Berry Jerry State Forest and The Rock Nature Reserve are considered to be of regional significance for bird con- servation. A combination of local- and regional-scale management actions is necessary if they are to maintain viable bird communities. (The Victorian Naturalist 124 (1), 2007, 4-18). Introduction The New South Wales (NSW) South Western Slopes Biogeographic region (Thackway and Creswell 1995), in inland southeastern Australia, has been extensively modified over approximately 1 8 decades of European occupation to become one of Australia’s primary agricultural and pastoral regions. An estimated 84% of the region’s original temperate woodland and forest has been cleared (Pressey et at. 2000) and the modem landscape is a variegated patchwork of cropped areas, grazing lands of native or improved pasture (with or without scattered senescent trees) and small woodland/forest remnants, typically on poorer soils (Morgan and Terrey 1992; Sivertsen 1993; Murphy 1999; Gibbons and Boak 2002). Together with other parts of southern Australia’s sheep-wheat belt, the region today faces serious issues of declining agricultural pro- ductivity (through processes such as soil erosion and salinity) and declining biodiver- sity (Saunders 1994; Robinson and Traill 1996; Barrett 1997; Reid 1999). While some native bird species such as the Crested Pigeon Ocyphaps lophotes, Galah Cacatua roseicapilla. Noisy Miner Manorina melanocephala and Australian Magpie Gymnorhina tibicen are able to survive or even thrive in the modem agri- cultural landscape of southern Australia’s sheep-wheat belt (Grey et al. 1997; Recher 1999; Reid 1999), many others depend wholly or in part on the remaining rem- nants of the original vegetation. Recent studies and reviews have indicated that a large proportion of the birds dependent on Australia’s temperate woodlands is in rapid decline with a continuing wave of local and regional extinctions (Saunders 1989; Barrett et al. 1994; Robinson and Traill 1996; Reid 1999; Traill and Duncan 2000). Robinson and Traill (1996) estimat- ed that more than one quarter of all terres- trial bird species found in Australia’s tem- perate woodland regions were currently affected. Threatening processes driving this ongoing decline include a combination of continued clearing of remnant woodland habitat, extinction debt (where relictual populations isolated in remnants too small to sustain them decline over time to even- tual local extinction) and ongoing degrada- tion and disturbance of remnant areas 4 The Victorian Naturalist Research Report Apostlebird Struthidea cinerea : a declining woodland bird species. Photo by Michael Murphy. through over-grazing by domestic stock, weed invasion, increased predation or competition by feral animals or distur- bance-tolerant native species, firewood collection, pollution with agricultural chemicals, tree dieback and inappropriate fire regimes (Ford 1985; Saunders 1989; Benson 1991; Robinson and Traill 1996; Traill and Duncan 2000). Only about 1% of the NSW South Western Slopes region has been set aside in formal conservation reserves (State of the Environment Advisory Council 1996; Pressey et al. 2000), and additional areas of remnant native vegetation occurring on freehold properties and on public lands such as state forests and travelling stock reserves make a significant contribution to supporting regional biodiversity. The pre- sent study examined the local bird commu- nities occurring in two public land wood- land/forest remnants on the NSW South Western Slopes; one a formal conservation reserve and the other a state forest. The results from the present study were also compared with information from a similar study two decades earlier. Studies such as this are useful in providing a local, site- specific perspective to regional-scale pat- terns of change in bird communities. Methods Study areas The two study areas (Figs 1-3) were Berry Jerry State Forest (SF) and The Rock Nature Reserve (NR), near Wagga Wagga in Wiradjuri Aboriginal Country in the NSW South Western Slopes bioregion. Berry Jerry SF (35° 03’S, 147° 03’E), dedicated in 1915 and currently 1199 ha in area, is managed by Forests NSW (now part of the NSW Department of Primary Industries). It is located approximately 25 km west of Wagga Wagga on alluvial soils of the Murrumbidgee River floodplain. Beavers Creek (an anabranch of the Murrumbidgee River) runs through the reserve and, together with associated wet- lands, provides extensive aquatic habitat. The vegetation of the reserve is predomi- nantly riverine forest of River Red Gum Eucalyptus camaldulensis with an under- storey of grasses and herbs. Large mature trees with abundant hollows are common along the banks of Beavers Creek. Vol. 124 (1) 2007 5 Research Report Fig. 1 . Location of Berry Jerry State Forest and The Rock Nature Reserve near Wagga Wagga in the NSW South Western Slopes Biogeographic Region. Additional reserves mentioned in the text are also shown. Approximately 50 ha of grassy open woodland of Grey Box E. microcarpa, Yellow Box E. melliodora and White Cypress Pine Callitris glaucophvlla occurs on slightly higher ground in the south of the reserve. Domestic sheep and cattle graze throughout the reserve. Fallen timber remains common despite widespread evi- dence of timber removal. The Rock NR (35° 16’S, 147° 04’E), gazetted in 1962 and currently 341 ha in area, is managed by the NSW National Parks and Wildlife Service (NPWS) (now part of the NSW Department of Environment and Conservation). It is located approximately 30 km south-west of Wagga Wagga and comprises a steep 6 The Victorian Naturalist Research Report rocky ridge of Devonian quartzite and slate rising about 360 m above the surrounding agricultural countryside. The lower slopes of the Reserve (extending into adjacent freehold properties and a travelling stock reserve) support woodland dominated by Grey Box, White Box E. albens and Blakely’s Red Gum E. blakelyi, with White Cypress Pine, Black Cypress Pine C. endlicheri and Red Stringybark E. macrorhyncha also present, and a sparse understorey of grasses and shrubs. Higher, steeper slopes in the Reserve support woodland of mainly White Box and Currawang Acacia doratoxylon with a heathy understorey, while the ridge top supports Currawang, Dwyer’s Mallee Gum E. dwyeri and Hill Oak Allocasuarina ver- ticillata (Burrows 1999; NPWS 2000). Exposed cliff faces provide nesting and roosting sites for various bird species. Aquatic habitat is limited to a small dam (about 100 nr surface area) on the lower slopes of the reserve and additional stock dams on adjoining properties. Domestic stock is excluded from the reserve and the area is managed for conservation. Survey methods A field survey of the bird species found in the two study areas was done during four visits to the Wagga Wagga area by the author between January 1999 and July 2003, with one visit occurring in each sea- son. Berry Jerry SF was visited on a total of 14 days and 9 nights during this period, while The Rock NR was visited on 12 days and 3 nights. Diurnal birds were identified by sight or call while walking by day in a random meander through the different veg- etation communities present, with 7 x 50 binoculars used to aid observation. Birds with unfamiliar calls were tracked down and identified by sight. Nocturnal birds were identified by sight or call while walk- ing or slowly driving through the study areas at night with a 50 watt spotlight. The species recorded during each field visit were each assigned to one of four cate- gories of abundance, based on the number of individuals or family groups recorded: abundant (more than 50 records), common (15-50 records), uncommon (3-14 records) and rare (1-2 records). The assigned cate- gories were then averaged over the four visits to generate a final category of abun- dance for each species in each reserve. The results of the field survey were supplement- ed with records of additional species from the NPWS Atlas of NSW Wildlife and the Birding-Aus internet mailing list archive (http://www.cse.unsw.edu.au/birding-aus) for the period 1995-2003. The records of Gall (1982), which docu- mented the results of a regional survey of the vertebrate fauna of the South Western Slopes in the late 1970s-early 1980s, were examined and bird records for Berry Jerry SF and The Rock NR retrieved. Gall’s sur- vey methods for birds were similar to those employed in the present study, comprising diurnal observation, call recognition and spotlighting, and included 4 days of field survey in Berry Jerry SF and 13 days in The Rock NR between 1977 and 1981 (Gall 1 982). Data from Gall’s report were supplemented with records of additional bird species from the two study areas for the period 1975-1981 from the NPWS Atlas of NSW Wildlife. Ecological categories Species recorded were divided into the fol- lowing four categories: 1 ) species dependent on aquatic habitats; 2) species dependent on woodland or for- est habitats and considered to be current- ly declining in the eastern Australian sheep-wheat belt, including species cur- rently listed as threatened under the NSW Threatened Species Conservation Act 1995 (TSC Act); 3) species of woodland/forest habitats con- sidered to be marginally secure with a risk of decline in the future as a result of dependence on woodland or forest areas; and 4) species of agricultural habitats, compris- ing both woodland/forest species consid- ered to be relatively tolerant of clearing and fragmentation, together with species from open country habitats. Assignment of species to the three terres- trial categories was based on review of available references to the status of birds in eastern Australian temperate woodlands; primarily Reid (1999) and Traill and Duncan (2000), but also Loyn (1985), Barrett et al. (1994), Robinson (1994), Robinson and Traill (1996), Barrett (1997), Vol. 124 (1) 2007 7 Research Report Fig. 2. River Red Gum riverine forest in Berry Jerry State Forest. Uncontrolled grazing by domestic stock is a likely factor in the apparent loss of four declining woodland bird species from this reserve, but strategic grazing is now being used in an effort to replace introduced weeds with native grasses. Photo by Michael Murphy. Bennett and Ford (1997), Egan et at. (1997), Murphy (1999) and Reid (2000). Results A total of 127 species was recorded in this study (both study areas and both survey periods combined), comprising 123 native species and 4 introduced species. Ninety- three species were recorded in Berry Jerry SF and 108 species in The Rock NR, with 74 species found in both. A complete list of the species recorded is provided in Appendix 1, together with information on when and in which study area each species was recorded and the abundance category for those species recorded in the 1999- 2003 field survey. The 1999-2003 field survey recorded 75 species in Berry Jerry SF, with two species (the Galah and Sulphur-crested Cockatoo Cacatna galerita) recorded as abundant, 16 as common, 26 as uncommon and 31 as rare. Table 1 shows the cumulative total of species recorded over the four visits com- prising the 1999-2003 field survey. The rate of increase in Berry Jerry SF had slowed by the 4' h visit, with only 5% of the species added at that time, suggesting that few additional species remained to be found. Reference to the NPWS Atlas of NSW Wildlife and the Birding-Aus inter- net mailing list archive indicated no addi- tional species for the study area for the period 1995-2003. Seventy species were recorded in Berry Jerry SF in the period 1975-1981; 62 species by Gall (1982), with records of another eight species from Fig. 3. View from the summit of The Rock Nature Reserve, illustrating the context of this small woodland reserve in the modern agricul- tural landscape of the NSW South Western Slopes. Photo by Michael Murphy. the NPWS Atlas of NSW Wildlife. Fifty- two species were recorded in Berry Jerry SF during both 1975-1981 and 1995-2003, while 18 species were recorded only dur- ing 1975-1981 and 23 only in 1995-2003 (Appendix 1). The 1999-2003 field survey in The Rock NR recorded 80 species. No species were recorded as abundant, 18 were common, 29 were uncommon and 33 were rare. The cumulative total over the four visits of the field survey (Table 1) shows that 10% of the species were first recorded at the 4 1 * 1 visit, suggesting that the species list for The Rock NR was not as close to comple- tion as that of Berry Jerry SF, with addi- tional species probably remaining to be found. Reference to the NPWS Atlas of NSW Wildlife and the Birding-Aus inter- net mailing list archive identified an addi- tional 1 2 species for the study area for the period 1995-2003, bringing the total for that period to 92 species. Eighty-nine species were recorded in The Rock NR in the period 1975-1981; 65 species by Gall (1982), with records of another 24 species from the NPWS Atlas of NSW Wildlife. Seventy-three species were recorded in The Rock NR during both 1975-1981 and 1995-2003, while 16 species were record- ed only during 1975-1981 and 19 only in 1995-2003 (Appendix 1). The number of species recorded in each of the four ecological categories is sum- marised in Table 2. Species of aquatic habitats comprised 16% of the total bird 8 The Victorian Naturalist Research Report Table 1. Cumulative total of bird recorded during 1999-2003 field survey. species Jan Apr Oct Jul 1999 2001 2002 2003 Berry Jerry SF 40 53 71 75 The Rock Nr 29 49 72 80 species recorded in Berry Jerry SF but only 3% in The Rock NR. Species in the ‘declining’ and ‘at risk of decline’ cate- gories together made up about two thirds of the terrestrial bird species of both study areas. Berry Jerry SF had 19 species iden- tified as declining woodland species, while 24 declining woodland species were recorded at The Rock NR. Seven threat- ened bird species (all currently listed as vulnerable under the TSC Act) were recorded during the 1999-2003 field sur- vey, two species in Berry Jerry SF and six species in The Rock NR. One species, the Brown Treecreeper (Fig. 4), was recorded in both study areas, although there is uncertainty whether the form present was the threatened eastern subspecies Climacteris picumnus victoriae or the unlisted inland and nominate subspecies Climacteris picumnus picumnus , as the Wagga Wagga area lies within the zone of intergradation between the two (Schodde and Mason 1999). Additional information concerning observations of threatened species during the field survey is sum- marised in Table 3. Discussion This study demonstrated that both Berry Jerry SF and The Rock NR are of signifi- cant conservation value. Avian values of Berry Jerry SF identified in the present study include extant populations of 15 species of declining woodland birds (including two threatened species) and 25 woodland bird species at risk of future decline, complemented by a range of agri- cultural birds and waterbirds. The threat- ened Superb Parrot Polytelis swainsonii is likely to breed in Berry Jerry SF, given the proximity of known breeding sites and the abundance of suitable nesting hollows along Beavers Creek (Webster and Ahern 1992; Leslie 2005). Brown Treecreepers remain relatively common and widespread in the reserve. Berry Jerry SF also supports other significant fauna, such as the threat- ened Squirrel Glider Petaurus norfolcensis (Murphy pers. obs. April 2001). None of the waterbirds recorded in Berry Jerry SF is considered of current conservation con- cern, although the continued restriction of natural flood events as a result of river reg- ulation and extraction of water for agricul- ture, combined with continuing loss of mature riverine forest in the region, may see this change in the future (Frith 1982; Briggs and Thornton 1999). Current man- agement of Berry Jerry SF aims to assist protection of biodiversity. Forestry pre- scriptions in the reserve require the reten- tion of all large trees greater than 170 cm diameter at breast height and a proportion of all hollow-bearing trees, including all those within 20 m of Beavers Creek or identified as nesting sites for endangered fauna (Forestry Commission of NSW 1986). Firewood collection is regulated by a permit system. Grazing by domestic stock is managed under a strategic grazing plan (involving increased stocking rates in winter to coincide with annual pasture growth and seeding and destocking over summer to allow native perennials to set seed) in an effort to control introduced species and favour native grasses (Leslie Fig. 4. Brown Treecreeper Climacteris pictim- nus : a threatened woodland bird species. Photo by Marc Irvin. Vol. 124(1)2007 9 Research Report Table 2. Number of species recorded in four ecological categories (1975-1981 and 1995-2003 sur- vey periods combined). Aquatic habitat species Declining woodland species Woodland species at risk of decline Agricultural species Total Berrv Jerry SF 15 19 32 27 93 The Rock NR 3 24 47 34 108 Table 3. Summary of threatened bird records from 1999-2003 field survey. Species Superb Parrot Polvtelis swainsonii Turquoise Parrot Neophema pulchetla Brown Treecreeper Climacteris picumnus Speckled Warbler Chthonicola sagittata Hooded Robin Melanodryas cucullata Grey-crowned Babbler Pomatostomus temporalis Diamond Firetail Stagonopleura guttata Summary of observations Recorded in Berry Jerry SF in October 2002: Hock of 8 birds (both sexes) feeding on mistletoes in Box woodland and single male in tree in River Red Gum forest. Recorded in The Rock NR in January 1999 (2 birds in eucalypt tree in woodland on steep upper slopes) and April 2001 (flock of 8 birds feed ing on ground with Red-rumped Parrots in Box woodland on lower slopes). Common and widespread in River Red Gum forest in Berry Jerry SF, often associated with fallen timber. Recorded every visit. Also recorded every visit in The Rock NR but only seen in relatively flat areas on lower slopes. Small numbers (2-5) seen on each visit to The Rock NR. Foraging on ground in groups of 2-4 in woodland on lower slopes. Single bird (male) seen in woodland on lower slopes of The Rock NR in April 2001 . Small groups foraging on ground, fallen timber and lower trunks of Box trees in Box-Cypress Pine woodland on lower slopes of The Rock NR and adjoining freehold property in October 2002 (group of 6 birds) and July 2003 (group of 4 birds). Single record in woodland on lower slopes of The Rock NR in April 2001. 2000). Berry Jerry SF has been described as the most significant remnant of River Red Gum riverine forest in the Wagga Wagga local government area and one of the most significant in the NSW South Western Slopes region (NPWS 2003). Riverine forests provide the best opportu- nities for recreating linkages across region- al landscapes in the eastern Australian sheep-wheat belt (Reid 1999), and Berry Jerry SF would constitute a significant node in a reconstructed and restored Murrumbidgee regional riverine wildlife corridor. The woodland bird community of The Rock NR was found to be more diverse than that of Berry Jerry SF, with 23 declin- ing woodland bird species (including six threatened species) and 36 woodland bird species at risk of future decline recorded there since 1995. Additional fauna species of conservation significance known from The Rock NR include the threatened Squirrel Glider and Eastern Long-eared Bat Nyctophilus timoriensis (NPWS Atlas of NSW Wildlife) and the regionally sig- nificant Inland Carpet Python Morelia spi- lota metcalfei (Murphy and Murphy in press). Conservation of the native flora and fauna is a primary management objective for The Rock NR. Activities such as domestic stock grazing and timber removal are prohibited, weed invasion is monitored and controlled and recreational usage is managed to minimise adverse impacts (NPWS 2000). Differences between the avian communi- ties of Berry Jerry SF and The Rock NR are in part simply a reflection of differ- ences in the vegetation communities pre- sent and habitats available in the two areas. The extensive aquatic habitat present in Berry Jerry SF, for example, supported a wide range of waterbirds including ducks. 10 The Victorian Naturalist Research Report cormorants, pelicans, dotterels, herons, ibises and spoonbills, while the small area of aquatic habitat available at The Rock NR supported only low numbers of just a few waterbird species. Similarly, the Yellow Rosella Platycercus elegans flave- olus, a sub-species closely associated with River Red Gum riverine forests (Forshaw and Cooper 1981), was commonly seen in Berry Jerry SF but was not seen in The Rock NR, while the Peregrine Falcon Falco peregrinus was more frequently recorded at The Rock NR, where it used cliff faces for roosting and nesting, than at Berry Jerry SF, where it was recorded vis- iting on only a single occasion. Comparison of the results from 1 995- 2003 with 1975-1981 provides an opportu- nity to consider possible temporal changes in the bird communities of the two study areas. However, many of the bird species recorded in this study have mobile habits, including seasonal migrants such as the Rainbow Bee-eater Merops ornatus and Olive-backed Oriole Oriolus sagittatus, blossom nomads such as the Red Wattlebird Anthochaera carunculata and Fuscous Honeyeater Lichenostomus fuscus, irregular visitors such as the Masked Woodswallow Artamus person- atus and White-browed Woodswallow A. superciliosus, occasional visitors from more mesic eastern forests such as the Satin Flycatcher Myiagra cyanoleuca and Bassian Thrush Zoothera lunulata and var- ious raptor species with large home ranges. Confidently demonstrating likely absence of mobile species from a given area is problematic, and it is considered likely that many of the mobile species recorded in 1975-1981 but not 1995-2003 would still occur in the study areas on an irregular basis. To demonstrate this point, although no records of the Little Eagle Hieraaetus morphnoides were obtained from Berry Jerry SF during 1995-2003, an individual was seen just 3 km north in Currawananna SF (Fig. 1) (Murphy pers. obs. July 2003). Some of the mobile bird species which are thought to be declining or potentially at risk of decline in the NSW South Western Slopes region, such as the Whistling Kite Haliastur sphenurus (The Rock NR) and Brown Goshawk Accipiter fasciatus (Berry Jerry SF), may have indeed permanently disappeared from these study areas, but the survey effort in this study was not suffi- cient to provide certainty in this regard. The survey effort (including reference to secondary sources) was sufficient to allow more confidence when considering possi- ble temporal changes with respect to sedentary species resident in the study areas. Concentrating on the declining woodland species category, it appears that four species (one fifth of the original declining woodland bird community) may have been lost from Berry Jerry SF at some time over the last two decades: the Speckled Warbler Chthonicola sagittata , Eastern Yellow Robin Eopsaltria australis , White-browed Babbler Pomatostomus superciliosus (Fig. 5) and Diamond Firetail Stagonopleura guttata. All four species were targeted during the latter part of the 1999-2003 field survey without success, including searches of sites of earlier records from 1975-1981. These four species were also absent from a list of birds recorded in Berry Jerry SF in 1994- 1996 by Bos and Lockwood (1996). Possible reasons for the apparent disap- pearance of the four species from Berry Jerry SF include grazing impacts, weed invasion, predation by feral cats Felis cat- tus and avian nest predators and extinction debt. All four species are predominantly ground feeding (Barker and Vestjens 1979; Read 1994; Tzaros 1996; Antos and Bennett 2006), and all are likely to be sen- sitive to changes to the understorey and ground cover. Grazing and trampling of woodlands by domestic stock results in a simplified vegetation understorey structure (Tasker and Bradstock 2006) with an increased proportion of introduced weeds (Benson 1991; Burrows 1999) and decreased diversity of ground-living inver- tebrates (Bromham et al. 1999). Gall (1982) noted the adverse impact of stock grazing in Berry Jerry SF and recommend- ed that stock be permanently withdrawn from the reserve. However, Berry Jerry SF has a high proportion of introduced weeds in the ground layer (Burrows 1999), and Forests NSW has opted for a strategic grazing approach as described above. Grazing management practices in Berry Jerry SF need to be closely monitored and adjusted where necessary to ensure they Vol. 124 (1)2007 11 Research Report Fig. 5. White-browed Babbler Pomatostomns superciliosus : a declining woodland bird species. Photo by Michael Murphy. provide benefit to the reserve’s woodland bird community. Comparing the results from the first (1977-1981) and second (1998-2001) national bird Atlases coordinated by the Royal Australasian Ornithological Union (now Birds Australia), Barrett and Silcocks (2002) concluded that the Diamond Firetail was declining in the NSW South Western Slopes region, while the Speckled Warbler population was stable and the Eastern Yellow Robin and White-browed Babbler were increasing. However, while they do remain locally common in some parts of the region, all four species have been found to be locally declining in other parts of the region (Reid 1999). The woodland birds going locally extinct can vary from one location to the next (Reid 2000), and such local-scale patterns may be difficult to discern at a regional spatial scale. In contrast to Berry Jerry SF, with the possible exception of one species (the Whistling Kite as noted above), the com- munity of declining woodland birds in The Rock NR was found to remain intact between 1975-1981 and 1995-2003, including all four species missing from Berry Jerry SF. Nevertheless, because of the reserve’s small size, there remains a significant risk that some sedentary wood- land bird species may disappear from there in the future, particularly if isolation of the reserve increases. Four of the six threat- ened bird species recorded in The Rock NR during the 1999-2003 field survey were classified as rare, suggesting that res- ident populations of these species were only small. The Hooded Robin Melano- dryas cucullata is of particular concern, recorded only on a single occasion during the 1999-2003 field survey. The Hooded Robin is apparently unable to maintain viable populations in isolated areas of habitat smaller than 100-200 ha (Egan et al. 1997; Fitri and Ford 1997; Traill and 12 The Victorian Naturalist Research Report Rufous Songlark Cincloramphus mathewsi: a woodland bird species at risk of future decline. Photo by Michael Murphy. Duncan 2000). Given that the total area of The Rock NR is only 341 ha, with about half of this comprising steep slopes and ridgetops, the area of suitable habitat avail- able within the reserve may not be suffi- cient to maintain a viable population of this species. Fortunately, despite extensive clearing in the local area. The Rock NR is not completely isolated, and the area of woodland habitat available within the reserve is currently complemented by addi- tional areas on adjoining freehold proper- ties and a travelling stock reserve, and by (sometimes tenuous) linkages to other small remnants in the local area. Actively supporting and encouraging the protection, management and restoration of these addi- tional habitat areas and local linkages is probably critical to the viability of the Hooded Robin and many other woodland bird populations within the reserve. Restoring habitat connectivity between The Rock NR and nearby larger remnants such as Berry Jerry SF (21 km north) and Livingstone National Park (24 km south- east) (Fig. 1) would be a worthwhile longer-term goal, although likely to prove challenging. A study of the bird community of another local woodland remnant, Pomingalarna Park (Fig. 1), provided results with simi- larities to the present study. A field survey in this 225 ha woodland remnant in 1992- 1997 (Murphy 1999) recorded 25 declining woodland bird species (including six threatened species). Declining woodland birds observed at Pomingalarna Park, but not recorded at either Berry Jerry SF or The Rock NR, included the Brown Quail Coturnix ypsilophora. Crimson Chat Ephthianura tricolor, Gilbert’s Whistler Pachycephala inornata (vulnerable under TSC Act) and White-backed Swallow Cheramoeca leucosternus (Murphy 1999). The present study, together with the Pomingalarna study, provides useful refer- ence information for future assessment of changes in the status of species in the Wagga Wagga area. Comparison with the earlier work by Gall (1982) illustrates how such studies can be used to examine possi- ble changes in bird communities over time. Site-based studies of this type are a useful approach to understanding the local details of large-scale patterns such as the regional decline of woodland birds. A re-examina- Vol. 124 (1) 2007 13 Research Report tion of the bird communities of Berry Jerry SF and The Rock NR (and Pomingalarna Park) in 2020 would be worthwhile. Conclusion The present study found that species in the ‘declining’ and ‘at risk’ categories made up about two thirds of the terrestrial bird communities of both Berry Jerry SF and The Rock NR. The loss of this many species from these areas would be devas- tating. Recher (1999) warned that losses of this intensity were likely at a continental scale, predicting that half of Australia’s terrestrial bird species could be extinct by 2100 as a result of continuing ecologically unsustainable human activities. Major coordinated and strategic landscape recov- ery works are required if Reciter’s dire future is to be avoided. The NSW South Western Slopes region has already been over-cleared (State of the Environment Advisory Council 1996; Pressey et al. 2000), to the extent that even single trees remaining in paddocks are considered of notable ecological significance (Gibbons and Boak 2002). Flistory shows that we are still paying the extinction debt from past land clearing practices. The clearing undertaken, as you read this paper, will be paid for with local species extinctions in 50 years’ time. A ‘no net loss’ approach to the management of native vegetation is not sufficient and will see the current status quo of gradual decline continue. A ‘net gain’ approach to vegetation management is essential to reverse the decline. Surviving remnants of native vegetation need to be protected, and remnants particu- larly significant because of their size, strategic location or unique value need to be identified and their management improved. Strategic regeneration and restoration is needed to expand the size of existing remnants and to restore connectiv- ity across the landscape. Research into the status of woodland birds and other biodi- versity components at a regional and local scale needs to be supported, including monitoring of the effectiveness of restora- tion efforts so that they can be refined as necessary. The above work must be done in partnership with landholders and local community groups if it is to succeed. Various biodiversity conservation and landscape restoration projects and initia- tives are already underway in many dis- tricts, but much work remains to be done. The agricultural productivity of the NSW South Western Slopes region is an eco- nomic resource of national significance and the restoration of the region to ecologi- cal sustainability warrants substantial national attention and support. Acknowledgements I thank Sam, Jess and Nicola Murphy for assis- tance with field work, Damon Oliver, an anony- mous reviewer, Michael Mulvaney, lan Davidson and Doug Robinson for comments on earlier drafts of this paper, Gary Miller for infor- mation concerning the management of Berry Jerry Slate Forest and Irma Noller for her hospi- tality during visits to Wagga Wagga. 1 also acknowledge the contribution of the unpub- lished survey work by Bruce Gall for the NPWS. Records of birds from the Atlas ofNSW Wildlife were provided by the NPWS under a data licence agreement. Lastly, thanks to my late father Peter Murphy who first introduced me to the birds of the NSW South Western Slopes. References Antos MJ and Bennett AF (2006) Foraging ecology of ground-feeding woodland birds in temperate wood- lands of southern Australia. Emu 106 , 29-40. Barker RD and Vestjens WJM (1979) The Food of Australian Birds 2: Passerines. (CSIRO: Melbourne). Barrett G (1997) Birds on farms: repairing the rural landscape. Wingspan 1 (4), 10-15. Barrett GW, Ford HA and Recher HF (1994) Conservation of woodland birds in a fragmented rural landscape. Pacific Conservation Biology 1 , 245- 256. Barrett GW and Silcocks A (2002). Comparison of the first and second Atlas of Australian Birds to deter- mine the conservation status of woodland-dependent and other bird species in New South Wales over the last 20 years. Birds Australia, Melbourne. Bennett AF and Ford LA (1997) Land use, habitat change and the conservation of birds in fragmented rural environments: a landscape perspective from the Northern Plains, Victoria. Australia. Pacific Conservation Biology > 3 , 244-26 1 . Benson J ( 1991 ) The effect of 200 years of European settlement on the vegetation and llora of New South Wales. Cunninghamia 2 (3), 343-370. Bos D and Lockwood M (1996) Flora, Fauna and other Features of the South West Slopes Biogeographic Region, NSW. Charles Sturt University Johnstone Centre of Parks, Recreation and Heritage Report No. 59, Albury. Briggs SV and Thornton SA (1999) Management oT water regimes in River Red Gum Eucalyptus camald- ulensis wetlands for waterbird breeding. Australian Zoologist 31 . 187-197. Bromham L, Cardillo M, Bennett A and Elgar M (1999) Effects of stock grazing on the ground inver- tebrate fauna of woodland remnants. Australian .Journal of Ecology > 24 , 1 99-207. Burrows GE (1999) A survey of 25 remnant vegetation sites in the South Western Slopes, New South Wales. Cunninghamia 6 (2), 283-314. 14 The Victorian Naturalist Research Report Christidis L and Boles WE (1994) The Taxonomy and Species of Birds of Australia and its Territories. Royal Australasian Ornithological Union Monograph 2, Melbourne. Egan KH, Farrell JR and Pepper-Edwards DL (1997) Historical and seasonal changes in the community of forest birds at Longneck Lagoon Nature Reserve, Scheyville, New South Wales. Corella 21 (1), 1-16. Fitri L and Ford H (1997) Status, habitat and social organisation of the Hooded Robin, Melanodryas cucullata in the New England Region of New South Wales. Australian Birdwatcher 17, 142-155. Ford HA (1985) The bird community in eucalypt woodland and eucalypt dieback in the Northern Tablelands of New South Wales. In Birds of Eucalypt Forests and Woodlands : Ecology, Conservation, Management , pp 333-40. Eds A Keast, HF Recher, H Ford and D Saunders. (Royal Australasian Ornithological Union/Surrey Beatty & Sons: Sydney). Forestry Commission of NSW (1986) Management Plan for Murrumbidgee Management Area. Forestry Commission of NSW, Sydney. Forshaw JM and Cooper WT (1981) Australian Parrots (2 nd edition). (Lansdowne-Rigby: Sydney). Frith HJ (1982) Waterfowl in Australia. (Angus and Robertson: Sydney). Gall B (1982) The South West Slopes Fauna Survey. NSW National Parks and Wildlife Service, Queanbeyan. Gibbons P and Boak M (2002) The value of paddock trees for regional conservation in an agricultural landscape. Ecological Management and Restoration 3 (3), 205-210. Grey MJ, Clarke MF and Loyn RH (1997) Initial changes in the avian communities of remnant euca- lypt woodlands following a reduction in the abun- dance of Noisy Miners, Manorina melanocephala. Wildlife Research 24, 631-648. Leslie D (2000) Grazing Strategy for Riverina Region. State Forests NSW, Deniliquin. Leslie D (2005) Is the Superb Parrot Polytelis swain- sonii population in Cuba State Forest limited by hol- low or food availability? Corella 29 (4), 77-87. Loyn RH (1985) Birds in fragmented forests in Gippsland, Victoria. In Birds of Eucalypt Forests and Woodlands: Ecology, Conservation, Management , pp 323-331. Eds A Keast, HF Recher, H Ford and D Saunders. (Royal Australasian Ornithological Union/Surrey Beatty & Sons: Sydney). Morgan G and Terrey J (1992) Nature Conservation in Western New South Wales. National Parks Association of NSW Inc., Sydney. Murphy MJ (1999) The conservation value of small woodland remnants on the New South Wales South Western Slopes: a case study from Wagga Wagga. Australian Zoologist 31,71-81. Murphy MJ and Murphy S (in press) Additions to the herpetofauna of The Rock Nature Reserve near Wagga Wagga, New South Wales. Herpetofauna. NSW National Parks and Wildlife Service (2000) The Rock Nature Reserve Plan of Management. NSW National Parks and Wildlife Service, Sydney. NSW National Parks and Wildlife Service (2003) The Native Vegetation of the City of Wagga Wagga. NSW National Parks and Wildlife Service, Queanbeyan. Pressey RL, Hager TC, Ryan KM, Schwarz J, Wall S, Ferrier S and Creaser PM (2000) Using abiotic data for conservation assessments over extensive regions: quantitative methods applied across New South Wales, Australia. Biological Conservation 96, 55-82. Read JL (1994) The diet of three species of Firetail finches in temperate South Australia. Emu 94, 1-8. Recher HF (1999) The state of Australia’s avifauna: a personal opinion and prediction for the new millenni- um. Australian Zoologist 31, 1 1-27. Reid JRW (1999) Threatened and Declining Birds in the New South Wales Sheep-Wheat Belt: I. Diagnosis, Characteristics and Management. NSW National Parks and Wildlife Service, Queanbeyan. Reid JRW (2000) Threatened and Declining Birds in the New South Wales Sheep-Wheat Belt: II. Landscape Relationships - Modelling Bird Atlas Data Against Vegetation Cover. NSW National Parks and Wildlife Service, Queanbeyan. Robinson D (1994) Research Plan for Threatened Woodland Birds of Southeastern Australia. Arthur Rylah Institute for Environmental Research Technical Report Series No. 133, Melbourne. Robinson D and Traill BJ (1996) Conserving Woodland Birds in the Wheat and Sheep Belts of Southern Australia. Royal Australasian Ornithological Union Conservation Statement No. 10, Melbourne. Saunders DA (1989) Changes in the avifauna of a region, district and remnant as a result of fragmenta- tion of native vegetation: the wheatbelt of Western Australia. A case study. Biological Conservation 50, 99-135. Saunders DA (1994) The effects of habitat reduction and fragmentation on the mammals and birds of the Western Australian central wheatbelt: lessons for western New South Wales. In Future of the Fauna of Western New South Wales, pp 99-105. Eds D Lunney, S Hand, P Reed and D Butcher. (Royal Zoological Society of New South Wales: Sydney). Schodde R and Mason 1J (1999) The Directory of Australian Birds. (CSIRO Publishing: Melbourne). Sivertsen D (1993) Conservation of remnant vegetation in the box and ironbark lands of New South Wales. The Victorian Naturalist 110, 24-29. State of the Environment Advisory Council (1996) Australia State of the Environment 1996. (CSIRO Publishing: Melbourne). Tasker EM and Bradstock RA (2006) Influence of cat- tle grazing practices on forest understorey structure in north-eastern New South Wales. Austral Ecology 31,490-502. Thackway R and Creswell ID (1995) An Interim Biogeographic Regionalisation for Australia: A Framework for Establishing the National System of Reserves Version 4.0. (Australian Nature Conservation Agency: Canberra). Traill BJ and Duncan S (2000) Status of Birds in the NSW Temperate Woodlands Region. NSW National Parks and Wildlife Service, Dubbo. Tzaros CL (1996) Observations on the ecology and breeding biology of the Speckled Warbler Chthonicola sagittata near Bendigo, Victoria. Australian Bird Watcher 16, 221-235. Webster R and Ahern L (1992) Management for Conservation of the Superb Parrot {Polytelis swain- sonii) in New South Wales and Victoria. NSW National Parks and Wildlife Service and Victorian Department of Conservation and Natural Resources. Received 3 August 2006; accepted 9 November 2006 Vol. 124 (1) 2007 15 Research Report Appendix. Bird species recorded from Berry Jerry SF and The Rock NR. Status in 1999-2003 field survey by author: A - abundant: C = common; LI uncommon; R = rare. 3 record from Gail (1982); @ = record from Atlas of NSW Wildlife, ft = record from the Birding-Aus internet mailing list archive. (T) = species currently listed as threatened under NSW Threatened Species Conservation Act 1995. * introduced species. Species names follow Christidis and Boles (1994). Species Berry Jerry SF The Rock NR 1975- 1995- 1975- 1995- 1981 2003 1981 2003 Category 1: species of aquatic habitats Australian Shelduck Tadorna tadomoides R Australian Wood Duck Chenonetta jubata 3 C 3 R Pacific Black Duck Anas superciliosa 3 C Grey Teal Anas gracilis 3 U Domestic Goose Anser anser * u Little Pied Cormorant Phalacrocorax melanoleucos u Little Black Cormorant Phalacrocorax sulcirostris R Great Cormorant Phalacrocorax carbo 3 R Australian Pelican Pelecanus conspicillatus U White-faced Heron Egretta rtovaehoUandicte 3 u R Australian White Ibis Threskiornis molucca 3 Straw-necked Ibis T hreskiorn is spin ico 1 1 is u Yellow-billed Spoonbill Platalea flavipes R White-bellied Sea-Eagle Haliaeetus leucogaster 3 Masked Lapwing Vanellus miles 3 R Black-fronted Dotterel Elseyornis melanops 3 Category 2: declining woodland species Whistling Kite Haliastur sphenurus 3 R 3 Painted Button-quail Turnix varia 3 R @ U Peaceful Dove Geopelia striata 3 C 3 c Little Lorikeet Glossopsitta pusilla R Superb Parrot Polvtelis swainsonii (T) 3 R Turquoise Parrot Neophema pulchella (T) @ R Brown Treecreeper Climacteris picumnus (T) 3 C 3 U Speckled Warbler Chthonicola sagittata (T) @ 3 u Chestnut-rumped Thornhill Acanthiza uropygialis @ R Southern Whiteface Aphelocephala leucopsis R Jacky Winter Microeca fascinans R 3 U Red-capped Robin Petroica goodenovii R 3 c Hooded Robin Melartodryas cucullata (T) 3 R Eastern Yellow Robin Eopsaltria australis @ 3. C Grey-crowned Babbler Pomatostomus temporalis (T) R White-browed Babbler Pomatostomus superciliosus 3 3 C Varied Sittella Daphoenositta chrysoptera @ R 3 C Crested Shrike-tit Falcunculus frontatus 3 R 3 R Rufous Whistler Pachycephala rufiventris 3 U 3 U Restless Flycatcher Myiagra inquieta 3 u 3 U Masked Woodswallow Artamns personatus u U White-browed Woodswallow Artamus superciliosus u U Dusky Woodswallow Artamus cyanopterus 3 u 3 c Apostlebird Struthidea cinerea u Double-barred Finch Taeniopvgia bichenovii # Diamond Firetail Stagonop/eura guttata (T) 3 3 R Category 3: woodland/forest species at risk of decline Brown Goshawk Accipiter fasciatus 3 @ @ Little Eagle Hieraaetus morphnoides 3 3 @ Australian Hobby Falco longipennis R 3 R Peregrine Falcon Falco peregrinus R @ U Common Bronzewing Phaps chalcoptera @ 3 u 16 The Victorian Naturalist Research Report Appendix 1 cont'd. Crimson Rosella Platycercus elegans elegans Yellow Rosella Platycercus elegans flaveolus 3 c Fan-tailed Cuckoo Cacomantis flabelliformis Horsfield’s Bronze-Cuckoo Chrysococcyx basal is Shining Bronze-Cuckoo Chrysococcyx lucidis u Southern Boobook Ninox novaeseelandiae Tawny Frogmouth Podargus strigoides 3 u Australian Owlet-nightjar Aegotheles cristatus Sacred Kingfisher Todiramphus sanctus 3 u Doilarbird Eurystomus orientalis 3 R White-throated Treecreeper Cormobates leucophaens Spotted Pardalote Pardalotus punctatus @ u Striated Pardalote Pardalotus striatus 3 u Weebill Sm icrorn is brevirostris @ R Western Gerygone Gerygone fiusca u White-throated Gerygone Gerygone olivacea Inland Thornbill Acanthiza apicalis Striated Thornbill Acanthiza lineata Brown Thornbill Acanthiza pusilla Buff-rumped Thornbill A canth iza regulo ides Yellow Thornbill Acanthiza nana Red Wattlebird Anthochaera carunculata 3 Spiny-cheeked Honeyeater Acanthagenys rufogularis 3 u Little Friarbird Philemon citreogularis 3 Yellow-faced Honeyeater Lichenostomus chrysops Grey-fronted Honeyeater Lichenostomus pliimulus 3 Fuscous Honeyeater L ichenostom us fuscus 3 Brown-headed Honeyeater Melithreptus brevirostris R Scarlet Robin Petroica multicolor @ R Flame Robin Petroica phoenicea 3 R Golden Whistler Pachycephala pectoralis @ R Grey Shrike-thrush Colluricincla harmonica 3 C Leaden Flycatcher Myiagra rubecula Satin Flycatcher Myiagra cyanoleuca Grey Fantail Rhipidura fuliginosa 3 U White-winged Triller Lalage sueurii R Olive-backed Oriole Oriolus sagittatus R Grey Butcherbird Cracticus torquatus R White-winged Chough Corcorax melanorhamphos 3 C Red-browed Finch Neochmia temporalis Mistletoebird Dicaeum hirundinaceum R Tree Martin Hirundo nigricans 3 U Rufous Songlark Cincloramphus mathewsi 3 R Silvereye Zosterops lateralis Bassian Thrush Zoothera hum lata Category 4: agricultural species Black-shouldered Kite Elanus axillaris R Wedge-tailed Eagle Aquila andax 3 R Brown Falcon Falco berigora Nankeen Kestrel Falco cenchroides 3 R Rock Dove Columba livia * Crested Pigeon Ocyphaps lophotes 3 U Galah Cacatua roseicapilla 3 A Little Corella Cacatua sanguinea Sulphur-crested Cockatoo Cacatua galerita 3 A Cockatiel Nymphicus hollandicus 3 Eastern Rosella Platycercus eximius 3 C Red-rumped Parrot Psephotus haematonotus 3 C Barn Owl Tyto alba 3 Laughing Kookaburra Dacelo noveaguineae 3 C Rainbow Bee-eater Merops ornatus 3 Superb Fairy-wren Malurus cyaneus u Yellow-rumped Thornbill Acanthiza chrysorrhoa 3 R 3 3 @ 3 @ @ 3 @ 3 3 3 3 @ 3 3 3 3 3 @ @ @ @ R U @ 3 3 3 3 3 @ 3 @ 3 3 3 @ @ 3 @ 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 Vol. 124 (1) 2007 17 CO CCOO 73 73 73 73 73 73 73 73 n (§) O @0 73 73 73 73 0, 73 ncc @73 73@ 73 cn C73 Research Report Appendix 1 cont’d. Noisy Miner Manorina melanocephala 3 White-plumed Honeyeater Lichenostomus penicillatus 3 Magpie-lark Grallina cyanoleuca 3 Willie Wagtail Rhipidura leucophrys 3 Black-faced Cuckoo-shrike Coracina novaehollandiae 3 White-breasted Woodswallow Artamus leucorynchus 3 Black-faced Woodswallow Artamus cinereus Pied Butcherbird Cracticus nigrogularis Australian Magpie Gvmnorhina libicen 3 Pied Currawong Strepera graculina 3 Australian Raven Corvus coronoides 3 Little Raven Corvus mellori 3 Richard's Pipit Anthus novaeseelandiae Zebra Finch Taeniopygia guttata European Goldfinch Carduelis carduelis * Welcome Swallow Hirundo neoxena 3 Fairy Martin Hirundo ariel 3 Brown Songlark Cincloramphus cruralis Common Starling Sturnus vulgaris * 3 U c c c u R C R C u c u 3 U 3 C 3 U 3 C @ u R @ @ @ 3 C 3 U 3 U 3 C @ 3 3 @ R R @ @ 3 R Total species (separate survey periods) Total species (surveys combined) 70 75 93 89 92 108 One Hundred Years Ago THE NEGATIVE PHOTOTAXIS OF BLOW-FLY LARVAE. by Prof. A.J. Ewart, Ph.D., D.SC., F.L.S., &c. On moving a heap of manure recently many thousands of active maggots were left behind, and it was noticed that these immediately began to crawl rapidly towards some loose earth lying at the foot of a tree, in which they buried themselves, travers- ing a distance of 5 to 12 feet before doing so. The phenomenon was a remarkable one, since hundreds of the larvae could be seen crawling rapidly in an almost straight course for the base of the tree, without a single one progressing in the opposite direc- tion or diverging to any extent laterally. That the movement was not directed by ordi- nary vision or by smell is shown by the fact that a piece of manure placed within an inch of the maggots on the outward side did not attract them, and that they passed such heaps unnoticed unless they were actually in their path. In the latter case the lar- vae at once buried themselves in the heap. The path of movement towards the tree was slightly down hill, but on changing the position of the grubs they crawled up hill towards the same destination, and also crossed a ridge of hard soil placed across their downward path. Evidently, therefore, the response is not a geotropic one. From The Victorian Naturalist XXIV p. 61, December 1907. 18 The Victorian Naturalist Contributions Decline in numbers of Little Penguin Eudyptula minor at Middle Island, Warrnambool, Victoria Rebecca Overeem 1 and Robert Wallis 2 1 School of Ecology and Environment, Deakin University, Warrnambool, Victoria 3280. 2 Office of the Pro Vice-Chancellor (Rural and Regional), Deakin University, Warrnambool, Victoria 3280. Abstract Throughout the six years till 2005 Little Penguins Eudyptula minor at Middle Island, Warrnambool, have been subjected to intense fox predation. The population of the Little Penguin at Middle Island is now dangerously low, with a reduction from 342 active burrows in 1999 to the current 52 active bur- rows, and from 502 to 4 Little Penguins arriving at the colony after dusk. Such a reduction in numbers requires urgent management measures in order for the colony to survive. ( The Victorian Naturalist 124 (1), 2007, 19-22) Introduction The Little Penguin Eudyptula minor is the smallest of all the penguin species and holds an important position in the func- tioning of the marine ecosystems across its range (Gales 1989). Endemic to southern Australia and New Zealand (Marchant and Higgins 1990), the Little Penguin enjoys high community appeal and tourism status. The famous ‘Penguin Parade’ at Phillip Island (Victoria, Australia), with its nightly arrival of Little Penguins, attracts nearly 500 000 visitors annually (Anon. 2005). Drawn to land for breeding and moulting purposes. Little Penguin pairs typically nest in burrows amongst vegetated sand dunes, tussocks or rock crevices located close to the sea. The Little Penguin is unique as it can breed in isolated pairs or as part of a colony. Consequently, Little Penguin colonies vary in size and situation (Simpson 1972). The Bass Strait area, with about 60% of the known breeding popula- tion, is the stronghold for the species in Australia (Dann et at. 1996). Although the Little Penguin is classified as lower risk on the IUCN Red List (Ellis et al. 1998), a recent decline in numbers has been documented (Dann 1992). European settlement has greatly modified Little Penguin habitat via agriculture, housing, recreational activities and erosion (Harris and Bode 1981). Other threats include oil pollution, discarded plastic products, and fire. Feral animals are a con- siderable threat, and in some areas pen- guins are still deliberately killed for bait. Today in Australia, Little Penguin colonies are restricted to areas where human distur- bance and predation by introduced species are limited, such as offshore islands (Fortescue 1995; Rogers et at. 1995; Wienecke et al. 1995). The relatively few colonies on the Australian mainland are generally situated at the base of cliffs and areas inaccessible to mammalian carni- vores (Dann 1992). Figure 1 shows sites of larger colonies in south-eastern Australia. Declines in population sizes of Little Penguin colonies have been reported in Sydney (NSW National Parks and Wildlife Service 2000; Department of Environment and Conservation 2006); and in western Victoria at Port Fairy (Marchant and Higgins 1990) and Portland Harbour (Dann et al. 1996). Declines have been caused by habitat loss, predation by canids and oil spills. We have previously reported that in 2000, 342 active Little Penguin burrows existed on Middle Island, Warrnambool, but that unregulated human visitation and canid predation were contributing to a pop- ulation decline (Overeem and Wallis 2003). We documented a loss of 33% of chicks and 16% of eggs during the 1999/2000 breeding season when visitors to the island trampled their burrows. Most recently there have been several occurrences of fox pre- dation at Middle Island, with the most dev- astating resulting in 268 Little Penguin car- casses being found at the colony. The aim of this study is to determine the effects that fox predation and human dis- turbance have had on Middle Island, through assessing population change. We Vol. 124 (1) 2007 19 Contributions Victoria Melbourne 1 3.000,000 0 50 100 200 Kilometres 1 1 1 1 1 1 i I I Fig. 1. Location of Middle Island in relation to other known colonies of Little Penguins in south- eastern Australia. therefore compare our results to the cen- suses made at Middle Island in 1999/2000. Materials and methods Study site Middle Island, Warrnambool (38°20'S 142°30'E) is located along Victoria’s south- west coastline, approximately 263 km from Melbourne (Anon. 1999/2000). Locally known as Penguin Island, Middle Island is a 1 .5 hectare island situated at the western approach to Lady Bay, at the mouth of the Merri River. Access to Middle Island is through Stingray Bay, which in the past was deep enough to prevent humans crossing without a boat. The building of a breakwater caused 26 hectares of beaches and subsequent sandbars to form. Today, Middle Island is easily accessed through tide heights of less than 0.1 m, although the adventurous may access the island at any tide. The Warrnambool City Council (WCC) currently manages Middle Island using advice from Deakin University, the Department of Sustainability and Environment (DSE) and Parks Victoria. In 2002 a boardwalk system was constructed in an effort to protect the Little Penguin colony. Forty artificial burrows were also introduced to the site. While tide and wave height aid in restricting access, penguin viewing is unregulated. The Phillip Island Penguin Study Group have flipper-banded Little Penguins at Middle Island since the 1970s, and in October 1993, 336 were banded (Thoday unpublished data). The first ecological study was undertaken by Overeem and Wallis (2003). Notable differences in breeding success, breeding calendar and morphometries have been recorded between the Middle Island Little Penguin colony and other colonies in the Bass Strait region (Cullen et al. 1992; Overeem and Wallis 2003). Fox predation is not new to Middle Island (see Overeem and Wallis 2003). However, of concern is the current fre- quency of attacks and number of penguins killed in each. We estimate that just under 500 Little Penguins have been killed by foxes at Middle Island over the past six years, based on counts of carcasses. The Little Penguins utilise six entrances to access the upper surface of Middle Island. The peak dusk arrival was recorded by 20 The Victorian Naturalist Contributions Overeem and Wallis (2003) in January 2000 as 502 Little Penguins arriving. Since then many penguin carcasses have been collected from each landing site. Active burrow abundance map Fieldwork was undertaken in mid- September as past research suggested the Little Penguins at Middle Island would be nesting, incubating eggs or guarding young chicks (Overeem and Wallis 2003; R. Jessop pers. comm.). This period is thought to result in the most accurate count of breeding pairs (BIOMASS Working Party on Bird Ecology 1982). The nearby colonies at Lady Julia Percy Island and London Bridge were also checked for activity to confirm breeding status in west- ern Victoria. The active burrow mapping was completed as described in Overeem and Wallis (2003) in an effort to efficiently compare data. Little Penguin night arrival The Little Penguin night arrival count was undertaken as described in Overeem and Wallis (2003). On the 21 September 2005 the penguins arriving at all six landing sites were counted by experienced penguin per- sonnel. The count lasted one hour and began when the first penguin accessed the island. Results and discussion Active burrow count The vegetated upper surface of Middle Island had 52 active burrows, at a density of 0.003/ nr (Fig. 1). Interestingly, no live birds were seen or heard during the count and therefore all burrows were identified through the presence of tracks or scats. It is therefore possible that the burrows counted may have resulted in an over-estimation of the number of active Little Penguin bur- rows at Middle Island. Little Penguin Night Arrival A total of four Little Penguins were count- ed accessing Middle Island in a one hour period. One penguin was counted on the ‘main landing site’ Entrance 3. Two birds were counted arriving at Entrance 4, while another single bird was counted at Entrance 5. No penguins were counted arriving at Entrances 1, 2 and 6 (Fig. 2). 3 3 Stingray Bay 2 El 5 1 2 1 E5 3 A 1* ! 1 1 1 1 1 A 7 1 A E2 1 3 E6 3 E3 7 A 1 A N 1800 E4 0 30 •*» Fig. 2. Active burrow map for the Little Penguin at Middle Island September 2005. Each number represents the total number of active burrows found in the quadrat, A represents an active artificial burrow within the quadrat, E represent entrance names.' Decline in population In January 2000 we recorded 502 penguins arriving on Middle Island and there were 342 active burrows. Clearly there had been a significant decline in penguin numbers by September 2005 when only four birds were observed at their nightly arrival and 52 active burrows present. Management options Fox control strategies including regular fox trapping, baiting, shooting and destroying of dens are needed (Anon. 2005). After some frustrating delays, these strategies are being undertaken on the mainland near Middle Island, but it is critical that this level of effort is maintained over a wider area. There is a need to control visitor access. Our previous study (Overeem and Wallis 2003) highlighted the number of eggs and chicks that humans have trampled, and while erection of boardwalks and the installation of nest boxes would reduce this Vol. 124(1)2007 21 Contributions impact, the numbers of people and their dogs need to be controlled. Future changes in numbers of penguins at Middle Island will need to be closely mon- itored. Since we believe there is migration between colonies (Overeem unpublished data on genetics of colonies, Australian Bird and Bat Banding Scheme unpublished data), there is a possibility of re-colonisa- tion occurring at Middle Island. However, previously existing local colonies which are now extinct (Portland and Griffith Island) suggest that this will not happen readily. The status of the Little Penguin colony at Middle Island should be reviewed. The declaration of the Manly Point colony as endangered under NSW legislation has merit and a similar scheme for Victoria could highlight species that are facing extirpation. Acknowledgements This research was undertaken with permission from the Warrnambool City Council and the Department of Sustainability and Environment (permit number 10003374). Thank you to field assistants; Phillip Du Guesciin (DSE), Paul Grey (WCC), Amanda Peuker and Claire McClusky (Deakin University), Tanya Murray and Carissa Logan (PINP). Thank you also to Phillip Du Guesciin (DSE) for breeding data of the Little Penguin at Lady Julia Percy Island and Australian Bird and Bat Banding Scheme for providing flipper band recovery data. Thank you to Dr Ros Jessop for helpful advice on the pro- ject and Elisabeth Lundahl- Hegedus for com- ments on the manuscript. Thank you to the Western Coastal Board for financial assistance. References Anon. (1999/2000) Stay a While in Warrnambool. Warranamboo! City Visitors ' information brochure. (Warrnambool City Council: Warrnambool) Anon. (2005). 'Phillip Island Nature Parks Annual Report 2004/05.’ (Phillip Island Nature Park: Phillip Island) BIOMASS Working Party on Bird Ecology (1982) Penguin Census Methods. BIOMASS Handbook No. 20. (Commission for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources: North Hobart) Cullen JM, Montague TL and Hull C (1992) Food of Little Penguins ( Eudyptula minor ) in Victoria: Comparison of three localities between 1985 and 1988. Emu 91 , 318-341. Dann P (1992) Distribution, population trends and fac- tors influencing the population size of Little Penguins Eudyptula minor on Phillip Island, Victoria. Emu 91 . 263-272. Dann P, Cullen M and Weir 1 (1996) National Review of the Conservation Status and Management of Australian Little Penguin Colonies. Final Report. (The Australian Nature Conservation Agency: Phillip Island) Department of Environment and Conservation (2006) Little Penguin population in Sydney's North Harbour. Date accessed 1 1 January 2006 Ellis S, Croxall JP and Cooper J (Eds) (1998) Penguin Conservation and Assessment Plan. (1UCN/SSC Conservation Breeding Specialist Group: Apple Valley) Fortescue M (1995) Biology of the Little Penguin Eudyptula minor on Bowen Island and at other Australian colonies. In The Penguins. Ecology and Management pp 364-392. Eds P Dann, FI Norman and P Reilly (Surrey Beatty and Sons: Sydney) Gales, R (1989) Feeding ecology and free-living ener- getics of the Little Penguin in Tasmania. (Unpublished Ph.D. Thesis, University of Tasmania, Hobart) Harris MP, and Bode KG (1981) Populations of Little Penguins, Short-tailed Shearwaters and other seabirds on Phillip Island. Victoria, 1978. Emu 81 . 20-28. Marchant S and Higgins, PJ (1990) Spheniscidae pen- guins. In: 'Handbook of Australian, New Zealand and Antarctic Birds' (Ed. M. Sharp) pp. 125-262. (Oxford University Press: Melbourne) NSW National Parks and Wildlife Service (2000) Endangered Population of Little Penguins (Eudyptula minor) at Manly. Recovery Plan (NSWN- PWS: Hurstville) Overeem RL and Wallis RL (2003) Little Penguin Eudyptula minor at Middle Island, Western Victoria: current status. The Victorian Naturalist 120 , 76-83. Rogers T, Eldershaw G and Walraven E (1995) Reproductive success of Little Penguins, ( Eudyptula minor ) on Lion Island, New South Wales. Wildlife Research 22 . 709-715. Simpson K (1972) Birds in Bass Strait. (AH & AW Reed Pty Ltd: Sydney) Wienecke BC, Wooller R and Klomp N (1995) The ecology and management of Little Penguins on Penguin Island, Western Australia. In The Penguins: Ecology and Management pp. 440-467. Eds P Dann, FI Norman and P Reilly.). (Surrey Beatty and Sons: Sydney) Received 2 February ’ 2006: accepted 1 1 May 2006 22 The Victorian Naturalist Contributions An exercise in lichenometry at Point Lonsdale Noel Schleiger 1 Astley Street, Montmorency, Victoria 3094 Abstract The growth of a white crustose lichen growing on concrete gravestones at the Point Lonsdale Cemetery was investigated. It was found that the growth rate of the lichen could be determined by using the date on the headstone, and that larger lichens tended to have a greater rate ot growth. Orientation of the longest lichen axis was non-random and appears to be related to the direction of rain-bearing winds. (The Victorian Naturalist 124 ( 1 ), 2007, 23-26) Introduction Lichenometry deals with the measurement of lichen parameters, such as size, shape, rate of growth and density of thalli. These parameters may vary with age and with position of the substratum in terms of its exposure to variables such as wind, shade and atmospheric pollutants. Lichens are one of the first colonisers of rocks and are important in the management of stone monuments and buildings, as some lichens make their substratum more porous by generating oxalic and other acids and aid the weathering process (Lisci, Monte and Pacini 2001). pH of the substratum can affect species composition, e.g. calcicolous lichens grow on neutral or alkaline substrata while silici- colous lichens grow on acidic substrata. Others can grow on any substratum. This paper deals with a white crustose lichen (Fig. 1) that commonly grows on concrete, an alkaline substratum. The aim of this study was to examine the growth of this species on concrete slabs in the Point Lonsdale Cemetery, specifically to deter- mine whether there was a relationship between length of the longest axes of lichens and age on the headstone, whether the longest axes occurred along a particu- lar orientation and whether growth rate varied with thallus size. Methods The maximum length and width of the largest lichen growing on the horizontal slabs of each of 16 graves at the Point Fig. 1. White lichen occurring on graves at the Point Lonsdale Cemetery. Vol. 124(1) 2007 23 Contributions Lonsdale Cemetery was measured and compared with the age on the headstone. Point Lonsdale is on the western head of Port Phillip Bay, 130 km via Geelong from Melbourne. Thalli were measured to the nearest 0. 1 mm using digital vernier calipers. As well, the orientation of the longest axis was measured for the lichens with a Silva pris- matic compass to determine whether this was along the direction of the prevailing weather. The concrete slabs were of uni- form length and width, 2 m by 0.88 m respectively, and of similar concrete com- position. Similarly, the maximum length and width of fifty-one thalli on a single slab was measured on I June 2000 and re-measured on 27 July 2003, about 38 months later. The exact position of the lichens on the slab was determined to ensure that the growth rate of each lichen could be calcu- Tated. Again, the orientation of the longest axis of each lichen was measured. Results Ages on the 16 headstones ranged from 27.7 years to 54.9 years (Table 1). The length of the longest axes varied from 30 mm to 63 mm. There was a strong correla- tion (r = 0.92; P = 0.001) between age on the headstone and maximum lichen length. Regression analyis allowed determination of the theoretical age of the headstones (Table 1 ). A Chi Square goodness of fit (% : =4.5, df = 15, P = 0.995) showed there was no difference between actual age and theoretical age. This supported the strong correlation determined for lichen length and age on the headstone. Almost half the observed ages on the headstones were less than the theoretical ages predicted (Table 1 ), presumably due to a time lag between the burial and erection of the headstone. Lichen growth rates were determined from the division of the maximum lichen length by the age on the headstone. Growth rates ranged from 0.9 to 1 .3 mm p.a. (Table 1 ) but showed only a weak pos- itive correlation with age on the headstone, which was not significant (r = 0.4, P = 0.1). Length and width correlated strongly with each other (r = 0.97, P = 0.001), but the length:width ratio (Table 1) showed only a weak correlation with age on the headstone (r = -0.45, P = 0. 1 ). Growth rates of the fifty-one lichen thalli on the single slab also were determined and ranged from 0 to 2.3 mm p.a. with an average of 0.88 mm p.a. (Table 2), margin- ally lower than the 1.1 mm p.a. average using the multi-slab technique. This was expected as the single slab sampling used all lichen thalli while the multi-slab sam- pling used only the largest thallus. Comparison of growth rate with initial maximum lichen length showed that growth rate increased with increasing Table 1. Lichenometric data from sixteen gravestones. age on maximum width orientation growth length/ theoretical headstone length (mm) of longest rate width age (years) (mm) axis (mm/year) ratio (years) (degrees from North) 27.7 31.0 25.0 105 1.1 1.2 30.7 34.1 32.7 27.9 150 1.0 1.2 32.0 34.2 30.0 23.5 135 0.9 1.3 32.0 34.2 32.7 29.9 150 1.0 1.1 29.9 40.8 50.0 48.5 47 1.2 1.0 45.1 43 0 40.5 32.0 150 0.9 1.3 37.9 45.7 61.0 58.0 68 1.3 1.1 53.4 46.3 56.4 58.6 7 1.2 1.0 49.9 47.5 52.0 47.6 30 1.1 1.1 46.6 48.4 53.5 52.0 21 1.1 1.0 47.7 50.3 60.7 52.0 45 1.2 1.2 53.2 51 0 61.0 50.0 75 1.2 1.2 53.4 52.1 57.7 53.5 135 1.1 1.1 50.9 53.7 55.4 54.5 0 1.0 1.0 49.2 54.3 63.0 57.0 20 1.2 1.1 54.9 54.9 59.5 54.7 150 1.1 1.1 52.3 24 The Victorian Naturalist Contributions lichen size (r = 0.44, P = 0.002). Thalli above an initial maximum length of 50 mm had the fastest rate of growth. The length:width ratio averaged 1.17, compara- ble to that obtained using the multi-slab Table 2. Lichenometric data obtained using multiple gravestones . maximum length (mm) growth rate (mm/year) L/W ratio orientation (degrees from North) 11 0 0.3 1.2 110 11 0 0.1 1.1 24 13 0 1 0 1.4 158 140 0.2 1.5 74 16 0 1.4 1.3 116 17.5 1.1 1.2 18 19.0 1.0 1.2 30 20.0 1.0 1.3 148 20.0 0.8 1.1 86 20.0 1.8 1.2 42 20.0 0.2 1.3 142 21.0 0.2 1.1 150 21.0 0.9 1.3 163 22.0 0.1 1.1 150 22.0 0.3 1.3 110 23.0 1.6 1.2 125 24.0 0.6 1.1 172 26.0 0.2 1.1 40 28.0 0.3 1.1 116 28.0 0.7 1.1 82 28.0 0.7 1.1 82 29.0 0.2 1.4 80 29.0 0.8 1.3 110 30.0 0.1 1.1 172 30.0 0.1 1.1 120 31.0 1.1 1.4 0 31.0 2.1 1.3 72 31.0 0.3 1.1 117 31.0 0.0 1.1 52 33.0 0.2 1.1 10 35.0 1.4 1.1 90 36.0 0.4 1.2 40 36.0 0.0 1.1 105 37.0 1.3 1.1 155 37.0 1.0 1.1 36 38.0 1.6 1.2 50 38.0 1.6 1.1 60 39.0 0.5 1.0 70 39.0 0.9 1.3 143 40.0 1.6 1.2 145 40.0 1.7 1.0 154 42.0 1.3 1.3 105 44.0 0.4 1.1 140 45.0 0.1 1.1 140 45.0 1.6 1.0 128 46.0 0.9 1.1 155 48.0 2.2 1.2 130 50.0 0.8 1.1 122 51.0 2.0 1.1 146 52.0 2.5 1.1 140 52.0 2.3 1.0 170 technique, i.e. 1.10. The length/width ratio had only a weak correlation with maxi- mum lichen length (r = 0.42, P = 0.005). Lichen thalli from both slabs were used to determine whether the long axes occurred along a particular orientation. Data was divided into twelve orientation classes of 15° spans. The primary mode was along the 150° axis while two sec- ondary modes occurred along the 135° and 75° axes (Fig. 2). The distribution was sig- nificant {f = 22.8, df = 1 1 , P = 0.025), i.e. a factor or factors other than chance was responsible for determining orientation of the longest axes. Discussion Bull and Brandon (1998) used the lichen genus Rhizocarpon to date earthquake gen- erated rock fall events in the Southern alps of New Zealand. Their work was based on the single largest lichen or the mean of five of the largest lichens for each deposit. They listed a variety of recommendations concerning site selection and factors affecting lichen growth. Innes (1984, 1986a) and Spence and Mahaney (1988) argue that the ideal sam- pling strategy in lichenometry should try to minimize inherent measurement variability by considering sample area and the density of lichen thalli. The ideal data set would come from the largest measured isolated lichen in a number of fixed-size sample areas with identical growth and conditions for colonization. In this study the slabs on the graves were of uniform length and width and of similar composition. Density of lichens varied somewhat, but several graves had 50 or more thalli. The sampling strategy, thus, essentially met the conditions of Innes, Spence and Mahoney and that of Bull and Brandon. Growth rate increased as lichen size increased. Bull and Brandon (1998) found similar results for Rhizocarpon in New Zealand, using a much greater sample size. Thus age is a factor in determining lichen size, hence the strong correlation between age on the headstone and maximum lichen length. When all sizes of lichen are consid- ered from the one slab, the correlation between growth rate and age on the head- stone is likely to be weak, and perhaps not significant. Vol. 124(1)2007 25 Contributions 180 Fig. 2. Pattern showing orientation of long axes of lichens on gravestones at Point Lonsdale Cemetery. Rings represent the number of lichens. Numbers shown around the outside of the diagram show orientation in terms of degrees from North (0°). Trunk lean, wind ramps in the tree canopy, elongated tree bole profiles, direc- tion of fallen limbs and canopy profiles have been used to determine the dominant prevailing wind in an area Schleiger (1982, 1983, 1991, 2004). For Victoria the most frequent prevailing wind throughout the year is NW and NNW with westerlies and southwesterlies especially in the winter. The cool change or cold front is preceded by the northerlies (NNW and NW) with a wind swing through westerlies and south- westerlies when the cool change passes through from W to E across the state. Rain usually falls with the northerly component, followed by showers from the W and SW in the clearing phase. The pattern of the rosette in Figure 2 reflects that of the tree rosettes at Bundoora, Coburg and Carlisle Forest in the Otways. The similarity of directional pattern with the lichen growth on the slabs suggests the idea of directional rain as an influence in the direction of growth of the lichen thallus investigated in this study. Acknowledgements 1 am grateful to Dorothy Mahler for typing the manuscript and to Gregg Muller of Latrobe University, Bendigo, for useful discussion. Thanks too for the comments made by an anonymous referee, which greatly enhanced the manuscript. References Beschel RE (1961) Dating rock surfaces by lichen growth and its application to the glaciology and physiography (Lichcnometry). M Raasch gTo. ed. Geolog v of the Arctic. Toronto University Press p. 1044-1062. Bull WB and Brandon MT (1988) Lichen dating of earthquake-generated regional rockfall events, Southern Alps, New Zealand. GSA Bulletin 110, 60- 84. Dobson FS (1992) Lichens: an illustrated guide to the British and Irish Species. (Richmond Publishing: Slough, England) Innes JL (1984) The optima! sample size in licheno- metric work. Arctic and Alpine Research 16, 233- 244. Innes JL (1985) Lichenometry: Progress in Physical Geography 9, 1 87-254. Innes JL ( i 986 ) Influences of sampling design on lichen size-frequency distributions and its effect on derived Iichenometric indices. Arctic and Alpine Research 18, 201-208. Lisci M, Monte M and Pacine E (2003) Lichens and Higher Plants on Stone: A review. International Biodeterioration and Biodegradation 51, 1-17. Schleiger NW ( 1983) Tree Growth in a wind break. In The essentials of Mathematics Education p 448-460. Ed D Blane. (Mathematical Association of Victoria, Melbourne) Schleiger NW (1991) Tree Growth Patterns at Bundoora Park. In Mathematics, inclusive, dynamic, exciting, active, stimulating pp 304-309. Eds .1 O’Reilly and S Wettenhall. (Mathematical Association of Victoria: Melbourne) Schleiger NW (2004) Carlisle Slate Park-wind effects. Geelong Naturalist 40 ( 7 ), 10-11. Spence JR and Mahaney WC (1988) Growth and ecol- ogy of Rhizocarpon section Rhizocarpon on Mt Kenya, East Africa. Arctic and Alpine research 20. 237-242 Received 9 September 2004; accepted 4 August 2005 26 The Victorian Naturalist Contributions Heidelberg mistletoes revisited: decadal changes in the distribution of Creeping Mistletoe Muellerina eucalyptoides on introduced trees in suburban Melbourne Gregg Muller School of Outdoor Education and Environment, La Trobe University, Bendigo Email: g.muller@latrobe.edu.au Abstract Introduced tree hosts of creeping mistletoe in Heidelberg, Victoria, were resurveyed after an interval of ten years. There was substantial turnover of hosts in the decade, and increasing disparity in the density of both infected trees and mistletoes between the elevated western block compared to the adjacent valley slopes to the east, with more than five times the density of infected trees and ten times more mistletoes in the west. Different potential host densities between the sites do not explain the differences in infection rates. (The Victorian Naturalist 124 (1), 2007, 27-32). Introduction Mistletoes have an intriguing biology - they are hemiparasites (they photosynthe- sise, but obtain their moisture and nutrient requirements from their host), that rely, at least in southern Victoria, on the Mistletoebird Dicaeum hirundinaceum to spread their seed. While mistletoe has often been seen as a pest, recent work indi- cates that mistletoes are important compo- nents of woodland and forest ecosystems (Watson 2001). They provide reliable nec- tar and fruit resources, often when little else is available, and shelter and nest sites for birds. Possums preferentially browse on mistletoe, and a number of species of butterfly rely on mistletoes as a host for their caterpillars. Some mistletoes are host specific, but most species can parasitise a number of genera (Downey 1998). Creeping Mistletoe Muellerina eucalyptoides has successfully adopted a number of introduced deciduous tree genera as hosts in suburban Melbourne. The lack of leaves on the hosts in winter, and the closely spaced suburban street network means that surveying for mistletoes in the suburbs can be consider- ably more efficient than in native forests. In 1 997, The Victorian Naturalist pub- lished a special edition on mistletoes (Vol. 1 14 (3)). Included in the collection was a paper (Seebeck 1997) reporting on the distribution of Creeping Mistletoe Muellerina eucalyptoides growing on introduced host trees, primarily Cherry Plum Primus sp.. Plane Tree Platanus sp., Oak Quercus sp.. Elm Ulmus sp. and Birch Betula sp. in a 300 hectare area of subur- ban Heidelberg, north of Melbourne. There have been few studies into changes in the spatial distribution of Australian mistle- toes, so the inclusion of a detailed distribu- tion map in that paper (Fig. 1 ) suggested a follow-up study to investigate changes in host distribution and infection patterns over the intervening decade. Study area and methods The study site spans the uneven rectangle bounded by Waterdale Road to the west and Rosanna Road to the east, and Southern Road and St James Road to the north and Banksia Street to the south (Fig. 1 ). The area is divided into two approxi- mately equal blocks by Upper Heidelberg Road/Waiora Road, which runs north- south through the site, and which also forms a topographic boundary between the relatively flat elevated area to the west, and the slopes descending to the Yarra River to the east. The area is a mix of older residential housing surrounding Burgundy and Bell Streets, and post Second World War subur- ban housing to the north, with scattered parks and some light industrial areas and shopping strips along the major roads. Little native vegetation grows within the area, apart from a small number of old eucalypts between Brown Street and St James Road. Vol. 124(1)2007 27 Contributions Following the methodology of Seebeck (1997), each street was surveyed from a slowly moving vehicle in August 2005, when the lack of leaves on deciduous trees facilitated the detection of mistletoes. Roadside trees and private gardens were surveyed, but the two campuses of the Austin Hospital (Austin and Repatriation) were not. Mistletoes in evergreen trees were not surveyed. Each distinct clump of mistletoe was recorded, along with the host tree genus, and the position was logged using a Global Positioning System (GPS) unit. Since Creeping Mistletoe may have a creeping habit along the branches of its host, these clumps may not represent dis- tinct individuals, but for the purposes of this paper they are considered as such. Where trees were heavily infested or observations were doubtful, closer inspec- tion on foot and/or with binoculars was carried out. Host trees could generally be identified by morphology and bark. Doubtful identifications were rechecked when the plants were in leaf in April 2006. Within the east block (area =1.428 km 2 ) 18.69 km of road was surveyed, represent- ing a survey effort of 13.09 km per km 2 . In the west (area =1.337 km 2 ), 21.61 km of road was surveyed, representing a survey effort of 16.16 km per km 2 , a slightly high- er figure than in the east due to the subdivision geometry. In April 2006 a further survey was under- taken to establish the density of potential host trees in the area. Approximately 20 percent of the roads (4.148 km in the east, and 5.444 km of road in the west) in each block were surveyed from a slow-moving vehicle, and the genus and location of each potential host tree was recorded and logged with a GPS unit. Results Mistletoes The location of infected trees is shown in Fig. 2. Infected street trees are plotted at the actual location (typically accurate to +/- 10 ni using the GPS), but those occur- ring on private property are plotted at the nearest point on the street, and may be up to 30 metres from their actual location. Mistletoe and infected tree densities are shown in Table 1. These figures may under- represent the true densities, since buildings and foliage, particularly in back and side yards, may have obscured mistletoes and host trees occurring on private property. Since the survey effort differed in the two blocks, the most accurate measure for comparison of mistletoe and host density is Southern ft ©go G Heidelberg mistletoe hosts: 1995 • ••• ° If* St J amea f I • f Ljr: -h 1 UmT 0 G 8f ownst Q •L. Bur 9unOy S( # Bq G G ' + G G • Prunus N « Plane G Oak + Birch ■ Elm 0.4 kilometres 0.8 Fig. 1. Map showing distribution of mistletoe hosts in 1995. 28 The Victorian Naturalist Contributions Table 1. Density of infected hosts and mistletoes Block Number of Hosts per Number of Mistletoes per hosts survey kilometre mistletoes survey kilometre East 30 1.61 61 3.26 West 153 7.08 715 44.24 Table 2. Density of potential host trees Block Number of Survey distance Potential hosts per potential host trees (km) survey kilometre East 130 4.148 31.34 West 141 5.444 25.90 Fig. 2. Map showing distribution of mistletoe hosts in 2005. mistletoes per survey kilometre and hosts per survey kilometre. In the west block there were more than five times as many infected trees and more than ten times the density of mistletoes compared with the east black, both in absolute terms and relative to survey effort. Potential host tree densities The number of potential host trees per kilometre of survey in each block is shown in Table 2. Incidental observation indicated that dif- ferent host genera might have differing susceptibility to infection. If one area had more hosts of a particularly susceptible genus, then that might give rise to greater infected host densities in that area. A com- parison of potential host density with actu- al host density by host tree genera between the east and west blocks indicates that dif- ferences in potential host densities between the blocks does not explain the marked dif- ference in infected host density between the blocks (Fig. 3). While relative densities of cherry plum are comparable across the blocks (black dots, left hand axis), actual infection rates (open squares, right hand axis) are consid- Vol. 124 (1) 2007 29 Contributions erably lower in the east block. Birch and oak densities in the east are more than twice those in the west, but infection rates are approximately three times lower. These results should be treated with caution for some genera. Plane trees, and to a lesser extent oaks, occur as discrete patches of street plantings, leading to a very ‘lumpy’ distribution across the study site, and the potential host survey, which only sampled a portion of each block, may have mis-rep- resented the actual density of these genera in the blocks. Since cherry plum, birch and elm are more evenly dispersed across the area, they are considered unlikely to suffer from this limitation. Changes in infection patterns, 1995 - 2005 A direct comparison of changes in the spa- tial distribution of mistletoes is not possible since Seebeck recorded infected host trees, rather than mistletoe plants. While Seebeck's text is not explicit, it appears that where multiple mistletoes occurred in an individual tree, only the host tree was recorded rather than the number of mistle- toes within the host. The map included in that paper is also incomplete, since not all host trees bearing mistletoe referred to in the text appear on the map, for what appears to be reasons of cartographic simplicity. Where dense clusters of infected trees occurred, some cartographic licence seems to have been used, and the number of points shown on the map is less than the number of infected trees referred to in the text. Where the infected trees are more dispersed it is probably safe to assume that all of the infected trees were plotted on the map. In spite of uncertainty in re-identifying some of the hosts in the older study, most individual hosts - particularly where only a single mature specimen of the host genus occurs in a location - can still be identified (Tables 3 and 4). If the Seebeck map is generally reliable, then overall mistletoe infection rates in the east block (where no dense clusters of infected trees occur) appear to be relatively stable, but with a considerable turnover in hosts. No clear spatial pattern in persistence, abandonment or recruitment of mistletoe hosts in the east block was evident. The picture is less clear in the west block. Since a high proportion of infec- tions in the west block occur in tight clus- ters, estimates of persistence, recruitment and abandonment within these patches are unlikely to yield reliable data. The incom- plete data included in the Seebeck map fur- ther complicates the issue. The data pre- sented in Table 4 are only indicative of changes in the dispersed host areas outside of the clustered infection areas. However, within these dense clusters changes can be inferred from Seebeck’s text. Mistletoes in the row of oaks along Fig. 3. Comparison of potential hosts and infections by genus, east and west block. 30 The Victorian Naturalist Contributions Table 3. Changes in host trees. East Block, 1995-2005. Genus Persistent host Abandoned host New host Cherry plum 4 6 9 Elm 0 l 1 Oak 2 3 2 Birch 1 1 2 Plane 1 0 0 Other 0 0 2 Total 8 11 16 Tabic 4. Changes in dispersed host trees, West Block, 1995-2005. Genus Persistent host Abandoned host New host Cherry plum Elm 11 1 23 1 41 1 Oak 0 2 4 Birch 2 3 8 Plane 0 0 0 Other 0 0 3 Total 13 29 57 Lloyd St have expanded west from the original 15 hosts (out of 49) clustered at the east end of the street, to 39 infected trees (although Seebeck’s map only shows 12 hosts). Similarly, in the line of plane trees in Saint Hellier St, the mistletoe population has expanded from nine trees clustered toward the east end of the street, to 2 1 hosts, with the infection spreading west along the plan- tation. The group of mistletoes in the Dresden St plane tree plantation has expand- ed south and increased from the original six trees to nine (out of 17). However, in the nearby group of nine similarly aged planes in Edwin St infected trees have increased from only one infected tree to two. Apart from a trend in host cycling similar to that noted in the east block, there appears to be a spread of infection from the high density patches at the east of the block toward the less densely infected areas to the west. Discussion While this research has shed some light on the distribution patterns and changes in mistletoe host density, it raises a consider- able number of questions regarding the caus- es of the differences between the blocks. The difference in density between the east and the west may be just a chance occurrence, but the fact that the pattern has persisted over ten years, while there has been considerable turnover in the mistletoe population, suggests this is not the case. The increase in infected trees in the west, while infection levels in the east have remained relatively stable, lends weight to that view. Like any organism, the population of mistletoes is a function of the balance between recruitment and mortality. In the case of mistletoes, however, this is compli- cated by reliance on a specific vector (Mistletoebirds, Diaceum hirundinaceum) for spread, and host specificity for estab- lishment. From the data presented here, potential host densities are not the cause of differ- ences between the blocks, since more potential hosts occur in the east where there is less mistletoe. Underlying geology and tree cover density (Muller, in prep.) appear not to be the causative factors either. The differences may lie in the biology and behaviour of the vector or population control agents, or microclimatic differ- ences arising from the topography that affect mistletoe establishment or vigour. Perhaps Mistletoebirds prefer the elevated area to the west of Upper Heidelberg Road to the valley slopes to the east. Department of Sustainability and Environment data- base records shed little light on the issue of Mistletoebird visitation, with only three Vol. 124(1)2007 31 Contributions records for the study area, all in the east block. Differential distribution of possums, implicated as mistletoe control agents in other studies (Reid and Yan 2000) may be the cause. Again, records in the Department of Sustainability and Environment database are sparse. Only four records for Common Brushtail Possum Trichosurus vulpecula and three of Common Ringtail Possum Pseudocheirus peregrinus occur in the study area. Anecdotal reports from residents and the local municipality suggest that possums are fairly widespread although no quantita- tive data are available. The apparent spread of mistletoes into previously unoccupied hosts in the west block indicates an increase in recruitment occurring in the west block but not in the east. This may be due to chance, to changed circumstances occurring over the past decade in the west but not the east, or alternatively, because long-term equili- brium in the mistletoe population has not yet occurred in the west block. Anthropogenic factors may be another causative factor. Differences in gardening habits and choices, behaviour, and pet choices - which may influence both Mistletoebirds and possums - may all have some influence on mistletoe distribution. Mistletoes are considered to be keystone resources in forests and woodlands (Watson 2001 ) and the same may hold for urban ecosystems. If this is true, then mistletoes on introduced trees may be a critical element in establishing and main- taining diverse ecosystems in our cities and towns, particularly since the densities reported here are considerably higher than I have observed for Box Mistletoe Amyema miquelii in forests in central Victoria (unpubl. data). The high visibility of mistletoes in decid- uous trees during winter makes mistletoe study in urban areas considerably easier than in native forest settings. The relatively good historical records that exist for urban areas, and the ease of access and large number of potential observers in these locations suggest that the suburbs may be a prime location for untangling the complex- ities of mistletoe ecology. References Downey PO (1998). An inventory of host species of each aerial mistletoe species (Loranthaceae & Viscaceae) in Australia. Cunninghamia , 5 , 685-720. Reid N and Yan Z (2000) Mistletoes and other phanerogams parasitic on eucalypts. In Diseases and Pathogens of Eucalypts pp 353-384 Eds Keane, PJ, Kile, GA, Podger, FD and Brown, BN (CSIRO Publishing: Melbourne). Seebeck J (1997) Creeping mistletoe Muellerina euca- Ivptoides in suburban Melbourne. The Victorian Naturalist 114 , 130-134. Watson, DM (2001) Mistletoe - a keystone resource in forests and woodlands worldwide. Annual Review of Ecology > and Systematics 32 , 219-249. Received 5 June 2006; accepted 16 November 2006 A Valentine’s Day poem Goodenia ovata is yellow in flower As bright as my love, for you every hour While the Common Hovea is purple in hue (Well it’s actually mauve, between me and you) The Caladenia rosella has petals of red ’Tis the colour of passion, it’s often been said But the best plant of all for the job of type-casting Is the Bracteantha bracteate - the Golden Everlasting Its name says it all, in colour and style Like my love, it is pure and goes on all the while written by one of the Editors for his wife 32 The Victorian Naturalist Contributions An addition to the snake fauna of Victoria: De Vis’ Banded Snake Denisonia devisi (Serpentes: Elapidae) Waite and Longman Nick Clemann 1 , Peter Robertson 2 , Dale Gibbons 2 , Geoffrey Heard', David Steane 2 , A John Coventry' and Ryan Chick 1 'Arthur Rylah Institute for Environmental Research, Department of Sustainability and Environment, PO Box 137 Heidelberg, Vic. 3084 ^Wildlife Profiles Pty Ltd, PO Box 500, Heidelberg, Vic. 3084 J 36 Eiles Rd. Maiden Gully, Vic. 3551 4 Depatment of Zoology, La Trobe University, Bundoora, Vic. 3086 'Museum Victoria, Nicholson St, Carlton, Vic. 3053 Abstract In late November 2005 a survey was carried out for Common Death Adder Acanthophis antarcticus on Lindsay and Wallpolla Islands along the Murray River. No sighting of this species were made but a De Vis' Banded Snake Denisonia devisi was collected, representing the first record of the species in Victoria. Further specimens of the snake were recorded locally in other surveys, pointing to the value of baseline survey. Ongoing surveys of herpeto fauna are essential and until more is known of the conservation status of De Vis’ Banded Snake in Victoria; caution is recommended regarding landuse that could potentially threaten the species. (The Victorian Naturalist 124 (1), 2007, 33-38) Introduction Knowledge of the distribution of Victorian herpetofauna continues to be refined front data collected during fauna surveys and incidental records. Historical data suggest that the Victorian terrestrial snake fauna consists of some 25 species belonging to three families - Boidae, Typhlopidae and Elapidae (Coventry and Robertson 1991). However, the often cryptic habits of snakes, the distributional proximity of sev- eral apparently ‘non-Victorian’ species to this state, and the presence of suitable habitat for these taxa, suggests that unrecorded species may yet be found with- in Victoria. Here the discovery of a snake species previously unknown from the state is reported. The Common Death Adder Acanthophis antarcticus is known from Victoria, having been recorded at Lake Boga by Gerard Krefft in 1856 (Coventry and Robertson 1991). However, no specimen has been collected within the state. In late November 2005 a survey for this species was undertaken on Lindsay and Wallpolla Islands along the Murray River in far north-western Victoria, following recent, unsubstantiated sightings. Over five days and three nights, a range of areas on these islands was surveyed using four techniques - raking of litter and coarse debris, rolling of logs and rubbish, deploying a sniffer dog (‘Gus’, a 10 month-old Beagle trained to detect Death Adders) on a lead, and spotlighting after dark using vehicle head- lights and hand-held spotlights. We focused on Lignum and River Red Gum habitats because the local Death Adder sightings had occurred in these vegetation communities. Death Adders were not detected during this survey, but on the final night a De Vis’ Banded Snake (also known as a ‘Mud Adder’) Denisonia devisi was collected, representing the first record of the species in Victoria. Subsequent trips to the same and nearby areas have resulted in further records of De Vis’ Banded Snakes Observations On November 25, at 11.10 pm (Eastern Daylight Saving time), whilst spotlighting beside a waterbody on Dedman’s Track in River Red Gum forest in Wallpolla Island State Forest, approximately 800 m south of the Murray River, the first De Vis' Banded Snake was found. The area had been sub- ject to recent earthworks involving channel and levee modification, and had received pumped water over previous months. The weather was cool and overcast, with no moon, and a cool, moderate breeze. The Vol. 124(1)2007 33 Contributions day and evening had been hot and humid with some showers and lightning, followed by a cool southerly change about 1 .5 hours before the snake was found. The tempera- ture was not recorded at the time, but the maximum temperature at nearby Lake Victoria on November 25 was 35.5° C, and 14.5° C at 9.00 am the next day. When first observed, the snake (Fig. 1) was stationary with its body in loose curves. It was lying on a flat log at the water’s edge, approximately 15 cm from water and 10 cm above the water level. The immediate surrounding area had sparse litter with no grass or shrubs, and the nearest vegetation was regenerating Red Gum approximately 1-2 metres from the snake. Because they are known to be the preferred prey of this snake, we noted all frog species seen and/or heard nearby. Two species, Peron’s Tree Frog Litoria peronii and Barking Marsh Frog Limno- dynastes Jletcheri , were calling from the waterbody where the snake was found. In mid December 2005 a second survey resulted in a further five sightings of De Vis' Banded Snakes, four of which were found very close to the location of the first specimen. One of these snakes was dead and partly decayed when discovered in sparse Red Gum litter on a raised bank approximately 45 m from the water’s edge. All three live specimens were close to the water’s edge (0.02-3 m) and were found lying on dry, cracked clay, thick litter, and wet clay respectively. The second of these individuals was collected and subsequently lodged as a voucher specimen at Museum Victoria (specimen number NMV D74160; Table 1). Frog species recorded at the sites where these snakes were found included Peron’s Tree Frog, Barking Marsh Frog, Plains Froglet Crinia parinsignifera and Spotted Marsh Frog Limnodynastes tas- maniensis. The last De Vis’ Banded Snake found on this survey was recorded on the bank of Potterwalkagee Creek, more than 40 kms west of the previous records. The anterior half of this snake was hidden in thick, wet Red Gum litter approximately 10 cm from the water’s edge under a Red Gum tree. The only frog species recorded at this site was Peron’s Tree Frog. A third survey trip in January 2006 resulted in another three records of De Vis’ Banded Snakes from the western end of Florseshoe Lagoon on Wallpolla Island. These snakes were all found on bare, cracked clay within 3 m of the water’s edge. Two were found on the bank of a lagoon, and one on the bank of a channel, and all were in habitat with sparse River Red Gums and Typha thickets nearby. Frog species recorded nearby included Barking Marsh Frog, Spotted Marsh Frog, Peron’s Tree Frog and a Growling Grass Frog Litoria raniformis. Frog surveys led by Sharada Ramamurthy (Mallee Catchment Manage- ment Authority) in February and April 2006 resulted in observations of another three De Vis' Banded Snakes (specimens 10-12 in Table 1) in the region, but these were not captured and there is no morpho- metric data for them. The first of these snakes was found in cracks in the clay sub- strate of a drying lagoon, approximately 200-300 m from water. The lagoon was fringed by River Red Gums, although the immediate location of the sighting had almost no leaf litter. Frogs detected at this site included Growling Grass Frog and Barking Marsh Frog. The second snake was found moving through sparse herba- ceous vegetation on a clay lagoon bank with medium to dense leaf litter, approxi- mately five metres from water. Nearby habitat consisted of numerous River Red Gums with coarse, woody debris beneath. Three Growling Grass Frogs and three Barking Marsh Frogs were observed near- by. The third snake was found moving through leaf litter on the bank of a wetland approximately seven metres from water. The immediate area had a medium cover of leaf litter, sparse herbaceous vegetation and River Red Gums over a layer of coarse, woody debris. Several Peron’s Tree Frogs were observed nearby. Available morphometries of these snakes are presented in Table 1 . Apparent signs of sexual dimorphism permitted the tentative assignment of sex presented in the last col- umn. Snakes believed to be females had tails that tapered uniformly from the vent, with no signs of hemipene bulges, and their tails were usually noticeably shorter (with less subcaudal scales) than the snakes con- sidered to be males. Similarly, two of the three snakes considered to be females had 34 The Victorian Naturalist Contributions oo a x: £ jv c 03 - Q1 2 00 £ H ’ > © o > 53 © CQ >>£ 1 s O (5 S p u o o- 2 8 * £ c/5 co C P D — o © ' o |. C 3 C /5 <5 .*2 ii X! £ - . hh f> x x *1 © I— J C/5 o © — 00 03 “ H .12 +- 03 C> M a j a t « §■ *© s — x © £ U is D s 0/ c a . s C/5 - — ^ _r oo 00 t/5 P c r- *- 43 “ - "O _ "O _ 3 r 3 i- _£3 2-P 2=P 2o g/o 0.0 a° CC c3 7C c3 7C (3 SO 5 o ” 0 - J ’ c ^ T 3— 5 c /5 "O _J r- — - (— 1 >— <— _j ^'^~ c/ ’ 1a§1as1a^^gI1g^ 5 gi B 1=3 B 1^3 g^-i s| fj « S: ;< < L > ' CL O T 3 c /5 ^04 u< 5 © lo U CNj O ^ o ro 04 ro X) o D ^t- a ' psi <-,1 ' N >>CJ do ts ^ .§7 ><2 o ^ a."© &2 C3 c3 VO .E ! >v§ ^ : L- vL 5 C3 04 „ 3 — Crt •— •— •— X S X £ 5 cm 2 in size. Medium = discontinuous cover with dis- tinct gaps between plants, area covered between 5 cm 2 and 30 cm’. Medium High = discontinu- ous cover with distinct gaps between plants, area covered between 30 cm : and 50 cm 3 . High = continuous cover, area covered between 50 cm 2 and 70 cm 2 . Very High = continuous cover, areas greater than 70 cm 2 in size.) In these sur- veys A. millefolium was found at 300 sites in the Snowy Mountains. Location records of Achillea millefolium from database of vegetation surveys Location records of A. millefolium were selected from a database of records of exotic species in The Snowy Mountains, from 1 8 general vegetation surveys con- ducted between 1986 and 2004 (Bear et al. in press). This database included 1103 records of 154 exotic taxa from 363 sites with exotics. It also included data on 136 sites where exotics were not found in vege- tation surveys, giving a total of 499 sites. Sources of vegetation survey data included published research papers, PhD and Honours theses. New South Wales National Parks and Wildlife Service reports and unpublished research by mem- bers of the School of Environmental and Applied Sciences, Griffith University (Table 1). Each exotic taxon record had information on its spatial coordinates, veg- etation zone, altitude, vegetation commu- nity or anthropogenic disturbance type. Sites were considered disturbed if they were highly likely to have experienced vegetation removal and alteration to soils during construction and use of infrastruc- ture, e.g. sites were defined as disturbed if they were located on the verges of tracks, roads or in the immediate area around buildings, dams etc. Sites were considered natural if they were in areas away from infrastructure and had no other signs of human activity/use. Mapping the distribution of Achillea millefolium Using the location records of A. millefoli- um from (1) the specific surveys, (2) the experiments and (3) the 18 general sur- veys, the distribution of A. millefolium in Kosciuszko National Park was mapped in relation to altitude/floristic zone (alpine = -1850 m to 2228 m; subalpine = -1500 m to - 1850 m and montane = -1500 to 500 m), climatic parameters (mean annual rain- fall and average temperature) and location of roads and tracks using data from the NSW National Parks and Wildlife Service geographic information system (GIS) data- base and ESRI ArcVIEW GIS software. The locations of 3 1 9 sites from the 1 8 gen- eral vegetation surveys where there were exotics other than A. millefolium were also mapped to indicate the geographic range of exotics in Kosciuszko National Park. The locations of the 136 sites in the 18 general vegetation surveys where there were no exotics were also mapped. Results From the A. millefolium specific surveys, field experiments and general vegetation surveys there was a total of 376 sites with A. millefolium in the southern and central sec- tions of the Snowy Mountains (Table 2). There were an additional 323 sites that con- tained exotics other than A. millefolium and 1 36 sites where only native taxa were found. Altitude and climate Achillea millefolium was recorded in table- land, montane, subalpine and alpine zones (800 m - 2100 m) with 85% of sites in sub- alpine and montane areas (Fig. 1). The cli- mate of these zones is consistent with areas of Australia that have been mapped as suit- able habitat for A. millefolium (Johnston 2005). Based on the GIS maps of climatic variables the mean annual temperatures of most A. millefolium sites were relatively cool, ranging from 3° C to 9° C. Rainfall/ 54 The Victorian Naturalist Research Reports Table 1. Details of 18 general vegetation surveys conducted between 1986 and 2004 in montane to alpine zones of Kosciuszko National Park, Australia. Data source Hill W and Pickering CM. Effect of drought and fire on alpine and subalpine vegetation in Kosciuszko National Park: severity of initial impact & predictions for recovery. Unpublished data. Pickering CM, Growcock A, Hill W, Banks J and Field .1 Long Plain, Kosciuszko National Park disturbed through prior grazing. Unpublished data Pickering CM, Growcock A, Hill W, Banks J, Field J Long Plain Kosciuszko National Park. Unpublished data. Pickering C, Appleby M, Good R, Hill W, McDougall K, Wimbush D and Woods D (2002) Plant diversity in subalpine and alpine vegetation recorded in the Kosciuszko Biodiversity Blitz. In: Biodiversity in the Mountains, (ed. K Green). Australian Institute of Alpine Studies, Canberra. 1 Pickering CM, Growcock A, Hill W, Banks J and Field J Long Plain Transgrid Power lines. Unpublished data. 1 Hill W and Pickering CM (2006) Vegetation associated with different walking track types in the Kosciuszko alpine area, Australia. Journal of Environmental Management. 78, 24-34.' Mallen-Cooper J (1990) Exotic plants in the high altitude environments of Kosciuszko National Park, southeastern Australia. PhD thesis, Department of Biogeography and Geomorphology, Research School of Pacific Studies, Australian National University, Canberra. 1 Global Research Initiative in Alpine Environments GLORIA (2004 sampling). Unpublished data. Bear Z and Pickering CM (2006). Recovery of subalpine grassland from bushfire: comparison of vegetation in burnt and unburnt paired plots one year post fire in the Kosciuszko National Park. Australian Journal of Botany. 54, 451-458. Campbell M (2004) Vegetation associated with the latest lying snowbanks in Australia. Honours thesis. School of Environmental and Applied Sciences, Griffith University, Gold Coast. Scherrer P (2003a) Ch 4 Long term vegetation transects in the Kosciuszko alpine zone. In: Monitoring vegetation change in the Kosciuszko Alpine Zone, Australia. PhD thesis, School of Environmental and Applied Sciences Griffith University, Gold Coast. Scherrer P, Wimbush D and Wright G (2004) The assessment of pre and post 2003 wildfire data collected from subalpine transects in Kosciuszko National Park. Report for the Department of Environment and Conservation, National Parks and Wildlife Division. Growcock A (2005) Trampling impacts in Kosciuszko National Park, Australia. PhD thesis, School of Environmental and Applied Sciences, Griffith University, Gold Coast. Scherrer P and Pickering CM (2005) Recovery of alpine vegetation from grazing and drought: Data from long term photoquadrats in Kosciuszko National Park, Australia. Arctic, Antarctic and Alpine Research 37, 574-584. Floristic zone, vegetation type and disturbance type 1 . Alpine & subalpine zone 2. Natural tall alpine herbfield, windswept feldmark, heath and subalpine grassland burnt in 2003 bushfires and nearby natural unburnt vegetation. 1. Montane zone 2. Woodland and grassland dis- turbed by livestock grazing prac- tices (>40 years previously) 1 . Montane zone 2. Natural woodland and grassland 1 . Alpine and subalpine zone 2. Natural tall alpine herbfield, heath, subalpine grassland and sub- alpine woodland. Disturbed areas in and around ski resorts including ski slopes. 1 . Montane zone 2. Disturbed heath and grassland under powerlines 1 . Alpine zone 2. Disturbed vegetation on verges of walking tracks and adjacent natural tall alpine herbfield. 1 . Alpine, subalpine, montane and tableland zones 2. Disturbed road verge vegetation and nearby natural vegetation 1 . Alpine zone 2. Natural tall alpine herbfield and heath. 1. Subalpine zone 2. Natural tall alpine herbfield burnt in 2003 bushfires and adja- cent unburnt tall alpine herbfield. 1 . Alpine zone 2. Natural short alpine herbfield and tall alpine herbfield 1. Alpine zone 2. Natural tall alpine herbfield 1 . Subalpine zone 2. Natural subalpine grassland and heath 1 . Alpine and subalpine zone 2. Natural tall alpine herbfield and subalpine grassland 1 . Alpine zone 2. Natural tall alpine herbfield Vol. 124 (1) 2007 55 Research Reports Table I cont’d Data source Floristic zone, vegetation type and disturbance type Scherrer P and Pickering CM (2006) Recovery of alpine herbfteld on a closed walking track in the Kosciuszko Alpine Zone, Australia. Arctic. Antarctic and Alpine Research 38, 239-248.' Johnston F (2005) Ch 5 In: Exotic plants in the Australian Alps including a case study of the ecology of Achillea millefolium in Kosciuszko National Park. PhD thesis. School of Environmental and Applied Sciences Griffith University, Gold Coast.' Bear Z and Pickering CM. Impacts of fire on road verge vegetation and adjacent natural areas (unpublished data).' Johnston F and Johnston SW (2004) Impacts of road disturbance on soil properties & on exotic plant occurrence in subalpine areas of the Australian Alps. Arctic, Antarctic & Alpine Research 36, 201-207.' 1 . Alpine zone 2. Disturbed tall alpine herbfield on rehabilitated walking track 15 years ago and adjacent natural tall alpine herbfield. 1 . Subalpine zone 2. Disturbed road verge vegetation and nearby natural subalpine grass land. 1 . Subalpine zone 2. Disturbed road verge vegetation and adjacent natural grassland. 1. Subalpine zone 2. Disturbed road verge vegetation and adjacent natural subalpine grassland vegetation. 1 Survey examined effect of anthropogenic disturbance on vegetation, therefore more likely to record exotic species. Table 2. Number of sites where Achillea mille- folium was recorded by location type in the Snowy Mountains. (Sources: A. millefolium spe- cific surveys and experiments and 18 general vegetation surveys. Location type # sites Sites with A. millefolium (%) Infrastructure 44 11.7 Main road 104 27.6 Secondary road 115 30.5 Management trail 55 14.6 Walking track 26 6.9 Native vegetation 32 8.5 Total 376 100 snow in these sites was high, ranging from 1201 to 2500 mm of precipitation per year (Figs. 2 and 3). Most A. millefolium sites were in sites that had clear evidence of human disturbance (91.5%) particularly along the verges of roads and management trails in the subalpine and montane zones and at landfill sites at lower altitudes in the tableland zone (Fig. 1; Table 2). The highest altitude site at which A. millefolium was recorded was 2100 m on Mount Twynam, 7 km from the highest mountain in continental Australia (Mt Kosciuszko 2228 m) where it was growing in the eroded wheel tracks of an old man- agement trail (Fig. 4). Human disturbance The distribution of Achillea millefolium was strongly associated with anthro- pogenic disturbance, particularly roads and infrastructure (Table 2, Fig. 1). The Snowy Mountains is dissected by roads, tracks and clearings producing an extensive network of edges. It was estimated that there are 1212 km of public access roads. 1238 km of management trails and 192 km of walk- ing (racks (source: New South Wales National Parks and Wildlife Service G1S database). Of the 376 sites at which A. millefolium was recorded 91% were in areas affected by human disturbance. This exotic was recorded along more than 1 00 km of walk- ing tracks, public access roads and man- agement trails in the Snowy Mountains - 104 sites along main roads, 115 sites on secondary roads, 55 on management trails, 26 on walking tracks and 44 around other types of infrastructure (ski resorts, rangers’ stations, sewage works and power stations. Fig. 1). Achillea millefolium was recorded in only 32 sites where vegetation was clas- sified as natural. There are two major sealed access routes to the southern section of the Snowy Mountains, the Kosciuszko Road between Jindabyne and Charlotte Pass and the Alpine Way from near Jindabyne to Khancoban (Fig. 1). Along the Kosciuszko Road A. millefolium plants were found from the boundary of the montane/sub- alpine zone (Sawpit Creek) to Charlotte Pass in the high subalpine zone. In some areas along this road plants were also 56 The Victorian Naturalist Research Reports Fig. 4. Achillea millefolium flourishing at high altitude in the eroded wheel tracks of an old manage- ment trail on Mt Twynam (2010 m). Rhizomes are encroaching into adjacent natural vegetation burnt in the 2003 bushfires (Photos: S Johnston January 2005). found in adjacent native vegetation. Along the Alpine Way populations were found from the entrance to the Park (tableland zone) through to Thredbo Village and onto Pilot Lookout (Fig. 1). Achillea millefolium populations were also common along verges of minor sealed and unsealed roads, including the Guthega Road between the Guthega Power Station and Schlinks Pass road. Populations of A. mille- folium were found growing along Schlinks Pass road through to Disappointment Spur with large monoculture populations found at the Disappointment Spur aqueduct. Populations were found along the following minor roads and management trails: the Cascade Trail, Pilot Lookout Trail, Farm Creek, Snow Ridge Road, Goat Ridge Road, Link Road, King Cross Road, Ridge Four Wheel Drive Trail, Valentine Fire Trail, minor roads within the Island Bend Road complex, Swampy Plain Bridge Road, and Rock Creek trail (Fig. 1). Achillea millefolium was also along management trails through the Jagungal Wilderness area. Although currently uncommon in the alpine zone, there are isolated plants and small populations along the Summit Road, the Blue Lake walking track, the Main Range walking track and around Seaman’s Hut near Mount Kosciuszko (Sanecki el al. 2003). Of particular concern is a population on a disused track on Twynam Ridge (2100 m. Fig. 4) which has increased substantially since the 2003 bushfires. In 1 999 A. mille- folium covered an area of -20-40 m 2 on the track: January 2005 the area covered by A. millefolium was around 160 m 2 although this was discontinuous cover (Fig. 4). It appears to be spreading into adjacent sub- alpine grassland vegetation burnt in the 2003 fires (Johnston pers. obs.). Other disturbed areas with A. millefolium include those surrounding infrastructure, such as the ski resorts, rangers’ stations, sewage works and power stations (Fig. 5) Locations with large populations of A. millefolium included Perisher Valley, Smiggin Holes, Guthega Village,’ Cabramurra, Selwyn, Thredbo, Kiandra, Old Kiandra Goldfields, Island Bend, Guthega, Perisher, Wilson’s Valley’ Sawpit Creek, Falls Creek and Charlotte Pass. In some of these areas, dense mono- cultures of A. millefolium were recorded. For example, A. millefolium was seen Vol. 124 (1) 2007 57 Research Reports * Achillea millefolium Exotics (not A. millefolium) > Native species only i£§d Alpine zone Subalpine zone Montane zone □ Park boundary — Public access road Management trail Walking track Fig. 1. Distribution oi 'Achillea millefolium in relation to altitude/floristic zone in the Snowy Mountains based on 376 sites with A. millefolium. Sites that were surveyed but did not contain A. millefolium but either other exotics or only natives also were included to show the extent of sampling. Fig. 2. Distribution of Achillea millefolium in relation to mean annual temperature (°C) in the Snowy Mountains. Sites not containing A. millefolium but containing other exotics or only natives are included to indicate the total distribution of sites. 58 The Victorian Naturalist Research Reports * Achillea millefolium Exoties (not A. millefolium) • Native species only Mean annual rainfall (mm) ■■ 312-702 r ' "I 703 - 1257 [=□ 1258- 1900 □ 1901 -2424 I Park boundary Public access road Management trail Walking track Fig. 3. Distribution of Achillea millefolium in relation to mean annual rainfall (mm) in the Snowy Mountains. Sites that were surveyed but did not contain A. millefolium but contained either other exotics or only natives also were included to show the extent of sampling. growing up to 39 m from the road verge (Johnston pers. obs.) in outwash areas from a culvert opposite a ski lodge and ski lift in Perisher Valley. Achillea millefolium in natural vegetation Although most common in disturbed areas, A. millefolium grows in a number of natur- al vegetation communities including short alpine herbfield, tall alpine herbfield, sod tussock grassland, subalpine woodland and tall heath associations (as defined in Costin 1954 and Costin et al. 2000, Fig. 6) (Johnston pers. obs.). For example A. millefolium plants were observed in sub- alpine grassland ( Poa spp.) near Dicky Cooper Creek, where there were no obvi- ous signs of recent disturbance (Johnston pers. obs). Along sections of the Geehi River A. millefolium was observed grow- ing from the edge of the road down to the water edge (Johnston pers. obs.). Frequency and density of Achillea millefolium in the Snowy Mountains Although it is clear that there are many places in the Snowy Mountains where A. millefolium can be found there are also many disturbed and natural areas where it does not occur. Based on the general vege- tation survey data, A. millefolium occurred in only 12% of all sites where exotics were recorded. In natural areas A. millefolium was even less common and was found in just 4% of sites with exotics (Bear et al. in press) (Table 3). The cover/abundance of A. millefolium was estimated at 300 sites along primary roads, secondary roads, management trails and other infrastructure. Cover/abundance was highly variable and appeared to be associated with the degree of disturbance, including if sites were likely to receive runoff from the road/trail (Table 4, Johnston and Johnston 2004). At some road drainage sites, A. millefolium was observed spreading into surrounding natur- al vegetation (Fig. 6). At sites adjacent to infrastructure A. millefolium was always recorded at either medium high or very high cover/abundance. Along main roads cover/abundance was more variable as it was recorded at low values as well as medium high values. Along secondary roads and fire/management trails cover/abundance was quite high and less variable. Along secondary roads cover/abundance was recorded as between medium to medium high and along fire trails it was medium high. In contrast, where A. millefolium was recorded along Vol. 124 (1) 2007 59 Research Reports Table 3. Number ot sites recorded in 18 general vegetation surveys in the Snowy Mountains between 1986 and 2004. Number of sites with Achillea millefolium, number of sites with other exotics, and number of sites where no exotics were recorded (i.e. natives only). Zone Vegetation # sites with A. millefolium # sites with other exotics # natives only sites Total # sites Alpine Disturbed 1 48 17 66 Natural 0 72 98 170 Subalpine Disturbed 26 58 0 84 Natural 10 53 15 78 Montane Disturbed 5 55 1 61 Natural 2 33 5 40 Total 44 319 136 499 Fig. 5. Achillea millefolium growing in front of the Marritz Hotel in Perisher Valley Snowy Mountains (Photo: S Johnston 1999). walking tracks, the cover/abundance was low (Table 3). Discussion Achillea millefolium is found from the tableland to the alpine zones of the Snowy Mountains with the majority of sites in the subalpine (57%) and montane (27%) zones. Nearly all sites with A. millefolium were areas where vegetation and soils have been affected by human disturbance (91%). Although the majority of A. mille- folium sites were along main and sec- ondary roads, the greatest density of A. millefolium was recorded around buildings. Where A. millefolium was found on walk- ing track verges, it was at low density, probably reflecting the lower intensity of disturbance in these areas. Achillea millefolium was not common in undisturbed vegetation and occurred in less than 4% of sites where other exotics were recorded in the general vegetation surveys (Bear et al. in press). Therefore A. mille- folium appears to be principally a weed of sites around infrastructure, including in areas with high water and sediment wash and nutrient-rich soils (Johnston and Johnston 2004). However it may be start- ing to establish in natural vegetation where 60 The Victorian Naturalist Research Reports Table 4. Number of sites with different cover/abundance of A. millefolium at selected roads and other infrastructure in specific surveys in the Snowy Mountains between January and March 1999 and 2000. Low = isolated plants < 5 cm 2 in size. Medium Low = isolated plants > 5 cm 2 in size. Medium = discontinuous cover with distinct gaps between plants, area covered between 5 cm 2 and 30 cm 2 . Medium High = discontinuous cover with distinct gaps between plants, area covered between 30 cm 2 and 50 cm 2 . High = continuous cover, area covered between 50 cm 2 and 70 cm 2 . Very High = continuous cover, areas greater than 70 cm 2 in size. Cover/ Abundance Buildings etc # sites Main road # sites Secondary road # sites Fire trail # sites Walking track # sites Total # sites Low 2 20 1 15 38 Med/ Low 3 4 2 5 1 15 Medium 3 20 30 14 7 74 Med/High 14 24 68 36 1 143 High 3 4 6 2 15 Very High 1 1 2 3 16 Total 36 74 110 55 26 301 Fig. 6. Population of Achillea millefolium growing between eroded wheel tracks and in adjacent grassland vegetation in a subalpine area of the Snowy Mountains. The highest density appears at the lowest point of the road where greatest water and nutrient wash off occurs. Achillea millefolium also appears to be spreading out from the road into surrounding vegetation (Photo: Z Bear 2004). it can be difficult to remove once estab- lished (Sanecki et al. 2003). The distribution of plants is determined by both abiotic and biotic factors (Booth et al. 2003). The spread of a plant begins with the removal of dispersal barriers and/or the creation of suitable new habitats (Cousens and Mortimer 1995). From the distribution of A. millefolium in the Snowy Mountains, it appears that human activities have provided suitable habitat for its estab- lishment and may have contributed to its spread. A. millefolium may not have reached the limits to its distribution in this area, as there are sites with characteristics similar to those where it has been found, which have not yet been colonised. This species will continue to spread in the Snowy Mountains unless there is a suc- cessful control program. As the provision of infrastructure for tourism in the Snowy Mountains has created suitable habitat for Vol. 124 (1) 2007 61 Research Reports A. millefolium, there needs to be careful evaluation of alternatives to minimise its spread. This should involve limiting new infrastructure to already disturbed sites, selection of types of infrastructure that minimise disturbance (e.g. raised steel mesh walking tracks rather than gravel etc.. Hill and Pickering 2006), and active ongoing rehabilitation of sites once they have been disturbed. 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(Chapman and Hall: Melbourne) Warwick SI and Black L (1982) The biology of Canadian weeds 52. Achillea millefolium L. Canadian Journal of Plant Science 62 , 163-182. Zhang D, Armitage AM, Affolter JM and Dirr MA (1996) Environmental control of flowering and growth of Achillea millefolium L. ‘summer pastels’. Horticultural Science 31 , 364-365. Received 13 April 2006; accepted 7 September 2006 One Hundred Years Ago THE PLENTY RANGES IN EARLY SPRING. by A.D. Hardy, F.L.S. The Golden Wattle, Acacia pycnantha, seems to show a disposition to modify its foliage as the altitude of the habitat increases. The highland plants, which are general- ly more symmetrical and handsome, have mostly dull bluish coloured and often more pointed pyllodes as compared with the shining and dark green phylloded plants of the lowland. This blue-grey “bloom,” such as is found on plums, grapes, &c., was also seen to be more pronounced on A. dealbata than on that species at a lower altitude, and the appropriateness of the comon name, Silver Wattle, is readily appreciated. The foliage of A. pycnantha here and on other parts of the Dividing Range is much eaten by insects. I remember that in September, 1905 on the Black Spur, I searched over twenty trees for a single small branchlet with entire phyllodes, but failed, to such an extent had these trees been attacked. Here in June A. pycnantha was in bloom, but the development of the buds is slow, for in the report of the excursion in January, 1 900, Mr. Barnard states this species was then already in bud. From The Victorian Naturalist XXIV, p. 133, December 1907. Vol. 124 (1) 2007 63 Slh k