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CLARENDON PRESS SERIES
VIRGIL
OLICS AND GEORGICS
EDITED
iVITH INTRODUCTION AND NOTES
BY
T. L. PAPILLON, M.A.
FORMERLY FELLOW AND TUTOR OF NEW COLLEGE
AND
A. E. HAIGH, M.A.
LATE FELLOW OF HERTFORD; CLASSICAL LECTURER AT CORPUS CHRIST! AND WADHAM COLLEGES, OXFORD
|
OXFORD AT THE CLARENDON PRESS 1 |
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?k |
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6804 |
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^ _ . Price Two Shillings and Sixpence |
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P'^ |
VIRGIL
BUCOLICS AND GEORGIC
EDITED
WITH INTRODUCTION AND NOTES
BY
T. L. PAPILLON, M.A.
rORMERLY FELLOW AND TL'TOR OF NEW COLLEGE
AND
A. E. HAIGH, M.A.
I.ATF. FELLOW OF HERTFORD, AND CLASSICAL LECTURER AT CORPUS CHRISTI AND WADHAM COLLEGES, OXFORD
OXFORD
AT THE CLARENDON PRESS
1891
HENRY FROWDE, M.A.
PUBLISHER TO THE UNIVERSITY OF OXFORD
LONDON, EDINBURGH
NEW YORK AND TORONTO
PREFACE ^'Vi f
oJ
The text of this edition (as of the former edition published by the Clarendon Press in 1882) is based upon that of Ribbeck with certain modifications, particularly in matters of orthography. No attempt is made to reproduce the variety of spelling found in the best MSS.— e. g. inpius, impius, navis (n. plur.) naves, lacrnma lacrima, volmcs vu/nus, vortex vertex, Imquont linquunt lincunt — a variety which it is hard to believe that Virgil him- self would have sanctioned. Where MSS. and inscriptions fluctuate between different forms (e. g. -es, -is, -els, in nom. plur. of /- stems), it seems best for practical purposes to adhere to the normal spelling of the language in its fixed literary form : avoiding on the one hand the ' conventional ' spelling of the Renaissance Scholars, with barbarisms such as coelum, coena, lacryma, sylva due to the false notion that Latin was derived from Greek ; nor claiming, on the other hand, either to reproduce the text exactly as Virgil wrote it or to decide on a priori grounds what he ought to have written.
The Commentary has been revised throughout by both Editors, and to a considerable extent re-written, with the object of making it more generally useful to students at the Universities and in the higher forms of schools. The Intro- duction has been abridged by Mr. Papillon from that of the former edition : most of the discussion upon the history of the
4 PREFACE,
text and upon Latin orthography being omitted as being outside the scope of such an edition as this.
In the preparation of the first edition the books principally used were Professor Conington's standard commentary, com- pleted by Professor Nettleship ; the editions of Forbiger, Gossrau, and Kennedy ; Professor Nettleship's ' Suggestions Introductory to a Study of the Aeneid,' and Professor Sellar's volume ' On the Roman Poets of the Augustan Age.' In revising the notes the Editors have had the advantage of consulting Mr. Sidgwick's school edition, from which they have derived many valuable suggestions. The original Editor desires also to repeat his special obligation to the Venerable Edwin Palmer, D.D., Archdeacon of Oxford and Canon of Christ Church, formerly Fellow and Tutor of Balliol College ; to whose lectures on A^irgil he looks back as the foundation and stimulus of any Virgilian learning that he possesses, and by the use of whose MS. notes he was much assisted in compiling the former edition.
T. L. P. A. E. H.
LIFE AND POEMS OF VIRGIL^
I. PuBLius Vergilius Maro was bom Oct. 15th, b.c. 70, at Andes, a ' pagus ' or country district near Mantua and the river IMincius, whose green banks and slow windings are recalled with affectionate memory in the Eclogues and Georgics. His parents were of obscure social position : but, like those of Horace, were able to appreciate their son's talent, and give him the best education then obtainable. At twelve years old he was sent to Cremona : and at sixteen, on assuming the ' toga virilis,' went to Alediolanum (Milan) for one year, removing thence to Rome in 53 B.C. ; where he studied rhetoric under Epidius, and philosophy under Siron, a celebrated teacher of Epicureanism. In one of the collection of short poems known as 'Catalepton' {ra Kara Xenrov, 'minor poems') or Catalecta {KnTaXtKra, 'selections'), perhaps composed during his stay at Rome, Virgil expresses his preference for philosophy over rhetoric :
Ite hinc, inanes, ite, rhetorum ampullae,
Infiata rore non Achaico verba,
Et vos, Stiloque, Tarquitique, Varroque,
Scholasticorum natio
Nos ad beatos vela mittimus portus,
Magni petentes docta dicta Sironis -.
Traces of the poet's early taste for philosophy, here first expressed, appear in a few well-known passages of his later poems, e.g. the song of Silenus in Eel. vi ; the references to didactic poetry in G. ii. 477 sqq. ; the song of lopas, Aen. i. 742-6 ; and the exposition of the ' Anima Mundi,' Aen. vi. 724 sqq. ; as also in his admiration for and intimate acquaintance v^'ith the writings of Lucretius.
' In this edition the English spelling ' Virgil ' is retained in preference to the less familiar ' Vergil,' used by some modern editors. The Latin form of the poet's name is ' Vergilius' : but the Anglicised form 'Virgil' Las (like 'Horace,' ' Livy,' 'Athens' &c.) the sanction of long usage, .ind is as legitimate for us as ' \'irgilio ' for Italians, or ' Virgilc ' for Frenchmen.
'■^ Catal. \ii.
6 LIFE AND POEMS OF VIRGIL.
2. It is uncertain how long Virgil remained at Rome. His stay there may have been interrupted by the outbreak of the Civil War in 49 B.C. ; and he is said (though on no certain authority) to have studied at Neapolis (Naples) under one Parthenius. In B.C. 43 we find him at Mantua, engaged upon the Eclogues. In 41 B.C. he was ejected from his paternal farm by one of the soldiers to whom the Triumvirs Antonius, Octavianus, and Lepidus had assigned grants of land in Cisalpine Gaul. To this trouble Eclogues i and ix refer. Eel. i speaks of a journey to Rome and restitution of the farm ; Eel. ix only alludes to ejection from it. If therefore Eel. i is the earlier poem, it is necessary to suppose that he was a second time turned out, and that Eel. ix refers to this second ejection. But probably Eel. ix, containing a complaint of injury, was written earlier than Eel. i, expressing gratitude for the redress of the injury. Eel. iv and viii are complimentary to Pollio and Callus, two friends who, holding important offices in the district, had backed the poet's application to Octavianus for the restitution of his farm; and Eel. vi was perhaps a mark of gratitude to Varus, who had also assisted him. Eel. v, which alludes to the apotheosis of Julius Caesar, may have been written 43-41 B.C. ; and it must be later than Eel. ii and iii, which are alluded to in it (II. 86-7). Tradition connects Eel. ii with Pollio, and Eel. iii speaks of him (1. 84) as en- couraging the poet : and one or both of these poems may have been written in 43 B.C., the year of Pollio's term of office as ' legatus ' in Cisalpine Gaul. Eel. ix (according to the view just given) was written in 41 B.C. ; Eel. i, iv, and perhaps vi, in 40 B.C., after the restitution of Virgil's farm ; and Eel. viii in 39 B.C., the year of Pollio's return in triumph from Illyria; Eel. x, written about 38-37 B.C. when Agrippa was commanding an expedition across the Rhine into Gaul, being the last of the series. The composition of the Eclogues thus falls between the years 43 and ^7 B.C. ; their order (excluding Eel. vii, which gives no indication of date) being presumably ii, iii, v, ix, i, iv, vi, viii, x.
3. In some difficulty connected with his farm, Virgil had been assisted by C. Cilnius Jvlaecenas, the famous patron of his later years, in compliment to whom, and at whose suggestion \ he
^ G. iii. 40-1 :
Interea Dryadum silvas saltiisque sequamur Intactos, tua, Maecenas, haud moUia iussa.
LIFE AND POEMS OF VIRGIL. 7
undertook the ' Georgics,' an agricultural poem based on the didactic poetry of Hesiod, Nicander and Aratus, as the Eclogues upon the pastoral poetry of Theocritus. The Georgics were read by Virgil and Maecenas to Augustus on his return from the East in 29 B.C. : and if, as Suetonius tells us, Virgil was engaged upon them for seven years, he began them in 36 B.C., a date intrinsically probable from the completion of the Eclogues in ■^^'j B.C., and incidentally confirmed by the allusion in G. ii. 161 to the Julian harbour con- structed in that year. At the end of G. iv Virgil himself states that much of them was written at Naples ; and from G. iii. 10 it has been inferred that he had visited Greece : though the words ' Aonio deducam vertice Musas' need not imply more than 'Ascraeumque cano Romana per oppida carmen ' (G. ii. 176) — i.e., the imitation and adaptation of Greek models. The only recorded visit of Virgil to Greece is that at the end of his life : but there is some difficulty in connecting with this the ode (i. 3) in which Horace speaks of the visit of his friend Vergilius to Attica, and an earlier visit is at any rate possible.
4. The remaining ten years of Virgil's life (29-19 B.C.) were devoted to the ' Aeneid,' the most enduring monument not only of his own fame, but of the fortunes of Rome ; the epic of the Roman empire ; the sacred book of the Roman religion, as summed up in the con- ception of 'Fortuna Urbis,' with its visible embodiment in the person of the Emperor; the expression of all the varied beliefs of the time — national, religious, historical, mythological ; the ' Gesta Populi Romani,' as some called it on its first appearance. Ten or twelve years before, as we learn from Eel. \\. 3-5, Virgil had thought of singing * reges et proelia ' ; but the idea of an epic poem did not probably take definite shape in his mind before 29 B.C., in which year he writes (G. iii. 46-48) that he intends to celebrate Caesar's exploits. In the year 26 B.C., Augustus, then absent on a campaign in Spain, wrote to ask for a sight of the first draft of the poem or of selected passages from it : Virgil replied ^ that he had not yet completed anything worthy of his great undertaking or of the Emperor's ears : but three or four years after he consented to read three books (Aen. iv, vi and another) to the Emperor, the date being approximately determined by the death B.C. 23 of the young
* Tlie jjoet's reply, or what purports to be such, is preserved by Macro- bins, Sat. i. 24. II.
8 LIFE AND POEMS OF VIRGIL.
Marcellus, to whose memory the famous passage vi. S60-886 was in- serted. According to Suetonius, Virgil first drafted the story in prose, and then wrote different parts of it in no certain order, as the fancy took him : the division into twelve books being part of his original plan. Internal evidence bears out this statement : thus e.g. Book ix, where Nisus and Euryalus are introduced as though for the first time, was perhaps written before Book v, where they take a prominent part in the games ^ Books iv and vi, as has been stated, were in a finished state about 23 B.C. Book iii was perhaps written before Book ii, or at any rate before Creusa's prophecy (ii. 775 sqq.) which is un- noticed in Book iii. The poet never lived to carry out his intended revision and correction of the whole epic : and the wonder is not that inconsistencies are found in it, but that the story is, on the whole, so consistently and harmoniously worked out.
5. In the year 19 B.C. Virgil, then in his 51st year, set out to travel in Greece and Asia, intending to devote three years to the com- pletion and correction of the Aeneid. At Athens he met Augustus returning from the East and decided to go back with the Emperor to Rome : but was taken ill at Megara and died at Brundisium on Sept. 2 1 St. His ashes were taken to Naples and buried in a tomb on the way to Puteoli, upon which was inscribed the pithy but com- prehensive epitaph :
Mantua me genuit, Calabri rapuerc, tenet nunc Parthenope ; cecini pascua, rura, duces.
He is said to have acquired, from imperial and other benefactions, a considerable fortune : half of which he left to his half-brother, a cjuarter to Augustus, and a twelfth to Maecenas and each of his friends Varius and Tucca. To the two latter, as literary executors, he left all his writings on the understanding that they should publish nothing which he had not already published. Fortunately for literature, they saw that the truest friendship would be shown in dis- regarding such requests, and proceeded to edit the Aeneid with only such corrections as were absolutely necessary, leaving un- finished lines and inconsistencies of detail exactly as they found them. In what they did and in what they left undone, they were faithful to their friend's m.emory. Nor is the tradition improbable that they acted under the instructions, or at least with the sanction,
^ Aen. i.\. i^6-it3i ; v. 294-361.
LIFE AND POEMS OF VIRGIL. 9
of the Emperor himself: for besides the friendly interest which he is known to have taken in Virgil and his work, Augustus was fully capable of discerning the merits of that work and its probable value as a testimony to his own renown. Policy, no less than literary taste, would determine so shrewd a ruler to encourage such ' vates sacri ' as Virgil and Horace.
6. The poetical reputation accorded to Virgil was immediate and lasting. The friendly prediction of Propertius written while the Aeneid was in progress —
Cedite Romani scriptores, cedite Graii ; Nescio quid maius nascitur Iliade —
hardly outdid the estimate actually formed of it upon its appear- ance. From all literary circles in Rome, and particularly from poets, Virgil won immediate and unstinting appreciation. Ovid writes of him —
Tityrus et fruges Aeneiaque anna legentur, Roma triumphati durti caput oibis erit :
and later Roman poets, with the exception perhaps of Lucan, paid him the sincere flattery of undisguised imitation. Juvenal has many references to familiar passages in the Aeneid : Martial, among other tributes of admiration, says that Virgil might have surpassed Horace in lyric and Varius in dramatic poetry: and Pliny the younger tells us that among the busts, etc. possessed by the poet Silius Italicus were those — 'Vergilii ante omnes, cuius natalem religiosius quam sui celebravit, Neapoli maxime, ubi monumentum eius adire ut templum solebat.' But perhaps the greatest testi- monies of literary genius to his influence are the frequent imitation of his style in the language of Tacitus, and the homage paid by Dante, as by a disciple to his master. His writings soon became, and continued into the Middle Ages to be, the great text-book of education : and, together with the events of his life, supplied material for lectures, essays and comments to a long series of grammarians and collectors of literary gossip like Aulus Geliius and Macrobius. His name in due course became the centre of various popular traditions : some of which represented him as an enchanter or magician, others as a Christian teacher. The associ- ation of his name with magic powers may ha\-e been suggested partly by Eel. viii (Pharmaceutria), pardy by the account of the
lo LIFE AND POEMS OF VIRGIL.
world below in Aen. vi, partly by his mother's name Magia : and perhaps led to the peculiar mode of divination known as the 'Sortes Virgilianae ' — i.e., opening the poems at random to find some omen for the future. The other class of traditions originated in the supposed connection of Eel. iv ('the Messianic Eclogue') with prophecies of Christ, which took a strong hold on the imagination of Christendom, and may have contributed to Dante's selection of Virgil as a guide through the ' Inferno ' and ' Purgatorio.'
7. For questions affecting the literary criticism of Virgil's poetry, the student is referred to Professor Sellar's volume on ' The Roman Poets of the Augustan Age,' Professor Nettleship's ' Suggestions Introductory to a Study of the Aeneid,' and the Introductions in Professor Conington's edition. A word may here be said on two points which are often insisted upon in disparagement of Virgil's fame. Want of originality is the commonest, as it is the easiest, charge. The borrowed element lies upon the surface. The Eclogues reflect, or rather reproduce Theocritus ; the Georgics are, , as Virgil himself calls them, Ascraeuvi carmen, a reminiscence of Hesiod ; and the Aeneid is full of imitations of Homer, which to modern taste seem crude and inartistic. But the ideas of Virgil's own time were different. Imitation of Greek models was character- istic of all Roman literature. And as the only great presentment of heroic times open to Virgil was that of the Homeric poems, it would have seemed impossible for him to cast his epic in any other mould than that of the Iliad and Odyssey. * To reproduce their form in Roman outline, use their details, absorb their spirit, surpass if possible their effect, would be his first and most natural ambition ;' as indeed he himself expresses it (G. iii. 10) — •
Primus ego in patriam mecum, modo vita supersit, Aonio rediens dcducam vcrtice Musas.
So Horace lays down his canon of success in poetry —
Vos exemplaria Graeca Nocturna versate manu, versate diuma :
and estimates in language not unlike Virgil's his own title to poetic fame — •
Dicar ... ex humili potens Princeps Aeolium carmen ad Itaios Deduxisse modos. (Od, iii. 30. 10.)
LIFE AND POEMS OF VIRGIL. ll
We see from Horace that increased familiarity with Greek masterpieces made Roman critics of the Augustan age depreciate their own early literature : and similarly, the great advance of Greek scholarship in modern times has led recent critics to dis- parage Virgil's claim to rank among the great poets of the world. But the unbroken ascendency of eighteen centuries, and the unquestioning homage paid by scholars, critics, poets, orators and statesmen to the ' chastest poet and royalest, Virgilius Maro, that to the memory of man is known,' are facts that cannot be gainsaid : and a poet whose genius could absorb the admiration of Dante, and whose influence probably helped more than any other to infoma the poetical spirit and verse of Milton, must have had wider and more solid qualities than mere technical skill in versification — something more than the dignity of expression, exquisite rhythm, and delicate tenderness of handHng, which all recognise.
8. Virgil has also, in common with Horace, incurred the reproach of undue servility and court-flattery. From a modern point of view, no doubt, the language which each poet uses about Augustus is open to such criticism : but if we go back to the literary con- ditions and ideas of their time, we see that it expresses a genuine popular sentiment for the Emperor as the visible impersonation and representative of the fortunes of Rome. Feelings of Greek hero- worship, of Eastern monarchical sentiment, and of revived national enthusiasm for the 'Imperium Romanum,' centred in Augustus as the restorer of peace and order after civil war and bloodshed, and as the upholder of the old Roman customs and religion against the threatened inroad of Eastern barbarism with Antony and his ' Aegyptia coniunx.' From this point of view the opening lines of cJcorg. i and iii, and similar passages, however repugnant to modern taste, are neither unnatural nor derogatory to Virgil's poetic fame. Right or wrong, they express the thoughts not of a courtier, but of a nation ; and the poet by whom those thoughts are 'married to immortal verse' deserves, if ever poet did, the name of ' national.'
9. The text of Virgil's poems rests upon a greater variety of MSS. than almost any other ancient writings with the exception of the New Testament. The 'uncial' or 'capital' MSS. of the 4lh and 5th centuries A.D, are the oldest extant specimens of writing (as distinguished from letters cut on stone), except a few fragments, e.g., of papyrus from Herculaneum. And while comparatively few Latin
I a LIFE AND POEMS OF VIRGIL.
authors are represented by even one MS. of so early a date, and some of the most important (e.g. Horace, Lucretius, Caesar) by nothing earlier than the 8th or 9th century A.D., of Virgil there are four more or less complete MSS. and three sets of fragments that can be assigned to the 4th and 5th century ^ The four great MSS. are —
1 . ' Vatican ' (F.), in the Vatican Library at Rome : 4th century : contains portions of G. iii, iv, and Aen. i-viii.
2. ' Medicean ' (M.), in the Laurentian Library at Florence : 5th century : contains Eel. from vi. 48, Georg. and Aen.
3. 'Palatine' (P.), in the Vatican Library at Rome, formerly in the Palatine Library at Heidelberg : 4th century : contains Eel., Georg. and Aen., with 33 leaves out of 280 wanting.
4. ' Roman ' (R.), in the Vatican Library : 4th century : contains Eel., Georg. and Aen., with 76 leaves out of 309 wanting.
The following are fragments :
5. 'St. Gall Palimpsest' (G.), in the Library of St. Gall (Switzer- land) : 4th century : 10 leaves containing portions of G. iv, and Aen. i, iii, iv.
6. ' Verona Palimpsest ' (V.), in the Chapter Library at Verona : 4th or 5th century; 51 leaves containing about 1320 lines.
7. 'Berlin Palimpsest' (A.), 4th century: 7 leaves, partly at Rome, partly at Berlin, containing G. i. 41-280, iii. 181-220.
Besides these leading authorities, there is a great number of later 'cursive' MSS., from the 9th century onwards (the Bodleian Li- brary alone has 45), of little independent value. Incidental testi- mony to the text of particular passages is given by the remarks of ancient commentators that have been preserved to us, e.g., Donatus (4th century), the teacher of St. Jerome, celebrated for his com- mentary on Terence and for a hand-book of grammar (Donatircgulae) widely used in the Middle Ages; and Servius (end of 4th cent.), whose commentary embodies many results of early Virgilian learning. Imitations by later poets (Statius, Silius Italicus, Claudian, etc.) and quotations by writers such as Pliny, Ouintilian or Seneca, and
' A description of these MSS., with a critical estimate of their relative peculiarities and value, is given in Ribbeck's Prolegomena, chs. xi-xiii, pp. 21S-320; facsimiles of the writing being appended to the Index. Photographic facsimiles of single leaves may be found in the collection published by the Palaeographical Society, and that of Zangemeistcr and Wattenbach (Ileidelbers/j .
LIFE AND POEMS OF VIRGIL. 13
lexicographers such as Verrius Flaccus, Aulus Gellius, and Macrobius, sometimes give corroborative evidence to Virgil's meaning and even to his text. But as they may have misunderstood the former and were careless of exactness in the latter, their testimony is of no great value. Since the invention of printing numberless editions of Virgil have appeared, from the ' Editio Princeps ' at Rome in 1469 : the first English edition (from the press of Wynkin de Worde) bearing date 1512. Of recent commentaries on Virgil, the standard work of Professor Conington, completed by Professor Nettleship, is too well known to require praise : while to the critical edition of Ribbeck, whatever be its faults of over-suspicious- ness of the received text, and over-confidence in the author's own critical sagacity to correct and amend, Virgilian students owe the possession of a more complete ' apparatus criticus ' than has hitherto been at their disposal.
THE VIRGILIAN HEXAMETER'.
1. The Latin Hexameter, first adapted from the Greek by En- nius, and gradually improved by a series of more or less known poets, reached its highest and final perfection with Virgil; all subsequent poets being content to follow as nearly as might be the Virgilian model. The characteristic features of that model are best seen in contrast with the previous efforts of the chief poets that employed this metre — viz. Ennius, Lucretius, and Catullus.
2. The Hexameter is in technical language a ' Dactylic Hexa- meter Catalectic,' the last foot losing its final syllable: and con- sists therefore of five dactyls and a trochee (— v^). Each dactyl
^ For fuller information on points noticed in this section, the following nnthorities may be consulted. On the Hexameter of Ennius, Crattwell, 'Hist, of Roman Literature,' Book I. ch. vi. pp. 71-73; Wordsworth, • Fragments and Specimens of Early Latin,' Notes, § 5 to ch. iv. pp. 585, 586 ; on that of Catullus, Ellis, in ' Prolegomena,' pp. xix sqq. ; on that of Lucretius, Munro, Introd. to Notes H. pp. 102-107 (first ed.) ; on that of Virgil, Wagner, ' Quaest. Virg.' xi, xii, xiii ; Gossrau, ' Excursus de Hexametro Virgilii,' pp. 624-646; Nettleship, ' Excursus ' to Aen. xii in Conington's edition ' On the Lengthening of Short Final Syllables in Virgil ; ' Kennedy, Appendix C on ' Virgilian Prosody : ' and on the Latin Hexameter in general, Public School Latin Grammar, §§ 225, 226.
14 LIFE AND POEMS OF VIRGIL.
{—\j\j) is equivalent to a spondee ( ), for \j\j=—\ and in the
first four feet, dactyls and spondees are used indifferently, the former being more numerous in Greek, the latter in Latin. The fifth foot is almost always a dactyl, perhaps to mark clearly the dactylic character of the verse. The last foot may be trochee or spondee, the quantity of the final syllable being indifferent (except where, as in Greek anapaests, the scansion runs on from verse to verse by ' synaphea ') : but it is probable that Latin poets, from Ennius downwards, regarded it as a real spondee. The rhythm and harmony of a hexameter verse depend mainly upon ' Cae- sura \' i.e. the coincidence somewhere in the second, third, fourth or fifth feet of the end of a word with the middle of a foot : and the metrical effect of a series of hexameter verses depends on the judicious variation (i) of caesura, (2) of the proportion of dactyls and spondees, (3) of the place in the verse at which the pauses in sense occur, (4) on the cadence of the verse in the last two feet. It is in the care bestowed on these points that Virgil's rhythm is chiefly distinguished from that of Ennius and Lucretius. In the fifth and sixth feet he employs, as a rule, only two varieties of rhythm, (i) the fifth foot (dactyl) contained in one word and end- ing with it — ' volvere | Parcas ; ' (2) caesura between the short syllables of the dactyl — 'saevique | dolores.' All other closing rhythms are with him exceptional, sometimes in imitation of Greek rhythm (e.g. hymeneaos, cyparlssis, Laodamla), sometimes for special effect (e.g. ' quadriipedantum ' Aen. xi. 614, 'pudeat sola neve ' G. i. 80, ' procumbit hiiml bos ; ' or spondaic endings, as ' abscondantur ' G. i. 226, ' purpureo narclsso ' Eel. v. 38).
3. A purely dactylic line, common enough in Greek (e.g. Iliad i- I3> 25, 31, 32, 34, 54, and so on in like proportion), is compara- tively rare in Virgil's epic poetry ; such a line as ' Ouadrupedante putrem sonitu quatit ungula campum' (Aen. viii. 596, cp. G. iii. 201) being a conscious imitation of the sound of galloping, and its jerky movement being foreign to the stately march of epic rhythm. The greater length of many Greek words, with a greater
^ Caesura is technically called {a) ' Trihemimeral ' (after three ■^/xifj.epeis
or half-feet) after i| feet; {l>) ' Penthemimeral ' after 2| feet; (c) ' Heph-
themimeral ' after 2,^ feet ; (d) ' Ennehemimeral ' after 4^ feet : e.g.
(«) (6) (c) (rf)
' Hinc popiuum | late | regem ) belloque | superbum.
The most important caesura is (d), which is sufificient to make a verse
harmonious — e.g. ' Illius immensae | ruperunt horrea messes.'
LIFE AND POEMS OF VIRGIL. 15
abundance of long compounds, prevented the Homeric hexameter from moving too rapidly or jerkily — e.g. Iliad i. 87 ELi;^o/i€j/of An- vaoi(n dfoirponias dvacpaii^fis : but in Virgil the rapid movement is almost always checked and rhythm, as it were, collected and steadied by a spondaic fourth foot— e.g. Aen. i. 45 ' Turbine corri- puit scopuloque infixit acuto.' The spondaic fourth foot is indeed specially characteristic of Virgil's epic rhythm, as the dactylic fourth foot ending a word ('Bucolic caesura') is of his Eclogues in imitation of Theocritus : and wherever, for the sake of variety, the fourth foot is dactylic, one or more of the preceding feet is spondaic to restore the balance. The student can verify this for himself on any page of the Aeneid.
It thus seems that Virgil, in adapting the Homeric hexameter to the Latin language, realised that its dactylic rhythm must be modified by a large admixture of ' spondei stabiles,' as Horace calls them (A. P. 256). A considerable majority of his verses have at least three spondees (including the last foot) ; and the proportion of fifteen such lines in Aen. i. 1-20 to nine in Iliad i. 1-20 may be taken as a rough measure of the extent to which he carried out this modification of Homeric rhythm. A spondee in the first foot, contained in a single word and followed by a pause in sense, is almost the only circumstance under which he seems to shrink from spondaic rhythm in the first four feet: and the somewhat slow and ponderous movement thus given to the verse at starting is reserved, as a rule, for the special expression of solemnity or emotion (see e.g. Eel. v. 21 ; Aen. iv. 185, vi. 213).
4. The hexameters of Ennius are a first experiment to reproduce, in a rough unpolished material, the rhythm of Homer. The con- ditions under which the metre could be adapted to Roman usage had yet to be discovered: caesura, cadence, proportion — all the niceties of rhythm which combine to form the charm of Virgil's verse — were to him unknown. The rude and tentative imitation of a great model by a vigorous and powerful hand struck out indeed here and there a line which Virgil did not disdain to borrow (e.g. 'Tuque pater Tiberine tuo cum flumine sancto'), or a passage of grave solemnity, as the lament for Romulus —
' o Romule, Romule die, Qualem te patriae cvistodem di genuerunt ! O pater o genitor o sanguen dis oriundum, Tu produxisti nos intra luminis oras' (Enn. Ann. 1 15-118) —
l6 LIFE AND POEMS OF VIRGIL.
but it also produced much that was harsh and abhorrent to the cuhure of after years (see Hor, A. P. 258 sqq.), and much that could scarcely be distinguished from prose. But in settling the quantity of Latin words and moulding them into forms suitable for hexameter verse he paved the way for others, and was deservedly
reverenced as the pioneer
'qui primus amoeno Detulit ex Helicone perenni fronde coronam' (Lucr. i. 117).
5. Lucretius marks a great advance upon Ennius, though in some respects his rhythm is (perhaps intentionally) more archaic than that of his contemporary Catullus ; whose hexameters, how- ever, with their monotonous cadence (' prognatae vertice pinus, Neptuni nasse per undas, Argivae robora pubis' Ixiv. I, 2, 4), are far less effective. The following points of contrast between the Lucretian and Virgilian hexameter are noted by Munro : (i) the first two feet separated from the rest — ' Religionibus atque minis. Ergo vivida vis,' etc. ; such rhythms being rare in Virgil (' Armen-. tarius Afer' G. iii. 344, 'Sed tu desine velle' G. iv. 448) ; (2) in the last two feet, such endings as ' principiorum,' ' material,' ' quan- doquidem exstat ; ' (3) elision after the fourth foot — ' Perdelirum esse videtur, nisi concilio ante coacto ; ' (4) fourth foot wholly con- tained in a word, and ending with it — ' quae terras frugiferentes,' 'tibi suaves daedala tellus' (not 'terras quae . . . suaves tibi'), etc.; (5) copious use of alliteration and assonance, occasionally adopted by Virgil under Lucretian influence.
6. The most common ' licences ' or metrical irregularities in Virgil are —
(i.) Lengthening of short final syllables. This occurs only in arsi (i. e. in the emphatic syllable of a foot, upon which the metrical ictus falls), and seldom where there is not a pause or slight break in the sentence : and it is used by him as a purely antiquarian ornament. With Ennius, on the contrary, whom Virgil seems to follow in this licence, the apparent violation of quantity as fixed in Augustan prosody is no ' licence,' because the syllables in question were originally long, and were subsequently shortened by a familiar tendency of the Latin language, due mainly to the fact that final syllables were never accented.
[a) Nouns, etc. in '-or;' 'Amor et ' Eel. x. 69, 'labor: aeque' G. iii. 118, 'melior insignis' G. iv. 92. The corresponding Greek -wp, and the prosody of oblique cases ('amoris,' etc.), point to the
LIFE AND POEMS OF VIRGIL. 17
original length of this syllable, which is always so in Ennius, even in thesi, i. e. the uneniphatic syllable of a foot, e. g.
'Clamor ad caelum volvendus per aelhera vagit ' (Ann. 520).
The same applies to 'pater' (naTtjp) Aen. v. 521 : but ' puer ' (Eel. ix. 66), 'super' (Aen. vi. 254), 'ebur' (Aen. xii. 68), show that Virgil uses the licence as mere matter of form, with no thought of etymology.
{^) Verb terminations in ' r : ' ' -or ' of first pres. pass, is naturally long, and is so used by Ennius and Plautus. Virgil does not follow them in this; but has in 3 sing, 'ingreditur' (G. iii. 76), 'datur' (Aen. v. 284), and in I plur. ' obruimur' (Aen. ii. 211), neither of which has any precedent in Ennius.
(t) Noun terminations in ' -s ; ' ' sanguis ' always in Lucretius, once only in Virgil (Aen. x. 487) : ' -Qs ' from 'o-' stems (G. iii. 189, Aen. V. 337, etc.) is found also in Ennius, perhaps from imitation of Homeric use in e. g. Iliad i. 244 x«oMf»'Of> oi"' '"ipio-rov 'Axaiuv ovSfV eVio-a? : '-bus' dat. plur. (Aen. i\-, 64) has no example in Ennius and few in Plautus.
(d) Verb terminations in ' -s : ' only ' fatigamus ' (Aen. ix. 610), which finds no analogy in Ennius or in the corresponding Greek
•fJi€S, -fliV.
{e) Verb-endings in '-t' (3 sing.); 'at' of pres. ind. ist conj. generally in Ennius and often in Plautus, never in Virgil ; ' -at ' of imperf. in Plautus and Ennius even in thesi (' Noenum rumores ponebat ante salutem' 314); in Virgil only in arsi (Eel. i. 39, Aen. v. 853, xii. 722, etc.) : ' -et ' pres. indie. Aen. i. 308; imp. subj. ib. 651 : 'It' pres. indie. 3rd conj. Eel. vii. 23, Aen. X. 433; 'erit' (fut.) Eel. iii. 97, Aen. xii. ZSt,: '-It' perf. indie, (as originally) G. ii. 211, Aen. viii. 363.
(/) Miscellaneous ; ' prociil ' Aen. viii. 98, ' caput ' x. 394.
ig) Vowel-endings: only 'gravia' Aen. iii. 464, 'Geta' (nom. sing.) ib. 702, 'anima' (nom. sing.) xii. 648; and thirteen in- stances of 'que' (see on Aen. iii. 464), in imitation of Homeric usage making re long before double consonants, liquids, and sibi- lants.
[Full lists of examples, from Wagner, ' Ouaest. Virg.' xii, are given in Professor Nettleship's ' Excursus ' to Aen. xii. (ed. Coning- lon), and Dr. Kennedy's Appendix, C, 11. (pp. 622-4, 2nd ed.)]
7. (ii.) Hiatus, i.e. non-elision of a vowel or diphthong before
\'^
I 8 LIFE AND POEMS OF VIRGIL.
another vowel or aspirate. This Hcence appears from a statement of Cicero (Orator 45. 152') to have been common with the older Latin poets, and occurs frequently in the dialogue of Plautus and Terence ^ : but it is used sparingly by later poets. The most common conditions for its admission are (i) after long mono- syllables, retaining their quantity in arsi, or shortened in thesi, (e. g. the interjections ' heu ! ' ' o ! ' ' spe Tnimica ' Aen. iv. 235, * te Corydon 6 Alexi ' Eel. ii. 85, 'an qui amant ' viii. 108, ' te amice' Aen. vi. 507) : (2) at the regular caesurae ; (3) wherever there is a distinct pause in the sense (e. g. in dialogue, at the change of speaker).
Of the fifty-three examples cited by Wagner (O. V. xi) from Virgil, forty show the unelided syllable in arsi, and therefore metrically emphatic. Of thirteen examples in thesi, eleven are cases of a long vowel shortened (Eel. ii. 65, iii. 79, vi. 44, viii. I08 ; G. i. 281, 332, 437, iv. 461 ; Aen. iii. 211, v. 261, vi. 507), which thus seems the necessary condition for hiatus in thesi ; the remaining two (Eel. iii. 53, Aen. i. 405) being justified by a dis- tinct pause in the sense. Of the forty examples in arsi, twenty- seven occur at one or other of the two important caesurae, the penthemimeral and hephthemimeral (see above, footnote to § 2) : ten of the remainder being at the ennehemimeral caesura (e. g. 'Amphion Dircaeus in Actaeo | Aracyntho ' Eel. ii. 24), in obvious imitation of the frequent Homeric cadence nf;Xr;iaSea) 'A;^;tX^oy (II. i. i). Five of these latter, unlike the bulk of Homeric examples, are spondaic endings (Eel. viii. 53 ' castaneae hirsutae,' Aen. iii. 74, vii. 631, ix. 647, xi. 31), due especially to the less dactylic char- acter of the Latin language (see above, § 3) ; similar endings in Homer being generally quadrisyllable words ('Arpei'Sao, nijXeiwi/a, etc.) and never with trisyllable words embracing hiatus.
* Cicero is speaking of the tendency of Roman speech to run together vowels, contrary to Greek practice, which allows hiatus : ' Sed Graeci viderint; nobis ne si cupiamus quidem distrahere voces conceditur. Indi- cant . . . omnes poetae praeter eos qui ut versum facerent saepe hiabant, ut Naevius " Vos qui accolitis Histrum flumen, atque algidam . . .'" citing also from Ennius and his own poems.
^ Ritschl and others, who, by alteration of text, restoration of obsolete final consonants, etc. try to minimise hiatus in the comic writers, allow it in about one out of twenty-two lines in Plautus and one out of sixty-six in Terence. Wagner (Q. V. xi) cites fifty-three examples from Virgil.
LIFE AND POEMS OF VIRGIL. 19
8. (iii.) Hypermetric lines— i. e. with an additional syllable after the final trochee or spondee ; this syllable being always one that may be elided, while the next line must begin with a vowel or aspirate. This licence (resting apparently on a false assump- tion that the scansion of hexameter verses is continuous, as in Greek anapaests, and that the sixth foot is complete, i.e. a real spondee) was unknown to Homer ; oIk oiS' at the close of a line of Callimachus being the only known instance in Greek hexameters. Lucretius employs it once (v. 849), Catullus rarely, in lyric metre —e.g. Ixi. 147 (Glyconic), and perhaps xi. 19 (Sapphic)— but there ' omnium ' may be dissyllable by synizesis, as ' precantia ' Aen. vii. 237 (cp. 'omnia' vi. 33). It is found in an iambic line of Pacuvius preserved by Cicero, Tusc. iii. 12. 26 ; and occasionally in Terence —e.g. Phorm. ii. i. 63 ; Ad. ii. 2. 9, iii. 3. 21 (iambic) ; And. iv. i. 9 (cretic) ; Eun. iv. i. 11 (trochaic). Wagner on G. ii. 69 hardly proves its use by Ennius : nor do Greek dramatists use it, as he says, ' infinitis locis.' By whomever introduced into Latin hexa- meters it is a purely artificial licence, and as such is used by \'irgil. In eighteen out of twenty-two instances in his poems, the hypermetric syllable is ' que ; ' in G. i. 295 he has ' decoquit umorem,' and in Aen. vii. 160 ' tecta Latinojrum.' In all these twenty examples the preceding syllable is long, making the last foot a spondee : but in G. ii. 69, iii. 449, we have, if MSS. are to be trusted, hypermetric syllables preceded by trochees (see note to G. ii. 69).
9. Like all great masters of poetic rhythm, Virgil shows his power in the accommodation of sound to sense. Familiar examples of single lines are Aen. v. 481 (the sudden collapse of a stricken ox), viii. 452 (the steady swing of the Cyclops' hammers), viii. 596 (the sound of galloping horses) : but the poet's art is also shown in passages of varied length, from the two lines expressive of the * moping owl's' complaint (Aen. iv. 462, 463), to the fine description of a storm in G. i. 316-334 (see especially 328-334). Among innu- merable examples the following are noticeable : of single lines, G. ii. 441 (gusts of wind assaulting a tree), iii. 201 (the swift rush of the wind as of a horse let loose) ; of longer passages, G. i. loS-llo (sudden irrigation), Aen. x. 101-104 (the hush of all Nature at Jupiter's word), ib. 821-824 (the revulsion of feeling over a fallen foe), xii. 951, 952 (the creeping chill of death followed by the quick flight to Hades of the indignant soul). Every reader who
15 2
30 LIFE AND POEMS OF VIRGIL.
can appreciate poetic rhythm will find others for himself. The greatness of Virgil's rhythm, its undefinable charm and pathos, its power to touch the hidden chords of human feeling, are beyond dispute : and though familiar association with particular lines and passages may invest them with the expression of more than the poet's thought, such capacity of adaptation to new feelings is one more testimony to their inherent poetry. , ~ ,-
BUCOLICA.
ECLOGA I.
MeLIBOEUS. TlTYRUS.
M. TiTVRE, tu patulae recubans sub tegmine fagi silvestrem tenui musam meditaris avena; nos patriae fines et dulcia linquimus arva. Nos patriam fugimus ; tu, Tityre, lentus in umbra formosam resonare doces* Amaryllida silvas. S
T. O Meliboee, deus nobis haec otia fecit. Namque erit ille mihi semper deus, illius aram saepe tener nostris ab ovilibus imbuet agnus. Ille meas errare boves, ut cernis, et ipsum ludere quae vellem calamo permisit agresti. lo
M. Non equidem invideo, miror magis : undique totis usque adeo turbatur agris. En ipse capellas protenus aeger ago ; banc etiam vix, Tityre, duco. Hie inter densas corylos modo namque gemellos spem gregis, ah, silice in nuda conixa reliquit. 15
Saepe malum hoc nobis, si mens non laeva fuisset, de caelo tactas memini praedicere quercus. [Saepe sinistra cava praedixit ab ilice cornix.] Sed tamen iste deus qui sit da, Tityre, nobis.
T. Urbem quam dicunt Romam, Meliboee, putavi 20
stultus ego huic nostrae similem, quo saepe solemus pastores ovium teneros depellere fetus. Sic canibus catulos similes, sic matribus haedos noram, sic parvis componere magna solebam. Verum hacc tantum alias inter caput extulit uibes, 25
22 BUCOLIC A.
quantum lenta solent inter viburna cupressi.
M. Et quae tanta fuit Romam tibi causa videndi ?
T. Libertas, quae sera tamen respexit inertem, candidior postquam tondenti barba cadebat, respexit tamen et longo post tempore venit, 30
postquam nos Amaryllis habet, Galatea reliquit. Namque, fatebor enim, dum me Galatea tenebat, nee spes libertatis erat nee cura peculi. Quamvis multa meis exiret victima septis, pinguis et ingratae premeretur caseus urbi, 35
non umquam gravis aere domum mihi dextra redibat.
M. Mirabar quid maesta deos, Amarylli, vocares ; cui pendere sua patereris in arbore poma: Tityrus hinc aberat. Ipsae te, Tityre, pinus, ipsi te fontes, ipsa haec arbusta vocabant. 40
T. Quid facerem? neque servitio me exire licebat nee tam praesentes alibi cognoscere dives. Hie ilium vidi iuvenem, Meliboee, quotannis bis senos cui nostra dies altaria fumant. Hie mihi responsum primus dedit ille petenti : 45
' Pascite ut ante boves, pueri : summittite tauros.'
M. Fortunate senex, ergo tua rura manebunt, et tibi magna satis, quamvis lapis omnia nudus limosoque palus obducat pascua iunco:
non insueta graves temptabunt pabula fetas, 50
nee mala vicini pecoris contagia laedent. Fortunate senex, hie inter flumina nota et fontes sacros frigus captabis opacum. Hinc tibi, quae semper, vicino ab limite sepes Hyblaeis apibus florem depasta salicti 55
saepe levi somnum suadebit inire susurro : hinc alta sub rupe canet frondator ad auras; nee tamen interea raucae tua cura palumbes nee gemere aeria cessabit turtur ab ulmo.
T. Ante leves ergo pascentur in aethere cervi, 60
et freta destituent nudos in litore pisces; ante pererratis amborum finibus exsul aut Ararim Parthus bibet aut Germania Tigrim, quam nostro illius labatur pectore vultus.
EC LOG A I. 26 — 11. 15. 23
31. At nos hinc alii sitientes ibimus Afros, 65
pars Scythiam et rapidum Cretae veniemus Oaxen et penitus toto divisos orbe Britannos. En umquam patrios longo post tempore fines, pauperis et tuguri congestum caespite culmen post aliquot mea regna videns mirabor aristas? 70
Impius haec tarn culta novalia miles habebit, barbarus has segetes : en quo discordia cives produxit miseros! his nos consevimus agrosl Insere nunc, Meliboee, pu-os: pone ordinc vites. Ite meae felix quondam pecus ite capellae. 75
Non ego vos posthac viridi proiectus in antro dumosa pendere procul de rupe videbo ; carmina nulla canam ; non me pascente, capellae, florentem cytisum et salices carpetis amaras.
T. Hie tamen banc mecum poteras requiescere noctem 80 fronde super viridi: sunt nobis mitia poma, castaneae molles et pressi copia lactis. Et iam summa procul villarum culmina fumant, maioresque cadunt altis de montibus umbrae.
ECLOGA II.
FoRMOsuM pastor Corydon ardebat Alexim, delicias domini ; nee quid speraret habebat. Tantum inter densas umbrosa cacumina fagos assidue veniebat. Ibi haec incondita solus montibus et silvis studio iactabat inani :
*0 crudelis Alexi, nihil mea carmina curas? nil nostri miserere? Mori me denique coges. Nunc etiam pecudes umbras et frigora captant; nunc virides etiam occultant spineta lacertos, Thestylis et rapido fessis messoribus aestu alia serpyllumque herbas contundit olentes. At mecum raucis, tua dum vestigia lustro, sole sub ardenti resonant arbusta cicadis. Nonne fuit satius, tristes Amaryllidis iras atque superba pali fastidia? nonne Menalcan, 15
10
24 BUCOLIC A.
quamvis ille niger, quamvis tu candidus esses?
O formose puer, nimium no crede colori ;
alba ligustra cadunt, vaccinia nigra legunlur.
Despectus libi sum, nee qui sim quaeris, Alexi,
quam dives pecoris, nivei quam lactis abundans: 20
mille meae Siculis errant in monlibus agnae ;
lac mihi non aestate novum, non frigore defit.
Canto,, quae soliLus, si quando armenta vocabat,
Amphion Dircaeus in Actaeo Aracintho.
Nee sum adeo informis : nuper me in litore vidi, 25
Cum placidum ventis staret mare ; non ego Daphnim
iudice te metuam, si numquam fallit imago.
O tantum libeat mecum tibi sordida rura
atque humiles habitare casas, et figere cervos,
haedorumque gregem viridi compellere hibisco I 30
IMecum una in silvis imitabere Pana canendo.
Pan primum calamos cera coniungere plures
inslituit, Pan curat oves oviumque magistros.
Nee te paeniteat calanio trivisse labellum :
haec eadem ut sciret, quid non faciebat Amyntas? 35
Est mihi disparibus septeni compacta cicutis
fistula, Damoetas dono mihi quam dedit olim
et dixit moriens : " Te nunc habet ista secundum : "
Dixit Damoetas, invidit stultus Amyntas.
Praeterea duo nee tuta mihi valle reperti 40
capreoli, sparsis etiam nunc pellibus albo;
bina die siccant ovis ubera : quos tibi servo.
lam pridem a me illos abducere Thestylis orat;
et faciet, quoniam sordent tibi munera nostra.
Hue ades, o formose puer : tibi lilia plenis 45
ecce ferunt Nymphae calathis ; tibi Candida Nais,
pallentes violas et summa papavera carpens,
narcissum et florem iungit bene olentis anethi;
turn casia atque aliis intexens suavibus herbis
mollia luteola pingit vaccinia calta. 50
Ipse ego cana legam tenera lanugine mala
castaneasque nuces, mea quas Amaryllis amabat;
addam cerea prui^a : hones erit huic quoque porno ;
et vos, o lauri, carpam et te, proxima myrte,
ECLOGA II. xd — III. 14. 25
sic posilae quoniam suavcs miscetis odores. 55
Rusticus es, Corydon : nee munera curat Alexis,
nee, si muneribus certes, concedat lollas.
Heu heu ! Quid volui misero mihi ! Floribus austrum
perditus et liquidis immisi fontibus apros.
Quem fugis, ah, demens? habitarunt di quoque silvas 60
Dardaniusque Paris. Pallas quas condidit arces
ipsa colat : nobis placeant ante omnia silvae.
Torva leaena lupum sequitur, lupus ipse capellam,
florentem cytisuni sequitur lasciva capella,
te Corydon, o Alexi : trahit sua quemque voluptas. 65
Aspice, aratra iugo referunt suspensa iuvenci,
et sol crescentes decedens duplicat umbras :
me tamen urit amor: quis enim modus adsit amori?
Ah Corydon Corydon, quae te dementia cepit?
Semiputata tibi frondosa vitis in ulmo est. 7c
Quin tu aliquid saltem potius, quorum indiget usus,
viminibus mollique paras detexere iunco?
invenies alium, si te hie fastidit, Alexim.'
ECLOGA III.
Menalcas. Damoetas. Palaejion.
M. Die mihi, Damoeta, cuium pecus? an Meliboei?
D. Non, verum Aegonis; nuper mihi tradidit Aegon.
M. Infelix o semper oves pecus ! ipse Neaeram dum fovet ac ne me sibi praeferat ilia veretur, hie alienus oves custos bis mulget in hora, 5
et sueus pecori et lac subducitur agnis. f"-'^'^*'^
D. Pareius ista viris tamen obiicienda memento. Novimus et .qui te transversa tuentibus hircis, ■ <■ i-f et quo — sed faeiles Nymphae risere — sacello.
M. Tum, credo, cum me arbustum videre Miconis 10
atque mala vites ineidere fake novellas.
D. Aut hie ad veteres fagos cum Daphnidis arcum fregisti ct calamos : quae tu, perverse Menalca, et cum vidisti puero donata, dolebas,
36 BUCOLICA.
et si noil aliqua nocuisses, morluus esses.. 15
M. Quid domini faciant, audent cum lalia fuies? Non ego te vidi Damonis, pessime, caprum excipere insidiis, multum latrante Lycisca? et cum clamarem ' Quo nunc se proripit ille ? Tityre, coge pecus ! ' tu post carecta latebas. ao
D. An mihi cantando victus non redderet ille quern mea carminibus meruisset fistula caprum ? Si nescis, mens ille caper fuit; et mihi Damon ipse fatebatur; sed reddere posse negabat.
M. Cantando tu ilium ? aut umquam tibi fistula cera 25 iuncta fuit? non tu in triviis, indocte, solebas stiidenti miserum stipula disperdere carmen?
D. Vis ergo inter nos quid possit uterque vicissim y-r . experiamur ? ego banc vitulam (ne forte recuses, 't^t h t'l
bis venit ad mulctram, binos alit ubere fetus) 30
depono : tu die, mecum quo pignore certes.
Jl/. De grege non ausim quicquam deponere tecum : est mihi namque domi pater, est iniusta noverca; bisque die numerant ambo pecus, alter et haedos. Verum, id quod multo tute ipse fatebere maius, 35
insanire libet quoniam tibi, pocula ponam fagina, caelatum divini opus Alcimedontis :^ « lenta quibus torno facili super addita vitis diffusos hedera vestit pallente corymbos.
In medio duo signa, Conon et — quis fuit alter, 40
descripsit radio totum qui gentibus orbem, tempora quae messor, quae curvus arator haberet? necdum illis labra admovi, sed condita servo.
D. Et nobis idem Alcimedon duo pocula fecit, et molli circum est ansas amplexus acantho, 45
Orpheaque in medio posuit silvasque sequentes; necdum illis labra admovi, sed condita servo. Si ad vitulam spectas, nihil est quod pocula laudes.
Af. Numquam hodie effugies ; veniam quocumque vocaris; audiat haec lantum — vel qui venit ecce Palaemon. 50
EfTiciam, poslhac ne quemquam voce lacessas.
Z>. Quin age, si quid habes: in me mora non erit ulla, nee quemquam fugio; tantum, vicine Palaemon,
I JO''
ECLOGA III. 15-92. 37
sensibus haec imis, res est non parva, reponas.
P. Dicite, quandoquidem in molli consedimus heiba, 55 et nunc omnis agar, nunc omnis parturit arbos, nunc frondent silvae, nunc formosissimus annus. Incipe, Damoeta; tu deinde sequere, Menalca. Alternis dicetis; aniant alterna Camenae.
D. Ab love principium Musae : lovis omnia plena ; 60 ille colit terras; illi mea carmina curae.
M. Et me Phoebus amat; Phoebo sua semper apud me rnunera sunt, lauri et suave rubens hyacinthus.
D. Malo me Galatea petit, lasciva puella, et fugit ad salices, et se cupit ante videri. 65
M. At mihi sese offert ultro meus ignis Amyntas, notior ut iam sit canibus non Delia nostris.
D. Parta meae Veneri sunt munera : namque notavi ipse locum, aeriae quo congessere palumbes.
M. Quod potui, puero silvestri ex arbore lecta 70
aurea mala decern misi ; eras altera mittam.
D. O quotiens et quae nobis Galatea locuta est! partem aliquam, venti, divum referatis ad aures.
M. Quid prodest quod me ipse animo non spernis. Amynta, si, dum tu sectaris apros, ego retia servo? 75
D. Phyllida mitte mihi : meus est natalis, lolla ; cum faciam vitula pro frugibus, ipse venito.
M. Phyllida amo ante alias: nam me discedere flevit, et longum ' Formose, v41e vale,| inquit, ' lolla.'
D. Triste lupus stabulis, maturis frugibus imbres, 80
arboribus venti, nobis Amaryllidis irae.
M. Dulce satis umor, depulsis arbutus haedis, i.«c-n£. lenta salix feto pecori, mihi solus Amyntas.
D. Pollio amat noslram, quamvis est rustica, Musam : Pierides, vitulam lectori pascite vestro. 85
M. Pollio et ipse facit nova carmina : pascite taurum, iam cornu petat et pedibus qui spargat harenam.
D. Qui te, Pollio, amat, veniat quo te quoque gaudet; mella fluant illi, ferat et rubus asper amomum.
M. Qui Bavium non odit, amet tua carmina, Maevi, 93 atque idem iungat vulpes et mulgeat hircos.
D. Qui legitis flores et humi nascentia fraga.
28 BUCOLIC A.
frigidus, o pueii, fugite hinc, latet anguis in herba.
M. Parcite, oves, nimium procedeie : non bene ripae creditur ; ipse aries etiani nunc vellera siccat. 95
D. Tityre, pascentes a flumine reice capellas : ipse, ubi tempus erit, omnes in fonte lavabo.
M. Cogite oves, pueri ; si lac praeceperit aestus, ut nuper, frustra pressabimus ubera palmis.
D. Heu heu, quam pingui macer est mihi taurus in ervo ! Idem amor exitium pecori pecorisque magistro. loi
M. His certe neque amor causa est : vix ossibus haerent. Nescio quis teneros oculus mihi fascinat agnos.
D. Die, quibus in terris — et eris mihi magnus Apollo — tres pateat caeli spatium non amplius ulnas. 105
M. Die, quibus in terris inscripti nomina regum nascantur flores; et Phyllida solus habeto.
P. Non nostrum inter vos tantas componere lites. Et vitula tu dignus et hie, et quisquis amores aut metuet dulces, aut experietur amaros. no
Claudite iam rivos, pueri: sat prata biberunt.
^o ^.c ECLOGA IV.
SicELiDES Musae, paulo maiora canamus ! Non omnes arbusta iuvant humilesque myricae ; si canimus silvas, silvae sint consule dignae. Ultima Cymaei venit iam carminis aetas ; magnus ab integro saeclorum nascitur ordo. 5
Iam redit et virgo, redeunt Saturnia regna; iam nova progenies caelo demittitur alto. Tu modo nascenti puero, quo ferrea primum desinet ac toto surget gens aurea mundo, casta fave Lucina: tuus iam regnat Apollo. 10
Teque adeo decus hoc aevi, te consule inibit, Pollio, et incipient magni procedere menses ; te duce, si qua manent sceleris vestigia nostri, irrita perpetua solvent formidine terras.
Ille dcum vitam accipiet divisque videbit 15
permixtos heroas, et ipse videbitur illis,
ECLOGA HI. 93 — /F. $^, 29
pacatumque reget patriis virtutibus orbem,':^'
At tibi prima, puer, nullo munuscula cultu
errantes hederas passim cum baccare tellus
mixtaque ridenti colocasia fundet acantho. 20
Ipsae lacte domum referent distenta capellae
ubera, nee magnos metuent armenta leones.
Ipsa tibi blandos fundent cunabula flores.
Occidet et serpens, et fallax herba veneni
occidet ; Assyrium vulgo nascetur amomum. 25
At simul heroum laudes et facta parentis
iam legere et quae sit poteris cognoscere virtus,
molli paulatim fiavescet campus arista,
incultisque rubens pendebit sentibus uva,
et durae quercus sudabunt roscida mella. 30
Pauca tamen suberunt priscae vestigia fraudis,
quae temptare Thetim ratibus, quae cingere muris
oppida, quae iubeant telluri infindere sulcos.
Alter erit turn Tiphys, et altera quae vehat Argo ,-'««..*■)
delectos heroas ; erunt etiam altera bella, 35
atque iterum ad Troiam magnus mittetur Achilles,
Hinc, ubi iam firmata virum te fecerit aetas,
cedet et ipse marl vector, nee nautica pinus
mutabit merces : omnis feret omnia tellus.
Non rastros patietur humus, non vinea falcem; 40
robustus quoque iam tauris iuga solvet arator;
nee varies discet mentiri lana colores,
ipse sed in pratis aries iam suave rubenti
murice, iam croceo mutabit vellera luto;
sponte sua sandyx pascentes vestiet agnos. 45
'Talia saecla' suis dixerunt 'currite' fusis
Concordes stabili fatorum numine Parcae.
Aggredere o magnos, aderit iam tempus, honores,
cara deum suboles, magnum lovis incrementum.
Aspice convexo nutantem pondere mundum, 50
terrasque tractusque maris caelumque profundum :
aspice, venturo laetantur ut omnia saeclo.
O mihi tam longae maneat pars ultima vitae,
spiritus et, quantum sat erit tua dicere facta, ut p -•■
non me carminibus vincat nee Thracius Orpheus, 55
30 BUCOLIC A.
nee Linus, huic mater quamvis atque huic pater adsit,
Orphei Calliopea, Lino formosus Apollo.
Pan etiam, Arcadia mecum si iudice certet,
Pan etiam Arcadia dicat se iudice victum.
Incipe, parve puer, risu cognoscere matrem; 60
matri longa decern tulerunt fastidia menses.
Incipe, parve puer : cui non risere parentes,
nee deus hune mensa, dea nee dignata cubili est.
ECLOGA V.
Menalcas. INIopsus.
Me. Cur non, Mopse, boni quoniam eonvenimus ambo, tu calamos inflare leves, ego dicere versus, hie eorylis mixtas inter consedimus ulmos?
Mo. Tu maior; tibi me est aequum parere, Menalea, sive sub ineertas Zephyris motantibus umbras, 5
sive antro potius suceedimus. Aspice, ut antrum silvestris raris sparsit labrusca raeemis.
Me. Montibus in nostris solus tibi eertat Amyntas.
Mo. Quid, si idem certet Phoebum superare canendo?
Me. Incipe, Mopse, prior, si quos aut Phyllidis ignes 10 aut Alconis babes laudes aut iurgia Codri. Incipe ; pascentes servabit Tityrus haedos.
Mo. Immo haee, in viridi nuper quae eortiee fagi b-<^'~i^ carmina deseripsi et modulans alterna notavi, experiar. Tu deinde iubeto certet Amyntas. 15
Me. Lenta salix quantum pallenti cedit olivae, puniceis humilis quantum saliunca rosetis, iudieio nostro tantum tibi cedit Amyntas. Sed tu desine plura, puer; sueeessimus antro.
Mo. Extinctum Nymphae crudeli funere Daphnim 20
flebant ; vos coryli testes et flumina Nymphis ; cum complexa sui corpus miserabile nati atque deos atque astra voeat crudelia mater. Non ulli pastos illis egere diebus frigida, Daphni, boves ad flumina; nulla neque amnem 25
ECLOGA IV. 56— V. 64. 31
libavlt quadrupes, nee graminis attigit herbam.
Daphni, tuum Poenos etiam ingemuisse leones
interitum montesque feri silvaeque loquuntur.
Daphnis et Armenias curm subiungere tigres
instituit, Daphnis thiasos inducere Bacchi 3°
et foliis lentas intexere moUibus hastas.
Vitis ut arboribus decori est, ut vitibus uvae,
ut gregibus tauri, segetes ut pinguibus arvis,
tu decus omne tuis. Postquam te fata tulerunt,
ipsa, Pales agros atque ipse reliquit Apollo
(f^A
carduus et spinis surgit paliurus acutis.
Spargite humum foliis, inducite fontibus umbras, 4°
pastores, mandat fieri sibi talia Daphnis,
et tumulum facite, et tumulo super addite carmen :
' Daphnis ego in silvis, hinc usque ad sidera notus,
formosi pecoris custos, formosior ipse.'
Me. Tale tuum carmen nobis, divine poeta, 45
quale sopor fessis in gramine, quale per aestum dulcis aquae saliente sitim restinguere rivo. Nee calamis solum aequiperas, sed voce magistrum. Fortunate puer, tu nunc eris alter ab illo. Nos tamen haec quocumque modo tibi nostra vicissim 50 dicemus, Daphnimque tuum tollemus ad astra ; Daphnin ad astra feremus: amavit nos quoqiie Daphnis.
Mo. An quicquam nobis tali sit munere maius? et puer ipse fuit cantari dignus, et ista iam pridem Stimichon laudavit carmina nobis. 55
3fe. Candidus insuetum miratur limen Olympi sub pedibusque videt nubes et sidera Daphnis. Ergo alacris silvas et cdera rura voldptas Panaque pastoresque tenet Dryadasque puellas. Nee lupus insidias pecori, nee retia cervis fio
uUa dolum meditantur; amat bonus otia Daphnis. Ipsi laetitia voces ad sidera iactant intonsi monies; ipsae iam carmina rupes, ipsa sonant arbusta: 'Deus, deus ille, Menalcal'
32 BUCOLICA.
Sis bonus o felixque tuis ! en quattuor aras : 65
ecce duas tibi, Daphni, duas altaria Phoebo.
Pocula bina novo spumantia lacte quotannis
craterasque duo statuam tibi pinguis olivi;
et multo in primis hilarans convivia Baccho,
ante focum, si frigus erit, si messis, in umbra 70
vina novum fundam calathis Ariusia nectar.
Cantabunt mihi Damoetas et Lyctius Aegon;
saltantes Satyros imitabitur Alphesiboeus.
Haec tibi semper erunt, et cum sollemnia vota
reddemus Nymphis, et cum lustrabimus agros. 75
Dum iuga montis aper, fluvios dum piscis amabit,
dumque thymo pascentur apes, dum rore cicadae,
semper honos nomenque tuum laudesque manebunt.
Ut Baccho Cererique, tibi sic vota quotannis
agricolae facient ; damnabis tu quoque votis. 80
Mo. Quae tibi, quae tali reddam pro carmine dona ? Nam neque me tantum venientis sibilus Austri nee percussa iuvant fluctu tarn litora, nee quae saxosas inter decurrunt flumina valles.
Me. Hac te nos fragili donabimus ante cicuta. 85
Ilaec nos ' Formosum Corydon ardebat Alexim,' haec eadem docuit ' cuium pecus? an Meliboei?'
Mo. At tu sume pedum, quod, me cum saepe rogaret, non tulit Antigenes (et erat tunc dignus amari), formosum paribus nodis atque aere, Menalca. 90
ECLOGA VI.
Prima Syracosio dignata est ludere versu
nostra neque erubuit silvas habitare Thalia.
Cum canerem reges et proelia, Cynthius aurem
vellit et admonuit : ' Pastorem, Tityre, pingues
pascere oportet oves, deductum dicere carmen.'
Nunc ego (namque super tibi erunt qui dicere laudes,
Vare, tuas cupiant et tristia condere bella)
agrestem tenui meditabor harundine musam.
Non iniussa cano. Si quis tamen haec quoque, si quis
EC LOG A V, 6^ — Vf. 48. 33
captus amore leget, te nostrae, Vare, myricae, 10
te nemus omne canet; nee Phoebo gratior ulla est, quam sibi quae Vari praescripsit pagina nomen.
Pergite, Pierides. Chromis et Mnasyllus in antro Silenum pueri somno videre iacentem,
inflatum hesterno venas, ut semper, laccho : 15
serta procul tantum capiti delapsa iacebant, et gravis attrita pendebat cantharus ansa. Aggressi (nam saepe senex spe carminis ambo luserat) iniiciunt^ipsis_ex vincula sertis.
Addit se sociam timidisque supervenit Aegle, 20
Aegle, Naiadum pulcherrima, iamque videnti sanguineis frontem moris et tempora pingit. Ille dolum ridens ' Quo vincula nectitis ? ' inquit. ' Solvite me, pueri : satis est potuisse videri. Carmina quae vultis cognoscite ; carmina vobis, 25
huic aliud mercedis erit.' Simul incipit ipse. Tum vero in numerum Faunosque ferasque videres ludere, tum rigidas motare cacumina quercus : nee tantum Phoebo gaudet Parnasia rupes, nee tantum Rhodope miratur et Ismarus Orphea. 30
Namque eanebat, uti magnum per inane coacta semina terrarumque animaeque marisque fuissent et liquidi simul ignis ; ut his exordia primis omnia et ipse tener mundi eonereverit orbis; tum durare solum et discludere Nerea ponto 35
coeperit et rerum paulatim sumere formas ; iamque novum terrae stupeant luceseere solen^ altius, atque cadant summotis nubibus imbres; ineipiant silvae cum primum surgere, cumque rara per ignaros errent animalia montes. 40
Hine lapides Pyrrhae iactos, Saturnia regna, Caueasiasque refert volucres furtumque Promethei. His adiungit, Hylan nautae quo fonte relictum clamassent, ut litus ' Hyla Hyla ' omne sonaret ; et fortunatam, si numquam armenta fuissent, 45
Pasiphaen nivei solatur amore iuvenci. Ah virgo infelix, quae te dementia eepit ! Proetides implerunt falsis mugitibus agros,
c
34 BUCOLICA.
at non tarn turpes pecudum tamen ulla secuta est
concubitus, quamvis collo timuisset aratium, 50
et saepe in levi quaesisset cornua fronte.
Ah virgo infelix, tu nunc in montibus erras:
ille latus niveum molli fultus hyacintho
ilice sub nigra pallentes ruminat herbas,
aut aliquam in magno sequitur grege. ' Claudite, Nymphae, 55
Dictaeae Nymphae, nemorum iam claudite sallus,
si qua forte ferant oculis sese obvia nostris
errabunda bovis vestigia ; ' forsitan ilium
aut herba captum viridi aut armenta secutum
perducant aliquae stabula ad Gortynia vaccae.' 60
Tum canit Hesperidum miratam mala puellam ;
turn Phaethontiadas musco circumdat amarae
corticis, atque solo proceras erigit alnos.
Tum canit, errantem Permessi ad flumvna Galium
Aonas in monies ut duxerit una sororum, 65
utque viro Phoebi chorus assurrexerit omnis;
ut Linus haec illi divino carmine pastor
floribus atque apio crines ornatus amaro
dixerit : ' Hos tibi dant calamos, en accipe, Musae,
Ascraeo quos ante seni, quibus ille solebat 70
cantando rigidas deducere montibus ornos.
His tibi Grynei nemoris dicatur origo,
ne quis sit lucus, quo se plus iactet Apollo.'
Quid loquar, aut Scyllam Nisi', quam fama secuta est
Candida succinctam latrantibus inguina monstris 75
Dulichias vexasse rates et gurgite in alto '
ah ! timidos nautas canibus lacerasse marinis :
aut ut mutatos Terei narraverit artus,
quas illi Philomela dapes, quae dona pararit,
quo cursu deserta petiverit, et quibus ante 80
infelix sua tecta super volitaverit alis?
Omnia, quae Phoebo quondam meditante beatus
audiit Eurotas iussitque ediscere lauros,
ille canit; pulsae referunt ad sidera valles;
cogere donee oves stabulis numerumque referre 85
iussit et invito processit Vesper Olynipo.
EC LOG A VI. 49 — VII. 34. "^^^
ECLOGA VII.
Meliboeus. Corydon. Thyrsis.
M. Forte sub arguta consederat ilice Daphnis, compulerantque greges Corydon et Thyrsis in unum, Thyrsis oves, Corydon distentas lacte capellas, ambo florentes aetatibus, Arcades ambo, et cantare pares et respondere parati. 5
Hue mihi, dum teneras defendo a frigore myrtos, vir gregis ipse caper deerraverat ; atque ego Daphnim aspicio. Ille ubi me contra videt, ' Ocius,' inquit, 'hue ades, o Meliboee; caper tibi salvus et haedi; et, si quid cessare potes, requiesce sub umbra. 10
Hue ipsi potum venient per prata iuvenci ; hie virides tenera praetexit harundine ripas Mincius, eque sacra resonant examina quercu.' Quid facerem? neque ego Alcippen nee Phyllida habebam, depulsos a lacte domi quae clauderet agnos, 15
et certamen erat Corydon cum Thyrside magnum. Posthabui tamen illorum mea seria ludo. Alternis igitur contendere versibus ambo coepere ; alternos Musae meminisse volebant. Hos Corydon, illos referebat in ordine Thyrsis.jj^ 20
C. Nymphae, noster amor, Libethrides, aut mihi carmen quale meo Codro concedite (proxima Phoebi versibus ille facit) aut, si non possumus omnes, hie arguta sacra pendebit fistula pinu.
T. Pastores, hedera crescentem ornate poetam, 25
Arcades, invidia rumpantur ut ilia Codro ; aut, si ultra placitum laudarit, baccare frontem cingite, ne vati noceat mala lingua futuro.
C. Saetosi caput hoc apri tibi, Delia, parvus et ramosa Micon vivacis cornua cervi. 30
Si proprium hoc fuerit, levi de marmore tota puniceo stabis suras evincta cothurno.
T. Sinum lactis et haec te liba, Priape, quolannis exspectare sat est : custos cs pauperis horti.
c 2
^6 BUCOLIC A.
nunc te marmoreum pro tempore fecimus; at tu 35
si fetura gregem suppleverit, aureus esto.
C. Nerine Galatea, thymo mihi dulcior Hyblae, candidior cycnis, hedera formosior alba, cum primum pasti repetent praesaepia tauri, si qua tui Corydonis habet te cura, venito. 40
T. Immo ego Sardoniis videar tibi amarior herbis, horridior rusco, proiecta vilior alga, si mihi non haec lux toto iam longior anno est. Ite domum pasti, si quis pudor, ite iuvenci.
C. Muscosi fontes et somno mollior herba, 45
et quae vos rara viridis tegit arbutus umbra, solstitium pecori defendite ; iam venit aestas torrida, iam lento turgent in palmite gemmae.
T. Hie focus et taedae pingues, hie plurimus ignis semper et assidua postes fuligine nigri; 50
hie tantum Boreae curamus frigora, quantum aut numerum lupus aut torrentia flumina ripas.
C. Stant et iuniperi et castaneae hirsutae ; strata iacent passim sua quaeque sub arbore poma; omnia nunc rident; at si formosus Alexis 55
montibus his abeat, videas et flumina sicca.
T, Aret ager; vitio moriens sitit aeris herba; Liber pampineas invidit coUibus umbras : Phyllidis adventu nostrae nemus omne virebit, luppiter et laeto descendet plurimus imbri. Co
C. Populus Alcidae gratissima, vitis laccho, formosae myrtus Veneri, sua laurea Phoebo; Phyllis amat corylos; illas dum Phyllis amabit, nee myrtus vincet corylos nee laurea Phoebi.
T. Fraxinus in silvis pulcherrima, pinus in hortis, 65
populus in fluviis, abies in montibus altis : saepius at si me, Lycida formose, revisas, fraxinus in silvis cedat tibi, pinus in hortis.
M. Haec memini, et victum frustra contendere Thyrsim, Ex illo Corydon Corydon est tempore nobis. 70
57?
ECLOGA VII, yo—VIII. ^^, 3^
ECLOGA VIII.
Pastorum musam Damonis et Alphesiboei,
imniemor herbarum quos est mirata iuvenca
certantes, quorum stupefactae carmine lynces,
et mutata suos requierunt flumina cursus,
Damonis musam dicemus et Alphesiboei. 5
Tu mihi seu magni superas iam saxa Timavi, sive Oram Illyrici legis aequoris, — en erit umquam ille dies, mihi cum liceat tua dicere facta ? En erit ut liceat totum mihi ferre per orbem sola Sophocleo tua carmina digna cothurno ? 10
A te principium, tibi desinet. Accipe iussis carmina coepta tuis, atque banc sine tempora circum inter victrices hederam tibi serpere laurus.
Frigida vix caelo noctis decesserat umbra, cum ros in tenera pecori gratissimus herba : 15
incumbens tereti Damon sic coepit olivae.
D. ' Nascere, praeque diem veniens age, Lucifer, almum, coniugis indigno Nysae deceptus amore dum queror, et divos, quamquam nil teslibus illis profecl, extrema moriens tamen adloquor hora. 20
Incipe Maenalios mecum, mea tibia, versus, Maenalus argutumque nemus pinosque loquentes semper habet ; semper pastorum ille audit amores Panaque, qui primus calamos non passus inertes.
Incipe Maenalios mecum, mea tibia, versus. 25
Mopso Nysa datur : quid non speremus amantes ? lungenlur iam grypes equis, aevoque sequenti cum canibus timidi venient ad pocula dammae. Mopse, novas incide faces : tibi ducitur uxor ; sparge, marite, nuces : tibi deserit Hesperus Oetam. 30
Incipe Maenalios mecum, mea tibia, versus. O digno coniuncta viro, dum despicis omnes, dumque tibi est odio mea fistula dumque capellae hirsutumque supcrcilium promissaque barba, nee curare deum credis mortalia quemquam, 35
38 BUCOLIC A.
Incipe Maenalios mecum, mea tibia, versus. Saepibus in nostris parvam te roscida mala (dux ego vester eram) vidi cum matre legentem. Alter ab undecimo tum me iam acceperat annus; iam fragiles poteram ab terra contingere ramos. 40
Ut vidi, ut perii, ut me malus abstulit error!
Incipe Maenalios mecum, mea tibia, versus. Nunc scio quid sit Amor. Duris in cotibus ilium aut Tmaros aut Rhodope aut extremi Garamantes nee generis nostri puerum nee sanguinis edunt. 45
Incipe Maenalios mecum, mea tibia, versus. Saevus Amor docuit natorum sanguine matrem commaculare manus ; crudelis tu quoque, mater : crudelis mater magis, an puer improbus ille ? improbus ille puer; crudelis tu quoque, mater.^ 50
Incipe Maenalios mecum, mea tibia, versus. Nunc et oves ultro fugiat lupus, aurea durae mala ferant quercus, narcisso floreat alnus, pinguia corticibus sudent electra myricae, certent et cycnis ululae, sit Tityrus Orpheus, 55
Orpheus in silvis, inter delphinas Arion.
Incipe Maenalios mecum, mea tibia, versus. Omnia vel medium fiat mare. Vivite, silvae : praeceps aerii specula de montis in undas deferar; extremum hoc munus morientis habeto. 60
Desine Maenalios, iam desine, tibia, versus.'
Haec Damon : vos, quae respondent Alphesiboeus, dicite, Pierides; non omnia possumus omnes.
A. 'Effer aquam, et molli cinge haec altaria vitta, verbenasque adole pingues et mascula tura, 65
coniugis ut magicis sanos avertere sacris experiar sensus; nihil hie nisi carmina desunt.
Ducite ab urbe domum, mea carmina, ducite Daphnim. Carmina vel caelo possunt deducere Lunam ; carminibus Circe socios mutavit Ulixi ; 70
frigidus in pratis cantando rumpitur anguis.
Ducite ab urbe domum, mea carmina, ducite Daphnim. Terna tibi haec primum triplici diversa colore licia circumdo, terque haec altaria circum
EC LOG A VI 11. 36-109. 39
effigiem duco; numero deus impare gaudet. 75
Ducite ab urbe domum, mea carmina, ducite Daphnim. Necte tribus nodis ternos, Amarylli, colores; necte, Amarylli, modo et "Veneris" die "vincula necto."
Ducite ab urbe domum, mea carmina, ducite Daphnim. Limus ut hie durescit, et haee ut cera liquescit 80
uno eodemque igni, sic nostro Daphnis amore. Sparge molam, et fragiles incende bitumine laurus. Daphnis me malus urit, ego banc in Daphnide laurum.
Ducite ab urbe domum, mea carmina, ducite Daphnim. Talis amor Daphnim, qualis cum fessa iuvencum 85
per nemora atque altos quaerendo bucula lucos propter aquae rivum viridi procumbit in ulva, perdita, nee serae meminit decedere nocti, talis amor teneat, nee sit mihi cura mederi.
Ducite ab urbe domum, mea carmina, ducite Daphnim. 90 Has olim exuvias mihi perfidus ille reliquit, pignora cara sui : quae nunc ego limine in ipso, terra, tibi mando ; debent haec pignora Daphnim.
Ducite ab urbe domum, mea carmina, ducite Daphnim. Has herbas atque haee Ponto mihi lecta venena 95
ipse dedit Moeris ; nascuntur plurima Ponto ; his ego saepe lupum fieri et se condere silvis Moerim, saepe animas imis excire sepulcris atque satas alio vidi traducere messes.
Ducite ab urbe domum, mea carmina, ducite Daphnim. 100 Fer cineres, Amarylli, foras rivoque fluenti transque caput iace, nee respexeris. His ego Daphnim aggrediar; nihil ille deos, nil carmina curat.
Ducite ab urbe domum, mea carmina, ducite Daphnim. Aspice: corripuit tremulis altaria flammis 105
sponte sua, dum ferre moror, cinis ipse. Bonum sit ! Nescio quid certe est, et Hylax in limine latrat. Credimus } an, qui amant, ipsi sibi somnia fingunt ? Parcite, ab urbe venit, iam parcite, carmina, Daphnis.'
40 . . BUCOLIC A.
E CLOG A IX.
Lycidas. Moeris.
L. Quo te, Moeri, pedes? an, quo via ducit, in urbem?
yl/. O Lycida, vivi pervenimus, advena nostri, quod numquam veriti sumus, ut possessor agelli diceret ' haec mea sunt ; veteres migrate coloni.' Nunc victi tristes, quoniam Fors omnia versat, 5
hos illi (quod nee vertat bene) mittimus haedos.
L. Certe equidem audieram, qua se subducere colles incipiunt moUique iugum demittere clivo, usque ad aquam et veteres iam fracta cacumina fagos omnia carminibus vestrum servasse Menalcan. 10
M. Audieras : et fama fuit ; sed carmina tantum nostra valent, Lycida, tela inter Martia, quantum Chaonias dicunt aquila veniente columbas. Quod nisi me quacumque novas incidere lites ante sinistra cava monuisset ab ilice comix, 15
nee tuus hie Moeris nee viveret ipse Menalcas.
L. Heu, cadit in quemquam tantum scelus ? heu, tua nobis paene simul tecum solatia rapta, Menalca? Quis caneret Nymphas? Quis humum florentibus herbis spargeret, aut viridi fontes induceret umbra? 20
Vel quae sublegi tacitus tibi carmina nuper, cum te ad delicias ferres Amaryllida nostras : 'Tityre, dum redeo (brevis est via) pasce capellas, et potum pastas age, Tityre, et inter agendum occursare capro, cornu ferit ille, caveto.' 25
M. Immo haec, quae Varo necdum perfecta canebat: 'Vare, tuum nomen, superet modo Mantua nobis, Mantua vae miserae nimium vicina Cremonae, cantantes sublime ferent ad sidera cycni.'
L. Sic tua Cyrneas fugiant examina taxos, 30
sic cytiso pastae distendant ubera vaccae : incipe, si quid habes. Et me fecere poetam Pierides, sunt et mihi carmina, me quoque dicunt
ECLOGA IX. 1-67. 41
vatem pastores; sed tion e^ credulus ilHs.
Nam neque adhuc Vario videor nee dicere Cinna 35
digna, sed argutos inter strepere anser olores.
M. Id quidem ago et tacitus, Lycida, mecum ipse voluto, si valeam meminisse; neque est ignobile carmen. 'Hue ades, o Galatea; quis est nam ludus in undis? Hie ver purpureum, varios hie flumina circum 40
fundit humus flores, hie Candida populus antro imminet, et lentae texunt umbracula vites : hue ades ; insani feriant sine litora fluctus.'
Z. Quid, quae te pura solum sub nocte canentem audieram? numeros memini, si verba tenerem. 45
' Daphni, quid antiquos signorum suspicis ortus ? Ecce Dionaei proeessit Caesaris astrum, astrum, quo segetes gauderent frugibus et quo duceret apricis in collibus uva colorem. Insere, Daphni, piros ; carpent tua poma nepotes.' 50
M. Omnia fert aetas, animum quoque ; saepe ego longos cantando puerum memini me condere soles : nunc oblita mihi tot carmina; vox quoque IMoerim iam fugit ipsa; lupi IMoerim videre priores. Sed tamen ista satis referet tibi saepe Menalcas. 55
L. Causando nostros in longum ducis amores. Et nunc omne tibi stratum silet aequor, et omnes, aspice, ventosi ceciderunt murmuris aurae, Hine adeo media est nobis via; namque sepulcrum incipit apparere Bianoris : hie, ubi densas 60
agricolae stringunt frondes, hie, Moeri, canamus : hie haedos depone, tamen veniemus in urbem. Aut si, nox pluviam ne coUigat ante, veremur, cantantes licet usque (minus via laedit) eamus; cantantes ut eamus, ego hoc te fasee levabo, 65
M. Desine plura, puer, et quod nunc instat agamus: carmina turn melius, cum venerit ipse, canemus.
43 BUCOLICA,
E CLOG A X.
Gallus.
ExTREMUM hunc, Arethusa, mihi concede laborum.
Pauca meo Gallo, sed quae legat ipsa Lycoris,
carmina sunt dicenda: neget quis carmina Gallo?
Sic tibi, cum fluctus subterlabere Sicanos,
Doris amara suam non intermisceat undam : 5
incipe ; sollicitos Galli dicamus amores,
dum tenera attondent simae virgulta capellae.
Non canimus surdis; respondent omnia silvae.
Quae nemora aut qui vos saltus habuere, puellae Naides, indigno cum Gallus amore peribat? 10
Nam neque Parnasi vobis iuga, nam neque Pindi ulla moram fecere, neque Aonie Aganippe. Ilium etiam lauri, etiam flevere myricae, pinifer ilium etiam sola sub rupe iacentem Maenalus et gelidi fleverunt saxa Lycaei. 15
Stant et oves circum, nostri nee paenitet illas: nee te paeniteat pecoris, divine poeta ; et formosus oves ad flumina pavit Adonis. Venit et upilio, tardi venere subulci,
uvidus hiberna venit de glande Menalcas, 2c
Omnes ' unde amor iste ' rogant 'tibi'? Venit Apollo: 'Galle, quid insanis?' inquit, ' tua cura Lycoris perque nives alium perque horrida castra secuta est.' Venit et agresti capitis Silvanus honore
florentes ferulas et grandia lilia quassans. 25
Pan deus Arcadiae venit, quem vidimus ipsi sanguineis ebuli bacis minioque rubentem. 'Ecquis erit modus?' inquit. 'Amor non talia curat: nee lacrimis crudelis Amor nee gramina rivis nee cytiso saturantur apes nee fronde capellae.' 30
Tristis at ille ' Tamen cantabitis, Arcades,' inquit, ' montibus haec vestris, soli cantare periti
EC LOG A X. I -7 1. 43
Arcades. 0 mihi turn quam molliter ossa quiescant,
vestra meos olini si fistula dicat amores !
Atque utinam ex vobis unus vestrique fuissem 35
aut custos gregis aut maturae vinitor uvae !
Certe sive mihi Piiyllis sive esset Amyntas
seu quicumque furor (quid turn, si fuscus Amyntas?
Et nigrae violae sunt et vaccinia nigra),
mecum inter salices lenta sub vite iaceret : 40
serta mihi Phyllis legeret, cantaret Amyntas.
Hie gelidi fontes, hie mollia prata, Lycori,
hie nemus : hie ipso tecum consumerer aevo.
Nunc insanus amor duri me INIartis in armis
tela inter media atque adversos detinet hostes : 45
tu procul a patria (nee sit mihi credere tantum)
Alpinas ah dura nives et frigora Rheni
me sine sola vides. Ah te ne frigora laedant I
Ah tibi ne teneras glacies secet aspera plantas !
Ibo et Chalcidico quae sunt mihi condita versu 50
carmina pastoris Siculi modulabor avena.
Certum est in silvis inter spelaea ferarum
malle pati tenerisque meos incidere amores
arboribus : crescent illae, crescetis amores.
Interea mixtis lustrabo Maenala Nymphis, 55
aut acres venabor apros. Non me ulla vetabunt
frigora Parthenios canibus circumdare saltus.
lam mihi per rupes videor lucosque sonantes
ire, libet Partho torquere Cydonia cornu
spicula. Tamquam haec sit nostri medicina furoris, 60
aut deus ille malis hominum mitescere discat !
lam neque Hamadryades rursus neque carmina nobis
ipsa placent ; ipsae rursus concedite silvae.
Non ilium nostri possunt mutare labores:
nee si frigoribus mediis Hebrumque bibamus, 65
Sithoniasque nives hiemis subeamus aquosae,
nee si, cum moriens alta liber aret in ulmo,
Aethiopuni versemus oves sub sidere Cancri,
Omnia vincit Amor : et nos cedamus Amori.'
Haec sat erit, divae, vestrum cecinisse poetam, 70
dum sedet et gracili fiscellam texit hibisco,
44 BUCOLIC A.
Pierldes : vos haec facietis maxima Gallo,
Gallo, cuius amor tantum mihi crescit in horas,
quantum vere novo viridis se subiicit alnus.
Surgamus : solet esse gravis cantantibus umbra, 75
iuniperi gravis umbra, nocent et frugibus umbrae.
Ite domum saturae, venit Hesperus, ite capellae.
G E O R G I C A.
LIBER PRIMUS.
Quid faciat laetas segetes, quo sidere terram
vertere, Maecenas, ulmisque adiungere vites
conveniat, quae cura bourn, qui cultus habendo
sit pecori, apibus quanta experientia parcis,
hinc canere incipiam. Vos, o clarissima mundi 5
lumina, labentem caelo quae ducitis annum,
Liber et alma Ceres, vestro si munere tellus
Chaoniam pingui glandem mutavit arista,
poculaque inventis Acheloia miscuit uvis;
et vos, agrestum praesentia numina, Fauni, 10
ferte simul Faunique pedem Dryadesque puellae :
munera vestra cano. Tuque o, cui prima frementem
fudit equum magno tellus percussa tridenti,
Neptune; *et cultor nemorum, cui pinguia Ceae
ter centum nivei tondent dumeta iuvenci; 15
ipse nemus linquens patrium saltusque Lycaei
Pan, ovium custos, tua si tibi Maenala curae,
adsis, o Tegeaee, favens, oleaeque .Minerva
inventrix, uncique puer monstrator aratri,
et teneram ab radice ferens, Silvane, cupressum ; 30
dique deaeque omnes, studium quibus arva tueri,
quique novas alitis non ullo semine fruges,
quique satis largum caelo demittitis imbrem ;
tuque adeo, quern mox quae sint habitura deorum
concilia incertum est, urbesne invisere, Caesar, 25
terrarumque velis curam, ct te maximus orbis
auctorem frugum tempestatumque potentem
accipiat cingens materna tempora myrto,
an deus immensi venias maris ac tua nautae
46 GEORGICA.
numina sola colant, tibi serviat ultima Thule, 30
teque sibi generum Tethys emat omnibus undis,
anne novum tardis sidus te mensibus addas,
qua locus Erigonem inter Chelasque sequentes
panditur; ipse tibi iam brachia contrahit ardens
Scorpius et caeli iusta plus parte relinquit; 35
quidquid eris (nam te nee sperant Tartara regem,
nee tibi regnandi veniat tarn dira cupidO;
quamvis Elysios miretur Graecia campos
nee repetita sequi curet Proserpina matrem},
da facilem cursum atque audacibus annue coeptis, 40
ignarosque viae mecum miseratus agrestes
ingredere, et votis iam nunc assuesce vocari.
Vere novo gelidus canis cum montibus umor liquitur et Zephyro putris se glaeba resolvit, depresso incipiat iam turn mihi taurus aratro 45
ingemere, et sulco attritus splendescere vomer. Ilia seges demum votis respondet avari agricolae, bis quae solem, bis frigora sensit; illius immensae ruperunt horrea messes.
At prius ignotum ferro quam scindimus aequor, 50
ventos et varium caeli praediscere morem cura sit ac patrios cultusque habitusque locorum, et quid quaeque ferat regio et quid quaeque recuset. Hie segetes, illic veniunt felicius uvae,
arborei fetus alibi, atque iniussa virescunt 55
gramina. Nonne vides croceos ut Tmolus odores, India mittit ebur, molles sua tura Sabaei, at Chalybes nudi ferrum, virosaque Pontus castorea, Eliadum palmas Epiros equarum? Continuo has leges aeternaque foedera certis 60
imposuit natura locis, quo tempore primum Deucalion vacuum lapides iactavit in orbem, unde homines nati, durum genus. /Ergo age, terrae pingue solum primis extemplo a mensibus anni fortes invertant tauri, glaebasque iacentes 65
pulverulenta coquat maturis solibus aestas; at si non fuerit tellus fecunda, sub ipsum Arcturum tenui sat crit suspendere sulco :
LIBER I. 30-107. 47
illic, officiant laetis ne frugibus herbae,
hie, sterilem exiguus ne deserat umor harenam. 70
Alternis idem tonsas cessare novales, et segnem patiere situ durescere campum ; •aut ibi flava seres mutato sidere farra, unde prius laetum siliqua quassante legumen aut tenues fetus viciae tristisque lupini 75
sustuleris fragiles calamos silvamque sonantem. Urit enim lini campum seges, urit avenae, urunt Lethaeo perfusa papavera somno : sed tamen alternis facilis labor, arida tantum ne saturare fimo pingui pudeat sola neve 80
effetos cinerem immundum iactare per agros. Sic quoque mutatis requiescunt fetibus arva; nee nulla interea est inaratae gratia terrae. Saepe etiam steriles incendere profuit agros, 84
atque levem stipulam crepitantibus urere flammis : sive inde occultas vires et pabula terrae pinguia concipiunt, sive illis omne per ignem excoquitur vitium atque exsudat inutilis umor, seu plures calor ille vias et caeca relaxat spiramenta, novas veniat qua sucus in herbas; 90
seu durat magis, et venas adstringit hiantes, ne tenues pluviae rapidive potentia solis acrior aut Boreae penetrabile frigus adurat. Multum adeo, rastris glaebas qui frangit inertes vimineasque trahit crates, iuvat arva, neque ilium 95
flava Ceres alto nequiquam spectat Olympo; et qui, proscisso quae suscitat aequore terga, rursus in obliquum verso perrumpit aratro exercetque frequens tellurem atque imperat arvis.
Umida solstitia atque hiemes orate serenas, 100
agricolae : hiberno laetissima pulvere farra, laetus ager; nuUo tantum se Mysia cultu iactat et ipsa suas mirantur Gargara messes. Quid dicam, iacto qui semine comminus arva insequitur, cumulosque ruit male pinguis harenae, 105
deinde satis fluvium inducit rivosque sequentes, et, cum exustus ager morienlibus aestual herbis,
48 GEORGICA,
ecce supercilio clivosi tramitis undam
elicit? Ilia cadens raucum per levia murmur
saxa ciet, scatebrisque arentia temperat arva. no
Quid qui, ne gravidis procumbat culmus aristis,
luxuriem segetum tenera depascit in herba,
cum primum sulcos aequant sata, quique"'paludis
coUectum umorem bibula deducit harena?
Praeserlim incertis si mensibus amnis abundans 115
exit et obducto late tenet omnia limo,
unde cavae tepido sudant umore lacunae.
Nee tamen, haec cum sint hominumque boumque labores versando terram experti, nihil improbus anser Strymoniaeque grues et amaris intuba fibris 120
officiunt aut umbra nocet. Pater ipse colendi baud facilem esse viam voluit, primusque per arteni movit agros curis acuens mortalia corda, nee torpere gravi passus sua regna veterno. Ante lovem nulli subigebant arva coloni ; 125
ne signare quidem aut partiri limite campum fas erat : in medium quaerebant, ipsaque tellus omnia liberius nullo poscente ferebat. Ille malum virus serpentibus addidit atris, praedarique lupos iussit, pontumque moveri, 130
mellaque decussit foliis, ignemque removit, et passim rivis currentia vina repressit, ut varias usus meditando extunderet artes paulatim et sulcis frumenti quaereret herbam, ut silicis venis abstrusum excuderet ignem. 135
Tunc alnos primum fluvii sensere cavatas ; navita tum stellis numeros et nomina fecit Pleiadas, Hyadas, claramque Lycaonis Arcton; tum laqueis captare feras et fallere visco inventum et magnos canibus circumdare saltus; 140
atque alius latum funda iam verberat amnem, alta petens, pelagoque alius trahit umida lina; tum ferri rigor atque argutae lamina serrae (nam primi cuneis scindebant fissile lignum), tum variae venere artes. Labor omnia vicit 145
improbus et duris urgens in rebus egestas.
LIBER I. 108-185. 49
Prima Ceres ferro mortales vertere terrain
instituit, cum iam glandes atque arbuta sacrae
deficerent silvae et victum Dodona nesfaret.
]Mox et frumentis labor additus, ut mala culmos 150
esset robigo, segnisque horreret in arvis
carduus : intereunt segetes, subit aspera silva,
lappaeque tribolique, interque nitentia culta
infelix lolium et steriles dominantur avenae.
Quod nisi et assiduis herbam insectabere rastris, 155
et sonitu terrebis aves, et ruris opaci
falce premes umbras, votisque vocaveris imbrem,
heu magnum alterius frustra spectabis acervum,
concussaque famem in silvis solabere quercu.
Dicendum et, quae sint duris agrestibus arma, 160
quis sine nee potuere seri nee surgere messes: vomis et inflexi primum grave robur aratri, tardaque Eleusinae matris volventia plaustra, tribulaque, traheaeque, et iniquo pondere rastri ; virgea praeterea Celei vilisque supellex, 165
arbuteae crates et mystica vannus lacchi. Omnia quae multo ante memor provisa repones, si te digna manet divini gloria ruris. Continuo in silvis magna vi flexa domatur in burim et curvi formam accipit ulmus aratri. 170
Huic a stirpe pedes temo protentus in octo, binae aures, duplici aptantur dentalia dorso. Caeditur et lilia ante iugo levis altaque fagus stivaque, quae currus a tergo torqueat imos, et suspensa focis explorat robora fumus. 175
Possum multa tibi veterum praecepta referre, ni refugis tenuesque piget cognoscere curas. Area cum primis ingenti aequanda cylindro et vertenda manu et creta solidanda tenaci, ne subeant herbae neu pulvere victa fatiscat, 180
tum variae illudant pestes : saepe exiguus mus sub terris posuitque domos atque horrea fecit, aut oculis capti fodere cubilia talpae, inventusque cavis bufo et quae plurima terrae monstra ferunt, populatque ingentem farris acervum 1S5
D
50 GEORGICA.
curculio atque inopi metuens formica senectae.
Contemplator item, cum se nux plurima silvis
induct in florem et ramos curvabit olentes :
si superant fetus, pariter frumenta sequentur,
magnaque cum magno veniet tritura calore ; 190
at si luxuria foliorum exuberat umbra,
nequiquam pingues palea teret area culmos.
Semina vidi equidem multos medicare serentes,
et nitro prius et nigra perfundere amurca,
grandior ut fetus siliquis fallacibus esset, 195
et quamvis igni exiguo properata maderent.
Vidi lecta diu et multo spectata labore
degenerare tamen, ni vis humana quotannis
maxima quaeque manu legeret. Sic omnia fatis
in peius ruere ac retro sublapsa referri, 200
non aliter quam qui adverso vix flumine lembum
remigiis subigit, si bracchia forte remisit,
atque ilium praeceps prono rapit alveus amni.
Praeterea tam sunt Arcturi sidera nobis Haedorumque dies servandi et lucidus Anguis, 205
quam quibus in patriam ventosa per aequora vectis Pontus et ostriferi fauces temptantur Abydi. Libra die somnique pares ubi fecerit horas, et medium luci atque umbris iam dividit orbem, exercete, viri, tauros, serite hordea campis 210
usque sub extremum brumae intractabilis imbrem ; nee non et lini segetem et Cereale papaver tempus humo tegere et iamdudum incumbere aratris, dum sicca tellure licet, dum nubila pendent. Vere fabis satio ; turn te quoque, medica, putres 215
accipiunt sulci, et milio venit annua cura, candidus auratis aperit cum cornibus annum Taurus, et adverso cedens Canis occidit astro. At si triticeam in messem robustaque farra exercebis humum, solisque instabis aristis, 220
ante tibi Eoae Atlantides abscondantur Gnosiaque ardentis decedat Stella Coronae, debita quam sulcis committas semina quamque invitae properes anni spem credere terrae.
LIBER I. 186-263. 51
Multi ante occasum Maiae coepere ; sed illos 225
exspectata seges vanis elusit aristis.
Si vero viciamque seres vilemque phaselum,
nee Pelusiacae curam aspernabere lentis,
baud obscura cadens mittet tibi signa Bootes :
incipe et ad medias sementem extende pruinas. 230
Idcirco certis dimensum paitibus orbem per duodena regit mundi sol aureus astra. Quinque tenent caelum zonae : quarum una cornsco semper sole rubens et torrida semper ab igni ; quam circum extremae dextra laevaque trahuntur 235
caeruleae, glacie concretae atque imbribus atris; has inter mediamque duae mortalibus aegris munere concessae divum, et via secta per ambas, obliquus qua se signorum verteret ordo.
iNIundus, ut ad Scythiam Rhipaeasque arduus arces 240
consurgit, premitur Libyae devexus in austros. Hie vertex nobis semper sublimis; at ilium sub pedibus Styx atra videt INIanesque profundi. INIaximus hie flexu sinuoso elabitur Anguis circum perque duas in morem fluminis Arctos, 245
Arclos Oceani metuentes aequore tingi. Illic, ut perhibent, aut intempesta silet nox semper et obtenta densentur nocte tenebrae; aut redit a nobis Aurora diemque reducit, nosque ubi primus equis Oriens afflavit anhelis, 250
illic sera rubens accendit lumina Vesper, hinc tempestates dubio praediscere caelo possumus, hinc messisque diem tempusque screndi, et quando infidum remis impellere marmor conveniat, quando armatas deducere classes, 255
aut tempestivam silvis evertere pinum. Nee frustra signorum obitus speculamur et orlus temporibusque parem diversis quattuor annum.
Frigidus agricolam si quando continet imber, multa, forent quae mox caelo properanda sercno, 260
maturare datur : durum procudit arator vomeris obtusi dentem, cavat arbore lintres, aut pecori signum aut numeros impressit acervis.
D 2
52 GEORGICA.
Exacuunt alii vallos furcasque bicornes,
atque Amerina parant lentae retinacula viti. 265
Nunc facilis rubea texatur fiscina virga,
nunc torrete igni fiuges, nunc frangite saxo.
Quippe etiam festis quaedam exercere diebus
fas et iura sinunt : rivos deducere nulla
religio vetuit, segeti praetendere saepem, 270
insidias avibus moliri, incendere vepres,
balantumque gregem fluvio mersare salubri.
Saepe oleo tardi costas agitator aselli
vilibus aut onerat pomis, lapidemque revertens
incusum aut atrae massam picis urbe reportat. 275
Ipsa dies alios alio dedit ordine Luna felices operum. Quintam fuge : pallidus Orcus Eumenidesque satae ; turn partu Terra nefando Coeumque lapetumque creat saevumque Typhoea, et coniuratos caelum rescindere fratres. 280
Ter sunt conati imponere Pelio Ossam scilicet, atque Ossae frondosum involvere Olympum ; ter pater exstructos disiecit fulmine montes. Seplima post decimam felix et ponere vitem et prensos domitare boves et licia telae 2S5
addere. Nona fugae melior, contraria furtis.
Multa adeo gelida melius se nocte dedere, aut cum sole novo terras irrorat Eous. Nocte leves melius stipulae, nocte arida prata londentur, noctes lentus non deficit umor. 290
Et quidam seros hiberni ad luminis ignes pervigilat, ferroque faces inspicat acuto ; interea longum cantu solata laborem arguto coniunx percurrit pectine telas,
aut dulcis musti Vulcano decoquit umorem, 295
et foliis undam trepidi despumat aheni. At rubicunda Ceres medio succiditur aestu, et medio tostas aeslu terit area fruges. Nudus ara, sere nudus ; hiemps ignava colono. Frigoribus parte agricolae plerumque fruuntur, 300
mutuaque inter se laeti convivia curant. Invitat genialis hiemps curasque resolvit,
LIBER I. 264-341. ^'>,
ceu pressae cum iam portum teligere carinae,
puppibus et laeti nautae imposuere coronas.
Sed tamen et quernas glandes turn stringere tempus 305
et lauri bacas oleamque cruentaque myrta,
turn gruibus pedicas et retia ponere cervis
auritosque sequi lepores, turn figere dammas
stuppea torquentem Balearis verbera fundae,
cum nix alta iacet, glaciem cum flumina trudunt. 310
Quid tempestates autumni et sidera dicam, * atque, ubi iam breviorque dies et mollior aestas, quae vigilanda viris; vel cum ruit imbriferum ver, spicea iam campis cum messis inhorruit et cum frumenta in viridi stipula lactentia turgent? 315
Saepe ego, cum flavis messorem induceret arvis agricola et fragili iam stringeret hordea culmo, omnia ventorum concurrere proelia vidi, quae gravidam late segetem ab radicibus imis sublimem expulsam eruerent, ita turbine nigro 320
ferret hiemps culmumque levem stipulasque volantes. Saepe etiam immensum caelo venit agmen aquarum, et foedam glomerant tempestatem imbribus atris collectae ex alto nubes ; ruit arduus aether, et pluvia ingenti sata laeta boumque labores 325
diluit; implentur fossae et cava flumina crescunt cum sonitu fervetque fretis spirantibus aequor. Ipse Pater media nimborum in nocte corusca fulmina molitur dextra : quo maxima motu terra tremit ; fugere ferae et mortalia corda 330
per gentes humilis stravit pavor : ille flagranti aut Athon aut Rhodopen aut alta Ceraunia telo deiicit; ingeminant Austri et densissimus imber : nunc nemora ingenti vento, nunc litora plangunt. Hoc metuens caeli menses et sidera serva, 335
frigida Saturni sese quo stella receptet ; quos ignis caelo Cyllenius erret in orbes. In primis venerare deos, atque annua magnae sacra refer Cereri laetis operatus in herbis extremae sub casum hiemis, iam vere sereno. 340
Turn pingues agni et turn moUissima vina,
54 GEORGICA.
turn somni dulces densaeque in montibus umbrae.
Cuncta tibi Cererem pubes agrestis adoret :
cui tu lacte favos et miti dilue Baccho,
terque novas circum felix eat hostia fruges, 345
omnis quam chorus et socii comitentur ovantes,
et Cererem clamore vocent in tecta; neque ante
falcem maturis quisquam supponat aristis,
quam Cereri torta redimitus tempora .quercu
det motus incompositos et carmina dicat. 350
Atque haec ut certis possemus discere signis, aestusque pluviasque et agentes frigora ventos, ipse Pater statuit, quid menstrua luna moneret, quo signo caderent Auslri, quid saepe videntes agricolae propius stabulis armenta tenerent. 355
Continue ventis surgentibus aut freta ponti incipiunt agitata tumescere et aridus altis montibus audiri fragor, aut resonantia longe litora misceri et nemorum increbrescere murmur, lam sibi tum curvis male temperat unda carinis, 360
cum medio celeres revolant ex aequore mergi clamoremque ferunt ad litora, cumque marinae in sicco ludunt fulicae, notasque paludes deserit atque altam supra volat ardea nubem. Saepe etiam Stellas vento impendente videbis 365
praecipites caelo labi, noctisque per umbram flammarum longos a tergo albescere tractus; saepe levem paleam et frondes volitare caducas, aut summa nantes in aqua coUudere plumas. At Boreae de parte trucis cum fulminat, et cum 37c
Enrique Zephyrique tonat domus, omnia plenis rura natant fossis, atque omnis navita ponto umida vela legit. Numquam imprudentibus imber obfuit : aut ilium surgentem vallibus imis aeriae fugere grues, aut bucula caelum 375
suspiciens patulis captavit naribus auras, aut arguta lacus circumvolitavit hirundo, et veterem in limo ranae cecinere querellam. Saepius et tectis penetralibus extulit ova anguslum formica terens iter, et bibit ingens 580
LIBER I. 342-419- 00
arcus, et e pastu decedens agmine magno corvorum increpuit densis exercitus alls. lam variae pelagi volucres et quae Asia circum dulcibus in stagnis rimantur prata Caystri, certatim largos umeris infundere rores : 385
nunc caput obiectare fretis, nunc currere in undas et studio incassum videas gestire lavandi. Turn cornix plena pluviam vocat improba voce et sola in sicca secum spatiatur harena.
Ne nocturna quidem carpentes pensa puellae 390
nescivere hiemem, testa cum ardente viderent scintillare oleum et putres concrescere fungos. Nee minus ex imbri soles et aperta serena prospicere et certis poteris cognoscere signis : nam neque tum stellis acies obtusa videtur, 395
nee fiatris radiis obnoxia surgere Luna, tenuia nee lanae per caelum vellera ferri ; non tepidum ad solem pennas in litore pandunt dilectae Thetidi alcyones, non ore solutos immundi meminere sues iactare maniplos. 400
At nebulae magis ima petunt campoque recumbunt, solis et occasum servans de culmine summo nequiquam seros exercet noctua cantus. Apparet liquido sublimis in aere Nisus,
et pro purpureo poenas dat Scylla capillo : 405
quacumque ilia levem fugiens secat aethera pennis, ccce inimicus atrox magno stridore per auras insequitur Nisus; qua se fert Nisus ad auras, ilia levem fugiens raptim secat aethera pennis, Tum liquidas corvi presso ter gutture voces 4to
aut quater ingeminant, et saepe cubilibus altis nescio qua praeter solitum dulcedine laeti inter se in foliis strepitant ; iuvat imbribus actis progeniem parvam dulcesque revisere nidos : baud equidem credo, quia sit divinitus illis 415
ingenium aut rcrum fato prudentia maior; verum ubi tempestas et caeli mobilis umor mulavere vias et luppiter uvidus Austris denset crant quae rara modo, et quae densa reiaxat.
S6 GEO KG IC A.
vertuntur species animorum, et pectora motus 420
nunc alios, alios dum nubila venlus agebat, concipiunt: hinc ille avium concentus in agiis et laetae pecudes et ovantes gutture corvi.
Si vero solem ad rapidum lunasque sequentes ordine respicies, numquam te crastina fallet 425
hora, neque insidiis noclis capiere serenae. Luna, revertentes cum primum colligit ignes, si nigrum obscuro comprenderit aera cornu, maximus agricolis pelagoque parabitur imber : at si virgineum suffuderit ore ruborem, 430
ventus erit ; vento semper rubet aurea Phoebe. Sin ortu quarto (namque is certissimus auctor) pura neque obtusis per caelum cornibus ibit, totus et ille dies et qui nascentur ab illo exactum ad mensem pluvia ventisque carebunt, 435
votaque servati solvent in litore nautae Glauco et Panopeae et Inoo Melicertae. Sol quoque et exoriens et cum se condet in undas signa dabit ; solem certissima signa sequuntur, et quae mane refert et quae surgentibus astris. 440
Ille ubi nascentem maculis variaverit ortum conditus in nubem medioque refugerit orbe, suspecti tibi sint imbres; namque urget ab alto arboribusque satisque Notus pecorique sinister. Aut ubi sub lucem densa inter nubila sese 445
diversi rumpent radii, aut ubi pallida surget Tithoni croceum linquens Aurora cubile, heu male turn mites defendet pampinus uvas ; tam multa in tectis crepitans salit horrida grando. hoc etiam, emenso cum iam decedit Olympo, 450
profuerit meminisse magis ; nam saepe videmus ipsius in vultu varios errare colores ; caeruleus pluviam denuntiat, igneus Euros ; sin maculae incipient rutilo immiscerier igni, omnia tum pariter vento nimbisque videbis 455
fervere. Non ilia quisquam me nocte per altum ire neque a terra moneat convellere funem. At si, cum referetque diem condetque relatum,
LIBER I. 420-497. 57
lucidus orbis erit, fiustra terrebere nimbis,
et claro silvas cernes Aquilone moveri. 460
Denique quid vesper serus vehat, unde serenas
ventus agat nubes, quid cogitet umidus Auster,
sol tibi signa dabit. Solem quis dicere falsum
audeat? Ille etiam caecos instare tumultus
saepe monet fraudemque et operta tumescere bella. 465
Ille etiam exstincto miseratus Caesare Romam,
cum caput obscura nitidum ferrugine texit,
impiaque aeternam timuerunt saecula noctem.
Tempore quamquam illo tellus quoque et aequora ponti
obscenaeque canes importunaeque volucres 470
signa dabant. Quotiens Cyclopum effervere in agros
vidimus undantem ruptis fornacibus Aetnam,
flammarumque globos liquefactaque volvere saxal
Armorum sonitum toto Germania caelo
audiit, insolitis tremuerunt motibus Alpes. 475
Vox quoque per lucos vulgo exaudita silentes
ingens, et simulacra modis pallentia miris
visa sub obscurum noctis, pecudesque locutae
infandum I sistunt amnes terraeque dehiscunt,
et maestum illacrimat templis ebur aeraque sudant. 480
Proluit insano contorquens vertice silvas
fluviorum rex Eridanus, camposque per omnes
cum stabulis armenta tulit. Nee tempore eodem
tristibus aut extis fibrae apparere minaces
aut puteis manare cruor cessavit, et altae 485
per noctem resonare lupis ululantibus urbes.
Non alias caelo ceciderunt plura sereno
fulgura, nee diri totiens arsere cometae.
Ergo inter sese paribus concurrere telis
Romanas acies iterum videre Philippi; 49c
nee fuit indignum superis, bis sanguine nostro
Emathiam et latos Haemi pinguescere campos.
Scilicet et tempus veniet, cum finibus illis
agricola incurve terram molilus aratro
exesa inveniet scabra robigine pila, 495
aut gravibus rastris galeas pulsabit inanes,
grandiaque effossis mirabitur ossa sepulcris.
58 GEORGICA.
Di patrii, Indigetes, et Romule Vestaque mater,
quae Tuscum Tiberim et Romana Palatia servas,
hunc saltern everso iuvenem succurrere saeclo 5°°
ne prohibete. Satis iam pridem sanguine nostro
Laomedonteae luimus periuria Troiae,
iam pridem nobis caeli te regia, Caesar,
invidet, atque hominum queritur curare triumphos,
quippe ubi fas versum atque nefas : tot bella per orbem, 505
tarn multae scelerum facies, non ullus aratro
dignus honos, squalent abductis arva colonis,
et curvae rigidum fakes conflantur in ensem.
Hinc movet Euphrates, illinc Germania bellum;
vicinae ruptis inter se legibus urbes £10
arma ferunt; saevit toto Mars impius orbe:
ut cum carceribus sese effudere quadrigae,
addunt in spatia, et frustra retinacula tendens
fertur equis auriga, neque audit currus habenas.
G E O R G I C A.
LIBER SECUNDUS.
Hactexus arvorum culius et sidera caeli;
nunc te, Bacche, canam, nee non silvestria tecum
virgulta et prolem tarde crescentis olivae.
Hue, pater o Lenaee; tuis hie omnia plena
muneribus, tibi pampineo gravidus autumno 5
floret ager, spumat plenis vindemia labris ;
hue, pater o Lenaee, veni, nudataque musto
tingue novo niecum dereptis crura cothurnis.
Principio arboribus varia est natura creandis. Namque aliae nullis hominum cogentibus ipsae 10
sponte sua veniunt camposque et flumina late curva tenent, ut molle siler, lentaeque genistae, populus et glauca canentia fronde salicta; pars autem posito surgunt de semine, ut altae castaneae, nemorumque lovi quae maxima frondet 15
aesculus, atque habitae Oralis oracula quercus. Pullulat ab radice aliis densissima silva, ut cerasis ulraisque ; etiam Parnasia laurus parva sub ingenti matris se subiicit umbra. Hos natura modos primum dedit, his genus onine 20
silvarum fruticumque viret nemorumque sacrorum.
Sunt alii, quos ipse via sibi repperit usus. Hie plantas tenero abscindens de corpore matrum deposuit sulcis; hie stirpes obruit arvo
quadrifidasque sudes et acuto robore vallos. 25
Silvarumque aliae pressos propaginis arcus exspectant et viva sua plantaria terra ; nil radicis egent aliae, summumque putator
6o CEORGICA.
baud dubitat terrae referens mandare cacumen.
Quin et caudicibus sectis (mirabile dictu) 3°
truditur e sicco radix oleagina ligno.
Et saepe alterius ramos impune videmus
vertere in alterius, mutatamque insita mala
fene pirum, et prunis lapidosa rubescere corna.
Quare agite o proprios generatim discite cultus 35
agricolae, fructusque feros mollite colendo, neu segnes iaceant terrae. luvat Ismara Baccho conserere atque olea magnum vestire Taburnum. Tuque ades, inceptumque una decurre laborem, o decus, o famae merito pars maxima nostrae, 4°
Maecenas, pelagoque volans da vela patenti. Non ego cuncta meis amplecti versibus opto, non, mihi si linguae centum sint oraque centum, ferrea vox. Ades et primi lege litoris oram ; in manibus terrae : non hie te carmine ficto 45
atque per ambages et longa exorsa tenebo.
Sponte sua quae se tollunt in luminis oras, infecunda quidem, sed laeta et fortia surgunt ; quippe solo natura subest. Tamen haec quoque, si quis inserat aut scrobibus mandet mutata subactis, 50
exuerint silvestrem animum, cuUuque frequenti in quascumque voles artes baud tarda sequentur. Nee non et sterilis quae stirpibus exit ab imis, hoc faciat, vacuos si sit digesta per agros : nunc altae frondes et rami matris opacant 55
crescentique adimunt fetus uruntque ferentem. lam, quae seminibus iactis se sustulit arbos, tarda venit seris factura nepotibus umbram, pomaque degenerant sucos oblita priores, et turpes avibus praedam fert uva racemos. Co
Scilicet omnibus est labor impendendus, et omnes cogendae in sulcum ac multa mercede domandae. Sed truncis oleae melius, propagine-vites respondent, solido Paphiae de robore myrtus; plantis et durae coryli nascuntur, et ingens 65
fraxinus, Herculeaeque arbos umbrosa coronae, Cbaoniique Patris glandes ; etiam ardua palma
LIBER //. 29-106. 61
nascitur et casus abies visura marinos.
Inseritur vero et fetu nucis arbutus horrida, et steriles platani malos gessere valentes; 70
castaneae fagus, ornusque incanuit albo flora piri, glandemque sues fregere sub ulmis. Nee modus inserere atque oculos imponere simplex. Nam qua se medio trudunt de cortice gemmae et tenues rumpunt tunicas, angustus in ipso 75
fit nodo sinus: hue aliena ex arbore germen includunt udoque decent inolescere libro : aut rursum enodes trunci resecantur, et alte finditur in solidum cuneis via, deinde feraces plantae immittuntur : nee longum tempus, et ingens 80
exiit ad caelum ramis felicibus arbos, miraturque novas frondes et non sua poma.
Praeterea genus baud unum nee fortibus ulmis nee salici lotoque neque Idaeis cyparissis, nee pingues unam in faciem nascuntur olivae, 85
orchades et radii et amara pausia baca, pomaque et Alcinoi silvae, nee surculus idem Crustumiis Syriisque piris gravibusque volaemis. Non eadem arboribus pendet vindemia nostris, quam Methymnaeo carpit de palmite Lesbos ; 90
sunt Thasiae vites, sunt et Mareotides albae, pinguibus hae terris habiles, levioribus illae, et passo psithia utilior tenuisque lageos temptatura pedes olim vincturaque linguam, purpureae preciaeque, et quo te carmine dicam, 95
Rhaetica? Nee cellis ideo eontende Falernis. Sunt et Amineae vites, firmissima vina, Tmolius assurgit quibus et rex ipse Phanaeus; Argitisque minor, cui non certaverit ulla aut tantum fluere aut totidem durare per annos. 100
Non ego te, dis et mensis accepta secundis, transierim, Rhodia, et tumidis, bumaste, racemis. Sed neque quam multae species, nee nomina quae sint, est numerus : neque enim numero comprendere refert ; quern qui scire velit, Libyci velit aequoris idem 105
discere quam multae Zephyro turbenlur harenae,
62 GEORGICA.
aut ubi navigiis violentior incidit Eurus, nosse quot lonii veniant ad litora fluclus.
Nee veio terrae ferre omnes omnia possunt. Fluminibus salices crassisque paludibus alni no
nascuntur, steriles saxosis montibus orni ; litora myrtetis laetissima ; denique apertos Bacchus amat colles, Aquilonem et frigora taxi. Aspice et extremis domitum cultoribus orbem Eoasque domos Arabum pictosque Gelonos; 115
divisae arboribus patriae. Sola India nigrum fert hebenum, solis est turea virga Sabaeis. Quid tibi odorato referam sudantia ligno balsamaque et bacas semper frondentis acanthi? Quid nemora Aethiopum molli canentia lana, 120
velleraque ut foliis depectant tenuia Seres ; aut quos Oceano propior gerit India lucos, extremi sinus orbis, ubi aera vincere summum arboris baud ullae iactu potuere sagittae ? Et gens ilia quidem sumptis non tarda pharetris. 125
Media fert tristes sucos tardumque saporem felicis mali, quo non praesentius ullum, pocula si quando saevae infecere novercae, [miscueruntque herbas et non innoxia verba,] auxilium venit ac membris agit atra venena. 130
Ipsa ingens arbos faciemque simillima lauro ; et, si non alium late iactaret odorem, laurus erat : folia baud ullis labentia ventis ; flos ad prima tenax ; animas et olentia Medi ora fovent illo et senibus medicantur anhelis. 15c
Sed neque Medorum silvae, ditissima terra, nee puleher Ganges atque auro turbidus Hermus laudibus Italiae eertent, non Bactra neque Indi totaque turiferis Panchaia pinguis harenis. Haec loea non tauri spirantes naribus ignem 140
invertere satis immanis dentibus hydri, nee galeis densisque virum seges horruit hastis; sed gravidae fruges et Bacchi Massicus umor implevere; tenent oleae armentaque laeta. Hinc bellator equus campo sese arduus infert; 145
LIBER II, 107-184. d^
hinc albi, Clitumne, greges et maxima taurus
victima, saepe tuo perfusi flumine sacro,
Romanes ad templa deum duxere triumphos.
Hie ver assiduum atque alienis mensibus aestas :
bis gravidae pecudes, bis pomis utilis arbos. 150
At rabidae tigres absunt et saeva leonum
semina, nee miseros fallunt aconita legentes,
nee rapit immensos orbes per humum, neque tanto
squameus in spiram tractu se coUigit anguis.
Adde tot egregias urbes operumque laborem, 155
tot congesta manu praeruptis oppida saxis
fluminaque antiques subterlabentia muros.
An mare quod supra memorem, quodque alluit infra?
Anne lacus tantos; te, Lari maxime, teque,
fluetibus et fremitu assurgens Benace marino? 160
An memorem portus Luerinoque addita claustra
atque indignatum magnis stridoribus aequor,
lulia qua ponto longe sonat unda refuso
Tyrrhenusque fretis immittitur aestus Avernis?
Haee eadem argenti rivos aerisque metalla 165
ostendit venis atque auro plurima fluxit.
Haee genus acre virum Marsos pubemque Sabellam
assuetumque malo Ligurem Volscosque verutos
extulit, haee Decios Marios magnosque Camillos,
Scipiadas duros bello et te, maxime Caesar, 170
qui nunc extremis Asiae iam victor in oris
imbellem avertis Romanis arcibus Indum.
Salve, magna parens frugum, Saturnia tellus, *
magna virum : tibi res antiquae laudis et artis
ingredior sanctos ausus recludere fontes, 175
Ascraeumque cano Romana per oppida carmen.
Nunc locus arvorum ingeniis, quae robora cuique, quis color, et quae sit rebus natura ferendis. Difficiles primum terrae collesque maligni, tenuis ubi argilla et dumosis calculus arvis, 180
Palladia gaudent silva vivacis olivae. Indieio est tractu surgens oleaster eodem plurimus et strali bacis silvestribus agri. At quae pinguis humus dulcique uligine laeta,
64 GEORGICA.
quique frequens herbis et fertilis ubere campus 185
(qualem saepe cava montis convalle solemus
despicere : hue summis liquuntur rupibus amnes
felicemque trahunt limum) quique editus Austro
et filicem curvis invisam pascit aratris :
hie tibi praevalidas olim multoque fluentes 190
sufficiet Baccho vites, hie fertilis uvae,
hie laticis, qualem pateris libamus et auro,
inflavit cum pinguis ebur Tyrrhenus ad aras,
lancibus et pandis fumantia reddimus exta.
Sin armenta magis stadium vitulosque tueri, 195
aut fetus ovium aut urentes culta capellas,
saltus et saturi petito longinqua Tarenti,
et qualem infelix amisit Mantua campum
pascentem niveos herboso flumine cycnos :
non liquidi gregibus fontes, non gramina deerunt; 200
et quantum longis carpent armenta diebus,
exigua tantum gelidus ros nocte reponet.
Nigra fere et presso pinguis sub vomere terra,
et cui putre solum (namque hoc imitamur arando),
optima frumentis : non ullo ex aequore cernes 205
plura domum tardis decedere plaustra iuvencis.
Aut unde iratus silvam devexit arator
et nemora evertit multos ignava per annos,
anliquasque domos avium cum stirpibus imis
eruit: illae altum nidis petiere relictis, 210
at rudis enituit impulso vomere campus.
Nam ieiuna quidem clivosi glarea ruris
vix humiles apibus casias roremque ministrat ;
et tofus scaber et nigris exesa chelydris
creta negant alios aeque serpentibus agros 215
dulcem ferre cibum et curvas praebere latebras.
Quae tenuem exhalat nebulam fumosque volucres,
et bibit umorem et, cum vult, ex se ipsa remittit,
quaeque suo semper viridi se gramine vestit,
nee scabie et salsa laedit robigine ferrum, 320
ilia tibi laetis intexet vitibus ulmos,
ilia fe'ax oleo est, illam experiere eolendo
et facilem pecori et patientem vomeris unci.
LIBER IT. 185-262. 65
Talem dives arat Capua et vicina Vesevo
ora iugo et vacuis Clanius non aequus Acerris. 225
Nunc quo quamque modo possis cognoscere dicam. Rara sit an supra morem si densa requires, altera frumentis quoniam favet, altera Baccho, densa magis Cereri, rarissima quaeque Lyaeo: ante locum capies oculis, alteque iubebis 230
in solido puteum demitti, omnemque repones rursus humum et pedibus summas aequabis harenas. Si deerunt, rarum pecorique et vitibus almis aptius uber erit; sin in sua posse negabunt ire loca et scrobibus superabit terra repletis, 335
spissus ager : glaebas cunctantes crassaque terga exspecta et validis terram proscinde iuvencis. Salsa autem tellus et quae perhibetur amara (frugibus infelix ea, nee mansuescit arando, nee Baccho genus aut pomis sua nomina servat), 240
tale dabit specimen : tu spisso vimine qualos colaque prelorum fumosis deripe tectis; hue ager ille malus dulcesque a fontibus undae ad plenum calcentur : aqua eluctabitur omnis scilicet et grandes ibunt per vimina guttae ; 245
at sapor indicium faciet manifestus, et ora tristia temptantum sensu torquebit amaro. Pinguis item quae sit tellus, hoc denique pacto discimus : baud umquam manibus iactata fatiscit, sed picis in morem ad digitos lentescit habendo, 250
Umida maiores herbas alit, ipsaque iusto laetior. Ah, nimium ne sit mihi fertilis ilia neu se praevalidam primis ostendat aristis ! Quae gravis est ipso tacitam se pondere prodit, quaeque levis. Promptum est oculis praediscere nigram, 255 et quis cui color. At sceleratum exquirere frigus difficile est: piceae tantum taxique nocentes interdum aut hederae pandunt vestigia nigrae.
His animadversis terram multo ante memento excoquere et magnos scrobibus concidere monies, 260
ante supinatas Aquiloni ostendere glaebas, quam laetum infodias vitis genus. Optima putri
E
66 GEORGICA.
arva solo : id venti curant gelidaeque pruinae
et labefacta movens robustus iugera fossor.
At si quos baud uUa viros vigilantia fugit, 265
ante locum similem exquirunt, ubi prima paretur
arboribus seges, et quo mox digesta feratur,
mutatam ignorent subito ne semina matrem.
Quin etiam caeli regionem in cortice signant,
ut quo quaeque mode steterit, qua parte calores 270
austrinos tulerit, quae terga obverterit axi,
restituant : adeo in teneris consuescere muUum est.
CoUibus an piano melius sit ponere vitem,
quaere prius. Si pinguis agros metabere campi,
densa sere: in denso non segnior ubere Bacchus. 275
Sin tumulis acclive solum collesque supinos,
indulge ordinibus ; nee setius omnis in unguem
arboribus positis secto via limite quadret :
ut saepe ingenti bello cum longa cohortes
explicuit legio, et campo stetit agmen aperto, 2S0
directaeque acies, ac late fluctuat omnis
aere renidenti tellus, necdum horrida miscent
proelia, sed dubius mediis Mars errat in armis.
Omnia sint paribus numeris dimensa viarum ;
non animum modo uti pascat prospectus inanem, 2S5
sed quia non aliter vires dabit omnibus aequas
terra, neque in vacuum poterunt se extendere rami.
Forsitan et scrobibus quae sint fastigia quaeras : ausim vel tenui vitem committere sulco.
Altior ac penitus terrae defigitur arbos, 290
aesculus in primis, quae quantum vertice ad auras -
aetherias, tantum radice in Tartara tendit. Ergo non hiemes illam, non flabra neque imbres convellunt : immota manet, multosque nepotes, multa virum volvens durando saecula vincit. -^ 295
Tum fortes late ramos et bracchia tendens hue illuc media ipsa ingentem sustinet umbram.
Neve tibi ad solem vergant vineta cadentem, neve inter vites corylum sere; neve flagella summa pete aut summa defringe ex arbore plantas 300
(tanlus amor terrae) neu ferro laede retunso
LIBER 11. 263-340. 67
semina, neve oleae silvestres insere truncos:
nam saepe incautis pastoribus excidit ignis,
qui furtim pingui primum sub cortice tectus
robora comprendit, frondesque elapsus in altas 305
ingentem caelo sonitum dedit ; inde secutus
per ramos victor perque alta cacumina regnat,
et totum involvit flammis nemus et ruit atram
ad caelum picea crassus caligine nubem,
praesertim si tempestas a vertice silvis 310
incubuit, glomeratque ferens incendia ventus.
Hoc ubi, non a stirpe valent caesaeque reverti
possunt atque ima similes revirescere terra.
Infelix superat foliis oleaster amaris.
Nee tibi tam prudens quisquam persuadeat auctor 315
tellurem Borea rigidam spirante moveri. Rura gelu tum claudit hiemps, nee semine iacto concretam patitur radicem affigere terrae. Optima vinetis satio, cum vere rubenti
Candida venit avis longis invisa colubris, 320
prima vel autumni sub frigora, cum rapidus Sol nondum hiemem contingit equis, iam praeterit aestas. Ver adeo frondi nemorum, ver utile silvis; vere tument terrae et genitalia semina poscunt. Tum pater omnipotens fecundis imbribus Aether 325
coniugis in gremium laetae descendit, et omnes magnus alit magno commixtus corpore fetus. Avia tum resonant avibus virgulta canoris, et Venerem certis repetunt armenta diebus; parturit almus ager, Zephyrique tepentibus auris 330
laxant arva sinus ; superat tener omnibus umor ; inque novos soles audent se gramina tuto credere, nee metuit surgentes pampinus Austros aut actum caelo magnis Aquilonibus imbrem, sed trudit gemmas et frondes explicat omnes. 335
Non alios prima crescentis origine mundi illuxisse dies aliumve habuisse tenorem crediderim : ver illud erat, ver magnus agebat orbis, et hibernis parcebant flatibus Euri, cum primae lucem pccudes hausere, virumque 340
E 2
68 GEORGICA.
ferrea progenies duris caput extulit arvis,
immissaeque ferae silvis et sidera caelo.
Nee res hunc tenerae possent perferre laborem,
si non tanta quies iret frigusque caloremque
inter, et exciperet caeli indulgentia terras, .^45
Quod superest, quaecumque premes virgulta per agros, sparge fimo pingui, et multa memor occule terra, aut lapidem bibulum aut squalentes infode conchas : inter enim labentur aquae, tenuisque subibit halitus, atque aninios tollent sata. lamque reperli, 350
qui saxo super atque ingentis pondere testae urgerent : hoc effusos munimen ad imbres, hoc, ubi hiulca siti findit Canis aestifer arva.
Seminibus positis superest diducere terram saepius ad capita et duros iactare bidentes, 355
aut presso exercere solum sub vomere et ipsa flectere luctantes inter vineta iuvencos ; turn leves calamos et rasae hastilia virgae fraxineasque aptare sudes furcasque valentes, viribus eniti quarum et contemnere ventos 360
assuescant summasque sequi tabulata per ulmos.
Ac dum prima novis adolescit frondibus aetas, parcendum teneris, et dum se laetus ad auras palmes agit laxis per purum immissus habenis, ipsa acie nondum falcis temptanda, sed uncis 365
carpendae manibus frondes interque legendae. Inde ubi iam validis amplexae stirpibus ulmos exierint, turn stringe comas, tum bracchia tonde (ante reformidant ferrum), tum denique dura exerce imperia et ramos compesce fluentes. 37°
Texendae saepes etiam et pecus omne tenendum, praecipue dum frons tenera imprudensque laborum ; cui super indignas hiemes solemque potentem silvestres uri assidue capreaeque sequaces illudunt, pascuntur oves avidaeque iuvencae. 375
Frigora nee tantum cana concreta pruina aut gravis incumbens scopulis arentibus acstas, quantum illi nocuere greges durique venenum denlis et admorso signata in slirpe cicatrix.
LIBER II. 341-418. 69
Non aliam ob culpam Baccho caper omnibus oris 380
caeditur et veteres ineunt proscaenia ludi,
praemiaque in gentes pagos et compita circum
Thesidae posuere, atque inter pocula laeti
mollibus in pratis unctos saluere per utres.
Nee non Ausonii Troia gens missa coloni 3S5
versibus incomptis ludunt risuque soluto,
oraque corticibus sumunt horrenda cavatis,
et te, Bacche, vocant per carmina laeta, tibique
oscilla ex alta suspendunt moUia pinu.
Hinc omnis largo pubescit vinea fetu, 390
complentur vallesque cavae sallusque profundi
et quocumque deus circum caput egit honeslum.
Ergo rite suum Baccho dicemus honorem
carminibus patriis, lancesque et liba feremus,
et ductus cornu stabit sacer hircus ad aram, 395
pinguiaque in veribus torrebimus exta colurnis.
Est etiani ille labor curandis vitibus alter, cui numquam exhausti satis est : namque omne quotannis terque quaterque solum scindendum glaebaque versis aeternum frangenda bidentibus, omne levandum 400
fronde nemus. Redit agricolis labor actus in orbem, atque in se sua per vestigia volvitur annus, Ac iam olim, seras posuit cum vinea frondes frigidus et silvis Aquilo decussit honorem, iam turn acer curas venientem extendit in annum 405
rusticus, et curvo Saturni dente relictam persequilur vitem attondens fingitque putando. Primus humum fodito, primus devecta cremato sarmenta, et vallos primus sub tecta referto ; postremus metito. Bis vitibus ingruit umbra, 410
bis segetem densis obducunt sentibus herbae ; durus uterque labor : laudato ingentia rura, exiguum colito. Nee non etiam aspera rusci vimina per silvam et ripis fiuvialis harundo caeditur, incultique exercet cura salicti. 415
Iam vinctae vites, iam falcem arbusta reponunt_, iam canit eftectos extremus vinitor antes : soUicitanda tamen tellus pulvisquc movendus,
70 GEORGICA.
et iam maturis metuendus luppiter uvis.
Contra non ulla est oleis cultura : neque illae 420
procurvam expectant falcem rastrosque tenaces, cum semel haeserunt arvis aurasque tulerunt ; ipsa satis tellus, cum dente recludilur unco, sufficit umorem et gravidas cum vomere frugcs. Hoc pinguem et placitam Paci nutritur olivam. 425
Poma quoque, ut primum truncos sensere valentes et vires habuere suas, ad sidera raptim vi propria nituntur opisque hand indiga nostrae. Nee minus interea fetu nemus omne gravescit, sanguineisque inculta rubent aviaria bacis. 43°
Tondentur cytisi, taedas silva alta ministrat, pascunturque ignes nocturni et lumina fundunt. Et dubitant homines serere atque impendere curam? Quid maiora sequar? Salices humilesque genistae aut illae pecori frondem aut pastoribus umbram 435
sufficiunt saepemque satis et pabula melli. Et iuvat undantem buxo spectare Cytorum Naryciaeque picis lucos, iuvat arva videre non rastris, hominum non ulli obnoxia curae. Ipsae Caucaseo steriles in vertice silvae, ^(O
quas animosi Euri assidue franguntque feruntque, dant alios aliae fetus, dant utile lignum navigiis pinos, domibus cedrumque cupressosque. Hinc radios trivere rotis, hinc tympana plaustris agricolae, et pandas ratibus posuere carinas. 445
Viminibus salices, fecundae frondibus ulmi, at myrtus validis hastilibus et bona bello cornus, Ituraeos taxi torquentur in arcus. Nee tiliae leves aut torno rasile buxum
non formam accipiunt ferroque cavantur acuto. 450
Nee non et torrentem undam levis innatat alnus missa Pado; nee non et apes examina condunt corticibusque cavis vitiosaeque ilicis alvo. Quid memorandum aeque Baccheia dona tulerunt? Bacchus et ad culpam causas dedit; ille furentes 455
Centauros Icto domuit, Rhoetumque Pholumque et magno Hylaeum Lapithis cratere minantem.
LIBER II. 419-496. 71
O fortunatos nimium, sua si bona norint, agricolas ! quibus ipsa procul discordibus armis fundit humo facilem victum iustissima tellus. 460
Si non ingentem foribus domus alta snperbis mane salutantum totis vomit aedibus undam, nee varies iniiiant pulchra testudine postes, illusasque auro vestes Epliyreiaque aera,
alba neque Assyrio fucatur lana veneno, 465
nee casia liquidi corrumpitur usus olivi; at secura quies et nescia fallere vita, dives opum variarum, at latis otia fundis, speluncae vivique lacus, at frigida Tempe mugitusque boum mollesque sub arbore somni 470
non absunt; illie saltus ac lustra ferarum, et patiens operum exiguoque assueta iuventus, sacra deum sanctique patres ; extrema per illos lustilia excedens terris vestigia fecit.
Me vero primum dulces ante omnia Musae, 475
quarum sacra fero ingenti percussus amore, accipiant, caelique vias et sidera monstrent, defectus solis varios lunaeque labores ; unde tremor terris, qua vi maria alta tumescant obiicibus ruptis rursusque in se ipsa residant, 4S0
quid tantum Oceano properent se tinguere soles hiberni, vel quae tardis mora noctibus obstet. Sin has ne possim naturae accedere partes frigidus obstiterit circum praecordia sanguis, rura mihi et rigui placeant in vallibus amnes, 4S5
flumina amem silvasque inglorius. O ubi campi Spercheusque et virginibus bacchata Lacaenis Taygeta, o qui me gelidis convallibus Haemi sistat, et ingenli ramorum protegat umbra ? Felix, qui poiuit rerum cognoscere causas, 490
atque metus omnes et inexorabile fatum subiecit pedibus strepitumque Acherontis avari, Fortunatus et ille, deos qui novit agrestes, Panaque Silvanumque senem Nymphasque sorores. Ilium non populi fasces, non purpura rcgum 495
flexit et infidos agilans discordia fratres,
72 GEORGICA.
aut coniurato descendens Dacus ab Histro,
non res Romanae perituraque regna : neque ille
aut doluit miserans inopem aut invidit habenti.
Quos rami fructus, quos ipsa volentia rura 500
sponte tulere sua, carpsit, nee ferrea iura
insanumque forum aut populi tabularia vidit.
Sollieitant alii remis freta caeca, ruuntque
in ferrum, penetrant aulas et limina regum;
hie petit excidiis urbem miserosque penates, 505
ut gemma bibat et Sarrano dormiat ostro ;
condit opes alius defossoque incubat auro ;
hie stupet attonitus rostris ; hunc plausus hiantem
per cuneos geminatus enim plebisque patrumque
corripuit; gaudent perfusi sanguine fratrum, 510
exsilioque domos et dulcia limina mutant
atque alio patriam quaerunt sub sole iacentem.
Agricola incurvo terram dimovit aratro :
hinc anni labor, hinc patriam parvosque nepotes
sustinet, hinc armenta boum meritosque iuvencos. 515
nee requies, quin aut pomis exuberet annus
aut fetu pecorum aut Cerealis mergite culmi,
proventuque oneret sulcos atque horrea vincat.
Venit hiemps : teritur Sicyonia baca trapelis,
glande sues laeti redeunt, dant arbuta silvae: 520
et varios ponit fetus autumnus, et alte
mitis in apricis coquitur vindemia saxis.
Interea dulces pendent circum oscula nati,
casta pudicitiam servat domus, ubera vaccae
lactea demittunt, pinguesque in gramine laeto 525
inter se adversis luctantur cornibus haedi.
Ipse dies agitat festos fususque per herbam,
ignis ubi in medio et socii cratera coronant,
te libans, Lenaee, vocat, pecorisque magistris
velocis iaculi certamina ponit in ulmo, 530
corporaque agresti nudant praedura palaestrae.
Hanc olim veteres vitam coluere Sabini,
banc Remus et frater, sic fortis Etruria crevit
scilicet et rerum facta est pulcherrima Roma,
septemque una sibi muro circumdedit arces. 535
LIBER 11. 497-542. 73
Ante etiam sceptrum Dlctaei regis et ante
impia quam caesis gens est epulata iuvencis,
aureus banc vitam in terris Saturnus agebat ;
necdum etiam audierant inflari classica, necdum
impositos duris crepitare incudibus enses. C40
Sed nos immensum spatiis confecimus aequor, et iam tempus equum fumantia solvere colla.
'S-
/l/]/l-
G E O R G I C A.
LIBER TERTIUS.
Te quoque, magna Pales, et te memorande canemus
Pastor ab Amphryso, vos, silvae amnesque L}'caei.
Cetera quae vacuas tenuissent carmine mentes,
omnia iam vulgala : quis aut Eurysthea durum
aut illaudati nescit Busiridis aras? S
Cui non dictus Hylas puer et Latonia Delos
Hippodameque umeroque Pelops insignis eburno,
acer equis? Temptanda via est, qua me quoque possim
tollere humo victorque virum volitare per ora.
Primus ego in patriam mecum, modo vita supersit, lo
Aonio rediens deducam vertice Musas;
primus Idumaeas referam tibi, Mantua, palmas,
et viridi in campo templum de marmore ponam
propter aquam, tardis ingens ubi flexibus errat
Mincius et tenera praetexit harundine ripas. 15
In medio mihi Caesar erit templumque tenebit :
illi victor ego et Tyrio conspectus in ostro
centum quadriiugos agitabo ad flumina currus.
Cuncta mihi Alpheum linquens lucosque Molorchi
cursibus et crudo decernet Graecia caestu. 20
Ipse caput tonsae foliis ornatus olivae
dona feram. Iam nunc sollemnes ducere pompas
ad delubra iuvat caesosque videre iuvencos,
vel scaena ut versis discedat frontibus utque
purpurea intexti tollant aulaea Britanni. 25.
In foribus pugnam ex auro solidoque elephanto
Gangaridum faciam victorisque arma Quirini,
atque hie undantem bello magnumque fluentem
LIBER IIL 1-67. 7
r
Nilum ac navali surgentes aere columnas.
Addam urbes Asiae domitas pulsumque Niphaten 30
fidentemque fuga Parthum versisque sagittis ;
et duo rapta manu diverse ex hoste tropaea
bisque tiiumphatas utroque ab litore gentes.
Stabunt et Parii lapides, spirantia signa,
Assaraci proles demissaeque ab love gentis 35
nomina Trosque parens et Troiae Cynthius auctor.
Invidia infelix Furias amnemque severum
Cocyti metuet, tortosque Ixionis angues
immanemque rotam et non exsuperabile saxum.
Interea Dryadum silvas saltusque sequamur 40
intactos, tua, Maecenas, baud mollia iussa.
Te sine nil altum mens incohat : en age segnes
rumpe moras; vocat ingenti clamore Cithaeron
Taygetique canes domitrixque Epidaurus equorum,
et vox assensu nemorum ingeminata remugit. 45
]Mox tamen ardentes accingar dicere pugnas
Caesaris et nomen fama tot ferre per annos,
Tithoni prima quot abest ab origine Caesar.
Seu quis Olympiacae miratus praemia palmae pascit equos seu quis fortes ad aratra iuvencos, 50
corpora praecipue matrum legat. Optima torvae forma bovis, cui turpe caput, cui plurima cervix, et crurum tenus a mento palearia pendent; turn longo nullus lateri modus; omnia magna, pes etiam; et camuris hirtae sub cornibus aures. 55
Nee mihi displiceat maculis insignis et albo, aut iuga detractans interdumque aspera cornu et faciem tauro propior, quaeque ardua tota et gradiens ima verrit vestigia cauda.
Aetas Lucinam iustosque pati hymenaeos 60
desinit ante decern, post quattuor incipit annos; cetera nee feturae habilis nee fortis aratris. Interea, superat gregibus dum laeta iuventas, solve mares ; mitte in Venerem pecuaria primus, atque aliam ex alia generando suffice prolem. 65
Optima quaeque dies miseris mortalibus aevi prima fugit : subcunt morbi tristisque senectus,
7^ GEORGICA,
et labor et durae rapit inclementia mortis.
Semper erunt, quarum mutari corpora mails :
semper enim refice ac, ne post amissa requiras, 70
ante veni et subolem armento sortire quotannis.
Nee non et pecori est idem delectus equine. Tu modo, quos in spem statues summittere gentis, praeclpuum lam inde a teneris impende laborem. Continuo pecorls generosi pullus in arvis 75
altius ingreditur, et mollia crura reponit ; primus et ire viam et fluvlos temptare minaces audet et ignoto sese commlttere ponti, nee vanos horret strepitus. 1111 ardua cervix argutumque caput, brevis alvus obesaque terga, 80
luxuriatque torls animosum pectus. Honesti spadlces glauclque, color deterrlmus albls et gilvo. Turn, si qua sonum procul arma dedere, stare loco nescit, mlcat aurlbus et tremit artus, collectumque premens volvit sub naribus igneni. 85
Densa iuba, et dextro iactata recumbit in armo; at duplex agitur per lumbos spina, cavatque tellurem et solido gravlter sonat ungula cornu. Talis Amyclaei domltus Pollucls habenls Cyllarus et, quorum Grail meminere poetae, 90
INIartis equl bliuges et magni currus Achilll. Talis et ipse iubam cervice eftundlt equina coniugis adventu pernix Saturnus, et altum Pelion hlnnitu fugiens implevit acuto.
Huuc quoque, ubi aut morbo gravis aut iam segnior annis deficit, abde domo, nee turpi ignosce senectae. 96
Frigidus in Venerem senior, frustraque laborem ingratum trahit, et si quando ad proelia ventum est, ut quondam in stipulis magnus sine viribus ignis, incassum furit. Ergo animos aevumque notabis ico
praecipue ; hinc alias artes prolemque parentum, et quis cuique dolor victo, quae gloria palmae. Nonne vides, cum praecipiti certamine campum corripuere, ruuntque effusi carcere currus, cum spes arrectae iuvenum, exsultantiaque haurit 105
corda pavor pulsans? lUi instant verbere torto
LIBER III. 6H-145. 77
et proni dant lora, volat vi fervidus axis;
iamque humiles, iamque elati sublime videntur
aera per vacuum ferri atque assurgere in auras ;
nee mora nee requies ; at fulvae nimbus harenae no
tollitur, umeseunt spumis flatuque sequentum :
tantus amor laudum, tantae est victoria curae.
Primus Erichthonius currus et quattuor ausus
iungere equos rapidusque rotis insistere victor.
Frena Pelethronii Lapithae gyrosque dedere iiS
impositi dorso, atque equitem docuere sub armis
insultare solo et gressus glomerare superbos.
Aequus uterque labor, aeque iuvenemque magistri
exquirunt calidumque animis et cursibus acrem;
quamvis saepe fuga versos ille egerit hostes, 120
et patriam Epirum referat fortesque Mycenas,
Neptunique ipsa deducat origine gentem.
His animadversis instant sub tempus, et omnes impendunt curas denso distendere pingui quem legere ducem et pecori dixere maritum ; 125
florentesque secant herbas fluviosque ministrant farraque, ne blando nequeat superesse labori invalidique patrum referant ieiunia nati. Ipsa autem macie tenuant armenta volentes, atque ubi concubitus primos iam nota voluptas 130
soUicitat, frondesque negant et fontibus arcent. Saepe etiam cursu quatiunt et sole fatigant; cum graviter tunsis gemit area frugibus, et cum surgentem ad Zephyrum paleae iactantur inanes. Hoc faciunt, nimio ne luxu obtunsior usus 135
sit genitali arvo et sulcos oblimet inertes, sed rapiat sitiens Venerem interiusque recondat.
Rursus cura patrum cadere et succedere matrura incipit. Exactis gravidae cum mensibus errant, non illas gravibus quisquam iuga ducere plaustris, 140
non saltu superare viam sit passus et acri carpere prata fuga fluviosque innare rapaces. Saltibus in vacuis pascunt et plena secundum flumina, muscus ubi et viridissima gramine ripa, speluncaeque tegant et saxea procubct umbra. 145
78 GEORGICA.
Est lucos Silari circa ilicibusque virentem
pluiimus Alburnum volitans, cui nomen asilo
Romanum est, oestrum Graii vertere vocantes,
asper, acerba sonans, quo tota exterrita silvis
diffugiunt armenta, furit mugitibus aether 150
concussus silvaeque et sicci ripa Tanagri.
Hoc quondam monstro horribiles exercuit iras
Inachiae luno pestem meditata iuvencae.
Hunc quoque, nam mediis fervoribus acrior instat,
arcebis gravido pecori, armentaque pasces 155
sole recens orto aut noctem ducentibus astris.
Post partum cura in vitulos traducitur omnis ; continuoque notas et nomina gentis inurunt, et quos aut pecori malint summittere habendo aut aris servare sacros aut scindere terram 160
et campum horrentem fractis invertere glaebis. Cetera pascuntur virides armenta per herbas: tu quos ad studium atque usum formabis agrestem, iam vitulos hortare viamque insiste domandi, dum faciles animi iuvenum, dum mobilis aetas. 165
Ac primum laxos tenui de vimine circlos cervici subnecte ; dehinc, ubi libera colla servitio assuerint, ipsis e torquibus aptos iunge pares, et coge gradum conferre iuvencos ; atque illis iam saepe rotae ducantur inanes 170
per terram, et summo vestigia pulvere signent; post valido nitens sub pondere faginus axis instrepat, et iunctos temo trahat aereus orbes. Interea pubi indomitae non gramina tantum nee vescas salicum frondes ulvamque palustrem, 175
sed frumenta manu carpes sata; nee tibi fetae more patrum nivea implebunt mulctraria vaccae, sed tota in dulces consument ubera natos.
Sin ad bella magis studium turmasque feroces, aut Alphea rotis praelabi flumina Pisae 180
et lovis in luco currus agitare volantes : primus equi labor est, animos atque arma videre bellantum lituosque pati tractuque gementem ferre rolam et stabulo frenos audire sonantesj
LIBER III. 146-223. 79
turn magis atque magis blandis gaudere magistri 185
laudibus et plausae sonitum cervicis amare.
Atque haec iam primo depulsus ab ubere matris
audeat, inque vicem det mollibus ora capistris
invalidus etiamque tremens, etiam inscius aevi.
At tribus exactis ubi quarta accesserit aestas, 19°
carpere mox gyrum incipiat gradibusque sonare
compositis, sinuetque alterna volumina crurum,
sitque laboranti similis ; turn cursibus auras,
turn vocet, ac per aperta volans ceu liber habenis
aequora vix summa vestigia ponat harena ; 195
qualis Hyperboreis Aquilo cum densus ab oris
incubuit, Scythiaeque hiemes atque arida differt
nubila : tum segetes altae campique natantes
lenibus horrescunt flabris, summaeque sonorem
dant silvae, longique urgent ad litora fluctus ; 200
ille volat simul arva fuga simul aequora verrens.
Hie vel ad Elei metas et maxima campi
sudabit spatia et spumas aget ore cruentas,
Belgica vel molli melius feret esseda collo.
Tum demum crassa magnum farragine corpus 205
crescere iam domitis sinito: nainque ante domandum
ingentes tollent animos, prensique negabunt
verbera lenta pati et duris parere lupatis.
Sed non ulla magis vires industria firmat, quam Venerem et caeci stimulos avertere amoris, 210
sive boum sive est cui gratior usus equorum. Atque ideo tauros procul atque in sola relegant pascua post montem oppositum et trans flumlna lata, aut intus clausos satura ad praesepia servant. Carpit enim vires paulatim uritque videndo 215
femina, nee nemorum patitur meminisse nee herbae dulcibus ilia quidem illecebris, et saepe superbos cornibus inter se subigit decernere amantes. Pascitur in magna Sila formosa iuvenca : illi alternantes multa vi proelia miscent 220
vulneribus crebris, lavit ater corpora sanguis, versaque in obnixos urgentur cornua vasto cum gemitu, reboant silvaeque et longus Olympus.
8o GEORGICA.
Nee mos bellantes una stabulare, sed alter
victus abit, longeque ignotis exsulat oris, 225
multa gemens ignominiam plagasque superbi
victoris, turn quos amisit inultus amores,
et stabula aspectans regnis excessit avitis.
Ergo omni cura vires exercet, et inter
dura iacet pernox instrato saxa cubili 230
frondibus hirsutis et carice pastus acuta,
et temptat sese, atque irasci in cornua discit
arboris obnixus trunco, ventosque lacessit
ictibus, et sparsa ad pugnam proludit harena.
Post ubi collectum robur viresque refectae, 235
signa movet, praecepsque oblitum fertur in hostem:
fluctus uti, medio coepit cum albescere ponto,
longius ex altoque sinum trahit, utque volutus
ad terras immane sonat per saxa neque ipso
monte minor procumbit, at ima exaestuat unda 240
verticibus nigramque alte subiectat harenam.
Omne adeo genus in terris hominumque ferarumque, et genus aequoreum, pecudes pictaeque volucres, in furias ignemque ruunt : Amor omnibus idem. Tempore non alio catulorum oblita leaena 245
saevior erravit campis, nee funera vulgo tam multa informes ursi stragemque dedere per silvas ; tum saevus aper, turn pessima tigris : heu male tum Libyae solis erratur in agris. Nonne vides, ut tota tremor pertemptet equorum 250
corpora, si tantum notas odor attulit auras? Ac neque eos iam frena virum neque verbera saeva, non scopuli rupesque cavae atque obiecta retardant flumina correptosque unda torquentia montes. Ipse ruit dentesque Sabellicus exacuit sus, 255
et pede prosubigit terram, fricat arbore costas, atque hinc atque illinc umeros ad vulnera durat. Quid iuvenis, magnum cui versat in ossibus ignem durus amor? Nempe abruptis turbata procellis nocte natat caeca serus freta; quem super ingens 260
porta tonat caeli, et scopulis illisa reclamant aequora; nee miseri possunt revocare parentes
LIBER III. 224-301. ,Si
nee moritura super crudeli funere virgo.
Quid lynces Bacchi variae et genus acre luporum
atque canum? quid quae imbelles dant proelia cervi? 265
Scilicet ante omnes furor est insignis equarum ;
et mentem Venus ipsa dedit, quo tempore Glauci
Potniades malis membra absumpsere quadrigae.
Illas ducit amor trans Gargara transque sonantem
Ascanium; superant monies et flumina tranant. 270
Continuoque avidis ubi subdita flamma medullis,
vere magis, quia vere calor redit ossibus, illae
ore omnes versae in Zephyrum slant rupibus altis
exceplantque leves auras, et saepe sine ullis
coniugiis vento gravidae, mirabile diclu, 275
saxa per et scopulos et depressas convalles
diffugiunt, non, Eure, tuos, neque Solis ad ortus,
in Borean Caurumque, aut unde nigerrimus Ausler
nascitur et pluvio conlrislat frigore caelum.
Hie demum, hippomanes vero quod nomine dicunt 280
pastores, lentum destillat ab inguine virus,
hippomanes, quod saepe malae legere novercae
miscueruntque herbas et non innoxia verba.
Sed fugit interea, fugit irreparabile tempus, singula dum capti circumvectamur amore. 2S5
Hoc satis armentis : superat pars altera curae, lanigeros agilare greges hirlasque capellas. Hie labor, hinc laudem fortes sperale coloni. Nee sum animi dubius, verbis ea vincere magnum quam sit et angustis hune addere rebus honorem; 290
sed me Parnasi deserla per ardua dulcis raptat amor; iuvat ire iugis, qua nulla priorum Castaliam moUi devertitur orbita clivo. Nunc, veneranda Pales, magno nunc ore sonandum.
Incipiens stabulis edico in mollibus herbam 295
carpere oves, dum mox frondosa reducitur aeslas, et multa duram slipula filicumque maniplis sternere subler humum, glacies ne frigida laedat moUe pecus, scabiemque ferat turpesque podagras. Post hinc digressus iubeo frondentia capris 300
arbuta sufficere et fluvios praebere recentes,
82 GEORGICA.
et stabula a ventis hlberno opponere soli ad medium conversa diem, cum frigidus olim iam cadit extremoque irrorat Aquarius anno. Haec quoque non cura nobis leviore tuendae, 305
nee minor usus erit, quamvis Milesia magno vellera mutentur Tyrios incocta rubores : densior hinc suboles, hinc largi copia lactis; quam magis exhausto spumaverit ubere mulctra, laeta magis pressis manabunt flumina mammis. 310
Nee minus interea barbas incanaque menta Cinyphii tondent hirci saetasque comantes usum in castrorum et miseris velamina nautis. Pascuntur vero silvas et summa Lycaei horrentesque rubos et amantes ardua dumos ; 315
atque ipsae memores redeunt in tecta, suosque ducunt, et gravido superant vix ubere limen. Ergo omni studio glaciem ventosque nivales, quo minor est illis curae mortalis egestas, avertes, victumque feres et virgea laetus 320
pabula, nee tola claudes faenilia bruma. At vero Zephyris cum laeta vocantibus aestas in saltus utrumque gregem atque in pascua mittet, Luciferi primo cum sidere frigida rura
carpamus, dum mane novum, dum gramina canent, 325
et ros in tenera pecori gratissimus herba. Inde ubi quarta sitim caeli collegerit hora et cantu querulae rumpent arbusta cicadae, ad puteos aut alta greges ad stagna iubebo currentem ilignis potare canalibus undam ; 330
aestibus at mediis umbrosam exquirere vallem, sicubi magna lovis antiquo robore quercus ingentes tendat ramos, aut sicubi nigrum ilicibus crebris sacra nemus accubet umbra ; turn lenues dare rursus aquas, et pascere rursus 335
solis ad occasum, cum frigidus aera vesper temperat, et saltus reficit iam roscida luna, litoraque alcyonem resonant, acalanthida dumi. Quid tibi pastores Libyae, quid pascua versa prosequar et raris habitata mapalia tectis? 340
LIBER III. 303-379. 83
Saepe diem noctemque et totum ex ordine mensem
pascitur itque pecus longa in deserta sine ullis
hospitiis: tantum campi iacet. Omnia secum
armentarius Afer agit, tectumque laremque
armaque Amyclaeumque canem Cressamque pharetram; 345
non secus ac patriis acer Romanus in armis
iniusto sub fasce viam cum carpit, et hosti
ante exspectatum positis stat in agmine castris.
At non qua Scythiae gentes Maeotiaque unda, turbidus et torquens flaventes Hister harenas, 350
quaque redit medium Rhodope porrecta sub axem. lUic clausa tenent stabulis armenta, neque ullae aut herbae campo apparent aut arbore frondes; sed iacet aggeribus niveis informis et alto terra gelu late, septemque assurgit in ulnas. 355
Semper hiemps, semper spirantes frigora Cauri. Turn sol pallentes baud umquam discutit umbras, nee cum invectus equis altum petit aethera, nee cum praecipitem Oceani rubro lavit aequore currum. Concrescunt subitae currenti in flumine crustae, 360
undaque iam tergo ferratos sustinet orbes, puppibus ilia prius, patulis nunc hospita plaustris; aeraque dissiliunt vulgo, vestesque rigescunt indutae, caeduntque securibus umida vina, et totae solidam in glaciem vertere lacunae, 365
stiriaque impexis induruit horrida barbis. Interea toto non setius aere ninguit : intereunt pecudes, stant circumfusa pruinis corpora magna boum, confertoque agmine cervi torpent mole nova et summis vix cornibus exstant. 370
Hos non immissis canibus, non cassibus ullis puniceaeve agitant pavidos formidine pennae, sed frustra oppositum trudentes pectore montem comminus obtruncant ferro, graviterque rudentes caedunt, et magno laeti clamore reportant. 375
Ipsi in defossis specubus secura sub alta otia agunt terra, congestaque robora totasque advolvere focis ulmos ignique dedere. Hie noctem ludo ducunt, et pocula laeti
F 2
84 GEORGICA.
fermento atque acidis imitantur vitea sorbis. 380
Talis Hyperboreo septeni subiecta trioni gens efifrena virum Rhipaeo tunditur Euro, et pecudum fulvis velatur corpora saetis.
Si tibi lanitium curae, primum aspera silva lappaeque tribolique absint ; fuge pabula laeta, 385
continuoque greges villis lege mollibus albos. Ilium autem, quamvis aries sit candidus ipse, nigra subest udo tantum cui lingua palato, reiice, ne maculis infuscet vellera pullis
nascentum, plenoque alium circumspice campo. 390
Munere sic niveo lanae, si credere dignum est, Pan deus Arcadiae captam te, Luna, fefellit in nemora alta vocans; nee tu aspernata vocantem. At, cui lactis amor, cytisum lotosque frequentes ipse manu salsasque ferat praesepibus herbas. 395
Hinc et amant fluvios raagis, et magis ubera tendunt, et salis occultum referunt in lacte saporem, multi etiam excretos prohibent a matribus haedos, primaque ferratis praefigunt ora capistris. Quod surgente die mulsere horisque diurnis, 400
nocte premunt ; quod iam tenebris et sole cadente, sub lucem exportant calathis — adit oppida pastor — aut parco sale contingunt hiemique reponunt.
Nee tibi cura canum fuerit postrema, sed una veloces Spartae catulos acremque Molossum 405
pasce sero pingui. Numquam custodibus illis nocturnum stabulis furem incursusque luporum aut impacatos a tergo horrebis Hiberos. Saepe etiam cursu timidos agitabis onagros, et canibus leporem, canibus venabere dammas; 410
saepe volutabris pulsos silvestribus apros latratu turbabis agens, montesque per altos ingentem clamore premes ad retia cervum.
Disce et odoratam stabulis accendere cedrum, galbaneoque agitare graves nidore chelydros. 415
Saepe sub immotis praesepibus aut mala tactu vipera delituit caelumque exterrita fugit, aut tecto assuetus coluber succedere et umbrae.
LIBER III. 380-457. 85
pestis acerba bourn, pecorique aspergere virus,
fovit humum. Cape saxa manu, cape robora, pastor, 420
tollentemque minas et sibila colla tumentem
deiice. lamque fuga timidum caput abdidit alte,
cum medii nexus extremaeque agmina caudae
solvuntur, tardosque trahit sinus ultimus orbes.
Est etiam ille raalus Calabris in saltibus anguis, 425
squamea convolvens sublato pectore terga
atque notis longam maculosus grandibus alvum,
qui, dum amnes ulli rumpuntur fontibus et dum
vere madent udo terrae ac pluvialibus austris,
stagna colit, ripisque habitans hie piscibus atram 430
improbus ingluviem ranisque loquacibus explet ;
postquam exusta palus, terraeque ardore dehiscunt,
exsilit in siccum, et flammantia lumina torquens
saevit agris asperque siti atque exterritus aestu.
Ne mihi turn moUes sub divo carpere somnos 435
neu dorso nemoris libeat iacuisse per herbas,
cum positis novus exuviis nitidusque iuventa
volvitur aut catulos tectis aut ova relinquens
arduus ad solem, et linguis micat ore trisulcis.
Morborum quoque te causas et signa docebo. 440
Turpis oves temptat scabies, ubi frigidus imber altius ad vivum persedit et horrida cano bruma gelu, vel cum tonsis illotus adhaesit sudor, et hirsuti secuerunt corpora vepres. Dulcibus idcirco fluviis pecus omne magistri 445
perfundunt, udisque aries in gurgite villis mersatur, missusque secundo defluit amni ; aut tonsum tristi condngunt corpus amurca, et spumas miscent argend vivaque sulphura Idaeasque pices et pingues unguine ceras 450
scillamque elleborosque graves nigrumque bitumen. Non tamen ulla magis praesens fortuna laborum est, quam si quis ferro potuit rescindere summum ulceris os : alitur vitium vivitque tegendo, dum medicas adhibere manus ad vulnera pastor 455
abnegat, aut meliora deos sedet omnia poscens. Quin etiam, ima dolor balanlum lapsus ad ossa
86 GEORGICA.
cum furit atque artus depascitur arida febris,
profuit incensos aestus avertere et inter
ima ferire pedis salientem sanguine venam, 460
Bisaltae quo more solent acerque Gelonus,
cum fugit in Rhodopen atque in deserta Getarum,
et lac concretum cum sanguine potat equino.
Quam procul aut molli succedere saepius umbrae
videris aut summas carpentem ignavius herbas, 465
extremamque sequi aut medio procumbere campo
pascentem et serae solam decedere nocti,
continuo culpam ferro compesce priusquam
dira per incautum serpant contagia vulgus.
Non tam creber agens hiemem ruit aequore turbo, 470
quam multae pecudum pestes. Nee singula morbi
corpora corripiunt, sed tota aestiva repente,
spemque gregemque simul cunctamque ab origine gentem.
Turn sciat, aerias Alpes et Norica si quis
castella in tumulis et lapydis arva Timavi 475
nunc quoque post tanto videat desertaque regna
pastorum et longe saltus lateque vacantes.
Hie quondam morbo caeli miseranda coorta est
tempestas totoque autumni incanduit aestu,
et genus omne neci pecudum dedit, omne ferarum, 480
corrupitque lacus, infecit pabula tabo.
Nee via mortis erat simplex, sed ubi ignea venis
omnibus acta sitis miseros adduxerat artus,
rursus abundabat fluidus liquor omniaque in se
ossa minutatim morbo collapsa trahebat. 485
Saepe in honore deum medio stans hostia ad aram,
lanea dum nivea circumdatur infula vitta,
inter cunctantes cecidit moribunda ministros.
Aut si quam ferro mactaverat ante sacerdos,
inde neque impositis ardent altaria fibris, 490
nee responsa potest consultus reddere vates,
ac vix suppositi tinguntur sanguine cultri
summaque ieiuna sanie infuscatur harena.
Hinc laelis vituli vulgo moriuntur in herbis,
et dukes animas plena ad praesepia reddunt : 495
hinc canibus blandis rabies venit, et quatit aegros
LIBER III. A^^~^:>?,^' 87
tussis anhela sues ac faucibus anglt obesis. Labitur infelix studiorum atque immemor herbae • victor equus fontesque avertitur et pede terram crebra ferit; demissae aures, incertus ibidem 500
sudor et ilie quidem morituris frigidus, aret pellis et ad tactum tractanti dura resistit. *
Haec ante exitium primis dant signa diebus; sin in processu coepit crudescere morbus, tum vero ardentes oculi atque attractus ab alto 505
spiritus, interdum gemitu gravis, imaque longo ilia singultu tendunt, it naribus ater sanguis, et obsessas fauces premit aspera lingua. Profuit inserto latices infundere cornu
Lenaeos; ea visa salus morientibus una; 5'°
mox erat hoc ipsum exitio, furiisque refecti ardebant, ipsique suos iam morte sub aegra (di meliora piis erroremque hostibus ilium I) discissos nudis laniabant dentibus artus. • Ecce autem duro fumans sub vomere taurus • s^?
concidit et mixtum spumis vomit ore cruorem extremosque ciet gemitus. It tristis arator maerentem abiungens fraterna morte iuvencum, atque opere in medio defixa reliquit aratra. »
Non umbrae altorum nemorum, non moUia possunt 520
prata movere animum, non qui per saxa volutus purior electro campum petit amnis ; at ima solvuntur latera, atque oculos stupor urget inertes, ad terramque fluit devexo pondere cervix. Quid labor aut benefacta iuvant? quid vomere terras 525 invertisse graves? Atqui non Massica Bacchi munera, non illis epulae nocuere repostae : frondibus et victu pascuntur simplicis herbae, pocula sunt fontes liquidi atque exercita cursu flumina, nee somnos abrumpit cura salubres. 53°
Tempore non alio dicunt regionibus illis quaesitas ad sacra boves lunonis et uris imparibus ductos alta ad donaria currus. Ergo aegre rastris terram rimantur, et ipsis unguibus infodiunt fruges, montesque per altos 535
88 CEORGICA.
contenta ceivice trahunt stridentia plaustra.
Non lupus insidias explorat ovilia circum
nee gregibus nocturnus obambulat : acrior ilium
cura domat; timidi dammae cervique fugaces
nunc interque canes et circum tecta vagantur. 540
lam maris immensi prolem et genus omne natantum
litore in extreme ceu naufraga corpora fluctus
proluit ; insolitae fugiunt in flumina phocae.
Interit et curvis frustra defensa latebris
vipera et attoniti squamis astantibus hydri. 545
Ipsis est aer avibus non aequus, et illae
praecipites alta vitam sub nube relinquunt.
Praeterea iam nee mutari pabula refert,
quaesitaeque noeent artes ; cessere magistri
Phillyrides Chiron Amythaoniusque Melampus. 550
Saevit et in lucem Stygiis emissa tenebris
pallida Tisiphone Morbos agit ante Metumque,
inque dies avidum surgens caput altius effert.
Balatu pecorum et crebris mugitibus amnes
arentesque sonant ripae collesque supini. 555
lamque catervalim dat stragem atque aggerat ipsis
in stabulis turpi dilapsa cadavera tabo,
donee humo tegere ac foveis abscondere discunt.
Nam neque erat eoriis usus, nee viscera quisquam
aut undis abolere potest aut vincere flamma ; 560
Ne tondere quidem morbo illuvieque peresa
vellera nee telas possunt attingere putres ;
verum etiam invisos si quis temptaret amictus,
ardentes papulae atque immundus olentia sudor
membra sequebatur, nee longo deinde moranti 565
tempore contactos artus sacer ignis edebat.
G E O R G I C A.
LIBER OUARTUS.
Protenus aerii mellis caelestia dona
exsequar: banc edam, Maecenas, aspice partem.
Admiranda tibi levium spectacula rerum
magnanimosque duces totiusque ordine gentis
mores et studia et populos et proeHa dicam. 5
In tenui labor; at tenuis non gloria, si quem
numina laeva sinunt auditque vocatus Apollo.
Principio sedes apibus stalioque petenda, quo neque sit ventis aditus, nam pabula venli ferre domum prohibent, neque oves haedique petulci 10
floribus insultent, aut errans bucula campo decutiat rorem, et surgentes atterat herbas. Absint et picti squalentia terga lacerti pinguibus a stabulis, meropesque aliaeque volucres et manibus Procne pectus signata cruentis ; 15
omnia nam late vastant ipsasque volantes ore ferunt dulcem nidis immitibus escam. At liquidi fontes et stagna virentia musco adsint et tenuis fugiens per gramina rivus, palmaque vestibulum aut ingens oleaster inumbret, 20
ut, cum prima novi ducent examina reges vere suo, ludetque favis emissa iuventus, vicina invitet decedere ripa calori, obviaque hospitiis teneat frondentibus arbos. In medium, seu stabit iners seu profluet umor, 25
transversas salices et grandia coniice saxa, pontibus ut crebris possint consistere et alas pandere ad aestivum solem, si forte morautes
90 GEORGICA.
sparserit aut praeceps Neptuno immerseiit Eurus.
Haec circum casiae virides et olentia late 3°
serpylla et graviter spirantis copia thymbrae
floreat, irriguumque bibant violaria fontem.
Ipsa autem, seu corticibus tibi suta cavatis
seu lento fuerint alvaria vimine texta,
angustos habeant aditus : nam frigore mella 35
cogit hiemps, eademque calor liquefacta remittit.
Utraque vis apibus pariter metuenda; neque illae
nequiquam in tectis certatim tenuia cera
spiramenta linunt, fucoque et floribus oras
explent, collectumque haec ipsa ad munera gluten 40
et visco et Phrygiae servant pice lentius Idae.
Saepe etiam effossis, si vera est fama, latebris
sub terra fovere larem, penitusque repertae
pumicibusque cavis exesaeque arboris antro.
Tu tamen et levi rimosa cubilia limo 45
ungue fovens circum, et raras superiniice frondes.
Neu propius tectis taxum sine, neve rubentes
ure foco cancros, altae neu crede paludi,
aut ubi odor caeni gravis aut ubi concava pulsu
saxa sonant vocisque offensa resultat imago. 50
Quod superest, ubi pulsam hiemem Sol aureus egit sub terras caelumque aestiva luce reclusit, illae continuo saltus silvasque peragrant purpureosque metunt flores et flumina libant summa leves. Hinc nescio qua dulcedine laetae 55
progeniem nidosque fovent, hinc arte recentes excudunt ceras et mella tenacia fingunt. Hinc ubi iam emissum caveis ad sidera caeli nare per aestatem liquidam suspexeris agmen obscuramque trahi vento mirabere nubem, 60
contemplator : aquas dulces et frondea semper tecta petunt. Hue tu iussos asperge sapores, trita melisphylla et cerinthae ignobile gramen, tinnitusque cie et Matris quate cymbala circum : ipsae consident medicatis sedibus, ipsae 65
intima more suo sese in cunabula condent.
Sin autem ad pugnam exierinl — nam saepe duobus
LIBER IV. 29-106. 91
regibus incessit magno discordia motu :
continuoque animos vulgi et trepidantia bello
corda licet longe praesciscere : namque morantes 70
Martius ille aeris rauci canor increpat, et vox
auditur fractos sonitus imitata tubarum;
turn trepidae inter se coeunt pennisque coruscant
spiculaque exacuunt rostris aptantque lacertos,
et circa regem atque ipsa ad praetoria densae 75
miscentur magnisque vocant clamoribus hostem :
ergo ubi ver nactae sudum camposque patentes
erumpunt portis, concurriiur, aethere in alto
fit sonitus, magnum mixtae glomerantur in orbera,
praecipitesque cadunt; non densior aere grando, 80
nee de concussa tantum pluit ilice glandis :
ipsi per medias acies insignibus alis
ingentes animos angusto in pectore versant,
usque adeo obnixi non cedere, dum gravis aut hos
aut hos versa fuga victor dare terga subegit. 85
Hi motus animorum atque haec ceiPt^nlina tanta
pulveris exigui iactu compressa quiescunt.
Verum ubi ductores acie revocaveris ambo, deterior qui visus, eum, ne prodigus obsit, dede neci ; melior vacua sine regnet in aula. 90
Alter erit maculis auro squalentibus ardens : nam duo sunt genera : hie melior insignis et ore et rutilis clarus squamis ; ille horridus alter desidia latamque trahens inglorius alvum. Ut binae regum facies, ita corpora plebis. 95
Namque aliae turpes horrent, ceu pulvere ab alto cum venit et sicco terram spuit ore viator aridus ; elucent aliae et fulgore coruscant ardentes auro et paribus lita corpora guttis. Haec potior suboles, hinc caeli tempore certo 100
dulcia mella premes, nee tantum dulcia quantum et liquida et durum Bacchi domitura saporem.
At cum incerta volant caeloque examina ludunt, contemnuntque favos et frigida tecta relinquunt, instabiles animos ludo prohibebis inani. 105
Nee magnus prohibere labor : tu regibus alas
92 GEORGICA.
eripe ; non illis quisquam cunctantibus altum
ire iter aut castris audebit vellere signa.
Invitent croceis halantes floribus horti,
et custos furum atque avium cum falce saligna no
Hellespontiaci servet tutela Priapi.
Ipse thymum pinosque ferens de montibus altis
tecta serat late circum, cui talia curae ;
ipse labore manum duro terat, ipse feraces
figat humo plantas et amicos irriget imbres. 115
Atque equidem, extreme ni iam sub fine laborum vela traham et terris festinem advertere proram, forsitan et, pingues hortos quae cura colendi ornaret, canerem, biferique rosaria Paesti, quoque modo potis gauderent intuba rivis 120
et virides apio ripae, tortusque per herbam cresceret in ventrem cucumis ; nee sera comantem narcissum aut flexi tacuissem vimen acanthi pallentesque hederas et amantes litora myrtos. Namque sub Oebaliae memini me turribus arcis, 125
qua niger umectat flaventia culta Galaesus, Corycium vidisse senem, cui pauca relicti iugera ruris erant, nee fertilis ilia iuvencis nee pecori opportuna seges nee commoda Baccho. Hie rarum tamen in dumis olus albaque circum 130
lilia verbenasque premens vescumque papaver regum aequabat opes animis, seraque revertens nocte domum dapibus mensas onerabat inemptis. Primus vere rosam atque autumno carpere poma, et cum tristis hiemps etiamnum frigore saxa 135
rumperet et glacie cursus frenaret aquarum, ille comam mollis iam tondebat hyacinthi aestatem increpitans seram zephyrosque morantes. Ergo apibus fetis idem atque examine multo primus abundare et spumantia cogere pressis 140
mella favis : illi tiliae atque uberrima pinus, quotque in flore novo pomis se fertilis arbos induerat, totidcm autumno matura tenebat. Ille etiam seras in versum distulit ulmos eduramque pirum et spinos iam pruna ferentes 145
LIBER IV. 107-184. 93
\ iamque ministra! tern platanum potantibus umbras. Verum haec ips . equidem spatiis exclusus iniquis praetereo atque aliis post me memoranda relinquo.
Nunc age, naturas apibus quas luppiter ipse addidit, expediam, pro qua mercede canoros 150
Curetum sonitus crepitantiaque aera secutae Dictaeo caeli regem pavere sub antro. Solae communes natos, consortia tecta urbis hcrfjent, magnisque agitant sub legibus aevum, et patriam solae at certos novere penates; iS5
venturaeque hiemis memores aestate laborem experiuntur et in medium quaesita reponunt. Namque aliae victu invigilant et foedere pacto exercentur agris ; pars intra saepta domorum narcissi lacrimam et lentum de cortice gluten 160
prima favis ponunt fundamina, deinde tenaces suspendunt ceras ; aliae spem gentis adultos educunt fetus ; aliae purissima mella stipant et liquido distendunt nectare cellas. Sunt quibus ad portas cecidit custodia sorti, 165
inque vicem speculantur aquas et nubila caeli, aut onera accipiunt venientum, aut agmine facto ignavum fucos pecus a praesepibus arcent. Fervet opus, redolentque thymo fragrantia mella. Ac veluti lentis Cyclopes fulmina massis ir°
cum properant, alii taurinis foUibus auras accipiunt redduntque, alii stridentia tingunt aera lacu ; gemit impositis incudibus Aetna ; illi inter sese magna vi brachia toUunt
in numerum, versantque tenaci forcipe ferrum : 175
non aliter, si parva licet componere magnis, Cecropias innatus apes amor urget habendi munere quamque suo. Grandaevis oppida curae et munire favos et daedala fingere tecta. At fessae multa referunt se nocte minores, iSo
crura thymo plenae; pascuntur et arbuta passim et glaucas salices casiamque crocumque rubentem et pinguem tiliani et ferrugineos hyacinthos. Omnibus una quies operum, labor omnibus unus :
94 GEORGICA.
mane ruunt portis; nusquam mora; rursus sdem 1S5
vesper ubi e pastu tandem decedere campis
admonuit, turn tecta petunt, turn corpora curant;
fit sonitus mussantque eras et limina circum.
Post ubi iam thalamis se composuere, siletur
in noctem, fessosque sopor suus occupat artus. 190
Nee vero a stabulis pluvia impendente recedunt
longius, aut credunt caelo adventantibus Euris;
sed circum tutae sub moenibus urbis aquantur
excursusque breves temptant, et saepe lapillos,
ut cymbae instabiles fluctu iactante saburram, 195
tollunt, his sese per inania nubila librant.
Ilium adeo placuisse apibus mirabere morem,
quod neque concubitu indulgent, nee corpora segnes
in Venerem solvunt aut fetus nixibus edunt;
verum ipsae e foliis natos, e suavibus herbis 200
ore legunt, ipsae regem parvosque Quirites
sufficiunt, aulasque et cerea regna refingunt.
Saepe etiam duris errando in cotibus alas
attrivere, ultroque animam sub fasce dedere :
tantus amor florum et generandi gloria mellis. 205
Ergo ipsas quamvis angusti terminus aevi
excipiat (neque enim plus septima ducitur aestas),
at genus immortale manet, multosque per annos
Stat fortuna domus, et avi numerantur avorum.
Praeterea regem non sic Aegyptus et ingens 210
Lydia nee populi Parthorum aut Medus Hydaspes
observant. Rege incolumi mens omnibus una est ;
amisso rupere fidem, constructaque mella
diripuere ipsae et crates solvere favorum.
Ille operum custos, ilium admirantur et omnes 215
circumstant fremitu denso stipantque frequentes,
et saepe attollunt umeris, et corpora bello
obiectant pulchramque petunt per vulnera mortem.
His quidam signis atque haec exempla secuti esse apibus partem divinae mentis et haustus 220
aetherios dixere ; deum namque ire per omnes terrasque tractusque maris caelumque profundum ; hinc pecudes armenta viros, genus omne ferarum,
LIBER IV. 185-262. 95
quemque sibi tenues nascentem arcessere vitas :
scilicet hue reddi deinde ac resoluta referri 225
omnia, nee morti esse locum, sed viva volare
sideris in numerum atque alto succedere caelo.
Si quando sedem augustam servataque mella thesauri relines, prius haustu sparsus aquarum ora fove, fumosque manu praetende sequaces. 230
Bis gravidos cogunt fetus, duo tempora messis : Taygete simul os terris ostendit honestum Pleas et Oceani spretos pede reppulit amnes, aut eadem sidus fugiens ubi Piscis aquosi tristior hibernas caelo descendit in undas. 235
lUis ira modum supra est, laesaeque venenum morsibus inspirant, et spicula caeca relinquunt affixae venis, animasque in vulnere ponunt. Sin duram metues hiemem parcesque futuro contusosque animos et res miserabere fractas, 240
at suffire thymo cerasque recidere inanes quis dubitet? Nam saepe favos ignotus adedit stelio et lucifugis congesta cubilia blattis immunisque sedens aliena ad pabula fucus; aut asper crabro imparibus se immiscuit armis, 245
aut dirum tiniae genus, aut invisa Minervae laxos in foribus suspendit aranea casses. Quo magis exhaustae fuerint, hoc acrius omnes incumbent generis lapsi sarcire ruinas, complebuntque foros et floribus horrea texent. 250
Si vero, quoniam casus apibus quoque nostros vita tulit, tristi languebunt corpora morbo — quod iam non dubiis poteris cognoscere signis : continuo est aegris alius color; horrida vultum deformat macies ; turn corpora luce carentum 2f5
exportant tectis et tristia funera ducunt; aut illae pedibus conexae ad limina pendent, aut intus clausis cunctantur in aedibus, omnes ignavaeque fame et contracto frigore pigrae ; tum sonus auditur gravior, tractimque susurrant, 260
frigidus ut quondam silvis immurmurat Auster, ut mare sollicitum stridit refluentibus undis,
96 GEORGICA,
aestuat ut clausis rapidus fornacibus ignis :
hie iam galbaneos suadebo incendere odores
mellaque harundineis inferre canalibus, ultro 265
hortantem et fessas ad pabula nota vocantem.
Proderit et tunsum gallae admiscere saporem
arentesque rosas, aut igni pinguia multo
defruta, vel psithia passes de vite racemos
Cecropiumque thymum et grave olentia centaurea. 270
Est etiam flos in pratis, cui nomen amello
fecere agricolae, facilis quaerentibus herba ;
namque uno ingentem tollit de caespite silvam
aureus ipse, sed in foliis, quae plurima circum
fundunlur, violae sublucet purpura nigrae ; 275
saepe deum nexis ornatae torquibus arae ;
asper in ore sapor; tonsis in vallibus ilium
pastores et curva legunt prope flumina Mellae.
Huius odorato radices incoque Baccho,
pabulaque in foribus plenis appone canistris. 280
Sed si quern proles subito defecerit omnis, nee, genus unde novae stirpis revocetur, habebit, tempus et Arcadii memoranda inventa magistri pandere, quoque modo caesis iam saepe iuvencis insincerus apes tulerit cruor. Altius omnem 285
expediam prima repetens ab origine famam. Nam qua Pellaei gens fortunata Canopi accolit effuso stagnantem flumine Nilum et circum pictis vehitur sua rura phaselis, quaque pharetratae vicinia Persidis urget, 290
et diversa ruens septem discurrit in ora et viridem Aegyptum nigra fecundat harena 1
usque coloratis amnis devexus ab Indis, omnis in hac certam regio iacit arte salutem. Exiguus primum atque ipsos contractus in usus 295
eligitur locus; hunc angustique imbrice tecti parietibusque premunt arlis, et quattuor addunt quattuor a ventis obliqua luce fenestras. Tum vitulus bima curvans iam cornua fronte quaeritur; huic geminae nares et spiritus oris 300
multa reluctanti obstruitur, plagisque perempto
LIBER IV. 263-340. 97
tunsa per integram solvuntur viscera pellem.
Sic positum in clause linquunt, et ramea costis
subiiciunt fragmenta, thymum casiasque recentes.
Hoc geritur zephyris primum impellentibus undas, 305
ante novis rubeant quam prata coloribus, ante
garrula quam tignis niduni suspendat hirundo.
Interea teneris tepefactus in ossibus umor
aestuat, et visenda modis animalia miris,
trunca pedum primo, mox et stridentia pennis, 310
miscentur, tenuemque magis magis aera carpunt,
donee ut aestivis effusus nubibus imber
erupere aut ut nervo pulsante sagittae,
prima leves ineunt si quando proelia Parthi.
Quis deus hanc, Musae, quis nobis extudit artem? 315
Unde nova ingressus hominum experientia cepit? Pastor Aristaeus fugiens Peneia Tempe amissis, ut fama, apibus morboque fameque tristis ad extremi sacrum caput astitit amnis multa querens, atque hac affatus voce parentem : 320
' Mater, Cyrene mater, quae gurgitis huius ima tenes, quid me praeclara stirpe deorum, (si modo, quern perhibes, pater est Thymbraeus Apollo) invisum fatis genuisti? Aut quo tibi nostri pulsus amor? Quid me caelum sperare iubebas? 3^5
En etiam hunc ipsum vitae mortalis honorem, quem mihi vix frugum et pecudum custodia sollers omnia temptanti extuderat, te matre relinquo. Quin age et ipsa manu felices erue silvas, fer stabulis inimicum ignem atque interfice messes, 330
ure sata, et duram in vites molire bipennem, tanta meae si te ceperunt taedia laudis.' At mater sonitum thalamo sub fluminis alti sensit. Eam circum Milesia vellera Nymphae carpebant hyali saturo fucata colore, 335
Drymoque Xanthoque Ligeaque Phyllodoceque, caesariem effusae nitidam per Candida colla, [Nesaee Spioque Thaliaque Cymodoceque] Cydippeque et flava Lycorias, altera virgo, altera turn primos Lucinae experta labores 34^
G
98 GEORGICA.
Clioque et Beroe soror, Oceanitides ambae,
ambae auro, pictis incinctae pellibus ambae,
atque Ephyre atque Opis et Asia Deiopea
et tandem positis velox Arethusa sagittis.
Inter quas curam Clymene narrabat inanem 345
Vulcani, Martisque dolos et dulcia furta,
aque Chao densos divum numerabat amores.
Carmine quo caplae dum fusis mollia pensa
devolvunt, iterum maternas impulit aures
luctus Aristaei, vitreisque sedilibus omnes 350
obstupuere ; sed ante alias Arethusa sorores
prospiciens summa flavum caput extulit unda,
et procul : ' O gemitu non frustra exterrita tanto
Cyrene soror, ipse tibi, tua maxima cura,
tristis Aristaeus Penei genitoris ad undam 355
Stat lacrimans, et te crudelem nomine dicit.'
Huic percussa nova mentem formidine mater
' Due, age, due ad nos ; fas illi limina divum
tangere ' ait. Simul alta iubet discedere late
flumina, qua iuvenis gressus inferret. At ilium 360
curvata in montis faciem circumstetit unda
accepitque sinu vasto misitque sub amnem.
lamque domum mirans genetricis et umida regna
speluncisque lacus clausos lucosque sonantes
ibat, et ingenti motu stupefactus aquarum 365
omnia sub magna labentia flumina terra
spectabat diversa locis, Phasimque Lycumque
et caput, unde altus primum se erumpit Enipeus,
unde pater Tiberinus, et unde Aniena fluenta p- saxosusque sonans Hypanis Mysusque Caicus, 370
1 et gemina auratus taurino cprnua vultu - J^
Eridanus, quo non alius per pinguia culta L in mare purpureum violentior effluit amnis. ^n"^!"i^
postquam est in thalami pendentia pumice tecta
perventum' et nati fletus cognovit inanes ■ ,' sj'S
Cyrene, manibus liquidos dant ordme fontes
germanae, tonsisque ferunt mantelia villis; /
pars epulis onerant mensas et plena reponunt "^ "
pocula ; Panchaeis adolescunt ignibus arae ;
LIBER IV. 341-418. 99
et mater ' Cape Maeonii carchesia Bacchi : 380
Oceano libemus' ait. Simul ipsa precatur -ir>-^,-
Oceanumque patrem rerum Nymphasque sorores,
centum quae silvas, centum quae flumina servant.
Ter liquido ardentem perfundit nectare Vestam,
ter flamma ad summum tecti subiecta reluxit. 3^5
Omine quo firmans animum sic incipit ipsa : ^
' Est in Carpathio Neptuni gurgite vates caeruleus Proteus, magnum qui piscibus aequor et iuncto bipedum curru metitur equorum. Hie nunc Emathiae portus patriamque revisit 390
Pallenen; hunc et Nympliae veneramur et ipse grandaevus Nereus : novit namque omnia vates, j quae sint, quae fuerint, quae mox ventura tralianlur; ( quippe ita Neptuno visum est, immania cuius V- armenta et turpes' pascit sub gurgite phocas. 395
Hie tibi, nate, prius vinclis capiendus, ut omnem '^expediat morbi causam, eventusque seciindet. • Nam sine vi non ulla dabit praecepta, neque ilium irando flectesj vim duram et vincula capto tende ; doli ciftum haec demum frangentur inan^s. // 400 Ipsa ego^e, medios cum sol accenderit aestus,'^ cum sitiunt herbae et pecori iam^ gratior umbra est, in secreta senis ducam, quo f^s^s'usab undis se recipit, facile ut somno ag^re(Jiare iacentem, Verum ubi correptum manibus vinclisque tenebis, 405
tum variae eludent species jitque ora ferarum. Fiet enim subito su¥ horridus atraque tigris squarnosusque draco et fulva cervice leaena, aut ^c/e'itt flammae sonitum dabit atque ita vinclis excidet, aut in aquas tenues , dilapsus abibit. 3 4 10
— i.sed quanto ille magis formas se vertet in omnes,
1 ^anto, nate, magis contende tenacia vincla,
donee talis erit mutato corpore, qualem videris, incepto_^tegeret cum luSima somno.'
Haec ait et liquidum ambrosiae defundit odorem, 415
^ quo totum nati corpus ^erduxit,; at illi dulcis compositis spiravit crinibtis aura, atque habilis membris venit vigor. Est specus ingens
'^C\i\r-*^
lOO GEORGICA.
exesi latere in montis,, quo plurima vento L't. .v.>^'^ cogilur inque sinua. scindit sese unda rgductos, ^^ ' hiio
,^deprensis ohm statio tutissTrrraTTautis ; }r)(\<v^^'^ i intus se vasti Proteus tegit obiice saxi. Hie iuvenem in latebris aversum a lumine Nymplia (^ collocat, ipsa procul nebulis obscura resistit.
lam rapidus torrens sitientes Sirius Indos 425
^vJ ardebat caelo,, et medium sol igneus orbem j^sjo^^ hauserat ; arebant herbae, et cava flumina siccis ,s^ faucibus ad limum radii tepefacta coqu^bant: - K/>^l^^';>^ cum Proteus consueta petens e fluctibus antra ibat ; eum vasti circum gens umida ponti >' '- 430
exsultans ror^m late^ispergit ainarujji^^ > — =-'Sternunt se somno diversae in litore phocae ; ipse velut stabuli custos in montibus olim, vesper ubi e pastu, vltulos ad tecta reducit, auditisque lupos acuunt balatibus agni, 435
^considit scopulo medius, numerriimque recenset. Cuius Aristaeo quoniam est oblata facultas, r^/^- vix defessa seneni passus componere membra cum clamore ruit magno, manicisque iacentem occupat. / Ille suae contra non immemor artis 440
omnia transformat sese in miracula rerum, ignemque horribilemque feram fluviumque liquentem./ Verum ubi nulla fugam reperit fallacia, victus in sese redit, atque hominis tandem ore loculus ' Nam quis te, iuvenum confidentissime, nostras 445
iussit adire domos? quidve hinc petis?' inquit. At ille ' Scis, Proteu, scis ipse ; neque est te fallere quidquam : sed tu desine velle. Deum praepepta secuti venimus, hinc lassis quaesituiii oracula rebus.' Tanlum effatus. , Ad haec'vates vi denique multa . 450
ardentes oculos ihtorsit lumine glauco, ^ \ y^j-y^^ Iv^/v^ , ^ et graviter frendens sic fatlis ora resolvit : _ ../-.-s^ "f^r " • ' Non te nuUius exercent numinis irae ; magna luis conimissa : tibi has miserabilis Orpheus y haudquaquam ob meritum poenas, ni fata resistant, 455
,^ suscitat, et rapta graviter pro coniuge saevit. - '^ ^^' ^ )/\,^ ^ Ilia quidem, dum te fugeret per flumina praeceps, L^^^^^~P^
^s'^-
.vr^. ^'■"
JVc^^"" \f^^^^^^ /F. 419 -496.
lOI
f •
I immanem ante pedes hydrum moritura puella s^rvantem ripas alta non vidit in herba. -/ At chorus aequalis Dryadum clamore supremos 4C0
implerunt monies ; flerunt Rhodopeiae arces ~ r-o,V. - - altaque Parigaea et Rhesi Mavortia tellus atque Getae, atque Hebrus et Actias Qriihyia.^* ^^'Ipse cava solans aegrum tes^raine amorem te, dulcis coniunx, te solo in litore secuni, te veniente die, te decedente canebat. • X,^^«-«- Taenarias etiam fauces, alta ostia Ditis^"^ s^ , et caligantem nigra formidine lucuni jvt^i--<- ingressus, Alanesque adiit regemque tr^mendum,- nesciaque humanis precibus mansuescere corda. — 470
At cantu coniniotae Erebi de sedibus imis umbrae ibaht tenjies simulacrague luce carentum, quam muTtaTm foliis avlmti^se millia condunt,— ''^A
vespeiLubi__auLJiihernus agit de montibus imber,
matres atque viri defunctaque Corpora vita r ' 475
magnanimum heroum, pueii innuptaeque _pu£lla£, impositique ragi5 iuvenes ante ora parentum ; —
^quos circum limus niger et deformis harundo
I Cocytj tafaS'qu^^ palus inamabilis unda
I alligat, et noviens Styx interfusa coercet. /'.So
Quin ipsae stupuere domus atque intima Leti^ Tartara caeruleosque implexae crinibus angues^ Eumenides, -Jenuitque/ inhkins tria Cerberus ora, atque Ixionii vento rcTfaconstitit orbis. \
Jiamque pedem referens casus evaserat omnes, 485
redditaque Eurydice superas veniebat ad auras poiie sequens (namque banc dederat Proserpina legem), cum subita incautum dementia cepit amantem, ignoscenda quidem, scirent si ignoscere Manes : restitit, Eurydicenque suam iam luce sub ipsa JT"^ 490
immemor heu viclusque animi respexit. Ibi omnis effusus labor^atque immitis rupta tyranni foedera terque fragor stagnis auditus Averni. Ilia " Quis et me " inquit " miseram et te perdidit, Orpheu, quis tantus furor ? En iterum crudelia retro 495
fata vocant, conditque natantia lumina somnus.
102 S^^''^ CEORGICA,
lamque vale : feror indent! circumdata nocte
invaTidasque tibi tendens, heu non tua, palmas — ." -Dixit, et ex oculis subito' ceu fumus in auras
commixtus tenues fugit diversa^ neque ilium 500
prensantem nequiquam umbras et multa volentem
dicere praeterea vidit ; nee portitor Orci ' amplius obiectam passus transire paludem. I Quid faceret ? Quo se rapta bis coniuge ferret ? 1 Quo fletu Manes, qua numina voce moveret ? 505
^,^Mlla quidem Stygia nabat iam frigida cymba./
Septem ilium totos perhibent ex ordine menses
rupe sub aeria deserti ad Strymonis undam
flevisse, et gelidis haec evolvisse sub antris,
mulcentem tigres et agentem carmine quercus ; 510
qualis populea maerens philomela sub umbra
amissos queritur fetus, quos durus arator
observans nido implumes detraxit ; at ilia
flet noctem, ramoque sedens miserabile carmen
integrat, et maestis late loca questibus implet. 515
Nulla Venus, non uUi animum flexere hymenaei.
Solus hyperboreas glacies Tanaimque nivalem
arvaque Rhipaeis nunquam viduata pruinis
lustrabat, raptam Eurydicen atque irrita Ditis
dona querens; spretae Ciconum quo munere matres 520
inter sacra deum nocturnique orgia Bacchi
discerptum latos iuvenem sparsere per agros.
Turn quoque marmorea caput a cervice revulsum
gurgite cum medio portans Oeagrius Hebrus
volveret, Eurydicen vox ipsa et frigida lingua 525
" Ah ! miseram Eurydicen " anima fugiente vocabat,
Eurydicen toto referebant flumine ripae.'
Haec Proteus, et se iactu dedit aequor in altum,
quaque dedit, spumantem undam sub vertice torsit.
At non Cyrene ; namque ultro affata timentem : 530
' Nate, licet tristes animo deponere curas.
Haec omnis morbi causa, hinc miserabile Nymphae,
cum quibus ilia choros lucis agitabat in altis,
exitium misere apibus. Tu munera supplex
tende petens pacem, et faciles venerare Napaeas; 535
LIBER IV. 497-566. 103
namque dabunt veniam votis, irasque remittent.
Sed modus orandi qui sit, prius ordine dicam.
Quattuor eximios praestanti corpore tauros,
qui tibi nunc viridis depascunt summa L}xaei,
delige, et intacta totidem cervice iuvencas. 540
Quattuor his aras alta ad delubra dearum
constitue, et sacrum iugulis demitte cruorem,
corporaque ipsa bourn frondoso desere luco.
Post ubi nona suos Aurora ostenderit ortus,
inferias Orphei Lethaea papavera mittes, 545
et nigram mactabis ovem, lucumque revises :
placatam Eurydicen vitula venerabere caesa.'
Haud mora : continue matris praecepta facessit ; ad delubra venit, monstratas excitat aras, quattuor eximios praestanti corpore tauros 550
ducit et intacta totidem cervice iuvencas. Post ubi nona suos Aurora induxerat ortus, inferias Orphei mittit, lucumque revisit. Hie vero subitum ac dictu mirabile monstrum aspiciunt, liquefacta boum per viscera toto 555
stridere apes utero et ruptis effervere costis, immensasque trahi nubes, iamque arbore summa confluere et lentis uvam demittere ramis.
Haec super arvorum cultu pecorumque canebam -^ et super arboribus, Caesar dum magnus ad altum i 560 fulminat Euphraten bello, victorque volentes per populos dat iura, viamque ailectat Qlympo. Illo Vergilium me tempore dulcis alebat Parthenope studiis florentem ignobilis oti, carmina qui lusi pastorum, audaxque iuventa, \ 565
Tityre, te patulae cecini sub tegmine fagi. -"^^
BUCOLICS.
NOTES TO ECLOGUE I.
TITYRUS.
.MELIBOEUS. TITYRUS.
This Eclogue fixes its own date, shortly after B.C. 40 (713 A.U.C.), when, by an agreement of the Triumvirate, Octavianus distributed the country lands among the veterans, twenty-eight legions of whom had to be satisfied. The inhabitants of Cremona suffered first, then those of Mantua {nimiuni vicina Eel. ix. 28% and among them Mrgil ; though, as appears from Eel. ix. 7-10, he had hoped that he might be spared. He then went to Rome and obtained from Octavianus the restitution of his property, at the instance of Asinius PoUio a strict disciplinarian and no friend to military licence), Alfenus Varus, and Callus. This poem expresses his gratitude to Octavianus.
Meliboeus, a dispossessed and exiled shepherd, encounters Tityrus fortunate in the undisturbed possession of his homestead. Tityrus is represented as a farm-slave who has just worked out his freedom ; and this symbolises the confirmation of Virgil in his property, the slave's master representing Oc- tavianus, and the two ideas of the slave's emancipation and Virgil's restora- tion being so mixed up as to confuse the whole narrative ; which is at one time allegorical, at another historical.
On the relative date of this and Eel. ix see Introd. to ix, p. 133.
Biicolica ' ISovKoXiKo.) are poems treating of pastoral subjects. Eclogae ^KXojai, selections) are short unconnected poems. Statins (Silv. iii. pref.) applies the title to one of his own poems ; Ausonius (Idyll 11, pref. ' to an ode of Horace. Pliny ■ Epist. iv. 14, 9) doubts whether to call a collccuon of short poems cpigraiiuuata, idyllia, eclogae, qx foeniaiia.
2. silvestrem miisam, 'a woodland strain.' Cp. Lucr. iv. ^9,C) Jistula silveslrcDi iie iCsset fuiiJerc Miisaiit. meditaris, 'compose,' 'practise.' tenui, ' slender.'
io6 BUCOLICS. ECL. L 4-31.
4. lentus, ' lounging," ' at ease'
5. formosam resonare Amaryllida, 'reecho the charms of Amaryllis: ' cognate accusative, like sal/are Cyclopa, sonare vitiiini, etc.
6. deus. Virgil here strikes the first note of that worship of the Emperor which characterised the age and its poetical expression. See Sellar, Virgil, ch. i. pp. 14-21.
9, 10. errare boves perniisit, poetical constr. with ace. and infm. after permitto, instead of the usual tit and subj. ludere, often used, in a half- depreciatory tone, of poetry, as of a mere relaxation ; ' to play as I wished on the rustic pipe :' cp. G. iv. 565 carmiua qui lusi pastonim.
12, 13. turbatur, impersonal, ' there is tumult, or riot.' proteuus, 'onward;' the original meaning in prose, almost superseded by the second- ary temporal sense of ' forthwith.' duco, one of the she-goats has to be led by a cord.
14, 15. namque, unusually late in the sentence; cp. Aen. v. 733 non inc impia namqite Tartaia hahevt. Livy and later prose writers sometimes place it second in a clause; 11am always comes first, couixa, i.q. oiixa, 'having brought forth.' silice in nuda, ' on the bare flint,' i.e. on stony soil, where they would die all the sooner.
16, 17. ' Often, I mind, this mischief was foretold me, had I but had sense to see it, by lightning striking an oak.' si . . . fuisset may be called techni- cally the protasis to a suppressed apodosis (c/ nunc infellexissc/n) ; but neither Latin nor English requires the expression of this further thought. laeva, 'stupid,' (Gk. auaios) : cp. Hor. A. P. 301 0 ego !acviis =' ioo\ that I am ! ' memiui praedicere, ' remember that they foretold : ' the pres. infin. is the usual construction, when the direct memory of an eye-witness is referred to.
18. This verse is wanting in all but two late MSS., and has obviously got in from Eel. ix. 15. Modern editors retain it only for the sake of the accepted numeration.
19. iste deus, 'your god,' referring to 1. 6. da = (/?V; cp. Hor. Sat. ii. %. f) da . . . quae ventrcm placave7-it esca ; Ter. Haut. prol. 10 qna»i ob rem has partes didicerini, paucis daho. It was perhaps a colloquial idiom. So accipe = ajidi Aen. ii. 65. Cp. Jiabere=^' to know,' Eel. ii. 2.
21. huic nostrae, i.e. Mantua, close to which was Virgil's estate.
22. depellere, 'drive in' (to the city), de denoting the destination, as dedncere [eoloniani, consuleiu, etc.), dcmittere 'naves in portn>}i\.
25, 26. extulit, ' has raised ' (perf.) or ' rears ' (aorist, cp. G. i. 49) ; either of which senses is agreeable to Latin idiom, viburna, ' shrubs ; ' possibly connected with viere, and denoting any tough (lenta) or pliant shrub used for binding fagots.
28-31. Tityrus, having saved enough (see below on peciili 1. 33), went to Rome to buy his freedom from his master. On the symbolism of this see introduction to this Eclogue, sera tanien, ' though late, has yet regarded me.' iuerteni, ' indolent,' 'unambitious,' careless about procuring
BUCOLICS. ECL. I. 33-46. 107
his freedom, candidior, 'somewhat grey:' Tityms obtains his freedom late in life, after he has changed his partner Galatea for the more thrifty Amaryllis, cadebat, ' began to fall.' habet, because Amaryllis is now his partner ; reliqiiit, because Galatea has ceased once for all to be so.
33. peculi, here the private property ^'sa\'ings') of slaves: also of property in general, aerugo ct cur a pecjili Hor. A. P. 330, and in legal terminology of the private purse of a wife, a son, or daughter, etc.: cp. Liv. ii. 4 1 pcculiuni filii.
34. victima, a sheep for sacrifice.
35. ingratae, ' thankless,' because it paid him less than he expected.
36. ^avis acre, ' laden with money.'
38. sua arbore, ' their native tree.' Amaryllis, in her sorrow, left the apples ungathered.
39. aberat. For this lengthening before a vowel of -lit of 3 sing. impf. cp. G. iv. 137 io7tdebat hyacinthi \ and for the whole question of such lengthening of short final syllables in Virgil see Prof. Xettleship's Excursus to Aen. xii. in Conington's edition, showing (i) that Virgil never allows himself these licences except in arsis (i.e. in the emphatic syllable of a foot), and but seldom where there is not (as here) a slight break in the sentence ; (2) that he deliberately introduced them as antiquarian ornaments. 'J'he -at of imperfect was originally long, and is so frequently in Plautus and Ennius. See Introd. p. 16.
40. arbusta, ' plantations ' or ' vineyards,' i.e. places planted with trees at due intervals on whicli vines could be trained ; whence adjj. arbustivac vites (Columella), arlnistus agcr Cic. Rep. v. 2. 3. The meaning 'trees' or ' shrubs ' is frequent in Lucretius with nom. arbusta, because arborcs cannot come into hexameter verse : but arborihus can, and so in the only example of arbtistis in Lucr. (v. 1378) the word has its proper meaning (Munro, vol. i. 187). Arbustuin=arbos-tum (cp. viigiil-tuiit, salic-tiiiii), and arbor-c-tum is another form of the same derivative.
41-43. quid facereni ? Deliberative subj, ' what was I to do ?' licebat, some such j^hrase as alio modo must be supplied from alibi in the next line. praesentes, 'powerful,' lit. 'present,' a natural meaning of the term as applied to a heathen god : cp. G. i. 10 agrestniii pracsentia vumina Fauiii. iuvenem, i. e. Octavianus. There is here a hopeless confusion between the allegory {a. slave going to Rome to buy his freedom), and the reality (Virgil going to beg restitution of his property from Octavianus).
45, 46. primus, in sense adverbial =/m««w. pueri, 'swains,' lit. 'slaves,' the Greek Trah. summittite, 'rear,' as in G. iii. 73 quos in spetii statues suj/miittcrcgcutis : cp. Columella vii. 3. 1 3 Sidnirbanae j-cgioiiis opilio^ teneros aguos, dum adhuc hcrbac sunt expertes, lauio tradit ; . . . sttmmitti tamcn ctiam in vicinia iirbis (jiiiiituin qucniquc oportcbit. Servius, Wagner, etc. explain it as = ' yoke ' {summittite iugd) ; but there seems no mention of agriculture here. Forb. objects to the meaning 'rear/ as inappropriate to
io8 BUCOLICS. ECL. I. 47-60.
full-grown bulls {iaiirPj ; but it seems nalur.1l enough to speak of rearing a bull (from its birth to maturity).
47-49. manebunt, * shall remain your own,' lit. 'shall be lasting.' Con. takes tua as predicate, but the rhythm is very much against this, ctuam- vis, etc., 'Though all your land is choked with barren stones or covered with marsh and sedge.' With lapis some verbal notion must be supplied from obdiicat, — an instance of zeugma, que is disjunctive, cp. Aen. vi. 616 saxnm ingeiis vohnini alii, radiisqne rotaruvi Districti pendent, palus probably refers to the overflowing of the Mincio. limoso itinco, rushes which grow in mud, 'sedge.' It seems better to take omnia pascxia as used loosely of the whole farm, than (with Con.) to separate the two words, omnia = the whole farm, and pasctia = the pastures by the river.
50. graves fetas = ' the pregnant ewes ;' the two words conveying much the same idea.
52, 53. flumina nota, ' Mincio and Po, if we are to be precise' (Con.). But need we be precise ? The scenery of the Eclogues is too vague and too much mixed up with conventionalities, fontes sacros, a regular epithet, embodying the belief that every fountain and stream had its divinity. So Upov vSojp Theocr. vii. 136.
54-56. ' On one side, as hitherto, the hedge upon your neighbour's boun- dary, where bees of Hybla suck the willows' blossoms, shall oftentime woo sleep to your eyes with its gentle murmuring.' quae semper, sc. siiasit, ' as ever.' ab limite, on the boundary, in accordance with Greek and Latin idiom, which expresses direction as from a particular point, where English requires ai or towards : cp. a dexh'a, a tcrgo, If dptarepds, etc. Hyblaeis, one of the conventional epitliets common in Latin poetry, a tiling being called by the people or place most famous for it. The bees of Ilybla in Sicily were celebrated ; so all bees are called ' Hyblaean.' In the same way quivers are ' Cretan,' and hounds ' Spartan ' (G. iii. 345), lions ' Carthaginian,' and tigresses ' Armenian ' (Eel. v. 27, 29). floreni depasta, ' its blossoms browsed ;' this construction is not uncommon in Latin poetry, tlie accusative being used after a passive participle in imitation of the Greek construction with passive or middle (e. g. kKKeKOixjxivos rbv d(f>0a\fx6v, rrpo- 0fP\7]fin(vos TTjU dairiSa). Cp. Eel. iii. 1 06 inscripti iioniina regit m Flores, II or. Sat. i. 6. i\ pKcri . . . Lacvo stispcnsi lociilos tahiilainqiie lacerio.
57. 58. frondator, 'dresser.' His duties, according to Servius, were (i) to lop boughs, (2'i to strip off leaves for fodder, (3) to clear away vine-leaves in order to let the sun on to the grapes, tua cvira. = deliciae iiiae, ' your delight,' 'your pets;' cp. x. 22.
60. leves, ' on the wing.' ergo resumes a previous thought — ' Yes, sooner shall . . . .' For the idea cp. Aen. i. 607-9, ^'- 7*^ ! ^^'^ ^^^ speech of the Corinthian Sosicles in Herod, v. 92 — ^ 5^ v re ovpavus tarai ivep9i TTJs yfji. ical Tj 7^ ix(Tici)po<i vnip tov ovpavov, nai ol dvOpanroi vojxov iv 6a\daari 'i^ovai. Koi 01 i_^W£y roy irpuTtpov dvOpcunoi, ore je vfxeii, Si Aane- Saiyuocioi . . . rvpavy'tSas icardyeiv TrapaaKevd^eaOe. This latter passage ///ay
BUCOLICS. ECL. I. 61-']']. 109
(as Keiglilley find Coniiigton) have suggested Virgil's language here : but such impassioned appeals for the reversal of nature's laws, sooner than that something unlikely or undesirable should happen, rise naturally to the lips of any orator or poet. Thus in Sir Walter Scott's ' Lay of the Last Minstrel,' Canto I, stanza xviii, the Ladye of Branksome ' Raised her stately head And her heart throbbed high with pride : '• Your mountains shall bend, And your streams ascend,
Ere Margaret be our foeman's bride!"' 62. pererratis amborum finibiis, 'each wandering o'er the other's bounds.' The Arar i^Saone) is strictly speaking a river of Gaul : but it rises in the Vosges, not far from Germany.
65. Afros, poetical accus. of motion towards : cp. Aen. vi. 696 /lacc liiiiiiia (ciidere adcgit.
66. Oaxen, apparently the river which flows by Axus or Oaxus, a town in Crete, mentioned by Herodotus, iv. 154. For Cretae some editors print crctae, explaining rapiditni cretae Oaxen as ' the chalk-rolling Oaxes,' i. e. the Oxus, or Jihun, of Central Asia. They defend this interpretation on the grounds (i) of want of evidence for a Cretan river Oaxes, (2) the appro- priateness of the wilds of Asia to complete the picture suggested by Afros, Scytliiain, and Britannos, and (3 1 that the idea of ' chalk-rolling ' agrees with epithets elsewhere applied to the Oxus. But no change is really necessary, and the use of rapidus with a genitive = ra/^x would be an unparalleled construction.
67. penitus, 'utterly.' toto cTivisos orbe, 'separated from the whole world.'
68-70. ' Shall I ever, on beholding after a long time my native land, and the turf-thatched roof of the humble cottage, my old domain, hereafter see with wonder a few poor ears of corn?' post (1. 7°) is adverbial, and a repetition of longo post tempore (1. 68). aliquot miratoor aristas = ' shall I be surprised at the scantiness of the harvest due to the bad farming of the soldiers ? ' Soine editors render post aliqiiot aristas, ' after a few summers,' comparing Claudian, Quart. Cons. Hon. 372 dcciinas cniensiis aristas. But post aliquot aristas in this sense would hardly harmonise with longo post tempore.
71. novalia=(ij fallow-land; (2; land ploughed for the first time; (3) cultivated land in general, which is the sense here.
72. toarliarus, referring to the Gauls, Germans, and other barbarians who had been taken into the Roman armies.
73. his, ' these are they for whom,' etc.
74. nunc with imperative in ironical sense, as often; cp. Aen. vii. .(25 i nunc. * Go on grafting,' etc.
77. pendere of goats browsing on the cliffs : cp. pcndcnlcs lupe capcllas Ov. Font. i. 8. 51.
no BUCOLICS. ECL. II. 1-20.
80. poteras, ' you might have stayed,' as though his departure were linally settled — a more delicate form of expression than ' you can stay,' which is what he really means.
81, 82. super, preposition, itiitia, ' mellow.' pressi lactis, ' cheese.'
NOTES TO ECLOGUE 11.
ALEXIS.
CoRYDON, a shepherd, deplores the indifference of Alexis, his master's favourite slave, and his own infatuation. Parts of the Eclogue are modelled very closely from Theocritus xi, where the Cyclops addresses Galatea : and Corydon is a mixture of the ordinary Theocritean shepherd and the Cyclops. The date of the poem is uncertain ; but it was earlier than Eel. v. (see v. 86, 87), and possibly than Eel. iii, which is there mentioned after it.
I, 2. ardebat, 'madly loved;' cp. similar uses oi dcpcrco. nee . . . hatoebat, ' he knew not what to hope for;' cp. the use of darc = ' io tell,' Eel. i. 19. The sentence is an indirect interrogative: ncc quod sperarct Jiabebat, ' he had nothing to hope for,' would be consecutive.
3-5. cacunxina is sometimes taken as ace. of respect with densas, but the analogy of Eel. ix. 9 favours the ordinary view that it is in apposi- tion to fagfos. incondita, 'artless,' 'unpremeditated.' Condcre is the technical term for reguhir composition, e.g. Eel. vi. 7 tristia condcre hclla. 80 Milton, Lycidas 11, ' build the lofty rhyme.' iactabat, ' flung wildly.'
10. rapido, 'fierce,' ' scorching.' The word in its original sense appears to be nearly = rapax, denoting things which devour, scorch, sweep awa}', etc. : cp. G. i. 91 rapidi salts.
II. alia, 'garlic: ' serpylltim, ' wild-thyme.' The dish she was preparing was that called inorctiiiii, a mixture of flour, cheese, salt, oil, and various herbs (herbas olentes).
12, 13. The general sense is that while everything else is asleep, the cicalas and I go on singing through the heat of the day. meciim resonant cicadis, 'echo with cicalas and with me;' cp. G. i. 41 ignaros nicciti/i miser at us agrcstcs.
14. tristes, 'peevish' or 'sullen :' so tristis Eriiiys Aen. ii. 337 ; navita tristis (^Charon) vi. 315.
16. ' However dark he was, however fair you were.'
18. ligtistra, 'privet;' vaccinia, 'bilberry.' Such is the meaning of the words in Linnreus, but they may have had a different meaning in ancient times. As Kenn. points out, the identification of ancient plants is in many cases a matter of conjecture. Some suppose vaccinia to have been the purple hyacinth, and even identify it \\ith vauivOus.
20. nivei with lactis rather than ^villi pecoris. iiivcuin lac being like
BUCOLICS. ECL. II. 24-42. Ill
Horn. 7aAa \iVKov. Genitives of abundance after siTch adjectives as dives and abundans are common in Latin poetrj'.
24. Dircaeiis, i. e. Theban ; Amphion being a Boeotian hero, at whose playing Thebes arose beside the spring of Dirce. Actaeo Aracintho seems a geographical solecism ; Acte being an old name of Attica, and Aracinthus a mountain in Aetolia. Dr. Kennedy suggests that Virgil took the line direct from some Alexandrian poet — 'A/x<^(W Aip^afos iv aKTaicu 'ApaKw6a> : and that dicTaios really =' craggy,' from a later use of d/cTTj by Alexandrine poets. Other editors suppose that there was an Aracinthus (otherwise unknown) in Attica. For the rhythm of the verse and the hiatus, which are in imitation of the Greek, see Introd. pp. 14, 18.
26. placidum ventis, ' unruffled by the winds,' lit. ' calm with the winds,' i.e. by the dropping of the winds. Cp. Aen. iii. 6c) /laca/aijuc vciiti Dant maria, v. ^^62, placidi stravcriint acqiiora vend; and Soph. Ajax, 674 Ziivuv 5' aj;/ia TTvev/xaToJv iKoifnae "Srivovra nvvrov, where Prof. Jebb points out that ' in the idiom of Greek and Roman poetry physical causes are often spoken of as personal agents endued with will and choice, — able either to produce or repress a particular effect. Thus the winds are powers which can trouble or can calm the sea.' Cp. Hor. Od. i. 3. 16 A'oti, Quo nan arbiter Hadriac Jfaior, tollere sen ponerc vidt frcta.
27- fallit, there is a v. 1. fallat : but the indie, is best, for he means that there can be no deception in such a mirror : si then = 'since,' 'seeing that.'
28. sordida, ' coarse.'
30. viridi hibisco, ' to the green hibiscus,' i. e. to feed ; an instance of the poetical dative instead of prep, and case, as in Hor. Od. i. 24. 18 nigra compidcrct Mcrcnrius gregi, and often in Virgil. Others take hibisco as abl., 'with a switch of green hibiscus,' pointing to Eel. x. 71, where it is described as something pliant, used for making baskets. It is uncertain what plant the hibiscus exactly was, but the first interpretation appears on the whole the most probable.
34. ' Nor would you repent of having frayed your lip with the reed;' cp. Lucr. iv. 588 (of playing on the pan-pipe) Unco saepe labro calainos pcrciirrit Mantes.
35. faciebat, ' was ready to do.'
36. The instrument described is a pan-pipe (fistula) made of seven hollow hemlock stalks (cicutae), of unequal length. See on Eel. iii. 25.
38. ista, because Damoetas has already given it to Corydon; "Tis yours, and finds in you my worthy successor ' (secundum). Cp. Hor. Od. i. 12. 17 Atr viget quidquain simile atct secundui/i.
40. neo tuta valle reperti, ' found in a dangerous valley too,' and therefore a more valuable present.
41. etiam nunc, showing them to be under six months, after which age the spots disappear.
42. bina, the distributive force of the word applies to die, ' twice a day they suck ihe ewe's milk.'
113 nuCOLICS. ECL. 11. 4.^-/1.
43. abdiicere, poetical construction of infin. after orat ; cp. Aeu. vi. 313 oranU's priiiii transiuitto-c ciirsuin.
44. sordent, ' are despised.'
46. ITymphae, Nais. He poetically represents the wood and water nymphs as offering him the flowers which await him in the country.
48-50. pallentes, ' yellow ' violets ; cp. Ov. Met. xi. 1 10 saxtiin quoque palhiit auro. anethi, ' dill ' or ' fennel,' an aromatic plant with a yellow flower, casia, an aromatic shrub with leaves like the olive, niollia, 'bending' or 'pliant:' so of corn Eel. iv. 28, horses' necks G. iii. 204, waving hair Aen. ii. 683. pingit, ' picks out,' or ' sets off.' vaccinia, 'bilberries,' or ' hyacinths:' see on 1. 18 above, calta, 'marigold.'
51. mala, i. e. those called Cydonia probably quinces : cp. Martial, X. 42 Tain dubia est lanugo tihi, tain mollis, ut illaiii Halittis ct soles et lev is aura terat : Celantur si in Hi vent lira Cydonia lana, Pollice virgineo quae spoliata nitent.
53. cerea, of waxen colour, 'yellow,' this being the most valuable kind. huic quoqne, ' this fruit too (i. e. the plum) shall have due honour.' The term pomum included various kinds of fruit. On the hiatus //•«««.• honos, see Introd. p. 17.
54. proxima, ' neighbour,' the laurel and myrtle being often associated together both in gardens and in bouquets.
57. concedat, lollas, the master of Alexis, would outbid you.
58, 59. floritous, etc., apparently proverbial expressions to denote misery caused by one's own folly, austrum, the Sirocco, a scorching wind, called by Aeschylus SevSponrjfxojv ^kaPa (Eum. 938).
60. quein fugfis, etc., i. e. ' why do you despise me because I live in the country ? '
61. arces, not cities in general, but Athens, which to a Greek shepherd would be the noblest of cities.
65. 6 Alexi, for the quantity see Introd. p. 18.
66. iugo, abl. instrum. with referunt, ' draw home.' siispensa, uplifted, so as not to touch the ground — opposed to depressa. Cp. Hor. Epod. ii. 63 videre fessos voiiierein iiiversuni boves Collo trahentcs languido.
70. An unpruned or half-pnmed vine would be a reproach and sign of bad husbandry.
71. quin tu paras? is a mild imperative, 'why don't you?' qui n = qui non, and corresjDonds to the Greek idiom rt ovk with aorist. Hence (by a process analogous to that which produces the Greek idiom olaO' o dpdaov) quin is associated with imperative quin age (G. iv. 329), and fmally becomes a mere particle of transition = ' moreover.' quorum indiget usus, ' which daily need requires.'
BUCOLICS. ECL. III. l-2\. 113
NOTES TO ECLOGUE III.
PALAEMON. MENALCAS. DAMOETAS. PALAEMON.
A RUSTIC singing-match, modelled on Theocritus 'esp. Idyll v), between two herdsmen, Menalcas and Damoetas, with Palaemon as umpire. They sing alternate couplets ('amoebaean' singing\ and Palaemon declares the match drawn. The scenery is partly Sicilian, but not specially localised. The date is uncertain ; but it was written before Eel. v (see Eel. v. 87). It speaks of PoUio (11. 84-89) as encouraging Virgil in pastoral poetry, and the inference has been drawn that it must have been written not later than B.C. 43, the 27th of Virgil's age, when Pollio was appointed legatiis in Gallia Cisalpina : but this can hardly be taken as a decisive landmark.
1. cuium. This adjectival pronoun had become obsolete in Virgil's time, and his use of it was parodied by an unknown critic (Ribb. Prol. viii. p. 99', Die inihi, Damocta, 'ctiiiiin perns ' annc La/iiiiim ? Non ; veruni Acgonis ; nostri sic rurc loqiiuutuy. It is found in Plautus, e. g. Trin. i. 2. 7 Ciiia vox propc VIC sonat? in Terence, e.g. And. iv. 4. 24 cuium pucru/ii ; and once by Cicero, Verr. ii. 1. 54, apparently in a legal io\m.v\a.~cuia res sit, cuium pcrictihim.
3-6. ipse. 'The master;' cp. Plant. Cas. iv. 2. 20 Ego eo quo me ipsa viisit, Ter. And. ii. 2. 23 ipsus tristis, and Juv. v. 86 ipse Vciicfrauo pisccin petfundit. Cp. the proverbial phrase avros ((pa, 'the Master said' — whence our ipse dixit. For the hiatus pecori it see Introd. pp. 17, 23.
8. qui te, sc. corruperit, or some such taunt, transversa, neut. plur. used adverbially, * looking askance.'
10, 11. arbustum, ' plantation ' or ' vineyard ; ' see on Eel. i. 40. mala, * malicious : ' so in the legal terms mains dolus, malafraus.
12-14. The pvier is Daphnis. Menalcas, out of envy, had broken the bow and pipe which had been given to the boy Daphnis by some other shepherd.
16. * What are owners to do, when thieves are so bold ? ' (as Damoetas in stealing Damon's goat).
17-19, excipere = ' to await,' for attack or defence : here excipere insidiis = Mie in ambush to catch.' Iiycisca, the name of the dog. quo nunc, etc., ' What is yonder rogue darting out at now ? ' Damoetas was just rushing out of his ambuscade.
21. non redderet, delib. subj. 'was he not to hand over?' i.e. 'should he not have handed over to me?' As imperf indie, stales a fact in past time, the imp. subj. stales a supposition or iiossihility in past time; the
H
114 BUCOLICS. ECL. III. 25-50.
English idiom for which is pluperfect, 'should have,' 'could have,' etc., and its point of view is the moment of speaking : whereas the Latin idiom goes back as it were to the past and then makes its supposition. Cp. Plaut. Tim. ii. 2. 96 Noii illi argentum reddo-em ? Non rcdderes. reddere here, as often, is not to give I'ack, but to give duly or properly, to the right person : cp. reddere litteras, of the letter-carrier's delivery ; 7-ationein reddere ' to render an account,' etc.
25-27. tu ilium, sc. vicisti, from victtis above, fistula, the ' Pan-pipe,' Gk. avpiy^, of stalks fastened with wax or strings. The material, which varied, is often put for the instrument itself — thus avcjia (i. 2), calannts (i. 10), artmdo (vi. 8), cictita (v. 85). in triviis, ' in the common street,' and so to vulgar ears alone : cp. carmen triviale Juv. vii. 55. stipula is perhaps a single pipe, disperdere, as we say, to ' murder ' a song. Transl. ' Were you not often in the streets, poor plajer that you are, murdering some imhappy strain on grating pipe of straw ? ' Milton's imitation is well known (Lycidas 123) :
'And when they list, their lean and flashy songs Grate on their scrannel pipes of wretched straw.'
31. depouo, ' stake:' so KaraOfivai deOKov Theocr. viii. 11.
32. ausim. This and/axo {fac-so) are the only regular survivals after Terence of a series of future forms in -so, -si»i, -sere (indie, subj., infin.), found in Plautus, old laws, etc.
36. ■pona.ra = di-/oiiam, as 1. 31.
38, 39. ' On which some cunning chisel has traced the pliant vine en- twined with clusters that the pale ivy spreads.' toruo, abl. instr. facili, ' easily moving,' ' ready.' hedera pallente, abl. instr. with diffuses, ' clusters spread by the pale ivy,' a slightly artificial variety for the simple diffiisos hcderae pallentis corynnhos.
40-42. in medio, i. e. in the spaces left by the vine and the ivy. sigpna, 'figures.' Conon, of Samos, an astronomer, B.C. 260-220. alter, probably Eudoxus of Cnidus, B. C. 360, whose ' Phaenomena ' (a book on astronomy) was versified by Aratus, 270 B.C. Such works were used by farmers, as almanacs are now. descripsit radio, ' traced with his rod ; ' apparently, as in Aen. vi. S50, a phrase for scientific delineation in general. Strictly speaking, the radius was the rod with which geometricians drew figures on Wve. abacus. orTjem, i.e. of the whole heavens, curvus, 'bending' (over the plough "i, aralor, nisi ijictirvtis, praevaricatur Pliny, xviii. 19.
45. moUi, 'soft' or ' pliant,' renders the vypos aKavOos of Theocr. i. 55.
48. ' If you look at the heifer, you will find nothing to say for the cups,' lit. ' there is no reason why you should praise.' quod, ' why,' lit. ' as to which,' accus. of reference. Damoetas mentions briefly that he has cups as good as those of Menalcas, and then adds that the heifer would be a much better stake.
49, 50. numquam hodie, a colloquial phrase, found in the comic poets, e. g. Plaut. Asin, iii. 3, 40 Qtii hodie numquam ad vespcru»i vivam.
BUCOLICS. ECL. in. S2-'j(). 1 15
veniani, etc., ' I will come to any terms you choose.' Menalcas begins as if he wished some particular judge ; but catching sight of Palaemon, sub- stitutes his name. ' Only let our judge be ■ well, the man coming there,
Palaemon.'
52. c|.tiin age, ' come on then : ' see note to ii. 71. si quid halies, ' if you are able.'
53. quemquam, sc. itidicein, ' I am content with any judge.' vicine, Damoetas calls Palaemon ' neighbour,' wishing to conciliate him.
54. seusibus iniis reponas, ' give close attention to,' lit. ' place in your inmost feelings.'
59. alternis, 'with alternate verses,' St' afiotfiaicuv Theocr. viii. 61. The rule of ' amoebaean ' song is that the second competitor replies to the first in the same number of verses, and with parallel subject-matter.
60, 61. Musae, gen. sing, 'with Jove begins our song,' Forb. and Con. put a comma at principiitm, taking Miisae as voc. plur. : which is also possible, colit, ' cultivates,' ' makes fruitful,' i.e. by sending the rain from the sky.
62, 63. sua, 'that he loves.' The laurel and hyacinth are always grow- ing in Menalcas' garden, lauri et, for the hiatus see Introd. pp. 17, 18.
64. malo, apples were sacred to Venus, and were therefore especially appropriate in flirtations.
66, 67. ultro, 'unasked.' The word denotes anything 'beyond' what would be expected, meus ignis, 'my flame,' i.e. 'my love:' so ardor. Delia, a girl in love with Menalcas. Some explain it of Diana ^' she of Delos'), who assisted shepherds in hunting, and would be known to their dogs. But this explanation is far less probable.
68. meae Veneri, ' my love,' answering to mens ignis of 1. 66.
69. palumbes, ' wood pigeons,' sacred to Venus, and favourite gifts between lovers, congessere, ' have built their nest.'
71. altera, sc. decern mala, ' a second batch of ten.'
73. i.e. in order that the gods may bind her to fulfil them. The other explanation, that Galatea's words are so beautiful as to be fit for the ears of the gods, is not quite so good.
74. ipse, ' in your heart,' as opposed to your outward conduct in making me stay and watch the nets while you enjoy the chase.
76. Phyllis is the mistress of lollas; and Damoetas, posing as a success- ful rival, boastfully asks him to send her to him. In the next couplet Menalcas replies in the person of lollas, and declares that Phyllis is passionately fond of him. natalis, the birthday was a season for merry- making.
77. cum faciam pro frugibus, i.e. at the niral festival called the Am- barvalia, a season for abstinence from love, whence Damoetas tells lollas not to .send Phyllis but to come himself, facere (like Gk. pf^af, and opcrari') is a common phrase for ' sacrificing.'
79. longum, best taken with inquit, ' lengthened out licr farewell.'
II -2
]i6 BUCOLICS. EC L. TIT. ?>%-iio.
Otliers take it with vale. ' a long farewell' vale inquit, for the scansion see Introd. p. iS.
82. depiilsis, sc. a Iaitt\ ' weaned.'
84, 85. C. Asinius PoUio, the distinguished poet, orator, and historian. He was a patron of Virgil, Horace, and other writers, and was the first person to establish a public library at Rome. The vitula (as also the taurus of 1. 86) is intended as a sacrifice in honour of Pollio.
86, 87. nova, ' new,' i. e. original. Some suppose the term to denote tragedies on Roman subjects, not copied from the Greek. Cp. Eel. viii. lo where PoUio's tragedies are praised. Rut it is unnecessary to restrict nova to this precise meaning, qui petat, consecutive subj., ' such as butts.'
88-91. The general sense is, ' May the admirer of PoUio's genius reach PoUio's eminence in literature : may he, to sptak allegorically, reach the Arcadian dream-land of poets, where every tree streams honey, and every bush bears spice. But may the admirer of liavius and ISIaevius try in vain for poetic fame: inay his labour be as much thrown away, as ia yoking foxes to the plough or milking he-goats.' quo te quoque gaudet {vniissc^, ' the point which he rejoices that you have reached.' Eavius, BCaevius, all that is known about these persons is that they were inferior poets, and enemies of Virgil and Horace. One of Horace's Epodes (lo) is about Maevius, and consists of a prayer that he may be drowned in the course of a voyage he is making.
96. reics, here a dissyllable. The spelling of the best ages was rcicio or rc-ii'cio, not reiicio : and so with the other compounds of iaa'o. See Munro on Lucret. i. 34.
98. cogite, i.e. drive to a shady place, praeceperit, ' shall have already
dried up.'
102. neque appears to be used as = oir5e, 'not even : ' cp. Cic. Tusc. i. 26 quo nee in deo quidquam mains intelligi potest (quoted by ^^'agner).
103. fascinat (the Latin form of /8a<T/<ran'tt;) =--to 'charm' or 'bewitch,' here by means of the evil eye.
104. 105. The answer to the riddle is rmknown. Various conjectures are recorded, e.g. that Virgil intended the tomb of one Caelius (by a pun on caeli), who had lost everything but land enough for a grave ; that he meant a well, an oven, the shield of Achilles, etc.
106, 107. inscripti nomina, ' with the names written on them,' accus. after passive verb in imitation of the Greek. See note to Eel. i. 55. The flower referred to is the hyacinth, which was said to be inscribed with At Al', denoting Ajax, or T, denoting Hyacinthus, the favourite of Apollo.
109, 110. ' You deserve the prize, and so does he, and so will any one who shall feel love as you— the alarms of its enjoyment, the bitterness of disappointment.' This is the general sense of the MS. text. Wagn., Forb. and Ribb. read in 1. no iiaiit (i.e. Iniitd) . . . /laitt, with a fuU stop after hie in 109 : the words et quisquis . . . amaros then = ' he who is not afraid and backward in love will not find it bitter.' ]3iit no change is necessary.
BUCOLICS. ECL. IV. I17
111. rivos, artificial rills, stopped with sluices, by means of which the supply of \\ater to the fields could be regulated.
NOTES TO ECLOGUE IV. POIililO.
Thk date of this poem is li. c. 40, in which year rollio was one of the consuls. Its immediate occasion was the peace of Brundisium, concluded between Octavianus (Augustus' and Antony; and the poet expresses the general hopes of a new era of j^eace and prosperity in language suggestive of the return of a bygone age of gold, connecting this age with the biith of a boy expected in this year. Who was this boy ■ Three main views are held: (i) that it was the expected offspring of Octavianus himself and Scribonia, whom he had recently married; (2) the child of Antony and Octavia, by whose marriage the peace of Bnmdisium was solemnised ; (3) a son of PoUio, born about this time (Asinius Gallus). This last interpre- tation, resting on the authority of Asconius Pedianus, is adopted by Ribbeck and Prof. Sellar; but it is difficult to think that Virgil could, under the circumstances, speak of the child of any subordinate person as the re- generator of the Roman world. Also such expressions as ille dcuin vitain accipiet (1. i^\ pacat unique reget orhem (1. 17), cara deuiit suhoh's, niagituiiL lovis increment uin '1. 49', would be altogether out of place as applied to a son of PoUio. Against the second interpretation it may be urged that Virgil, as an adherent of Augustus, would hardly venture on so special a compliment to his rival Antony. Moreover, Octavia's child, born this year, was really the child of Marcellus, by whom Octavia was pregnant when she married Antony. On the whole the most likely view is that the offspring of Octavianus and Scribonia is intended. The main objection is that it is spoken of as a boy {jtasceiiti puero 1. S, pa>~ve puer 1. 60), while the child of Octavianus and Scribonia was a girl — the afterwards notorious Julia. But the poem was written before the birth took place, as 11. 8 and 60 prove. And although it is strange that Virgil should have ventured to prophesy the sex of the cliild, and should have let the poem remain imaltered when his j)rophecy had been pro\ed to be erroneous, still such tenns as deuin suholes and magnum lovis incrementum are only applicable to a child of the Julian gens, and are at the same time in harmony with the language in which ^'irgil elsewhere speaks of the house of Caesar, e.g. Aen. ix. 642 dis genitc ct geniturc deos, Eel. i. 6 deus 7iol>is /laee olia fecil. Plappily the beauty of ^'irgi^s poetic anticii^ations— of which all we can say for certain is that they were not fulfilled — is independent of the solution of this question.
The curious coincidence of X'irgil's language in this Eclogue with that of Hebrew prophecy ^e. g. Isaiah xi), whicii has gained for the poem the title
Il8 BUCOLICS. ECL. IV. ^-20.
of ' Messianic,' and for Virgil the credit of something like Christian inspira- tion, has been explained by supposing an acquaintance on Virgil's part with the later Sibylline books manufactured at Alexandria, and reflecting Jewish as well as other Oriental ideas. But we need not go further than to classical sources for a parallel. The general yearning for a return of peaca and prosperity was enough to be father to the thoughts here expressed : and the poem vas Prof. Sellar remarks) has more in common with the myth in Plato's Politicus than with the prophecies of Isaiah.
3. consule, i. e. Pollio ; see Introduction.
4, 5. Cyiuaeum carmen, the prophecies contained in the Sibylline books, and uttered by the Sibyl who lived near Cumae or Cyme in Cam- pania. They seem to have combined two traditions, (i) that of successive ages or cycles — of gold, silver, bronze, etc. — the tenth and last being that of the Sun-god Apollo, (2) the notion of an annus magnus, or Great Year, an enormous period of time, at the end of which the heavenly bodies were again in the same position as at first. The Great Year is regarded as divided into the ten cycles. The tenth and last is now reached \tiiiis iam 7-cgnat Apollo 1. 10). When it is ended, the Great Year will commence afresh with the golden age. Shelley's imitation (in the final chorus of his Hellas) is well known :
' The world's great age begins anew, The golden years return.' G. Virgo, Astraea or Justice, said to have left the earth in the iron age. Saturnia reg'na, Saturn was king in Latium during the golden age. et = 'both,' the omission of the second ct being supplied by repeating the verb; cp. Aen. vii. 327 odit ct ipse pater Pliiton, odcre sororcs.
8. quo, abl. of circumstance, 'with whom.' The child's birth is to be tlie accompaniment of the golden age.
10. iam reg°nat Apollo, see note on 1. 4.
11. adeo here emphasizes te, 'it is in thy consulship.' It is frequently used as a particle of emphasis with pronouns and numerals, e. g. G. i. 24 tuque adeo, Aen. iii. 203 tres adeo incertos soles, decus lioc aevi, ' this glorious age;' decus being virtually an attribute of aevuin: cp. ntiracula reruin, arffdvoj/xa ■nvpyoju, and the like, inibit, 'shall commence.'
12. magni m.enses, the ages or periods into which the Great Year is divided.
13. sceleris, i.e. the stain of the recent civil wars.
14. irrita, ' being effaced.'
15. ille, Iheptier of 1. 8. deum vitam, characteristic of the golden age. • 17. patriis virtutitous, the explanation of this phrase depends on the question of the identity of the boy to whom the Eclogue refers.
18-20. unllo cultii, i. c. spontaneously, a sign of the golden age. baccare, ' foxglove.' colocasia, 'Egyptian bean.'
BUCOLICS. £CL. IV. 21-6^. 119
21. ipsac, ' of their own accord ;' so f/sa 1. 23.
23. blandos, ' smiling.'
24. hertoa veneni, descriptive gen., 'poisonous herb;' cp. Juv. iii. 4 gratitm littits aiiwcni Secessus (cited by Con.).
25. vulgo, emphatic, 'by the wayside' (Con.^.
28-30. molli, ' bending,' or ' waving.' roscida, ' dew-born,' an old legend supposing honey to fall in the shape of dew: cp. G. iv. i. There can hardly be a reference here, as Heyne and Con. think, to honey some- times found in hollow trees ; for an extraordinary, not an ordinary phe- nomenon is implied, mella, cognate accus. after sudabunt.
31. fraudis, 'guilt' or 'wrong,' opposed to the innocence of a state of nature.
34. Tiphys was the steersman of the Argo.
38. vector, 'passenger,' here = the merchant with his goods. For the idea cp. Hes. 0pp. 336 ou5' knX yrjwv ViffaovTai, Kapitijv 5« </)e/jet {'tiSai/joy apovpa.
43. ipse, unbidden, ' by nature's gift.' rubenti murice, abl. of instru- ment, ' shall change (i. e. dye) his fleece with purple.'
46, 47. talia saecla, accus. with currite, 'run through such ages ;' cp. curn'mus aequor Aen. iii. 191. Some take it as voc, the Parcae speaking to their spindles, but addressing the ages — surely an awkward confusion : and talis in voc. is unusual, numiue, abl. of respect with Concordes ; 'the Parcae that utter in concert the fixed will of fate.'
49. iucrementuiu here = ' progeny.' Generally it is Used with a gen. to denote the embryo from which a thing^^^gpings, as Ov. M. iii. 103 vipercos denies, fopuli iucrcnioitafiittfri. Hence some explain 'germ of a Jove to come,' i.e. the chijUA^Ul' B/^fjiti*rti?. reign as a Jove upon earth. But the connexion with dem^m^/4^ is against this.
50. mundum, |.»e. the world, ' nodding with its massy dome.' The universe trembles with emotion at the approach of the new deity.
51. terrasque, for the quantity see Introd. p. 17.
52. laetantur, after aspice, vide, die, qiiaeso, and certain other similar expressions the ordinary construction in dependent interrogations is dropped, and the subordinate verb is regarded as a principal one, and put in the indicative. Cp. Eel. v. 6 aspice ut sparsit, etc.
53. 54. tam longae is virtually adverbial = /a/// longuin. 'May these latter days of mine last long enough, and breath be granted me enough to sing of thy deeds.' dicere ; the regular Latin idiom would be ad diccnda or tit dicain : but poets use the infinitive more freely after the analogy of Greek: cp. Aen. i. 527 non nos . . . Libycos populare Penates Vcnimiis.
60-63. risu, 'with a smile.' The whole passage is a prayer for the speedy appearance of the child who is to herald the golden age, and cannot share its delights till he has gladdened his parents' eyes by coming into the world, tulerunt, a quantity admitted in poetry : so steterunt, dederunt.
J20 BUCOLICS. ECL. V. i-2l.
NOTES TO ECLOGUE V.
DAPHNIS. MENALCAS. MOPSUS.
A RUSTIC singing match, as Eel. iii. Two shepherds meet, and agree to sing on Daphnis, the ideal shepherd. Mopsus begins with a lament, 11. 20-44: Menalcas follows with an apotheosis, 11. 56-80. The date can only be determined as subsequent to ii and iii, which are alluded to 11. 86, 87. It has been thought that there is no object in imagining an apotheosis for Daphnis, unless he represents some other person ; and if this be so, the person intended must be Julius Caesar. But if this was Virgil's meaning, he has so carefully veiled it, that there is no internal evidence of reference to Caesar, except perhaps in 1. 66 (see note ad loc). It is, however, at least probable that Virgil, attached as he was to the cause of Caesar, should catch the popular feeling after Caesar's murder, and embody it in an allegorical poem.
1. boni inflare, 'good for breathing on.' This use of the prolative infinitive with adjectives is imitated from Greek, and is common in Latin poetry, and in post-Augustan prose ; cp. I'laiiJiis ditccre Hor. Od. i. 12. 11, cantare periti Eel. x. 32, certa inori Aen. iv. 564.
3. consedimus, so most MSS. The perfect is here used in the same idiomatic way as the Greek aorist, 'why did we not sit;'='why do we not?' comidimiis, the ordinary tense in Latin, has little or no authority.
7. sparsit, for the indie, after aspice ut see on Eel. iv. 52. raris, 'scattered,' 'straggling.'
9. Ironical. He might as well try to emulate Phoebus.
10, 11. Phyllidis, as Alconis, is objective genitive — 'passion for Phyllis.' Alcon, some shepherd. There was a Spartan hero called Alcon ; also a sculptor (Ov. M..\iii. 683), and an archer (Val. Fl. i. 399); but it is not probable that any of these are meant. Codrus, mentioned also Eel. vii. 22, 29. The scholiasts say he was a poet hostile to Virgil ; but the name is probably fictitious.
13-15. immo = ixtv oh', ' nay, but.' modulans alterna notavi, • setting them to music I marked the alternations of flute and voice ' (Con.), cleinde, 'then, if you will.' Mopsus is nettled at the mention of Amyntas, and Menalcas reassures him 1). 16-18.
16. The willow has leaves of the same shape and colour as the olive, but is of far less value; and tlie Celtic reed saliunca smells like the rose, but is too brittle to be woven into garlands.
21. fletoant. A spondee in the first foot witli a pause after it give^ a
BUCOLICS. ECL. V. 23-66. 1 31
certain slowness and heaviness to the rhythm, and is seldom used by Virgil, except (as here and Aen. vi. 213) to suggest melancholy.
23. atque . . . atque is unusual for 'both . . . and;' Wagner (followed by Kennedy' denies it to be Virgilian, and takes coinplexa as a finite verb = coiiiplcxa est. Each atqtic is then an ordinarj- copula. But cp. Sil. It. i. 93 Ilic criiie cffiiso atqiie Ennaeac niimina divae Atqnc Achcronta vocal Stygia mm vestc saccrdos. vocat crudelia mater, ' calls out upon their cruelty with a mothers cry ' (the position of mater being emphatic).
27. Poenos, a conventional epithet ; see on Eel. i. 55.
28. loquuntur, with ace. and infin., as Aen. i. 731; an exceptional construction.
29-31. Daphnis had introduced the worship of Bacchus, with his car drawn by tigers, and his troops of worshippers (thiasos), bearing the thyrsus, a pointless spear (hastas) wreathed with vine-leaves. Armenias, the worship of Bacchus being of Eastern origin, iuducere, ' introduce.' mollibns, ' waving.'
35. Pales, a purely Italian deity, is again associated with the Greek Apollo in G. iii. i. Virgil blends the two mythologies as he pleases.
37. infelix, 'unfruitful;' the original meaning oi felix being ' fruitfid ' (root FE, cp. (^vo3, fetus, feniis, feciindus, etc. .
38,39. molli, here probably = ' tender,' 'soft,' in contrast to spinis acutis, not (as ii. 50, iv. 28 and supr. 31; 'waving.' purpureo perhaps merely = ' bright,' of the white narcissus. But there seems to have been a narcissus with a purple centre, hence suave riihcns Jiarcissus Ciris 96. paliurus, a prickly shrub in South Italy — ' Christ's thorn.'
40. The meaning is, ' Scatter leaves upon the ground where Daphnis is buried, and plant trees beside the fountains close by.'
42. carmen, an 'inscription' or 'legend,' so Aen. iii. 287.
48, 49. aeqiiiperas, so Pal. : this appears the better orthography. mag'istriim, i. e. Daphnis. alter alj illo, ' second to him,' cp. hcros ab Achille sccuiidus Hor. Sat. ii. 3. 193.
51. toUemus ad astra, ' sing of his rising to heaven.' The reference is to the ' apotheosis ' which is coming (11. 56-80" , whether that apotheosis be of Daphnis only, or of Julius Caesar.
52. Daphnin, the MSS. are in favour of the Latin form Daplinim in this place : but it is very questionable whether Virgil would have introduced -/;// unelided.
54. ista, ' your coming song.'
56. candidus, 'in glory,' applied to special or divine beauty.
58. All nature rejoices at his apotheosis, as it had mourned his death (24sqq.\
63. intonsi, 'shaggy,' 'unlopped' — even the wildest regions rejoice.
G4. deiis . . . Menalca is what the rocks and mountains say.
06. altaria, • as high altars' for sacrifice): Daphnis, as a hero, lias only the common ara for unbloody offerings ; Apollo, the altare for victims.
122 BUCOLICS. ECL. V. 67-90.
On the view that Daphnis represents Caesar, tlie allusion to Phoebus refers to the fact that Caesar was worshipped by decree of the Senate, on the day before the Ludi Apolli)iarcs (iv. Non. Iul.\ His birthday was iii. Non. lul. ; but the Sibylline books forbad the worship of any other god on the same day with Apollo.
67. Mna, the same as duo in the next line, a poetical use of a distribu- tive numeral for a cardinal.
70. It seems difficult to trace in frigus and messis allusion to special festivals. At whatever time of year we worship Daphnis, says Menalcas, there shall be plenty of wine.
71. calathis, not ' baskets ' as ii. 46, but ' stoups,' or perhaps flagons cased in basket-work, such as are common to this day in Italy. Ariusium was a sweet Chian wine of high repute, nectar in apposition to vina.
72. lyctius, from Lycta, a town in Crete = ' Cretan.'
75. lustrabimus ag-ros (^' make our circuit of the fields ') seems to refer to the Ambarvalia or festival of sacrifice to Ceres for a good harvest, G. i. 339. Lustrarc = ambire {arva), whence Ambarvalia. Festivals to the nymphs were a Sicilian, not Italian, custom.
80. damnabis, ' shalt condemn men in (i. e. bind them to pay) their vows' ^votis, abl. of respect); cp. voti reus Aen. v. 237.
86. The identification of the poet with the shepherd (Eel. x. Introd.) leads Virgil here to represent Menalcas as author of Eel. ii and iii. If Julius Caesar has been meant by Daphnis, Virgil would be identifying himself with the singer of the 'apotheosis.'
90. paribus nodis atque aere, ' with regular knots and brass ;' whether acre denotes brass rings or a brass tip is uncertain.
NOTES TO FXLOGUE VL
VARUS.
A COSMOGONICAL and mythological song by Silenus, extorted from him by stratagem by two young shepherds. This Eclogue is one of the few passages in Virgil's writings (G. ii. 475 sqq., Aen. i. 742-746, vi. 724- 751 being the others) which show the hold taken upon him by his study of philosophy (including the germs of what we now term physical science) under the celebrated Epicurean Siro ; though, as is natural from his intimate acquaintance with Lucretius, the Eclogues and Georgics show many incidental traces of Epicureanism, and one of his shorter poems (Catalepton or Catalecta), written about 53 B.C., indicates a desire to let philosophy inspire all his subsequent writings. The recent example of Lucretius, and the precedent of the early poet-philosophers and philosopher- poets of Greece (Empedocles, Parmenides, Xenophanes, etc.), would en-
BUCOLICS. ECL. VI. 1-26. 123
courage the belief in philosophy as the true province of poetry. See Introd.
P- 5-
Alfenus Varus, to whom the poem is addressed, had probably asked Virgil to celebrate his exploits in the recent civil wars (1. 7), and the poet pleads in apology the command of Apollo to devote himself to humbler subjects of pastoral poetry. The confession in 1. 3 of a youthful ambition to write epic poetry {irges ct proelia) is perhaps genuine ; and in treating cosmogony and mythology the poet indirectly shows his command over epic verse : but for the present his judgment probably told him that the subject of contemporary wars had better be avoided.
1. prima, ' at first,' adverbial. Syracosio, Sicilian i^i.e. pastoral) poetry.
3-5. aurem vellit. This gesture, as symbolical of reminding a person, was the regular mode of antestatio or summoning a witness, Hor. Sat. i. 9. 77. deductum, ' slender,' * trivial ;' lit. ' thin spun.' It is in antithesis to pingues, and both are predicates : ' 'Tis a shepherd's part that the sheep he feeds be fat, the songs he sings be thin.'
6, 7. super tibi erunt, 'you will have more than enough.' For the tmesis cp. Aen. ii. 567 ianujiic adeo super wins eram. tristia, 'grim,' a fi.\ed epithet of wars, condere, to ' celebrate,' ' sing of,' cp. Ov. Trist. ii. 336 inwiania Cacsaris acta condere.
9, 10. non iniussa, etc. ' I sing what I am bidden ; but if I find readers for my pastoral strains (haec quociue), your renown shall be proclaimed all the same (as if I had acceded to your request).' Legal, on the evidence of Priscian, is preferred by some editors ; but the future, implying confidence that he will be read, is more appropriate. Varus will certainly be no loser. myricae, ' tamarisks.'
15. infiatum venas, for the constr. see on Eel. i. 55.
16. procul tantuni, 'just apart,' a translation of rvrOov oaaov dwwOfv Theocr. i. 45. For procul = ' apart,' without the idea of 'far,' cp. Aen. X. S^6 procul derea ramis Dependet galea.
17. cantharus, a drinking can, sha]ied like a beetle ^ mvOapos) . attrita, 'well-worn' by constant use. pendebat, i.e. from his hand: he was still holding it.
18,19. spe carminis luserat, 'had beguiled with hopes of song;' cp. Aen. i. 352 z'a/ia spe Insit aiiiantcni. ipsis, i.e. his own. For the unusual position uf ex. Con. compares Lucret. iii. 10 tuis ex, inchitc, chartis.
21. 'vi6ienti = vigi/anti, ' when he was now awake ;' cp. Ter. Eun. i. i. 2S vivus vidensque pereo, and Cic. Sest. 27, 59 (which shows it to be a jiro- verbial expression) vivns, ut aiunt, est et videns.
24-26. satis est, etc. 'It is enough to have shown your Y>o\\tr^ = quod potitiss,; visi estis. co^noscite, 'hear;' cp. Juv. iii. 28S cognosce proocinia ri.xae. ipse, ' at once,' without waiting to be pressed.
124 BUCOLICS. ECL. VI. 27-43.
27. in numerum, ' in measured time;' regular use of in with accus. to denote accompanying circumstances; so se>~vilcm in viodiim, in orhem, in vie em, etc.
30. Orphea, here a dissyllable.
31 sqq. Virgil here expounds the Epicurean doctrine of the formation of the world, as it is explained by Lucretius in the ' De Rerum Natura.' The four elements of earth, air, fire, and water, are first created by the concourse of ' atoms ' (semina) in the ' mighty void ' (mag-num inane). Out of the four elements grows the world. Then earth and sea are separated ; the sun is formed; the clouds arise; animals and vegetables come into being. The phraseology is Lucretian throughout.
32. animae, 'air,' as in Lucret. i. 715.
33, 34. Note that all the verbs from concreverit (1. 34, to cadant (1. 38) are in the subj. of oblique interrogation after the ut of 1. 33. ipse, i. e. not only the exordia, but the formed universe itself in its early stages (^tener, of an early formation, in contrast to durare 1. 35). exordia, ' origin,' ' beginning,' ' from these elements all things had a beginning.' mundi orbis, 'the whole round world,' in the wider sense of earth and heaven,
35, 36. 'How the soil began to harden, and shut off Nereus in the sea.' durare, here intransitive, a rare use, but in Virgil's manner, discludere, etc., i. e. the sea is separated from the land.
38. altius cadant, 'have a longer fall' (Con.), owing to the clouds having been raised up from the earth. The position of atqne, as second word in the clause, is very unusual ; hence Wagner , followed by Dr. K.) proposed to read liiccsccrc solciii altius, aiqiic, etc. : but altitts would then have little force. In Lucr. iii. 531 scindi/iir at que aninio haec qitoniani natura, Lachm. reads ttsciuc adco, Munro itquc animae; and in two passages cited in Horace .Sat. i. 4. 107, Epp. i. 1. 25) there is a v.l. aeque. It seems best, however, to admit the solecism here.
39. incipiant, conjunctive, in subordination to the preceding oblique interrogation.
40. ignaros, act. = ' that as yet knew them not.' It might be pass, 'as yet unknown ;' cp. Ov. Met. vii. j^Oi, proles ignara farenti, Tac. Ann. ii. 13 per occulta ct vigilibus ignara. But the active sense is perhaps more poetical. There is a v. 1. ignotos.
41-46. Four myths are introduced— (i' Deucalion and Pyrrha, 2^ Pro- metheus, (3) Hylas, (4) Pasiphae— to represent the early history of man according to legend.
41. Saturnia regna, not in apposition to lapides iactos.
43. ' He also tells how Hylas was left behind at the spring, and tlie sailors called for him,' etc. quo fonte relictum, lit. ' at what fountain left behind,' but quo is virtually adverbial, according to a tendency in Latin to throw an adverbial notion into adjectival form. Cp. Aen. i. iSi Anthea si qucm laeiatum vento vidcat, ' see Anlheus anywhere.'
BUCOLICS. ECL, VI. 44-77. 125
44. Hyla omne. For this shortening of a long vowel in hiatus before another vowel see Introd. p. iS.
46. solatur = (■«;///' Pasiphaeii scsc solaiitetii, cp. circumdat 1. 62.
47-51. viTgro, of other than unmarried women, Hor. Od. ii. 8. 22 7iuper virgiiics vtiptae. Proetides, daughters of Proeteus, king of Tiryns, who were driven mad by Juno, and went about lowing like cows, falsis, 'counterfeited.' collo, dative, levi fronte, htimana scilicet (Servius).
53, 54. latus, for the constr. see on Eel. i. 55. fultus hyacintho, a Greek rhythm : see Introd. p. xvi. pallentes, of grass, is a mere trans- lation of x\o}(>os : but the poet no doubt intended to point the contrast between the light green of the grass and the dark green of the ilex.
55 seqq. claudite, etc. are Pasiphae's words, the previous sentence having expressed her thoughts. She bids the nymphs guard the 'forest glades' '^nemorum saltus\ in case they may find the bull. Perhaps also he may be enticed by cows to the Cretan stalls (Gortyna, a town of Crete).
61-63. puellam, Atalanta, whom Hippomenes defeated in a race by throwing one of the apples of the Hesperides before her. Phaethontiadas, ' sisters of Phaethon,' an extension of the meaning of patronymics, musco amarae corticis, ' with mossy bark of bitter taste ' Con.), circumdat = canit circumdatas, cp. 46 above. The sisters of Phaethon, weeping for their brother's death, were turned into poplars according to the ordinary version (cp. Aen. x. 190). Alders are appropriate to the supposed locale of the transformation, on the banks of the Eridanus.
64-66. Galium, Cornelius Callus, a Roman equcs, writer of elegies now lost, and friend of PoUio and Virgil. Augustus made him governor of Egypt, but on a report of some rash speeches he was banished, and committed suicide, B. c. 26, at the age of 40. See Eel. x. The intro- duction of his supposed interview with the Muses, as part of Silenus' legendary song, is of course most incongruous ; but Virgil only thinks of the compliment to his friend, viro, dative, assurrexerit, ' rose up ia honour of,' cp. G. ii. 98.
67. divino carmine, descriptive abl. with pastor, • the shepherd of god-like song.'
68. crines ornatus, ' his hair adorned,' Greek constr. of accus. after passive verb, like sttcciiiclaiii inguina 1. 75 below. See on Eel. i. 55.
70. Ascraeo seni, i. e. Hesiod, of Ascra in Boeotia. Virgil attributes to Ilesiod the fabled power of Orpheus Hor. Od. i. 12. 7-12).
72. Grynei, of Grynium in Aeolia, where was a temple and oracle of Apollo. The story of its origin was told in a poem by Euphorion of Chalcis, whose works Callus translated or imitated (Eel. x. 50).
74-77. Scylla, the daughter of Nisu.s, king of Megara, became enamoured of Minos, and betrayed her father's city to him. She is here confused by Virgil with Homer's Scylla, daughter of Phorcys, who became a sea- monster, girt with dogs, and killed many of Ulysses' sailors as they passed through the straits of Messina. The same confusion is found in Propertius
126 BUCOLICS. ECL. VIL 1-7.
(v. 4. 39) and Ovid (Fast. iv. 500). With aut supply vt jmrravcrit, governing Scyllani. Dulichias, i.e. of Ulysses, Dulichinm being an island near Ithaca.
80, 81. ' Of her flight to the desert, and the wings with which, before departing, the unhappy queen hovered over the palace.' quo cxxrsu, quibus alls, i. e. he describes how she was metamorphosed into a bird, ante, she takes a last farewell of the palace by flying round it.
84. pulsae, etc., 'tlie echoing valleys repeat to heaven the song.'
85. uumerum referre, ' to count them over.' 7-efen-i is preferred by Con., as being the harder reading : but the MSS. favour referre.
86. Olympo, 'heaven,' which was itself unwilling that the close of day should put an end to the song.
NOTES TO ECLOGUE VII.
MELIBOEUS.
MELIBOEUS. CORYDON. THYRSIS.
A GOAT-HERD, Meliboeus, relates a singing-match between the shepherd Thyrsis and the goat-herd Corydon, with Daphnis for umpire, which ends in the defeat of Thyrsis. It is a purely imaginary poem, modelled on Theocritus (chiefly Idylls vi, vii): the shepherds are Arcadian and the scenery Sicilian, with the insertion of a few Italian details, e. g. the river Mincius. The date is uncertain.
1 seqq. argnita, 'rustling ' or ' whispering.' florentes aetatibus, 'in the Idoom of their (respective) age.' Arcades, and therefore skilled in song (Eel. X. 32) ; Arcadia being pastoral, and Pan its patron the god of rural song. In ancient times Arcadia seems to have had a reputation for rustic stupidity, like Boeotia ; cp. Juv. vii. 160 (jtiod lacva paiic mamillac Nil salit Arcadico iuvcni. It owes to pastoral poetry, and perhaps mainly to Vir- gil, its Renaissance association with an ideal golden age of pastoral felicity.
5. 'Prepared to sing and answer in a match' : pares), i. e. ready to take either the opening or second part in an Amoebaean contest. This seems. better than to take cautare pares by itself, ' equal in singing and ready to reply.'
6. duiu, as usual, with a present tense, though the reference is to past time, frigore, ' spring- frosts.'
7. atque here expresses the immediate sequence of one event upon another, where a temporal conjunction {qinoii) would be the more strictly logical way of expressing the relation between two clause.^:, cp. Acn. ii. 692
BUCOLICS. ECL, VII. 11-36. 127
vix eafattts crat senior, suhiioqiiefragorc Intomiit laevnm. Like the phrases magis atcpic, etc., this usage points to an earlier stage of language, in which comparison and relation were expressed by simple juxtaposition of sentences, before the development of more elaborate grammatical structure and subordination of clauses.
11. iuvenci, the bullocks of Meliboeus, who will be sure not to stray from the spot.
13. sacra, the oak being sacred to Jupiter.
14-16. quid facerem, ' what was I to do?' — deliberative siibj. ; see on Eel. iii. 21. Alcippe, Phyllis, mates of other shepherds: Meliboeus had none of his own. Corydon cum Thyrside, in apposition to certamen. * There was a grand match, Corydon against Thyrsis.'
19. meminisse. The Muses' function, as daughters of Mnemosyne, is to remember and record : ' 'twas alternate verses the Muses wished to recall.'
21-24. 'Grant me to sing like Codrus; if not, I must give up singing.' Libethrus was a fountain on Helicon. Codrus, see on Eel. v. 11. faclt : aut, see Introd. p. 17. sacra, i.e. to Pan, the inventor of the pipe. Disused implements were often dedicated to some patron deity : thus a boy coming of age gave his htlla to the Lares (Pers. v. 38) ; a girl her doll to Venus (ib. ii. 70} ; a sailor saved from shipwreck his clothes to Neptune (Hor. Od. i. 4, iii. 26. 3\ An epigram on Lais makes her dedicate her mirror to Venus — rvt Hacpir; to Karo-nrpov, kird toit] fitv upaaOai Ovic tOiKu, o'irj 5' TjV irapos ov bvvapai.
25-28. 'Crown me, in spite of Codrus' envy, and guard me from his evil tongue.' Thyrsis is represented as arrogant and jealous, in contrast to Corydon's modesty. He affects to fear that Codrus may attempt to injure him by extravagant praise, which would provoke the jealousy of the gods. ultra placitum, i.e. dis, 'beyond what heaven approves,' baccara, 'fo.K- glove,' a crown of which was apparently a charm against over-praise.
29-32. ' Micon offers to Diana a boar's head and stag's horns, promising a marble statue if his success in hunting lasts.' These four verses represent an inscription attached to a votive offering ; the verb of offtJ-ing is, as often in inscriptions, omitted. Delia, ' of Delos,' i. e. Diana, parvus, a boy. vivacis, 'long-lived:' the longevity of the stag was a common belief, cp. Juv. xiv. 251 ccrvina scnccttis. hoc, 'this good luck ' in hunting, proprium, 'lasting,' 'durable' (lit. 'all one's own'), tota, ' in full length,' not a mere bust, suras evincta, for the constr. see on Eel. i. 55. cothurno, a high boot, appropriate to the huntress Diana.
33-36. ' Priapus, we offer you cakes and milk, being poor: but, if the lambing turns out well, you shall have a gold instead of a marble "tatue.' Obliged by the laws of Amoebaean singing to reply to Corydon wii.'» a corresponding idea, Thyrsis here fails in taste by his selection of Priapub as compared with Diana, and by the sudden transition from homely offering: .0 the most extravagant promises, pro tempore, ' according to our means,' ix twv vapuvTwv ; so pro re Aen. iv. 337.
128 DVCOLICS. ECL. VH. 37-70.
37-40. 'Galatea, fairer than all nature, come to me at eventide.' Nerine, 'daughter ofNereus,' a Greek form. Galatea appears in Theocr. vi and xi as the love of Polyphemus.
41-44. 'May I be more hateful to you than all nature, if I can bear your absence longer. Go home, my flocks.' iitinio : Thyrsis thinks he can improve upon Corydon's mode of address. Sardoniis : the ' Sar- dinian herb,' supposed to be a kind of crowsfoot, was a bitter herb the taste of which would distort the countenance : hence ' Sardonic smile.'
45-48. 'My flocks shall have water, grass, and shade; summer is at its height.' somno mollior, v-nvai fiaXaKojTtpa Theocr. v. 51 (of fleeces . fiaXaKos is a Homeric epithet of vnvos, e. g. II. x. 2. rara, ' chequered ' shade, solstitium, ' the summer heat.' pecori, dative of remoter object after verb of defending or protecting from.
49-52. ' Here we are by the fire, where we can defy the cold.' This picture is 'a sort of Dutch pendant to Corydon's Claude Lorraine' (Keightley). numeruni, ' the throng ' of sheep.
53-56. 'Now all the fruit is luxuriant ; but Alexis' absence would spoil ' .all.' staut, rather stronger and more picturesque than sunt, sua quas- flue poma, ' its own respective fruit,' a rare but admissible Latin idiom : see Lach. and Munro on Lucret. ii. 372 qtiique {^qtiocpie) siio genere. Some editors read quaquc for the MS. quaeque, others make sua ablative and monosyllabic by synizesis. But neither expedient is necessary, et flimiina, ' even the rivers.'
57-60. ' Everything is parched up : but Phyllis will bring refreshing rain.' vitio, 'disease,' a sense more common in vitiosits, vitiare. luppiter, a personification of the sky.
61-64. ' Each god has his favourite tree : but Phyllis loves the hazel, and that is best of all.'
65-68. ' Each spot has its favourite tree : but Lycidas will grace each spot more.'
70. ' Henceforth it is " Corydon, Corydon " with us,' i. e. we talk of no one else. Others, less probably, transl., ' from that time Corydon is Corydon for us,' i.e. the true Corydon or shepherd minstrel. Virgil imitates Theocr. viii. 92 «-?'//f TovTOj Aa(pvLS rrapa -rroifiicn nparos fjfVTO.
NOTES TO ECLOGUE VIII.
PHARMACEUTRIA.
DAMON. ALPHESIBOEUS.
Two sliephcrds, Damon and Alphesibocus, sing of disappointed love ; Damon in the character of a youth whose mistress Nysa has jilted him for Mopsus : Alphesiboeus in that of a woman trying to call back her estranged
BUCOLICS. ECL. VIII. ^-26. 129
lover Daphnis by magical arts. The latter song, borrowed from Theocr. ii., gives its title to the Eclogue. Each song has ten parts divided by a recur- ring burden. The dedication of the poem to PoUio, novi^ returning from his campaign against the Parthini in Illyricum, fixes its date to 39 B. c. Whether itissis carmiita coepta tuis 1. 11 means that Pollio suggested the subjects treated of, or merely asked for another pastoral poem, we cannot say.
3. lynces, lynxes were not found either in Italy or Sicily. Virgil is think- ing of the effect of the legendary song of Orpheus.
4. cursus, perhaps best taken as ace. of respect with nmtata. Three passages are cited for making requierunt transitive — viz. Ciris 232 rapidos etiam reqtiie7-unt jluinina cursiis ; Calvus, lo (cited by Servius) Sol quoipcc pcrpetiios incminit Tcqiiiescere ctirsits; and Prop. iii. 15. 25 luppitcr AIc- ntcnae gcminas rcquievcrat Arctos. But the first two of these may be due to misunderstanding Virgil here, or may be taken with cursus ace. of respect; and the ace. in Prop, might express duration.
6, 7. til connected with superas ; there is no need to suppose an aposio- pesis. 'Whether you are e'en now passing the rocky mouth of mighty Timavus ' — i. e. in coasting homeward. luihi, ethic dative : the force of it can hardly be given in English, stiperas, of ships passing a spot ; cp. Aen. i. 2^\foiiteiit. superare Tiniavi. legis, ' coast along.'
10. Sophocleo cothurno : the high * buskin ' was characteristic of tragedy, as the 'sock' {socciis\ of comedy. Hence Milton speaks of ' Jonson's learned sock' (' L'AUegro,' 132), and 'the buskined stage' of tragedy ,' II Penseroso,' 102). PoUio's tragedies have been alluded to iii. 86, and are more particularly mentioned by Hor. Od. ii. i. 9, Sat. i. 10. 42. We have no means of judging how far the high praise bestowed by two great poets on their friend and patron was really deserved.
11-13. principiiim, sc. musae ; desinet, sc. viusa. The thought is so familiar that the omission causes no obscurity, tibi, ' for you,' and so ' with ' or ' in you : ' dat. of indirect reference. Cp. Horn. II. ix. 97 (Nestor to Agamemnon) iv col fitv Atj^o;, ct«o 5' ap^ofiai. hederam, as emblem of jioetic fame.
16. tereti olivae, a smooth olive staff; not the tree, which is rough.
17-19. prae belongs to veniens ; for the tmesis cp. E. vi. 6. coniugis, ' mistress ' or ' lady-love.' indigno, ' unworthy ' because unreturned. tes- titous, ' from their witness ' (to her vows), abl. of circumstance.
21. Maenalios,' Arcadian,' and so ' pastoral,' from Maenalus,the mountain of Arcadia. The refrain is from Theocr. Idyll, i. dpxcre PovkoKikcis, Movcrai tpiKai, apXiT cioiSas.
26. sperenius, ' what may we not expect in love?' spcro, spts, some- times imply expectation or apprehension of something undesirable, cp. Sail. Cat. 20. 13 spes multo aspcrior, ib. Jug. 88 Mctcllus contra span suain lactissimis ainicis cxcipitur, Lucan. v. 455 itaiifragii spcs o/nnis aln(.
I
130 BUCOLICS. ECL. VIIL 27-49.
27, 28. iungentur, ia wedlock, ratlier than, as some say, lUKkr the yoke, grypes, 'griffins,' fabulous four-footed birds described by Herodotus iii. 102. iam as distinct from aevo sequenti, wliich indicates a further stage of these monstrous changes, ad pocula— /i?///w. damniae, Quin- tilian notices this masc. as a specialty of Virgil : Horace has it fern., Od. ii. 2. u.
29, 30. tibi ducitur uxor, ' your bride is coming home.' The bride was escorted with torches (faces) to her husband's house, nuces, the bridegroom flung ' nuts ' among the torch-bearers, as the bride approached ; CatuU. Ixi. 128 iicii mues ptieris negct. tibi, ethic dative, deserit Hesperus Oetani, i. e. by rising over it. Virgil imagines a morning and evening star at the same time of year (11. 17, 30), an error shared by Catullus (Ixii. 7), Horace (Od. ii. 9. 10), and other poets.
32-35. dig'no, ironical, 'worthy of such as you.' proniissa, 'hanging or falling down.' nee curare, etc., she had broken her oath, as though there was no such thing as vengeance from heaven.
37, 38. saepibus in nostris, ' in our enclosure.' matre, ' my motlier,' as appears from the parallel passage Thcocr. xi. 25 i)paa6i]v fxlv iyaiya Tfovs, Kopa, aviKa nparov ^KfOts ifxa aw fxarpl OiXoia' vaKivOiva <j>v\\a . . , SpixpaaOai. The boy shows the way to his mother's guest.
39. alter ab undecimo, the twelfth, counting inclusively.
41. vit . . . error, ' how I saw ! how lost I was ! what fatal folly possessed me ! ' Virgil imitates (apparently misunderstanding the difference between ws and ws = ovTOJs) Theocr. ii. 82 x^'^ tSov, w? ifxdvTjv, ws ficu irtpl 6v/.ids laipdrj Ati\aias ; cp. ib. iii. 41 d 5' 'AraKavTa 'fis iSev, tus (fiavT), an ti'j 0a6vv aA.ar' tpojTa. Theocritus seems to have imitated Horn. II. xiv. 294 us S' tdev, ws fxiv (pais -nvKivas fptvas dix(l)eKa\vip(j'. Some editors translate the first ut as ' when,' the second and third as ' how : ' but more probably all three are used in the same sense. For the hiatus perii, ut cp. Rliodope aiit 1. 44 below, and see Introd. p. 18.
43-45. scio. This and 7icsiio are the only cases in which Virgil seems to shorten the -0 of i sing, pres., but he may intend their metrical value
to be scio, nescio (by synizesis": cp. Aen. ix. 296. edunt, ' give him birtli.' Tlie present, thus used of a strictly past event, merely connects it with the subject without any idea of time, c\x general Acn. viii. 841, ahicat x. 51 8, creat G. i. 279. It \itxt==parenies sunt.
47-50. ' The cruelty of love is an old story. He made Medea kill her children, but she must have been cruel too.' The apparent irrelevancy of 11. 49, 50 has led to a suggestion that they are marginal glosses (perhaps by two successive readers) which have crept into the text. But the con- jecture is needless : the shepherd blames Medea, and then, recurring to his first complaint against love, tries to balance their respective degrees of cruelty : mater being throughout Medea.
49. i.e. which was greater, the cruelty of the mother or tlic malice of the bo)' y
BUCOLICS. ECL. VII!. 52-78. 131
52. iiltro, 'even,' or 'actually.' The word denotes anything 'beyond' \vhat would be expected.
54. sudent eleotra, ' sweat amber,' cognate accus. Amber was believed by the ancients to be distilled from alders or poplars, for which the tamarisk is substituted in the supposed confusion of things.
55. Tityrus, i.e. an ordinary shepherd.
58. fiat (so the best MSS., not Jiaiit) by attraction to the predicate ; ' let the whole earth become deep sea : ' cp. Ter. And. iii. 3. 38 aiiiantiuni irac anioris intcgratio est. \'irgil apparently mistranslates (cp. 1. 44) Theocr. i. 134 Ttavra 5' tvaWa (changed) -yivoiro, as if the word were ivakia (in the sea). medium, ' mid,' i.e. ' deep ' or ' open sea.' vivite, ' farewell.'
60. hoc munus morientis, 'my last d}ing gift,' i.e. his life, which he sacrifices for her ; cp. Theocr. xxiii. 20 buipa toi -qvOov XoiaOia ravra Kptpwv, rov efiov Ppoxov. Some editors understand munus to be the song : but the passage in Theocritus and the run of the lines are against this.
63. non . . . omnes, ' all men cannot do all things.' Virgil asks the Muses to sing for him the song of Alphesiboeus, as if it were beyond his own powers.
65. adole, ' burn.' The word denotes (i) to ' increase,' ' pile up ' root OL, cp. Oi/o/csci'/is]; e.g. Aen. vii. 71 castis adolet diiin altar ia tacdis, Lucret. iv. 1237 (idokiit altaria doiiis. (2) to 'offer,' 'sacrifice,' 'burn' in a sacrificial sense, as here : cp. Aen. iii. 547 lunoni iiissos adolonus hoiioirs, i. "jo^ Jlaiiimis adolere Penates, 'kindle.' In Ov. Met. i. 492 {utque levcs stipiilac deiiiptis adoleniiir aristis) it = simply ' to burn.' Usually the second sense is derived from the first, the idea of ' increasing ' being extended to denote 'honouring' by sacrifice, and so ' offering ' and " burning.' But Prof. Nettleship prefers to suppose two distinct roots for the verb, which in its second and sacrificial sense he connects v/ith the root AL seen in altarc, etc. mascula, ' male ' frankincense, the best kind.
66, 67. avertere, ' distract ' («; sanitate' . carmina, ' charms," i. c. magic song. Incantations, oracles, or prophecies, ritual or legal formulae, and inscriptions, being, for the most jjart, in verse in early times, were alike called carmina : cp. Cyinaciiin carmen Eel. iv. 4, diro carmine in rare Liv. X. 38. 10, lex horrendi carminis ib. i. 26. 6. So canere is used of any solemn utterance by a priest or seer, Aen. ii. 1 24, etc. ; and cantare of enchantments, infr. 71 ; cp. Lucan. vi. 767 cantata umbra.
70. TTlixi for Ulixei, from nom. Ulixeiis : so Achilli Aen. i. 30.
73. terna, 'three, the distributive numeral being used for the cardinal, as often in poetry ; so also iernos 1. 77. titoi, ' for,' and so ' on you ' — i. c. your image. It was common in magic to use the image of the person to be affected.
77. ' Weave in three knots three colours,' i.e. make three knots, each of a different colour.
78. modo, with imperative frequently in the colloquial language of i'lautus and Terence, e. g. i modo, lace modo, etc. ' Tie them, do.'
I i
132 BUCOLICS. ECL. VIII. 80-105.
80, 81. ]))' limus and cera Virgil may mean two images of Daphnis. But in tlie parallel passage of Theocr. (ii. 28 ws tovtov -tov napov eyuj avv Sai/xovi roKoS) a lump of wax is thrown into the fire. Probably therefore in the present place only two lumps, of clay and of wax, are meant. The assonance durcscit liqiicscit is agreeable to the jingling nature of charms. eodem is dissyllable by synizesis.
82, 83. fragiles, 'crackling,' cp. Lucr. vi. 11 2 fragil is son if us chartantni; a.nAfi-agor,fra(lus, etc., of sound. The crackling of bay-leaves on the fire was a good omen, in Saphnide, ' in the case of Daphnis ' {kiri A(\(pt5i Theocr. ii. 23), and so indirectly ' against ' him. So i)i lioste Aen. ii. 390, hoc faccrc in co lioinine consiierunt cuius orationcm approbant Caes. B. G. vii. 21 : cp. the phrase ardcrc in aliqua, 'to burn with love "for" or " towards." ' In all these examples the local ablat. with /// expresses the object on which or with regard to which something takes place, as if it were the circumstance in or under which. The idiom is quite Latin, and we need not suppose that Virgil takes any liberty in order to represent Im. Ae\<pt5i.
85-90. Virgil seems to have in his mind a well-known description in Lucretius (ii. 355-366) of a cow seeking her lost calf
88. This verse, according to Macrobius (Sat. vi. 2', is borrowed entire from Varius, Y>e Mente Caesaris, N^on avincs illain vicdii, iion ardua (ardant, Perdita ucc scrae iiicnii>iit dcccdcrc nocti; and Kibb., Kenn., etc. would remove the comma after perdita, confining it to the latter clause. But Virgil's poetic taste is seen in the greater effect which he gives to the word, thus hanging, as it were, between two clauses, decedere nocti, ' make way for the night,' i.e. retire at night-fall. The same phrase occurs G. iii. 467 : cp. also G. iv. 23 dcccdcrc calori, 'avoid the heat.'
91-93. exuvias, 'relics.' debent, 'owe Daphnis to me,' i.e. bind him to come back.
95, 96. Ponto stands loosely for Colchis, the country of the enchantress Medea: so serpens Ponticus Juv. xiv. 114 of the guardian of the golden fleece. plurinia with nasciintvir ; * they grow in abundance.'
97-99. lupum fieri. The superstition that some men could become wolves XvKavBpaima, was common down to the Middle Ages; cp. the story of Lycaon, Ov. Met. i. 209. alio, ' to another's field' (lit. in other directions). The practice of frugcs excantare was, according to Pliny ^xxviii. 2}, actually forbidden in the XII Tables.
101. cineres, the object of throwing the ashes into the stream is not ([uite clear, but it is obviously a powerful charm. The turning away is to avoid the sight of something 'uncanny;' c^.acsrpoipoiaiv ofifiacnv Aesch.Cho. 99, avTus 5' dvov6cr<l)t TpantaOai Horn. Od. v. 349. See the description in Ov. Fast. V. 435 sqq. of an old Roman form for ' laying a ghost,' in which the same symbolical actions occur, rivo flnenti, 'into the stream.' poetical dat. of recipient for the usual prep, and case.
105, The sudden blaze was a good omen, smouldering was a bad one;
BUCOLICS. ECL. IX. 2-6. 133
cp. Soph. Ant. roo6 \k h\ Bvy-armv "HtjtaicTTos ovk (Kafi-nfv, a\\' enl ffnodSi
107, 108. Hylax, ' Clrowler,' a dog's name: generally received cor- rection for MSS. Hylas. e[ui amant, for the hiatus see Introd. p. 18.
NOTES TO ECLOGUE IX.
MOERIS. LYCIDAS. MOERIS.
This poem refers to the fortunes of Virgil's farm and his trouble at being ejected from it ; whereas Eel. i, represents him as restored to his property. Assuming ix. to be written later than i., it has been supposed that after the journey to Rome and restitution to his farm (Eel. i. -0-45) his re-entry to possession was opposed by an intruding soldier, and that he had to make a second journey to Rome to obtain a second grant of restitution ; this second expulsion being that which is referred to here. There is, however, no mention in Suetonius' Life of Virgil, or other ancient authorities prior to Servius, of a double ejection : and Probus (whose account is clearer and more consistent than that of Servius) considers that Eel. ix., which is a complaint of injury, should be placed before Eel. i., which is an expression of gratitude for redress of the injury. If we adopt this view, Eel. i. refers to the final (and only) restoration of Virgil's property; and the words of ix. 7-10 imply that in the first instance Virgil had hoped ^perhaps with Pollio's help; to keep his fami, but was after all ejected. And if the ejection here spoken of was the second within a few months, why is it' spoken of as an unlooked-for thing {quod >iiiiiiqiiani vcriti sum us 1. 3 ?
Moeris, a servant of Menalcas, relates to Lycidas how his master is threatened with dispossession. Lycidas deplores the misfortune of such a poet, and as they walk to the city recites snatches of Menalcas' poetry, Moeris repeating other passages. The framework is suggested by Theocr. Idyll vii., in which Lycidas and Simichidas (Theocritus) walk and sing together. Its object appears Jl. 26-29) to be to enlist the interest of Alfenus ^'arus, whom Suetonius expressly mentions as instrumental (with Pollio and Gallus) in securing Virgil's restoration to his property. .Some have held that Eel. vi. (q. v.) was the fulfilment of the promise in 1. 2".
2. vivi pervenimus ut, 'we have lived to hear what we never feared — a stranger occupant of our farm saying, " It is mine ; be off, you former lioldcrs." ' The confused order expresses Moeris' perturbation.
0. iiec in certain formulae (as mx bcuc vcrtat here) seems to retain its
134 BUCOLICS. ECL. IX. 7-34.
original force as a simple negative { = ne strengthened by demonstrative cc). So nee -Dpi lilts, res ncc mancipi, etc. Cp. in tlie XII Tables, cui suits heirs nee eseit, si adgiiatus nee eseit, etc. ; Cic. Leg. iii. 3. 6 nee obedienlem eive-ii eoereeto. mittimus, Moeris is represented as carrying the kids to the neighbouring town (Mantua), where the usurping proprietor resides.
7-10. ' I thought your master's poetry had saved his property : ' see above, siibducere, 'to draw themselves up from the plain.' Both this and iugum demittere express the slope, one regarding it from below, the other from above. Translate : ' From where the hills begin to rise and let down the ridge with gentle slope.' cacumina in apposition to fagos.
13. Chaonias, i. e. of Dodona in Epirus, the country of the Chaones — a conventional epithet.
14-16. incidere, 'cut short ;' i.e. to yield to the usurping soldier before lie lost his life, quacnmqne {ratione), 'anyhow.' sinistra, and therefore credible; cp. Cic. Div. i. 39. 85 Quid {JiabeV augur, eur a dextra corvtis, a sinistra eornix faeiat raiuiii >. hie, o5e, the speaker himself So frequently in the colloquial language of Plautus and Terence Jiie /wwo = ' myself.'
17, 18. cadit in, 'is the lot or part of,' and so ' applies to,' • is possible in :' Cic. Sull. 27 eadit in hitne hoinineiii ista suspieio, Har. R. 26 in eitiii eadit hoe verbuin ineixiiue. tua solatia, ' the pleasure you give us.'
21. 'Or who would sing the songs I lately stole in secret from your lips?' tibi is Menalcas, i.e. Virgil; and 11. 23-25 are a close version of Theocr. iii. 3-5 : hence ' Virgil must be understood as indirectly praising himself as the Roman Theocritus ' (Con.).
23, 24. dum redeo, ' while I am on my way home ;' cp. Ter. Ad. ii. i. 42 delibera hoe duiii redeo. inter agendum, iv tw iXavvuv, ' while driving them.'
26. immo, ' nay, listen to this.' necdum, ' and that not finished' Gk. Koi ravTa), showing the loss which lovers of song would have suffered in the
'poet's death.
27, 28. The lands of Cremona had first been confiscated for the troops, and as they proved insufficient, a portion of the Mantuan territory was also taken (nimium vicina Cremonae". Virgil evidently hopes that througli the aid of Varus the Mantuan teriitory may be restored. superet = super sit, as often.
30. sic, a common formula of adjuration = ' so may it be, according as;' cp. the biblical phrase ' So may God do to me, if ... ' Translate : ' If you would have your swarms avoid the yews of Corsica.' Cyrneas taxes, 'Corsican yews,' Kvpvo^ being the Greek name for Corsica. Corsica does not seem to have been famous for yews, but its honey was notoriously bad ; and as yews were bad for bees, Virgil, with a poet's freedom, ascribes it all to yew trees.
34. vatem. This, the oldest term for a poet, according to Varro and Enn. Ann. 222, was discarded on the introduction of Greek literature for the Greek 'poeta' (wou/ttjs', which is applied to themselves by Ennius, Naevius, and l'acu\iiis, and to Homer by Ennius: vafes being relegated
BUCOLICS. ECL. IX. 35-49. 135
to the signification of 'soothsayers,' 'oracle-mongers,' and the like, in which sense it is used by Lucr. i. 109 minis obsistcrc vatii/ii, Ilor. Epp. ii. i. 2C) annosa vohiviina vahtm, Cic. N. D. i. 20. 55 /lantspices, atigures, harioli, vates, cojtiectorcs. In later times vatcs came to mean a i^roficient in' any art, legiDii vatcs, etc. Virgil and other writers brought it into honour again as the old word for an inspired bard, something higher than pocta — and such is its force here. Lycidas acquiesces in the title of poeta (versifier, but disclaims that of vates 'poet).
35. Varius, a distinguished epic and tragic poet, and friend of Horace and Virgil, whose Aeneid he edited along with Tucca. Cinna, a poet and friend of Catullus, and author of the epic Siiiynia. He is said by Plutarch to be the Cinna who was killed through mistake by the populace after the assassination of Caesar. If so, he would be dead when this Eclogue was written. But Plutarch's statement is rather doubtful. Anser, an indifferent poet, whose name is here punned upon ; cp. Cinnaqiie procacior Anscr Ovid. Trist. ii. 435.
37, 38. id ago, 'that is what I am about;' id agere, hoc agcj-c = ' to be intent on;' cp. J/oc age, a formula to bespeak silence at religious rites : a/ias res agerc, 'to be inattentive;' lioccine agisl 'do you hear me?' si valeani, ■ in the hope that I may be able.'
39. nam, frequent in interrogations, expressing wonder or emotion. In this sense it is joined to interrogative words, qiiisnaiii, qiiiaiiani, nhinaiit, etc.; and sometimes, as here, separated from the interrogative word ; cp. Plant. Kacch. v. i. 28 quid tibi ex filio na/ii, obsccro, aegre est I
40. purpureuni, 'bright,' without reference to colour; cp. Tib. iii. :. 4 piirpitreo vere. Theocritus has Xeu/toj/ ea/j xviii. 27.
43. insaiii, etc., 'let the wild waves lash the shore,' in contrast to the peace on land.
44, 45. quid, quae, ' what about the verses whicii . . . ?' pura, •' serene,' ' cloudless.' numeros . . . tenereni, ' I remember the time, if I only could recall the words,' a common form of expression, the proper apodosis ''et caneretn) being omitted. Cp. Sail. Jug. 3 1 nnilta /lie deJiortantttr, ni stttdium rcipublicae siipcret.
46. antiques, applied poetically to ortus instead of sigfnoruni, ' the risings of the old constellations.'
47. astrum, the Iitlii/in sidits (Hor. Od. i. 12. 47, a comet whicii appeared in 43 n. c. at the games given in honour of Julius Caesar, and was hailed as a sign of his apotheosis. Dionaei, sprung from Dione, mother of ^'cnus; the Caesars claiming descent from lulus, son of Aeneas, son of Venus and Anchises.
48. 49. quo, 'through wiiose influence,' instrum. abl. grauderent, the subj. marks the result of its appearance — ' a star to make the fields all glad with corn, and the grape take deeper colour on the sunny hills.' duceret, cp. Juv. ii. 81 uvaqite coiispccla livorcni ducit ab uva ; it denotes the gradual drawing on of the colour.
13^ BUCOLTCS. ECL. TX. $0-66.
50. poma, ' fruit,' here of pears.
51. fert, 'destroys.' animum, 'memory,' cp. the phrases ?« aiiimo esse, ex ani?no effliiei-e.
52. condere, ' to see (long days) to their close,' cp. Hon Od. iv. 5. 29 Coudit qiiisqne diem collilms in suis, Lucr. iii. 1090 vivendo eo7idere saecla.
53-55. oblita, in passive sense. Many deponents have this double use of the perf. part., e.g. adcphis, eonfertits, expert us, meditatus, opinaiits, etc. lupi, etc., alluding to the superstition that a man meeting a wolf and not catching its eye first was struck dumb, which Pliny (viii, 34) speaks of as Italian : but it is alluded to in Plato, Rep. i. p, 336.
55. satis with saepe.
56. 'By such excuses to a distant time you put my longings off ' (Kenn.\
57. aequor, i. e. the sea, the scenery shifting about from Italy to Sicily at the will of the poet.
68. ventosi murmuris aurae, ' the breath of the murmuring wind,' a poetical variety for vntrDitirantis veiifi aurae.
59-62. hinc adeo, 'just at this point,' adeo being here a particle of emphasis. See on Eel. iv. 11. Bianoris, according to Servius the founder of Mantua, otherwise Oenus. stringunt, ' strip ' the leaves, tamen veniemus, ' all the same,' referring to a suppressed thought, quamvis caneutes more??iur.
64. usc^ue with eamus, 'go straight on.'
65. fasce, ' biirden,' i. e. the basket in which Moeris is carrying his kids. QQ. puer et, for the quantity see Introd. p, 16.
NOTES TO ECLOGUE X.
GALLTJS.
This poem was written by Virgil to condole with his friend Cornelius Gallus (see note to Eel. vi. 64) on the faithlessness of his mistress Lycoris or Cytheris, to whom Gallus had addressed most of his elegies, as Pro- pertius to Cynthia or Tibullus to Delia. Gallus is represented as dying for love, receiving visits of sympathy from rural deities, and singing his hope- less love-plaint to Arcadian shepherds. The poem is modelled on the latter part of Theocritus i. As in Eclogue i, the identification of shepherd and poet leads to some confusion of ideas ; Gallus being represented as at the same time a soldier and a shepherd, in the camp in Italy and under a rock in Arcadia. The date of the poem is about 38 B.C., when Agrippa was leading an expedition into Gaul and across the Rhine, with which Gallus' rival is supposed to have gone (1. 23).
1. Arethvisa, the fountain at Syracuse, was conventionally the pastoral fountain.
BUCOLICS. ECL. X. 2-34. 137
2. sed quae legfat, ' but for Lycoris to read also,' and be moved thereby to pity.
4, 5. sic, cp. Eel. ix. 30, note. Doris amara, 'the brackish Dorian stream' (Shelley, ' Arethusa'), i.e. the sea under which the legend made Arethusa fly from the river god Alpheus. Doris was wife of Nerens, and is here put for the sea in general.
6. sollicitos, * sorely vexed ' or ' tried.'
8. respondent, ' echo.'
9-12. From Theocr. i. 66 sqq., where the nymphs are mentioned in con- nection with Daphnis, married to a Naiad. Here they take the part of the Muses, and so are connected with Parnassus, etc. Milton imitates this pas- sage in 'Lycidas,' 11. 50-55, ' "Where were ye, nymphs . . . .' etc.
10, peribat. So most MSS. The indie, is required by the sense, which is purely temporal, without any logical connection with the principal clause. indigno, 'unworthy,' because unrequited, as in Eel. viii. iS.
12. Aonie, Greek form of fem. sing = Boeotian, Aonia being a district in Boeotia. Aganippe, a fountain on Mount Helicon, sacred to the Muses. For the Greek rhythm see Introd. p. 18. Most MSS. and grammarians read Aoniae Agaiiippae: but the Greek forms might easily have been misunderstood and altered.
13. lauri, etiam, for the hiatus see Introd. pp. 17, 18.
16, 17. nostri, ' us shepherds,' i. e. Virgil himself and Gallus, as pastoral poets. ' The sheep are content with us, and even you may be content with them,' i. e. with your association with pastoral poetry.
19. upilio or opilio, contracted from oi'i-pil-io, Gk. oio-ttoX-os : cp. huhus, bobus, subulci, ' swine-herds,' so the MSS., Imhitki being a conjec- ture of Renaissance critics.
20. uvidus hiberna de glande, 'dripping from the winter acorns,' i. e. from gathering or steeping them. Acorns were steeped during the winter for fodder, Cato 54.
24 seqq. agresti honore, descriptive abl., ' witli rural garland on his head,' explained by 1. 25. quassans, 'nodding, 'because the ferulae and lilia were so large and long, cp. Lucr. iv. 587 Pinea scmiferi capitis vclamiiia qnassaiis.
27. ebuli, 'elder;' minio, 'vermilion,' a mineral dye. Pliny says it corresponds to the Greek /^tAros {vr^is fiiKroiraprioi Hom. Od. ix. 125), and was used for painting statues of the gods or the bodies of triumphant generals.
31. tamen, ' yet,' the suppressed thought 'though I perish ' being easily supplied. For a similar usage cp. Aen. iv. 329 si qiiis niihi parvulus aula Lttderct Aeneas, qui U tanicii ore referrct.
34. olim, 'hereafter,' ' in lime to come.' Etymologieally the word is a locative from ille ( = 'at that time'), and is sometimes used, as here, to denote future time. C"p. Aen. i. 203 forsan el haee olim meminissc itivahit.
138 BUCOLICS. ECL. X. 35-74.
35. fuissem, 'had I been >t first':' esset 1. 37, iaceret 1. 40, etc. show what might now be going on.
38. furor, 'flame,' i. e. ' love.'
40. The mixture of willows \\ith vines is strange, imless we may suppose that the willow was sometimes used for training the vine upon. Some put a comma after salices, as if the sense were ' now amid W'illows, now be- neath the vine.' Forb. suggests willows at the foot of a slope on which vines are planted, making sub= 'lower down than,' 'below.'
43. cousumerer continues the construction of iaceret, cantaret, above : ' Here might we decay together by mei'e lapse of years.' aevum in Virgil = 'time of life,' the notion of old age being determined by the conte.Kt.
44. Martis, gen. after amor, i. e. a rival passion which has kept Gallus away from his love, and led to her deserting him. He was perhaps engaged in Italy under Octavianus against Sex. Pompeius.
46, 47. nee sit, a prayer, 'would I might not believe the tale.' tantiim, i. e. laiitam calamitatetii. Alpinas nives. The Roman poets dwell on the savage and dangerous aspect of mountains, hardly ever on their beauty, cp. saevas Alpes Juv. x. 166.
50, 51. Chalcidico, of Chalcis in Euboea, from whence came Euphorion, a mythological poet of Alexandria, B.C. 220, whom Gallus imitated or trans- lated : Quintil. X. 1.50 Quid? Eiiphorio)iciit transibimiis, qiiciii fiisi pro- basset Virgilius, idem mmquani eerie eoiiditontni Chaleidieo versii ear- miuitm feeissct in Biieolieis nieiitioitem. inodulabor, ' I will set (or 'attune') to the Sicilian shepherd's pipe,' i.e. adapt to the pastoral model of Theocritus.
53. pati, absolutely, ' to suffer.'
54. The language and rhythm of this line appear imitated from Lucr. i. 253 Arboribus, ereseitiit ipsae feiiiqiie gravaiitur, the sense being alto- gether different. Virgil's mind seems to be, as it were, so saturated with the language of Lucretius that he half unconsciously reproduces its rhythm and very words, without any connection of idea. See on G. i. 15S.
57, 59. Parthenios, of Mount Parthenius in Arcadia. Partho and Cydonia i^Cretan) are artificial literary epithets: see on Eel. i. 55.
61. deus ille, i. e. Amor.
63. concedite, ' away with you ! '
65, 66. Hebrum. This was one of the first ice-bound rivers that the Romans encountered, Hebriis iiivali eompede viiietiis Hor. Epp. i. 3. 3. Sithonias, of Sithona in Thrace: Sithonia nive Hor. Od. iii. 26. 10.
69. Amor: et, for the scansion see Introd. p. 16.
70-74. divae, see note to 11. 9-12. maxima, ' of liighest worth,' ' mo?t precious.' se subiicit, ' grows up.'
GEORGICS.
NOTES TO BOOK I.
The subject of the first book of the Georgics is agriculture. After nn invocation of the rural deities and of Octavianus Caesar (1-42' Virgil proceeds to describe the process of sowing (43-117) ; shows how, since the golden age, toil and labour are the lot of mankind (11S-159); gives an account of the plough and other implements, the threshing-floor, and the method of choosing seeds (160-203) ; and enumerates the seasons for sowing, with a digression concerning the five zones and the sun's passage through the zodiac (204-251). The various employments suitable for the different days and seasons are next recounted 1^252-310), and the importance of observing the weather insisted on (31 1-350) ; then follows a long description of the signs of the weather, taken from the Diosemeia of Aratus (351-463); and this leads to the conclusion of the book, which consists of an enumera- tion of the signs which portended the death of Julius Caesar, a lament over the miserable state of the Roman Empire, and a prayer to the gods that Octavianus Caesar may be spared to restore prosperity.
1-4. Dedication of the poem to Maecenas, with a rough enumeration of the subjects to be treated of — viz. agriculture ^_Book I), the cultivation of vines ,11), the care of cattle (III), and of bees (IV).
1, 2. laetae segetes, according to Cicero, was a common expression among the country people. ' What makes the cornfields smile.' ulmis ; vines were commonly trained on elms.
3, 4. qui cultus, ' what treatment for keeping cattle;' Jiabeiidts must be supplied with apibus. pecori, apibus, on the hiatus sec Introd. p. 17.
5. yxxnc — ex hoc tempore, ' now.'
6. luniina, i. e. the sun and moon. Are they here identified with, or distinguished from. Liber and Ceres, 1. 7? In favour of the identification is the express statement of Macrobius, .Sat. i. 18, and the awkwardness of the asyndeton between 11. 6 and 7 : against it, the uncertainty whether as a fact Bacchus and Ceres were so identified in tlie mysteries. On the whole it seems best to separate Liber and Ceres from liimina. and accept the wnnt of a connecting particle, as after 1. 15.
I40 GEORGICS I. 8-35.
8, 9. Chaoniam, a conventional epithet, Chaonia being a district of Epirus, where were the celebrated oak forests of Dodona. pocula, 'draughts.' Acheloia : Achelous, said to be the oldest of rivers, represented water in general : Eur. Andr, 167 x«P' ffnfipovffav *Ax«Aq5ov Spocrov.
10. praesentia, ' powerful,' the power of the ancient gods being depen- dent on their actual presence: cp. Aen. ix. 404 /!/, dca, tu pracsens nostra sticcurrc labori.
12. cui, 'for whom,' ' at whose bidding.' prima, adverbial.
14, 15. cultor nemorum, 'dweller in the woodland,' i. e. Aristaeus, the hero-god, said to have taught men bee-craft, and worshipped in the island of Ceos or Cea with the attributes of Zeus himself, ter centum, for an indefinite number.
16. ipse emphasises Pan as the great rural god. ' Thou too, great Pan.'
19. puer, Triptolemus, said to have learnt the art of ploughing from Ceres.
20. at radice, ' torn from its roots.'
21-23. tueri = a verbal subst. in nom. ca.se— quibus stitdiinii est ro a-^poii^ (jwXaaaHV. non ullo semine, abl. of circumstance, ' where no seed hns been sown.' satis, dat. pi. oi sa/a, ' sown crops.'
24. tuque adeo, ' and thou above all.' See on Eel. iv. 11.
25. incertum est. Note the series of oblique interrogations depending on this phrase ; (i) quae sint, (2) velisne . . . accipiat, (3) an venias . . . emat, (4) anne . . . addas. Translate : 'And tliou above all, of whom we know not in what house of gods thou art in time to sit, whether it be our Caesar's pleasure to watch over cities and take charge of earth, that so the whole mighty world may welcome thee as the giver of its increase and lord of its changeful seasons.'
28. materna, i. e. of Venus, the ancestress of the Julian family.
29. venias, here = ' become.' Cp. Juv, ii. 83 (quoted by Con.) 7!cmo repentc voiit iiirpissiiims.
30. numina, 'divine power,' both in sing, and plur., literally the nod by which a god declared his will..
31. Caesar, if a sea-god, is to marry one of tlie Oceanides, and to receive from Tethys as a dowry the kingdom of the sea.
32. tardis, ' the slow-moving months,' whose pace will be accelerated by the new star ; not specially of the summer months with their long days. Con. aptly quotes from Cowley's ' Davideis:'
' The old drudging Sun from his long-beaten way Shall at thy voice start, and misguide the day.' 33-35. Erig'onen, the daughter of Icarius, who hung herself in grief for her father's death, and became the constellation Virgo. The locus here indicated is that of the constellation Libra, under which Augustus' birth took place. In the old calendars Libra was omitted, and two spaces given to the Scorpion with outstretched claws (chelae, Gk. X'/^"'); from which the Balance was hung. Virgil imagines the Scorpion to draw in his claws
GEORGICS I. ^6-6^. 141
and leave his 'undue share of heaven' (caeli iusta plus parte), thus making room for Augustus as a new sign. The Balance symbolises justice : so that there is special flattery in assigning this place to the Emperor.
36, 37. nam refers to a suppressed thought — 'except in Hades.' spcrant is better and has more authority than spercnt. ' Tartarus does not think of aspiring to such an lionour ; and may you never wish for empire there.' veniat, optative, dira cupido, ' wild desire ' (the phrase recurs Aen. vi. 373) ix- 185), i. e. so intense a desire for empire on any terms as to wish to rule even in Hades.
41. juecum with miseratus.
42. ingredere, so. diviiio mtineri, ' assume the god.'
43. canis, ' still white with snow.'
44. 'And the soil grows soft and crumbling beneath the west wind.' Sephyro, abl. instr. putris, proleptic, expressing the result of se resolvit.
45. 46. milii, ethic dative, aratro, dat. after ing'eiiiere, ' Then would I have the bull begin to pant over the deep-driven plough.' The words depresso, attritus, splendescere, all point to the thoroughness of the ploughing.
47-49. seg'es, here ' land ' or ' field.' demum (5^) is a strengthening particle, like adco 1. 24 : ' that land above all.' Its temporal meaning 'at length' is only in connection with temporal words, e.g. iitinc dciinini, tunc deinuin, etc. In 1)18 . . . sensit Virgil appears to recommend four ploughings— three usual, in spring, summer, and autumn, and one additional for strong land, in the previous autumn, ruperunt = rMw/(?;r solent, 'have frequently burst.' It answers to the Greek ' frequentative' aorist.
51, 52. morem, ' temper.' patrios cultusque habitusque locorunx, * the traditional culture and aptitude of the localities.'
54. seg'etes, here ' crops.' felicius, ' more abundantly :' see on Eel. v. 37.
55. arborei fetus, ' forest growths.'
56. Tmolus is in Lydia, whereas Cilicia was famous for saffron : but Virgil designates Western Asia loosely by the name of a well-known mountain.
57-59. mittit. On indie, see note on Eel. iv. 52. moUes, 'unwarlike.' uudi, stripped for working in the forge. Eliadum palmas equarum, ' palms that mares of Elis win ' — i. e. 'victorious mares of Elis,' contending in the Olympian games.
60, 61. continuo, Gk. tvBw, ' from the first and onward.' leges, ' con- ditions.' foedera, ' laws ' of nature, as Lucr. i. -,^6 focdera naturae, ii. 254 fati foedera. ' Such is the chain of law, such the eternal covenant with which Nature has bound certain climes.'
63. durum, as being sprung from stones, ergo, i. e. since this is Nature's law. ' Work, then, and fulfil your destiny.' iacentes, ' turned up and exposed.' pulverulenta, the epithet is transferred by poetic licence from glaebas to aestas. solitous, abl. instr. ' Let the clods be exposed for summer to bake them to dust with the sun's full heat.'
143 GEORGICS I. 67-99.
67-70. sub, ' just at the actual rising of Arctiirus.' The true rising; of Arc- turus was September 8, the apparent Sept. 21. suspeudere, ' to lift it with a light furrow,' i. e. raise it lightly so as to leave it hanging, iliic, ' in the former case ' ,,pinguc sohiin 1. 64) ; hie, ' in the latter' \(eUiis von fcctiuda).
71-76. ' You will likewise ^idem) let your fields at intervals alternis) lie fallow after reaping tonsas) and suffer the lazy soil to harden by inaction (situ durescere) ; or (if you cnnnot afford this) you will at another season sow yellow corn in the soil (itoi^ from which you have previously raised a rich bean-crop with its rattling pods . . . etc' Virgil seems to recommend occasional fallowing as a rule ; or, where this is not convenient, a 'leguminous' crop of peas, beans, lupins, or the like, for a spring crop, to be followed by a sowing of corn in autumn — the stalks of such a crop being ploughed in or burnt on the field as manure for the corn crop. Leguminous crops are specified ; for (eniiu 1. 77^ flax, oat^, or poppies only exhaust the soil (umnt), and the land might as well lie fallow as have them, novales, lit. ' fallow-lands,' here used somewhat artificially, as the lands would not be fallow till after they had ceased to produce crops. situ \lxom. siiio, to let alone) here denotes the ' inaction' or 'idleness' of fallow land, tristis, ' bitter.' silvam sonantem, ' rustling thicket,' a phrase to denote the rich crop of lupin,
79. alternis, ' by changes (of crops) the strain (of producing two crops in succession without an interval of fallow) is lightened;' only you must not spare manure.
80. pudeat, ' because the work is dirty' (Sidg.).
82. sic quoque. ' By this method as well (as by fallowing), the soil gets rest under the change of crops ; nor are you meanwhile without return from your land, because imploughed ' — i. e. you get your crop of vetch, etc.
84 sqq. A way of improving poor (steriles) land is to burn the stubble upon it, the result being advantageous in different ways to different soils. Con. wrongly takes steriles as — ' reaped,' ' with nothing but the stubble left on it.'
89-93. caeca relaxat spiramenta, ' opens hidden pores.' durat, sc. terrain, venas, 'passages' or 'channels.' tenues, 'thin,' ' fine,' and so ' searching ' rains, rapidi solis, ' the fierce burning sun : ' see on Eel. ii. 10. penetrabile, in active sense 'piercing,' cp. Lucr. i. 494 pcnetrale fi-igiis; and for similar use of forms in -bilis, Ilor. Od. i. 3. 22 Oceano dissociabili, etc. adiirat, by zeugma with pluviae, -with which word the general notion of ' injuring ' must be supplied.
95, 96. vimineas crates, 'osier hurdles,' dragged over the ground after the clods had been broken with the rasirnin (^a hoe or rake). The whole process was called occatio. uequiquam (not iicquidquain or neqiticqitani) is the form in all the best MSS. and editions. It is from quiqiiaiu the old abl., cp. ncquaqiiaiii.
97-99. The i:)roce3S of '' cioss-ploughing' is here distinguished from that of harrowing, as if they were not applied by the same person or to the same
GEO Rules I. 100-114. 143
land : but Virgil does not mean to do more than distinguish between them. proscisso, technical term for the first breaking up with the plough, tsrga, the ' ridges ' of clods thrown up by the jdough. in obliquum verso aratro, 'by cross-ploughing,' lit. 'with plough turned at right angles (to its former course).' inxperat, 'lords it over ' the fields, i. e. forces them to own his rule. This and other expressions [siibigcre, coinpcsccrc, excrcerc), applied to agricultural operations, illustrate the conception of a constant struggle against the reluctant forces of Nature, which Virgil derives from Lucretius. Cp. Lucr. v. 206-212 :
Quod supercst arvi, taiiieii id iiaiitra sua vi sentilnis ohducat, ni vis It u /nana resist at vitai causa valido consueta bidcnti ingeiuere et terrain pressis proscindcre aratris. si non fecundas vertentes voinere glebas tcrraique solum suhigcntes cinius ad ortiis, spontc sua 7iequcant liquidas cxistcre in auras.
100. solstitia, ' summers.' When used by itself, without the addition oi acstiz'uiii, Iiibcrnuni, etc., the word denotes the summer solstice.
102. Mysia, especially the region about Gargarus, was proverbial for fertility, nullo tantum cultu, 'never does Mysia show itself off so well,' itullo cultu being used loosely as = ' under no circumstances.' Some editors transl. 'no cultivation will make Mysia so fertile as a dry winter:' but if this is the meaning, it is obscurely expressed.
104, 105. comminus, the image is that of the Roman soldier first throwing his spear (iacto semiue;, and then attacking at close quarters. ruit, ' levels,' ' throws down,' as Aen. ix. 516 molem vohnuitque ruuntque : elsewhere (G. ii. 308 fuit atram Ad caelum . . . nubem) it = 'throw up :' so in legal phrase ruta caesa ^mineiah (things dug up and timber. The general idea is violent movement, the direclion of which is determined by the context, cumiilos, i. e. the top of the ridges, male ping^iis = jton pinguis, ' unfertile,' cp. male /Ida Aen. ii. 23, male saita Aen. iv. 8.
108. supercllio clivosi tramitis, ' from the brow of the channelled slope' (Con.), lit. 'sloping channel,' a poetical variety of expression. The picturesque force of ecce (' Oil joy ! ') is well pointed out by Con. ; and the melodious grace of 11. 108-110 harmonises with their subject.
Ill, 112. quid, sc. dicam, as 1. 104. Excessive luxuriance is to be cor- rected by feeding down when the blade is young and green (tenera in herba), lest when come to maturity the corn stalks should droop under the weight of the ears.
113, 114. cum primiim, etc. defines tenera in herba more precisely. sulcos aequaut, 'reach the furrows' top.' bibula deducit harena, ' drains off by means of soaking sand ;' how, is not clear. Con. thinks the drains were partly filled with sand or gravel ; Kenn. that sand was carted to the places where water had collected and formed pools 'Jacunac in order to soak up the water.
144 GEORGICS I. 115-157.
115. incertis, 'unsettled,' i.e. when the weather is uncertain.
119. improbus, 'tormenting' (Con.). K<a probiis denotes moderation, improbiis denotes excess, unscrupulousness, rapacity, and the like. It is here used humourously of the shamelessness of the goose in disregarding the farmer's rights.
120. Strynioniae, 'Thracian,' a conventional or literary epithet; see on Eel. i. 55. intutoa, 'wild endive' or 'chicory.'
121. pater, i. e. Jupiter.
122. 123. primusque . . . agros, ' first worked the land by human skill.' Cp. G. ii. 316 tellurem inovere (of ploughing, digging, etc.). corda, 'wits;' cp. Plaut. Mil. Gl. ii. 3. 65 qitidqiiaui sapcrc cordc, Lucr. v. 1106 iiigcnio qui pracstabant ct cordc vigcbant, Cic. Phil. iii. 6. 16 stupor cordis. In Tusc. i. 9. 18 (quoted by Con.) Cicero notes the use of cor for the intellect as something archaic.
125. ante lovem, i. e. in the golden age of ' Saturn's reign.'
127. in medium qtiaerebant, 'they garnered for the common store,' had all things in common.
131. mellaque, etc., ' stripped the leaves of honey,' alluding to the belief that honey fell from heaven like dew, and was gathered from leaves by the bees. In the golden age it lay so thick on the leaves that men could gather it direct from thence. See Eel. iv. 30. ig^nem removit, 'took the fire away' and hid it in flint, whence it was recovered by Prome- theus.
133. nsvis, 'experience.'
136. alnos, ' alders,' as growing on river banks, would naturally be used for the primitive boat.
137. numeros et nomina fecit, ' numbered and named the stars ; ' a case of zeugma, uoiiuiifaccrc being an ordinary phrase ; but with nuuicros some other verbal notion has to be supplied.
138. Pleiadas, for the quantity see Introd. p. 16. Iiycaonis, ' Lycaon's daughter Arctos,' who was changed into the constellation by Jupiter.
140. inventum, sc. est : the subj. is captare et fallere.
141, 142. fanda, elsewhere a 'sling' {a<pivZ6vrp), must in this context = ' a casting-net.' alta petens, best taken with the previous line. The fislier throws his casting-net as deep as he can. verberat, as we now say that a fly-fisher 'flogs' the stream, lina, 'drag-net.'
143. ferri riffor, so Lucr. i. 492 rigor auri solvitur aestu.
146. improbus, 'persistent,' see on 1. 119.
148, 149. glandes, etc. is subject of deficerent = ' failed ;' silvae, dat. of indirect object. Dodona, celebrated for its sacred oaks, here stands for oak-groves in general, hence sacrae silvae.
150, 151. ' Soon too the corn-crops had trouble attached to them, in such sort that baleful mildew devoured the stalks, etc. esset = tv/trt'/.
153. lappaeque triboliqiie, see Introd. \i. i^j.
156, 157. ruris . . . umbras, ' prune the shade M'hich darkens the land.'
GEORGICS I. 158-175.
145
158. Virgil adopts the language and rhythm of Lucretius, ii. 2 e terra magtnim alterius spectarc laborcm, in a different connection — see note to Ed. X. 54.
160. arnia, like Gk. oVXa, 'implements,' cp. Aen. i. 177 Cerealiaque anna. But the military sense is present to Virgil's mind, i. e. the arms witli which the diiri agrcstes must fight their battle against the powers of Nature.
163. tarda, virtually adverbial, ' slow rolling.' Eleusiuae matris. Ceres or Demeter, the goddess of agriculture, worshipped especially at Eleusis. volventia, intransitive.
164. tribula (' threshing-boards " and traheae (' drays ' were the instru- ments for threshing com, and consisted of boards weighted and roughened with nails, which were dragged over the corn on the floor. Similar instru- ments are still used in the East, and in Spain and South Italy.
165. 166. Celeus, father of Triptolemus (above 1. 9), to whom are ascribed all 'cheap wicker furniture' of antique use, including baskets, 'hurdles of arbutus' for harrowing (see above 1. 95 , and the ' winnowing- fan' (called mystica laccM;, as it was carried in the Eleusinian pro- cessions in honour of lacchus, the son of Demeter.
168. 'If the due blessing of the divine country is in store for you.' divini, as being specially under the care of the gods.
169-175. continuo in silvis, ' while yet in the woods.' burim, ' plough-beain.' It was a piece of strong wood, naturally or artificially citrved, forming the body of the plough (hence called ctirvi). From its foot (a stirpe' projected the pole ^teino\ to which was attached the 'yoke' (iugum , fitting on the necks of the oxen, dentalia, usually in sing, dentale, the ' share-beam,' a piece of wood fastened horizontally to the lower part of the buris, in order to hold the 'share' [votiier). duplici dorso, ' with double back ' probably refers simply to the two edges of the share-beam, one on each side of the buris. binae anres, two ' earth- boards,' one on each side of the deutalc, to throw the earth aside and widen the furrow, altaque fagus stivaque, hendiadys, ' a tall beech for the handle,' stiva being the handle, fixed into the burls, by which the plough- man guided the plough, currus torqtieat imos, ' guide the chariot be- neath,' a rather grandiloquent expression for steering the plough along the ground, explorat, ' searches out,' ' seasons.' The whole descrip- tion of the jdough will be made clearer l>y the following diagram.
^
1. buris.
2. stiva.
3. temo.
4. iugum.
5. dentalia.
6. aures.
7. vomer.
K
145 GEORGICS I. 178-20
/■
178. area, 'the threshing-floor.' This appears from Cato and Varro to have been an open elevated space, circular in form, and slightly sloping from the centre to the circumference, and usually floored with a compost of which argilla or white clay (here called creta) was a principal ingredient. cum primis, 'especially.'
180. pulvere, 'drought,' with victa. Some editors take jjulvere as modal abl. with fatiscat, 'break and crumble into dust:' but the sense is not then so good.
181. illudant, ' play their pranks.'
183. ocnlis capti, 'blind,' lit. 'injured in the eyes.' Cp. Liicr. v. 927 Nee facile ex aestu nee frigore quod caperetur, Liv. xii. 2 Hannibal altera pculo capitti)-.
185. moustra, ' strange creatures,' without reference to size.
186. inopl metnens senectae, ' fearing for her destitute old age.' 187-189. oontemplator, a Lucretian formula of transition : ' Mark too,
when many a walnut-tree in the woods shall burst into blossom and bend its fragrant boughs : — if the bulk of them turn to fruit, grain will follow in like " proportion, and there will be a great harvest and a hot summer ; but if a luxuriant growth of leaves gives over-abundant shade, in vain will your threshing-floor grind the stalks rich only in chaff (pingues paleai.' The walnut-tree is an omen for the crops, iuduet, lit. ' put itself into flower,' and so ' clothe itself with.' Cp. Aen. vii. 20 Qnos . . . Indiierat Circe in viilttis ae terga feraruiii. superant, lit. 'if the fruit exceed,' i. e. if the majority of blossoms ' set ' for fruit.
193-196. semina, of leguminous plants, as appears from 1. 195. falla- cibus, because the pods are often deceptive, containing only small beans, et qtiamvis, etc., ' and that they might boil quickly, though with little fire.' The steeping of the beans was to make the produce larger, and easier to be cooked.
198. vis humana, ' the force of man,' is from Lucr. v. 206, quoted on 1. 99 above, as illustrating Virgil's conception of man's struggle against Nature.
200. Almost repeated Aen. ii. 169. ruere, referri, historic infinitives. For the pleonasm retro referri =' retrograde ' cp. Lucr. i. 785 retro revert i, ii, 283 retro residit.
201-203. * Just as one who hardly drives his skiff up stream, if perchance he slackens his stroke, and the current sweeps him headlong down the rushing river.' at^ue connects rapit with subigit, there being no apodosis, as is often the case in Virgilian similes of this kind. Aul. Gellius, followed by many editors, explained atqne as = stati;n, and as introducing the apodosis. But this is most improbable.
204-207. The husbandman has just as much need to know the stars as the sailor has.
206. vectis, ' on their way ' {<ptpo/j.(yots). Latin having no pres. part, middle or pass., the past part, is sometimes used almost in a pres. sense : cp.
GEORGICS I. 208-231. T47
operatus G. i. ^.''.Q, iniilnta G. iv. 72. solala G. i. 293, Aen. v. 70S, timsac Aen. i. 4S1.
208. Ziibra, the Sc.iles. The sun enters this sign at the autumnal equinox, die, gen. sing, contr. from diei: %o Jide Hor. Od. iii. 7. 4; Ov. Met. iii. 341, etc.: facie Plant. Mil. Gl. iv. 4. 36. Gellius (ix. 14) says that Virgil's own copy read dies, a third form of the genitive, found in Enn. Ann. 401 dies and Lucr. iv. 1083 rabies.
209. ' And parts heaven in the midst for light and darkness.'
211. usque sub, etc., ' till the very verge of unavailing winter's rains,' i. e. till the rainy season sets in. This is perhaps the best rendering. Others translate extremuiu imbrem, ' the rains that close the year.' Obviously it cannot mean ' the end of the winter's rains.' iutractabilis, when no work can be done.
212. Cereale papaver. Ceres was said to have consoled herself with poppy seeds when grieving for the loss of Proserpine ; and she was generally represented with poppies in her hands.
213. 214. iamdudum, 'forthwith;' cp. Aen. ii. 103 iamdudiim siniiite foenas. pendent, ' hang poised in air,' before they come dov.'n.
215-217. medlca, 'lucerne,' originally from Media, aperit. On April 17 the Sun passes into Taurus and was said aperire annum (cp. Ap[_e']rilis), as the weather became settled and fit for spring sowings, candidus aiiratis cornibus probably alludes to a pictorial representation of Taurus, which may have been suggested by the white bulls with gilded horns that appeared in Roman triumphs. Cp. Milton, ' Par. Tost.' ' In spring-time, when the sun willi Taurus rides.'
218. adverso astro, dat., ' in retreat before the opposite star,' i. e. before the Bull : the Dog-star being represented as retiring face to face before the Bull. Another reading (equally supported) is averso astro, which would be abl., 'with averted star.'
219-222. triticeani messeni, 'wheat;' robusta farra, 'hardy spell.' Instabis, etc., 'make grain-crops your only object.' tibi, dat. ethicus ; ' first mark the morning setting of the Pleiads' (about Nov. 9). Soae =77ora(, vtatiitinac. Gnosia, of Gnosus in Crete. It was the constellation of the Cretan Ariadne, now called * Corona Borealis.' decedat, 'set.' It really rose at this time (Nov.) ; so Virgil is in error.
225, 226. Maiae, one of the Pleiads, as representing them all. vanis aristis, ' with empty ears ;' so most MSS. The old reading avenis alludes to the belief that corn would degenerate into wild oats if left too long in the ground : cp. Eel. v. 37.
229. Bootes, the Bear-keeper, of which Arctunis (1. 204) is the brightest star, sets at the end of October.
231. idcirco, i.e. to distinguish the seasons: 'for this end the golden Sun runs a course marked out in different stages through the heaven's twelve Starr}' signs.' ^'irgil seems to represent the earth as a plain in the midst of the siuiindiis or great sphere of the universe; this sphere having an
K 2
148 GEORGICS I. 232-247.
axis, one pole of which (vertex 1. 242) is above the terrestrial horizon, the other below it. The celestial '?ones' correspond to tracts on the earth's surface, the respective climates of which are attributed to them 11. 233- 239. The description is taken from Eratosthenes' 'Hermes' ^quoted at length by Con.\
232. duodena = ^//(P^tv/w, the distributive numeral being not unfrequently used for the cardinal in poetry, regit, lit. ' guides ' his course.
234. ato igni, a translation of Ik nvpos in Eratosthenes. Cp. Ov. A. A. i. 763 /li iaciilo pisces, illi capiuntiir ah haniis, Fast. ii. 764 nulla factjts ah arte decor. The usage of classical Latin restricted the abl. with a or ah to denote the relation of the agent, expressing the instrument by abl, alone : but exceptions to both constructions are found in poetry.
235, 236. 'Surrounding which at the extremities right and left stretch two (zones).' trahuntur gives the notion of extent and corresponds to Trfpnrcn- T-qvTai in Eratosthenes, caeruleae, so the best MSS. : and though caendea (Forb., Con., Kenn., and most edd.) gives slightly better sense, the difference on this head is not such as to justify setting aside the unanimous testimony' of the oldest imcial MSS. which contain the passage.
238, 239. per amljas, ' between the two ;' not ' through,' as the Zodiac (signoruni ordo"), representing the Sun's path, runs obliquely through tlie Torrid Zone, only touching the Temperate Zones at each end, but not entering them, obliquus, virtually adverbial : ' for the Zodiac to turn its course across the sky.' verteret, subj. denoting purpose.
240-243. mundus = the whole mundane sphere (see on 1. 231), for the North and South points of which ' Scythia ' and ' Libya ' are here made to stand. ' High as the world's sphere rises towards Scythia and the Rhipaean liills, so deep is its slope towards Libya's southern clime.' hie vertex, ' the one pole,' i. e. the Northernmost pole or point of the niuudus. nobis siiblimis, ' high above our heads.' at ilium, etc., ' the other, beneath our feet, is seen by black Styx and the spectres of Hades.' The infernal regions were underneath the earth, and as the Southern Pole was below the terres- trial horizon, it was supposed to be visible to those regions, sub pedibus, ' beneath our feet,' corresponding to nobis sublinxis in the previous line. Con. less probably takes it as ' below their (the Manes') feet.'
244-246 are from Aratus, Phae^ 45, quoted by Con. Anguis, ' the Snake,' a long constellation, which winds about between the two Bears. Arctos, Ursa Maior and Minor, nietuentes aequore tingi, ' that will not be dipped in Ocean's stream ' — a rendering of Homer's oh] 6' afi/xopos iarl XofTpwv 'ClKtavoio II. xviii. 489. The stars near the Arctic pole never set.
247. illic, in the southern regions below, which (says Virgil) are either in total darkness, or else have day when we have night. Lucretius (v. 650 sqq.) mentions both alternatives, intenipesta nox, ' the dead of night,' an old phrase of frequent occurrence. It is explained by Servius and Macrobius as meaning literally the ' unseasonable ' time, when no work can be done. Translate : ' There all is wrapped for e\er in the dead silence of
GEORGICS L 250-277. 149
night, and the gloom is deepened by its pall overspread.' Cp. Horn. Od. xi. ly dA\' i-ttX vii^ ciKui] rirarai SetKoiat Pporoicriv.
250, 251. These lines were quoted with striking effect by Pitt at the dose of a great speech for the abolition of slavery, as the morning sun began to shine through the windows of the House of Commons. Cp. Aen. '^'- 739- Vesper may mean either the Evening Star or evening generally. The latter view is perhaps the best ; '' there crimson evening is kindling her twilight glow.'
252. hinc, i. e. from all this about the Zodiac, etc., 11. 231-251.
255. arinatas, ' equipped,' ' rigged.'
256. tempestivam, adverbial, witli evertere : ' when its time has come.'
258. ' And the year regulated by four diverse seasons.' 261-263. maturare, ' to get ready betimes,' in contrast with pro- peranda, ' to be done in a hurry.' procudit, ' hammers out,' i. e. sharpens the blunted share, lintres, ' troughs' for holding grapes, artoore, abl. of material, acervis, ' sacks ' of corn, on which a number could be stamped. If taken in its ordinary sense of ' heaps ' of corn, etc., impressit would be xm meaning.
264. vallos, 'stakes;' furcas, 'forked props:' for use in vine culture.
265. Amerina retinacula, bands for tying the vines, made of willows from Ameria, a town in Umbria.
266. facilis, 'pliant.' ruTiea, ' of brambles.'
267. torrete, com was roasted in order to make it easier to grind.
268. qixippe, ' why, even on feast days,' etc. ; surely then you may w 01 k on rainy days.
269. fas et mra, 'the laws of God and man." rivos deducere, ' i.o turn on water' (a work of daily necessity in hot weather). Macrobius, iii. 3, supports the rendering ' to clenr out water-courses,' explaining deducere by detergere, and saying that old watercourses might be cleaned out on holy days, not new ones made. But rivos deducere need only mean letting water run down the existing channels and troughs, such as are still part of llie arrangement for gardens and vineyards in Italy.
270. rsligio, 'ordinance' or 'scruple,' i.e. any binding or restraining power {rcligiDx. : cp. Hor. .Sat. i. y. 71 nulla //lilii rtligio est. Lucretius uses the plur. = religious fears or scruples — religioiiuni uodis cxsok'crc i. 932.
275. inciisiim, 'indented,' i.e. roughened to make it grind well.
276, 277. alios alio ordine felices, ' propitious each in different degree to labour." operiini, poetical gen. of respect or reference, common after adjectives, and probably imitated from the Creek : cp. integer vilac, scri sladioruni, fessL rcrunt,fcrox sceleris, etc. Orcus, Virgil is here imitating Ilesiod, who says that "Opicos, the god of oaths, was born on the fifth, and that the liumenides attended on his birth ^Iles. Op. 802 vifinTas 5' i^aXta- cQai liTil xa^frat n /ecu tdvai, 'Lv nifinrr) yap tpatjiv 'E/iu'vas aixtpinokivciv
150 GEORGICS /. 379-303.
"OpKov yeivofxivop rbv''Epis reice irfijx kniupKots). Whether intentionally, or through error, Virgil puts the Latin Orcus, the god of the dead, instead of the Greek "OpKos, and makes the Eumenides born along tvith him.
279, 280. creat, see note to Eel. viii. 45. Typhoea ; Tu^iuea, ace. of Tu^cuevj), the last two syllables scanned as one : cp. OrpJua, Eel. vi. 30. resciudere, 'for tearing down,' a free use of infin. where prose construction would require ut rcsciiidant or ad rcscindendiiin. fratres, apparently the ' Aloidae ' (Otus and Ephialtes), to whom the deeds here mentioned are ascribed by Homer '^Od. xi. 304 sq., cp. Aen. vi. 582^) : "but they were not sons of Earth. Con. suggests that Virgil misunderstood the Homeric phrase Tp€(pe 5e ^(iSwpos dpovpa.
281. For the hiatus after conati and Pelio see Introd. p. iS.
285. licia telae addere, ' fasten the leashes to the warp.' The /I'ci'a were loops of thread at the top of the loom, to which the separate threads of the warp were affixed so as to keep them in position.
286. fugae, the flight of runaway slaves, for which the farmer must be* on his guard on the ninth, while he need not fear thieves.
287. 288. adeo with multa, 'very many.' se dedere, 'submit.' Ecus, ' the morning star,' and so ' morning.'
290. lentus, ' soft,' lit. ' supple,' i. e. wliich makes the grass supple.
291, 292. qxiidam, usually of a definite person, but here = est qui, tis. hiberni ad luminis ignes, ' by the fire of wintry light,' i. e. ' the light winter's fire.' inspicat, ' splits ' into sharp points like an ear of corn {s/iai'^.
293, 294. solata, past part, with pres. force : see above 1. 206, note. telas, ' the threads of the warp.' arg-iito pectine, ' shrill shuttle.'
295. A ' hypermetric ' verse : see Introd. p. 19.
296. trepidi, ' bubbling.'
297. medio aestu, 'the mid-day heat.' Con. prefers to take it as =
* summer,' because Theocritus (x. 5 2 advises reapers to avoid the heal of the middle of the day {eKivvaat 5e to Kavfxa). But the climate of Sicily and Egypt, which Theocritus knew, is much hotter than that of North Italy. Here it is obvious that the contrast is between da^f-time and 7iig/U-time.
299. uudus, 'lightly clad,' i.e. in tunic only without the upper garment. Virgil follows Hesiod, Op. 931 yvpvuv anupuv ■yvp.vui' dt PoccTtiv. The point is that ploughing and sowing must be done in the warm months lof spring and autumn).
302. genialis, 'merry,' i. e. connected with the ' Genius,' the guardian and impersonation of the individual ; natalc tomcs (jut tci)tpcj-at astni/it, Naturae dens Inn/iaiiac llor. Epp. ii. 2. 1S7 i. Hence Giitiii/ii iinro curare (Od. iii. 17. 14, vino placari Genius (A. P. 209), Genio in- dulgere, etc., of personal enjoyment, the Genius being the happier self of a man.
303. prcssac, sc. oncribus, 'laden.' The next line is rciieated Acn. iv. 41 S.
GEORGICS I. 309-334. 151
309. 'Whirling the bullets of the Balearic hempen sling;' lit. 'the hempen blows.' stuppea properly applies to fuudae : verbera is used poetically for the thing hurled. The whole expression i.s highly artificial. Balearis, conventional epithet, the Balearic islanders being famous for slingers.
310. trudunt, 'roll along.'
312. moUior = 'less oppressive,' 'when the summer's heat is less fierce.'
313. vi^anda, ' need wakeful care : ' vigilare aliquid is used by the poets to = 'be wakeful over a thing,' e.g. vigilata proelia Juv. vii. 27. ruit, see below 1. 324, ' when spring comes down in showers.'
314. inhorruit, ore (ppiaaovaiv dpovpai Horn. II. xxiii. 599 : * ^^'hen the fields have begun to bristle with the harvest of grain.'
316. arvis, poetical dat. of recipient instead of the usual prep, and case, like ti caelo clamor, demittimiis Oreo, etc.
317. fragili culmo, descriptive abl. with hordea.
320, 321. sutolimem, adj. for adv., ' whirled on high.' The subj. ernereut expresses the result of concurrere proelia; and ferret continues the same construction, ita merely summing up or resuming the previous description, and hiemps — ' a storm.' Some take ita . . . ferret as intro- ducing a comparison of a winter storm with one in summer, and translate 'so would winter,' etc. ; the idea being that the summer storm carries off the ripe corn as easily as the winter one carries off the stubble. But this would be a very tame comparison, and the other rendering, which makes the whole passage a description of one hurricane, is far more forcible.
322-334. This description of a storm is perhaps one of the most highly worked and carefully finished passages in Virgil or any other poet — language, imagery, and rhythm all combining to produce consummate *i:>oetic effect. Note especially the force of the pauses in 11. 324, 326, 329- 331, and 333 ; of the perfects fugere, stravit 11. 330, 331 ; of the expres- sions ruit 1. 324, spirantitous 1. 327, corusca 1. 328 ; of the alliterations in 11. 329, 330, and of sound and rhythm alike in 1. 334. Dr. Kennedy says on 11. 328-334, ' The pause at dextra marks the calmness of conscious strength; at tremit, breathless terror ; at pavor, prostrate expectation. The follow- ing ille, and the thrice repeated aut, express the majestic ease of omni- potence ; at deiicit fails the sudden crash of the bolt ; in the words which follow is heard the rushing, struggling, moaning tempest.'
323, 324. imbribus atris, descriptive abl. with foedam. ruit, 'down crashes the firmament on higli.' For the idea of the whole sky falling in rain cp. Aen. i. 129 caeli niina, Lucr. vi. 221 otnnis %iti videatttr in inibrcm vortier aether, Liv. xl. 58 eaelii/n in se mere aiebant.
324. ex alto, 'from above.'
327. spirantibiis, ' panting ' or ' seething : ' ' and the sea loams in every seething inlet.'
328-331. • The Sire himself, amid the darkness of the storm-clouds, moves his ihundcr-bolt with flashing right hand; the broad expanse of
152 GEORGics I. yy:,-^^^.
earth shudders at the shock ; startled fly all beasts, and mortal hearts throughout the world lie low in grovelling fear. He the while, on Athos or on Rhodope or high Ceraunian hills, hurls down some peak with the bolt ; louder and louder roar the winds and thicker falls the rain : forest and shore in turn are moaning with the mighty blast.' corusca, in contrast with uocte, expressing the sudden flash of lightning through the darkness. nxolitur, the word implies effort, and is used in various applications, e. g. of wielding an axe (G. iv. 331), of forcing a path i^Aen. x. 477), of erecting walls (Aen. iii. 132), etc. fugere, like Greek aorist.
335-337. caeli menses et sidera, 'the seasons and their signs in heaven.' The reference is to the supposed influence of the planets upon the weather, according to the constellations in which they were seen from time to time, frigida, because far from the sun. Saturn, the furthest planet then known, and Mercury (ignis Cyllenius), the nearest to the sun, are chosen as the two extremes, implying all others, caelo, local abl. There is another reading, cadi, which would go with orbes = ' paths in heaven : ' cp. Aen. viii. 97 aetheris orbes, Lucr. v. 648 iacli vias.
338, 339. annua sacra, the festival of the Ambarvalia, held in spring. There were offerings to Ceres, and a victim was led round the fields followed by a crowd of singers and dancers. See on Eel. v. 75. refer, ' pay,' as a due. operatiis, ' sacrificing ;' for the present force of the past part, see on 1. 206 above.
341. agni et, for the hiatus see Introd. p. 17. mollissima, 'mel- lowest.'
344, 345. favos, i. e. ' honey.' Milk, wine, and honey were part of Greek offerings to the dead (Aesch. Pers. 611 sqq.), and Demeter (Ceres) was connected with the lower world. But the association here is more probably that of rural produce with rural deities, felix, * auspicious.'
347. neque ante, etc., here the reference is not to the Ambarvalia (held in spring, 1. 340), but to another festival, just before the harvest.
349. redimitus tempora, 'his temples bound,' see on Eel. i. 55.
350. det, 'displays;' cp. Liv. vii. 2 hand inJecoros mollis Ttisco more dahant. motus incompositos, ' untutored dances.'
352. aestusqxie, for the scansion cp. 1. 371 below, and see Introd.
p. 17.
353. moneret and the following subjunctives are deliberatives : 'what warnings the moon was to give us,' etc.
354. quo signo, abl. of circumstance : ' what should betoken a lull of wind.' quid saepe videntes, ' from what constant observation.'
356-359. These prognostics of wind are copied from Aratus, Dios. 177- 200. ' From the first, as the wind gets up, the inlets of the sea begin to heave and swell, and a dry crackling sound is heard upon the hills, or a confused noise rolls along the shore, and the moaning of the forests comes fast and thick.'
357. arid\is : cp. Lucr. \i. ny aridiis iindc aures tergcl soinis. Homer
GEORGICS L 359-393- ^h?>
uses aSos of the sound of metal pierced ; cp. Tennyson, ' Ivlorte d' Arthur,' ' Dry clashed his harness in the icy caves.' The idea is that of a sharp, abrupt sound as opposed to liquid fluency or softness, denoted by Uquidits, if pus, etc.
359. misceri, of confused noise: cp. Aen. i. 124, where niisceri niur- mure is equivalent to resonantia misceri here. That which applies to the sound is said of the scene of the sound — sea or shore.
360. sibi with temperat, 'the sea scarce restrains itself from (lit. 'in regard to,' — ablat. of respect) the curved ships.' The reading a cttrvis is easier, but not so well supported. Con. takes carinis as dat. after sibi temperat regarded as one worA—parcit — a very harsh construction.
361-364. mergi, 'gulls.' fulicae, 'shags' or 'coots.' ardea, 'heron.'
365-367. Shooting stars were supposed to be a sign of wind : so Theocr. xiii. 50 wj 0T6 TTvpcrbi an' oiipavov rjpLirev acr^p 'Adpoos hv ttovtoi' vavrais Se Tis flnev kralpois' KovcpoTfp', Si naltts, wotucrO' orrXa' nXevcTTiKus oiipos. For the description cp. Lucr. ii. 207 longos Jlaiiuiiaruin diicere tractus.
369. coUudere, ' dance,' ' play together.'
373, 374. imprudentibiis, ' unforewamed.' obfuit, 'has injured.'
375. aeriae, ' air-scudding,' a translation of -qkpiai -yipavoi (Hom. II. iii. 7), which according to Buttmann = ' in the morning.'
378. veterem querellam, 'their old, old strain;' qiicri, qucrella are applied to the note of all animals. As cecinere was probably pronounced kekinere, the word was perhaps chosen as onomatopoeic, like the PpeKeKtKe^ of Aristophanes (Ranae).
379-382. terens, i. e. frequently passing along—' along her narrow well- worn path.' Aristotle (Hist. An. ix. 38} says of ants dd fxiav drpa-nov irdvTis BaU^ovai. The ant really carries her eggs in, not out, on the approach of rain, bibit ; the rainbow was supposed to draw moisture from the sea or rivers at its extremity, and discharge it in rain. Plant. Cure. i. 2. 41 ecce aiitem bibit anus; pliiet, credo, hercle hodie. corvoriim, 'rooks,' as appears from the context, iucrepuit, of the clatter of wings.
383. Asia, the name Asia originally denoted the marshy region along the banks of the Cayster in Lydia, and was afterwards extended to Asia Minor and to the whole continent of Asia.
384. rimantur, ' search about,' 'explore ; ' lit. 'dive into chinks' \riiiiae).
387. incassiim, 'aimlessly,' 'without purpose.'
388, 389. improba with vocat, 'calls incessantly for rain;' see above 1. 119, note. The alliterations express the monotonous character of the raven's cry and of its pace along the shore : ' and stalks in stately solitude along the dry sea sand.'
390-392. The stress is on nocturna ; even indoors at night there are prognostics of rain, testa, tiie earthen lamp, putres fuugos, ' crumbling snuff.'
393. aperta, 'cloudless:' c\). 1. 217. Serena as subst. = ' calms : ' cp. traiiijuitlo Acn. v. 127.
154 GEORGICS /. 395-421.
395, 398. acies, ' brightness' or ' sheen : ' lit. 'a keen edge.' obnoxia, ' beholden to her brother's rays.' 'The meaning seems to be that, when the weather is changing to fair, the moon rising before sunset is brighter than usual, seeming as it were to owe nothing to the sun's rays' (Kenn.).
397. tenuia. In this word, as \n genua, Aen. v. 432, u before a vowel passes into its consonantal sound of w, and the first syllable becomes long. lanae vellera, ' fleece of wool,' i. e. thin fleecy clouds : cp. Lucr. vi. 504 veluti pcndcntia vellera lanae (of clouds).
399. dilectae Thetidi, as sea-birds ; cp. Theocr. vii. 59 ' kKKviv^-i^^jKa-u- xais "mrjp-q'tai rai re ixaXiara 'Opv'ixoiv i<pi\aOiv. soliitos, proleptic = «' solvantur, ' toss the straw-bundles to pieces.'
403. nequiqviam, because she will not bring foul weather.
404-409. Scylla, daughter of Nisus, king of Megara, having fallen in love with Minos, who was besieging Megara, cut off her father's purple hair, on which the safety of the city depended. She was then changed into a sea-bird, called ciris, and pursued by her father, who was changed into an osprey. The story is told in the pseudo-Virgilian ' Ciris,' the last four lines of which are the same as 11. 406-409 here.
410. liquidas, ' soft notes ' as opposed to raiicas. presso, " contracted,' so as to emit little sound, opposed to plena voce 1. 38S.
413. actis, ' is over.'
414. nidos, 'nestlings;' so G. iv. 17, Aen. .\ii. 475.
415-416. Virgil here rejects the Pythagorean and Stoic doctrine that animals, as sharers in the i?icns divina Aen. vi. 724 sqq.^, have a faculty of divination : but the doctrine is afterwards mentioned without disai^proval in G. iv. 219. Here their apparent powers of prognostication are ascribed to the natural effects of the weather upon their feelings, divinitus is con- trasted with fato, ' by heaven or by fate,' alluding to the views of different philosophers concerning the government of the universe, rerum prxi- dentia go together: inaior = ' greater than ordinary.' sit, the subj. is regularly used in Latin to denote that the alleged reason is not the real one. ' I for one cannot believe that it is because Heaven has given them any spark of wit, or fate a deeper insight into things than ours. But when the weather and the changeful moisture of the sky has shifted its course, and Jupiter (i. e. the sky) moist with the south winds condenses what but now was rare, or (by a change of wind) rarefies what now was dense, the phases of their souls are changed, and their breasts feel other motions than those they felt while the wind was driving on the clouds.'
418, vias= 'courses ' or ' directions.'
419. denset, from dcnseo. Here, as elsewhere in Virgil, the MSS. vary between the two forms denset and densal (_from denso).
421. alios, alios, etc., lit. 'feel some motions now, others while the Mind,' etc., i. e. 'feel other motions than those they feel when,' etc. The comparison is e.xpressed not by a subordinate clause, according to the regular formula, but by simple ju.xtaposilion of the two things compared ;
GEORGICS /. 422-45(5, \$%
cp. Plaut. Trill, i. 2. 123, 4 ProJi di iniinortalcs, verbis panels qtiam cito Alitim fecisti mc, alius ad te vcneraiii.
422. hinc, i.e. from the materialistic explanation just given in opposition to that mentioned 11. 415, 416. ' Here is the secret of the rural chorus of birds, the joy of cattle, and the rooks' triumphant note.'
424-426. rapidum, here probably in ordinary sense, ' the swift revolving sun,' not as Eel. ii. 10. lunas seciuentes ordine means the days of the month, capiere, 'betrayed,' as Aen. ii. 196, etc.
427-429. ' As to the moon, when first she gathers (or ' rallies ') her return- ing fires (i.e. the new moon); if her horns be dim, and nought but dark vapour seem enclosed therein, heavy rain is in store for landsmen and for sea.' If the new moon is very clear, the outline of the full orb can be dimly traced, as it were in the grasp of the bright crescent which reflects the sun's rays : cp. the ballad of Sir Patrick Spence : ' I saw the new moon late yestreen Wi' the old moon in her lap.' But if the air be vaporous, the effect is as described by Virgil.
431, 432. ore, ' on,' and so ' over her face.' For similar e.xampks of local abl., where a dat. or accus. with prep, might have been expected, cp. Aen. ix. 213 niandct huiiio sollta, x. 361 hacrcl pcdc pes, 6S1 mucronc indiiat. The usage is peculiarly Virgilian. A red moon is proverbially stormy : cp. Shakespeare, 'Venus and Adonis,' 453 ' Tike a red moon, that ever yet betokened Wreck to the seaman, tempest to the field.' vento, abl. of circumst. ' when there is wind about ;' or simply ' in wind.'
432,433. certissinius, 'most trusty.' pnra, 'clear,' a translation of KaOapT] in Aratus.
437- Glauco. The only instance in Virgil of a long syllable retaining its quantity in hiatus, when /// l/iesi. This line is copied from Parthenius a freedman who taught Virgil Greek^ , TKavKw kcI N-qpei (N?;p^i Con.) Kal 'Ivwcu M.fXtKtpTrj. For Panopeae see Introd. p. 1 8.
441, 442. medio orbe, local abl., ' shall have retired in the centre of his disk,' i. e. present a hollow or concave disc. Transl. 'When he shall have flecked with spots his rising dawn, withdrawing into a cloud, and thrown back the centre of his disc' In Aratus these are separate prognostics ; hence some would take que disjunctive = vc.
443. urget, without a case, ' drives on : ' so the Greek (Kawoj. Cp. Aen. x. 433 Pcillas liistatct logd. ab alto, ' from the sea ' rather than ' from on high.'
445. sese rumpent = o-/^w/<f;;/.
448. male, ' badly ' and so ' hardly : ' from which developes its purely negative force, as in uiale/tda Aen. ii. 23.
449. The sound of this line imitates the rattling of hail. horrida = 'sharp,' i.e. full of points: cp. Pind. P. iv. 81 (ppiaffovrai o^ilipovs. 'So thickly dances on the roof the sharp mttling hail.'
450. hoc, viz. the spots on the sun and the scattered rays.
456. fervere, the older form, non . . . moneat, not as Fcl. ix. 6, an archaic use of the ncgalis c in jjnjhibition ; but the ordinary ncgati\c \\ ith
156 GEORGICS I. 458-487.
potential subjunctive — ' no one would advise me.' iiioveai (' would induce me ') is the reading of Med. ; but moneat is probably right, ' no one would advise me ' being Virgil's way of expressing ' I should refuse to do it.'
458. 'But if when he restores the day and closes it again.'
459. frustra terrebere nimbis, ' yoi;r fear of storm-clouds will be vain ; ' i.e. there will be none.
460. claro, free from clouds.
461. Serenas, proleptic, ' whence the wind that drives away the clouds and clears the sky.'
464, 465. tumultus, a technical word for risings in Italy or Gaul, which were of course especially dangerous, fraiideni, ' treachery.'
466, 467. miseratus, sc. est. An eclipse of the sun took place in Nov. 44 B.C., the year of Julius Caesar's murder. An account of this and other portents is given by Ov. Met. xv. 7S9 sqq.; Luc. i. 522 sqq. : cp. Shake- speare, 'Julius Caesar,' Act ii. Sc. 2. ferrugine, 'lurid hue.' The word originally denotes the colour of iron rust, tlien is used of lurid or murky colour, Aen. vi. 603 (Charon's boat) : but also of more pleasing objects G. iv. 183 (hyacinths), Aen. ix. 582 and xi. 772 'jjurple robes\ in which cases a dark blue colour is probably intended.
469. quamquam, etc. ' Yet it was not the sun only that gave omens.' This makes a transition to the concluding lines upon the politics of Rome.
470. obsceuae, ' ill-omened,' apparently the original meaning, but whence derived is uncertain, importiinae, 'unlucky,' 'evil-boding:' origin- ally the opposite of op-portunus, and so ' inconvenient,' ' unseasonable.' Here it repeats the idea of obsceuae.
471. dabant, ' kept giving.' The eclipse of Nov. 44 i!. c. seems to have coincided with a period of volcanic disturbance in Italy and Sicily, the phenomena of which were connected in men's minds with the disturbances of the time, and particularly the death of Caesar. Virgil, like Horace (Od. i. 2\ seems to treat them as signs of retribution for the civil wars and Caesar's murder.
472. undanteni refers to the streams of lava. Servius quotes from Livy the statement of a great eruption of Aetna at this time.
476, 477. 'A voice too was heard far and wide througli the silent groves, a mighty voice.' The pause after a spondaic first foot in 1. 477 gives the effect of solemnity, simulacra niodis pallentia niiris is from Lucr. i. 123.
480. ebiir, ' ivory statues ;' aera, ' bronze statues.'
482. fluviomm ; the / has its consonantal sound of y, making the word a trisyllable and the first syllable long.
484. tristibus, ' gloomy,' and so ill-omened, librae, ' fdaments ' in the entrails, of great importance in divination ; but the particular qualities on which the omens depended are not known.
487. alias, temporal adv., 'at no other time;' probably an accus. form like foras. Horace Od. i. 34. 5-8 speaks of thunder in a clear sky as a striking portent.
GEORGICS I. 489-505. 157
489-492. ergo, etc. Not only was all nature moved at Caesar's deatli, but Heaven exacted vengeance in the continuance of civil strife and foreign war, the only hope for relief from which is in the young Caesar (Octavianus). ' And so Philippi saw Roman hosts once more with kindred arms meet in battle : nor did Heaven think it shame that Roman blood should twice fatten Emathia and the broad plains of Haemus.' The two battles referred to are Pharsalia (b. c. 48) in Thessaly, when Caesar conquered Pompey, and Philippi (b. c. 42) in Macedonia, when Augustus and Antony defeated Brutus and Cassius. iterum must go with concurrere, not with videre ; otherwise Virgil would make Philippi the scene of both the battles — an error which it is not necessary to ascribe to him. But in 1. 492 his geography is vague and inaccurate. The scenes of the two battles (in Thessaly and in the east of Macedonia) are loosely denoted by Emathia, a district in the ivcst of Macedonia, and Haemus, a mountain range in the north of Thrace. Later writers (Lucan. vii. 854 sqq., Ovid, Met. xv. 824, Juvenal viii. 242% perhaps misled by Virgil, appear to represent Pharsalia and Philippi as on the same spot, paribus, because both Roman ; op. Lucan. i. 7 pares aquilas ct pila viinantia pilis. superis, dat. ethicus, ' in the sight of heaven;' cp. Lucan, x. 102 Sat f nit iiidignum, Caesar, vnindo~ que tihiqiic.
495-497. pila, the characteristic Roman weapon, grandia, i. e. of an older time, referring to the notion of continual degeneration ; cp. Lucr. ii. 1 1 50 sqq. iamqiie adeo fraeta est aetas effetaqiie tellus Vix anijiialia parva creat quae e unci a creavit Saecla dedifque fcrariuii ingentia co7pora partii.
498-514. Caesar i^Octavianus) is invoked as the only hope of his falling country. The passage seems to refer to, and to have been written about, 33-32 B.C., the beginning of the civil war which ended at Actium ; see 11. 510, 511. It is full of melancholy forebodings, like the parallel pas- sage in Horace, Od. i. 2, which expresses much the same hopes and fears.
498. Indigfetes indu +_f'-^;/, native-born) are deified heroes of a country. Vesta was one of the di patrii, Romulus one of the Indigetes.
499. Palatia. It was on the Palatine hill that Romulus founded Rome, and it was there that Augustus resided. Hence its special significance.
500. iuvenem, Octavianus Caesar (afterwards Augustus), now about twenty-eight years old.
501-502. luimiis, prcs. with iani prideni, of what has been for some time and is still going on ; cp. Gk. -naKai. periuria, when Poseidon and Apollo built the walls of Troy, Laomedon the king defrauded them of the stipulated price. The Romans, as descendants of the Trojans, are repre- sented as still paying the penalty.
503-505. The notion is that the world is too wicked for a god to inhabit. The gods are jealous that one of their own number can still care for human triumphs and honours, qxiippe explains the previous line, ' seeing that on earth right and wrong are inverted (versum).'
1^8 GEORGICS I. 506-513.
506. aratro, probably dative.
509-5].l. Euphrates, perhaps alluding to Phraates, who about 32 b. c, on Antonius withdrawing his forces, overran Media and Armenia. The allusion in Germania is uncertain : but it may be to a war of C. Carrinas against the Morini and Suevi (about 31 B. c), for which he was afterwards allowed a triumph, vicinae virbes must be the neighbour cities of Italy, and Mars impius =' civil war.' Dion (50. 6"), in speaking of the events of 32 B.C., implies that there were cities in Italy which favoured Antonius and gave Octavianus some trouble to crush them.
513. addunt in spatia, 'throw themselves on to the course,' the reflexive se being omitted, as often in poetry. Another rendering is ' go quicker every turn,' addunt being then an imitation of the Greek iinbihoacn, and in spatia — from spatium to spatiuni (cp. in dies, ' from day to day '). This is ingenious, but the meaning given to addunt is purely conjectural. The true reading, however, is uncertain, the MSS. varying between addunt spatia, addunt spatio, addunt in spatia, addunt in spatio, and addunt se in spatio.
GEORGICS IL 2-23. 159
NOTES TO BOOK II.
The culture of trees in general, and of the vine in particular, Is the subject of this book. First there is a statement of the various ways of propagating ;i-34) and of training (35-82) trees, then a description pf the various kinds of trees (S3-135), followed by a digression in praise of Italy (136-176). The qualities of the different sorts of soils are next discussed (i 77-258), the culture of the vine is treated in considerable detail (259-419^, the management of other trees and plants is briefly dismissed (420-457), and the book ends with the celebrated episode in praise of country life.
— ^3
2, 3. silvestria virgulta, ' th^^fojgst undergrowth,' used loosely for arhores, introduced into this book a^S^orters ^f the vine.
5. tibi, etc., ' for thee the land is briglif-with teeming harvest of the vine.' autumno here = ' har\-est,' like ovdipa in Greek. ^B^-^Jiythm of the line is Clreek : for the lengthening of the final svllableJH gravidus see Introd.
p- is. . ■ ■ C>- ' V
9. ' Various are the modes of producing trees.' The metbpdsiiSpecihed are (i) natural, divided into spontaneous generation (10-13), generation by seed (14-16), by suckers (17-19); (2) artificial, of which there are six kinds (20-34^.
14. posito, 'dropped,' not 'sown;' for it is only natural modes of propagation which are here spoken of.
15. nemorum, partitive genitive, 'queen of the forest,' lit. 'largest (of the trees) of the forest.' lovi, ' for Jupiter,' to whom oaks were sacred.
16. aesculus, a special kind of oak with broad leaves, habitao Graiis oracula, ' deemed oracular by the Greeks;' an allusion to the oak-groves of Dodona.
17- pullulat, 'sprouts,' i.e. hy piilH or shoots.
18. Parnasia, ' of Parnassus,' i. e. sacred to Apollo of Delphi, which was near Mount Parnassus.
21. fruticuni, 'shrubs.'
22. via, ' in its course:' not exactly 'by method' ^Con.); the idea being that of practical experience (usus) gradually devising new processes as it goes on. Such new processes may have been hit on by chance and tiof by regular method.
23. Here follow six methods of artificially propagating trees. The first is by 'suckers' (plantas), i.e. shoots growing from the root, which arc lo-rn off and planted.
i6o GEORGICS IT. 24-46.
24, 25. The second method, by 'sets' (stirpes), 'shafts' (sudes), and ' stakes ' (vallos). Pieces of the tree were cut off, and either ' cleft in four ' (ciuadrifidas) at the bottom, to form a root, or sharj^ened to a point acuto robore\ and then buried in the ground.
26, 27. ' Some trees await the arches of the bent-down layer, and nurseries quickset in their native ground.' The third method, by 'layers' (propa- ginis). A young bough was bent down (presses) till it took root in the earth beside its parent tree (sua terra),' without being severed from it (viva).
28, 29. The fourth method, by ' cuttings.' A shoot from the top of the tree (summum cacumen) is simply cut off and planted, putator, the ' pruner,' i. e. the gardener who has taken the cutting, referens, 'restoring' to earth, from which the tree originally rose.
30, 31. The fifth method. The trunk is cut up (caudicibns sectis) and buried, and a new root springs from the dry wood, oleagiua, the olive is mentioned merely as one of the several trees which are propagated in this way. The difference between this and the second method is that here the pieces of wood are smaller, and have no root, or imitation of a root.
32-34. The sixth method, by grafting. ' Often we see the branches of one tree change (vertere, intrans.) without harm to those of another ; the pear-tree is transformed, and bears engrafted apples, and stony cornel-trees blush with plums.' corna (cornel berries) appears to be here used for f^r;;(?j- (cornel-trees), and the epithet lapidosa is only in strictness applicable to the berry. The meaning is that plums are grafted on cornel stocks. Con. and others take corna literally, and translate, 'and stoney cornel berries redden on plum-trees ;' supposing that cornels are grafted on plums. But this appears to be most improbable.
35. generatim, ' after their kind,' a Lucretian word (i. 20, etc.).
37, 38. iuvat, etc. ' What joy to plant Ismarus with the vine, and clothe huge Taburnus with olives ! ' Virgil points to two great tiiumphs of human industry. Ismarus was famous for wine in Homer's day, Od. ix. 198.
39-41. 'Come thou too and complete with me our course begun,' i.e. the writing of the Georgics, undertaken by request of Maecenas, who is ad- dressed in each boo'K. laborem, cogn. ace. with decurre, lit. ' to run over a course from one end to the other,' and so 'perform,' 'complete.' cp. Catull. Ixiv. 7 Ansi sunt vada salsa ciia decurrcre ptippi. volans, 'at full speed.' pelago patenti, ' over the broad sea,' local ablative.
43. An imitation of Hom. 11. ii. 488-490 ttXtjOvv 5' ovk av eyw ix.v9-qcop.ai 01)8' uvoprjvai, OvS' d fioi 5e«a /xiv yXwcrcrai, ScVa 5« aTojxaT iliv, ^oivt) 5' clppTjKTos, xaA/fsoj/ 6e' fioi rjTop ivilr]. \Vith non supply optciit as apodosls to si sint.
44. prinii litoris oram, ' coast the very edge of the shore,' a variety for pri}na>/i litoris oram.
45. 46. in manibus terrae, ' tlie land is in our grasp.' non hie, etc. ' I shall not detain you here (hie, at this point), like the epic poets, wth
GEORGIC'S II. 47-6y. 161
mythical strains (carmine ftcto"*, or digressions (ambagfes' , or long preludes (exorsa).
47. oras (Med.) is better than auras, luiniiiis orae being a favourite expression of Ennius and Lucretius, denoting the line or border which divides light from darkness, being from non-being ; cp. Lucr. i. 22, Aen. vii. 660. Con. quotes Gray's expression, ' the warm precincts of the cheer- ful day.'
49,50. natura, 'productive power,' Lucr. iii. 273. inserat, 'graft' (with cuttings from other trees), scrobitous mandet miitata sutoactis, * transplant them to well-dug trenches ; ' cp. Cic. Sen. 15 terrac grcinio inol- liio ac stthacto semen exeipit, and the phrases siibigere aj~va, etc.
51, 52. artes = ' qualities' or * lessons ' acquired by training, as opposed to natural characteristics. ' By constant training they soon will follow whatsoever line you shall wish.' voles is perhaps less forcible than voees, but has better MS. authority, exuerint, sequentur, vivid use of fut. indie, in apodosis, instead of the normal subj. Kenn. would retain voces, read sequantiir without MS. authority, and regard exuerint as perf subj., thus making the sentence more grammatically regular. But the use of the indie, in such cases is not uncommon in poetry.
53. stirpitons ab imis, i.e. by suckers, as explained 1. 17 above.
54. hoc faciat, 'would do the same,' i.e. bear fruit. Another reading is faciei, vacuos, 'open fields,' in contrast to the wood, where it has no room to grow, digesta, ' planted out.'
56. xiruntque ferentem, ' wither up its powers of bearing.' 57-60. seminibus iactis, 'dropped,' \^e. posit 0 se/nine 1. 14. He is still speaking of natural growths, seris nepotibiis, ' descendants yet unborn.' poma, ' fruit' in general, avibus praedani, i.e. too poor to be worth picking by men.
62. cogendae, ' must be drilled ' into trenches (as soldiers in orJinein). m\ilta niercede, ' at a great cost of labour.'
63, 64. truncis, propagine, iiistrum. ablat., ' by the method of.' trun- ds, ' stskts,' = caudicihtis sectis \. 30. propagine and robore refer to the methods by ' layers' and ' sets ' explained 11. 24-26 above, respondent, 'an- swer,' correspond to our hopes : cp. G. i. 47 voiis respondet avari Agricolae.
65. plantis, ' suckers,' as in 1. 1 3.
66. coronae, descriptive gen., 'the shady tree that formed the chaplet of Hercules;' i.e. the poplar, which, according to legend, Hercules found growing on the banks of Acheron, when he brought Cerberus from below, and of which he made himself a crown.
67. Cliaonii Patris glandes, ' the acorns of Jove of Dodona,' referring to the celebrated oak-groves and oracle of Jupiter at Dodona in Chaonia (,a district of Epirus).
69. An example of a hypermetric line, in which the elided syllable is preceded by a trochee. The only other instance is in G. iii. 449 vivaqua stilphura Idaeasque pices. Man)' editors, in order lo avoid the exceptional
L
i62 GEORGICS 11. 70-88.
rhythm, transpose the line to iuseritiir vera et nncis arlnilits horrida fctii. But there seems to be no good ground for rejecting the testimony of the MSS., supported by Servius. Copyists were more inclined to remove metrical anomalies than to insert them : and it is most improbable that the present reading should have been due to mistakes or alterations on their part. On the general subject of hypermetric lines see Introd. p. 19. hor- rida, ' rough,' alluding to its bark.
70. gessere, the perfect denotes custom.
71. fagus, nom. sing. ; the -iis being lengthened in arsi before a vowel. See Introd. jj. 17. castaneae, gen. sing, depending on flore, understood from the next line. The MS. reading \ifagos\ castaneae then is nom. plur., and the words belong to the previous <:\2Mi&— castaneae gesserc fagos. But Virgil must mean that beeches bear chestnuts, and not that chestnut- trees bear beech-nuts. The difference between fagos and fagiis is a very slight one : and general considerations may here be allowed to override the testimony of the MSS.
73. ' Nor is the method of grafting and of budding one and the same.' simplex here = ' one;' cp. Hor. Od. iv. 14. 13 ////j- viic siinplici, 'more than once.' modus inserere = w^(//« inserendi, the infin. being equivalent to a case of a verbal substantive: cp. G. i. 213 iciiipiis hiiino tegere, Aen. iii. 670 dcxtra adfectare potcstas. oculos im.ponere, ' to bud,' Gk. ivo<\>Ga\yii.a [niii .
Tk-ll. The process of budding. ' Where the buds burst forth from the middle of the bark, and break the thin coating (tunicas, i.e. the inner bark under the cortex\ a tiny orifice is made (fit, i.e. by the knife) in the knot itself; here they place a bud from a strange tree, and teach it to grow into the sappy (udo' bark.'
78 sqq., the process of grafting, enodes, • smooth.' resecantur, ' ara slit open ' to admit the wedge.
80. et, 'a remnant of primitive simplicity of expression' (Con.), i.e. in coordination rather than subordination of clauses. See on Eel. vii. 7.
81. exiit, the perf. vividly expresses the instantaneousness of tiie growth.
86. orchades, olives of an oblong shape, hence the name, radii, spindle-shaped olives, pausia, a kind of olive which had to be gathered before it was ripe.
87. Alcinoi silvae, 'the orchards of Alcinous,' denote the same thing as poma. The gardens of Alcinous, king of the Phaeacians, are described in Od. vii. 112 sqq. There was a proverb, Alcinoo dare poma, like our 'carry coals to Newcastle.'
88. Criistumiis, ' from Crustumerium,' a town a few miles north of ]\ome. volaemis, a large kind of pear, so called, according to Scr\ius, because it fdled the vola, or hollow of the liand. Virgil sa}'S that the ■suckers are not the same' in these jiears, merely meaning that the jjcars are different.
GEORGICS II. 89-121. 163
89. artooribus, probably the ' trees' on which the vine was supported, and not the vines themselves. This is the technical meaning of arbor, as opposed to vitis, e.g. 1. 290 below.
91-95. Mareotides albae, ' the white grapes of Lake Mareotis ' in Egypt", passo, ' raisin-winc,' from passu uva, grapes spread out to dry. psithia, lageos, Greek names of vines, of unknown origin, tenuis, ' subtle,' ' penetrating ;' explained by the next line. The interpretation 'thin,' 'light,' is hardly consistent with the context, olim, 'one day,' 'hereafter.' purpureas and .preciae (according to Sex\ms= praccoijiiaf) are specific names for certain kinds of grape in Columella.
96. Bhaetica, from the district at the foot of the Rhaetian Alps. The wine from the Falcniiis ager in Campania was most celebrated.
97. Amineae, this wine was grown in various parts of Italy. The origin of the name is unknown, though Aminna in Thessaly has been suggested. firmissima, 'best for keeping.' Pliny (xiv. 2) speaks of \\\q firiiiitas of the Aminaean wines, contra oinne sidiis firmissima.
98. Tniolius, from Mount Tmolus in Lydia. assurgit, ' yields pre- cedence to,' ' rises in respect for :' a quaint expression as applied to wines : cp. Eel. vi. 66. rex ipse Phanaeus, ' royal Phanaeus himself {Qow. ., i. e. the wine from Phanae, a promontory in Chios.
99, 100. Ar^itis, from dp7os, in allusion to the colour of the grape or wine. There were an Argitis viaior and Argitis /iiiiior. cui non, etc.. ' which none can match for yielding so much,' etc. certaverit, second fut. indie, fluere, durare, a freer poetical use of infm. to express result in imitation of Greek.
101. dis, etc. The best wines were reserved for the dessert or niensa secunda, at which a libation was first poured to the gods.
102. bumaste f/SoOs, ^a(rTos = big-breasts}, a kind of vine with large grapes.
104. est numerus = 6'j/ mimcraiuii faciillas (Kenn.). neque enim, etc. 'nor indeed is it important to count them up.'
108. lonii fiuctus, ' the waves of the Ionian sea,' i. e. the sea between South Italy and Greece. The sea-waves and desert-sands are natural examples of number past counting : cp. the oracle in Hdt. i. 47 olla t «7<j \p6.yn>.f)\) t' apiOfxiv Koi fifTpa OaXauffr]'!.
109. Cp. Lucr. i. 166 fcrre omncs omnia posscnl. ' The expression is probably almost proverbial, like non omnia possuiniis omncs'' (Munro\
110. fluminibus, ' by rivers.'
114. extremis, ' remotest,' is illustrated by the next line, cultoribus, dat. of agent, not uncommon after passive participles.
116. divisae arboribus patriae, ' trees have their homes portioned out to them.'
119. balsaina, the balsam-tree of Arabia, acanthi, the acacia of Egypt.
120. lana, ' cotton,' called ^ipl.ov otto ^vKox) by Herodotus.
121. Silk \\as supposed to be a down scraped from the leaves of tree.-,
I. 2
164 GEORGICS IL 122-149.
until, in tlic reign of Justinian about 530 A. i'.\ some Persian merchants brought sill<\\orms from the East.
122. Oceano propior India, apparently the ^Malabar coast, whose jungles, abounding in immense teak and jack trees, run close to the sea.
123,124. extremi sinus orbis, 'earth's furthest nook.' aera siim- mum, arboris, 'the air above the tree.' vincere, 'win their way through ;' cp. Thuc. i. 21 If fj.v9ujd{s (Kvei'iKTjKoTa, '(stories) which have made their way into the region of fable;' also Aen. v. 155 /octtm superare priorciii.
126,127. tristes, 'bitter.' tardnm saporem, 'lingering taste.' felicis, ' blessed ' or ' propitious ' (as an antidote . mali, ' citron.' praesantius, etc., 'no more sovereign remedy,' see Eel. i. 42, note.
129. Perhaps interpolated from iii. 283. It is commented on by Servius, but in the best MSS. only appears in the margin.
133. erat, for cssct; that which 70ould have been is stated as if it ivas, a common device for giving liveliness to the style : cp. Aen. ii. 55 si mens non lacva fnisset . Iinpiileraf ferro, etc.
134, 135. ad prima, 'in the highest degree.' animas et olentia ora- ' their mouths" noisome breath.' fovent, lit. 'cherish,' here = ' purify.'
136-176. Episode in praise of Italy. 'In this episode,' says Mr. Sellar iP- 253), ' the sorrow for the past and foreboding for the future, which marks the close of the first book of the Georgics, has entirely cleared away. The feeling now expressed is one of pride and exultation in Italy . . . The glory of Italy 1. 174) is declared to be the motive for the revival of this ancient theme.'
136. silvae, gen. after cUfissi/na, 'the Median land, with all its wealth of Avood.' Con. takes silvae, nom. j)lur., and terra in apposition.
138. certent, potential, 'can vie.'
140, 141. tanri, in allusion to the Argonautic legends of Colchis. Jason ])loughed the land with fire-breathing oxen, and sowed it with a dragon's teeth, from whence sjKang armed warriois. satis dentibus, ablat. absol., a sort of vartpov Ttponpov, as the dragon's teeth Avere sown after the bulls had ploughed the land. Transl. ' No fire-breathing bulls have ploughed, and no dragon's teeth have been sown.'
144. oleae arnxentaqtie, for the hiatus see Introd. \). iS.
145. hinc, ex liae terra. ' Hence comes the war-horse thai jirances o'er the plain.' bellator eqnus, as venator eaiiis Aen. xii. 751, xi. 6S0.
146. 147. The Umbrian river Clitumnus was famous for a breed of white cattle, their whiteness being ascribed to the qualities of the stream. ^Vhitc bulls were required as victims at triumphs, sacro. of rivers, springs, etc as the abode of deities.
149. ' Here is ever-present spring, and summer after summer-time.' alienis mensibns recalls Lucr. i. 182 alienis part Una anni, but in a different connection, Lucretius speaking of the derangement of nature. Sec note to Eel. x. 54. ver and aestas must be taken loosely and allowance made for ])otlical exaggeration oftiie climate of Italy.
GEO RG res n. 1,30-169. 165
150. poinis. dative, 'twice serviceable for fruit,' i.e. yielding twice in the year. It might also be tai<en as ablat., ' serviceable with fruit.'
152. semiua, ' brood,' an imitation from Lucr. iii. 741 h-is/c lco)ium ScininiuDt.
153, 154. tauto, i. e. as elsewhere ; •' nor gathers his scaly form into a coil with so vast a sweep.'
155. ' Think too of many a noble city, the triumph of our toil, many a town piled by the hand of man on beetling crags, and the streams that flow beneath their ancient walls.' operuni lataorem, ' laborious works :' the phrase recurs Aen. i. 455. Mr. Sellar, speaking of this passage, says, ' By a few powerful strokes he combines the characteristic features and the great memories of Italian towns in lines which recur to every traveller as he passes through Italy . . . No expression of patriotic sentiment in any language is more pure and noble than this.'
158. The two seas are the mare siiperii/ii or Adriatic, and the y/iarc infertim or Tyrrhemiin, that between Italy and Sicily.
159. Iiarius, now Lake Como.
160. assurg'ens, 'heaving with the waves and roaring of a sea.' Mr. Sellar quotes Goethe's reminiscence of this line on coming to the Lago di Garda (Benacus^ — ' This is the first Latin verse, the subject of which ever stood visibly before me ; and now in the present moment, when the wind is blowing stronger and stronger, and the lake casts loftier billows against the little harbour, it is just as true as it was hundreds of years ago. Much, indeed, has changed, but the wind still roars about the lake, the aspect of wliich gains even greater glory from a line of Virgil.'
161. portus. Lakes Avernus and Lucrinus were two land-locked pools on the coast near Baiae. Agrippa cut a channel between them, strengthened the bank between Lucrinus and the sea with masonry laucriuo addita claustra', and made an entrance in it for ships. The double haven was tiicn called Tortus lulius in honour of the lulia gens, and of Octavianus ns its representative.
163, 164. ' Where the Julian waters (i.e. the harbour) echo afar with the recoil of the sea beaten back by the claustra of the outer lake}, and the Tyrrhenian tide see on 1. 158 above^ comes in to the channels of Avernus' (the inner lake\ Virgil describes two distinct features, (i) the exclusion of the sea by a breakwater, (21 its admission by the entrance channel to the inner harbour. The Lucrine lake was nearly filieil up by an earthquake in 1538, and Avernus is again shut off from the sen.
165,166. haec eadem, 'she too' ;Italy\ argenti rivos, 'veins of silver,' a plirase from Lucretius (v. i 266% by whom however it is applied to streams oi inoflen metal, auro pUirima fiiixit, ' llowcd in rich streams of gold.' The reference is probably to veins of metal in the mines; thougli Virgil might be thinking of river-; liringing (lown gold, as llu- I'o was supposed ti) do.
167-160. viruni is rnqilialic ; lie goes uii to cclebrale the men \\h(jni
1 66 GEORGICS 11. 1 70-1.96.
Italy produces, gfenus acre virvim referring to all that follows ; ' a gallant race of men, too, has she borne — Marsi and Sabine chivalry, Ligurians trained to hardship and Volscian pikemen, Decii, Marii, great Camilli,' etc. pubes, like izivaies (Aen. ii. 348\ 'has the general sense of ' warriors.' assuetum malo, i. e. as mountaineers, verutos, armed with the vcni Sabdhim (Aen. vii. 665). Marios, Camillos, there was only one cele- brated Marius, and one celebrated Camillus : but the plurals are used to denote a type.
170. Scipiadas (cp. Aen. vi. 842), a hybrid word employed for metrical reasons by Virgil and Lucretius, and perhaps by Ennius before them; Scipioncs being unmanageable in heroic verse.
171, 172. These lines refer to the settlement of the East by Octavianus after his victory (iam victor) at Actium B. c. 31. imbellem, an expression of national contempt for the conquered. Romanis arcibus, i. e. the seven hills, as in 1. 535.
173-176. ' Hail, land of Saturn, mighty mother of noble liuits and noble ' heroes ! For thee I essay my theme, the glory and the skill ofold ; for thee am 1 bold to unseal the hallowed springs, and sing the song of Ascra through the towns of Rome.' Saturnia, for Saturn was king in Latium during the golden age. Ascraeum, Ascra in Boeotia was the birth-place of Ilesiod, whose ]Vorks and Days is largely imitated by Virgil in the Georgics.
177. ingeniis, 'temper,' cp. habitus loconim G. i. 52. quae robora, etc., ' their relative strength and colour and productive power.'
179. difficiles, ' unyielding,' opposed to facilis 1. 223. maligiii = ' stingy,' 'niggardly,' and so ' barren ' — the opposite to hcuigniis.
181. Palladia, the olive being sacred lo Pallas, vivacis, olives, accord- ing to the elder Pliny, lived for 200 years.
182. iudicio est, 'is a sign,' predicative dative.
184, 185. uligine, the natural moisture of the earth, Gk. k/^aj. quique freqiiens, ' a plain with abundant herbage and a teeming bosom.
188. editus Austro, ' rising to the South;' Austro being poetical dative of the recipient, instead of the usual ad Aiistni//!: cp. Aen. ii. 186 cado cdticerc.
190-192. hie, i.e. the soil whose various jiroperties have been described in II. 184-189. olim, 'in time to come.' iivae, gen. after fertilis ; so with dives, fclix.fcrax, and other adjectives, qualem, etc., the Ijest wines were used for libations, cp. 1. loi above, pateris et auro, 'golden bowls.'
193, 194. ebur, the ' ivory ' fiute. Tyrrhenus, probably a customary epithet of flute-players, as having been, like actors Liv. vii. 2;, originally imported from Etruria, the source of all the arts at Rome. The life of a flute- player attached to some temple would make him pingviis, 'sleek' and 'fat:' cp. the language of old English ballads about monks and friars. reddimus, 'render,' i.e. as a gift due to the gods.
190. I'.rentes, the bite of goals was thought poisonous, especially to olivc-tr&es.
GEORGICS IT. 197-242. 167
197. ' Cjo to the glades and distant fields of fertile Tarentnm.'
198. amisit Mantua, referring to the distribution of Mantuan territory by the triumvirs among their veteran troops. See Eel. i and ix.
200. deerunt, dissyllable by synizesis.
203, 204. nigra, ' this is the colour of the land in Campania, and indi- cates the presence of decayed animal and vegetable matter' (Keightley). fere, ' for the most part.' pinguis, etc., ' a soil that shows rich when the ploughshare is driven in.' putre, 'crumbling.'
205. iuvencis, abl. of circumstance.
207. The antecedent to unde must be supplied. ' Or again (that soil is best for com"; from whence,' etc. ; i. e. a lately cleared soil is also good for corn, iratns, at the unproductive wood.
211. riidis, 'untried;' so mare rude Catull. Ixiv. 11. enituit, ex- plained by some of the shining look of the earth after ploughing, is better taken generally of the brightness of cultivated fields. ' The virgin plain soon smiles, when once it has felt the plough.' enituit, for the lengthening of the final syllable see Introd. p. 17.
212. nam, etc. (he recommends strong or newly cleared soils , ' for as for the gravel of a down country it hardly grows cassia-shrubs and rosemary for bees ' — much less corn for men. rorem, sc. inarinttiii.
214, 215. tofus, ' tufa,' a porous volcanic stone common in Italy. negant, etc., 'say that no other lands,' etc., i.e. the presence of tufa and marl is a sigir that snakes haunt the place.
219. viridi has the best MS. authority : viridis, the other reading, would go closely with vestit, ' clothes itself in green.*
220. scatoie et salsa robi^ne, hendiadys : 'with a scurf of briny rust.'
222, 223. oleo, ' for oil,' a poetical use of the dative : oleae, the other reading, has less MS. support, facilem, ' kindly, ' opposed to difficilis 1. 179.
225. vacuis, 'desolate,' i.e. 'thinly peopled,' cp. vaaiis Ci/»n's Jiw. iii. 2. The river Clanius in Campania overflowed '^non aequus) Acerrae.
227. utrtini must be supplied with rara sit : si belongs to reciuires.
231. in solido, ' where the ground is firm.' puteum, ' a pit.'
233. si deerunt (above I. 200), ' if there is not enough ' (to fill up the hole'.
235-237. scrobibus, plur. for sing., used loosely as --= pulco. superabit gives the opposite idea to deerunt. ' If there be earth left over, when the trench is filled up, 'tis a close soil ; look for resistance in the clods, and stiffness in the ridges, and employ stout oxen for ploughing up the ground.' The epithets cunctantes, crassa, validis are emphatic.
238. perhibetur, ' what is commonly called " bitter." '
239. arando, ' with ploughing,' the gerund being equivalent to an abstract verbal substantive. So habendo, ' with holding,' 1. 250 below.
241, 242. specimen, ' token ' qualos, ' baskets,' and cola, ' strainers,'
1 68 GEORGICS II. 243-267,
denote the same thing, i.e. baskets of close-plaited osier, used as strainers in the wine-press.
243, 244. hue, i. e. into the strainers, ad plenum, ' till the strainers are full."
246, 247. ' BiTt the flavour will clearly betray it, and with bitter disrelisli will warp into a frown the faces of those who taste.' nxanifestus, in sense adverbial, tristia, proleptic. torquebit, cp. Lucr. ii. 400 At contra teti'a absintlii nattira fcriipie Ccntaiiri foedo pertorqiient era sapore, where Munro cites Milton, ' Par. Lost,' x. 599 ' With hatefullest disrelish writhed their jaws.' aniaro, some MSS. give amaror — a substantive only occurring Lucr. iv. 22^. Gellius (i. 21) says that aniaro- was generally read in his time, but that Hyginus, an old commentator, professed to have discovered in a MS. belonging to Virgil's family the v. 1. amaror. aniaro, however, is clearly the best, as sensu is improved by an epithet, and the addition of another nominative similar to sapor is unnecessary (Con.).
248. pingruis, here of a stiff clay soil that will not crumble, denique, 'in brief.'
249, 250. ' It never breaks up when tossed in the hand, but like pitch yields clammily to the fingers as you hold it.' habendo, see note to
251. ipsa, ' in itself (independently of cultivation) productive beyond measure.' The soil is too luxuriant and its products too rank.
253. primis aristis, ' the young ears ; ' over-luxuriance, when the ears are first appearing, being a bad sign.
254, 255. tacitam, in sense adverbial, ' betrays itself by its own weight without further sign.' promptum, ' easy.' oculis, ablative.
256. quis cui, a dou]:)le question, 'which earth has which colour.' sceleratum frigus, ' that vile cold ' (Con.) — the strength of the expression is half playful.
260, 261. excoquere, 'to dry in the sun.' et . . . moutes, 'and to cleave with trenches the large hill-sides.' Virgil inculcates a lesson of hard and thorough work, ante repeats nnilto ante 1. 259. supinatas, 'up- turned.'
263, 264. id curant, 'that '^i.e. a crumbling soil) is the work of.' labefacta movens, ' loosening and upturning.'
26*5. baud uUa vigilantia fugit, 'no watchfulness escapes,' i.e. 'whose watchfulness nothing escapes.' fu^t, perf. denoting custom.
266, 267. ' They first look out a place where the young vine crop may be got ready for its supporters, just like the spot to which it is soon to be removed and planted out ' — i.e. they choose two similar spots, one for a se/ninariiim or nursery, the other for an arbiisttim or regular vineyard. similent . . . et, 'like to that,' etc. the ordinary Latin construction, ar- boribus, i.e. for the trees on which the vine will be trained in tlie regular vineyard, digesta feratur, a poetical variety for fcratiir et digeratiir, ' niav l)e taken and nhinted out.'
GEORGICS IL ^68-289. i6y
268. ' Lest the young plants take unkindly to their mother soil it" suddenly changed.' senxina, here the young vines. The word is often applied to young trees by the agricultural writers.
271. quae . . . axi, ' which side (i. e. back) it turned to the nortli pole.'
272. restituant, ' may reproduce ' the original position, adeo, etc , ' so important is habit in the young ; ' in teneris = ?V; tencris 7-ebus, ' in the case of young things.' Quintilian (i. 3^ read a tciieris, ' from infancy.'
274. canipi is the emphatic word, being equivalent to piano : if it is the fields of a rich plaint you are measuring out.'
275. densa, sc. semiiia. in denso, ' in closely-planted soil.' non seg'nior ubere, ' not less prolific,' lit, ' not slower in fertility : ' c^.fcrtih's nbere 1. 185. Some take in denso iibere together, ' in close-planted soil: ' but, as Con. points out, the words could hardly mean anything but close or stiff soil.
276-278. ' But if you mark out a soil of waving slopes and upland downs, give your rows free space ; and all the same (as in close planting^, when your trees are planted, let every path in the line it cuts square exactly with the others.' The arrangement is to be as symmetrical in open planting as in close, in unguem, ' exactly,' lit. ' to a nail,' a metaphor from sculpture, where the smoothness of the marble was tested by passing the nail over it. Cp. Hor. Sat. i. 5. 32 ad iingiiein factus homo, secto linxite, ' in respect of the line cut ' by each via, or avenue.
279-283. ' As often in some mighty war when a legion has deployed its cohorts in long array .longa with explictiit) ; the column has halted on an open plain and the lines are dressed, and far and wide the ground is all a sea of gleaming brass, before they join their dread encounter, while Mars yet hovers in suspense between the hosts." aere renidenti is suggested by Lucr. ii. 325 totaqiic circiim Aerc rcnidescit tcllits. \'ineyards were ordi- narily arranged (Plin. xvii. 11. 15) in the form of a quincunx — e.g.
And as in the old republican armies the three lines of Ilastati, Principes, and Triarii were drawn up in a similar manner, the comparison is especially appropriate.
284. ' Let all be measured out with roads in even line.' paribus numeris viarum, a rather loose expression, = ' even arrangement of roads.' Other renderings are (i) to take viarum with omnia, but the position of the words is against this ; 2) to join dimensa viarum, ' let all the measured avenues be even ; ' which may possibly be right. Cp. strata viartifH Aen. i. 422.
288. fastigia, ' deptli,' properly ' height.'
289. ausim, ' I should venture,' sul)junct. of modified statement. Thi-; andyi/.v/w facsiin) are the only regular survivals in classical Latin of a
lyo GEORGICS II. z^c-o^\.(^.
series of future forms in -so, -sini, -st-rc (iiicl., subj., infin.\ common in the older dialect of Plautus, old laws and formularies, etc.
290. ' The tree is planted deeper and far into the ground.' terrae, poetical dative of recipient instead of prep, and case : cp. Aen. xi. 205 tcrrac iiifodhint. Some explain tciTac in these places as a survival of the old locative : but the poetical use of the dative in a local sense is common in poetry, arbos, here the tree which serves as a support, as opposed to the vitis or vine.
295. volvens, ' rolling,' and so passing through ; cp. Aen. i. 9 tot vohere casus, durando vincit, 'conquers by lasting,' i.e. 'outlasts.' virum saecula, 'generations of men.' Cp. Lucr. i. 102 Multaque vivetido vitalia vinccrc saccla.
299. coryltim, the hazel is not to be planted as a supporter, flagella, the topmost shoots of the vine, which are not to be used as cuttings.
300. arbore, the tree which supports the vine, plantas, cuttings or shoots.
301. tantus amor terrae. So great is their love for the earth, that shoots taken from a part of the tree far removed from it are less vigorous and serviceable.
302. semina, the 'young plants,' as in 1. 268 above, neve oleae . . . truncos, ' nor plant wild olive trunks in the vineyard,' i. e. do not use the wild olive as a supporter, inseve = nitt'rsere; 11. 312, 313 refer to the vines, which are destroyed if the wild olives catch fire. Some editors read oh-a (a conjecture from o/t:as, found in one MS.), and translate ' do not graft wild stocks {oi oleaster) with tlie olive.' The passage down to 1. 314 would then refer to olives. But this sudden digression about olives in the midst of precepts about vines would be altogether inexplicable, and the MS. support for the reading olea is extremely weak.
303. excidit, a spark is ' dropped ' by careless husbandmen. 308. ruit, 'throws up,' see G. i. 105, note.
310. a vertice, ' from above.'
312. hoc ubi, sc. accidit, a very unusual ellipse, non a stirpe valent, the vines ' have no power left in their roots.' caesaectvie, ' nor when cut ' to make them grow again : que is disjunctive.
314. superat, ' alone remains.'
315. ' Nor let any one have such credit for foresight as to persuade you ;' a condensed expression for tarn prnde)is hahcatur iit persuadeat.
316. moveri, ' persuade you that it should be upturned.' The MSS. vary between moveri and iiiovere : but the former, though harder, is more pleasing in sound after spirante, and should therefore probably be preferred.
317. semine iacto, ' when the young plant is set :' cp. 11. 26S, 302.
318. ' Does it suffer it (the young plant) to attach its frozen root to tlie soil.' This is better than to lake concretam as proleptic = ?Vrt lit con- crescat.
310. riibenti, with flowers.
GEORGICS II. 320-350. 171
320. avis, i. e. the stork ; cp. Juv. .\iv 74 scrpcntc cicoiiia pitllos Niifrit.
322. hiemeiu contingit, ' reaches the winter.' The picture is of the horses of the sun racing along the path of the zodiac.
323. adeo lays stress on ver : ' 'tis even spring that - . .'
326. laetae, 'fruitful.' The fertilising effect of rain descending on the ' lap of earth' is described in a metaphor from physical generation, the sky being wedded to his bride the Earth. Cp. Lucr. i. 250 pereunt imhres ubi cos pater aether In gremitnn mat r is terrai praccifitavit ; and Eur. fr. inc. 890 epa 5' (5 a(nvo<s ovpavus irXrjpovfxfvos "Ofi^pov Treadv Ij "yaiav.
331. laxant sinus, 'unseal their wombs' (Con.), a continuation of the metaphor of 1. 325. superat, etc., 'soft moisture everywhere (oximitous, sc. arvis) abounds.'
333. credere with in novos soles is a condensed expression for ■ trust themselves to come forth towards i.e. 'to meet') the suns of each succeed- ing day.' novos, because they are introducing the warm season. g°raniina, so the MSS. Germina is read by some editors on the authority of Celsus.
336-342. Virgil apparently means that the world must have been born in spring, as the season most favourable to young products of all kinds.
338. crediderim, subj. of modified statement, as traiisieriin 1. 102. ver illud erat, ' 'twas spring-time then.'
341. ferrea, the epithet is in keeping with Virgil's conception of man as born to toil and suffering : cp. G. i. 63 iinde homines nati, dtiriiin genus, tcrrca /ound as a correction in one of the good M.SS. is adopted by most editors, as being more suitable to the passage. But it is less forcible than ferrea, and tautological with arvis. On the whole there seems to be no reason for departing from MS. authority.
342. sidera, the stars are poetically regarded as living inhabitants of the sky.
343. res tenerae, 'young plants:' the phrase is from Lucretius i. 79. possent, ' could bear,' the reference being to spring generally, and not to the time of creation, hunc latoorem, the frosts, etc. to which plants are exposed.
344. A hypermetric verse; see Introd. p. 19.
345. exciperet, 'greet,' i.e. after the winter. The general idea is that of receiving from some other person or condition ; so cxccpit hospitio (from a journey) Hor. .Sat. i. 5. 1, cxcipiaut infantcm from the mother) Juv. vii. 195, excipiat tironcni porta (from a campaign^ ib. xvi. 3.
346. 347. prenies, ' plant.' virgnilta, probably trees in general, and not vines specially, since Theophrastus, from whom the following precepts are taken, applies them to all kinds of trees, meiuor occule — nicnicnto occnlcrc.
348. scxualentes, 'rough.'
350. halitus, jjrobably ' air,' not ' vapour.' The earth being kept open, air will be lietter able to get to the roots, aninios toUent, ' will take
173 GEORGICS IT. 352-381.
heart :' the phrase is used in Aen. ix. 127 of raisinj,' another's spirit!?, iani- que = Tjtri, ' before now.'
352. urgerent, 'overhang them :' it cannot be meant that the plants are to be pressed down and crushed.
354,355. seminibus, 'young vines.' diducere, 'to loosen the earth about their shoots,' i. e. when just making their way above ground, capita, here apparently, as often in Cato, the ' roots ' of the vine, iactare, ' swing,' the bidens being a two-pronged hoe of great weight, used somewhat like a pickaxe.
358, 359. Reeds (calami) and wands of peeled rods (rasae hastilia virgrae) were used as cross-pieces, and placed horizontally on stakes v'sudes) and forks (furcas), to assist the vines in climbing, till they reached the boughs of the elms themselves.
361. tabulata, 'stories' or 'floors:' here of the successive branches of the elm on which the vine was trained. ' And run from story to story along the elms above.*
362 sqq. Munro on Lucr. iii. 451 shows exhaustively how in all this part of the Georgics Virgil's mind appears ' saturated with the verses of Lucretius.'
364. laxis, etc., ' launched into the open sky in full career.' per purum, like aera per vaciiu/ii G. iii. 109. The line is suggested by Lucret. v. 7S6, 787 arboribitsqtic datumst variis exindc per auras Crcsccitdi mag- num i»imissis ceriameii haheiiis.
365. ipsa, sc. vitis, as distinguished from the leaves (frondes\
366. inter legfeudae, 'picked out.' The tmesis with que is common in Lucretius.
368. comas, a natural metaphor for the foliage of trees. Kenn. cites Spenser, 'Faerie Queene,' ii. 11. 19 'When the wroth western wind doth reave their locks;' and Milton, 'Par. Lost,' x. 1066 'while the winds Blow moist and keen, shattering the graceful locks Of these fair- spreading trees.'
371, 372. tenendum, 'kept off.' imprudens laborum, ' and knows as yet no trials.'
373. super, ' besides.' indig-nas, ' harsh,' ' cruel ; ' the winter is regarded as a living being, whose conduct is unworthy.
374. uri, 'buffaloes;' strictly speaking those of Germany (whence the name 'Ur-ochs,' 'Auerochs,' i.e. wild ox), capreae, 'roes.' sequaoes, 'persecuting' or 'troublesome.'
376-379. 'No cold that hoar-frost ever congealed, no summer that ever smote heavily on the parching rocks, has been so fatal to it (illi, dat.) as the herds, with the venom of their sharp tooth, and wounds impressed upon the stem that they have gnawed' (Con.), frigfora concreta pruina, an arti- ficial Virgilian variation for the Lucretian nix acri concreta pniina iii. 20. admorso, the vv. 11. ad vtorstim, a morsn, etc., probably arose from ignijrance of the fact that slirps is sometimes masculine in Virgil.
380, 381. The reference is to the Dionvsiac festivals at Athens, at which
GEORGICS II. 382-403. 173
tragedies and comedies veteres Itidi, 'old plays '^1 were produced, et virtually = (/«//w; see on Eel. vii. 7. proscaenia. 'the stage,' the erection in front of the scacita or back-scene.
382, 383. ' And the sons of Theseus ^1. e. the Athenians) offer prizes for the people at their \illage and cross-road gatherings.' in g'entes, so Ribb. for ingetihs, the reading of almost all the MSS. 13ut ingciitcs, whether taken with pagos or Theseidae, would have no point. The ordinary read- ing iiigcniis (' for wit' or 'for men of wit" rests on the authority of only one MS., and is more likely to have been a correction for ingeutis, than vice versa, pagos et compita, ^'irgil is thinking of the Rural Dionysia held in the Attic denies, but uses language more appropriate to the Roman rural festivals, the Paganalia and Compitalia, held in the villages and cross-roads.
384. ' Dance on greased bags of goat-skin in the velvet meads.' This dance upon a goat-skin 6.oKai\iarmos) was an amusement at the Anthesteria, and other festivals of Dionysus.
385, 386. This refers to the Fcsceimiiia caniiiiia, rude satiric dialogues in extempore verse, carried on by the Italians at their rustic festivals. Cp. Hor. Epp. ii. I. 145-148 FesceiDiiiia per liiinc inventa liccntia morein Veisibzis altcrnis cpprobria nistica fiidit, Lihertasqttc rccurrentes accept a per annos Lusit amabiliter. versibiis incomptis, probably the rough Saturnian verse, the indigenous metre of Italy.
387. corticibiis cavatis, ablat. of material, ' masks of hollowed bark.' 389. oscilla (dim. of osctiliiiii, from os), faces of Bacchus hung on trees so as to turn every way with the wind, and spread fertility, whence oscillare, 'to swing.' mollia, 'waving.' Con., however, explain it as =' mild,' • tender,' of the god's features.
392. honestum, ' comely.'
393. houorem, any form of celebration; here of a 'hymn,' in Aen. i. 53 of a • sacrifice.'
394. lances, 'dishes' of all fruits in season; hence called saturae, whence saiitra, originally a hodge-podge or medley, like our ' miscellanies.'
395. sacer, ' devoted.'
397. curandis, 'dressing' the vines, refers to the various operations subsequent to the planting.
398. eTihuMsXii — c.rhaHst ioiiis ; 'which has never exhaustion enough,' i.e. is never at an end. For pass. part. neut. thus used as subst. (mainly poetical , cp. G. iii. 34S cxspectatttin, Aen. v. 6 iiotii/ii, Li v. i. 53 ni degeiiera/ta/t in aliis huic qiicque dccori offecissei.
399. versis, i.e. with the back of the hoe.
401. nemus, the ' grove ' (i. e. both the vines, and the trees which support them; must be thinned of their leaves, in order to l;t the sun reach the clusters.
403. iam olim, 'even then;' the original sense of olim locative from clle = iUc is 'r\t that lime;' and the indefmite sense 'at sometime,' 'formerly,' comes later.
174 GEORGICS 11. 406-427.
406, 407. Saturni dente, i.e. the pruning knife, with which Saturn was regularly represented ; Ovid (^Ibis 214) calls \iw\\faliifcr scnex. relictam, 'which he has left,' i.e. he comes back to the vine, fin^it, 'moulds' or ' shapes.'
408 sqq. 'Virgil here imitates the short sententious maxims of Hesiod, and the imperative forms in -to of the old Roman laws ' (Kenn.). primus, etc. are emphatic : ' Be the first to . . .'
409. sarmenta, ' prunings,' from sarpo, an old agricultural term whose root is identical with apira^tii. vallos, ' vine poles.'
410. metito, lit. ' mow,' here used of gathering the grapes, bis . . . umbra, 'twice the vines are overshadowed with leaves;' i.e. the leaves have to be thinned twice in the year.
411. ' Twice (in the year) do weeds choke your crop of vines with thick noxious growth.' sentibus, ' briars,' here of any noxious weed.
412. uterque labor, i.e. the thinning of the leaves {painpinatid), and the rooting out of weeds {rnncatio). laudato, etc., 'praise a large estate, farm a small one : ' an epigrammatic expression borrowed from Hesiod, Jl'orks 641 vrf vKiyrjv alvetv /xcydKr] 5' evi <popTia Oeadai. The meaning implied in laudato, as in aivtiv and iiraivuv in Greek, is ' praise but don't make use of,' i. e. ' decline.'
413-415. Broom (ruscus), reeds and osiers (harundo, salicti) were used to bind the vines to the elms or other supports.
416. reponunt, i. e. ' no longer demand.'
417. 'Now the last vine-dresser is singing over the completion of his rows.' effectos, sc. essf. antes, a rare word, used also of ranks of soldiers.
419. uvis, dat. of indirect reference, 'for the grapes.' It might be taken, but less probably, as dat. of the agent, ' by the grapes.'
421. tenaces, 'tearing' the ground (Con.\
422. ' When once they have taken root in the soil or weathered the breezes.'
423. satis, from jata, ' the olives.'
424. cum vomer e, ' with the aid of the plough-share,' a repetition of the idea already expressed in cum dente recluditur unco. Some under- stand dente unco of the hoe, and supply recluditur with the second cum, which they take as a conjunction. But to say that the earth supplies mois- ture, when upturned by the hoe, and teeming crops, when upturned by the ploughshare, seems absurd.
425. hoc, etc. ' This (i. e. ploughing) it is which nurtures the rich olive so dear to Peace.' nutritur has the best MS. authority. The v. 1. mctritor (' with this rear the olive,' etc.^ is generally adopted by the editors. But nutritur, besides being better supported, is superior in sense, as the im- perative would be rather out of place here, placitam, ' pleasing,' an example of the past part, of an intrans. verb used actively : not uncommon in poetry and old Latin. Faci, the olive being the universal token of peace or suppli- cation.
426. 427. poma —' fruit-trees.' Tlie metaphor is that of a man feeling his limbs strung under liim. vires suas. ' their jiropcr or full strength.'
GEORGICS 11. 430-448. 175
430.' aviaria, 'haunts of birds,' i.e. woods; cp. Lucr. i. \% frondifcrasqtic domos avium.
431. toudentur cytisi, ' lucerne serves for fodder.'
432. ig-nes, ' fires ' rather than ' torch-lights.'
433. et expresses surprise or indignation, as often : cp. Aen. \\. S06 (•;' diibitamtis adhuc virttite extendere vires, Cic. Phil. i. 8 ;■/ vos acta Caesan's dcfciiditis, qui leges cvertitis ?
434. 435. maiora, such as are mentioned in 11. 437 sqq. ; minora being willows, broom, etc. sequar, 'speak of.' illae, pleonastic, giving addi- tional emphasis : cp. Aen. i. 3 niultum ille et terns iactatus et alto, v. 456 nunc dextra ingeminans ictus, nutic ille sinistra.
437. Virgil continues the subject of forest-trees (maiora). Cytorus, a mountain of Paphlagonia covered with box-trees. The box-tree grows indigenous in a few spots in England — e.g. on the Chiltern Hills in Buckinghamshire.
438. Naryciae, ' Bruttian,' Naryx in Opuntian Locris being the mother country of the Bruttian Locri. Bruttian pitch was celebrated.
439. obnozia, * indebted.'
441. ' For ever rent and wrecked by stormy blasts.' The rhythm is expressive of the fitful gusts of wind, animosi ;a«ma) = ' windy,' 'stormy;' Ov. Am. i. 6. 51 impulsa et animoso ianiia ven to, Stat. Theb. ix. 459 animosa- que surgit Tempestas ; so of pictures, i. e. ' full of life,' Prop. iv. 8. 9 Gloria Lysippost animosa cffingere signa. This last example especially points to a distinction between this and aniinosus = ' cowragtow?,' (animus); or at any rate to two quite distinct uses of the same word, the one associated with the idea of anima, the other with that oi animus. frangTintctue feruntque, like agere et ferre ; the double expression enhancing the notion of violence as in ' harry and carry.'
442. fetus, ' products ' — not ' fruits,' for they are stcrilcs.
443. A hypermetric line, see Introd. p. 19.
444. hiuc, ex Iiis silvis. trivere, ' they shape.' The perfect denotes custom, tympana, ' drum-wheels ' of solid wood, without spokes (like those now in use on railways).
445. pandas carinas, 'curved /mils,' not keels, which would be straight. The v/ord carina, as Prof. Nettleship shows ( ' Contributions to Latin Lexico- graphy' , denotes properly the lower part or bottom of a ship, not merely the keel, though it is sometimes used in this latter sense. He quotes, among other passages, Enn. A. ^Go pandani ductura carina>n, Cat. 64. 10 pinea con- iungens injlexae texta carinae, Caes. B. G. carinae planiores quam nostrarum navinin, quo facilius vada cxcipere possent. Cp. also .Sail. Jug. 1 8. S aedijicia Numidarum oblonga, incurvis lateribus texta, quasi naviuin carinae.
446. viminibns, frondibus, ablatives. The leaves of the elm, in times of scarcity, were used for fodder.
447. 448. hastilibiis, ' lance-like ' shoots, as Aen. iii. 23. bona boUo, c])ithet of cornels : ihc construction is myrlus ct comas fccundae validis
176 GEORGICS II, 449-475.
liastilibiis. Ituraeos, a literary epithet, the Ituraei being a tribe of Arab archers in Palestine.
449. nee . . . non. ' moreover.' leves and torno rasile are semi-pro- leptic (or rather, participial) in construction — the linden if smoothedj and the box if planed by the chisel.
452. niissa, ' sped down the To ;' Pado, local ablative.
453. alvo, the 'entrails' of a diseased ilex : so all the MSS. except one, which gives alveo. [Cp. Shakespeare, ' Tempest,' i. 2. 293 ' I will rend an oak, And peg thee in his knotty entrails.'] alvtis is regularly used by agri- cultural writers of a bee-hive.
454. memorandum, ' note-worthy.' Baccheia, '&aKyi]ia.
456. Centatiros, referring to the drunken contest between the Centaurs and Lapithae at the marriage feast of Pirithous, king of the Lapithae. leto, instrumental abl.
458-540. In this episode ' the charm of peaceful contemplation, of Nature in her serenest aspect and harmony with the human soul, of an ethical ideal based on religious belief and national traditions, of a life of pure and tranquil happiness, remote from the clash of arms and the pride and passions of the world, is made present to us in a strain of continuous and modulated music, which neither Virgil himself nor any other poet has surpassed' .Sellar, 'Virgil,' ch. vi. pp. 256, 257).
458. 'How blest beyond measure, could they but know their own happiness, arc the country folk ! ' fortunatos, accus. of exclamation like me miseruin I etc. norint, perf. subj. with pres. meaning : the apodosis would be sint.
460. hiimo, * from the ground.' facilem, ' plenteous.' iustissima, < most righteous,' because she gives without stint to all alike.
461, 462. forilbus superbis, descriptive abl. with domns alta. mane salutantnm, i.e. clients and others j^aying their respects. Such levees were held early, from 6 to 8 A.M.; cp. Mart. iv. 8. i prima saliitaiites atqtie altera coittiiict hora. totis aedibus, ' from the whole palace.'
463, 464. ' Nor gaze on doors inlaid (varios) with lovely tortoise-shell, and gold-embroidered coverlets and bronzes of Ephyra.' illusas, ' fanci- fully wrought:' ludcre, Itisiis, etc., are used of art imitating nature, and applied to works of art and music. Ephyreia, ' Corinthian,' Ephyra being the old name for Corinth. Corinth was celebrated for its works of art.
465, 466. Assyrio, loosely used for ' Tyrian.' veneno, ' drug,' here with a touch of contempt, casia, an Eastern aromatic tree, iTsed for scent- ing oil. liquid! usiis olivi, ' the service of the clear olive oil.'
467-471. ' Yet have they careless ease and a life that knows no guile, rich in varied wealth— the liberty of broad domains, with grots and fresh lakes ; cool valleys too, and lowing kine, and slumber soft beneath the shade are there.' Tempe, for any beautiful valley : properly the a alley of the Pcneus in Thessaly.
473. ' There is religion and reverence for age.'
475. ante omnia M'ith primum. ' Tirst and before all,' says Virgii,
GEORGICS 11. 476-499. 177
'I would be the poet of philosophy.' Virgil is here thinking not only of Lucretius, but of the Greek philosopher poets, such as Empedocles, Xeno- phanes, and Aratus, and also of mythical bards like Orpheus and Musaeus, who revealed various mysteries in verse.
476. quarum sacra fero, 'whose priest I am:' cp. Hor. Od. iii. i. 3 musarwn saccrdos.
478. labores, 'toils' (i.e. eclipses), a poetical variety for defectiis. The line is from Lucret. v. 751 solis item qtioquc dcfcdtis hinacque latebras.
479, 480. tumescant, residant apparently refer, not to the tides, but to violent upheavals of the sea caused by earthquakes, such as Thucydides describes (iii. 89).
482. tardis, ' lingering,' i. e. the winter nights.
484. The reference is probably to Empedocles* theory that the blood about the heart {a^y^a vtpiKapSiov) was the seat of the intellect. Hence coldness of blood there would denote slowness of intellect. Among the Romans generally the heart was associated with the intelligence; hence excors, ' foolish,' etc.
486-488. o ubi, etc., ' O where is Spercheus with its plains and Tay- getus haunted by Bacchanal maidens of Laconia?' i.e. 'would that I were there.' 'bacchata, deponent verb in passive sense, as bacchatani Naxuiii Aen. iii. 125.
490-492. Evidently in reminiscence of passages in Lucretius, e. g. i. 79 Quare religio pedibiis subicda vicisstin Optcritiir, iii. 37 Et metus ille foms praeceps Achcntntis agendus, 1072 naturae primnnt stitdeat cogiiosccre ca2isas. qui potnit obviously refers mainly to Lucretius himself, though the tone of the passage is genei'al,^ and might apply to any Epicurean philosopher. ^>_, . i^'^ ^yf ^
495. fasces, the rods with a.xes carriecl l5«or<;^;^maij,jmagistrates. populi, gen. subj., ' the honours which the people give.' ^-^ '•'■■'''/-'_.
496. 'And feuds that rouse faithless brethren to strife.' fratres might perhaps allude to the rivalry of Phraates and Tiridates for the throne of Parthia ; but more probably refers to the break up of families in civil war ; cp. Lucr. iii. 72, 73 Crudeles gaudeitt in tristi ftincre fratris Et co?tsangni- neum mensas odere titneutque; and 1. 510 below.
497. ' And Dacians swooping down from Hister, their ally.' The Dacians used to cross the frozen Danube into the Roman territory : hence the river is picturesquely said to be in league with them. They were at war with Rome B, c. 30.
498. 499. ' Not Rome herself and kingdoms tottering to their fall ; ' i. e. not the highest interests and most startling vicissitudes of politics can shake the serenity of rural life — a serenity to which the distinctions of poverty and wealth, and the emotions they cause, are unknown. In neque doluit . . . inopem Virgil attributes to his ideal countryman, not a selfish indifference, but the absence of any conditions to call out pity for others — all being so happy.
178 GEORGICS II. 500-529.
500-502. ipsa, ' of themselves.' volentia .and sponte sua repeat and emphasise the notion of spontaneity — 'imasked, of their own free will.' tabularia, ' records ' or ' archives.' Some trace a special allusion to freedom from taxation, or from public contracts : but iura . . . forum . . . tabularia merely indicate city life in general.
503-512. Various means, motives and consequences of greed and ambition incident to city life ; of which Virgil's own time supplied abundant illustrations, which his readers could apply as they chose. 'Some ply their oars in unknown seas, rush eagerly to arms, and make their way into kings' courts. One plots ruin for a city and its hapless homes, that he may drink from jewelled cups and rest on Tyrian purple : another hoards his wealth, and broods over buried treasure. One listens at the Rostra in rapt amaze ; another, open-mouthed, is carried away by the cheers of high and low that ring, aye again and again, along the benches. 'Tis joy to have dipped their hands in a brother's blood : they pass into exile from home and its delights, and seek another country beneath another sun.'
504. return is by some restricted to its use in Hor. Epp. i. 7, 37, etc. =
' the great.' But in connection with the preceding words the favour of foreign kings, rather than of Roman nobles, seems implied. Virgil points to adventurers who sought their fortunes in other lands.
505. excidiis, ablative.
508. hie, the aspirant to eloquence, hunc, the aspirant to political eminence.
509. cuneos, the blocks of seats in the auditorium of a theatre, so called from their wedge-like shape. The people sat in these, the senators (patres) in the orchestra : but cunei is here used of the whole theatre. Popular statesmen, etc. were cheered on entering, enim here, as in Aen. viii. 84 tibi enim, tibi, viaxifiia luno Madat, is merely an affirmative particle, which use is prior to its ordinary causal meaning. Cp. also Plaut. Trin. V. 2. 10 Enim me nomiJtat, Liv. xxiii. 45 enim iam nunc tnitior est res.
. 514. hiuc anni labor, ' hence the year's employment.' parvoscLue nepotes, 'his little grandsons.' One MS. gives peuates, 'his humble home,' which some prefer. But though there is no special reason why Virgil should speak of grandsons rather than sons, the expression is not inappropriate, and it is safer to keep to the MSS.
515. meritos, 'that have served him well.'
516. requies, i.e. anno. 'Nor is there any stint to the year's o'erflow- ing either with fruits, or the offspring of flocks, or sheaves of corn.'
519-522. baca, 'the olive,' for which Sicyon was famous, ponit, 'is dropping.' coquitur, ' ripens.'
523. pendent, etc., 'hang about his lips (for kisses).' oscula, here in its original sense as a diminiative of os. Cp. Gray's Elegy, ' And climb his knees the envied kiss to share.'
527-520. agitat = fl'^7V. ' Himself keeps holy day; and stretched upon
GEORGICS 11. 530-542. 179
the grass, while comrades wreathe the bowl around their altar fire, he pours a libation and calls on Bacchus.' ignis, a turf-built altar, cratera coro- nant, apparently suggested by Homer's KpijTrjpas iireaTtipavTo ttotoio, though the meaning there is ' fill the bowls high with wine,' while Virgil means ' wreathe with flowers.' Cp. Aen. iii. 525 magnum cratera corona Induit.
530. iaculi ... in ulmo, ' appoints contests of shooting (at a mark) in an elm ' — a condensed expression, certamen ponere, like the Greek a-^wva TiOivat.
534. scilicet gives rhetorical emphasis to the words connected with it — ' Thus, surely, brave Etruria grew, thus Rome became the fairest thing on earth, and girt her seven hills with a single city's wall.'
536-538. Dictaei, ' of Mount Dicte ' in Crete, i. e. Jupiter, who was said to have been bom there, and who succeeded to Saturn in empire. iuvencis, abl. with epulata. For the supposed impiety of slaying the ox, the fellow-labourer of man, cp. Cic. N. D. ii. 63 tanfa putabatur tttilitas percipi ex bulms, ttt eorniii visccrihiis vesci scclits liabcrctur. aureus, as ruler of the golden age.
541. spatiis (the circuits of a race-course) goes with immensum, 'boundless in its circuits.' The metaphor is from a chariot-race. ' But now I have finished my course over the boundless plain.'
542. MSS. vary between fumantia and spit man tia ; the former seems more appropriate.
M 2
i8o GEORGTCS 11 L i, 2.
NOTES TO BOOK III.
The subject of this book is the care of the different animals which are required by the farmer. After a lengthy introduction (1-48), in which Virgil promises at some future time to write an epic poem in honour of Augustus, he proceeds to treat first of horses and cattle. The choice of cows and stallions for breeding purposes is discussed (49-122); directions are given for the treatment of sire and dam before breeding, and of the mothers when with young (123-156); the rearing of calves and foals is described (157-208); and an account of the effect of the sexual passion upon bulls and horses (209-241) leads the way to a long digression upon love (242-285), which concludes this portion of the poem.
Sheep and goats (in Latin fccitdcs as opposed to anncnta, or horses and cattle) are next treated of. The mode of tending them in winter and in summer respectively (286-338) suggests another digression, in which an African shepherd's summer and a Scythian shepherd's winter are described (339-383). Then follow directions about rearing flocks for wool or milk (3S4-403); a few remarks about dogs (404-413), and the necessity of killing serpents (414-439); a description of the diseases of sheep (440- 473) ; and finally a long account of a murrain among animals in Noricum (474 to end\ which is appended in imitation of Lucretius' celebrated description of the Athenian plague in the sixth book of the ' De Rerum Nalura.'
1-48. This introduction seems to have been written in the year 29 B.C., a year of general holiday and public honour to Augustus. Its tone of unmixed exultation corresponds to that of the introduction to G. i, and to llor. Od. ii. 9, which is thus a companion passage. Professor Nettleship ('Ancient Lives of Vergil,' p. 59) suggests (from 11. 10, 11) that it may have been written in Greece, and if so, that it may have been written on the journey referred to by Horace in Od. i. 3, which cannot be harmonised chronologically with the only recorded visit of Virgil to Greece in 19 B.C. But on the other hand the allusion to Greece in 11. 10, 1 1 may be merely allegorical. See Introd. p. 7.
1, 2. Pales, a rustic Italian deity ; see on Eel. v. 35. pastor ab Aiuphryso, ' shepherd from Amphrysus,' i. e. Apollo, who, when banished from heaven, was said to have fed the flocks of Admetus, king of Thessaly,
GEORGICS III. 3-20. 181
on the banks of the Amphrysus. Iiycaei, ' Arcadian,' from Mount Lycaeus in Arcadia, the abode of the rustic god Pan.
3, 4. ' All other themes that might have charmed our leisure thoughts with their spell are hackneyed now.' carmine, the MSS. vary between this and canni/ia : the ablative is perhaps preferable.
5. illaudati, ' infamous,' by litotes, as illactabilis Aen. iii. 707, iiiaina- hilis vi. 428. Busiris was a king of Egypt who sacrificed strangers.
6. cui, dative of agent with passive participle — a poetical usage. Latonia, because Latona there gave birth to Apollo and Artemis.
7. iimero eburno, the ivory shoulder substituted for that eaten by the gods, when Pelops was served up by his father at a banquet.
8. acer equis (abl. of respect), 'a driver keen.' Pelops was said to have won his bride Hippodame in a chariot race at Olympia with her father Oenomaus.
9. virum. volitare per ora, 'float on the lips of men,' a phrase ex- pressive of undying fame, taken from Ennius' epitaph on himself. Nemo me lacrimis decoret, 7tec ftine7-a Ji'etu Faxit. Cur' volito vivus per ord virum. It is repeated Aen. xii. 235 vivusque per ora fcretur. Some translate ' before the faces of men : ' but Virgil probably intended the words to have the same meaning as in Ennius.
10 sqq. In this allegory Virgil seems to promise an heroic poem imder the image of a temple to the glory of Rome and of Augustus ; representing himself as an intellectual victor returning in triumph from a campaign in Greece with the captive Muses. In the plain of Mantua, beside his native Mincius, he will build his temple of song, and celebrate it with games and shows that will rival those of Greece. The deity enshrined within will be Augustus ; the subjects of its decoration his recent triumphs, and the mythic ancestry of the Julian line. When Virgil's fame as a rural poet has been established (11. 40-45) he will then be able to pass to Caesar's triumphs.
10. 11. primus, Virgil will be the first to do for his country what the Greek poets did for Greece, deducam., 'bring home in triumph.' Aonio vertice, i.e. from Helicon, the abode of the Muses, in Aonia, a part of Boeotia.
12. Idumaeas, a literary epithet, Idumaea being famous for its palm- trees, palmas, a palm-branch was carried by the victorious general at his triumph.
13. templum, it was of course a common practice to dedicate temples after a victur\-.
14. propter aqiiam, like the temple of Zeus by the Alpheus, at Olympia. ingens, ' wide ; ' the Mincio spreads into a lake near Mantua.
16. in medio, i.e. in tjie central shrine; see above on 1. 10.
17. At these imaginary games the poet with his purple robes is the presiding officer, corresponding to the praetor with his striped toga.
18. agitalio, will cause to be driven, by iiislituting the games.
19. 20. mihi, 'at my bidding,' ethic dative. Alpheum, the river in
1 82 GEORGICS III. 21-36.
Elis, near which the Olympian games were held, lucos, i.e. the Nemean forest, where the shepherd Molorchus entertained Hercules. These games are to be an improvement even on those of Olympia and Nemea. In other words, Virgil's heroic poem will surpass the highest achievements of the Greeks, crudo, ' of raw hide.'
21. caput ornatxis, for the constr. see on Eel. i. 55. tonsae, ' trim,' as Aen. V. 556, 774, apparently a regular epithet for an olive garland. Priests and conquerors wore such : and Virgil here presents himself in both capacities.
24, 25. ' Or how the scene shifts with change of front, and how the embroidered Britons lift up the purjile curtain.' Dramatic exhibitions form part of the show, versis frontibus, one way of changing the scene in Greek and Roman theatres was by means of triangular prisms (TrtpiaKroi) at each end of the stage, which revolved upon a pivot, and so presented a different surface to the spectators. In this way the scene at each end of the stage miglit be altered. The contrivance was called scae/ia vcrsilis in Latin. toUant aulaea, the curtain or drop-scene in the ancient theatres was raised tip from the stage, and not lowered, as with us. Here the figures embroidered on the curtain are fancifully said to lift it up.
27. Gangariduni, Indians near the Ganges; referring to the defeat of Antony's Eastern allies. Quirini, Komulus as representing Rome.
28, 29. undautem, etc. 'surging with war and rolling in full tide.' magnum, masculine, adj. used abverbially, like saxosiis sonans G. iv. 370. ITilum, tlie reference is of course to the war with Antony and Cleo- patra, navali . . . columuas, 'columns built high with the bronze of ships,' i.e. coltimnac rostratac, or columns erected in honour of naval vic- tories, which were adorned, according to Roman custom, with the prows of captured ships.
30, 31. Kiphaten, a mountain of Armenia. Later Roman poets (e. g. Lucan, iii. 245) took it for a river : but there is no need to suppose that Virgil made the same mistake, as pulstim ('routed') might be applied to a mountain as well as a river, versis, ' shot backwards,' according to the Parthian mode of warfare. Augustus received the submission of the Ar- menians, and recovered the standards from the Parthians, in B. C. 20. We must therefore suppose either that these lines were added after the com- pletion of the poem, or that they were general and prophetic in their character.
32, 33. These lines perhaps refer to the Morini (a tribe of Belgic Gaul, twice conquered, by Julius Caesar and again by C. Carrinas) and the Dalmatians (subdued hj Vatinius 45 B.C. and by Octavianus 34 B.C.). Both appeared in the triumph of B.C. 29. Cp. Propertius, iv. 8. 53 Proseqiiar et ciirnis iilroqiic ah litorc ova)ilcs. Some consider the ^^'estern \ictory re- ferred to as that over the Canlabri, B.C. 24, supposing the passage to have received later touches.
34-36. There shall be statues of the Trojan ancestors of the Julian family, Tros son of Jupiter, Assaracus son of Tros, and others; and also of
GEORGICS III. 37-71. 183
Apollo (Cynthius, from Cynthus a mountain of Delos), who with Neptune built Troy. Parii lapides, statues of Parian marble, spirautia, ' breath- ing,' ' life-like.' nomina, ' the mighty names.'
37. invidia, i.e. the enemies of Augustus.
38. metuet, shall be represented ' as fearing.' angues, the notion of Ixion bound with snakes to his wheel is peculiar to Virgil.
39. saxum, the \a.a^ avaih-q^ (Od. xi. 598) of Sisyphus.
41. intactos, ' virgin ' glades, i.e. a subject yet untried, iussa, accusative in apposition to the whole clause. Maecenas had urged Virgil to write the Georgics.
43, 44. He is about to treat of cattle, horses, etc., and he expresses this poetically by saying that he is called by Cithaeron (mountain in Boeotia, abounding in beasts), by the hounds of Taygetus (mountain in Spaita, whose dogs were famous), and by Epidaurns (noted for horses).
45. ' And the shout rings back redoubled by the echoing woods.'
46. dicere, infin. of purpose, a poetical usage; op. Aen. i. 527 Libycos populare Penates venit)ius, Hor. Od. i. 2. S pecits egit altos visere niontcs. accing'ar, middle, ' I will gird myself.'
48. ' As many as those which separate Caesar from the birth of Tithonus.' Tithonus, a Trojan prince, brother of Priam ; not a direct ancestor of the Julian family.
50. fortes ad aratra, ' strong to plough.'
51, 52. corpora, not periphrastic, as 1. 69 ; ' the mother's shape must be his special care.' torvae, ' grim-looking.' turpe, ' ugly.' plnrima, ' burly ' (Sidg.\
56, 57. ' Nor should I object were she marked with white spots (maculis et albo, hendiadys), or shy of the yoke and sometimes mischievous with her horns.'
58. ardua tota, ' her whole body tall.'
60. iustos, ' regular ; ' cp. instits exereitiis. aetas pati, ' age for en- during,' like tcnipus tegcre G. i. 213. The construction, which is common in Greek but rare in Latin, is a natural one, the infinitive having been originally the dative of a verbal substantive. For the hiatus and Greek rhythm see Introd. p. 18.
63. siiperat = .wc/tVY^/. laeta iuventas, ' lusty youth,'
64. mitte primus, ' be the first to send.'
66-68. ' Poor mortals that we are, our brighter days of life are ever first to fly ; on creeps disease and the gloom of old age ; suffering sweeps us off, and the ruthless cruelty of death.' On the pessimism of Virgil's tone here see i. 99.
69-71. ' Constantly there will be those whom you would gladly exchange : constantly, then, renew them ; and lest you should lament your losses when too late, forestall them, and choose out a supply of young ones for your herd every year.' ciuarum corpora, periphrastic for tjitas. enim, here merely a particle of emphasis ; see on ii. 509.
I §4 GEORGICS III. 73-] o
/'
73,74. summittere, 'rear,' fee on Eel. i. 46. in si-)em gentis, 'for breeding.' a teneris, ' from foals,' like a pucris, etc.
75, 76. ' From the first a colt of high-mettled stock steps high in the pasture and brings his feet down daintily' (mollia, predicate'. Ennius, Ann. 545, has iiwllia crura rcponiiiit of the high springy action of cranes M'alking : cp. Xen. de Re Eq. x. 4 ra OKkXri lypa fxeTeupi^ei. ingreditTir, for the lengthening of the final syllable see Introd. p. 16.
80. argutum, 'neat,' 'clean cut.' The word properly = ' clear ' (from root ARG, 'bright'), and is used in very various senses, such as 'quick,' ' lively,' ' shrill,' etc. brevis alvus, etc. 'his barrel short, his back well- fleshed.'
81-83. honesti, etc. 'The best are bay and grey; white and dun are the worst.' spadices, from anaSis, the Doric for a palm-branch, gilvo, the word is the same as the Germ. ' gelb,' and Engl. ' yellow.'
84. micat . . . artus, ' he pricks his ears, and his limbs quiver.' auri- bus, abl. of instrument ; artus, accusative of the part, micare, of quick movement : cp. viiccirc digitis, of the sudden movement of the hands in the game mora.
85. premens, ' compressing the gathered fire : ' so most MSS. The word suggests that the fiery breath is like the suppressed forces of a volcano. The other reading isfrenicus, ' snorting.'
87. duplex, 'hollow,' i.e. sunken between a double ridge of flesh; opposed to exstans.
89. Amyclaei, of Amyclae, in Laconia, where Castor and Pollux were born.
91. Martis equi, Horn. 11. xv. 119; curriis Achilli (i.e. his team, Xanthus and Balius"), xvi. 148. Achilli, contracted from Achilici, gen. of Achilleus ('Axi^Xfvs), declined as a Latin substantive in -us. So Ulixi (Eel. viii. 70) from Ulixctis.
92-94. effnndit, so the best MSS.; cffitdit most editions, to agree with iinplevit : but there is no need for the change, coniugfis, Rhea, to hide from whom his amour with Philyra, Saturn changed himself and Philyra into horses.
95. hunc qiiociue, 'even such a horse as this.'
96. abde domo, ' shut him up at home.' nee turpi, etc. ' favour not his dishonourable age,' i.e. suffer him not to breed when he is too old.
98. ad proelia, sc. Veneris.
99. quondam, 'at times,' a frequent use.
101. hinc, 'next,' i.e. after looking to their age. artes, 'qualities.' prolem parentum, ' the breed of their parents.'
104. corripuere, ' swallow up the ground,' an expressive phrase to denote great speed. So corripere viain Aen. i. 41S, viain vorare CatuU. XXXV. 7, 'i"d Shakespeare's 'devour the way.'
105-107. ' N\ hen tlie drivers' hopes are raised high, and eager throbbing drains their bounding hearts : furiously they ply the whirling lash, bending
GEORGICS in. 111-148. 185
forward to slack the reins : on spins (volat vi) the glowing axle' haurit, the violent excitement ' exhausts ' their heart. '<rer\iere=JIagt'!/o, abstract for concrete, torto, not 'twisted,' but 'whirled about.' dant lora, ihe reins being passed round the driver's body, he would lean for^vard to slacken them.
111. umescunt, cp. II. xxiii. 3S0 Uvoiri 5' Evfxrikoio /xerdippevov ilpU t w^ct) QfppLfT, Soph. El. 718 'Op-ov yap d/Mpl vwra koX rpoxuji' fidaeis ''H<ppt^oi', ilffi^aWov imriKal irvoai.
113, 114. Urichthonius, an Athenian king, rapidusque, etc. ' and stand above the wheels as he rushed to victory' (Kenn.).
115-117. Pelethronii, so called from a glade on Mount Pelion. gyros, the ' ring ' for breaking horses in (Gk. kvkXos). atque equitem, etc. ' and taught the armed horseman to prance upon the soil and gather up his proud paces' (i.e. a prancing action). The ridei is said, rather artificially, to do what the horse docs.
118, 119. uterque labor, the task of training chariot horses (11. 1 13-1 14) or chargers (11. 11 5-1 18). exquirunt, i. e. for breeding purposes. "Whether you wish to breed horses for riding or driving, the sire must be young and spirited.
120-122. ille, ' the veteran,' i.e. the old horse, once victorious, but now too old for breeding. Epirum, noted for its horses ; so G. i. 59 {^inittit , p"lmas Epiros cquaniiu. HSycenas, the capital of ''Apyos IttttoPotov as Homer calls it. Neptunique, etc. ' and traces his descent from Neptune himself.' Neptune was said to have produced the first horse, by striking the earth with his trident.
123, 124. sub tempus, ' as the time draws on.' deuso pingxii, ' firm plumpness.'
126. florentes, ' flowery,' i.e. clover, etc.
127, 128. stiperesse, 'be equal to,' lit. 'be above.' ieiunia, ' leanness. ' 129. armenta, i.e. 'the mares,' with whom a different treatment is to be
pursued.
133, 134. i.e. in summer, during the threshing time.
138. cadere, ' cease.'
140-142. plaustris, probably dative of indirect reference, non sit passus, 'no one would permit' (potential subj.). carpere, 'scour the plain.' superare, ' clear' the road at a bound.
143-145. pascunt, ' men pasture them.' teg'ant, procubet, final subjs. after ubi. saxea umbra, cp. Isaiah xxxii. 2 ' the shadow of a great rock in a weary land.'
146-148. Silarus, a river between Lucania and Campania, north of the mountain Alburnus. volitans, ' insect,' pres. part, used as substantive, rare except with a few words such as amaiis, adolcscens, etc. vertere vocantes, ' have called it in their tongue.' verto, strictly of translation from one language to another, as I'laut. Trin. [uol. 19 Philcino scripsil, Flaitltis vortit barbarc.
i86 GEORGICS III. 149-181.
149-151. asper, acerba sonans, 'fierce, harshly buzzing;' Virgil imitates Lucr. v. 33 asper acerba tiuns (of the dragon of the Hesperides\ acerba, adverbial ace, as crebra 1. 500. furit, etc. ' the air is stunned and maddened with their bellowings;' cp. Aesch. Sept. 155 lopn'ivaKJos aWrip imiiaiviTai. sicci heightens the picture of the cattle's sufferings ; the stream to which they run is dried up by heat. The Tanager was a tributary of the Silarus (1. 146).
152. exerctiit, ' gave play to.'
153. Inachiae iuvencae, ' the heifer of Inachus,' i. e. lo, daughter of Inachus, beloved by Jupiter, and changed into a heifer. She was pursued by a gad-fly sent by Juno.
155. pecori armeutaqtue, for the hiatus, see Introd. p. 18.
158. 'Forthwith they brand on them marks to denote the stock;' hen- diadys, like maailis insignis ct alho 1. 56 above.
159-161. quos malint, ' to mark those they wish,' etc. indirect in- terrogative depending on the idea of ' distinguishing ' which is implied in the previous line, summittere, 'rear,' as 1. 73 above, pecori habendo, ' for breeding stock.' quos is object of servare, subject of scindere. hor- xentem, of the ' rough appearance' of a ploughed field.
162. cetera, the cattle intended for breeding or killing will be left to graze : those intended for work on the fann must be trained at once.
164, 165. viamque, etc. ' set out on the path of discipline, while their spirits are yet pliant and their youth may be led.'
166. circles, 'collars,' for circidos, only found in this place.
168, 169. ipsis . . . pares, ' yoke them together in pairs, and fasten them by the collars themselves.' torquibus, the same as the circll jubt mentioned. These light make-believe collars are to be still used, instead of the real yoke. a.sXos = aptaios, as Aen. iv. 482 uxe/n . . . stcllis cirden- iibus aptutn.
170. illis, dat. of agent after passive verb — a poetical construction. rotae inanes, ' empty carts ' or perhaps merely wheels without a body.
171. vestigria, the tracks of the wheels; sig-nent, sc. ro/ac. 'Just marking the wheel-track on the surface of the dust.' The carts or wheels are so light as to leave little trace behind.
173. iunctos, joined to the pole.
175. vescas, 'thin,' 'poor;' cp. iv. 141 vesaiin piipavcr, Lucr. i. 326 vesco sale saxa pci-csa ('the small fine spray,' see Munro, ad loc), Ovid, Fast, iii.446 vcscaquc parva vocani, Plin. N. H. vii. 81 coipore vesco, exii/iiis viribus ; the two latter passages being decisive. Gellius, deriving from ve, csca, makes it = ' voracious ' in Lucretius and ' edible ' in Virgil : but the etymology of the word is uncertain.
176. frumenta sata, 'standing corn ' (Con.).
180, 181. The scenery of the Olympic games was near the river Alpheus in Elis, not far from the city Pisa. Close by was a grove of Jupiter, called Altis.
GEORGICS III. 182-217. 187
182. ' The horse's first task is to endure the sight of warlike rage and martial weapons,' etc.
187-189. 'And these trials let him endure (audeat, so Gk. rXijuai) when first banished from his mother's teat, and after them yield his mouth to an easy halter (of osier, so mollibus, 'pliant'), ere his full strength comes, whilst he is still fearful, still ignorant of life.' invalidus, for the quantity see Introd. p. 1 7. etiam here retains its etymological sense ' even now,' ' yet,' as Aen. vi. 485 etiam ctirjtis etiam ariiia^ tenenteni. inscms aevi, 'ignorant of life,' 'inexperienced.' This is perhaps the simplest way of taking the phrase. Other explanations are (i) 'ignorant of his powers;' (2) ' in unconscious youth,' ' ignorant in respect of his youth,' aevi being then geii. of reference, like aevi niatiinis Aen. v. 73.
190. ' But when three summers have passed and the fourth has come,' i. e. at the end of three years when the fourth is beginning, which agrees with Varro and Columella.
191, 192. ' Let him begin to pace the ring, his steps resounding in regular time, and bend his pliant limbs in succession and show himself under restraint.' gyrum, see on 1. 115 above, laboranti, of forced or artificial effort.
194. vocet, ' challenge.'
196. densus, ' strong,' ' with concentrated force,' or perhaps ' thick ' with clouds.
197. difFert, ' spreads abroad ' Scythian tempests and rainless '^arida clouds, the north wind being a dry one.
198. campi natantes, 'liquid plains,' i.e. the sea, as Lucr. vi. 1142 ; cp. Aen. vi. 724 cainpos liquentes.
201. ille, Aquilo himself, i. e. the real storm. We have first the clouds overspreading the sky, then gentle rustlings on land and sea, then long breakers, and finally the fury of the blast.
202-204. hie, 'a horse like this,' seems more forcible than the v. 1. liiitc. Elei campi, i. e. at the Olympian games in Elis. molli, ' gentle,' ' docile.' esseda, British ' war-chariots ' (Caes. B. G. iv. 33, etc.), ascribed by Virgil to the Belgae as by Persius to the Germans (vi. 47). They were adopted by wealthy Romans (Prop. ii. i . 76 esseda caelatis siste Brit anna iugis) \ and Virgil probably here refers to high-bred carriage horses.
205. crassa farragfine, ' thick mash,' a mixture of spelt, barley, vetches, and pulse.
206. ante domandiim, ' before taming them,' the gerund being equiva- lent to a verbal substantive; so Eel. ix. 24 inter agendum.
208. verbera lenta, 'the pliant lash.' lupatis {sz.frenis), a bit with iron projections like a wolf's teeth.
213. The intervening hill excludes the view ; the breadth of the stream prevents crossing (Con.).
214. satura, ' well-stored.'
215. urit, 'consumes.' vidcndo, ' by the sight ;' see on 1. 206 above.
1 88 GEORGICS III. 217-264.
217. ilia, use of the pronoun to repeat and emphasize the subject, common in Virgil : see on G. ii. 4.^5. Some editors, less probably, place a full stop at herbae, and connect ilia ciuidem with subigit, et then being = ' even.' 219. Sila, a wooded range in South ItalJ^ The MSS. mostly read silva : but the V. 1. Sila is mentioned by Servius ; and the fight between bulls in Aen. xii. 715-722, which is modelled on the present passage, takes place ingenti Sila summove Taburno.
223. long'us Olympus, ' the wide heavens,' a phrase suggested by Homer's fxaKpos "OKv/xttos, which however means ' the high mountain Olympus.'
226, 227. 'Bewailing sore his shame, the haughty victor's blows, and his lost love unavenged.' victoris, subjective gen. amores, of the beloved object, as Catull. xlv. i Aanen Septimius, suos amores, Tenens.
230. 'AH night long he rests on unstrewn couch among the hard rocks.' pernox, this reading is attested by two ancient commentators, but the MSS. give pernix. Some editors retain pernix, rendering it 'stubborn,' 'perse- vering' iper-Jiifor). 'Qui pernix regidarly means 'swift:' and pernox is so much more appropriate than even the suggested sense oi pernix, that it seems better to adopt it. instrato, ' unstrewn,' the only example of this meaning : but the ordinary signification ' spread ' is impossible here.
232. irasci in cornua, ' throw his wrath into his horns,' a powerful phrase, imitated from Eur. Bacch. 742 tls icipas 9vii.ovfi.tvoi, and repeated Aen. xii. 104.
234. ' Scatters the sand in prelude to the fight.'
236. sigfna movet, ' marches out,' a military term.
237-239. 'As a wave, when it begins to whiten out at sea medio ponto), draws on from the further deep its curving swell ; and as, when it has rolled to shore, it thunders over the rocks.' longiiis ex altoque, ' from afar and from the deep,' go together. It is clearly wrong (with some editors) to place the comma after longius.
242. A hypermetric line : see Introd. p. 19.
246. viilgo, ' far and wide.'
249. erratur, impers. "tis ill wandering.'
251. notas odor attulit auras, a characteristic Virgilian inversion for the natural iiotiim odorcm attulcrtint aiirae.
256, 257. prosubigit, 'roots up before him;' p7-o denotes forward action, as in proculco. The first atque couples fricat and durat.
258 foil. The allusion is to the story of Leander, who was drowned in swimming across the Hellespont to visit the maiden Hero.
259. abruptis, ' broken forth :' so rupto tw-binc Aen. ii. 416.
261. porta caeli, a Homeric image (cp. II. v. 749 T^'^\ai jxvkov ovftavov" •, the sky being the palace of heaven, whose gates open to discharge the thunder.
263. super, ' on his corpse,' rather than = /;/j«/^;-.
264. lynces, they drew the car of Bacchus, along with tigers, variae, ' spotted.'
GEORGICS III. 26^-2,0"]. 189
267. Glaucus, son of Sisyphus, kept mares at Potniae in Boeotia, and would not allow them to breed. Venus therefore, to punish him, drove them mad, and they devoured him.
269, 270. Gargara, a part of Mount Ida in the Troas. Ascanius, a lake and river in Bithynia.
275. The theory of the impregnation of mares by the wind was commonly believed among the ancients, and is mentioned by Aristotle, H. A. vi. 19.
277, 278. ' The mares fly not to the East, (but) to the North or South.' Aristotle says, Oiovai 5« ovre tt^os 'iw, ovre npbs Svcr^ay, dWa vpos''ApKTOv ^ NoTor. Virgil omits the West : perhaps he was following a different authority.
280. vero nomine, probably Virgil merely means that hippomanes (horse-madness) is rightly so called, though some suppose that he intends to imply that this is the r^^/ hippomanes, as opposed to the tubercle on the foal's forehead (mentioned Aen. iv. 515), which was also called hippo- manes.
286-288. armentis includes horses and oxen, agitare, ' treat ' or 'sing of;' cp. Juv. i. 52 /lacc ego non agitem? ('handle these themes'). hie labor, ' this is now my task.'
289. This and the ne.xt four lines are partly imitated from Lucret. i. 136 foil., 922 foil, animi dubius, 'doubtful in mind:' animi in this sense occurs very frequently, not only after adjectives, but also with verbs, such as excruciare, fallere, etc. It should probably therefore be regarded, not as a gen. of reference, biit as a survival of an old locative case, vincera, •treat successfully,' 'overcome the difficulties of the subject.
293. devertitur, as Con. observes, suggests the idea of a bye-path of the poet's own making.
296. dum reducitur, ' till it returns ; ' dwn with the present in this sense is rare ; cp. Ter. Haut. iv. 7. 5 Tu hie 110s, dtim exiinus, opperibcre.
299. turpes podagras, ' noisome foot-rot ; ' the plural perhaps denoting two kinds of diseases in the feet, called by Columella clavi.
300. Mnc digrressus, 'leaving the subject' (of sheep).
303. olim, 'at times,' as Aen. v. 125 iunditw olim Fluetihis. cum dim could hardly, as Con. suggests, stand for olim eum, ' at that time when.'
304. Aquarius, 'the Water-bearer,' one of the constellations of the zodiac. It set in Februarj- — the rainy season, and the end of the old Roman year.
305. baec (i. e. eaprae) is the older form of nom. fem. pi. found in best MSS. of Cic. Tnsc. and Ue Off., as well as in Plautus, Terence, and Lucretius ; in whose time (says Munro on vi. 456) it must have been the usual form. The vv. 11. haee . . . Uie7iJa and ]iae tuemiae were due to ignorance on the part of the copyists.
306. 307. The fleeces of Miletus and the dyes of Tyre were especially famous. Tyrios incocta rubores, ' dyed \\ ith Tyrian scarlet : ' for the constr. see on Eel. i. 55.
190 GEORGICS III. 308-340.
308. hinc, from goats.
309. quam mag-is, an old idiom found frequently in Plautus, e. g, Trin. iv. 2. 19 quam viagis . . . minus, Men. i. I. 19 quam magis . . . tanto a7-tms. Quam with comparative gave way to quo in classical Latin ; but qttafn with superlative survived.
312. Cinyphii, the river Cinyps in Libya was noted for a breed of long- haired goats, tondent, ' men shear,' the subject being easily supplied.
313. The reference is to certain coarse hair-cloths called cilicia (made specially from the hair of Cilician goats, hence the name\ which were used for fishermen's garments, soldiers' tents, etc.
314. pascuntur, having the sense of a transitive verb, takes an accusa- tive. Iiycaei, the mountain in Arcadia.
316. ipsae, 'of their own accord.'
317. The spondaic first foot, followed by a pause, expresses the slow approach of the heavily-laden goats.
319. curae mortalis, ' man's care.'
320. virg'ea, ' of twigs,' i. e. the arbutus mentioned 1. 301 above.
323. utrumque greg'em, sheep and goats, mittet is found in only one of the best MSS., the rest having mittes. But the run of the sentences is so much superior with mittet, that there can be no doubt that it is the correct reading.
325. carpamus, ' let us traverse.'
327, 328. ' But when the fourth hour of the day shall have brought on thirst and the cicalas' plaintive note thrills every thicket through.' quarta hora, i. e. about ten o'clock, sitim colleg'erit, lit. ' gathered thirst : ' so frigus colligere, 'catch cold.' collegerit, rumpent, because thirst will have been already contracted by the fourth hour, but the cicalas will go on chirping.
332. sicubi, 'wheresoever,' lit. 'if anywhere;' ctihi {quo-hi) being the old form of ubi and locative of quis, cp. alicubi. tendat, accubet are subj. in oblique interrogations implied after exquirere, ' to find out where.' lovis antique, for the lengthening of the short syllable see Introd. pp. 16, 17.
335. tenues, a ' thin ' or ' shallow ' stream of water, such as would run in the wooden troughs (1. 330). Others explain it as a perpetual epithet of water, owing to its ' penetrating ' powers.
337. iam roscida, 'now dewy,' dew being supposed to come from the moon.
338. alcyonem, acalanthida, cognate accusatives, like rcsonare Atnaryl- lida Eel, i. 5 : ' echo with the halcyon's song.'
340. raris . . . tectis, ' the huts in which they live in scattered dwell- ings,' an artificial Virgilian expression for 'their scattered hut dwellings.' For a description of these huts see Sail. Jug. 18. 8 aedifuia Numidarum agrestium, quae inapalia illi vocanl, oblouga, incitrvis hiteribns tccta, quasi navitim carinae.
GEORGICS III. 343-380. 19 1
343, hospltiis, ' place of shelter/ i. e. no regular shelter, as opposed to movable tents, tantum campi iacet, 'so vast the expanse of plain/ accounts for the absence of hospitia.
345. The ' Spartan ' hound and ' Cretan ' quiver are conventional literary epithets, here rather inappropriate.
346-348. ' So the stout Roman, armed in native fashion, makes his march beneath a crushing load, and, ere he is looked for, has pitched his camp and stands in column before the foe.' iniusto, ' excessive.' The Roman legionary, besides his armour, carried a supply of food, a valliini, and entrenching tools, hosti, ethic dative, denoting the person affected, ex- pectatiuu, neut. pass, participle used as substantive : see on G. ii. 398.
349. at non, 'but not (in this way do they act) where,' etc.
350. turbidus with torciuens, 'rolling turbidly :' see on 1. 28 above.
351. 'And where Rhodope turns round and stretches towards the very north ; ' i. e. the range of Rhodope first runs eastwards, then bends round towards the north, medium = z/^j?/;;/, the centre of a thing being the very thing itself: so j/iediimi mare Eel. viii. 58, mediae Mycenae Aen. vii. 372.
354. informis, ' shapeless,' all outlines being hidden by deep snow.
355. septeni . . . ulnas, ' rises seven ells high.' The earth is poetically said to rise, when its height is increased by the snow.
357-359. Imitated from Hom. Od. xi. 15 foil. ovU nor' avrovs 'HiXios <paeOwv KarabipKirai aKTivtaaiv, Ovd' ottot' av aTiix'']<Ti rrpos oxipavov aarc- pofvra, Ov6' or av aip tirt yatav an' ovpavuOiv irpoTpaTrrjTat.
360. subitae crustae, ' a sudden film.'
362. ' That once welcomed ships, now welcomes broad wains.' For the pleonastic use of ilia see 1. 217 above, and see on G. ii. 435.
363. aera, ' bronze vessels.' vulgfo, ' commonly,' ' often.'
364. indutae, ' on the back.' umida vina, ' the liquid wine,' i. e. the wine which is usually liquid.
365. lacunae, ' pools.'
367. ' Meanwhile it snows as hard (as it freezes, non setius) the whole air through.'
368-370. ' The herds perish, huge-limbed oxen stand buried in snow, the deer are huddled together, all numbed with the unwonted mass (of snow), and their horns scarce projecting.'
372. ' The scare of scarlet feathers,' i. e. scarlet feathers fastened to a rope, and suspended at the outlets of a wood so as to drive the game back. The technical name for the contrivance was formido, ' a scare.'
373. montem, the mass of snow.
376. Cp. Aesch. Prom. V. 452 Karoipux*^ ^' tvaiov, war dijavpoi Mvp- firjKts, avTpojv kv /ti^xoiJ dvrjXiots (of the barbarism from which Prometheus raised men).
377. A hypermetric verse ; see Introd. p. 19.
380. ' And imitate draughts of wine with yeast (i. e. with beer) and acid service-berries (i. c. a kind of cider).' fermento plainly refers to beer ; ])ut
192 GEORGICS III. 381-412.
whether Virgil supposes yeast to have been used, or cm^Aoy?, fcrjiiottiin! as = ' fermented grains,' is not clear.
381. septem . . . trioni (by tmesis for septemtrioui), ' the North.' The name septcmtriones (i. e. the seven ploughing oxen) was first given to the Great Bear, becaiTse the seven bright stars of which it is composed were supposed to resemble seven oxen. Then a new word scptcmtrio was formed, meaning either ' the Great Bear ' or ' the North.'
382. The INIontes Kbipaei were part of the Ural range, in South Russia.
383. velatur corpora, middle use of the passive verb ; see on Eel. i. 55. 384,385. silva, 'growth.' lappaeque, for the scansion see Introd.
p. 17. laeta, 'luxuriant.' Briars would tear the wool, rich fodder would make it coarse.
386. continue, ' at once.'
388. tantuni, ' only so much as.'
391. According to one legend Pan induced the Moon to follow him by changing himself into a ram with a splendid white fleece. According to Virgil's version the inducement seems to have been a present of a fleece.
395. ipse manu, 'with his own hand,' as being an important thing to see to.
397. et sails, etc. ' and reproduce a subtle flavour of salt in their milk.'
398,399. etiani excretes = ' even as soon as born' {excrdos a viatre from excerno). etiani is much better for rhythm than the other reading iatn, and is found in one of the best MSS. prima, adverbial, ' from the first.' capistris, ' muzzles,' with iron points, to prick the mother and make her drive the kid awaj'.
400-403. 'The morning's milk is made into cheese (premunt) at night; the evening's milk is sent off to the town next morning ' (probably in the form of cheese or curds, though Virgil does not tell us this) ; ' or else salted and stored up for future use ' (this, though only stated of cheese made from the evening's milking, really applies to both), adit oppida pastor is thrown in parenthetically to explain exportant calatMs — a cumbrous interpolation, to avoid which Scaliger suggested, and Wagner and Ribbeck have adopted, exportans. But if exportans be read, the balance of the clauses seems to require a colon at lucem (supplying premunt') ; and then exportans calathis adit oppida pastor makes an almost equally abrupt parenthesis.
405. Molossum, a breed of large dogs from Epirus, the Molossi being a tribe in Epirus. Hor. Epod. vi. 5 aut Molossiis ant fulvtis Lacon, Arnica vis pasforibus ('the shepherds' sturdy friend ').
406. sero pingui, ' fattening whey.' custodibus illis, abl. of cir- cumstance, ' with these to guard you.'
408, 409. The mention of Spanish brigands iHitoeros") and of wild asses ''onagros), which were never known in Italy, instances the vague localisation of Mrgil's precepts.
412. ag-ens, ' in the chase.'
GEORGICS III. 415-449. 193
415. galbanum, ' gum ' from a Syrian plant, the smell of which was disliked by serpents, graves, ' dangerous.'
416. imiuotis, ' if undisturbed.' mala tactu, 'bad in the touching' (Greek d'an-Toj) i. e. ' that none may touch.' The words and rhythm reflect Lucr. ii. 408 Omnia postreino bona sensibus et mala tactu ; where, however, it = ' unpleasant to the touch : ' see note to Eel. x. 54.
420. fovit humum, ' has nestled on the ground.'
421. colla, ace. of the part.
422-424. ' Now deep in flight he has hidden his craven head, slackening the while his central coils and the writhing extremity of his tail, and his last fold drags its slow coil along.' The snake on being struck down wriggles into a hole, the folds of its body gradually uncoiling as it eaters. agmina, of a moving line ; so Aen. ii. 212, v. 90 (of a serpent's motion), V. 211 (of the sweep of oars), ii. 782 (of a river's flow), and the ordinary use for an army on the march.
425. ille (as Aen. x. 707, xi. 809^ 'the snake we wot of,' i.e. the chcrsy- drus, a large water-snake common in Calabria.
430. hie, i. e. by the banks of the stream.
431. improbus here denotes excess, see on G. i. 119: 'satiates the glutton craving of his black maw.' ingluviem, properly the crop of a bird.
434. asperque, etc. 'savage with drought and maddened by the heat.'
435. ne is preferable to the v. 1. nee on account of ncu which follows, the use of ncc in prohibitions being questionable, except in archaic formulae.
436. dorso nemoxis, 'a wooded ridge,' cp. Hor. Sat. ii. 6. 91 pracnipti nemoris dorso.
437-439. Two of these lines are repeated Aen. ii. 473-475. exuviis, * the cast-off skin ' or ' slough.' catulos aut ova is either a vague expres- sion for the serpent's young (or brood), or a recognition of the fact that snakes are viviparous as well as oviparous, though the chersydrus belongs to the latter class. The notion of the snake bringing up its young is imaginary. Unguis, instrum. abl. ore, local abl. trisnlcis, the serpent's tongue is really two-forked.
441-443. iibi, etc. ' when chilling rains or winter's crisp hoar frost have pierced them to the quick.'
448. tristi amurca, ' sour oil-lees.'
449. spumas argenti, 'scum of silver,' i.e. a scum which forms on the surface of silver, or lead and silver, when melted, vivaque sulphura, a strong example of an hypermeter, cp. G. ii. 69 arbutus Jiorrida, and see Introd. p. 19. The M8S. mostly give et sulphura viva: but vivaque sulphura is attested by Servius and other ancient grammarians, and is doubtless the right reading, the other having been introduced to remove the anomalous metre.
N
194 GEORGICS III. 450-476.
450. Idaeas pices, ' pitch from Ida.' Mount Ida was celebrated for its pines, pingfues imgtiine, ' greased with oil ' (so as to be soft and yielding).
451. graves, 'noxious.'
452-454. ' Yet there is no more sovereign remedy for the disease than when one has managed to cut open the head of the sore : concealment feeds the taint and makes it live.' praesens, 'efficacious,' 'helpful,' usually in this sense of the gods, whose presence was necessary if they were to give aid. fortuna, a ' successful chance ' of dealing with the disease (Gk. Kaipos) — rather an artificial use of the word. Some editors translate ' their toils have no more prompt success,' latoorum then denoting the efforts of the shepherds, teg'endo, lit. ' by covering;' see on G. ii. 239.
458. omnia (so most MSS. and Servius) is quite intelligible on the analogy of such phrases as onmia fausta prccari (cp. Hor. Od. i. 18. 3 siccis omnia iiavi dura dcus proposuit) ; though omina, the reading of most editions, would perhaps be ' less colloquial and more poetical ' (^Con.\ For the idea of sedet . . . posceus cp. the fable of Hercules and the waggoner, and the French proverb, Aidc-toi, et Ic del faida'a.
459. inter ima pedis, ' between the hoofs.'
461, 462. Bisaltae, a Thracian tribe near the Strymon ; Geloni, a Scy- thian tribe ; Rhodope, a mountain in the south-west of Thrace ; Getae, a tribe in the north-east of Thrace, bordering on Scythia. The Thracian flies to Bhodope, the Scythian to the deserta Getanim ; tliough the expres- sion is such that 1. 462 appears to apply to Gclomis alone.
463. The practice of drinking ' milk curdled with mare's blood ' is ascribed to the Spaniards by Horace (Od. iii. 4. 34', and to the Massagetae by Statins (Achill. i. 307).
464-467. ' If you notice a sheep withdrawing too often to the luxury of shade, too idly nibbling at the topmost grass, coming home the last, or tumbling down while grazing in the field, and retiring all alone before the late approach of night . . .' procul, 'apart from the others.'
468. culpani . . . compesce, ' check the mischief with the knife,' i. e. kill the sheep, cnlpam, etc. is introduced instead of the proper antecedent to quani (1. 464).
470, 471. ' Not so swiftly over the main sweeps the storm-laden squall, not so swiftly as the thousand plagues of cattle.' The comparison is mainly (as Con. suggests) between the rush of a storm-wind and the quick speed of disease ; but tarn creber . . . qiiam multae also introduces the idea of frequency.
472. aestiva (properly a military term), 'summer quarters,' i.e. the stock in them.
473. spernqtie gregfemqiie, i. e. agnos cum matrihus (Serv.). 474-476. sciat, sc. tola aestiva correpla, etc. ITorica, Noricum was
the country between the Danube and the Alps, the modern Carinthia, Slyria, etc. castella in tnnmlis, ' hill-forts,' i. e. the fortified villages of Alpine tribes. lapydis, ' Illyrian,' from the lapydes, a tribe of 111} ricum,
GEORGICS III. 478-514. 195
through which Timavns flowed into the Adriatic, post t'xn.to = taii/o post, ' so long afterwards.'
478, 479. ' Here once from tainted skies arose a season of sad ruin, blazing with the full force of the autumn's heat.'
482-485. 'Nor was there a uniform road to death ; but when fiery thirst, coursing through every vein, had drawn their wretched limbs together, there was a fresh overflow of fluid moisture absorbing piecemeal into itself the whole frame dissolved by pestilence.' nee simplex, the meaning is, not that there were more ways than one, but that the disease passed througli two contrary stages, fever and liquefaction, sitis, poetical for ' fever.'
486, 487. honore, ' sacrifice,' as often in Virgil, infula, ' a fillet ' or ' flock of wool,' knotted at intervals along ' a riband ' ^^vitta) and bound round the head of priests and victims. Here nivea vitta is descriptive abl. with infula ; ' while the woollen fillet with its snowy band is being fastened on.'
490. inde, 'from that animal.' fibris, certain 'filaments 'in the liver, important in divination : here for the ' entrails ' in general. The refusal of the flame to kindle was a bad omen.
492. suppositi, because the knife was applied from below to the victim's throat.
493. 'A few drops of blood just stain the surface of the sand.'
494. 495. laetis (' luxuriant ') and plena praesepia heighten the pic- ture ; the animals die in the midst of plenty, vulgo, 'everywhere.'
496, 497. blandis, ' fawning;' catuloruiiL hlanda propago Lucr. iv. 99S. faucitous an^t obesis, 'stops the breath in their swollen throats' (Con.).
498. infelix studiorum, ' hapless in the end of his pursuits,' lit. ' in respect of his pursuits,' i. e. his races and victories are cut short by death. Gen. of reference, like integer vitae, seri studiorum, etc. It seems more natural to take the words together than, with some editors, to join studi- orum with immemor, ' forgetful of the race.'
499. avertitur, 'shuns;' constructed with accus. Kara avvtaiv, like Greek dtroaTptfeaOai, cp. vi/n exit Aen. v. 438, and similar constructions w ith evade re, egredi, entinpere, etc.
500-502. ibidem, \.&. auribus; 'a fitful sweat breaks out thereon — a sweat (ille quidem) all chill as death draws nigh ; the skin is dry, and hard, and unyielding to the touch.'
504. crudescere, 'increases in virulence;' so of a battle growing hotter, Aen. vii. 788, xi. 833.
506, 507. g"enxitu, modal abl. with gravis ; ' tlie breath deep-drawn, sometimes with a heavy groan ; and they strain their inmost vitals with a long-drawn sob.'
508. obsessas, ' choked.'
509. inserto, in their mouth.
511-514. ' Soon even this (the remedy of wine) brought destnxction ; tiiey were fired with new strengtli of madness, and even in the weakness of
N 3
196 GEORGICS III. 515-557.
death (Heaven send the good a better fate, and like madness to our foes !) they tore and rent their own flesh with bare teeth.' nudis adds to the vividness of the picture : the horse bares its teeth to devour its own flesh.
515. duro fiimans sub vomere, ' smoking under the weight of the toilsome plough-share.'
518. fraterna morte, with niaerenteni, ' sorrowing for his comrade's death.' This seems better than to take it witli abiungens as=/}v?//r viortiio.
522. electro, 'amber.' In Aeii. viii. 402 it is a metal, explained by Pliny, H. N. xxxiii. 4. 23, as a natural mixture of one part silver to four parts gold ; its name being due to its resemblance to the pale brightness of amber.
522-524. at ima, etc. ' But his flanks below are slackened, dullness weighs down his heavy eyes, and earthward bends his neck with drooping weight.'
527. epulae repostae, i. e. banquets constantly replenished, banquets of many courses, ' sumptuous.'
529. exercita ciirsu, ' rapid-rolling.'
531. tempore non alio, ' never before.'
532, 533. ciuaesitas, ' sought in vain,' cp. Hor. Od. iii. 24. 32 Stibla/a/n ex oculis quaerimus hividi. Iiinonis, we know from Ildt. i. 31 that at Argos the car of the priestess of Juno was drawn on solemn days by white kine : and Virgil, viore stio, transfers this practice to another scene, uris, ' buffaloes.' imparibus, even the buffaloes were ill-matched, donaria, 'shrines;' strictly, temple treasure-chambers where offerings were kept, as Lucan. ix. 516 Noii illic Lihycac posua-tint ditia gcntcs Templa, iiec Eois splendent donaria gemmis.
534. rimantur, ' scratch.'
536. contenta, ' straining,' a Lucretian use of the word.
537. insidias explorat, ' prowls in ambush,' lit. ' sjjies out an ambush,' a subtle Virgilian phrase, for the ordinary explorat locum insidiaruin.
543. proluit, ' washes in front of it,' i. e. ' washes up.' insolitae, the epithet, which would be more natural with fliimina, is transferred to the seals, in Virgil's manner.
545. astantibns, 'upstanding,' i.e. raised in terror.
548-550. nee . . . que, ' not only not . . . but ;' so ovn ... re. mutari pabula, i. e. a change of food, quaesitae, ' when applied to.' artes, ' the physician's skill.' ma^istri, sc. art is mcdendi. Chiron, son of Philyra and Saturn, and Melampus, son of Amythaon, arc mylliic representatives of the healing art, which Lucretius, in his description of the plague of Athens, represents as itself baffled- — nmssabat tacito JMcdicina tiniorc (vi. 1 1 79).
552. Tisiphone, one of the Furies, personifies divine vengeance inflicting disease and death in penalty for sin.
556, 557. Cp. Lucr. vi. 1144 Indc catervatiin inorbo mortiqiie dabantiir. dat, sc. Tisiphone. clilapca, 'dissolving,' cp. 11. 4S4, 485 above.
GEORGICS III. 559-566, 197
559, 560. 'For the flesh, none could cleanse it with water, or master it with flame,' i. e. it was impossible to cleanse or cook it for man's use. viscera abolere, properly, 'to destroy the flesh,' appears to mean ' destroy the taint in the flesh,' and so ' cleanse.' Some editors take the meaning to be that the carcases were too numerous to be destroyed with fire or water. This would give a more natural meaning to abolere : but the context plainly shows that Virgil is speaking of the impossibility of using the carcases.
561 foil. The wool can neither be shorn ; tondere', nor woven (telas atting-ere^, nor worn (amictus).
565, 566. sequebatur, 'coursed' or 'trickled over.' sacer ignis, the Latin name for an eruptive disease somewhat like erysipelas.
198 GEORGICS IV. 1-15.
NOTES TO BOOK IV.
The siibject of the fourth book is the management of bees. The proper position of the hive is first described (1-50), then the manner of swarming (51-66), followed by directions as to how to deal with swarms (67-14S). Then comes an account of the character and habits of bees (149-227), of the mode of collecting the honey (228-250), and of the diseases to which bees are liable (251-2S0). The artificial generation of bees is next explained (281-314); and the book concludes with a long episode, in the epic style, recoimting how this method was revealed to Aristaeus.
According to the Pseudo-Donatus the book originally concluded with an encomium on Cornelius Gallus (the Gallus of the tenth eclogue), and the story of Aristaeus was afterwards substituted at the request of Augustus. Gallus was for four years prefect of Egypt, but incurred the displeasure of Augustus, was exiled, and committed suicide. It has been suggested that the mention of Egypt as the place where the artificial generation of bees was practised (287 foil.) may have led the way to the praises of Gallus; and the suggestion derives some confirmation from the redundant description of the Delta in 11. 2S7-293, where see note.
1-7. Invocation to Maecenas. ' Next will I set forth the gift divine of heaven-sent honey : on this too, Maecenas, cast an eye. In your ears will I sing of a wondrous drama on a petty stage, of chiefs of pride, and all a nation's character, its tastes, its peoples, and its wars. Slight is the theme ; not slight the poet's fame whom unpropitious powers spare, while Phoebus hears his call.' aerii, referring to the ancient notion that honey fell down from heaven on to the leaves, and was thence gathered by the bees : see Eel. iv. 30. in tenui, i.e. in Icvibits rclms. laeva, 'unfavourable,' as Eel. i. 16, Aen. ii. •;4, x. 275. Servius and some editors render 'favourable.' It is true that in reference to augury laevus meant ' favourable,' omens on the left hand being the lucky ones. So thunder on the left is a favourable sign in Aen. ii. 693, ix. 631. But the general sense of the word was always ' unjiropitious.'
9. sit, subj. of purpose.
11. insultent, 'trample on.'
13-15. picti terga, for the construction see on Eel. i. 55. squalentia here s^cms, = stjttafiiosa, 'the speckled lizard with his scaly back.' stabiilis, 'their liomes.' lueropes, ' Ijee-eaters ' (^I\Ti-ropc apiaslcA. Procne, 'the
GEORGICS IV. 17-50. 199
swallow ; ' the red spots on whose breast were fabled to be blood-stains from the murdered Itys, Here, as in 1. 511 below, Virgil follows the Roman version of the story of Tereus, which makes Procne the swallow and Philomela the nightingale. The Greeks made Procne, Tereus' wife, the nightingale, and Philomela, her sister, the swallow. x
17- nidis, 'nestlings,' as G. i. 414.
19. tenuis, ' shallow.'
22, 23. vere suo, 'in the spring they love,' cp. Eel. vii. 62 sua laiirca rhocbo; and (ironically) Cic. Mil. 33. 89 Milone occiso Clodius habtnsset siios coiistiles ('after his own heart'), Pis. 12. 27 sini?>! Clodhim, 'his dear Clodius.' decedere, ' to retire from (lit. before) the heat,' cp. G. iii. 467 serae solam decedere nocti.
25. ' Towards the middle of the stagnant pool or flowing stream,' i. e. the stagna or rivKS of II. iS, 19.
29. Neptuno, ' plunged in Neptune's flood.' Here, as elsewhere through- out this book, there is an amusing irony in the majestic language which Virgil uses in describing the doings of bees.
30, 31. casiae, ' casia,' an aromatic shrub, serpylla, thymbrae, 'savory,' 'thyme.' graviter spirantis, 'strong-scented.'
32. irrig-uum, active, ' watering.'
34. alvaria (so most MSS.) is probably correct ; alviis, not alveiis, being the term for a bee-hive, and alvarc properly ' a place for bee-hives,' then a ' hive.' Most editors, except Ribbeck, read alvearia.
36. cogit, ' congeals.' liquefacta remittit, ' melts and thaws.'
37-41. neqtue illae, etc., ' nor idly do they vie to smear with wax each slender cranny in their home and seal the doorway's edge with pollen- bloom of flowers ; storing for that same use the glue they gather, stickier than bird-lime or pitch from Phrygian Ida.' fuco = (i) a 'sea-weed' from which a dye was extracted; (2) 'dye' or 'colour,' as Hor. Od. iii. 5. 27 ncqiic aiiiissos colorcs Lana 7-efcrt mcdicata fiico ; (3) ' disguise ' or ' pre- tence,' sine fiuo c't fallaciis Cic. Att. i. i. Virgil here seems to mean the pollen, or coloured dust in the stamens of flowers : but the word occurs nowhere else in this or a similar sense, fuco et floribus by hendiadys iox/iico Jhnii/i. gluten apparently denotes Xhc propolis, a reddish-brown glutinous rosin, gathered by bees from the buds of wild poplar trees, etc. and employed to line the inside of the hive and all projecting parts. It clings so strongly to the legs of those who gather it, that others have to help in detaching it ; so that visco lentius, etc. is true.
42-44. effossis, by the bees themselves, e. g. by ' humble-bees.' fovere lareni, ' make a snug home.'
45, 46. tamen, i. e. though the bees have done it already ; ct, in addiliou to th(j pro/o/is. fovens, ' making it warm.'
47-50. There should be no yew-trees in the ncighbourliood of a hive; crabs should not be burnt near it : it sliould not be jdaced in a marsliy i-pot, or ulicrc there is au echo.
200 GEoncics ir. 48-85.
48. cancros, the ashes of burnt crabs were used as a cure for certain diseases, neu crede, 'do not triist the marsh,' i.e. do not put the hive near it.
49, 50. ubi coucava, etc., 'where the hollow rocks ring to the sound as it strikes them, and the echo of the voice leaps back from the shock.' ofieusa imagro is not strictly accurate, as it is the voice, and not the echo, which strikes against the rock.
51, 52. quod superest, ' moreover ; ' a Lucretian formula of transition.
53-57. ' They wander on and on through glade and woodland, gathering the harvest of all bright flowers, and sipping the water's surface upon airy wing (leves). Hence 'tis that with some mysterious joy they cherish their young at home (progreniem nidosque, hendiadys) ; hence deftly forge their wax anew, and mould their clinging honey.*
58. hiuc, 'hereupon.'
59, 60. The ' host ' (ag-men) and the ' dark cloud ' (obscuram nubem) are the cluster of bees when swarming.
62. hue, i.e. on the tree which they are making for. iussos, 'which I bid you.'
63. melisphyUa, ' balm.' ceriuthae, perhaps a kind of ' savory.'
64. Matris, Cybele, whose worship was accompanied with the clash of cymbals. The language here again is most grandiloquent.
65. ipsae, ' unbidden,' ' of themselves.'
67. ad pugnam is emphatic, ' but if it be for battle they have left the hive.' Some make the apodosis begin at 1. 69 (but que is against this^- ; others at 1. 77 ; others at 1. 86 : but it seems more likely that Virgil goes off into a parenthesis (nam saepe, etc.), which swells into a descriptive para- graph ; and the sentence remains an anacoluthon, II. 86 sqq. indicating what the apodosis might have been.
68. regibus with iucessit, 'often when there are two kings, strife breaks out between them.' It should properly be queens ; but the ancients mistakenly supposed the queen-bee to be a king.
69. bello, probably abl., 'with war,' rather than dat., 'for war.' 70-72. ' For laggards are roused by a martial note as of some braying
horn, and sounds are heard that imitate the trumpet's fitful blast, fractos expresses the short, irregular blasts of the trumpet, as opposed to a con- tinuous sound.
74. ' They sharpen their stings with their beaks, and get ready their arms.' Bees do not sharpen their stings with their proboscis, but the notion may have arisen (as Sidg. suggests) from their habit of rubbing their bodies with their legs. Others, less probably, take rostris as dat. ('sharpen stings for beaks'), or as = 7w/;wv//« ('out of their beaks 'V
75. praetoria, the Roman general's tent, here 'tlie royal cell.' 82. ipsi, the two kings.
84, 85. usque adeo, 'right up to' the moment of defeat. 'Resolute to flincli not to the Last, till a crushing victory has driven one side or other to
GEORGICS IV. 86-123. 201
turn to flight.' For obnixi = ' firm ' cp. Aen. iv. 332 obnixtts ciirafn sub corde pre7)icbat ; for the poetical use of the prolative infinitive cp. Eel. v. i. duiu subegit, the subjunctive would be the natural constmction, implying the purpose of the bees ; but the result is here regarded as an accomplished fact : cp. Cic. Verr. i. 6 niansit iisqtic ad ciun finciii diiiii indices reiecti sunt.
86, 87. ' These outbursts of the soul, this awful riot —
Toss up a pinch of dust, and all is quiet!' (Blackmore).
89. prodigfus, i.e. consuming food without return — 'lest he be a waste- ful encumbrance.'
91-94. ' The one will flash with spots rough with gold — for there are two kinds, the choicer, distinguished in look and bright with ruddy scales ; the other squalid from sloth drags his wide paunch ingloriously along. melior, for the quantity see Introd. p. 1 7.
96-98. ' The others are foul and ugly, like the parched traveller when he comes from the dusty road, and spits the earth from his dry throat.' alto, ' lying deep.' The appearance of the inferior bees is compared to that of a traveller in hot dusty weather; not to his spittle (as Con. suggests). The latter detail is merely added to heighten the picture of the traveller half choked with dust.
99. 'Their bodies evenly marked with glittering drops of gold,' lit. ' flashing as to their bodies dyed with gold and symmetrical drops.' auro et guttis, hendiadys.
100-102. h.inc = ex his apibtis. premes, ' strain ' (through wickerwork, before putting into jars'. Bacchi domitura saporem, referring to the Roman drink called mtilsHiii, a kind of mead, consisting of a mixture of wine and honey.
103. incerta, 'aimlessly.'
104. frigfida, proleptic, ' leave their hives cold.'
110, 111. furum, objective gen., ' protector against thieves and birds,' Hellespontiaci, because worshipped at Lampsacus on the Hellespont, Catull. xviii. The bees are to be invited into gardens, and therefore under the protection of Priapus, the god of fertility, whose figure, armed with a falx saligna, was part of the regular furniture of a garden,
115. plantas, 'shoots,' or 'suckers:' see G. ii. 23.
116-119. ni iam . . . traham . . . canerem, an irregular conditional sentence. The proper tense in both protasis and apodosis would be the imperfect subjunctive, to denote a present condition which is no longer possible (' were I not furling ... I should be singing '). For the sake of vividness and variety the present tense is substituted in the protasis (' should I not furl '), as though the alternative were still possible. .So Tibull. i. S. 22 (quoted by Forb.) ct facerct si non aera rcpnlsa soiieut. Paestum, in Lucania, famous for roses.
120-123. intuba, ' endive,' a garden plant, not the wild endive or succorv of i. r20. The cuciiniis here described answers to the cocoi/iero serpentina, longer than the common cucumber, with a crooked neck and swollen belly.
202 GEORGICS TV. 125-154.
sera comantem, 'late flowering,' adverbi.1l use of ace. of neut. adj., like accrba sonaus G. iii. 149, arbra peril 500.
125. Oebaliae arcis, i.e. Tarentum, founded by a Laconian colony, Oebalus being a mythical king of Sparta: so Oebalii p-atrcs (Castor and Pollux) Stat. Silv. iii. 2. 9, Oebalii amores (of Helen) ib. ii. 6. 27. arcis, the V. 1. altis is read by most editors — in which case Oebaliae is a name of Tarentum, not elsewhere found.
127. Corycium, of Corycus in Cilicia, famous for gardens. Pompey transported some of the Cilician pirates into Calabria, relicti rtiris, ' waste land.'
128, 129. ilia with segfes. fertilis iuvencis, 'fruitful for steers,' i.e. ' fruitful for ploughing.' Others take iuvencis abl. (' fertile with the toil of oxen ') : but Virgil seems to be speaking rather of what the land might be, than what it luas. seg-es, ' land.' It was suitable neither for ploughing (iuvencis), nor for pasture (pecori), nor for vineyards (Baccho).
130-133. 'Yet here, amid the brushwood, he planted garden-stuff at intervals with white lilies round it (circunil, and vervain, and fine poppy seed, matching in his pride the wealth of kings; and home returning late at night loaded his table with a feast unbought.' hie, better as adverb than pronoun, premens, as in G. ii. 346. vescuni, 'small,' 'fine,' re- ferring to the size of the poppy's seeds. See 011 G. iii. 175.
134. carpere, perhaps better taken '^with abiindare 1. 140) as historic infinitive, than as depending on primus.
135. etiamnum (a variety of etiani nunc : cp. l///u and liific), ' was still splitting,' i.e. before the spring had begun.
137. tondebat, for the quantity see Introd. p. 17.
139. apibus fetis, ' parent-bees.'
140. spumantia, etc. ' strain the foaming honey from the squeezed comb.' Cp. 1. loi above.
142, 143. in flore novo, 'at its early bloom,' denoting the time, ma- tiira, sc. po)na.
144, 145. ''Twas he too planted out in rows elms of many years, the pear-tree already hardened, and sloes with fruit upon them,' etc. — i.e. he was such a skilful gardener that he could transplant trees much later than other people, versum, cp. Aen. v. 119 (of a ' row ' or ' bank ' of oars'.
147. iuicLuis, not of the right measure; here = ' too small,' as elsewhere (i. 64, etc.) too large — ■' barred by scanty space : ' cp. Juv. xiv. 1 26 servoniin ventres modio castigat iniqiio.
150. addidit, ' has given ; ' cp. i. 129, 150, 513. pro qua mercede, ' to gain which recompense.' The story was that as Saturn devoured hi-; children, Jupiter was hidden by his mother in a cave in Mount Dicte in Crete, and that the Curetes, or priests of Cybcle, drowned his cries with their cymbals, while the bees fed him with honey.
153, 154. ' They only have community of offspring, with a common city for their linnie, and live beneath tlic maje^t}- of law.' colae, ^ irpil forgets
GEORGICS IV. 157-200. 203
or ignores ants, wasps, etc. consortia, liere ' shared in common,' properly ' a partner.'
157, 158. in medium, with reponunt ; ' store up their gains for common use.' victu, dative after invigilaut, ' watch over the supply of food.'
159. saepta domorum, 'the walls of their A-wtWmg?,' = sat-ptas donios. In these constructions the partitive notion often disappears, and the neut. adj. merely expresses a quality, e.g. strata viarmn Aen. i. 422, cxstnicta rogortim Lucret. vi. 1283.
160. lacrimam, here of the gum which exudes from plants : so Aristot. H. A. ix. 40 (pfpovaai tSjv re dXKaiv avOeaiv Koi a-nb rihv bivtpaiv ret daKpva.
162. suspendunt ; bees begin working from the top of the hive.
165. sorti, probably predicative dative, ' as their lot,' like curae in i. 178 below. Some take it as an archaic ablative, ' by lot,' as in Liv. xxix. 20 sortz evciiisset, etc.
169. fervet opus, • hot glows the work : ' cp. Aen. i. 436, where the present passage is partly repeated.
170-175. lentis, ' pliant ' or ' ductile.' properant, ' are busy forging ; ' so with accus. Aen. ix. 401 properet per viilncra vwrtcni. lacu, 'a tank.' in numerum, 'in measured time.' For the whole description cp. Aen. viii. 449 sqq.
176-178. ' E'en so, if small we may compare with great, Cecropian bees are spurred by inborn love of gain, each in its office.' Cecropias, ' Athenian,' from Cecrops, the legendary founder of Athens. The epithet is a literary one, Attic honey being famous.
180. multa nocte, ' late at night,' when night is far advanced.
183. The tilia is called piugiiis from the gluten on its leaves; the hyacinths ferrugfinei from their dark blue colour; see on G. i. 467.
184. quies operum, 'rest from labour.'
188. mussant, 'hum.' oras, of the 'entrances* to the hive, as above,
1. 39-
190. in noctem, ' far into the night : ' cp. Aen. vii. 8 aspirmit aiirac in nocton. suus, 'kindly' sleep; i.e. the sleep they love, their own; cp. verc suo\. 22.
193. aqiiantur, ' fetch water,' a military term in Caesar, Sallust, etc.
196. tollunt, the isolated spondee at the beginning of the line well ex- presses the effort of the bee in rising with the ballast, inania, ' light,' ' airy.'
197-200. adeo emphasizes ilium ; see on Eel. iv. 1 1. concubitu, dative, as victu 1. 158. ipsae, i.e. without the male. There are in each hive male bees, or ' drones,' whose only function is to propagate the species ; one female or 'queen' bee, laying in a year from 30,000 to 40,000 eggs; and 'worker' bees, of neither sex, who make the honey and do all the work of the hive. The queen bee meets the males in the air, and not in the hive; hence the fancy expressed in 1. lyS, held also by Aristotle (Hist. An. v. 21) and Pliny ;N. II. xi. 16).
304 GEORGICS IV. 201-229.
201. Quirites, the distinctive title of Roman citizens.
202. refing-unt = ' remake,' is not found elsewhere, but is intrinsically probable. The v. 1. rejigunt, though used by Virgil (Aen. v. 360, 527), Horace (Od. i. 28. 11, Epp. i. 18. 56), and Cicero, always has the sense of * unfasten.'
204. ultro, ' readily ; ' used of anything beyond what would be expected, here of the unselfish devotion of the bees.
206-209. ' Hence, though each bee is born to a narrow span of life— for a seventh summer is their last— the race abides and never dies ; from age to age stands fast the fortune of their line, and grandsires' grandsires swell the roll.' ipsas, the individuals, as opposed to genus, excipiat, 'awaits,' receives from life, neque plus septima, ' not more ihan a seventh,' a common Latin idiom with plus, amplius, etc., e. g. Aen. i. 683 noctcm non atJtplius iiiiam.
210. ' The older Romans, like the Greeks (e. g. Aeschylus), draw their" notions of absolute monarchy from the Eastern nations' (Con.). The Roman Empire has come and gone, and despotism in the West is already an anachronism: but the 'changeless' East still supplies us, as it did Virgil, with types of absolute power.
211. The epithet Medus (suggesting Persian monarchy) applied to the river Hydaspes (Djelun, a tributary of the Indus) shows vague conceptions of Eastern geography.
213, 214. rupere, perfect of custom or habit, crates favoruni, ' wicker- like cells.' The regular holes of the combs suggested a wattled hurdle ; cp. Pindar's /xeXiaawy TprjTus ttoj'os (Pyth. vi. 54).
218. obiectant, i. e. in defence of the queen, per, ' in the midst of.'
219-224. Virgil here mentions, without approval or disapproval, the doctrine which he has rejected in G. i. 415— viz. that bees, like all creation, are sharers in and inspired by the world-spirit 'mens divina), as afterwards expounded Aen, vi. 724 sqq. haustus aetherios, ' draughts of ether,' the world-spirit being supposed to consist of a fiery ether.
222. terrasque, see Introd. p. 17.
224. teuiies vitas, ' the subtle flame of life : ' souls were supposed to be particles of the ethereal world-spirit, hence tcmics.
225. hue, i.e. aJ deum.
227. sideris in numerum, 'to the position or dignity of a star;' cp. Cic. Phil. iii. 6 Jioiiio nulla numcro (' of no account '), Div. in Verr. 19 ai?n is tibi parentis numcro fitisset { = loco parentis). Other renderings are (i) 'like a star' {in nitmerwn = in vtodtim, according to Philargyrius, an early commentator), but this is unsupported by usage: (2) 'among the stars,' regarding sideris as a noun of multitude— also unexampled.
228. aug'ustam, ' their royal home '—a piece of ironical exaggeration. So most MS.S. angustam, found in some MSS., would perhaps be more appropriate here.
229. relines, ' unseal,' especially of opening wine-casks by tjiking off
GEORGICS IV. 230-255. 205
the pitch that fastened them, sparsus, middle, ' sprinkle and rinse your mouth with a draiight of water.'
230. fove, of washing, Aen. xii. ^20 fovit ea vulmis lympJia. seqtiaces, ' penetrating ' smoke, i.e. that follows and works its way over the hive. So uri scqitaccs ('persecuting') G. ii. 374, ciirae scqiiaces ('dogging' care) Lucr. ii. 47.
231. ' Twice do men gather the teeming produce' — i.e. honey. 232-235. Tayg-ete, one of the Pleiads, put for the rest. The honey is
gathered at the rising and setting of the Pleiads. The Pleiads rose about May 28, and set about Xov. 9. sidus Piscis aquosi, ' the watery Fish,' i.e. the sign of the zodiac called by that name. As a matter of fact the sun did not enter the sign of the Fish till Febmary, so that it is not strictly accurate to say that the Pleiads (whicli set in November" ' fled before the Fish.' But sidus Fiscis is here used generally for 'winter.' honestuxu, ' comely.' Oceani amnes, Homer's 'n/feayofo poa[. tristior, the Pleiad sinks sadly, as loth to go.
237- morsibns, improperly for the stings : but Virgil is vague as to the bees' offensive weapon, cp. 1. 74 above, caeca, ' unseen.'
238. in vnlnere, local, ' in the wound,' rather than ' as they deal the wound.'
239 foil. If you are so considerate as not to lake the honey, you need not hesitate to cut away the empty combs, and clean out the hive, which is liable to be infested with all sorts of insects, parces fut\tro, ' deal gently with their future ' (Con.).
241. snffire, ' fumigate.'
242-244. ' For often the comb has been gnawed unknown by newts, and crowded beds of light-shunning beetles, and drones that sit idly at another's board.' The elaborate phrase Incifugis congesta cubilia blattis is substituted for the simple blattac. immunis, properly of a citizen who does not take his due share in the biirdens of the state.
245. ' Fierce hornets meet in tight their unequal foe.' ariuis, dative, as is shown by Aen. x. 796, xi. 815, where the phrase se imniiscuit arinis recurs. Others make it abl. ' with stronger force : ' but impar suggests weakness or inferiority.
246. invisa Minervae, referring to the legend of Arachne, who challenged Minerva to a contest in weaving, and was changed into a spider.
248, 249. sarcire, inf. of purpose, as G. iii. 46, where see note.
250. foros, ' cells ;' properly the ' gangways ' of a ship, then of the rows of seats in a theatre. The bees' cells are perhaps here called fori because of some fancied resemblance between ' rows ' of seats in a theatre and the ' rows ' of cells in a hive, floribus horrea texent, ' Meave their granaries with flowers,' i. e. fill up the crevices with pollen of flowers, as described 1. 39 above.
255. luce carentum, ' bereft of light,' i. e. of life, a Lucretian phrase.
2o6 GEORGICS IV. 257-293.
257. peditoxis conexae, 'with feet linked together:' cp. pedibus per viiiiua 7icxis Aen. vii. 66 i of a swaim of bees\
259. contracto frig-ore, 'with cramp and cold:' lit. cramped or pinched-up cold— the appearance or affection being transferred to that which causes it.
260. 'Then deeper hums are heard, and long-drawn buzzing.'
261. quondam, ' at times.'
262. sollicitum, ' restless.' stridit, the older form of the verb.
263. rapidus, 'scorching,' ' violent ;' see on Eel. ii. 10.
265. ultro, not only giving them honey, but ' even ' exhorting them to eat it : see on 1. 204 above.
267. tunsum, a poetical artificiality for fiiiisae. gallae, 'gall-nut,' an excrescence on flowers.
268, 269. defruta, 'must' boiled down to make it stronger, hence said to be ' thickened (pinguia) with hot fire.' psithia . . . racemos," 'raisin clusters from the psithian vine,' i. e. raisin-wine of the psithian kind. psithia, an unknown sort of vine, mentioned also G. ii. 93.
270. Cecropinm, 'Athenian' (see on 1. 177), a literary epithet, cen- taurea, ' centaury,' a bitter herb.
271. amello, the ' aster.'
273. caespite, here apparently in the rare sense of ' a root.'
274, 275. ipse, the centre of the flower, as opposed to the petals (, folia), violae, etc. ' there is a purple tinge beneath deep violet hue.'
276. torqiiibus, 'with festoons twined from it' (the aster).
277, 278. tonsis, 'grazed.' Mella, a river not far from Mantua, that falls into the Po.
281, 282. defecerit of a completed, hahebit of a continuing, state.
283. Arcadii mag-istri, ' the Arcadian sage,' i. e. Aristaeus, son of Apollo and the nymph Cyrene, a celebrated shepherd and inventor of agricultural arts, hence called magister (teacher). He was \vorshipped in Arcadia, and in other parts of Greece, as a divinity. Cp. 1. 317 below.
285. insincerus, ' corrupted.' Sinccrus of what is ' sound,' 'healthy,' or 'clean,' Ov. Met. i. 190 iuuncdicahile vitlims Ensc reddendum ne pars simcra irahatur; Hor. Sat. i. 3. 56 Sinceriim cupimus vas iiienistarc. This strange notion of generating bees probably arose froni their having chosen the dry skeleton of some beast (as hollow trees, G. ii. 453) for hiving. Cp. Samson's riddle about the swarm of bees in the lion's carcase (Judges xiv. 12-18) ; and the story related by Herodotus ^v. 114) about the head of Onesilus, in which a swarm of bees settled and made honey, altius, ' far back,' ' from the first.'
287-293. There is manifest redundancy in this description of the Delta of the Nile ; yet all MSS. have all the lines, though with considerable variety of order. Possibly some of them were alternate lines, not all in- tended to stand in one text. Or some may have been retained from a longer passage about Egypt and Cornelius Gallus— who is said by Servius
GEORGICS IV. 287-333. 207
and the pseudo-Donatus to have been the hero of the second half of this book as originally written. See Introd. to this book.
287. Pellaei, because conquered by Alexander of Macedon (of which Pella was the capital}.
290. Fersidis, used vaguely for the countries east of Egj-pt ; cp. Mcdus HydaspesX. 212. urget, 'presses,' ' confines.'
291-293. amnis is subject of discurrit and fecundat. coloratis Indis, must = the Ethiopians — a loose use of the term.
294. iacit, ' places' its hopes.
295, 296. ipsos in usiis, * for this very purpose.' imbricc, 'tiling:' properly a semicylindrical gutter tile {iinber), used to cover the lateral junc- tions of the flat tiles {tcgtilae).
297, 298. ' Add four windows, with slanting light, facing the four winds of heaven.' a ventis, ' on the side of,' like a tergo, etc. obliqua luce, so as not to admit too much light ; but how this is done is not explained.
302. ' His battered flesh is mashed through the unbroken hide.' No blood was to be drawn ; but Virgil forgets this below, 1. 542.
306. rubeaut, subjunctive, as usual, after autequam, whexQ fo>rf hotighi is implied: cp. Cic. de Or. i. 57 tragoedi cotidie, atttcqtiani pronttntii.-uf, vocein ctibantes sensim excitant.
309-311. ' And creatures marvellous to behold, first without feet, soon gifted also with whistling wings, crowd together, and assay more and more boldly the unsubstantial air.' modis miris qualifies visenda, ' noteworthy (lit. to be marked^ in strange fashion.' pedum, gen. of want, extended in jioetr}' to many adjectives, e. g. pauper, vacuus, solutus, etc.
313. ernpere, perfect denoting custom, pulsante, ' propelling.'
315. extudit, ' worked out.'
316. ' ^Vhence did this new experience among mankind take its rise ? ' 317 foil. The source of this story is unknown ; but probably ^'irgil fol- lowed some Alexandrian writer. For Aristaeus see on 1. 283. His mother, the nymph Cyrene, was daughter of the river-god Peneus. The Peneus flows through the \ale of Tcmpe in 'I'hessaly.
319. eztremi caput amnis, ' the source whence the river takes its rise,' i. e. the river Peneus.
323. Thymbraeus, from Thymbra in the Troad, where there was a celebrated temple of Apollo.
325. caelum sperare, ' liope for heaven,' i.e. for deification.
326. linnc . . . honorem, ' this crowning glory of mine earthly life,' i. e. his success in agriculture.
328. te matre, ' for all that I am thy son,' i. e. his mother's divine power has not assisted him.
329. felices, 'fruitful,' see on Eel. v. 37. 331. molire, ' wield,' see on G. i. 329.
333. thalamo sub, ^within the chamber of the deep river;' sub, under the roof.
2o8 GEORGICS IV. 334-378.
334, 335. Milesia, see on G. iii. 306. saturo, a ' rich ' or ' deep ' colour.
336. Drymoque, see Introd. p. 17.
337. ' With bright locks streaming o'er their fair \vhitc necks.' For the construction see on Eel. i. 55.
338. Probably a copyist's insertion from Aen. v. S26 : omitted by the best MSS.
343. Ephyre atque, for the hiatus see Introd. p. 18.
344. tandem positis sagrittis, ' her arrows at length laid by,' i. e. Arethusa, who was a huntress, had returned from the chase, and joined her fellow-nymphs beneath the river.
345. curam, not Vulcan's stratagem to catch his unfaithful wife (Hom. Od. viii. 266 sqq.), which was successful ; but his previous anxiety, which was fruitless.
347. a Chao, from the time of chaos.
348. fusis, ablat. of instr., ' carrying down with the spindle. 353. non frustra, 'not without reason.'
354-356. ' See ! Aristaeus' self, thy chiefest care, stands sadly weeping by thy father Peneus' stream, crying out on thee by name for thy cruelty.' tibi, dat. ethicus. Penei, dissyllable by synizesis. genitoris, see on 1. 31 7 above.
357. nova, ' strange.' percussa mentem, like auratus cornua 1. 371, are examples of the accusative after passive participles in imitation of the Greek. See on Eel. i. 55.
361. 'AH round him, arched into mountain shape, stood the wave.' Virgil translates Hom. Od. xi. 243, 4 Xlop<pvpiov 5' apa Kv/ia Trfpiarddrj ovpt'i Tffov KvpTojOir.
366. What he sees is the sources of the various rivers.
367. diversa locis, ' each in his own place ;' lit. ' separate in respect of their places.'
370. saxosus sonans, ' with its rocky roar,' adverbial use of adj., like tarda volvcntia G. i, 16^, gravis inciiiuheiis ii. 377, magnus Jlucns iii. 28.
371. ' With two gilded horns on his bull's brow.' River-gods were always represented with the head of a bull, either as a sign of strength, or to denote their bifurcating streams. The idea of the ' gilded horns ' was no doubt suggested by the custom of gilding the horns of oxen for sacrifice : but there may be a further reference to the particles of gold supposed to be found in the river Po.
373. pnrpureum, the ' dark-blue ' sea. Homer's aka ■noptpvpUcaav or Trop(pvpeT]y. violentior, the Po is now a less rapid stream, perhaps on account of the elevation of its bed.
374-377. pendentia pumice tecta, ' a hanging roof of stone ' — hanging in respect of the stone which composes it : cp. Aen. iii. 442 Averna sonantia silvis. fletus inanes, ' idle tears,' a sort of conventional epithet, mauibus, 'for the hands.' tonsis mantelia villis, 'napkins of shaven wool.'
378. repontint, ' keep placing' (_over.and over as they were emptied), see on G. iii. 527,
GEORGICS IV. 379-438. 209
379. Panchaeis, ' Arabian,' from Panchaea, a fabulous island near Arabia, adolescunt, ' blaze ' (in this sense oma^ ^«70- Virgil seems to use it &'s, = adolentiir, 'are kindled,' for which sense cp. Aen. i. 'jo^ Jlatiitnis adolere Penates.
380. Slaeonii, * Lydian,' Maeonia being the old name of Lydia.
385. 'Thrice leaped the flame to roof-tree and shone back' (Blackmore). subiecta, i. e. from below. Wine was poured on the altar at the close of a sacrifice, partly to quench the flame, partly to create a sudden blaze, which was auspicious (Eel. viii. 106).
387. Carpathio, the ' Carpathian ' sea, i. e. the sea between Rhodes and Crete, from Carpathus, an island there.
388, 389. caeruleus, 'sea-coloured :' the gods of the sea were repre- sented as of a bluish-green colour. So mater caerula (of Thetis) Hor. Epod. 13. 16. The piscibus are the same as the bipedum equoruni, i. e. mythic sea-horses, whose hind quarters merged into a fish's tail, metitur, 'tra- verses,' lit. ' measures,' Homer's aXa fKTprjaavTfs. ' Courses over the mighty deep with his fishes, even with his yoked chariot of two-footed steeds.'
390, 391. Emathia, i. e. Macedonia, of which it is a part. Pallene, one of the peninsulas of Chalcidice in Macedonia. Proteus in Homer inhabits the island of Pharos close to Egypt : his connection with Macedonia is a later legend.
393. sint, etc., the subjunctives denote a class, 'everything that is.' mox with Ventura, trahantur, ' are drawing nigh.'
395. turpes, ' unsightly.'
397. eventus secundet, ' prosper the issue.'
400. circum haec, ' against these barriers his craft will at last break and come to nought.' inanes, proleptic with frangeutur.
403. secreta, 'the old man's retreat.'
407. horridxis, 'bristling.' atra, 'deadly.'
410. teniies, 'fleeting:' a fixed epithet, like Homer's lypov.
418. habilis, ' supple.'
420. Repeated Aen. i. 161. sinus reductos, 'secluded inlets.'
421. deprensis, ' storm-caught.' olim, ' at times ; ' cp. Hor. Sat. i. i. 25 /it pucris olim dant crust tila blandi Doctorcs and the use of quo)idam Aen. ii. 367.
424. nebulis obscura, ' hidden in a mist.' resistit, ' stands waiting.' Con. suggests that the word may here have the special meaning ' stands olT,' 'retires.'
425. rapidus, 'violent,' 'scorching:' see on Eel. ii. 10. Sirius, it is the season of the dog-star, when the sun is hottest.
427, 428. hauserat, 'had consumed,' i.e. completed half his course in heaven. The idea is that of swift motion seizing upon and absorbing space : cp. carpcrc iter, campum corripere, etc. ad limxxm with tepefacta coque- bant, ' the rays had warmed and were baking to the very mud tlie hollow streams with their parched channels.'
O
2IO GEORGICS IV. 431-463.
431. rorein amarum, 'salt spray,' lit. 'dew.'
432. somno, prob. dative, 'for sleep.' diversae, 'here and there.'
433. olini, 'at times,' see above 1. 421.
437. cuius, i. e. Proteus ; ' as soon as Aristaeus found a chance of (touching) him.' quoniani {quinn-iain), here in its older and temporal sense, as frequently in Plautus, e.g. Trin. i. 2. 75, 112: cp. the double use of quum.
441. miracula rerum, ' all strange shapes on earth.'
445. nam, like 70^ '^e. g. II. i. 1 23 'ATptiSrj . . . trus yap roi Saxrovai ytpas fieydOvjxoi 'Axatot;^, introduces a question. In classical Latin it is generally subjoined to the interrogative, qnisnam, quidnain, etc.
447. neqiie . . . quidquani, ' nor can you deceive me in aught.' Other renderings are ^i~ 'nor can aught escape you,' which is tempting: but the harshness of having to supply fallere with a different subject after velle would be extremely great; i2, 'nor can one deceive you in anything.' This is open to the same objection as (i), and is a less natural rendering.
449. lassis, 'my weary state;' c^.fcssis rchtis Aen. iii. 145. The v. 1. lapis has much less MS. authority, qiiaesitum, supine.
450, 451. vi mtilta can hardly refer to the external compulsion, but must denote the vehemence of Proteus' look. ' The seer in answer vehe- ment at length Rolled on him eyeballs glaring with grey light' (Kenn.), glauco, ' bluish-grey,' because Proteus was a sea-god : see on 1. 388 above.
452. fatis, wrobably dative, 'to reveal the fates,' rather than modal ablative.
453. nuUius, for the quantity see Introd. pp. 16, i;.
454-456. ' Great is the crime for which you are atoning; 'tis Orpheus, wretched for no fault of his own, that is calling forth, should fate permit, this punishment of yours, and raging grievously for his ravished bride.' liaiidqiiaquani ob meritunx, best taken with miserabilis. Other render- ings are (i) to refer the words to Aristaeus, 'penalties undeserved by thee.' But it seems impossible to reconcile this with niag°na luis conmiissa in the preceding line ; (2) to translate (with Serv.\ ' penalties less than you deserve,' 'in nowise for your deserts.' This makes good sense, but the expression would then be strained and ambiguous in the last degree, ni fata resistant implies a suppressed apodosis, c. g. ratas fitturas.
457-459. diim fugeret, ' while striving to flee ; ' the subj. is due to the purpose implied : cp. Aen. i. 5 nnilta . . . hello passus, duiit condcrct itrhcin. per, ' along ' the stream, moritura, ' doomed ' ^^to die), servantem implies the idea of keeping close to, ' haunting.'
460. aequalis, ' of her mates.'
461-463. For the hiatus after Khodopeiae and Getae see Introd. pp. 17, 18. Pangaeus, moiuitain in Macedonia. Rhesi telUis, i.e. Thrace. Getae, tribe in the north-east of Thrace; Actias Orithyia, ' Attic Orithyia,' daughter of Erechtheus, king of Athens, who was carried off to Thrace by the North \Vind. Acte ('coast') was an old name for Attica.
GEORGICS IV. 472-547. 311
472. simulacra luce carentum, from Lucr. iv. 35. 475-477. P'rom Od. xi. 38 sqq. ; repeated Aen. vi. 306-308: 'There lords and dames advanced in solemn train, And stately heroes quit of life's campaign, With lads and girls to loss of wedlock doomed, And youths before their parents' eyes entombed' (Blackmore). magfuanimum, old form of the gen. in -tim, superseded by the later form in -rum. It is not uncommon in Virgil with substantives, c. g. dettm, virum, divoin, etc. ; but very rare with adjectives.
480. interfiisa, ' streaming between ' — i. e. among them as it wound round and round.
481, 482. Leti with domus as well as Tartara, 'the very home and central deeps of Death.' caeruleos . . . angrues, 'their hair entwined with livid snakes :' for the constr. see on Eel. i. 55.
484. rota orbis, ' circle of the wheel.' Both words mean ' wheel ' or ' circle : ' and the expression is an intelligible variety from the more usual orbis rotae. vento, instr. abl. The wind falls charmed by the song, and ceases to drive on the wheel. Cp. Eel. ii. 26 citiii flacidttiii veittis staret mare (where see note).
491. aninii, ' in heart ; ' see on G. iii. 2S9.
496. natantia, 'swimming,' here applied to the dim, failing sight of a dying person.
500-502. fugit diversa, ' fled away.' umbras, not Eur}-dice's shade (as Aen. iv. 571;, but the 'darkness,' at which Orpheus vainly clutches. praeterea, 'hereafter.' portitor, Charon.
504. faceret, past deliberative, ' what was he to do?'
509. haec evolvisse, 'unfolded this tale.'
517, 518. Tanais, the Don, a river of Russia. Bhipais, see on G. iii. 3S2.
520. Cicones, a Thracian tribe, quo munere, 'by this service of his,' i. e. his constancy to the memory of Eurydice.
524. Oeagrius, Oeager was king of Thrace and father of Orpheus, whence the epithet is specially appropriate.
527. toto flumine, local abl. ' all along the stream.'
529. spumantem, etc., ' wreathed the foaming wave beneath the eddy,' i. e. the eddy made by his leap into the water. The ' foaming wave ' denotes llie water disturbed by the body shooting along underneath.
530. at non, Cyrene did not leave liim so hurriedly, ultro, without waiting to be appealed to, ' straightway : ' see on 1. 204 above.
535. pacem, ' pardon.' faciles, ' gracious.'
540. iiitacta, that has never felt the yoke.
543. ipsa, as opposed to the blood.
547. The meaning appears to be that after revisiting the grove, and finding the bees, he will know that Eurydice is appeased, and will then sacrifice a calf to her as a thank-offering.
0 2
212 GEORGICS IV. 549-566.
549. excitat, 'builds.'
556. stridere, the older form of the verb: cp. 1. 262 above.
558. uvam demittere, ' lower their cluster,' of the swarm of bees ; a metaphor suggested by Horn. II. ii. 89 PorpvSov de TtiJovTai.
560. dum fulminat, etc., this refers to Augustus' triumphant progress through the East in 31 B.C. after the battle of Actium.
562. viamque, etc., ' pursues the path to heaven,' i. e. to immortality. Olympo, poetical use of dative instead of prep, and case, like it caelo clamor, etc.
564. Parthenope, Naples, so called from one of the Sirens, who was said to have been buried there.
565, 566. These two lines refer to the Eclogues, the last being almost a repetition of Eel. i. i. carmina . . . pastorum, 'sported with the shep- herd's muse.'
INDEX TO ECLOGUES AND GEORGICS.
A.
ab (of direction), E. i._54 ; with in- stramental abl., G. i. 234.
ablative, local use of, G. i. 431.
accusative, cognate, E. i. 5 ; after passive participle, E. i. 54 ; of motion to, E. i. 65 ; of respect, E. viii. 4.
Acheloius, G. i. S.
Actaeus, E. ii. 24.
addere in spatia, G. i. 513.
adeo, E. iv. 11.
adjective, as adverb, G. iv. 370.
adoko, E. viii. 65.
adolescere, G. iv. 379.
agiiien, G. iii. 422.
Alcon, E. V. 10.
altare, E. v. 66, vi. 38.
alvaria, G. iv. 34.
Ambai-valia, G. i. 33S.
amber, E. viii. 54.
animi, G. iii. 289.
auiiiiosiis, G. ii. 441.
anieqiiain, with subj., G. iv. 306.
ants, G. i. 379.
apodosis, suppression of, E. ix. 44.
Optus, G. iii. 168.
Aracynthus, E. ii. 24.
arbtisia, E. i. 40.
Arcadia, E. vii. i.
area, G. i. 178.
arguUis, G. iii. 80.
aridus, G. i. 358.
arma, G. i. 160.
Ascraciis, G. ii. 173.
Asia, (i. i.
at que, E. V. 23.
attraction, E. viii. 58.
ausim, E. iii. 32, G. ii. 289.
autuiinius, G, ii. 5.
B.
Bavius, E. iii. 88. bur is, G. i. 169.
caerulcus, G. iv. 388.
carmiua, E. viii. 66.
Celeus, G. i. 165.
Ceres, G. i. 6.
Cinna, E. ix. 35.
Codrus, E. v. 10.
conditional sentences, pres. for im-
perf., G. iv. 116. cor, G. i. 122. coma, G. ii. 32. corripere viam, G. iii. 104. cothurnus, E. viii. 10. cross-ploughing, G. i. 97. cuitts, E. iii. i. ciinei, G. ii. 509. Cymaemn caniien, E. iv. 4.
D.
damma, E. viii. 27.
dare, E. i. 19.
dative, poetical use of, G. ii. 188,
290. decedere, G. iv. 22. deducere vivos, G. i. 269. demiim, G. i. 47. dent ale, G. i. 169.
deponents, passive use of, G. ii. 486. die, G. i. 208. donaria, G. iii. 532. Doris, E. X. 4.
E. earth, the, Virgil's conception of, G. i. 231-
214
INDEX,
enim, G. ii. 509.
EnniiTS, imitation of, G. iii. 9.
Epicurean doctrine of the elements,
E. vi. 31. Erigone, G. i. 33. esseda, G. iii. 202. Euphorion, E. x. 50. excipere, G. ii. 345.
F.
facej-e (sacrifice), E. iii. 77. fernientiiiii, G. iii. 380. ferriigo, G. i. 466. Fescennine verses, G. ii. 3S5. fori, G. iv. 250. fortnido, G. iii. 372. fo7-tnna, G. iii. 452. frondator, E. i. 57. fucits, G. iv. 37.
G.
Gallus, E. vi. 64.
genialis, G. i. 302.
genitive, after neuter adj., G. iv. 159;
in nm, G. iv. 475. gluten, G. iv. 37.
H.
haec (fem. plur.), G. iii. 305.
hendiadys, G. ii. 220.
Hesiod, imitation of, G. i. 276.
Hesperus, E. viii. 29.
hibiscus, E. ii. 30.
hippomanes, G. iii. 280.
hypermetric lines, G. ii. 69, iii. 449.
I.
ignarus, E. vi. 40.
illaudaius, G. ii. 5.
iniprobus, G. i. 119.
in (in the case of), E. viii. 82.
in nnguejii, G. ii. 276.
increinentum, E. iv. 49.
indicative, for subj. in apodosis, G.
ii. 51. Indigeies, G. i. 498. infinitive, with adj., E. v. i ; with
substantive, G. iii. 60; of purpose,
G. iii. 46 ; as verb-tl substantive,
G. ii. 73. ifiiquus, G. iv. 147.
insincerus, G. iv. 285. infetupestus, G. i. 247. ipse, E. iii. 3.
L.
labores, G. ii. 478.
laevus, G. iv. i .
lengthening of final syllables, E. i.
39. Libra, G. i. 33. Liber, G. i. 6. LucretiiTS, his influence on Virgil, G.
i. 97, \<^, ii. 490, iii. 416. hidere, E. i. 9. lustrare, E. v. 75.
M.
mahwi, E. ii. 51. Mantua, E. ix. 27. micare, G. iii. 84. mollis, E. V. 38, G. iii. 75. mundus, G. i. 231, 240.
N.
7iai)>, G. iv. 445. naiiique, E. i. 14. novates, G. i. 71. nudns, G. i. 299. mtmcrus, G. iv. 227.
O.
Oaxes, E. i. 66.
oblitus, E. ix. 53.
ohscenus, G. i. 470.
oliiii, E. X. 34, G. ii. 403, iv. 421.
orae lu minis, G. ii. 47.
Orcus, G. i. 276.
P.
Pan-pipe, E. iii. 25.
passive part, as subst., G. ii. 398.
past part, in pres. signification, G.i.
206. peculiufn, E. i. 33. penetrabilis, G. i. 89. Phaethontiades, E. vi. 61. Pharsalia, battle of, G. i. 489. Philippi, battle of, G. i. 489. plantae, G. ii. 23. partus Iitlius, G. ii. 161. praesens, E. i. 43.
INDEX.
315
present, idiomatic use of, E. viii. 43. Procne, G. iv. 1 3. procul, E. vi. 16. propago, G. ii. 26. proscaenia, G. ii. 380.
Q-
quain iiiagis, G. iii. 309. (jtdn, E. ii. 71. quinciuix, the, G. ii. 279.
R.
rad/us, E. iii. 40. rainbows, G. i. 379. rapidus, E. ii. 10, G. iv. 425. refingo, G. iv. 202. religio, G. i. 270. relhto, G. iv. 229. river-gods, G. iv. 371. roslnitae coluinnae, G. iii. 28, mere, G. i. 104.
S.
Hardonins, E. vii. 41. scaena vcrsilis, G. iii. 24. Scipiades, G. ii. 170. Scylla, E. vii. 74, G. i. 404. septeinlrio, G. iii. 381. scqtiax, G. i^. 230. sicubi, G. iii. 332. Sila, G. iii. 219. silus, G. i. 71.
sorti, G. iv. 165. spero, E. viii. 26. j/eVa, G. i. 169. Slides, G. ii. 24. suus, G. iv. 22.
T.
Taurus, G. i. 215. teino, G. i. 169. tmesis, E. vi. 6. torquere, G. ii. 246. trahere, G. i. 164. tribula, G. i. 164.
U.
upilio, E. X. 19. ?</, E. viii. 41.
vaccinia, E. ii. iS. Varius, E. viii. 88, ix. n. vates, E. ix. 34. vertere, G. iii. 146. vescus, G. iii. 175. vigilare, G. i. 313. viticere, G. ii. 123. vomer, G. i. 169.
W.
world-spirit, the, doctrine of, G. i. 415, iv. 219.
THE END.
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