SB

V. J.

-NRLF

NEW SOUTH WALES

CO
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EXCHANGE

R5PP/NTED FROM

AGRICULTURAL GAZETTE OF N.S.W. JUNE 3, 1916.

THE WEEDS OF N. S. W.

DWARF NETTLE.^/r^'co, urer>~f L.)

THE WEEDS

OF

NEW SOUTH WALES.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE OF DWARF NETTLE (Urtica urens).

1. Seed, (x 12.)

2. Male flower thrown open, showing four anthers and perianth of four

segments, (x 27.)

3. Showing position of flower clusters on the stem, (x 2.)

4. Side view of female flower, (x 12.)

5. Part of stem showing the ribs and glandular hairs, (x 9.)

6. A glandular stinging hair, (x 52.)

7. Front view of female flower, (x 12.)

8. Female flower thrown open, showing fruit and perianth of two segments

(x 12.)

9. Cluster of flowers, tlie sexes intermixed, (x 9.)

Stem and root of plant natural size. Nos. 1 to 9 enlarged as stated.

[See page 41.]

•

f 64225

SYDNEY: WILLIAM AFPLEGATE GULLICK, GOVERNMENT PRINTER.

1920.

t 64225- A [6«. 6d.j

REPRINTED FROM

AGRICULTURAL GAZETTE OF N.S.W. JUNE 3, 1916.

THE WEEDS OF N. S. W.

DWA R F NETTLE, (rrrf.f.r.n. n, •?•*>.•»-* r, )

THE WEEDS

OF

NEW SOUTH WALES.

PART I.

BY

J. H. MAIDEN, I.S.O., F.R.S., F.L.S.,

Government Botanist and Director of the Botanic Gardens, Sydney

SYDNEY: WILLIAM APPLEGATE GULLICK, GOVERNMENT PRINTER.

1920.

t 64225- A [6*. Qd.~]

• K \

-

EXCHANGE

CONTENTS.

Page.

FRONTISPIECE.
INTRODUCTORY REMARKS.

Some General Observations on Weeds ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 1

Section I. — Bad Points of Weeds 1

Section II. — Dispersal of Weeds by natural means 9

Section III. — Dispersal of Weeds by animals ... ... ... ... ..". 11

Section IV. — Prevention and cure ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 13

Section V. — Miscellaneous (including Legislation) 16

•Commonwealth Lists of Proscribed Weeds ... ... ... ... ... ... 19

Weeds Proscribed in Victoria 24

List of Plants declared Noxious bv various Shires and Municipalities in New South

Wales 20

The Twenty Worst Weeds of New South Wales 27

SOME WEEDS OF NEW SOUTH WALES.

Nut Grass (Cyperus rotundus) ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 31

Water Hyacinth (Eichhornia speciosa) ... ... ... ... ... ... 34

Wild Onion or Sweet-scented Garlic (Allium fragrans) ... ... 38

Wild Onion or Onion Weed (Asphodelus fistulosus) 40

Dwarf Nettle ( Urtica urens) 41

Khaki Weed (Alternanthera Achryantha, var. echinata; syn. A. cchinata) ... 42

Cow-Cockle (Saponaria vaccaria) ... ... ... ... ... ••. ••• 44

A Poison Buttercup (Ranunculus sceleratus) ... .. ... ... ••• 47

Rough-seeded Buttercup (Ranunculus muricatus) ... ... ... ... 49

Mexican Poppy (Argemone mexicana)

Hexham Scent (Melilotus par vi flora) ... ... ... ... ••• ••• 53

Petty Spurge (Euphorbia peplus) ... ... ... ... ... ... ••• 56

Paddy's Lucerne or Queensland Hemp (Sida rhombifolia) ... ... ... 58

St. John's Wort (Hypericum perforatum) ... ... ... ... ... ••• 62

Blue Weed or Paterson's Curse (Echium plantagineum} ... ... ••• 64

Purple-top or Wild Verbena ( Verbena bonariensis) ... ... ... ••• 63

Blue Weed (Verbena venosa) 70

Stagger Weed (Stachys arvensis) ... ... ... ... ... ... ••• 72

Buffalo Burr (Solanum rostratum) ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 74

Thorn Apple or False Castor Oil Plant (Datura Stramonium) ... ... ... 76

Castor Oil Plant (Ricinus communis) ' '.-H ... ... ... ... ••• 84

Bushy Star wort (Aster subulatus) ... ... ... ... ... ••• ••• 87

Stinkwort (Inula graveolens)

Soliva sessilis ... ... ... ... ... ... ... «•• ••• 93

Bat hurst Burr (Xanthium spinosum) ... ... ... ... .•• ... 94

Noogoora Burr (Xanthium strumarium) ... ... ... ... ••• «•« 98

Groundsel (Senecio vulgaris) ... ... ... ... ... ••« ••• *"a

Black or Spear Thistle (Carduus lanceolatus) ... ... ... ••• ••• 106

True Star Thistle (Centaurea calcitrapa) 110

Cockspur or Saucy Jack (Centaurea melitensis) ... ... ... ••• ••• ^^

St. Barnaby's Thistle (Centaurea solstitialis)

Saffron or False Star Thistle (Carthamus lanatus) 120

Cat's Ear or Flat Weed (HypochcKris radicata)

Prickly Lettuce or Compass Plant (Lactuca Scariola)

Sow Thistle (Sonchus oleraceus) ... ... ... ... ••• ••• ••• 127

Cape Weed (Cryptostemma calendulaceum) ...

INDEX 132

518429

INTRODUCTORY REMARKS.

MOST of the information contained in the following pages has appeared in
articles by the author in the Agricultural Gazette of New South Wales
during the last twenty-five years. It is now collected in this form in the
hope that it will be of use to farmers and all others interested in the preven-
tion of the spread of pests that annually rob them of thousands of pounds.

In this country of wide, imperfectly occupied areas, with special liability
to attack by new weeds from the four quarters of the world, a moral obliga-
tion attaches to every citizen to do what he can to check the weed menace,
and he should bear in mind that the expenditure of a shilling in tackling a
weed when first observed, may perhaps be more efficacious than the expendi-
ture of a hundred pounds in the following year.

When a weed gets into New South Wales (it may have come oversea in
spite of precautions, or it may have spread from one part of the State to
another, or have come from another State, for the States have no means of
self-defence at the boundaries), it shows itself by means of a plant, or group
of plants. Every plant which makes its appearance in a district should be
viewed with suspicion, and, unless the finder knows what it is, he should
pull one or more plants up by the roots, wrap them in paper, ard address
them (the postage is quite snrall) to " The Director, Botanic Gardens, Syd-
ney." If that officer can name it in the form in which it is sent, he will
promptly give advice, but if flowers have to be waited for before it can be
named, he will ask for them and defer his advice, for some weeds cannot be
named if only leaves be available.

Whether the weed be deemed to be harmless or not, it is desirable that the
local Town Clerk or Shire Clerk be informed, in order that the proper
municipal or shire officer may keep an eye on the intruder, and, if necessary,
approach the local body with the view of suitable action being taken under
authority of the Local Government Department.

Weed legislation is referred to at p. 18. As regards Commonwealth
legislation, large numbers of food-seeds, such as wheat, are examined for
weed-impurities, and seeds in general are tested similarly at the seed-testing
laboratory of the Department of Agriculture in the Botanic Gardens, Syd-
ney. The object of this is to protect New South Wales from weeds arriving
by sea, and also from seeds of useful and ornamental plants which have
lost their germinating power.

Some General Observations on Weeds.

THERE are a great many definitions of weeds. One is " Any useless or
troublesome plant." A weed may be a plant which, under different circum-
stances, is a useful one. Thus Johnson grass has many merits, but it
becomes a weed of a most aggressive kind in a cultivation paddock. Useful
plants, which have become scattered amongst a crop, cannot be separately
harvested; they thus become useless, and even worse, for they vitiate the
main crop. They are therefore weeds.

Immediately a plant gets out of control in cultivated or pasture land, it
becomes a weed. Many are vegetable pariahs ; they have had a bad time, and
hence have developed characters which enable them to resist annihilation.
Some are especially injurious, and tenacity of life and noxiousness may be
combined in the same weed. How important it is, therefore, that we should
know our weeds, and to assist in this, some illustrations will help identifica-
tion. But an important thing to be kept in mind is that when a new weed
appears on the property its identity should be ascertained, and particulars
sought concerning it. To be on the safe side, it should be destroyed at once,
as if it seeds it may get beyond control. Again, acclimatisation experi-
ments with economic plants are full of surprises, and so are the unbidden
acclimatisation experiments that weeds undertake in spite of us. It may
turn out that a weed may hitherto have not a very bad reputation, but your
property may offer special attractions to it and it may spread to an extent
never previously recorded. Why run the risk? Keep your property well
inspected, and " run in " every suspected weed, adopting the attitude of a
policeman towards a suspected person.

Asa Gray, the American botanist, was a charming short-paper writer, and
his " The Pertinacity and Predominance of Weeds," in his Scientific Papers,
Vol. ii, p. 234, is profitable reading.

Following is a synopsis of this series of notes on weeds, and I trust that,
the presentation of the points (original to some extent) will be found useful.

SECTION 1.— BAD POINTS OF WEEDS.

O) They take up the space which should be occupied by useful plants.

(fr) They screen off light and air and deprive the crop of various manuriat
constituents.

(c) They are harvested with crops which they depreciate.

(d) Some weeds are parasitic on crops and do not take their sustenance
from the soil and air. They thus weaken the crop. Such plants are Dodder
and Mistletoe.

0) Weeds harbour insect and fungus pests. The danger lies in the fact
that we may not trouble to apply insecticides or fungicides to weeds, which
form a nursery for pests.

THE WEEDS OF NEW SOUTH WALES.

(/) They may ~be poisonous. In order to illustrate points, it is necessary,
at this place, to include some plants which are not, in strictness, weeds.
Reference may be made to the following papers which have appeared in the
Agricultural Gazette, of New South Wales, chiefly, though not exclusively,
on poison plants, with reference to New South Wales conditions: —

1. " Native Plants Poisonous to Stock," Feb., 1895, 2 pp.

2. " Plants Reputed to be Poisonous to Stock in Australia," Jan., 1897,

22 pp.

3. Same, with supplementary matter. June, 1901, 32 pp.

4. " Is the Tree Tobacco Poisonous ?" and " Garden Plants Poisonous

to Stock," June, 1904, 3 pp.

Dr. J. B. Cleland has a valuable resume of the whole subject in the third
Report of the Department of Microbiology, 1914, and the following paper
by the same author should also be referred to : — " Experimental Feeding
with some alleged Poison-plants of New South Wales," Agric. Gaz., Jan.,
1914, p. 65.

We have a large number of suspected plants, and some of these, having
been duly tried, have been honourably acquitted. Other suspected plants
are brought under review from time to time, and some plants (e.g., grasses)
which at one time were not suspected, have now proved to be poison-plants.

The literature in regard to the effects of poison-plants on stock and their
remedies, by competent veterinary surgeons, is scarce, and the two following
Bulletins are valuable, in spite of the fact that the individual plants referred
to are different to ours : —

1. " Prevention of Losses of Live Stock from Plant Poisoning," by

G. Dwight Marsh, Farmers' Bull, U.S. Dept. Agric., No. 720.

2. " Stock-poisoning Plants of California," by H. M. Hall and H. S.

Yates, Bull. No. 249 of the Agric. Exper. Station, Berkeley, Cal.

In this brief preliminary sketch I will, from the point of view of poison-
plants, classify them in the following way : —
(i) Saponins.

(ii) Cyanogenetic Plants (Prussic Acid).
(iii) Narcotics.
(iv) Hemlock.
(v) Suspected plants.
(vi) Poison-plants concerning which further knowledge is required.

(i) Saponins.

If my readers will turn to my "Forest Flora of New South Wales," Part
53, page 55, they will find " A few notes on Saponins (Poisonous Vegetable
Soaps)." A Saponin is a member of a group of glucosides which are
characterised by the property of producing a soapy lather, and most of them
(for there are many) are poisonous.

In Part 52, page 31, of the same work is an account of the " Fish-poisons
of the Aborigines," and some of the poisons there enumerated are Saponins.
A chemical investigation of Australian plants, with the view of ascertaining
the presence of a Saponin, would be of interest, and would probably cause
some surprises, in view of the fact that certain Australian plants in which
this substance has already been found were not previously suspected of being
poisonous.

THE WEEDS OF NEW SOUTH WALES.

Wattles (Acacia) are perhaps our principal plants which have been proved
to be poisonous, but only a very few of them. Mr. W. L. Hindmarsh in
recently sending me twigs of the Blackwood (Acacia melanoxylon) from the
Lismore district, says that the bark and twigs have been used by the blacks
to stupefy fish, and the twigs are suspected of poisoning pigs. An old refer-
ence in my Forest Flora, vol. i, p. 107, that the bark contains some Doison,
may be thus explained.

There is a paper on " The Toxic action of Saponin " in the Philippine
Journal of Science, vol. i, pp. 1037-1042, by E. F. Bacon and H. T. Marshall.
It takes the physiological standpoint and will be found interesting, especi-
ally, as so little has been written on this somewhat obscure subject.

The Corn Cockle (Agrostemma Githago) is an ornamental weed from
Europe, which I am sorry to say has been increasingly invading our wheat-
field's during the last few years. Its seed is undoubtedly poisonous owing
to the presence of a Saponin. It is the more dangerous because it is difficult
to screen from wheat. It poisons fowls and renders flour poisonous, though,
on account of its dark colour, it is not to be found in flours of high grade.
It belongs to the Pink family (Caryopliyllacece), a usually non-poisonous
family of plants, and its poisonous character may give a clue to the state-
ment that in America the seeds of one of the Chickweeds (Stellaria media)
are said to injure lambs when eaten in large quantities.

(ii) Cyanogenetic Plants.

By this term we mean plants which contain a certain principle called a
glucoside which, acted upon by a ferment in the plant, liberates hydro-
cyanic or prussic acid, a very poisonous substance.

In this connection read a paper on the "Variegated Thistle (Carduus
marianus) as a Poison-plant," by Max Henry in the Agricultural Gazette
for September, 1912, p. 807.

One or two of the Sundews (Drosera) so common in Australia in damp
places, have been reported as poisonous to cattle. A few years ago some
species were found to contain hydrocyanic acid, and this may be the key to
the matter.

Oleander (Nerifiim Oleander). The prunings of this beautiful small tree
are dangerous. Stock will rarely nibble the tree, but will eat the wilted
prunings thrown over the fence. See the Agricultural Gazette for June,
1904, p. 544. Let me say that the practice of throwing garden prunings into
the paddock in which are the horse and cow, may be a dangerous one. It
may, of course, be instructive if it be noted whether the prunings are toxicT
before or after wilting. But people do not, as a rule, make physiological
experiments on their animals.

For a case of a grass being poisonous at a stage of its growth, see " A
Blue Couch Grass (Cynodon incomplete Nees), which is sometime^
Poisonous." Agricultural Gazette, 1912, p. 295. Dr. Petrie has chown that
at certain seasons it contains hydrocyanic acid.

See also a paper, " The poisonous action of Johnson grass (Andropogon
Sorghum)," by A. C. Crawford, in Bull. U.S. Dept. Agric. Bureau Plant
Ind. 90, p. 31r-34. Mr. F. B. Guthrie has also found hydrocyanic acid in this
grass. See his article on "Sorghum Poisoning" in the Agricultural Gazette,
Sept., 1912, p. 812.

THE WEEDS OF NEW SOUTH WALES.

See also a general paper on the subject by Dr. Petrie, viz., " Hydro-
cyanic Acid in Plants, Part ii. Its occurrence in the grasses of New South
Wales," in Proc. Linn. Soc., N.S.W., xxxviii, 624 (1913).

We know that certain grasses, such as Lolium temulentum, the Darnel,
Paspalum scrobiculatum and Festuca elatior, display a ready tendency to
become affected by minute poisonous fungi, and thus sheep and cattle are
often injured and sometimes destroyed by them. But it should be borne in
mind that these grasses are not always so affected, and in that condition the
grasses are more or less useful fodder plants.

A species of Spear Grass, Stipa robusta Vasey, goes under the name of
" Sleepy Grass " in the United States (see Agricultural Gazette, Vol. xxiii,
p. 583). It is undoubtedly poisonous (see also Pammel, p. 357). On pages
580-583 are some notes on alleged poison grasses which will be useful for
reference. Our common Spear Grass, of course, belongs to this genus.

(iii) Narcotics.

Speaking generally, the Tobacco family (Svlanacece) contains more or less
of a poisonous principle or principles of a narcotic character. The worst
offender is Datura Stramonium, often erroneously called Castor Oil Plant.
It is a medium-sized heavy smelling herb with a large white bell-flower and
a large nutmeg-grater sort of fruit which contains large numbers of black
seeds. • I have never personally known cattle to eat the plant ; the smell repels
them, but there are many instances of children chewing the deadly seeds,
often with fatal results. The weed should therefore be carefully destroyed,
not for the sake of the stock, but for the children's sake.

Then some of our native Solanums are stated to be poisonous, while others
are harmless. The subject should be thoroughly threshed out by a com-
mittee, and until this is done we shall only be able to give stock-owners
vague replies.

We have a true native tobacco (Nicotiana suaveolens}, and this is cer-
tainly poisonous. It is a pretty little slender plant, with sweet-scented white
tubular flowers. I believe it to be abundantly proved that it is. from time
to time, responsible for the deaths of large numbers of sheep.

Nicandra physaloides, the so-called " Apple of Peru," is a weed which was
originally introduced to gardens, and now it is spreading here and there.
Pammel says, "said to be poisonous; used as a fly-poison in parts of the
United States," and this should put us on our guard concerning it.

(iv) Hemlock.

Undoubtedly the Hemlock (Conium maculatum), figured and described in
the Agricultural Gazette for February, 1896, p. 79, is a deadly plant, danger-
ous alike to stock and human beings. Late research indicates that all parts
of the plant are poisonous because of the presence of a resin known as
Cicutoxin. It is a pretty fern-like plant in its early stages, and hence it has
been cultivated under the name of Parsley Fern. It should be most carefully
dug out and burned.

There is an excellent article on an allied plant, Water Hemlock (Cicuta
virosa), Technical Bulletin, No. 81, by C. Alfred Jacobson, Agric. Expt.
Station, Univ. of Nevada, Eeno, U.S.A. (1&15)

THE WEEDS OF NEW SOUTH WALES.

(v) Suspected plants.

That the following1 plants are poisonous, is an opinion very widely held in
Australia: —

1. Euphorbia Dnimmondii.

2. Stachys arvensis.

There are others, but these will illustrate my point.

Euphorbia Drummondii, called " Milk Weed " because of its white juice,
is a humble, prostrate succulent plant which has a pinkish cast, and which
often occurs on river banks or in places with rich soil, and a fair amount of
moisture. It is one of the plants which is most frequently reported as
having killed sheep. Every year, particularly about March, I get many
reports, chiefly from the west, of its devastations. But Mr. E. Stanley,
when Government Veterinarian, showed in a paper in the Agricultural
Gazette for September, 1896, p. 319, that it is not really poisonous.

He adduced what appears to be overwhelming evidence against the toxic
character of this plant, quoting not merely his own varied experiments, but
the observations of many stock-owners. The memoir is far too voluminous
to print here, but is well worthy of reference by pastoralists and others.
Following are Mr. Stanley's own remarks : —

the weed is not only free from poisonous properties, but it is also a

wholesome and valuable fodder-plant. Its natural habit is to grow freely after slight
moisture, and to form green patches amongst the parched herbage ; it is soft, juicy, and
very tempting to hungry sheep; they eat it too freely and fill their stomach to engorge-
ment; in this lies the danger, causing indigestion, which is followed by flatulency, and
frequently death by suffocation.

This is the only explanation that can be given to account for its evil reputation. Never-
theless, it must be remembered that exactly similar disastrous consequences often follow
satisfying the hungry appetite with ravenous feeding. I have known trefoil, lucerne,
young thistles, green wheat, and even couch grass, cause fatal indigestion when stock
have been indiscreetly fed upon them.

Drovers coming on such succulent food should permit only a moderate feed, and move
them off such patches, until the cravings of hunger are gradually satisfied ; then they
may eat such green herbage with impunity.

Stachys arvensis, the so-called " Stagger Weed," is as widely distributed
as the preceding, and the belief as to its poisonous nature is just as prevalent.
It was described in the Agricultural Gazette, May, 1916, p. 336.

Following is a plant occasionally suspected as a poison-plant (there are
several of them) out of pure ignorance. I am sorry I have no vernacular
name for' these plants, which belong to the group Zygophyllum. I have
published a note " Zygophyllum from the Point of View of the Grazier," in
the Agricultural Gazette for January, 1901, p. 23, to which I refer my
readers.

They have four or five angled fleshy fruits, and the leaves are yoked or
paired together. They usually occur in the drier parts of the State, are
often trailing, and found under larger plants. Indeed, in the open they are
usually eaten out by sheep, but both here and in South Africa they are often
suspected as poison-plants, without any evidence at all, that I can gather;
simply, I think, because they are a different green from surrounding plants,
and not much is known about them. I believe them, indeed, to be useful
fodder plants, and the fact that they are suspected as being poisonous doe&
not redound to our credit.

THE WEEDS OF NEW SOUTH WALES.

(vi) Poison-plants concerning which further knowledge is required.

In the Agricultural Gazette for March, 1913, p. 241, Mr. E. Cheel has a
note on the "White-flowering Passion Flower (Passiflora alba}, injurious
to stock," and the poisonous nature of these passion vines requires further
investigation.

Pammel gives Anagallis arvensis, which we know as Scarlet Pimpernel,
the name of Poison Weed. He says it is poisonous to horses and dogs. It
and the closely-allied Blue Pimpernel (A. coerulea) are very old Sydney
weeds, having been recorded at least as early as 1802-4. They are found
in grass land, and, while they have sometimes been sent as suspected plants,
I cannot say that I have ever come across any direct evidence as to their
poisonous nature. Ewart sums up the situation, and we cannot shut our
eyes to the evidence, and must try and profit by it.

I have dealt at such length with the effects of the Pea family (Leguminosae-
Papilionacea?), on stock that I will do little more than content myself with
giving the reference " Plants reputed poisonous to stock," Agricultural
Gazette, June, 1901, pp. 643-656.

It may be added that in the Report of the Administrator, Northern
Territory, for the year 1912, p. 133, there is a paper " Poisoning of Goats due
to Ingestion of Orotalaria arbor ea" We have Crotalarias in New South
Wales, but not this species, and at least one of them has been suspected.

The alleged poisonous character of a Crotalaria (Burlccand) has, however,
given rise to spirited arguments in South Africa, e.g., Agric. Journ. Union
of S.A., June, 1911, p. 721. Our knowledge of the effects on stock of many
of the indigenous Leguminosse reflects no credit on. us considering the
magnitude of our pastoral and farming interests.

The common buckwheat (Fagopyrum esculentum Mcench.) is an irritant.
The Bureau of Microbiology at one time made some investigations, in
co-operation with the Stock Department, in regard to a skin disease in sheep
which had fed 011 buckwheat. It was believed to be identical with the
disease known as Fagopyrismus in Europe. Pammel's " Manual of Poi-
sonous Plants " points out that the feeding of buckwheat to pigs and other
animals and the eating of buckwheat cakes by man are well known to veteri-
narians as causing dermatitis or skin irritation, and this property should be
watched in regard to the ingestion of weeds belonging to the same family
(Polygonacea?) .

Dr. Sydney Dodd has a paper on " Trefoil Dermatitis " in Journ Comp.
Pathol. and Therapeutics (1916). Medicago denticulata is one of the harm-
less Medicks (less correctly called Trefoils) associated with this distressing
complaint which causes great irritation to domestic herbivora in New South
Wales ; it has so far gone under the name " Aphis disease."

The same paper also contains a note on " Fagopyrismus," and one on
the, skin irritation caused by St. John's Wort (Hypericum).

Echium vulgare or plantagineum is the common Blue Weed or Pater-
son's Curse which, first running wild in the Albury district, has covered
large areas to the exclusion of almost any other vegetation, and is now
spreading over the country here and there. When I first urged the eradi-
cation of this weed, I was opposed on the ground that it gives picking for
stock, but recent research indicates that it is probably poisonous, causing
slavering. It should certainly be eradicated and burnt (before seeding),
whenever it makes its appearance on new ground, and closer settlement will
have to tackle the problem where it has taken possession of large areas.

THE WEEDS OF NEW SOUTH WALES.

The Tape Vine (Stephania liernandice folia Walp.), a native climber,,
with inconspicuous flowers, growing in coastal scrubs, is suspected of poi-
soning cattle. See C. T. White in Q. Agric. Journ., October, 1917, p. 230.

(g) Weeds may directly destroy property.

The undermining propensities of Nut Grass (Cyperus rotundus}, which:
have destroyed asphalt paths many a time, afford a remarkable illustration,
of the destructive force of a plant struggling for existence.

(/O The cesthetic aspect of the weed question.

We may object to weeds because they conflict with our esthetic sense. I
remember visiting a dairy estate and the absence of weeds was a great
pleasure. The paddocks, and especially the strips alongside the fences were
clean, there was no room for weeds, and one noticed this at once as a thing
of beauty.

I once heard a certain nursery spoken of in these terms : — " So and so's
nursery is a pleasure to see, you won't find a waistcoat pocketful of weeds
in the whole of the place." This was some years ago, and it was almost
literally true. It enormously enhanced the charm of the place. The presence
of weeds jars the feeling of the man who loves neatness and order, and
abolition of them should be our ideal.

Weeds Considered in Relation to Animals.

1. May inflict pain by stinging.

2. Indigestible plants.

3. Plants which cause hair-balls.

4. Plants which irritate the mucous membranes.

5. Boring seeds.

1. Thxy may inflict pain by stinging.
The common nettles (Urtica) are of this kind.

It is fortunate that we have very few plants which afford considerable
annoyance by stinging, as plants of this kind are dangerous in that one
usually comes into contact with them by accident. The large-leaved and
small-leaved nettle trees (Laportea gigas and photiniphylla respectively)
are found in the warmer coast districts and inflict great pain if their leaves-
are touched, cattle becoming quite furious. Fortunately, human beings are
usually on the lookout for these large leaves, which have a characteristic
appearance amongst the surrounding foliage.

In swampy estuaries at the extreme north coast of this State is a for-
midable tree (happily not in great abundance), known as "Milky Man-
grove " or " Blind-your-eyes," owing to the exceedingly corrosive nature of
the sap or juice. Unfortunately, there are a number of instances, particu-
larly in Queensland, where human beings have received serious injury from
cutting the bark, and doubtless cattle have been injured by it in the
mangrove swamps in which it grows, although I have not noticed that
actual cases have been recorded. Its botanical name is Exccccariu Agallocha.

THE WEEDS OF NEW SOUTH WALES.

2. Plants which are indigestible, and therefore injurious.

In this section we have two plants which are typical of many others. The
first is the "Bean Tree" or " Moreton Bay Chestnut" (Castanospermum
australe), a pride of our Northern rivers, but frequently ringed by stock-
owners because the pods are believed to be poisonous. I do not presume to
say that they are not, but if so, the poison is of a kind which is not revealed
by chemical science. They are undoubtedly exceedingly indigestible, more
than nuts usually are, and the mischief they do may perhaps be attributed
to this cause. The woody fibre they contain forms a ball in the stomachs of
animals which feed on them.

The weak-stemmed shrub (Trema aspera), which goes under the name of
" Elm," "Rough Fig," and (only in Queensland apparently), "Peach-leaved
Poisonbush," has often been recorded as poisonous, but neither chemical nor
physiological experiments can detect a poison. But it is a very fair fibre
plant, and would prove almost as indigestible to cattle as if they ate string.

3. Hair-halls.

There are many plants in which the presence of an injurious active prin-
ciple is certainly absent, but portions of the plant contain hairs which have
the property of felting, or of breaking up, and, while being unacted upon by
the stomach, agglutinate together and form substances called bezoars, or
from their origin, phytobezoars or hair-balls.

The best known instance of this kind is afforded by the woolly inflorescence
of the Crimson Clover (Trifolium incarnatum), which has done much harm
to stock. See the paper on " Crimson Clover Hair-balls," by F. V. Coville
(Circular, U.S. Dept. of Agric. Botany, viii, 4).

The spinules of the Prickly Pear (Opuntia) not only inflame the mouths
of cattle, sheep, and horses, but, when swallowed* form hair-balls. The
woolly seeds of the Cape Weed (Cryptostemma calendulaceum) are licked up
in great abundance by stock in summer and they readily produce hair-balls.
So do the stiff awns of oats, both the crop oat and the wild oat (Avena
fatua), and indeed other species. /

Certain Brome grasses (Bromus) work similar mischief.

4. Plants which irritate the mucous membranes.

I have briefly referred to the Prickly Pear (Opuntia) with its barbed
spinules like a black-fellow's spear, designed to penetrate and not to
return. They cause intense irritation to the lips, tongue, stomach, and anus
of animals. When ripe, a puff of wind will blow them on to an animal;
it is not necessary to eat the plant on which they are found.

Certain grasses have awns which are barbed, e*g., one of the barley
grasses (Hordeum murinum), figured and described in the Agricultural
Gazette for October, 1904, with an illustration of its work on the jaw of a
sheep.

Then we have Chwtochloa (Setaria) Foxtail Grass, Avena sterilis (wild
oats), Bromus of many species (Brome grasses). All these are furnished
with barbed hairs or awns.

Many such irritating grasses could be enumerated, but the present object
is to draw attention to them in a general way.

THE WEEDS OF NEW SOUTH WALES.

5. " Boring " or Hygrometric seeds which irritate animals.

In certain species of Stipa (Spear Grass), the awn is very sensitive to even
slight changes in the moisture of the atmosphere. If it should happen to fall
on a sheep's back the free end of the awn catches on the wool, and as it
twists and untwists, must force the sharp point at the base of the glume
into the skin (the rigid hairs pointing upwards, prevent its ever being with-
drawn), so that every change of the twisting awn forces the sharp point
down into the skin, and sheep are killed in this way. See the Agricultural
Gazette for 1894, p. 135.

The ordinary function of these twisting awns is, of course, to bury the
seed in the ground.

See also an article by Mr. J. D. Stewart in the Agricultural Gazette for
1901, p. 357, on the "Injurious Effects of Certain Grass Seeds to Live

Stock."

S. spartea, the " Porcupine Grass " of the United States, bears the same
reputation in that country that S. setacea does with us. See Pammel,
p. 355.

Heteropogon contortus, the " Bunch Spear Grass " (see the Agricultural
Gazette for 1892, p. 856), is even more formidable than Stipa, but fortu-
nately it is less widely distributed. Some species of Aristida, the '' Three-
pronged Spear Grass," may also injure sheep in certain seasons.

Andropogon acicularis Retz. Mr. Henry O. Forbes has an interesting
note in Nature xx, p. 456, on the irritation produced by seeds of Andtopogon
acicularis Retz. on his own skin when he was in Java.

Triodia. Warburton (Warburton's Explorations, by C. H. Eden, p. 156),
in referring to the so-called " Spinifex," or " Porcupine Grass " of Western
Australia (Triodia), says that to horses it has on more than one occasion
proved most destructive, piercing and cutting their legs, which in a very
short time become fly-blown, so that the animals have either to be destroyed
or abandoned.

SECTION 2.— DISPERSAL OF WEEDS BY NATURAL MEANS.

Weeds Distributed by the Wind.

1. Seeds dust-like.

2. Weeds with silky hairs.

3. Weeds with wing-structure

4. Weeds with " tumble-weed " structure.

1. Weeds with seeds fine as dust.

Among such seeds is the Poppy (Papaver hybridum), but there are very
many kinds. They may be caught up by a breeze and deposited miles away
from the parent plants. Obviously it is difficult to control an invasion of
plants which behave like this.

In Proc. Linn Soc. N.S.W., 1901, p. 697, Mr. R. H. Cambage points out
that whirlwinds out west are responsible for the distribution of seeds even
of large size.

10 THE WEEDS OF NEW SOUTH WALES.

2. Weeds with silky hairs.
These may be in three forms.

(a) Fruits with a pappus or parachute arrangement, as with so many of
the Thistle or Daisy family (Composite). A good example is the Thistle.
The seeds of thistles go sailing along like shuttlecocks.

(fr) The carpels may terminate in long silky tails as in the Clematis, a
white-flowering climber which adorns the bush. A pui! of air sends them
flying.

(c) Hairs may cover the seed, as in the case of the true Cotton plant
(Gossypium) , or Cape Weed (Cryptostemma}. These seeds are not so light
and feathery as those in (1) and (2). Still, the cottony hairs catch the breeze
and facilitate the transport of the seeds to congenial soil.

3. Weeds with wing-structure.

We have what I may term the wing or aeroplane structure. This is
readily recognised in the case of Pines, She-oaks, and a surprising number
of our native plants. Sometimes the wing encircles the seed; sometimes the
wing is at one end of a seed. In the case of a pine, for example, the ripe
cone opens and the wing, weighted or balanced by the more solid seed, floats
away to its destination,, lazily if the air be still, but, if there be a fresh wind,.
a surprising distance.

4. Weeds with " tumble-weed " structure.

The entire panicle breaks off near the base of the culms and rolls over the
ground, its progress being facilitated by the horizontal spreading branches,
which act as sails.

We have this in grasses. For instance, the inflorescence of the common
grass Deyeuxia Forsteri, breaks off and is rolled about by the wind. The
Windmill grasses move about in the same way, and very often we notice
how they accumulate in the corner of a paddock, sometimes overtopping
the fence, and blowing over into the next paddock. Sometimes the grasses
are carried along the railway-line, and the rush of the train keeps them in
active motion. Standing on the Sydney Station I have often seen the
inflorescence of grasses in front of the engine which must have been carried
along for many miles.

Some plants are called " Roly-Poly " in Australia because of this tendency
to take on this tumble-weed character. Salsola Kali is an example.

Weeds Distributed by Floods.

Floods bring down seeds good and bad, generally bad, and deposit them
in nice moist alluvial soil under conditions very favourable to germination.

In our own State it is notorious that the Prickly or Mexican Poppy
'Argemone mexicana) and the Noogoora Burr (Xantliium strumarium) are
transported and propagated in this way.

Sling Fruits.

Such include the pods of Leguminosse (the Pea, &c., family).
The mechanism by which the seed of the common Broom ( Ulex europceus}
is propelled some distance was described as far back as the year 1546.

THE WEEDS OF NEW SOUTH WALES. 11

An analogous contraction of the fruit capsules is responsible for the jerk-
ing out of the seed in a number of plants.

Such an arrangement is useful to the plant in that, it extends the area
over which the seed may be sown.

General.

The chapter on " The Dispersion of Species by means of Fruits and Seeds/'
in Iverner and Oliver's " Natural History of Plants," ii, 833, is well worthy
of perusal, if only for its beautiful and helpful illustrations.

The authors separately figure what they call sling fruits (those in which
the seeds are expelled by torsion) ; creeping or hopping fruits (in which the
mechanism is hygroscopic bristles) ; fruits which open upon being wetted
\vith water; and an especially fine series to illustrate the dispersion of fruits
and seeds by the wind. The same work also illustrates sticky fruits and
fruits furnished with hooks, &c., to facilitate dispersal by animals.

Another useful paper for reference is " Migration of Weeds," by Lyster
H. Dewey, in Year-book of Agric., U.S.A., 1896, p. 263. The illustrations
of seeds carried by winds, &c., are useful.

SECTION 3.— DISPERSAL OF WEEDS BY ANIMALS,

1. Mechanically by adherence to their coats and feet.

(a) Fruits with burrs.
(6) Adhesive fruits.

(c) Gumminess of some seeds.

(d) Weeds transported by the feet.

2. Transport by wool-washing.

3. Weeds and manure.

1. Dispersal by adherence to coats and feet,
(a) Fruits with burrs.

Some of the Medics (Medicago) have twisted pods with marginal hooks
forming burrs. Most of the Medics make excellent forage, especially for
sheep, and the plants often die down, leaving an enormous quantity of these
burrs, which are licked up by sheep and are very nutritious. At the same
time, they find their way into the fleece and do a good deal of damage. Up-
to-date pastoralists are doing all they can to encourage the spread of those
Medics which have pods without burrs. Some of these (M. orbicularis and
M . scutellata} are figured in the Agricultural Gazette for 1894, p. 5.

The largest Medic burr is that of M. intertexta L., which is described in
the Agricultural Gazette for February, 1904.

Amongst grasses we have Cenchrus australis, the burry fruits of which
Mr. A. M. Lea has illustrated in Trans. Roy. Soc. S.A., xxxix, 92, under the
name of " An insect-catching grass." It mats the hair of any animal which
touches it. Lappago (Trayus) racemosus is another burr grass, figured in
the Agricultural, Gazette for 1896, p. 129.

Other plants with burrs are the "Native Carrot" (Daucus brack iatus),
and the Acoena, of which we have two species, sanguisorb(K and ovina.

Then everyone knows the Bathurst Burr (Xantliium spinosum), and its
close relation, the Noogoora 'Burr (X. strumarium) figured in the Agri-
cultural Gazette for July, 1917, p. 489, and October, 1899, respectively.
These are typical burrs.

12 THE WEEDS OF IvEW SOUTH WALES.

From time to time firms advertise their goods by means of printed thin
card butterflies, the body of which is a burr. In 1910 the burr was the
Burdock (Arctium Lappa) see Agricultural Gazette for 1910, p. 730. There
was a revival in 1917, the Burdock burr (a very bad burr) in Queensland
being used; the Bathurst Burr (Xanthium spinosum) was similarly dis-
tributed in a country district in 1918. These butterflies are thrown by
practical jokers on the clothes and hair of people. I have no doubt this is
an assault in law. In addition, the wholesale and retail distributors of
these advertisements can be punished under the Commonwealth and State
weed laws. It is a selfish and dastardly form of advertisement, from which
our farmers and pastoralists are entitled to be protected.

The fruit of Solanum rostratum Dun, is a specially offensive burr. It is
figured in the Agricultural Gazette for June, 1904.

Everybody in the country knows the pest called Bindi-eye or Bogan Flea.
The principal weed (a native) which goes under this name is Calotis cunei-
folia, and the burrs greatly injure wool, besides being a source of great
irritation to man and domestic animals.

Stick-tights or Pitch-forks (Bidens) have a couple of barbed harpoons on
the fruits and cause great annoyance by perforating the skin and adhering
to wool.

The spinules of Prickly Pear injure wool, while one species in particular
(Opuntia aurantiaca) breaks into small joints and is transported long
distances with facility by .adhering to the hocks of animals.

(Z>) Adhesive fruits.

Some seeds, e.g., that of Polanisia viscosa and Pisonia Brunoniana are
very sticky, and the latter in particular captures insects, and soils fur and
clothing by its bird-lime secretion.

(c) and (d) Gummy seeds and weeds transported by the feet.

Some seeds which meet with the moisture of damp soil or of mud develop
a gummy secretion with facilitates their transport when they touch any
object. Such seeds are the Plantains (Plantago} and many of the OuciferaB.
which include the Pepperworts (Lepidium).

The solid-angled fruits of the Cat's Head (Emex australis) and the
Double Gee (Tribulus terrestris} present a sharp penetrating point to the
feet of animals from all aspects. They lame them and are carried about
more or less by the inconvenienced or suffering animal. But, in addition,
the seeds of all kinds of weeds, cemented by soil or clay to the feet of
animals, are transported by them without any distress.

The part that birds can play in the dispersal of plants by seeds in their
stomachs and on their feet is discussed by Darwin (" Origin of Species,"
6th edition, pages 326 and 328). Birds are often a prolific source of weed-
seed distribution.

2. Transport by wool-washing.

Every man has seen a burry or a moity or a grass-seed fleece. The number
of weed-seeds thus arrested is enormous. Consequently at wool-washing
establishments throughout the country (at Waterloo and Liverpool I have-
personally collected many plants which have been transported to those dis-
tricts in wool) we find that the water detaches the seed, softens it and often
puts it in a position to be readily germinated when it comes into contact
with the soil.

THE WEEDS OF NEW SOUTH WALES.

In 1913, before the Linnean Society of London, Miss Hayward exhibited
a series of forty-six Australian plants found on the banks of the river
Tweed (between England and Scotland) and its tributary the Gala, together
with a large collection of Australian seeds, the whole obtained from Aus-
tralian wool, there being wool- washing establishments in the vicinity.

How many skirts have been ruined and trousers injured beyond remedy
through walking in paddocks at grass-seed time. I have seen the upper
leathers of strong boots matted so densely with grass-seeds that it would be
impossible to pack any more thereon.

3. Weeds and manure.

This is, of course, one of the principal drawbacks of the manure formed
by the droppings of herbivorous animals. Unless such manure is very
carefully rotted, it always contains seeds of weeds, which flourish exceedingly.

Some weeds have small seeds with impervious coverings which resist the
process of digestion and even fermentation of manure.

It is a matter of common knowledge that weeds arise near stables, where
animals camp for the night, arid so on. The trucking yards of railways are
a fertile source of propagation of weeds. Take any country town, and you
will make a fine collection of weeds where sheep and cattle are trucked.
Within a square mile of Flemington saleyards I have collected more than a
dozen western species of plants. It is at the yards that the concentration
takes place, but the diffusion of weeds occurs more or less wherever stock
trucks pass along the country.

I have been informed that, some years ago, when the Hawkesbury Agri-
cultural College purchased the cleanings of the Flemington sheep and cattle
trucks for use in the orchard there, several western weeds, quite unfamiliar
to the district, were found growing where the manure had been spread.

Weed-seeds are often directly put on the land in the form of manure.
They may be thrown on the manure heap under the impression that they
will be destroyed by the fermentation of the manure, but it must be remem-
bered that the coats of particular seeds may be very resistant to decomposi-
tion, while other seeds may find their way to the edges of the heap and not
be acted upon at all.

SECTION 4.— PREVENTION AND CURE.

(a) Seed should be screened.

(5) Weed-seeds should be excluded in packing of goods.

(c) Weeds should be prevented from seeding.

(d) Burying of weed-seeds is dangerous.
(e} Worry weeds by frequent cutting.
(/) Eradication.

(g) Drainage.

(/i) Rotation of crops.

(i) Smothering crops.

(/j) Chemical manures.

(I) Chemical weed exterminators.

(m) Special treatment.

(ft) Some weeds disappear naturally.

14 THE WEEDS OF SEW SOUTH WALES.

(a) Seed should be screened.

Cheap seed is often dirty seed.. There is no economy in buying seed which
-can be sold cheap simply because it has been hurriedly collected or taken
from paddocks infested with weeds. Such seed will be very dear in the long
run. In this matter let us begin at the beginning by the inculcation of pre-
Tentive methods. Prevention is better than all the remedies in the world.

All seed, without exception, should be screened. It is wonderful what a
lot of rubbish may be obtained from a sample which, on a casual examina-
tion, may appear to be clean. It is only when the screenings are examined
that the truth comes home to us. An analogous case is that of milk. Until
•separators were invented it never occurred to anybody that milk might
•contain so much foreign matter.

The time will assuredly come when all seeds will by law have to be
.screened, and the screenings consumed by fire.

(b) Weed-seeds should ~be excluded in packing of goods.

Imported goods often come in packing which contains weed-seed?.
Articles packed in one part of Australia may communicate weeds to another
part. One correspondent of mine specially stated that a certain weed was
introduced into his part of the State in the packing of fruit-trees by nursery-
men.

(c) Weeds should be prevented from seeding.

There is an old jingle which does not err on the side of exaggeration.
" One year's seeding, seven years weeding." Cut the weed or pull it up
ivhen in flower or early fruit (seed) ; that is to say, do not run the risk of
the seed ripening or of the fruit case opening and throwing its contents
on the ground.

(d) Burying of weed-seeds is dangerous.

Sometimes it is recommended to bury weed-seeds, or weeds containing
ripe seeds, deeply by the plough, or in pits. This is fatal to many, although
much depends on the care with which the operation is performed. There is
always risk in weeds not being deposited actually at the bottom of the pit,
"but the chief risk lies in the fact that some weeds have surprising vitality,
and will get to the surface either through a fissure in the soil or because the
soil becomes disturbed. Incidentally it may be mentioned that it is
notoriously dangerous to try and get rid of nut grass (Cypcrus rotundus) by
burying. n-M

, ;

(e) Worry weeds by frequent cutting.

Certain weeds should be cut down persistently, remembering that this
•causes atrophy of the root, and consequently the plant dies out. If neces-
sary cut a weed a few inches below the surface, as cutting at the surface by
a scythe or other implement causes many weeds to form lateral branches,
often with a tendency to lie flat on the ground, thus adding considerably to
the difficulty of extermination.

Use such cutting instruments as are available and appropriate. Cut the
weed down faster than it can draw on its reserves.

THE WEEDS OF NEW SOUTH WALES. 15

(/) Eradication.

Sometimes the total removal of the plant is feasible and desirable. This
may be done by hand-pulling1, forking, loosening with plough, and gathering
together by the harrow for burning.

A mechanical extractor is sometimes useful. One for large weeds with
stems of the necessary toughness is figured at p. 814, vol. 2 (1891) of the
Agricultural Gazette.

(g) Drainage.

The drainage of land always changes the character of the vegetation upon
it, and is often the means of getting rid of undesirable weeds. This is the
best way, for example, of getting rid of such weed as Stagger Weed (Stachys
a-rvensis). At the same time the improved conditions permit the growth of
wholesome grasses.

(/?) Rotation of crops.

Rotation of crops is frequently advantageous for overcoming weeds not
easy to suppress by other means.

(i) Smothering crops.

Weeds are sometimes dealt with by sowing crops which smother them.
Change of crop is often useful, and particularly the introduction of root or
other crops requiring hoeing and scarifying.

(A*) Chemical manures.

The application of chemical manures is sometimes desirable. For example,
nitrate of soda stimulates the leafy growth of grasses, and a dressing of lime
that of clovers and other leguminous plants, and in this way weeds may be
smothered.

(?) Chemical weed- exterminators.

The use of chemical exterminators of weeds such as salt, arsenic, kerosene,
&c., is usually out of the question, as the labour is too great, to say nothing*
of the cost of materials and of the danger of sterilising the soil for a long
period. The method is also uncertain, and, as a rule, can only be applied to
special weeds, e.g., Prickly Pear.

Sometimes a cereal crop with weeds can be sprayed by a substance which
is selective in its action, destroying the weeds and leaving the crop unin-
jured. This is a field for experiment which has been but little investigated,
but spraying with a 10 per cent, solution of iron sulphate for example has
been attended with favourable results. Copper sulphate is even more
favoured at the present time for this purpose.

(m) Special treatment.

Special weeds require special methods. For example, in Europe it is a
usual practice to cut the stems of such plants as Blackberry and Sweet Briar
with bill-hooks, and to enclose the ground containing the stumps with
hurdles within which sheep, goats, or other animals are folded. The stock
readily eat the young tender spineless shoots as they appear, and by degrees
the plants become exhausted and die.

16 THE WEEDS OF NEW SOUTH WALES.

(n) Some weeds disappear naturally.

This may be attributed to two separate causes, or to a combination of
them.

1. In course of time they exhaust the soil of the substances necessary for
their healthy existence, and so perish.

2. Absence of rain at a critical period of the weed's history. It is not the
total rainfall of a district that counts, but whether it falls at periods critical
for the development of the plant. For example, at the period of germina-
tion, a little later to make leaf, a little later to form the flower and plump
the seed.

Ten times as much raiu may fall as is necessary for the absolute require-
ments of the plant, yet, if there are lengthy periods between the falls,
development may be arrested, and either the weed may die in that particular
season or it may not form seed for the next. In any case the weed dis-
appears, and, I think, this lack of fortuitous rainfall is the key to the so-
called mysterious disappearance of weeds in certain areas.

In the Agricultural Gazette for January, 1896, p. 39, Mr. John F. Tabrett
gives an example of the migration of the common Black Thistle (Carduus
lanceolate) from a locality in the Hartley district where it was formerly
abundant.

In Wallace's " Island Life," 3rd Edition, p. 513, is an instructive account
of the temporary establishment of weeds which are (usually) later on over-
come by the surrounding indigenous vegetation.

It is a matter of common knowledge that weed-infested areas become
clean again or replaced by other weeds, and my readers are invited to record
cases which have come under their notice. If land once infested by weeds
were always infested, large areas of ground would be permanently in this
condition except through the restless intervention of man.

Weeds will destroy each other if kept on the same block of land without
outside interference. For example, it is sometimes the practice to fence a
piece of land infested with Bathurst Burr (Xanthium spinosum), so as to
prevent any interference with the plants. Left alone they grow luxuriantly
for a time and then, struggling for existence on the same plot of soil, the
plants become debilitated, and the weeds die out in patches and sometimes
altogether.

SECTION 5.— MISCELLANEOUS.

(a) Annual and perennial weeds,
(fo) Native plants as weeds.

(c) Places that harbour weeds.

(d) Weed legislation.

There are three useful Australian weed manuals, as follows: —

1. " The Naturalised Flora of South Australia," by J. M. Black, Ade-

laide, published by the author.

2. " The Weeds, Poison-plants, and Naturalised Aliens of Victoria,"

by Alfred J. Ewart, assisted by J. E. Tovey, published by the
Government Printer, Melbourne.

3. " The Weeds and Suspected Poisonous Plants of Queensland," by

F. M. Bailey, published by H. Pole & Co., Brisbane.

THE WEEDS OF NEW SOUTH WALES. 17

These works will be referred to in the following pages under the names
Black, Ewart, Bailey.

See also "A Manual of Weeds" by Ada E. Georgia (The Macmillan Co.,
New York). It deals with the weeds of the United States and Canada, and
is of interest and value to us because a number of the weeds have found their
way to Australia, and others may be expected to follow.

(a) Annuals and Perennials.

Some few years ago, the Engineer of the Patrick Plains Shire made the
thoughtful suggestion that, for the purpose of administration, weeds should
be divided into annuals and perennials. It was pointed out that, according
to law, when weeds are first observed on an area, a notice must be served.
Three months must elapse before any further action can be taken, and by
that time most of the annual weeds have seeded, and it is practically useless
to do anything to them.

Annuals usually flower early in the spring and should be properly de-
stroyed before the seed ripens. They are also more readily destroyed than
perennials. Perennials, of course, should be destroyed before the seeds ripen,
but they are frequently more difficult to destroy, and often flower later in
the season. In New South Wales it is not always possible to draw a sharp
line between annuals and perennials, because some weeds and grasses which
are annuals in Europe live through the winter here, but it would be well
to classify all such doubtful weeds as annuals.

Annuals often make up for their short' life by the large number of seeds
that they produce. Perennials have the faculty most developed of repro-
ducing themselves vegetatively, that is, by shoots in contradistinction to by
seeds, and thus a plant may produce dense masses of growth without pro-
ducing a single seed.

(fr) Native Plants as Weeds.

Sometimes a native plant invades a man's cultivation paddock or orchard
and becomes a weed, but the number of such complained of is vastly fewer
than exotics. I have drawn attention to the subject in the Agricultural
Gazette for 1913, p. 911, for example, in referring to Olearia viscidula, a
native daisy with sticky foliage which sometimes goes under the absurd name
of « Wild Verbena."

Some men are not liable to skin irritation ; in most cases it is more or less
of an idiosyncrasy. Incidentally Humea elegans, an ornamental sweet-
scented plant, erroneously called " Wild Tobacco," may cause irritation.
See the Agricultural Gazette for 1914, p. 236.

(c) Places that harbour Weeds.

(1) Neglected Cemeteries. — Two of the places that a botanist arriving at
a township visits if he can are the railway line and the cemetery. The latter
is, like the line, fenced more or less securely, and it is often a place in which
the weeds of a district grow unchecked. We have many virtues, but keeping
our cemeteries tidy and free from weeds is not one of them. This cannot
be left to the individual owners of graves, who are often migratory.

(2) Roadsides an Alsatia) for Weeds. — Roads being the land over which
animals of all descriptions pass, many of them laden with merchandise, it is

18 THE WEEDS OF NEW SOUTH WALES.

not surprising that weeds make their first appearance on them. The weed-
seeds may be contained in the manure of the animals or in the packing of
merchandise. Seeds also may be blown on to the road from a long dis-
tance. The manured road-detritus blown to the side of the road, forms an
admirable nidus for the weed-seeds and, if left undisturbed, they flourish
exceedingly. The officers of the Government and of Shire and Municipal
Councils are getting much more alive to their responsibilities in regard to
weed-destruction on the roads than was the case a few years ago. The land
inside railway fences is an excellent place for the growth of weeds in many
places, in spite of the fact that there is some organised method of firing
them. I always make for a railway line enclosure for the purpose of making
a collection of good specimens of the weeds of a district, and the same pro-
tection is also excellent for the smaller native flora.

(d) Weed Legislation.

As Australia becomes developed, there is an increasing tendency in all the
States to increase local self-government, and coping with weeds becomes
usually one of the functions of local bodies. The underlying idea is that
local people know what plants are most noxious to them, and the function
of the State Governments is indorsement of their recommendations for
proscription of specific weeds, subject to power of veto. This affords the
necessary Government control, preventing local bodies, which may not have
special knowledge, taking action prejudicial to their own interests.

The Prickly Pear (Opuntia) is. dealt with by special legislation, both in
New South Wales and in Queensland. What has been stated so far refers
to weeds after they have got a footing in Australia.

To prevent the entry of undesirable plants into the Commonwealth, the
Federal Government, in 1908, passed " An Act relating to Quarantine.'7
An appendix to this Act forbids the entry of plants affected by certain
diseases (chiefly caused by fungi), and mostly affecting economic plants.
Another appendix prohibits certain weeds. These weeds have, however,
already got a firm hold in the Commonwealth, and some are very widely
diffused; the object is to put difficulties in the way of the importation of
known pests into clean areas, leaving the circulation of weed-pests, already
in the Commonwealth, the business of the State Governments.

In this connection a paper, "Weed-seeds and Impurities in Imported
Seeds," by E. Breakwell, Agricultural Gazette, KS.W., September, 1918,
p. 633, is valuable. It not only shows specifically the weed-seeds arrested in
a definite period, admixed with agricultural and other seeds imported into
New South Wales, but how difficult in practice it must be to screen evevy
new weed out of the State.

Many of the Australian weeds were introduced into the country in the very
first years of settlement. They came from Britain in the packing of goods
sent in the first fleet, from Rio de Janeiro, the Cape, and Calcutta, the two
former being ports of call on the outward voyage, and the two latter being
visited from Sydney for food supplies. Later on a trade in horses with
Chilian ports was responsible for the introduction of such plants as
the Bathurst burr (Xanthium spinosum).

As time went by, no restriction of any kind was placed on the introduc-
tion of plants, and gradually the varieties of weeds increased to the present
formidable total, and, being let loose on a virgin continent, brought about
unexpected results.

THE WEEDS OF NEW SOUTH WALES. 19

It is, of course, very difficult to prepare a proclaimed list of weeds to which
no objection can be taken. Australia is a continent of three millions of
square miles, and in her borders we may have severe frosts and tropical
conditions, droughts, and a superabundance of rain, while the soils vary
from the richest to the very reverse.

C Dmmonwealth Government Weed Lists.

The following list was proclaimed in the Commonwealth of Australia
Gazette of 10th July, 1909, and is still in force:—

Amnim-kia augustifolia Lenin. (Narrow-leaved. Amsinckia ) . BL, E.

Anthem!* urrcnxi* L. (Corn Cliamomile).
*Ant1icinis Cotula L. (Stinking Mayweed or Field Chamomile). Bl., E.

Arctitnn /,<i/>l><i L. (Burdock). E., B.
••\\ r<icmone mcxicana L. (Prickly Poppy). E., B.
* Asphodclus fistulosus L. (Asphodel or Onion Weed). Bl., E.

Hraxsica Sinapistrwn L. (Charlock). BL, E.

Itartsia spp. (all species of Bartsia). Bl., E.

((.'lui/tonia) caulesccns H.B. and K. (Purple Calandrinia). E.
Burga-pastoris Moench (Shepherd's Purse). Bl., E., B.
spp. (all Thistles). Bl., E., B.
irihulohlcs L. (Hedgehog or Burr Grass.).

Centaurea spp. (all Star Thistles). Bl., E., B.

Chri/xiiHtlK HI-IUH- l.t'iicantliciiiinn L. (Ox-eye Daisy). Bl., E.

Chrysanthemum parthenium Hoffm. (Feverfew). E.

Chrysanthemum seaetum L. (Corn Marigold).
*Gonium maculatum L. (Hemlock). Bl., E.

Convolvulus arrensis L. (Lesser Bindweed). E.
*<'r.uitt()Mt<-iniini calcmliiJaccinii R.Br. (Cape Weed). BL, E.. B.

('ttctiiitix in i/rio<-<ir]>iix Naud. (Gooseberry-Cucumber). BL, E.
*Cuscuta spp. (all species of Dodder). BL, E.. B.
*Datitr<i stramonium L. (Thorn Apple). BL, E. B.
*Ecltium riolaceum L. (Paterson's Curse or Purple Bugloss). BL, E.
*Eichhornia speciosa Kunth (Water Hyacinth). E., B.
'•••!•: i nc. r (iiiHtrdlis Steinh. (Spiny Eiuex). Bl.

Erysitnum repandum L. (Treacle Mustard). E.

Jliiphorbia hclioscopia L. (Sun Spurge). E.

Euphorbia pcplus L. (Petty Spurge). BL. E., B:

Fceniculum rulgare Gaertn. (Fennel). BL, E., B.

Fumaria offlcinalis L. (Fumitory). BL, E.. B.

Galinsoga parviflora Cav. (Small-flowered Galinsoga). BL, E., B.

Galium apnrinc L. (Cleavers or Goose Grass V. E

Gilia (yftr(irretifi) squarrosa Hook, and Arn. (California Stink Weed,

Diggers' Weed, or Sheep's Weed). BL, E.
*Homeria collina Vent, var, nriniata Sweet (Cape Tulip). BL, E.

Hj/pericum Anclrosoemitm L. (The Tutsan). E.
*Hypericum perforation L. (St. John's Wort). BL, E.
•*Inul<i graveolenilteBt. (Stinkwort). BL. E.
*K<'iilr<tifh!iUnni lauatiun Desf. (Saffron Thistle). BL, E.

Lactiica xalinna L. (Wild Lettuce). BL, E.

LepMiitm tlralta L. (Hoary Cress). BL, E.

Lepidium campcstre R.Br. (Field Cress). E.

IJtli(*Ni:-rnnnni- arrcn^c L. (Iron Weed. Com Gromwell). BL, E., B.

Mnilia xatirn Mol. (Pitch Weed). E.

Malra parviflora L. (Small-flowered Mallow). BL; E., B.

Malva rotundifolia L. (Dwarf Mallow). E.

Matrirai ia dixrrtiiJca DC. (Rounded Chamomile, Common Matricary. Wild

Chamomile). E.

*Mliaffrum perfoliatum L. (Musk Weed).

•Wicottona olauca Grahm. (Wild Tobacco Plant or Tree Tobacco). BL, E., B.
*Onopprdon acanthium L. (Scotch Thistle). BL, E.

* Already proscribed in parts of New South Wales

20 THE WEEDS OF NEW SOUTH WALES.

OXalis cernua Thunb. (South African Wood Sorrel). Bl., E., B.

Oxalis tetraphylla Cuv. (Four-leaved Wood Sorrel).

Papaver dubium L. (Long-headed Poppy). Bl.

Papaver hybridum L. (Wild Poppy). Bl., E., B.

Papaver rliceas L. (Field Poppy). Bl., E., B.

Picris echioides L. (Ox Tongue). E.

Picris hieraciodes L. (Hawk Weed). BL, E., B.

Polygonum aviculare L. ( Knot Weed. Hog Weed, or Wftre Weed) . Bl., E., B.

Polygonum convolvulus L. (Black Bindweed). BL, E., B.

Polygonum persicaria L. (Common Persicaria).

Ranunculus arvensis L. (Corn Buttercup). E.

Ranunculus muncatiis L. (Sharp-pointed Crowfoot). Bl., E.

Ranunculus sceleratus L. (Celery-leaved Buttercup). E.

Raplianus Raphanistrum L. (Wild Radish or Jointed Charlock). BL, E., B.
*Reseda luteola L. (The Weld or Wild Mignonette). E.

Romulea cruciata Ker-Gawl. (Pink Star, Onion Grass, or Guildford

Grass). BL, E.

*Rosa ruMffinosa L. (Sweet Briar). BL, E., B.
*Rubus fruticosus L. (Blackberry). BL, E., B.

Rumex acetosella L. (Sorrel Weed). BL; E., B.

Rumcx conglomerates Murray (Clustered Dock). BL, E., B.
*Rumex crispus L. (Curled Dock). Bl., E., B.

Rumex obtusifolius L. (Broad-leaved Dock). E., B.

Saponaria vaccaria L. (Bladder or Cow Soap Wort). BL, E., B.

Scandix pecten-veneris L. (Shepherd's Needle or Venus' Comb). Bl.

Senebiera coronopus Poir (Swine's Cress). BL, E.

Senebiera didyma Pers. (Lesser Swine's Cress). BL, E., B.

Senecio Jacobcea L. (Ragwort). E.

Silene cucubalis L. (Bladder Campion). BL, E.

Sisymbrium offlcinale L. (Hedge Mustard). BL, E., B.

Sisymbrium orientale L. (Sisymbrium columnar, Jacq.) (Indian Hedge
Mustard). BL, E.

Solanum heterandrum Pursh. (Pincushion Night-shade).

Solanum sotlomwuni L. (Apple of Sodom). BL, E., B.

Spergula arvensis Jj. (Corn Spurry). BL, E., B.
*Xanthium splnosum L. (Bathurst Burr). Bl., E., B.

The following list, supplementary to the preceding- one, was proclaimed
in the Commonwealth of Australia Gazette of December, 1912, and is still
in force : —

Acwna ovina Cunn. (Sheep's Burnet or Sheep's Burr). E., B.
Acwna sanguisorba: Vahl. (Burr Weed). E., B.
Ageratum conyzoides L. (Goat Weed). B.
Amaranthus retro flexus L. (Pigweed Redroot). BL, E.
Amaranthus albus L, (Common Tumble-weed). E.
* Amaranthus artemisifoUa Mayn. and Walp. (Ragweed, Hogweed, Roman

Wormwreed. [A misprint for Ambrosia art emisi folia.] BL. E.
Asclepias curassavica L. (Redhead or Milky Cotton Bush, Madagascar

Cotton Bush, or Wallflower Cotton Bush). B.
Avena fatua L. (Wild Oat). BL, E.
Bromus secalinus L. (Chess, Cheat, or Wheat Thief).
Camelina satlva L. (False Flax, Gold of Pleasure). E.
Cerastium glomeratum Thu. (Mouse-eared Chickweed). BL
Ccrastium vulgalum L. (Broad-leaved Mouse-ear Chickweed or Greater

Burnet). BL, B., E.

Cnenopodium album L. (Lamb's Quarters, Goosefoot). BL, E., B,
Chondrilla juncea L. (Chondrilla).
Crepis virens L. ( Smooth Hawk's Beard) . Bl.
Cretica hedypnois (Hawkbit or Cretica).
Crotalaria sagittalis L. (Rattlebox).
Cucurbita perennis Gray (Wild Gourd. Calabazita).
Diodia teres Walt. (Button Weed, Alligator Head).
Daucus bracliiatus Sieb. (Dwarf Carrot). B.

* Already proscribed in parts of New South Wales.

THE WEEDS OF NEW SOUTH WALES. 21

Dipsacus sylvestris L. (Wild Teazel).

*Ec1iiwn vulgare L. (Blue Weed, Viper's Bugloss, Blue Thistle, Blue Devil).
BL, E.

Erechtites valerianwfolia DC. (Brazillian Fire Weed). B.

Erodium moschatum L'Herit (Musky Heronbill, Ground Needle). Bl.f E.

Gaertncria discolor (Franseria).

Githago lychnis L. (Purple Corn Cockle). BL, E.

Helen-turn autumnale L. ( Sneezeweed ) .

Hypochceris gJabra L. (Smooth Cat's-ear). BL, E., B.

Iva xanthifolia Nutt. (Marsh Elder, False Sunflower, High-water Shrub).

Iva axillaris Pursh. (Poverty Weed).

Jatropha multifida L. B.

Jatropha curcas L. (Physic Nut or Purging Nut). B.

Jatropha gossypifolia L. (Cotton-leaved Jatropha, erroneously termed

"Castor Oil Plant"). B.
*Lantana camara L. (Kamara Lantana). B.

Lantana Sellowiana Link and Otto (Sellow's Lantana). B.

Lappula lappula ( Narrow-leaved Stickseed, Beggar-tick). .

Leontodon hirtus L. (Hairy Thrincia). BL

Lepidium ruderale L. (Narrow-leaved Pepperwort). BL, E., B.

Linum catharticum L. (Purging Flax).
*Oxalis corniculata L. (Yellow Wood Sorrel). B.

Plantago aristata Michx. (Bracted Plantain).

Pteridium aquilinum L. Kuhn (Brake, Eagle Fern, Bracken). E.

Rims radicans L. (Poison Ivy, Poison Oak. Poison Vine).

Salsola kali-tragus (L.) Moq. (Russian Thistle). B.

Sedum telephium L. ( Live-f or-ever, Garden Orpine).
*Sida rhombifolia L. (Sida retusa L.) (Flax Weed). B.

Sisymbrium altissimum L. (Tumbling Mustard).

Solanum carolinense L. (Horse Nettle).

Silene gallica L. (French Catchfly). BL, E., B.

Stellaria media DC. (Chickweed). BL, E., B.
*Stachys arvensis L. (Stagger-weed, or Wound Wort). BL, E., B.

Sagina procumbens DC'. (Procumbent Pearl-wort).

Tagetes glandulifera Schranck (Stinking Roger). B.

Thlaspi arvense L. (Wild Garlic, Bastard Cress. French Weed).

Triumfetta rhomboidea Jacq. (Chinese Burr), "and all other noxious
burrs." 7.12.12. BL, E., B.

Urtica incisa Poir (Cut-leaved Nettle or Native Nettle). E., B.

Urtica urens L. (Small Nettle or Dwarf Nettle). BL, E., B.
*Verbascum thapsus L. (Moth-Mullein). BL

The above lists are printed by the Commonwealth Government under the
title " Proclamations under the Quarantine Act, 1908-1915," in force on
the 31st December, 1915, and the Director-General of Quarantine informed
me (July, 1918), that they were still in force. They have not been added to.

Comments on the above two Lists.

It would be convenient to combine the above two lists into one, and to
arrange them in strict alphabetical order, but there is official convenience
in preserving the order of the weeds as given in these lists.

I have taken the opportunity of following some of the names with BL.
E., or B., indicating that some information concerning them will be found
in the works on weeds by Messrs. Black, Ewart, or Bailey.

The following notes on some of the weeds will have interest for us in
New South Wales: —

Ageratum conyzoides is a pale-blue flowered garden escape, which has
spread rapidly in the warmer coast districts. Often called " Billy-goat
Weed." Bentham calls it a common weed over all the warmer regions of
the world.

* Already proscribed in parts of New South Wales.

777^ WEEDS OF NEW SOUTH WALES.

Amaranthus albus. — There is a coloured figure of this in the Agricultural
Gazette for March, 1908, p. 234.

Amaranthus artemisifolia is a slip of the pen for Ambrosia artemisifolia,
the so-called " Dunbible Weed " of the Northern Coast districts of NeM
South Wales, because it was found in that locality. For its occurrence in
South Australia, see Black, p. 105. It is a great pest in the United States,
and is stigmatised as " the universal weed of Ohio grain fields."

Asclepias curassavica. — Common in coastal Queensland, and gradually
working its way down. It is now at least as far south as the Manning. It
has showy flowers,^ and hence it is sometimes preserved for that reason.

Avena fatua. — A very bad pest in New South Wales and other parts of
Australia.

Accsna ovina and A. sanguisorbce. — The former is called " Sheep's
Burnet " by mistake, a name which belongs to Poterium sanguisorba, see the
Agricultural Gazette for April, 1898, page 360, and April, 1904, page 332.
As the Acwnas are native plants, and are already very abundant in the
eastern half of the State, the appearance of the plant in the list is not of
much interest to us.

Bromvs secalinus. — A grass, and a bad weed in wheat fields.

Camelina sativa. — This belongs to the mustard family, and is often
spread with dirty clover seed. In Europe it is cultivated as an oil seed.
It is an annual, and when it gets abundant in crops it becomes a nuisance.

Cerastium vulgatum and glomeratum are by some authors reputed to be
synonymous. The name " Greater Burnet " attributed to the former in the
official list is incorrect. They are chickweeds, humble plants common in
gardens and waste places.

Chenopodium album. — This is an introduced salt-bush of little value,
which has spread over large areas in New South Wales, chiefly in waste
places. It has a disputed value to the poultry raiser, hence the name "Fat-
hen." See Agricultural Gazette, 1905, p. 474.

CTiondrilla juncea had not made its appearance in Australia till it was
reported in New South Wales. See the Agricultural Gazette for 1918T
p. 330.

Crotalaria sagittalis. — This is one of the leguminous poison-plants of the
United States, and I have drawn attention to it in the Agricultural Gazette
for 1901, p. 654. See Ewart, p. 24.

Cucurbita perennis. — This equals C. foetidissima, and is a native of
Mexico. Ada Georgia, p. 404, refers to it.

Cretica hedypnois should be Hedypnois cretica. Recorded by the late
Mr. Betche and myself as an introduced weed in Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W.,
xxix, p. 743 (1904). We know little of its detrimental properties. It is
undoubtedly spreading in New South Wales from Scone to Tenterfield
and Gunnedah.

Crepis virens. — It is often probably confused with C. japonica. It is
somewhat common on the tablelands of New South Wales. For its occur-
rence in South Australia, see Black, p. 104.

Diodia teres. — Belongs to the Kubiaceee. I know of no record of its occur-
rence in Australia. Ada Georgia, p. 400.

Daucus brachiatus. — This is a native plant, found all over the State,
whose burr gets into the wool.

THE WEEDS OF NEW SOUTH WALES. 23

Dipsacus sylvestris. — This is a wild Teazel. I do not know of its occur-
rence in New South Wales. It is found in Tasmania. See Agricultural
Gazette, Tas. V., 176, for a figure. Ada Georgia, p. 403.

Erechthiles valerianae folia. — A beautiful plant, originally a garden escape
in Queensland, and found in the Dorrigo over ten years ago. Belonging to
the daisy family, its feathery seeds blow about.

Erodium moschatum. — An Alfileria of the United States and forming
.good pasture over a large extent of country on the Pacific Slope. In many
places it becomes a weed, and the fact that such a plant as this has been
proscribed, shows how difficult it is to deal with the weed question.

Gaertneria discolor. — (Belongs to the Loganiacese) . Franseria discolor
is a synonym. I do not know of its occurrence in Australia. Ada Georgia,
p. 458.

Githago lychnis. — This is generally referred to as Agrostemma Githago,
and is the " Corn Cockle." Its bad point is that its black seeds, about the
size of wheat, discolour and poison the flour. See p. 3.

Helenium autumnal e. — I know of no local record. Ada Georgia, p. 481.
Hypochaeris glabra. — A close relation of //. radicata, which was originally
figured in the Agricultural Gazette for January, 1917. Its characters and
defects are similar.

Iva xanthifolia. — This is widely diffused and a great pest in the United
States. I know of no local record. Ada Georgia, p. 453.

Iva axillaris. — I know of no local record. See Ada Georgia, p. 451.
Jatropha multifida. — Of interest only to Queensland at present. See
Bailey, p. 179.

Jatropha curcas. — Of interest only to Queensland at present. See Bailey,
p. 179.

Jatropha gossypifolia. — Of interest only to Queensland at present. See
Bailey, p. 177.

Lantana Sellowiana. — A garden form of Lantana, which, like the previous
three plants, has escaped from cultivation. See Bailey, p. 141.

Lappula lappula is a synonym of Echinospermum lappula, a native plant
Leontodon hirtus. — Allied to the Dandelion. In the Flora Australiensis,
in vol. 3 (1866), it was recorded from near Parramatta. Black, p. 100, re-
cords it from South Australia under the synonym Thrincia hirtus.

Lepidium ruderale is one of the Pepper-worts, foetid and pungent to the
laste and smell when bruised, and already well established.

Linum catharticum, " Purging Flax." — I have no record of this in Aus-
tralia.

Myagrum perfoliatum. — I have no record of this in Australia, other than
the Victorian reference below.

Oxalis corniculata. — This small, yellow-flowered weed is all over Aus-
tralia, and is perhaps a native as well as a cosmopolitan. The aborigines
have long eaten the acidulous leaves to flavour their poor food.

Plantago aristata. — I have no record of this in Australia. See Ada
Georgia, p. 394.

Pteridium aquilinum. — The common Bracken fern.

Rhus radicans causes severe irritation of the skin, even if not actually
touched. See the Agricultural Gazette for 1914, p. 611.

Salsola kali-tragus. — This weed has proved a great scourge in the United
States; a close relation is a native of Australia.

24 THE WEEDS OF NEW SOUTH WALES.

Sedum telephium. — I do not know of its occurrence in Australia out of
gardens yet.

Sisymbrium altissimum. — This weed does not appear to have been re-
corded from New South Wales, but it is a great pest in the United States
and Canada.

Solanum carolinense. — I have no record of this weed in Australia. Ada
Georgia, p. 365.

Silene gallica. — This is figured and described in the Agricultural Gazette
for 1895, p. 809.

Stellaria media is perhaps our commonest chick-weed. They are more
unsightly than a menace to the farmer.

Sagina procumbens. — I have no record of this weed in Australia.

Weeds proscribed in Victoria.

In the Journal of Agriculture, Victoria, for July, 1918, will be found a
" List of Plants proclaimed under the Thistle Act (the Victorian Weeds-
Act) for the State of Victoria."

Victoria is our neighbour, and the list includes the following, which are
not proclaimed in New South Wales: —

Brassica Sinapistrum (Charlock or Wild Mustard).

Carduus arvensis (Perennial Calif ornian Thistle).

Carduus ~benedictus (Sacred Thistle).

Convolvulus arvensis (Common Bindweed).

Cyperus rotundus (Nut Grass).

EreclitUites quadridentata (Cotton Weed).

Gilia squarrosa (Calif ornian Stink Weed, Digger's Weed, or Sheep's

Weed).

Loranthus celastroides and L. pendulus (Mistletoes).
Lycium horridum (Box Thorn).
Hyagrum perfoliatiim (Musk Weed).

Raphanus Raphanistrum (Wild Radish or Jointed Charlock).
Romulea cruciata (Guildford Grass or Onion Grass).
Senecio Jacobea (Ragwort).

A list of weeds which are only proclaimed for certain specified districts
in Victoria is also published. These include : —

Acacia armata (Acacia Hedge or Prickly Acacia).
Andropogon halepensc (Johnson Grass).
Cassinia arcuata (Chinese Scrub).
Cytisus canariensis (Cape Broom).
Erysimum repandum (Treacle Mustard).
Lepidium Draba (Hoary Cress).
Madia sativa (Pitch Weed).
Salvia vcrbenacea (Wild Sage).

Carduus arvensis. — This so-called Canada thistle, a peculiarly dangerous
weed, I have not been able to trace so far as occurring in New South Wales,
although I have advertised for it.

Carduus benedictus. — Syn. Carbenia benedicta, a Mediterranean plant. I
have no record of its occurrence in Australia.

Brassica Sinapistrum, and Raphanus Raphanistrum. — These two weeds,,
close relations of the cabbage and radish, are a great nuisance in wheat
fields and cultivation generally. Both are vile, useless weeds, which produce
seed abundantly.

THE WEEDS OF NEW SOUTH WALES. 25

Convolvulus arvensis. — This is a bad pest in m!my parts of Australia.
Agricultural Gazette, N.S.W., IX, p. 358. Mr. H. L. White, of Belltrees,
Scone, points out that, as it has a deep-root system in certain areas, it is
practically indestructible by the ordinary cultivation methods. He is trying
grazing with sheep to eat the tops, and thus exhaust and destroy the plant.
See the Journal of Agriculture, Victoria, XII, p. 343. Ada Georgia, p. 321.

Cy perns rotundus. — This is dealt with at p. 30. It is far more abundant
with us than in Victoria, and yet it is not a proclaimed weed with us, for
the reason that, in our warm, coastal districts it is practically impossible
to eradicate it.

Erechthites quadridentata. — A native plant which no one in New South
Wales appears to have officially reported. For Victoria, see Ewart, p. 39;
for Queensland, see Bailey, p. 90.

Gilia squarrosa. — There is a note on it in the Agricultural Gazette for
April, 1901, when it was first announced for Australia. It is still spread-
ing in the Tumbarumba district. Ewart figures it.

LorantTius. — No concerted action has been taken to destroy our native
mistletoes, partly because they are often on high trees and the cost would
be great, partly because of their abundance, and partly because they are
palatable to stock.

Lycium horridum. — We proscribe two species already, but local authorities
have not made any application in regard to this one.

Myagntm perfoliatum. — See p. 23.

Romulea cruciata. — This is figured in the Agricultural Gazette for 1901,
p. 232. It is in New South Wales in countless millions, chiefly in .grass
land, and, speaking generally, it is not easy to suggest a practical method of
destruction. It is one of those all-pervading weeds of the Wild Onion class
(see p. 38) and Nut Grass (see p. 30).

Senecio Jacobea. — Figured by Ewart. Causes disease in stock. It is a
well-known pest in New Zealand and South Africa.

Acacia armata. — The fact that Victoria has had to proscribe this Wattle-
hedge (often called Kangaroo thorn), should put us on our guard. It seeds
freely, and forms a rapidly-spreading thorny barrier which affords a refuge
for rabbits and other vermin.

Andropogon halepense. — This is a valuable grass under some circum-
stances, but a curse if it gets into the cultivation. It would be difficult to
proscribe a grass of this kind in New South Wales.

Cassinia arcuata. — This is a native bush which seeds abundantly and
spreads rapidly on rocky hillsides. We have a number of allied species.

Cytisus canarien^is. — C. scoparius is proscribed in New South Wales.
I have received the former as a garden escape from the Goulburn district.

Erysimum repandum (figured by Ewart; not formally recorded for New
South Wales), and Lepidium Draba. — These are two weeds belonging to the
Cress family. The latter is a small, white-flowered plant, which has been
recorded as a pest in many country districts.

Madia, sativa. — This is already in New South Wales. See the Agricultural
Gazette for February, <1896. It has spread since then.

Salvia verbenacea. — This is widely diffused in Australia. As regards Ne\v
South Wales, farmers and others have sent it to me for many years. Sco
Black, p. 124; Ewart, p. 52.

TEE WEED 8 OF NEW SOUTH WALES.

Proclaimed Weeds in New South Wales.

JJIST OF PLANTS DECLARED TO BE NOXIOUS IN VARIOUS SHIRES AND
MUNICIPALITIES IN NEW SOUTH WALES, UP TO AND INCLUDING
30TH JUNE, 1919.

Plants declared to be noxious.

Scientific name

Common name.

No. of -v- ,
Munici- £.0/ of
palities. fehires'

Alternanthera Achryantha
Amaranthus paniculatus

A mara nthus viridis
Ambrosia artemisicefolia

Amsinckia intermedia ...
Anthemis cotula
Argemone mexicana
Asclepias physiocarpa . . .
JSassia quinquecuspis ...
-Bursaria spinosa
-Carduus lanceolatus

Carduus marianus
Carduus pycnocephalus
Carthamus lanatus
Carthamus tinctorius ...
Cassia Sophera
Centaur ea calcitrapa
>Centaurea melitensis
Centaurea solstitialis ...
<Chenopodium album
Chrysanthemum segetum
Conium maculatum ... •
Cryptostemma calendulaceum
Cucumis myriocarpus ...
Cuscuta spp.
Cytisus scoparius
Datura Stramonium .

Echium plantagineum ...
Eichhornia speciosa
Emex australis ...
Erigeron canadensis
Erigeron linifolius
Gilia squarro&a ...
Homeria collina
HypericMtn pcrforatum
Inula graveolens
Lantana camara
Lepidium ruderale
X/inaria elatine ... ...

Lithospermum arvense ...
X/ycium barbarum
JLycium chinense

Khaki Weed

Wild Amaranth cr Prince of Wales'

Feather.

Pigweed ...

Roman Wormwood or Dun bible

Weed.

Yellow Burr Weed

Wild Chamomile

Mexican Poppy or Binneguy Thistle

Wild Gotten

Roly Poly

Blackthorn or Native Boxthorn
Black Thistle, Scotch Thistle (so

called), or Spear Thistle.
Variegated Thistle or Milk Thistle ..

... Slender Thistle

Saffron Thistle

Saffron Thistle

Yellow Pea

Star Thistle

Cockspur

St. Barnaby's Thistle ... -...w..

Fat Hen or Gcose Fcot

Wild Marigold

Hemlock

Cape Weed

Musk Melon or Paddy Melon

Dodder

English Broom

False Castor Oil Plant, Thorn

Apple, Green Stem or Purple

Stem Thorn Apple.
Paterson's Curse or Blue Weed
Water Hyacinth

Cat's Head

Fleabane

Cobbler's Pegs

Californian Stink Weed or Sheep Weed

Cape Tulip

St. John's Wort

Stinkwort ... ... ... " ' .\',r

Lantana

Wild Cress

Blanket Weed

Corn Cromwell
Barbary Box Thorn ...
Chinese Box Thorn

4
2

13

34

6

1
3

9

1

23

3

14
8
6
6
3

•i

7

12
18

1

47
18

1

1

22
34
22

4
1

THE WEEDS OF NEW SOUTH WALES.

LIST OF PLANTS DECLARED TO BE NOXIOUS; &c. — continued.

Plants declared to be noxious.

»

No. of
Munici-
palities.—

No. of
Shire?.

Scientific name.

Common name.

Macrozamia spiralis ...
Marnibittm vnlgare
Marlynia probosc idea ...
MyriopkyUnm ...
Nicotiana ylauca
Olcaria viscidula
Onopordon acanthium ...

Osteospermum moniliferum,
Phytolacca octandra
Polygonum hydropiper...
Reseda luteola ... ... ...
Ricinus communis
Rosa rubiginosa
Rubus fruticosus
Rumex spp.
Rumex crispus ...
Sakola kali
Scolymus maculaia
Sida rhombifolia

Solanum nigrum
Solanum verbascifoUum
Solanum cinereum
Solan-um sodomxum
Spartiumjuiweurn
Swainsona galegifolia ...
Tribulus terrestris
U lex europ ecus ...
Verbascum thapsu s
Verbena bonariensis
Verbena venosa
Watsonia augusta
Xanthium spinosum ...
Xanthium strumarium...

Burrawang or Wi^d Pine Apple

1
3
1
7
17
1
2

s

1

2
5
45
51

Hcrehcund

10

Devil's Claw

Thread of Life
Tree Tobacco ...

1
5

Viscid Aster . . . ...

Scotch Thistle, or Heraldic or Common
Thistle.
(None)
Red Ink Plant or Dye Berry
Smart \Yeed . ...

9

1
14

'" Weld " or Dyer's Weed
Castor Oil Plant
Sweet Briar .t.

1
10
30
50
6
o
1

Blackberry

Docks

Curled Deck

Saltwort

Spotted, Golden or Californian Thistle
Sida retusa, Paddy's Lucerne or
Queensland Hemp.
Wild Black Currant ...
Wild Tobacco Tree

1
1

11

2

1

7

Narrawa Burr ... . .

5

9

Yellow Brcom ... . ... ...

1

Indigo

2

Caltro ps ... ...

1

4

7
2

Grorse or Furze

2
1
3
4
1
103
55

Great Mullein or Shepherd's Blanket
Purple Top

Wild Verbena ...

\Vatsonia

97

27

Noogoora Burr ... ... - -*.#

The Twenty Worst Weeds of New South Wales.

The accompanying table is the best guide to the relative importance of
weed pests in this State at the moment of publication. At the same time
it must be borne in mind that its completeness is entirely dependent on
certain official acts of shires and municipalities, and local government bodies
as well as farmers naturally differ about the importance they attach to many
weeds.

Although the sequence of June, 1919, is not a radical change from that
of June, 1918, it will be ?een that there are minor alterations in regard te-
at least half the twenty weeds.

THE WEEDS OF NEW SOUTH WALES.

WEEDS PROCLAIMED Noxious WITHIN MUNICIPALITIES AND SHIRES IN THE STATE OF

NEW SOUTH WALES.

Up to June, 1918.

Up to June, 1919.

Weeds.

Number of—

Number of—

Munici-
palities

Shires.

Total.

Se-
quence.

Munici-
palities.

Shires.

Total- qutnce.

Xanthium spinosum (Bathurst Burr)

100

104

204 1

97

103

200 1

Rubus fruticosus (Blackberry)

47

51

98 2

50

51

101

2

Centaurea calcitrapa (Star Thistle, &c.)

35

50

85

3

34

50

84

3

Xanthium strumarium (Ncogcora Burr)

26

51

77

4 27

55

82

4

Rosa rubiginosa (Sweet Briar)

29

44

73 5 30

45

75

5

Echium plantagineum (Paterson's Curse)

14

42

56 6

14

47

61

6

Carduus lanceolatus (Black Thistle. &c.)

47 8

55 7 46

8

54

7

Jnula graveolens (Stinkwort) ... ...

10

24

34 11

12

34

46 8

Carthamus lanatus (Saffron Thistle, &c.)

14

32

46 8

13

32

45 9

Lantana camara ( Lantana )

19 20

39) q

18

i!2

40 10

Cryptostemma calendulaceum (Cape Weed) ...

23

16

39 ) 23

16

39

11

Argemone mexicana (Mexican Poppy, &c.) ...

9

21

30 12

9

21

3J

12

Hypericum perforatum (St. John's Wcrt)

rj

18

25

15 7

22

29

13

Eichhornia speciosa (Water Hyacinth)

8 18

26

14

8

18

26

14

Datura Stramonium (False Castor, &c.)

13

11

27 13

16 9

25

15

Nicotiana glauca (Tree Tobacco, &c.)...

5

17

22 16

5

17

22

16

Phytolacca octandra ( Red Ink Plant , &c. )

14

2 '

16

17

14

3

17 17

Ricinus communis (Castor Oil Plant)

10

4

14

18

lo

5

15 18

Centaurea melitensis (Cockspur) , ...

6

7

13

19

0

7

13

19

Solanum cinereum (Narrawa Burr) ... '•.-•^

5

7

12 20

5

7

12

2(>

NAMES OF MUNICIPALITIES AND SHIRES IN WHICH CERTAIN PLANTS HA\E
BEEN DECLARED TO BE NOXIOUS.*

Plant.

Common Name.

Municipality.

Shire.

Amaranthus pxnicu-
latus.
A maranthm viridis . . .

Wild Amaranth, or Prince of
Wales Feather.
Fat Hen, or Pigweed
Roman Wormwocd or Dun-

East Maitland.
Burwocd, Concord.

Tweed, Byron.

folia.

bible Weed.
Yellow Forget-me-not Yel-

Coreen, Berrigan, Mitchell, Coola

Anthemis Cotula
Asclepias physiocarpa..
Jlassia quinquecuspis...
Bursaria spinosa

Carduus marianus
Carduus pycnocephalm

low Burr Weed.
Wild Chamomile
Cotton Tree, or Wild Cottor
Roley Poley
Blackthorn, Native Box, 01
Boxthorn.

Variegated Thistle, or Mitt
Thistle.
White Thistle, or Slendei
Thistle.
Saffron Thistle

Stockton.
Grafton
Camden, Forbes.
Dundas, Ermington and Rydal-
mere, Granville, Hunter's Hill,
Prospect and Sherwood.
Balmain, Concord, Manilla, Mait-
land West.
Kiama, Wyalong

mon, Culcairn.
Bulli, Copmanhurst.

Erina.
Gunning. Tweed.
Lachlan.

Bogan. Timbrebongie.

ophera

* Weeds described at length and figured in the following pages of this work are not included in this table.
In connection with them, the information is given with each individual weed.

THE WEEDS OF NEW S'OUTH WALES.

29

NAMES OF MUNICIPALITIES AND SHIRES, &c. — continued.

Plant.

Common Name.

Municipality.

Shire.

Centaurea sol&titialis ...
Chenopvdium album ...

Cfiri/s'iitihemum sege-
tu,n.

Coniiim mictilntiiitt ...
Cucumis myrhcarpus...
Cytistis scop'trius
Ciiscuia sp

St. Barnaby's Thistle

Feat her Top, Wild Goosefoot
or Pat Hen.

Wild Marigold

Hemlock
Musk Melon, or Paddy Melon
English Broom
Dodder

Tamworth.

Burwood, Concord, East Mait-
land.

Botany. Windsor.

Orange.
Albury, Murrumburrah, Picton...
Braid wood.

Tumbarumba.

Culcairn, Dalgetv, Holbrook,
Hume.

Adjungbilly

K me x aust rails
Krigeton canadensis ...

Erigeron linifolius
Homefia collina

Cat's Head
Fleabane

Cobbler's Pegs
Cape Tulip ( \frican Weed)

Bega, Botany, Grafton, Maitland
West, Maitland East, Windsor.

Adamstown, Ashfleld, Balmain,
Burwood, Concord, New Lamb-
ton.
Maitland West, Newcastle, Stock-
ton.
Richmond

Bolwarra, Cessnock, Imlay, Mum»
bulla, Tarro, Wallarobba.

Patrick Plains

Lantana camara

Lepidium ruderale
Linaria elatine
Lithospermum arvense..

Lantana

Wild Cress
Hairy Toad Flax
Corn Gromwell

Ashfield, Balmain, Botany, Drum-
moyne, Glebe, Hunter's Hill,
Kempsey, Manly, Maitland West,
Mosman, Mullumbimby, Mur-
willumbah, North Illawarra,
Rockdale, Waverley, Willcugh-
by, Woollahra, Wollongong.

Stockton.
Corowa, Wagga WTagga

Apsley, Bellingen, Byron, Cees-
nock, Dorrigo, Dumaresq , Erina ,
Gloucester, Kuring-gai, Kyogle,
Lake Macquarie,Macleay, Man-
ning, Nambucca, Stroud, Tarro,
Tenterfleld, Terania, Tomki,
Tweed, Wallarobba, Warringah.

Burrangong, Coreen, Culcairn,
Hume.
Hume.

Lycium barbarum

Lycium chiwnse
Macrozamia spiralis . . .

Boxthorn, African Boxthorn
or Barbary Boxthorn.

Chinese Boxthorn
Burrawang or Wild Pine

Coon amble, Moree, Singlet en
C'amden, Hay.

Boolooroo, Boomi, Gilgandra,
Patrick Plains, Waradgery,
Warrah, Wingadce, Wollondilly

Tenterfleld

Marrubium vulgare . . .

Martynia proboscidea...
Myriophyllum

apple.
Horehound ...

Devil's Claw
Thread of Life

Armidale, Bathnrst, Bega, Braid-
wood, Carcoar. Cowra, .Tunee,
Quirindi, Uralla, Yrss.

Lisinore

Holbrook, Narraburra, Wau-
goola.

Macquarie.
Byron Gundurimba, Kyogle, Te-

Sicotiana glauca
Olearia viscidula

Tree Tobacco, or Tobacco
Bush.

Viscid Aster ...

Balranald, Hay, Moama, Nyngan,
Warren.

rania, Tintenbar, Tomki, Wood-
burn.

Began, Canobolas, Carrathool,
Cobbora, Conargo, Narnoi, Mar-
thaguy, Murray, Talbragar,
Rvlstone, Timbre bongie,Turon,
W'akool, Waradgery^ Weddin,
Windouran, Wingadee.

Cockburn.

Onjpzrdon acanthium...

Osteospermum monili-
ferum.

Phytolacca odandra ...

Scotch Thistle, Heraldic or
Common Thistle.

(Not known) ...

Red Ink Plant, Dye Berry,
or Ink Plant.

Armidale, Ashfleld. Balmain, Bot-
any, Glen Innes, Grafton, North
Illawarra, Windsor, Wollongong.
Stockton.

Annandale, Ashfleld, Botany,
Burwood, Concord, Drummoyne,
Granville, Homebush, Hunter's
Hill, Hurstville, Mascot, Mos-
man, Willoughby, Wollongong.

Mu] \varee, Tarro.
Eurobodalla, Imlay, Mumbulla.

t 64225— B

30

THE WEEDS OF NEW SOUTH WALES.

NAMES OF MUNICIPALITIES AND SHIKES, &c. — continued.

Plant.

Polygonum hydropipei
Reseda luteola
Rosa rubiginosa

Rubusfruticosus

Rumex sp

Run ex crispus

Salsolakali ... , ;- .&
Scolymus maculata ...

Solanum nigrunt

Solanum verbascifolium
Solanum cinereum

Solanum sodomceum ...

Spartium junceum . . .
Swainsona galegifolia...
Tribulus terrestris

Ulex europmis
Verbascum t.hapsus . • •
Watsonia augusta

Common Name.

Smart Weed

" Weld," or Dyer's Weed
Sweet Briar ...

Blackberry

Docks..

Curled Dock ...

Glasswort, or Saltwort

Spotted Golden, or Cali-
fornian Thistle.

Wild Black Currant,orBlack-
berry.

Wild Tobacco Tree
Narrawa Burr

South European Nightshade,
or Apple of Sodom.

Yellow Broom
Indigo

Bindii or Bendy-eye, or Cal
trops.

Gorse or Furze

Great Mullein , or Shepherd's
Blanket.

Watsonia

Municipality.

Shire.

Nyngan

Albury, Armidale, Ballina, Bat-
hurst, Bega, Botany, Braid-
wood, Cootamundra, Coraki,
Corowa, Glen Innes, Hunter's
Hill, Junee, Lismore, Manly,
Maitland West, Murrurundi,
Murwillumbah, Orange, Tenter-
field, Tumut, Ulladulla, Uralla,
Gundagai, Wagga Wa^a.
Walcha, Willoughby, Windsor,
Yass, Young.

Adamstown, Armidale, Ash field,
Ballina, Bega, Botany, Bowral.|
Braid wood, Burwood, Con cord, |
Cootaimmdra, Coraki, Corowa,!
Drummoyne, Dungog, Glen
Innes, Grafton, Grafton South.
Granville, Gulgong, Homebush,
Hurstville, Kempsey, Kjama.
Kogarah, Lambton, Lismore,
Maitland East, Maitland West,
Merewether, Mosman, Moss
Vale, Murrurundi, Murwillum-
bah. New Lambton, North
Illawarra, Orange, Rockdale,
Tenterfield, Tumut, Ulladulla.
Ulmarra, Uralla, Wagga Wagga,
Walcha. Waratah, Waverley.
Willoughby, Windsor, Wcllon-
gong.

Adamstown, Armidale, Burwood,
Concord, New Lambton, Uralla.

Corowa, Homebush, Maitland
West, Molong, Moss Vale.

Stockton.

Port Stephens.
Began, Dalgety.

Abercrcmbie, Ashford, Bannock
burn, Bibbenluke, Canobolas,
Cessnock, Coolah, Coonabara-
bran, Crookwell, Culcairn, Dal-
gety, Demondrille, Erina, Euro-
bodalla, Gadara, Gloucester,
Gundurimba, Gunning, Hol-
brook. Illabo, Inilay, Jindalce,
Kyeamba, Macintyre, Mar](r<y.
Macquarie, Monaro, Mumbulla,
Murrungal, Narraburra, Nundle,
Patrick Plains, Peel, Severn,
Stroud, Tamarang, Tenterfleld,
Terania, Tumbarumba, Tweed,
Upper Hunter, Wallarobba,
Warrah, Wollondilly, Yarrow-
lumla.

Abercrombie, Ashford, Bannock-
bTirn, Bellingen, Byron, Cano-
bolas, Cessnock, Crookwell, Cul-
cairn, Dorrigo, Erina, Eurobo-
dalla, Gadara. Gloucester,
Gundurimba. Harwood, Hoi-
brook, Hume, Illabo, Imlay,
Jindalee, Kuring-gai, Kyeamba,
Kyogle. Lake Macquarie, Mac,
intyre, Macleay, Manning, Mul-
waree, Mumbulla, Nambucca,
Narraburra. Nymboida, Orara,
Patrick Plains, Port Stephens,
Severn, Stroud, Sutherland,
Tarro. Tenterfield, Terania,
Tintenbar, Tomki, Tumbar-
umba, Tweed, Upper Hunter,
Wallarobba, Warrah. Warringa-
Wollondilly.

Burwood. Concord.

I Warrah.

Tweed.

Burrowa, Cootaimindra, Corowa,, Crookwell, Culcairn, Home,
Junee, Wagga Wagga. Illabo, Jindalce, Mttnintgal,

Narraburra.

Botanj , Stockton .

Braidwood.

Kyeamba, Tenterfleld.

Narrandera.

Braidwood.Hunter's Hill.Mascot,
Willoughby.

Mulwaree, Wollondilly.

Gostwyck.

Patrick Plains.

THE WEEDS OF NEW SOUTH WALES. 31

Some Weeds of New South Wales*

Nut-grass (Cyperus rotundus L.).
(CYPERACE.E; Sedge Family.}

Other vernacular names. — This is not a grass, neither does it bear a nut.
It is a sedge, and what is popularly called the " nut " is the tuber. In the
United States it is often known as " Coco."

Aboriginal names. — Mr. Max Koch, of South Australia, has given me
the following names used by various tribes in his State, viz. : — " Kudna-
marra" for the plant, and " Wurta," "Yower," and "Tharaka" for the
tubers.

Botanical name. — Cyperus, Greek Jcuperos, which was the name given
to the plant we now know as Nut-grass, and which has given the name
to the genus to which it belongs; rotundus, Latin round, in allusion to
the frequently spherical shape of the tubers.

Asa Gray refers to the Nut-grass of the Southern Atlantic States as
C. rotundus, variety Hydra. In New South Wales writings sixty years
ago it is referred to as C. Hydra, presumably a reference to the many
heads or lives it has.

Botanical description. — A perennial, with a creeping rhizome swelling
here and there into tubers.

Stems rather slender, triquetrous towards the top, usually 1 to 1£ feet high.
Leaves much shorter than the stem, the sheaths often long and loose.

Spikelets usually six to ten together in clusters or short spikes in an umbel
of few rays, or sometimes almost contracted into a compact cluster;
the spikelets usually brown, linear, acute, compressed, usually 5 to G
lines long, and rather above 1 line broad, with about 12 to 20 flowers,
but often much longer ; the rhachis bordered by hyaline wings.

Glumes imbricate, more or less distinctly several-nerved, with a prominent
keel usually green.

Stamens three. Style three-cleft. Nut ovoid, three-angled, less than half
the length of the glume.

Uses. — The Australian aborigines roasted and ate the tubers in many
parts of the continent, and continue to do so at the present day in South
Australia.

Oil. — The rounded rhizomes (nuts) are said to yield an essential oil,
which the natives of Upper India use to perfume their clothes. In Bengal
the tubers of this species are more largely used in perfumery than are
those of C. scariosus, being more plentiful. Roxburgh says that the
dried and pounded root is used "as perfume at the weddings of natives."
The odour of the tubers, is not altogether pleasant. The smell is of
Khus Khus, with perhaps a dash of Patchouli thrown in.

32 THE WEEDS OF NEW SOUTH WALES.

Fodder. — Cattle eat this so-called grass, and hogs are remarkably fond of
the roots. (Watt.)

" This plant, perhaps the most pernicious weed of the Southern States,
is said to have some value besides that of its tubers as food for hogs.
According to Captain W. W. Woolsey, of Aiken, S.C., horses eat it readily."
(Kearney, Bull. No. 1, Div., Agrost., U.S.A.)

Cattle and horses cannot help eating Nut-grass when growing amongst
true grass, but I have never been able to learn that they are fond of it in
New South Wales.

About the year 1856, pigs were enclosed in a specially bad Nut-grass
area in the Botanic Gardens, but the pigs confined themselves to a few
holes about 2 feet deep. They did not work all over the ground in search
of the "nuts," and the Nut-grass continued to flourish.

Tenacity of life. — The tenacity of life of this plant is remarkable. The
growing shoots seem to stop at nothing. Many years ago some potatoes
were brought to me completely riddled with Nut-grass, and Dahlia tubers
are not safe from the pest. Crinum roots have been perforated by it, and
I doubt whether any large, fleshy tubers are not liable to perforation by
the shoots. If it be covered up with 3 feet of soil it will make its appear-
ance at the surface and flourish. I have seen it come through 2 inches of
blue-metal asphalt, which contained no visible crack. Mr. W. S. Campbell
informs me that the roots have been found 30 feet below ground by men
sinking a well in the Manning River district.

" The seeds have a hard coat, and do not yield to digestion in the case of
any ordinary farm animals, except sheep. Manure, therefore, from cattle
and horses fed on Nut-grass is likely to re-seed land abundantly with the
weed." (Dewey.)

How to get rid of it. — The method of treatment will depend upon circum-
stances.

Poison (arsenite of soda) may be tried on walks, but the applications
have to be frequent.

If the conditions will admit of it, no method is better than the combined
smothering and fermenting process, i.e., by covering it with several feet of
manure, i.e., stack the manure on ground affected by Nut-grass. In a couple
of years the manure may be removed with safety, as in fermenting it ha?*
destroyed all plant-life below it.

Mr. J. Dawes, Superintendent of the Centennial Park, followed this
method with success in the vicinity of the Rosarium. He piled the manure
on the ground, straw and all, for a depth of 6 to 9 inches amongst his roses,
and certainly made a success of the job.

Where there is a little Nut-grass, it may be got rid of by persistent hoeing,
extending for weeks and months, or by the most conscientious digging up
with a fork, to remove every nut. But, as a rule, this is the very best method
to stir up the soil and to bring up the deep-seated nuts to the top and give
them a fresh lease of life. As a rule, the digging method is an absolute
waste of monev.

THE WEEDS OF NEW SOUTH WALES.

33

Nut-grass (Cypenix rotundus L.).

1. Spikelet (x 4). 2. Transverse section of flower-stalk (x 4). 3. Transverse section of leaf (x 4).

4. Spikelet-scale (x 14§). 5. Seed, not fully ripe (x 16§). 6. Transverse section of same (x 163)

34 THE WEEDS OF NEW SOUTH WALES.

" The plan of campaign to extirpate Nut-grass is simply to prevent it-
maturing seed above ground. Nearly everybody thinks that the nuisance
reproduces itself from the nut alone, whereas it propagates a thousand times
more from the seed. Hence, to effectually and quickly destroy Nut-grass
on any land infested with it, the soil should be frequently stirred during the
growing period of summer, so as to stimulate each nut tuber and seed to
sprout. It is a waste of effort to attack it in winter, either by digging,
ploughing, or turning hogs on it. .The best time for fighting it is between
midsummer and frost time. . . . The old method for destroying Nut-
grass, by cutting it off under the surface of the ground every time a sprig-
appears above the surface, is a useless expenditure of labour." — (Tillman,
quoted by Vasey and Dewey.)

Dewey also recommends that it be choked out by a vigorous growing crop.
" After the summer crop is harvested, plough and prepare the land thor-
oughly; then seed it heavily to some winter crop adapted to the soil.
Crimson Clover is the best for this purpose in most localities."

The best and fullest accounts of Nut-grass known to me are a circular on
the subject by L. H. Dewey, published in 1894 by the Division of Botany of
the United States Department of Agriculture, and an article (Cyperus
, Benth.), in Watt's Dictionary of the Economic Products of India.

Where Found. — Indigenous to most tropical and temperate regions.. In-
digenous to Australia, though an introduction to many of the localities in
which it is now found.

Although such an unmitigated nuisance in gardens and arable land, it is
so difficult to destroy in large areas, that shires and municipalities refrain
from proclaiming it.

Water Hyacinth, (Eichhornia speciosa Kuntb. Pontederia

crassipes, Mart.).

(PONTEDERIACE.E).

Like many other pests, the water hyacinth was introduced to our northern
rivers purely for its beauty as a flowering plant. Some twenty years ago a
couple of small, wilted, insignificant-looking plants were procured from a
home in one of the suburbs of Sydney, and placed in Swan Creek, situated
4 miles below South Graftoii, on the Clarence River, with the object of
beautifying the creek. The hyacinth, once liberated, thrived so well that in
two years it took complete possession of the creek, which in this particular
locality is about 50 yards wide and varies in depth from 10 to 35 feet.

During the flowering season the creek was a pretty sight, and lovers of
flowers visited the locality from all parts of the district. Each, in depart-
ing, carried a small plant or two to place in watercourses near his or her own
home, and it was not very long before the hyacinth had been innocently
introduced to all parts of the district. Every flood or strong fresh in
the Clarence or Richmond brought down quantities of hyacinth, which
readily took root, and soon it was spreading so rapidly that acres of open
water were covered with it, and presently rivers and creeks that had been

THE WEEDS OF NEW SOUTH WALES. : 5

Water Hyacinth (Eichhornia specicsa Kunth.).

36 THE WEEDS OF NEW SOUTH WALES.

valuable waterways for the shipment of the produce of the farms in the
vicinity had become completely blocked, and navigation entirely prevented
or rendered distinctly dangerous to the steamboats and launches that plied
upon the rivers. At times the hyacinth has even been responsible for sus-
pending ferry traffic at Grafton, and on the Lower Clarence punt-wires have
often been broken. In many of the " clumps " of hyacinth, which reached a
quarter of an acre in extent, logs were to be found, and some idea of their
danger may be estimated when it is remembered that these were being carried
down with the current at the rate of from 4 to 6 knots an hour.

Efforts were made on several occasions to get rid of the pest, and at Swan
Creek alone a sum of something like £800 was expended by the late Sir
John See in dragging the hyacinth out of the stream. This work was never
completed, however, and in a few years the whole of the creek was again
covered.

The hyacinth is not confined to this State alone. In Florida the pest
has assumed gigantic proportions, as the following extract from Bulletin
No. 18 of the United States Department of Agriculture (Division of Botany)
shows : —

Damage caused by the Water Hyacinth.

That the water hyacinth is becoming a serious menace to navigation in the
St. John's River (Florida) is unquestionably true. Small boats with screw
propellers find it impossible to penetrate a very large mass of the plants, as
they lack the necessary power, and the plants soon become entangled in the
screw, and prevent it from revolving. Parting the plant with boat-hooks, &c.,
is very slow and tedious. Paddle-wheel steamers are able to penetrate the
extensive masses of the plants much better, but are generally hindered and
frequently entirely blocked. When a large steamer, going at full speed, strikes
a bank of the hyacinth, it comes almost to a standstill. In sidewheel steamers
the plants collect between the wheel and bulkheads, packing it so solidly that it
is often almost impossible to reverse the engine. This necessitates caution in
approaching the landings. Steamers with low-pressure engines are troubled by
the clogging of the injector pipes, so that sufficient water cannot be secured for
the condensers. In the case of some boats, the obstruction is occasionally
removed by blowing steam through the injector-pipe. This process, however,
is rather dangerous, as the injector-pipes and condensers are not constructed
with a view to having heavy pressure applied from within. Floating logs
frequently lie concealed in the masses of the plants and form a serious danger
to navigation. Several boats have already been injured to some extent by
striking such obstructions.

The hyacinth is a pretty aquatic, and thrives in water in a warm climate.
The foliage is killed by frosts in the winter. It seeds profusely, and it is
mainly on this account that the plant is difficult to eradicate. At the base
of the leaf stalk is a large bulbous-looking development, which is composed
of numerous air-cells, which act as floats and support the plant in the water.
The roots penetrate to a depth of from 2 to 4 feet, and it thrives just as
well in 40 feet of water as in only a few feet.

The seed as it ripens falls between the leaves of the parent plant, and
coming in contact with the water germinates and grows. As the older plants
mature they are gradually forced below the surface of the water by the
younger generation, and as they die they accumulate at the bottom. In
shallow watercourses or lagoons it is only a matter of a few years when they
will be filled up with a dense mass of decomposing organic matter.

THE WEEDS OF NEW SOUTH WALES. 37

It is claimed that the salt-water will kill it. While that is so, it has to be
remembered that the rivers are frequently fresh for a considerable period in
the early autumn, and during flood-time there is ample time and oppor-
tunity to have these floating weeds conveyed to fresh-water creeks and
lagoons before the river again becomes salt.

Apart from the effect on navigation, too, there is a direct effect upon the
farm supply of water in many cases. On hundreds of farms on our northern
rivers the only supply of water for farm stock is obtained from lagoons,
creeks, or blind watercourses. When the hyacinth becomes established such
water is rendered unfit for drinking purposes. The decomposing plants
give off most offensive smells, the water becomes inky black and putrid, and
stock will not touch it. Along the banks of Alumny Creek, portion of which
runs through the city of Grafton, the odours arising during the summer
months are most obnoxious, and whilst no direct sickness may be attributed
solely to this cause, at the same time it must be admitted that such a state
of things is not conducive to health.

In times when feed is scarce, dairy cattle are sometimes tempted to reach
out into deep water for the green feed the hyacinth offers, and as many as
seventy head have been lost in" a district within a comparatively short time,
the cows slipping into the streams and being unable to get back. In the
rivers or their tributaries, where there are swift-flowing currents, the hya-
cinth is not likely to do much damage. Though it may thrive in the still
waters found in pockets along their banks, or be prevented from being
carried away in the ordinary current by clumps of bushes or fallen trees, it
is an easy matter to clear such channels by forcing out the weed with poles
in flood time, when the waters would carry them away.

It is. on the level country, where the waters are confined, as in lagoons or
swamps, or the low country, as found 011 the lower portions of the coastal
rivers, where the waters are still or move very slowly, that the hyacinth is
difficult to eradicate. In some of the channels cut to drain swamp areas, the
hyacinth gradually forced its growth against a somewhat sluggish current at
the rate of several feet a month.

The above indicates the importance of the weed to individual farmers and
also the methods by which it may be dealt with. The clearing of streams
by mechanical means on such a large scale as to enable navigation to be
continued or resumed is another matter, but means have latterly been
adopted that have been attended with a good deal of success in this direc-
tion, though at considerable cost.

Water hyacinth has been proclaimed noxious in eighteen shires and
eight municipalities as follows : —

SHIRES.

Bellingen Harwood Xambucca Tweed

Byron Hastings Port Stephens Wallarobba

Cessnock Kyogle Terania Woodburn.

Eurobodalla Macleay Tiutenbar

Gnndurimba Manning Tomki

MUNICIPALITIES.

Ballina Coraki Lismore Murwillumbali

Casino Kempsey Maclean Richmond.

THE WEEDS OF NEW SOUTH WALES.

Wild Onion or Sweet-scented Garlic (Allium jragrans Vent.).
(LiLiACE^E; Lily Family.)

I do not know who will step forward and claim the honour of the introduc-
tion of this neat little, white-flowering liliaceous plant, which blooms
regularly in a number of places in the coast districts every November. It
was originally introduced into the State as an ornamental plant, and so, if
it could be kept within bounds, it still would be, but where it has broken
bounds it becomes a serious pest. To give an idea of its seriousness, there
is no doubt that it is the most formidable weed in the Botanic Gardens at
Sydney, being even worse than Nut-grass (Cyperus rotundas}. I suppose
I am within the mark when I say it costs £100 a year to keep it in check in
that one establishment, which, at 4 per cent., represents a capital sum of
£2,500. This estimate was originally made in 1897, twenty years ago, arid
although we have battled with it in a crowded garden, amongst so many
subjects which cannot be removed, the figures are probably true now, in view
of the fact that the area of the Botanic Gardens has greatly increased in the
interval. It is more insidious than the Nut-grass, because it is more brittle.
It seems as if a perfect plant grows from every fragment left in the ground.
I direct attention to it in the most serious manner.

Vernacular Names. — It is commonly known as " Onion " or " Wild
Onion " about Sydney. " Sweet-scented Garlic " is a name sometimes given
to it, because it is allied to garlic, while the flowers are slightly perfumed.
It is not to be confused with Bulbine l>ulbosa, the well-known " Wild
Onion," although in grassland, before flowering, the plants are not very
dissimilar.

Botanical Name. — Allium, Latin for garlic; stated to be derived from a
Celtic root all, hot or pungent; jragrans, Latin adjective, meaning fragrant
or perfumed.

Botanical Description. —
Leaves a foot long, weak, diffuse, glaucous, linear, channelled, obtuse, and

twisted at the end.
Scape smooth, erect, round, a little longer than the leaves, glaucous, with a

little red at the base.
Umbel. — As many as sixteen-flowered in some umbels, with a short, scari-

ous, two-leaved spathe.
Pedicels long, slender, rigid.
Flowers very fragrant, six-cleft, turbinate, with white, spreading, blunt,

equal, concave segments, and a green tube.
Stamens (six) nearly the length of the perianth, erect, inserted into the

mouth of the tube.

Filaments linear lanceolate, white, green at base.
Pollen yellow. Ovary cylindrical, six-ribbed, very smooth.
Style the length of stamens. Stigma small, simple, depressed.
The above description is taken from Edwards' Botanical Register, vol. xi,
p. 898, Alium fragrans, var. nepalense, except that the number of flowers in the
umbel of our plants is as many as sixteen in contradistinction to six in the
typical variety.

How to get rid of it. — In an ordinary garden-border perhaps the best
method is to dig each plant up very gingerly, so as to be careful to take up
every fragment. In lawns (where it spreads like infection) frequent mow-
ing is the only cure, while on hard ground it should be shaved off close to
the ground as often as it makes its appearance, with the result that it will
eventually die out; but above all be on the look-out for it, and tackle it on
its first appearance on a lawn or in a garden. Endeavour to recognise it,

THE WEEDS OF NEW SOUTH WALES.

Wild Onion, or Sweet-scented Garlic (Allium fragrans Vent.)
A— Fruit (slightly enlarged). B— Seeds (magnified).

40 • THE WEEDS OF NEW SOUTH WALES.

and then give it no quarter. When it has got a thorough hold on the
ground it is almost impossible to get rid of it. Never let it flower if
possible. The usual sulphate of ammonia treatment of a lawn is useful in
dealing with Wild Onion, but the method is too laborious and expensive
except in pleasure lawns. In garden-paths (and these are very often
important sources of infection), the usual sodium arsenite treatment is most
efficacious; indeed it has been proved that, wherever it can be applied,
arsenic is the most certain agent for the destruction of weeds available to
the cultivator. Obviously arsenic cannot be applied to the soil of a garden,
or to a lawn.

A congener. — Attention may be invited to a close relation of our pest,
viz., Allium vineale L., which is such a terrible pest in many parts of
the southern United States. I trust that, by taking A. fragrans in time, it
will never become such a pest as A. vineale is to many American farmers
and orchardists. This is the subject of a special bulletin (No. 2, vol. viii,
July, 1895) of the Agricultural Experiment Station of the University of
Tennessee. It is considered by many to be " the vilest weed pest in our
State." Equally serious reports are made from New Jersey, Maryland,
Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia. In Texas its
place is taken by Allium striatum. The most serious complaint against it
is that " it ruins our milk, butter, and beef " ; a danger may, though to a
less intense degree, be looming before us as regards A. frag tuns.

Where Found. — South Europe and North Africa, from whence it has
spread to most warm countries.

In our State it prefers good soil, fairly moist, hence low-lying, rich
alluvial soils, but it is very accommodating in this respect.

A Wild Onion or Onion Weed (Asphodelus fstulosus L.).
(LiLiACE^E: Lily, Onion, &c., Family.)

Popular Description. — A perennial onion-like plant, or more like spring
onions, or perhaps chives. The base near the roots is enveloped in a silvery-
white membrane ("Onion skin."). Flowers whitish, with a faint purplish
flush and down each " petal " a pinkish or purplish stripe. The fruit
contains the seeds in a jelly-like bladder.

There is a figure of the plant at t. 984 of the Botanical Magazine, under
the name of " Onion-leaved Asphodel." It is a native of the Mediterranean.

Botanical Description. —

Stem hollow; leaves radical, striate, cylindrical; perianth petaloid, the seg-
ments almost free, deciduous; pedicels jointed; anthers introrse,- versatile;
filaments surrounding the ovary, papillose on the back at the base; stigma
three-lobed ; fruit a three-celled capsule ; seeds triangular, wrinkled.

Its nearest relation in the Australian flora is the yellow-flowered Bulbine,
concerning which there is some difference of opinion as to its harmlessness
to stock or the reverse.

Experience in other States. — It is common in South Australia, and Black
speaks of it as " a common weed in waste places, roadsides, pastures." I
saw it over considerable areas in the Port Lincoln district as thick as it was
possible for a plant to be. Ewart says that it is proclaimed for several shires
in Victoria. I saw it around Perth and Albany, Western Australia. In the
Queensland Agric. Journ. for September, 1909, p. 158, the late Mr. F. M.
Bailey says it " has begun to run out into the pasture near Toowoomba."

A WILD ONION, OR ONION WEED (Asphodelus flatulosm L.).

1. Flower with petals removed to show calyx. 2. Expanded flower, showing1 stamens.

3. Fruit carpels with thre'e lobed stigma. 4. Seed.

THE WEEDS OF NEW SOUTH WALES. , 41

So that the weed has outposts over extensive areas in Australia. It tends
to take entire possession of the land wherever it obtains a footing, and no
animal is known to eat it except by accident, that is to say, cropped with
other pasture.

Experience in New South Wales. — We have received it from Milson Island
(Hawkesbury River), Muswellbrook, and Moor Creek, Tamworth. These
localities suggest dirty seed or hay shipped at Sydney, and that the weed is
travelling north. There is no doubt that it is abundant in localities adjacent
to South Australia and Victoria.

Mr. E. F. Boiler, the Hon. S-ecretary of the Bimbaya Branch of the Agri-
cultural Bureau (Bega district) recently forwarded this plant for identifica-
tion as new to the district, and inquiries as to the advisability of declaring
the weed noxious. He notes a reference to this plant in an American paper,
dated 28th August, 1915, as follows : — " Cows on pastures eat the tops of
the plant during the fall and spring, thus imparting an offensive odour
and flavour to the milk." Also that " a farmer in selling wheat containing
any quantity of the seeds of this plant has to stand a dockage of from 10 to
50 per cent."

How to deal with it. — It spreads both by seeds and by offsets. Never let
it seed; hoeing when in flower is particularly fatal to it. Begin exter-
mination before it flowers, in order that no plant may escape. If possible
burn every scrap of it; this must be done with care, as it is succulent.

Dwarf Nettle (Urtica urens L .).*
(URTICACE^E: Nettle Family.)

Popular Description. — A small, erect, annual nettle covered with stinging
hairs. Leaves ovate-oblong (that is to say, roughly of the outline of a
vertical section of a hen's egg), coarsely toothed. Flowers monoecious — that
is to say, the male and female organs separate from each other, but on the
same plant. Flowers in nearly stalkless, short clusters.

Botanical Description. —

An annual with erect or ascending branched stems rarely above 1 foot high,
glabrous with the exception of the rigid stinging hairs. Leaves petiolate, ovate
or elliptical, deeply and regularly toothed, 1 to 2 inches long. Inflorescence con-
tracted into loose axillary clusters seldom exceeding the petioles, the males
and the females intermixed in the same clusters, of the same structure as in
U. incisa, except that the larger segments of the female perianth are ciliate on
the margin, and usually bear a single dorsal stinging hair. (Bentham.)

Other New South Wales Nettles. — We have a native nettle called Urtica
incisa) and a very common introduced one called the " Tall Nettle," Urtica
dioica, which is much larger than the nettle now figured, but possessing
properties much the same;

Nettle-sting. — The stinging hair of the nettle is fine-pointed and swollen
at the base. Touching the nettle breaks off the tip, which penetrates the
skin, and. the pressure forces the acrid liquid from the bulbous base along
the hair into the wound, and thus irritation is caused.

When you "grasp your nettle/' instead of touching it lightly, the sting
itself becomes crushed and rendered incapable of penetrating the skin.

Some people, and especially at some seasons of the year, suffer acutely if
stung by nettles.

The juice of a dock (Rumex), of a plantain (Plantago), both very common
weeds in New South Wales, or even of the nettle itself, are remedies for the
sting.

* For coloured plate see frontispiece.

42 THE WEEDS OF NEW SOUTH WALES.

Uses of the Nettle.— Like most plants of the family to which it belongs,
the nettle contains a valuable fibre. Dwarf nettle would be an inferior raw
product for the purpose of obtaining the fibre, but it may be pointed out
that in Germany a good deal of attention has been drawn to the nettle fibre
since the beginning of the war, certain fibre materials being unavailable.

In Britain, particularly northern England and Scotland, nettles are
regularly used for the preparation of a temperance beverage termed nettle-
beer. It corresponds to ginger-beer. It has a " bite," and is consumed in
enormous quantities by the poorer classes. It is most pleasant to the taste,
and I feel that if these herb-beers (e.g.., nettle, horehound) were better known
in Australia they would fill a real want. They would be home-made, and
are a vast improvement upon most of the sickly-sweet, characterless
beverages usually sold as ginger-ale and lemonade.

Where Native of. — It is a native of Europe, Asia, and Northern Africa,
It is very common in Britain, and has spread, chiefly in waste places, over a
considerable area of Australia, extending far into the interior.

How to deal with it. — Nettles should be hand-pulled (with leather gloves,
of course) wherever possible. This is the only certain method of destruc-
tion. In special circumstances they can be mown or otherwise cut down.

Khaki Weed (Alternanthera Achryantha R.Br., var. echinata;

A. echinata Sm.).
( AMARANTACE^E : Amaranth Family.)

Vernacular Name. — " Khaki Weed," because of the prevailing colour of
the plant.

In the Agricultural Gazette of September, 1909, p. 760, I have a note
entitled " A so-called Australian Weed in South Africa." I referred to this
weed as Alternanthera echinata Sm,, a South African plant. It is united
in the Index Kewensis, with A. Achryantha, R.Br.; but it differs a good
deal from that species, and is at least a good variety."

In the Agricultural Journal of the Cape of Good Hope, December, 1909,
p. C58, is the following note: —

In the September issue of the New South Wales Agricultural Gazette, the
noxious weed Alternanthera echinata Sm., known in Cape Colony as the
" Amarantus Weed," and in the Transvaal as " Khaki Weed," is credited as
being a South African plant. This is not so. It was introduced during the
war, probably in forage from the Argentine, the plant being of tropical American
origin. This plant has been proclaimed under the Noxious Weed Act in the
following districts : — Kimberley, Vryburg, Somerset East, Trauskeian Terri-
tories, and Pondoland.

In the Flora Capensis, v. 432, under A. Achryantha R.Br., we have A.
echinata Sm., as a synonym, with the note — " A native of Tropical South
America, but now becoming a troublesome weed in Tropical and South
Africa."

I believe it is correct to say that this weed was introduced to Australia
from South Africa, although its original home is Tropical South. America;
and it is certainly a fact that in South Africa over large areas it was
credited as being an Australian plant, and was thought to be so by many
of our soldiers, who brought specimens back as a curiosity from South
Africa. Perhaps it was introduced into Australia as a weed from South
Africa, but I have not sufficient evidence on this point.

THE WEEDS OF NEW SOUTH WALES.

43

Khaki Weed (Alte>-na>,ihera Acfiri/anthn R.Br., var. echinata).

1. Two clusters of flower*. 2. Part of a flower, two outer perianth-lobes removed, showing two inner

perianth-lobes enclosing fruit, and behind short outer perianth-lobe. 3. A single flower, the bracts removed.

4. Fruit, enclosing a single seed.

44 THE WEEDS OF NEW SOUTH WALES.

Botanical Name. — AHernanthera, from Latin alterno I change, or alter-
nus alternate, and anthera an anther. The stamens (or anthers) alternate
with the staminodia. Achryantha, from achyrum chaff, and anthos flower, in
allusion to the chaffy nature of the flower.

Botanical Description. — A prostrate herb, spreading over the ground in a
thick mass; probably annual.

Stems. — Much branched, rooting at the nodes, woolly-hairy.

Leaves. — Shortly petiolate, from ovate-lanceolate to nearly orbicular, usually
f to 1 inch long, light-green, glabrous or nearly so.

Flowers. — Bisexual, sessile, supported by scarious bracts in heads in the
axils of the leaves and much shorter than the leaves, bracts and perianth-lobes
all scarious and straw-coloured, narrow and acute.

Perianth. — Divided to the base into five irregular lobes, three outer ones
(sepals) and two inner ones (petals). Two of the outer ones pungent pointed,
and longer than the third; the third less acute and denticulate in the upper
part; the two inner ones equal, much shorter, gibbous, and with a prominent
bunch of hairs on the back.

Stamens. — Five or fewer, united at the base into a short, exceedingly thin
cup ; very deciduous. Ovarium with a very short style and a single ovule.

Fruit. — A compressed indehiscent utricle.

Uses. — I know of none, except perhaps to assist in the recovery of humus
on a scalded plain. So far as I know, stock never touch it. It is a humble
plant.

We have an allied species, Alternanthera triandra Lam., and the late
Mr. P. Corbet, of Mount Browne, sent it to me with the information that
the Chinamen of the district use this plant, to quote their own language,
" to cure sore hands, sore anything." I believe its reputed virtues are
largely imaginary.

Another closely related plant, though not belonging to the same genus,
is Achryanthes aspera L., which is found also in all the tropical and sub-
tropical regions of the Old World, and also in several of the Australian
States. The herb is administered in India in cases of dropsy, and for many
other diseases. The ashes of the plant yield a considerable quantity of
potash, which is used in India in washing clothes. The flowering-spike has
the reputation in India (Oude) of being a safeguard against scorpions,
which it is believed to paralyse (Drury). This is another plant which, in
my view, has no medicinal value ; at the same time no member of the family
is poisonous.

Where found. — It has been proscribed in the following" shires and
municipalities : —

SHIRES. MUNICIPALITIES.

Dorrigo Mnmbiilla Bega Graf ton

Harwood Orara. South Graf ton TJlmarra.

%<% Cow-COCkle (Saponaria vaccaria L.).

(CARYOPHYLLACE.E: Pink Family.)

Botanical Name. — Saponaria, from the Latin sapo, soap, the leaves of
some of the species containing a saponifying principle; vaccaria Latin
vacca, a cow. I am not clear as to the connection, real or supposed, of cows
with this plant. In Britain and North America it goes under the names
of Cockle, Cow-cockle, China-cockle, and Cow-herb.

THE WEEDS OF NEW SOUTH WALES.

Cow-cockle (Saponaiia vntcaria L).

A. Entire plant (half natural size). B. Inflated cal.vx and seeds (natural size). c. Flower, the calyx

opened (x 21). D. Petal and two stamens (2$). E, Ovarium with styles or stigmatic branches (x 5i).

F. Seeds (x 7).

46 THE WEEDS OF NEW SOUTH WALES.

Botanical Description. —

It is an erect annual, about 2 feet high, perfectly smooth, without any hairs,
and of a rather pale-green colour. Leaves opposite, lanceolate, about 3 inches
long, sessile with a broad base, and the opposite pairs are united at the base.
The flowers, which are terminal in a loose bunch on long stalks, are pink, about
J-inch in diameter, but the size of the flower varies considerably. Calyx
5-angled, shortly 5-lobed at the top, much enlarged after flowering. Petals 5,
^marginate at the top. The plant is best distinguished by the five very prom-
inent angles of the calyx. Seeds spherical, tuberculate, black when fully ripe.

Fodder or Other Uses. — I cannot find that, except by accident, stock eat
this plant at any time, and hence it lives its life unchecked unless man takes
it in hand. In India, that country in which a surprising amount of infor-
mation has been gathered together in regard to the uses and drawbacks
•of the native vegetation, some notes are available in regard to this plant also,
and I extract some of them from the Dictionary of Economic Plants of India
(Watt).

The properties of this plant are stated to be in every respect identical with
those of S. officinalis, the soap-wort (O'Shaughnessy). Preparations of this
plant have emulsifying properties on account of the saponin it contains. It
does not appear generally to have assigned to it the saponaceous properties
which its congener enjoys, but Murray mentions that in Sina the mucila-
ginous sap is used by the natives in place of soap for washing clothes. The
writer of the dictionary recently questioned the cultivators in the Dhami
State, Simla, as to the properties of the Sapon<iria which was found as a
troublesome weed in their wheat-fields. They said that it ofien proved
poisonous to young cattle, but that older animals would not eat it. They
were ignorant of its saponaceous properties.

I may say I have not heard of it being suspected as a poison-plant in this
•State.

How to get rid of it. — Prevention is better than cure and it is best to buy
clean wheat. The up-to-date farmer will screen his own wheat wherever the
seed-wheat comes from, and 'Carefully burn any suspected screenings. And
if it should unfortunately make its appearance it should be hoed out or
hand-pulled before it seeds. The road sides and the fences should also be
•carefully watched. I make no recommendation in regard to many weeds,
but it is competent for any farmer to eradicate this particular pest unless
he systematically neglects it for a year or two.

Following is what some American farmers say of it : — " This is at present
the worst weed in grain-fields. Springing up with the wheat the latter is
•crowded out, shaded out, and robbed of the food it might otherwise get from
the soil. A field well seeded to cockle as well as wheat, is practically beyond
redemption.''

Where Found. — It is a native of Europe, Asia Minor, India, Thibet,
Siberia, &c., but not England, though found there in corn-fields. It has
been tolerated as a pretty plant, and is, indeed, cultivated in gardens, and

A POISON BUTTERCUP (Ranwwultis sceleratus I,.).

Plant reduced to about half natural size. 1. Flower (x 25). 2. Fruit (x 25). 3. Seed (x 200)
(All approximate measurements.)

, r • ' »«•#»!

r » ' «• y • • ?& O B

THE WEEDS OF NEW SOUTH WALES. 47

that is the danger of it. If it were ugly (if there be such a thing as an
ugly plant) every man's hand would be against it. I do not remember that
this plant has been recorded as found in New South Wales until I drew
attention to it in 1903 in a note published in the Journ. Royal Society,
N.S.W., for 1903. During that year it sprang into unenviable notoriety, for
it and the Cape Weed (Gryptostemma) were the two weeds most frequently
sent in by farmers as new to them. It came from scores of localities in all
parts of the State. I have no doubt that in the great majority of cases it
came with seed- wheat, since, after the break-up of the drought, farmers
often bought wheat that contained the seeds of various weeds. This wheat
came from North and South America, New Zealand, and other places.

A Poison Buttercup (Ranunculus sceleratus L.).
(RANUNCULACE.E : Buttercup Family.)

General Observations on the Buttercup Family. — The genus Ranunculus
includes some yellow-flowering plants known as buttercups, some of which
are so small (e.g., R. muricatus and sceleratus) as to possess no special
decorative merits. They, and the rest of the family to which they belongv
are more or less acrid, and some of them are actually poisonous. Their
acrid nature is a great protection, for stock usually avoid them, but the so-
called Red Chamomile (Adonis autumnalis} has poisoned stock in this
State (see the Agricultural Gazette for September, 1912, p. 810), while
Monkshood (Aconite} is a well-known poison plant used in medicine, and
Larkspur (Delphinium) is a notorious poisoner of stock in the United
States, concerning which much literature is available.

The poisonous principle in buttercups is said to be especially virulent at
the time of flowering, and it is also stated that they lose their injurious
properties when dried in hay. Their injuriousness therefore occurs when
browsed upon in the damp situations in which they are usually found.

Mr. T. W. Kirk points out that buttercups are especially injurious to
pastures intended for the use of the dairy stock, as during the spring months
they give an unpleasant taste to butter. He also says that honey gathered
from certain species of buttercup will, if eaten new, sometimes cause serious
illness, if not death. The poison is, however, volatile, and old honey from
these sources is quite harmless.

The particular buttercup referred to here was first recorded from New
South Wales by Mr. A. A. Hamilton in the Agricultural Gazette for October,
1913, p. 862, and from Mr. Hamilton's short paper some of the notes which
follow are taken. It had, however, been sent to me in November, 1907, by
Mr. C. T. Musson, of the Hawkesbury Agricultural College, from Baker's
Lagoon, near Richmond, but I did not record the circumstance, and had*
indeed, forgotten it.

48 THE WEEDS OF NEW SOUTH WALES.

Popular Description. — A rather small not ornamental buttercup, with
small yellow flowers, and leaves which sometimes remind one of celery
foliage.

Names. — In the United States it has been called " Cursed Crowfoot,"
while it is sometimes known as " Celery-leaved Buttercup " from a resem-
blance to that useful salad-plant, often observed, but not specially obvious
in the plant figured. The name sceleratus, a Latin adjective meaning
4t profaned by guilt," has a sinister meaning ; it obviously refers to the bad
uses to which the plant has been put — i.e., to aid beggars in malingering,
and for the poisoning of human beings. The poisonous properties will be
referred to later.

Botanical Description. —

An erect, much branched annual plant, glabrous or nearly so. Stem thick
and hollow. Lower leaves stalked, divided into three or more obtusely toothed
or lobed segments, the upper one sessile, with three narrow segments. Flowers
small and numerous, the petals pale yellow, scarcely longer than the calyx, and
without any scale over the hollow spot at their base. Carpels very small and
numerous, and in a dense head.

It is a native of Europe and Northern Asia, including Northern India.

Experience in other States. — It is common in New Zealand, being
especially plentiful in moist situations, particularly on the Canterbury
Plains. In that State it has a bad name, and Mr. T. W. Kirk, in October,
1898, published Leaflet for Farmers, No. 46 (N.Z. Department of Agricul-
ture), warning agriculturists against it.

Experience in New South Wales. — Mr. Hamilton first found it growing in
a ditch at Waterloo — which is in the Botany Bay district, a little south of
Sydney — and points out that it is in a suitable environment for propaga-
tion. I suggest that it got into its present situation by means of the wool-
washing establishments in the neighbourhood, but this does not indicate
whence it came, and I suggest that it is flourishing 011 the Monaro or New
England, or some other cold region of this State. This leads me to again
ask farmers and pastoralists to inquire into plants new to them which may
attract their attention, but the danger in regard to this and the next weed
lies in the fact that there is nothing in regard to them to attract special
attention.

The fact that the first occasion on which this plant hks been found in
Australia is from the Snowy River (collected in 1905, Orbost, Victoria —
Professor Ewart, Proc. Roy. Soc. Viet., 1907, p. 86), points to the Monaro
as a likely place for the plant to develop in. It may have travelled in wool,
but R. muricatus affords very much greater facilities for attachment to the
fleece.

A Poison Plant. — Mr. Hamilton quotes Pammel's " Manual of Poisonous
Plants " in regard to this plant, which is said to be especially noxious to
cattle. It is said to contain anemonol and anemonic acid, chemical sub-
stances originally obtained from the anemone plants closely allied to the
buttercup.

ROUGH=SEEDED BUTTERCUP (Ranunculus muricatus L.).

Plant reduced to about a third natural size. 1. Flower (x 12). 2. Fruit (x 12). 3. Seed (x 48).
(All approximate measurements.)

THE WEEDS OF NEW SOUTH WALES. 49

He then quotes Watt's Dictionary of the Economic Plants of India to
the effect that professional beggars in Europe used to employ its juices to
produce blisters or open sores in order to obtain sympathy, and that the
inhabitants of Wallachia (now part of Roumania) used to employ it as a
vegetable — heat destroying its poisonous properties. This implies a low
standard of living, and if, unfortunately, this buttercup should ever become
plentiful, it offers no prospects as a vegetable to Australians.

How to deal with it. — Where this plant occurs only in single plants or
very small quantities, it is desirable to dig out each plant and carefully de-
stroy it, but where this is impracticable, the damp low-lying ground in
which it is usually found should, if possible, be drained and cultivated. It
is a buttercup worth going to reasonable expense over.

Rough-seeded Buttercup (Ranunculus muricatus L.).
(RANUNCULACE^E : Buttercup Family.)

Popular Description. — A small-flowered buttercup with shape of leaves
not rare amongst buttercups, and bearing abundance of burrs very objection-
able to wool-growers.

Botanical Description. —

Glabrous or sparingly pubescent, branched from the base. Lower and basal
leaves on long broad petioles, the blade reniform or cordate-orbicular, three-
lobed, cleft or crenate ; the upper three divided cuneate, short-petioled or sessile ;
flowers light-yellow, the petals exceeding the calyx ; head of fruit globular ;
achenes flat, densely muricate and spiny on the sides, tipped with a stout
slightly-curved beak of one-half their length.

Names. — The name muricatus is a Latin adjective, often used in descrip-
tive botany: it means rough, with short and hard tubercular excrescences
(from a shell-fish, murex, muricis). The reference in the present plant is to
the rough seeds (or rough carpels) and hence the name " Rough-seeded
Buttercup" may be applied to it, as I do not know of any definite name
already in use.

Experience in Australia. — A burr-weed. This buttercup has now spread
over most of the States, chiefly in naturally damp, undrained places, such as
buttercups usually enjoy. It mostly occurs in the cooler districts, but it is
spreading chiefly owing to its rough hooked seeds. These constitute a real
source of danger to the wool-grower, as they depreciate his wool, and the
plant is not only spread by the fleece, but also by the hocks of the larger
grazing animals.

How to deal with it. — See remarks under R. sceleratus above.

50 THE WEEDS OF NEW SOUTH WALES.

Mexican Poppy (Argemone mexicana I.).

(PAPAYERACE^E : Poppy Family.)

Other Names. — For obvious reasons it often goes under the name of
"Prickly Poppy." It is also called "Blue Thistle" and "White Thistle,"
because of the blueness or whiteness (whichever you like — botanists call it
glaucousness) of its foliage. Sometimes it is called " Yellow Poppy." It is-
also sometimes known as " Binneguy Thistle," because it was so abundant
at Binneguy, near Moree, attention being drawn to it in the press from that
locality.

[Articles and notes on this weed appeared in the Agricultural Gazette
for 1891, p. 175; 1895, p. 227; 1899, p. 490.]

Botanical Description. —

A rather tall, glaucous, prickly herb, with yellow juice ; leaves sessile, deeply
sinuated, lobed, the lobes irregularly prickly toothed. Flowers yellow, large.
Capsules obovate, prickly.

Is it poisonous? — It belongs to the Poppy family, the best known member
of which yields opium, which consists of the dried juice of the scratched
fruits.

A Russian chemist found in the seeds' of the Mexican Poppy an alkaloid
which gives reactions similar to morphia, a substance which is, of course,,
obtained from opium. The Pharmaceutical Review of October, 1901, p.
458, contains a paper, "Does Argemone mexicana contain morphine?" a
paper I have not been able to consult.

Mr. C. J. Salter, of the Dubbo district, to be quoted presently, says that
sheep " would not even touch the Mexican Poppy." Further on, he says that
horses would not touch a single leaf of the Mexican Poppy. At the same
time he says that some chaff with some Mexican Poppy in it griped his
horses.

In the year 1907, when on a visit to Aberdeen to inquire into the deaths
of cattle and horses supposed to have been caused by poison-plants, my atten-
tion was especially drawn to Mexican Poppy, which was very abundant. I
could not, however, see any sign of a plant being nibbled, and no one in the
district had ever heard of nibbling. Published inquiries prior to and sub-
sequent to 1907 have never elicited any case in which stock ate the plant.
It seems to me that the plant contains something especially distasteful to
them.

Mr. Salter's experiment should be repeated by a Stock Institute, ior I do-
not understand it. It may be that other plants got mixed with the chaff as
well as the Mexican Poppy. Further, and I am a layman in veterinary
matters, I should have thought that Mexican Poppy, containing an active
principle which is a sedative, would not cause " violent fits of gripes." At
the same time, it is quite possible that, in addition to the alkaloid akin to
morphia, there may be an active principle which would gripe.

How to get rid of it. — The method is simple on paper — hoe it out when it
is in flower; but in practice this often cannot be done, because of the great
hold it has secured, often in fissures, into which it has been washed with a
quantity of nice silt by successive floods, so that the young seedlings have
every chance.

THE WEEDS OF NEW SOUTH WALES.

51

Mexican Poppy ( Argemone msxicana L.).

Open capsule. B. Ovary (sepals, peta's ani stamens removed), c. Arrangement of the stamens
round the ovary. »• The pitted seeds.

52 THE WEEDS OF NEW SOUTH WALES.

I cannot do better than refer to the experience of Mr. Chas. «J. Salter, of
Llamboddon, Dubbo, as published in the Agricultural Gazette for September^
1909, p. 760, and already quoted :

My experience of this plant is that in a paddock where it was growing very
luxuriantly, and was also in various stages of growth, sheep in the paddock
died for want of food. They would not even touch the poppy. I gave them
salt, thinking this would help them to eat some of the plant, as I had often
heard that if sheep were given salt they would eat almost any kind of food,
hut it proved quite useless with the Mexican Poppy.

The paddock mentioned must have carried some 3 or 4 tons to the acre of this
weed, and the only means I found effectual for destroying it was by ploughing
.it up with a big disc plough. No kind of furrow plough could work for a
yard through the dense mass of poppies.

I notice that the Botanist is of opinion that the best time to destroy this
weed is when it is in flower. It seems to me, however, to be always in flower —
you can see growing continuously on the same stalk flowers, green pods, and
ripe seeds. The plant is always green — neither winter or summer seems to
affect it.

It grows in all classes of land, even on stony ridges, where it is exceedingly
difficult to combat.

Great benefit would result from the discovery of some effective means of
destroying the Mexican Poppy, as it is flourishing in many districts, and looks
as if it will soon take possession of the land, as nothing else seems to grow or
flourish when it is established.

Mr. Salter adds that some time ago he had some hay with Mexican poppy
plants in it cut into chaff. He noticed that his horses, after eating the chaff,
would be seized with violent fits of gripes. He did not know at the time-
the cause of the malady, but as all the horses which ate the chaff in question
were affected alike, Mr. Salter feels sure that the Mexican Poppy was re-
sponsible for the trouble. Recently he has noticed the poppy growing
amongst some barley which was cut green for the horses, but they would
pick over the fodder and not touch a single leaf of the poppy.

Where Found. — Its original home is Mexico, but it has now spread to-
many countries.

It is an old resident of New South Wales, the French botanist Verreaux
having collected it in George-street, Sydney, in the year 1845! Fancy
botanisiiig there now! It occurs in many parts of Australia, but it is an
especial pest in New South Wales and Queensland. It spreads because it
produces large numbers of seeds, and stock will not keep it in check.

It is a common denizen of rubbish heaps and waste places generally.

It has been proclaimed in New South Wales by twenty-one shires and
nine municipalities as follows : —

SHIRES.

Abercrombie Cockburu Liverpool Plains Talbragar

Bogan Coolamon Martha guy Timbrebongie

Boomi Eurobodalla Mitchell Turon

Bolwarra Gilgandra Peel Walgett

Canobolas Lachlan Tamarang Wingadee.

Cobbora

MUNICIPALITIES.

Aberdeen Junee Newcastle

Coonamble -Tcl:*"'^ 'Maitland West ; Nyngan

Dubbo Manilla Tainworth.

THE WEEDS OF NEW SOUTH WALES. 53

Hex ham Scent (Melilotus par vi ft or a Desf.).
(LEGUXVIINOS,E-PAPILIONACE;E: Pea Family.)

Popular Description. — A weak but upright herb, with a strong odour, from
which it derives its common name. It has the three leaflets of a " trefoil,"
with narrow teeth on their margins. The flowers are in open spikes, which
rise from the fork made by the leaf-stalk and the stem. The seed remains in
the pod, and falls with it.

It is a native of the Mediterranean region and India. '

Botanical Description.

A slender ascending scented herb. Leaves pinnately three-foliolate, witb
narrow-toothed leaflets. Flowers small, yellow, in slender axillary spike-like
racemes. Pod oval, wrinkled, indehiscent, one-seeded.

.Experience in other States. — The experience of dairy farmers at King
Island, off the coast of Tasmania, will transpire from what will be shown
later.

Black, under the name M. indica AIL, speaks of it as found in cultivated
land or sandy soil near the sea in South Australia, and he says that it is
known as California Lucerne in the south-east of South Australia. This
may be, as will be understood from what will follow, a misleading name. In
California it is known as Bitter Melilot, and in the Bulletin of the Cali-
fornia Experiment Station, No. 124, occur these words: —

Prof. A. J. McClatchie, of the University of Arizona Experiment Station, at
Tucson, writes under date of 27th April, to the effect that in Arizona this
plant is found to be the most successful green manure crop that can be raised
in their orchards. He continues : " the conditions are somewhat different with
us than with you. Ordinarily we have plenty of irrigating water to grow any-
thing we choose, until as late as April at least. Before that time the Melilotus
makes a fine growth. We began ploughing ours under about the first of April,
the yield being 15 to 16 tons of green matter per acre, or 2£ to 3 tons of dry
matter. Nothing else that we have tried will approach this in yield during
the winter."

" Reference to the table sbows that this yield is less than that of either the
Pink or the Large Blue Lupin, and only just above tbat of the Succulent
Lupin. At the same time the leaves of the Bitter Melilot are small and
sparse, and the stalk is very woody; by far the largest part of the weight,
.therefore, is probably fibrous matter, unfitted for rapid decomposition, and
of a nature to keep the soil perhaps too loose and dry — both disadvantageous
features. On the other hand, the hold which this plant has acquired upon
California as a weed, and readiness with which it can be obtained and with
which it will grow, the small size of its seeds, and the fact that it will flourish
and develop a fine mass of tubercles in alkali soils, are points which make it
worthy of further consideration. As in California it makes but little growth
in winter it could not replace the lupins for orchards and vineyards."

Ewart* has the following remarks on Melilot : —

Melilotus. — Melilot. All the species contain Cumarin, a volatile odoriferous
principle, which in excess produces a disinclination to locomotion, paralysis,
and ultimately fatal symptoms. No harm is to be apprehended if the amount
present does not exceed 10 per cent, of the herbage, and the aroma of Cumarin,
which is also present in the grass (AntTioxanthum odoratum), renders stale
hay more palatable. The seed of some species may last for fifty years.

* Weeds, Poison Plants, and Naturalised Aliens of Victoria, p. 23.

54 THE WEEDS OF NEW SOUTH WALES.

The Melilot which comes most closely under the head of a weed, is the
so-called King Island Melilot (Afelilatus parriflora), which, though of some use
as a humus-former on poor soils and for green manuring, is not a good grazing
plant, and is an unmitigated weed on good land, especially among corn.

Mr. W. C. Grasby (Western Mail, Perth, W.A., of 20th July, 1912) states
that it is well known in that State, particularly on the coast between Bun-
bury and Busselton, where it is esteemed as at King Island, and is known
as "Naninup Weed." About Mandurah it is known as " Norris's Weed."
He points out that it is found along the railway lines and in the older settled
parts of the State, but it is not as valuable as the " wild clovers and trefoils."
He adds that : " Experienced King Island landowners believe that Clustered
Clover and common Burr Trefoil give better results under such conditions
in King Island than does Melilot. This opinion was given me by a gentle-
man who owned 1,800 head of cattle on the island."

Experience in New South Wales. — Following are extracts from notes pub-
lished by me in the Agricultural Gazette for 1895 and 1902, respectively :—

Owes its smell to the presence of cumarin, contained also in Tonka Beans.
The odour is therefore agreeable in its proper place, but people object to it in
their flour. When mixed with grain causes decrease in price.

" A very prolific seeder. Introduced into the district through the agency of
winds and birds. Careful agriculturists experience little or no difficulty in
keeping it in check." (Rothbury.)

" Frequents good alluvial lands, either cultivated or non-cultivated ; also the
public roads, by which means many weeds are spread. Many farms in the
district are perfect seed-beds for noxious weeds, and this weed is spreading
with great rapidity." (Comobello.)

" Introduced in seed grain. First observed about two years since, and is now
spreading rapidly throughout the district. It is asserted that the seed of this
weed becomes mixed with grain from which it cannot be separated, and the
result is that it imparts to the flour an unpleasant taste and smell."
(Armidale.)

" A very bad weed." ( Woolomin, Tamworth.)

" Very troublesome in wheat crops. While many of the farmers cut it down,
others make no attempts to keep it in check, thereby seeding their neighbours'
clean lands." (Mudgee.)

The following note on this weed is from the pen of Mr. Thomas Wall,
junior, Model Farm, Woolomin, Tamworth: —

" Hexham Scent " has been a nuisance here for the past twenty-five years.
It grows splendidly in wet seasons. Frost will not injure it. It thrives best
in cultivated land. If milch cows are fed on it in the spring, September or
October, when sappy, the odour of the milk and butter is most objectionable
to taste and smell. If at night I chance to be walking among the milkers
that ate " Hexham " the day before, their breath is not very sweet. Milk
drawn from the cow also smells. If " Hexham " is cut with any hay, such
as wild oats or wheat, horses will get hungry before they take to it (the
hay). If reaped with a crop of wheat, and bulked for some time for the
thrasher, millers will be short of wheat if they buy it, as the flour smells.
In fact, in new-baked bread the smell is most pronounced. I have seen crops
of wheat growing some years ago in which the " Hexham Scent " took sole
possession of patches in the paddocks. It was a plague to farmers during
past wet seasons, but it is getting scarcer the last two or three dry seasons
we have had. (1902.)

HEXHAM SCENT (Melilotm parviflora, Desf.).

1. Flower. 2. Flower thrown open to show staminal tube. 3. Flower showing pod with
4. Staminal tuhe thrown open to show the free upper stamen.
5 Fruiting raceme. 6. Seed.

THE WEEDS OF NEW SOUTH WALES. 55

In the Agricultural Gazette for December, 1907, I published a short paper,
entitled ^Hexham Scent — Identical with King Island Melilot— Farmers
Beware," in which I protested against this State being flooded with seed
of the above plant. My readers can turn to the original, and will observe
that the protest is not an exaggerated one. The result was a flood of news-
paper articles and correspondence in all the States, in volume I do not
remember to have seen equalled during the thirty-six years I have been
writing1 011 weed subjects. Some of the articles were very personal, and
suggested that it was a case of State jealousy in regard to a dependency of
a smaller State (Tasmania). As the result of eight years' more experience,
I retract nothing, and the controversy is useful, as showing 'that different
opinions can be held in regard to this plant. There is an old and analogous
saying that " one man's food is another man's poison." Further, we may
say that it has been proved over and over again that a plant is only a weed
under special circumstances. Lovers of gardens in Sydney and further
south will remember the pretty little Ageratum conyzoides with pleasure,
but on the Bellinger and further north, particularly in Queensland, it
becomes a perfect pest, invading grass paddocks, and it goes under the name
of " Billy Goat Weed." It is the same with animal life. In certain places
the conditions are so favourable to multiplication, combined with absence
of enemies, that they become overwhelming, and are called pests. It is
desirable to remind ourselves of these truths. The pest Prickly Pear never
knew its capacity for spreading until somebody took a piece from Scone to
the Condamine early in the forties. There was no precedent for it.

Hexham Scent has been sold in Sydney and elsewhere under the name
Melilotus officinalis, with the following note: —

" This is nearly related to Bokhara Clover, and has the same strong smell
and deep-rooting habits. It is a wonderfully successful fodder plant on the
poor sandy coast lands at King Island, off the coast of Tasmania. It grows
there most luxuriantly, and the cattle fatten rapidly upon it. It should
only be sown on poor sandy country with a good rainfall."

I have no objection to this advice, which should be taken literally. Con-
fine it to the coastal strip, and best of all to the extreme south coast from, say,
the Victorian border to as far north as, say, the Shoalhaven. These areas
are exposed during the winter to abundant rain and cold saline winds, the
climatic conditions approximating — as far as we can match them in New
South Wales — to those of King Island. But I protest, with all the vehe-
mence of which I am "capable, against sending it inland or to our best and
even second-rate lands.

I may mention that M. officinalis is a wrong name. Of M. officinalis,
the Department of Agriculture of the United States says: —

" This European species has become widely naturalised in this country.
It possesses little value — not enough to warrant its cultivation. It grows
in swamps and wet meadows."

My final contribution to the 1907-8 discussion was in the following words,
and I think they fairly state the position to-day : —

I wonder if those gentlemen who are interested in selling King Island seed
have any practical knowledge of Hexham Scent in New South Wales. I have
travelled a great deal in this State, and have heard many of our farmers

56 THE WEEDS OF NEW SOUTH WALES.

execrate it. I am not a farmer, and if farmers are in favour of this plant I
shall be glad if they will give their testimony, and state the locality on which
they base their experience.

I think, and I have already so stated, that the plant may be useful in the
salt-laden atmosphere of King Island, with its soil consisting of nearly pure
sand and its comparatively low temperature, but to indiscriminately distribute
it in New South Wales — a semi-tropical country, with much good soil — is reck-
less, and even wicked. It is my duty to put our farmers on their guard, and
if I had done less I should have been culpable.

When the millennium arrives all seeds for New South Wales will be detained
at the Customs House and not issued until an official seed-testing station (of
which we shall have many), pronounces the seed to be innocuous. In the Bible
we hear of the man who sowed his neighbour's land with tares at night ; in
New South Wales we can do such things at noonday, and, what is more, be
handsomely paid for it. The wray in which seeds actually injurious are intro-
duced or distributed in New South Wales is wrong, emphatically wrong. A
good portion of my time is taken up in warning farmers in regard to weed-
pests which they send to me, and many of them are directly traced to imper-
fectly cleaned agricultural and horticultural seeds.

I have never said, nor do I believe, that Hexham Scent or King Island
Melilot is destitute of merit in suitable localities, but I take the opportunity
of thus drawing attention to the fact that there are practically no restrictions
to the admission of undesirable seeds into New South Wales. Because I
believe such a state of things is wrong, I intend to take every opportunity of
inviting attention to the matter.— (8.M. Herald, 27th December, 1907.)

Hexham Scent is allied to M . alba Lam., known as " Sweet or Bokhara
Clover." It is a white flowering species, and is spoken well of in California,
although the qualification is given that stock have to get used to it. But
the opinions concerning it vary in the United States.

The official opinion (Department of Agriculture, United States of
America) is : " This is a weedy biennial, concerning which extravagant
claims have been made. It is chiefly valuable in the Southern States for
early pasturage and for green manure/'

A competent British authority speaks of cattle disliking it because of its
bitter taste, and that it has the objectionable feature of rapidly becoming
hard and woody.

In New South Wales it has been recommended by seedsmen for our
Eiverina country and other dry districts.

Petty Spurge (Euphorbia peplus L.).
(EUPHORBIACF^E: Spurge Family.)

Popular Description. — A bright green, erect plant, a few inches high, with
inconspicuous greenish flowers, the whole plant exuding a milky juice, hence
it is known, in common with its close relations, as " Milk- weed '' in Aus-
tralia. Asclepiads, also with milky juice, share this name also. Common
enough in gardens and on rubbish heaps.

Botanical Description. —

An erect glabrous annual with milky juice. Leaves orbicular-obovate, entire.
Umbel of two or three repeatedly forked rays. Involucral glands crescent-
shaped, with long points.

PETTY SPURGE (Euphorbia peplus L.).

1. Flower, showing the cup-shaped involucre (Cyathiuml, terminated by the four horn-shaped glands,
and a maturing pistillate flower to the left. 2. Flower with front of the involucre removed,

exhibiting stamens, scales, &c. 3. Fruit, dividing into three carpels. 4. Seeds, showing

depressed dots.

THE WEEDS OF NEW SOUTH WALES. 57

Meaning of Name. — The derivation of the word Spurge is via the French,
from the same word as " purge/' indicating its medicinal effects. The word
is applied to all species of the genus Euphorbia, and I would add that it ia
far too drastic and uncertain in its effects to be safely used as a purgative
medicine.

The word " petty " is from the French petit, small, and indicates that it
is a small plant in comparison with some others.

Economic Value. — In common with the rest of the Euphorbias, it has from
time immemorial been used in Britain and Northern Europe as a wart-cure,
and hence the name " Wart-weed," applied to it and some other allied plants.
In country districts when local irritation is caused by its application, a very
old remedy is to apply oil freely.

For some years past the juice of this little plant has beeen recommended
(to my knowledge) by Sydney physicians of the highest standing for the
treatment of rodent ulcer, and I have seen cures effected by its means. But
I certainly would not recommend its use (except for warts) unless under the
care of a physician, for the juices of such plants are too dangerous to be
employed except under proper safeguards.

From the note which follows, it will be observed that the milky juice
(latex) affects the photographic plate, and it may be that it contains some
radio-active principle which explains the cure to which I have alluded : —

ACTION of the latex of Euphorbia peplus on the photographic plate.*

The milky juice or latex of this plant has been employed by surgeons for the
treatment of rodent ulcer. It has occurred to us to test whether the dried latex
has any action on a photographic plate. A thin layer of the juice is spread on,
glass and is dried. A photographic plate is placed a little distance above the
dried film. When the plate is developed after three to seven days an image of
the film appears on the plate. If a word be written with the juice a well-
defined photograph of the word appears on the plate. Such an image appears
when the distance between the film and the plate is not more than one centi-
metre. The thicker the film of dried juice the more dense is the image on the
photographic plate. If tissue paper, thick paper, thin aluminium foil, or gold
leaf be placed between the photographic plate and the film, the image is pro-
duced in the same way, and is sharply defined. If glass or mica be interposed,
the photographic plate is protected, and no image appears. We have been
unable to obtain glass or mica less than l-100th mm. in thickness.

The film of latex may be heated to 200 C. without any diminution of its action
on the photographic plate. At this temperature it commences to char, and the
action on the photographic plate remains powerful despite the destruction of
the organic matter. When the ash becomes white, the action on the photo-
graphic plate is much lessened. The photographic effect is also obtained during
the passage of a dry air or of carbon dioxide, also under greatly reduced
pressure.

Habitat. — We do not know the original home of this plant, but we know
that from immemorial antiquity it has been known in Europe, Western
Asia, and North Africa. It has spread over most parts of the world, and it
is common in the coastal districts of most of the Australian States. It is a
weed of arable land and occurs on rubbish heaps everywhere. It would
appear to be difficult to break up land without the minute seeds of this
Spurge finding a lodgment, and covering the ground with its bright verdure.

* H. G. Chapman, M.D., B.S., and J. M. Petrie, D.Sc., F.I.C.— Report of the Australasian Association for
the Advancement of Science, Vol. XIII, 1912.

58 THE WEEDS OF NEW SOUTH WALES.

Structure of Flower. — In figures 1 and 2 we have a peculiar inflorescence
which bears the technical name of Cyathium, and which looks like a simple
flower, but it consists of one pistillate and several staminate flowers. The
Cyathium has a small cup-like involucre (see in section in figure 2) which
is formed by the union of five bracts, which collectively surround a number
of flowers. At the points of junction of four of these bracts are four
crescent, or horn-shaped nectaries, often described" as glands. Within the
involucre are a number of stamens, and scales (note their feathery tops) are
also seen. A staminate flower consists, of a flower-stalk terminated by two
stamens, and subtended by one of the scales just referred to. The pistillate
or carpellary flower (female flower) can best be seen at figure 1, where it
seems to be falling out of the Cyathium.

The flower of a Euphorbia is said to be naked (achlamydeous), that is to
say, without either a calyx or a corolla.

Note the fruit (figure 3) when ripe beginning to separate into its three
-constituent carpels, which contain the seeds.

Paddy's Lucerne or Queensland Hemp (Sida rhombifolia L.

Syn. : 8. retusa L.)
(MALVACEAE : Mallow Family.)

Other Vernacular Names. — It is of course not a hemp, nor is it confined to
Queensland, but let that pass. It sometimes goes by the name of "jelly-
leaf," on account of its mucilaginous character, which causes it to be nibbled
by stock.

Botanical Name. — This plant belongs to the natural order Malvacea, or
Mallow family, which includes a multitude of fibre plants. The earliest name
for it is Sida rhombifolia. Theophrastus gave this name to an aquatic
plant supposed to be identical with Althaea. Althaea includes such plants as
the marsh-mallow and hollyhock. Rhombifolia. — From the shape of the
leaves, which are more or less rhomb-shaped in the original forms.

Synonym. — The original scientific name of the plant is, as has been already
stated, Sida rhombifolia, which includes a number of forms, one of which
has been named Sida retusa. As the name Sida retusa has got such a firm
hold on the minds of Australians, almost as firmly in fact as the vernacular
ones, I would have liked to have adhered to the name Sida retusa in this
paper, but I cannot transgress botanical laws.

Flowers. — It has a yellow flower about half an inch across, which is only
fully expanded" for a few hours in the middle of the day, and is very difficult
to preserve.

Fruit. — This will be readily made out from the figure. It is brown when
ripe, and the cup-shaped calyx contains a number of awned seeds.

Leaves. — Rather rigid; the shape will be readily made out from the figure.
As has been already stated, the leaves, particularly when young, are more or
less mucilaginous, a property shared in common with other plants belonging
to the family Malvucece ; hence the use of some of them, e.g., marsh-mallow,
as demulcents.

THE WEEDS OF NEW SOUTH WALES.

59-

Paddy's Lucerne or Queensland Hemp (Sida ihombifolia L. syn. S. retusa L.).

A. Section or a flower. B. Early fruit. c. Calyx (5-angled and 10-ribbed).
D. Carpel ("seeds") with two awn?.

60 THE WEEDS OF NEW SOUTH WALES

Size. — In warm, congenial situations, as on the northern rivers, it attains
.a height of several feet, with a stem thicker than a man's finger; hut in the
neighbourhood of Sydney, and further south and west, it is a very much
.smaller, scrubby shrub, rarely attaining a height exceeding 3 feet.

Distribution. — The warmer coastal districts of New South Wales in
particular, and as far south as the Illawarra. It is an Australian native,
which of late years has assumed a very aggressive character, and has travelled
•south, even invading the Blue Mountains and southern ranges, until it gets
nipped with the cold. But it is undoubtedly developing increased icsistance
to cold, and is slowly encroaching on localities in which at one time it could
not obtain a footing. About the suburbs of Sydney it may often be noticed
by the sides of the roads and footpaths. After it has been a great pest in
a district for a few years it gradually diminishes in luxuriance, and finally
almost dies away, as if it had exhausted the sustenance it requires from the
soil.

Paddy's Lucerne, in one or other of its forms, is to be found in the warmer
countries of both hemispheres, but I am not aware that circumstances in
any country cause it to be such a pest to agriculture as it is in eastern
Australia.

A Graf ton correspondent writes : — '' It grows here only too luxuriantly,
and is a perfect nuisance on some grass lands. One of the Grafton parks
is entirely overrun with the pest, and this is the condition of man;/ paddocks
in the district. No difficulty need then be apprehended as to its successful
culture if it could be made a commercial product."

A paragraph in the Sydney Morning Herald of 17th March, 1892, from
Nowra, states : — " The Municipal Councils of the district are co-operating
in the extermination of a noxious weed known as Sida. Cattle eat it, but
the weed destroys the natural grasses. Some years ago it began to spread
between Kiama and Gerringong, and now hundreds of acres have been
rendered useless by it. The weed grows strongly, and is difficult to exter-
minate. In many cases a plough will not reach the roots."

Propagation. — From seed, of which it bears an enormous quantity. If
anything is to be done with this plant as regards utilisation of its fibre (see
l>elow) it must be cultivated.

Stock eat up the tops of it without detriment, if in moderation ; but it must
IDC exceedingly indigestible if eaten in quantity, on account of its fibrous
nature, while the ripe seeds are hard and prickly, and therefore irritating. I
think its value as a fodder plant is unconsciously exaggerated for, unless
there be plenty of grass (in which case the Paddy's Lucerne is not required
at all), cattle are -always liable to injury through eating this fibre plant.
In Queensland, in the coastal districts, the further north one goes the more
and more esteemed for a cattle browse this weed becomes. Indeed, I have
seen some areas so thick with it that there is nothing else for the cows to eat.

This plant is sadly too well known by land owners in our coastal districts,
and the very mention of Paddy's Lucerne awakens painful reflections, for it
nas rendered vast areas of excellent land largely unfit for pastoral and
agricultural purposes. Property holders keep it down as far as they can,
but when once it gets a firm hold of the land it is practically impossible to
eradicate it, for it yields abundance of seed, which germinates freely.

TEE WEEDS OF NEW SOUTH WALES. 61

Paddy's Lucerne is, in a word, a pest, a noxious weed, and there is 110
doubt that northern land owners (and even Parliament, as being a matter
almost of a national character) would be willing to pay a very handsome sum
if its extermination could be guaranteed. In such a way is the Prickly Pear
(Opuntia} dealt with; but Paddy's Lucerne is not as useless a plant
as the Prickly Pear and the Bathurst Burr, for, as is well known, it contains
a really valuable fibre, besides having some value as a fodder, as already
indicated. There is no doubt of this, for its value has been proved over and
over again, and at the present time it actually forms one of the innumerable
so-called " hemps " sent from India to Europe. I had excellent fibre made
from New South Wales and Queensland plants in my keeping for years, and
the samples are as good as, and better than, those obtained from an Indian
source. The prospect thus presents itself: Can the double advantage be
reaped of ridding the land of a pest (or rather of keeping it within bounds),
and at the same time making a useful article of commerce out of it? The
tempting problem has been so often attacked — but with failure, on account
of the costliness of the process employed — that a man who attempts to tackle
it now starts with prejudice against him, and rightly so.

Mechanical Irritants. — Since the seeds of Paddy's Lucerne have been
known to cause the death of }'oung fowls owing to their prickly character,
it may be desirable to add a few notes in regard to other weeds with the
power to cause irritation through mechanical means. Dr. Howitt in
*" Two Years in Victoria," Vol. I, p. 150. speaks, during the earliest gold rush
of grass-seeds penetrating the skins and even the lungs of sheep. Mr.
(now Prof.) J. D. Stewart, has an interesting article in Agricultural
Gazette, New South Wales, vol. xii, 357 (1901), entitled "The Injurious
Effects of Certain Grass-seeds to Live-stock."

Large numbers of these belong to the Daisy Family, and also to the
grasses. For example, in the Daisy Family we have the burrs of Calotis
cuneifolia, sometimes called Bindi-eye, and those of Bidens, which have
forked awns like little pitch-forks. Then we have the boring seeds, which
have already been referred to at page 9, and to which may be added
certain awned seeds belonging to the genera Hordeum (Barley), A vena
(Oats), Bromus, and also the Porcupine and Spinifex Grasses of the
interior, Triodia.

Amongst Hordeum the principal miscreant in New South Wales is
H. murinum L., figured and described in the Agricultural Gazette for
October, 1909. Under Avena the principal pest is A. fatua L., the Wild
Oat or Black Oat, which in some districts is a great pest. The " Farmers'
Handbook," page 267, gives a good account of it. Under the genus
Bromus we have quite a number of grasses with long irritating awns, and
which seem to be increasing in New South Wales.

All the grasses mentioned are useful as forage in the young stage, and
that is why they are tolerated, and become so bad later on.

Paddy's Lucerne is a proclaimed weed in one shire and eleven munici-
palities : —

SHIRE.
Cessnock.

MUNICIPALITIES.

Ashfield Concord Manly Rockdale

Botany Hunter's Hill Maitland East Waratah.

Bimvood Kogarah Mosman

t 64225-C

THE WEEDS OF NEW SOUTH WALES.

St. John's Wort (Hypericum perforatum L.).
(HYPEKICACE^: St. John's Wort Family.)

Other Vernacular Names.—" St. John's Blood " (because of the dye pro-
duced by the petals) ; " Witch's Herb."

Botanical Name. — Hypericum, said to be from two Greek words, uper and
eicon (ikon), an image; the superior part of the flower represents a figure,
but I am not clear as to the derivation myself; — perforatum, Latin, in
allusion to the oil-dots of the leaves.

Botanical Description, — An erect glabrous perennial 1 to above 3 feet high,
with a woody creeping root difficult to extirpate.

Leaves sessile, opposite, each pair covering those below them, oblong, obtuse,
entire, generally about f-inch long, of a paler green colour underneath than
above, sprinkled with pellucid dots.

Flowers large, bright yellow, in a forked leafy panicle terminating the stem.

Calyx cleft into five lanceolate pointed lobes.

Petals five.

Stamens numerous, with long filaments more or less distinctly united at the
base into three bundles.

Ovary three-celled, with three styles with a terminal stigma.

The glands on the petals in the accompanying illustration are a little
diagrammatic. It must be taken into consideration that the glands are less
prominent in the living plant than in the dried plant. The tissue of the petals
dries up with the exception of the oil glands, which remain unchanged. Oil glands
are always more prominent in herbarium specimens than in the living plant.

All Australian specimens belong to a more narrow-leaved form than the
common English St. John's Wort.

Fruit. — A dry capsule .with rather numerous small seeds. The plant is
most easily recognised by the oil-glands on the leaves, which are easily seen
when held against the light, and give the leaf a perforated appearance.
These oil dots pervade the whole plant, and are mixed with fewer dark purple
opaque dots, especially on the flower, where the dark dots are frequently
crowded along the margin of the petals as shown in the illustration.

Fodder or Other Uses. — This plant has been used in domestic medicine in
Europe from time immemorial, for example, in dysentery, phthisis, for
wounds, &c. ; oil boiled with the herb is used externally in -rheumatism and
gout. Mr. Theodor Liides, pharmaceutical chemist, of Holland's Plains,
favours me with the following interesting letter concerning it: —

" I dare say it is still used by the peasants on the east coast of Jutland
(Denmark) as a tonic in the form of a tincture, prepared by maceration of the
flowering tops with Aquki vitoe ("Aquavit" the Danish spirituous liquor — a
" spiritus aromaticus " flavoured with caraway, fennel, &c. ) . I remember when
I was an apprentice there was a great demand for an Ol. Hyperic, prepared
lege artis from the dried herb and olive oil — said oil was used as_a "cure-all'"
for rheumatism, bruises, &c., &c., but, as a substitute olive oil (pure and
simple), coloured with alkanna root extract, had the same good action as the
original article. It is open to doubt if the real Ol. Hyperioanus had any
medicinal properties at all. (Like a lot of other liniments, the rubbing does
the trick.*) I have in the end of the eighties made great quantities of Tinct.
Hyperici, which was sold to a manufacturer of bitters. The tincture is of an
aromatic bitter taste, and has, of course, a little flavour from the small quan-
tity of ethereal oil contained. That the different species of Hypericum should
be poisonous for cattle I doubt very much, as they are very common as a weed
in Denmark. Were they poisonous the farmers there would soon declare war
against them."

The petals contain yellow and red dyes, which have been isolated by
Dieterich (Pharm. Centralb, 1891, 683). The red juice of the flowers was
considered by ancient classical writers to be a signature of human blood, and
was hence employed as an application to wounds.

* This professional secret is published for general information.

THE WEEDS OF NEW SOUTH WALES

St. John's Wort (Hypericum perforatum L.)

A. Flowering stem. B. Fruit, consisting of 3 carpels. Part of the calyx removed, c. Horizontal
section through ovarium, showing the attachment of the seeds and the large oil-glands. D. Seed, with
reticulate testa. E. Petal, showing the dark oil glands. F. Part of the btem. (Flowers yellow. )

04 THE WEEDS OF NEW SOUTH WALES.

Hypericum bacciferum and II. cayenense are stated by Simmonds to yield
a gamboge. The power of expelling the demon of hypochondriasis and of
acting as a charm against witchcraft was formerly attributed to the St.
John's Wort of Europe. According to Stowe, it was always suspended over
the doorway on the vigil of the saint, with herbs of like fancied power, and
in the Pyrenees it is said to be still so used. The holes in the leaves were
said to be made by the witches out of spite to its, to them, inconvenient
virtues. Nor is this the only Hypericum viewed with superstitious awe since
antiquity. The old Greeks used a "Hypericon," which is believed by some
to be Hypericum crispum, by others H. liarbatum or H. em petri folium. They
used also an "Androsaemon," perhaps H. ciliatum or H. hircinum, or
" Koris " (H. Coris) and " Askyron " (II. Androscemum), a " Dionysius 'r
(H. androsaemori], but it is doubtful whether all these names are referred to
the precise species.

How to get rid of it. — The best way to get rid of this plant is to pull it up
or dig it up before it seeds. I am quite aware that it has taken possession of
large areas; this is all the more reason why it should be combated whenever
it makes its appearance in new ground. The pulling up can be postponed
until the plant is in flower, if need be, but it should always be borne in mind
that it is a very free seeder.

Where Found. — It is found in the temperate regions of Europe and Asia.
It is a troublesome weed in many parts of the United States. It was no
doubt introduced here as an ornamental plant, and has shown wonderful
colonising powers. It is a pretty little plant, and hence may be tolerated on
that account until it makes its insidious hold firmly felt. Baron von Mueller
first published the name of this weed in a list of Victorian weeds in the
Victorian Naturalist for December, 1893. After a visit to Bright, in Vic-
toria, where the weed has taken possession of enormous areas, I published a
note in the Victorian Naturalist for July, 1900, p. 44. In the Agricultural
Gazette for October, 1901, p. 1202, I formally recorded this weed for New
South Wales — from districts so far apart as Albury and Mudgee. Since then
I have received it from scattered localities, and unless steps are taken to
check it, it promises to be one of our worst pests.

The following list of shires and municipalities in which this pest has
been proclaimed is already formidable, and has been furnished by the Local
Government Department, 1919 : —

SHIRES.

Abercroinbie Dalgety Jeinalong Rylstone

Adjungbilly Demoudrille Jindalee Tumbarumba

Blaxland Gadara Kyeamba (Mitchell).

Coreen Hastings Mitchell Waugoola

Crookwell Holbrook Mulwaree Yanko

Culcairn Illabo Narraburra

MUNICIPALITIES.

Albury Corowa Junee Wagga Wagga.

Cootarnundra Cudgegong Tumut

Blue Weed or Paterson's Curse (Echium plantagineum L.).

(BORKAGINACE.E ; Borage Family).

Botanical Name. — Echium, from the Greek Ecliis, a viper; but, says
Hooker, of disputed application. Plants of this genus are called in England
"Bugloss or Viper's Bugloss"; plantagineum, from a resemblance of the
leaves to those of the Lamb's Lettuce (Plantago}.

THE WEEDS OF NEW SOUTH WALES.

65

Blue Weed, or Paterson's Curse (EcMum plantaginevm L.).
A. Inflorescence. u. Corolla split and opened out. c. Ovarium with style.

66 THE WEEDS OF NEW SOUTH WALES.

E. vulgare L. is known in. the United States of America as " Blue Weed,"
" Blue Devil," and " Blue Thistle."

For the origin of the name " Paterson's Curse," see below. I have seen it
called " Beggar's Blankets," but the plant usually known by that name is
Verbascum (Mullein).

Botanical Description. — Genus Echium: —

Herbs sometimes shrubby; usually large, stout, hispid or scabrous, with
tuberous-based hairs. Leaves entire. Flowers white, red, purple, or blue, in
spiked or panicled racemes. Calyx 5-partite. Corolla-tube cylindric or funnel-
shaped ; throat dilated; limb unequally 5-lobed. Filaments unequal, adiuite to
the corolla below, exserted. Style filiform, stigma 2-lobed. Nutlets 4, inserted by
flat bases on the flat receptacle, ovoid or turbinate, wrinkled, scabrid. Distri-
bution.^— Chiefly S. Europe and Oriental ; species, 20.

E. plantagineum L. ; cauline leaves linear-oblong cordate at the base, calyx
much shorter than the corolla-tube, cymes elongate, stamens slightly protruded.
E. violaceum, Brit. FL, not of L. Cornwall and S.W. of Jersey ; fl. June- Aug.
Root fusiform, annual or biennial. Stein. 1—3 ft., erect or ascending, diffusely
branched. Leaves radical 4— G in., lanceolate, petioled ; cauline spreading
obtuse, sometimes dilated at the base. Cymes 4-0 in., spreading, curved.
Calyx-lobes subulate-lanceolate. Corolla 1 in., dark blue-purple. Nutlets as in
E. vulgare. Distribution. — Spain and Mediterranean region to Greece.

I proceed to give the specific description of E. vulga/re for reasons which
will be evident presently.

E. vulgare L, ; cauline leaves lanceolate or oblong, rounded at the base, cymes
short, calyx exceeding the corolla-tube, stamens much protruded. E. itattcuni
Huds., not of L. Viper's Bugloss. — Waste ground on light soils in England; an
alien or colonist in Scotland. Watson ; S.E. of Ireland ; fl. June-August. Root
fusiform, annual or biennial. Stem 1 — 3 ft., erect or ascending below, stout,
leafy. Radical leaves petioled, 4 — 8 in; caulhie sessile, acute, rounded at the
base. Cymes 1 in. or more, axillary, recurved, lengthening in fruit, panicled
towards the ends of the branches ; bracts and calyx-lobes linear. Corolla £ in.,
red-purple in bud, then bright blue, rarely white. Nutlets angular, rugose.
Distribution. — Europe, N. Africa, W. Siberia, introduced in N. America. (The
Students' Flora of the British Islands, 2nd Edition, by Sir J. D. Hooker.)

Synonyms. — E. plantagineum L. is, as Hooker states, a synonym of E.
violaceum Brit. FL, not of Linn.

If we examine Hooker's descriptions of E. vulgare L. and E. plantagineum
L., we find two important points, viz. : —

E. vulgare :

(1) Cauline leaves lanceolate or oblong, rounded at the base.

(2) Calyx exceeding the corolla-tube.
E. plantagineum :

(1) Cauline leaves linear-oblong, cordate at the base.

(2) Calyx much shorter than the corolla- tube.

Now, if the drawing be consulted, it will be seen that the flowers are those
of E. plantagineum as regards the important botanical character (2). The
arrangement of the inflorescence is also of that species, that of E. vulgare
being coarser and more crowded.

Coming to the eauline leaves, we find that they are cordate at the base;
but if " Illustrations of the British Flora," Fitch and Smith, No. 691, be
referred to, it will be found that the cordate base is by no means a prominent
character. I therefore name our " Paterson's Curse " E. plantagineum,
although I admit it is not absolutely typical. But allowance must always
be made for a naturalised plant growing under conditions perhaps very
different to those of its native country; furthermore, Echiums are rather
large, coarse plants, and very few herbarium specimens comprise whole
plants, including, of course, representative cauline leaves. As a rule, the
flowering tops are alone picked off and sent for examination.

THE WEEDS OF NEW SOUTH WALES. 67

Echium is a difficult genus, without a sharp line between some of the
species; and it is my intention, if I receive good specimens of the other
species acclimatised in Australia, to return to the subject, for the last word
has not been said in regard to the Australian forms.

In good land, where the plants are wide apart, I have seen one plant 5 ft. 6 in.
high, and up to nine flower-stalks on each, but where it has been established
some time it grows as close together as the wheat plants in a crop, and does
not stool at all — just grows one straight stalk. — E. A. HAMILTON, Cumberoona,
via Albury.

Fodder or Other Uses. —

It is in no way injurious to stock ; in fact, in the early spring I consider it
one of our best fodder plants, as the first leaves are very succulent, and it is
the quickest-growing plant during the frosty weather. When the plant matures,
however, the flower-stalk is very rough and hairy, and the stock will not eat it ;
and then, when it seeds and dies off, all the grass is killed underneath, and
there is nothing left on the paddock at all. — E. A. HAMILTON.

That " Paterson's Curse " produces some feed is undoubted, but it is a
smothering, rough, coarse plant, whose room is far better than its company.

Hvw to get rid of it. — The intensely bristly character of this weed calls for
its destruction wherever it appears. It should be cut out with hoe or mattock
before it seeds, wherever it begins to make its appearance. Being quite an
ornamental plant when in flower, it has been spared for sentimental reasons ;
that is the danger in the case of a weed such as this.

Both sheep and cattle eat the plant when there is little or no other feed to
be had. Mr. P. Hore, of Mugwee Estate, kept a number of sheep in a small
paddock last spring that was covered with " Paterson's Curse," and the sheep
completely ate it out, and appeared to do well on it. The worst of
the weed is that it chokes all other vegetation, and neither grass or other
vegetation will grow near it ; and when it dies the ground is left black and
unprofitable. — Mr. F. FRENCH, Inspector of Stock, Albnry, l$th April, 1904.

A neighbour of ours has got rid of it in a small paddock by running a very
large mob of sheep on it and eating it quite bare several times in the year, so
preventing it from seeding. By doing this for three years he has his paddock
free from it, with the exception of a few plants, which he pulls up as they
appear. It is hard to estimate the damage it is doing here, as people have not
yet begun to try and get rid of it; but I offered 6s. per acre to have it hand-
picked last spring, and it was not accepted. Our neighbour offered a party of
Syrians work pulling it up, and they wanted 13s. per acre. — E. A. HAMILTON.

Where Found. —

This weed was introduced to this district by the people (Patersons) who
lived in a small farm adjoining this estate, as a garden flower, about twenty-
tive years ago. It did not spread much at first, but grew out on a small hill
near the house, gradually enlarging every year. However, about eight years
ago it got through the fence on to a travelling stock reserve and into our
paddocks. Then, as soon as the stock began to travel through it, it spread very
quickly, and now it is all over the district, particularly on stock routes and
reserves, being carried to these by the stock. There is one patch of about 300
acres in this property, where it is growing as thick as possible : and there the
plant merely sends up one flower-stalk to a height of from 1 to 3 feet, but
where the plants are growing thinner it grows (on good soil) to a height up
to 5 feet, and with a spread across of about 3 feet. Along the road for about
4 miles it is one blue stretch. The plant has spread right up to the head of
the Murray, and some local drovers told me they saw it growing at Bourke. —
E. A. HAMILTON, Cumberoona, via Albury, 15th March, 1904.

There is no question that the plant is spreading. I have seen it or heard
of it on reliable evidence from many of the drier parts of this State. Some
localities have already been given; others are Dubbo, Nyngan, Paldrumatta
Bore, via Wilcannia. In Victoria, like New South Wales, it comes from the
Upper Murray. It also cornes from Geelong. In South Australia it has
been sent from the Flinders Range. We have much to learn of its distri-
bution yet.

THE WEEDS OF NEW SOUTH WALES.

The country it thrives best in is a rich black soil river-frontage country ; and
the Upper Murray, Cumberoona, Wagra, and that locality, situated from 17 to
30 miles from Albury, is where it is to be seen in the spring growing most
luxuriantly, and the purple flower in the valleys, as seen from the surrounding
hills, is exactly like water in a lake. — Inspector of Stock, Albury.

I have noticed it invariably in close proximity to main roads, being the
inference that it was brought there by travelling stock ; and the largest extent
seen by me was in Cumberoona, about 17 miles above Albury. on the Upper
Murray road. One patch must have covered something like 100 acres, at a
rough estimate. Wherever the plant gets a fair hold it completely smothers
the grass. — A. H. CHESTERMAN, Staff Surveyor.

I am forwarding, under separate cover, a herb which has. according to report,
only appeared on the plains here during the last two or three years— that is.
since the sheep came back after being away during the drought. My object in
writing is to inquire if it is poisonous, as it is very thick in the whea ten-hay
crop; and, if not, if it is good, feed for stock? At present the stock will not
touch it, and if it is poisonous can any means be suggested for its eradication,
since there are so many patches of it hereabout? — H. P. SMITH, Illilawa. Hay,
1st November, 1904.

The following list of shires and municipalities in which this plant has
been proclaimed noxious is very formidable, and has been supplied by the
Local Government Department, 1919 : —

SHIRES.

Abercrombie Cuicairn Lachlan Tamarang

Berrigan Demondrille Lockhart Timbreboiigie

Bland Gadara Lyndhurst Tumbarumba

Bogan Gilgandra Macquarie Turon

Boree Gloucester Mitchell Wakool

Carrathool Goobang Mulwaree Waradgery

Cessnock Hoibrook Mumbulla Wangoola*

Cobbora Hume Murray Weddin

Conargo lllabo Murrumbidgee Windouran

Coolamon Jemalong Murrungal Urana

Ccreen Jmdalee Narraburra Yallaroi.

Crookwell Kyeamba Rylstone

MUNICIPALITIES.

Albury Gundagai Parkes Wagga Wagga

Burrowa Hay Quirindi Wyalong.

Cootamundra Junee Temora

Corowa Murrumburrah Tumut

Purple-top or Wild Verbena (Verbena bonariensis L.).

(VERBENACE^E : Verbena Family.)

Botanical Name. — Verbena (see below) ; bonariensis, Latinised adjectival
form of Buenos Ayres, the capital of the Argentine Eepublic, South America,
the home of this particular plant.

Botanical Description. — Genus, Verbena. Note. — V. venosa and V. bona-
riensis both belong to the section PachystachyaB, with abbreviated flower-
spikes.

Species. — Bonariensis, L.
An erect, coarse, rigid herb of 2 to 4 feet, the stems scarcely branched,

acutely four-angled and roughly hispid, especially on the angles.
Leaves.-— Sessile, lanceolate, er the lower ones ovate-lanceolate. 1£ to nearly
3 inches long, coarsely toothed, hirsute, the upper ones distant, small,
and narrow.

Flowers.— In rather close spikes of * to f inch, which are usually clustered
at the end of the branches of a rigid corymbose, trichotomous panicle,
and generally assume a bluish-purple hue.
Bracts. — Acute, ciliate, hirsute, 1 to 1* lines long.
Calyx. — Shorter than the bract.

Corolla-tube. — Shortly exceeding the calyx, the lobes broad and spreading
(B.FL, v. 36.)

THE WEEDS OF NEW SOUTH WALES.

NAT SIZE

Purple-top or Wild Verbena (Verbena bonarientfis'L.).

General view of plant, much reduced. 2. Showing inflorescence, natural size. 3. Showing the angular
(quadrangular) stem and the venation of a pair of the opposite leaves. Natural size.

THE WEEDS OF NEW SOUTH WALES.

In Contrast to the other Verbena (V . venosa, figured on p. 71) the
present species is far less showy. The short and crowded flower-spike of V.
bonariensis is by no means so conspicuous as that of the dwafer plant
V. venosa.

Vernacular Names. — " Wild Verbena or Vervain," " Purple-Top or
Weed '' are the only names under which I have heard it referred to.

Fodder and other Uses. — So far as I am aware, stock never touch it except
by accident, and then the feeding only serves to prune it. It bears numerous
seeds and spreads rapidly in waste places, and even encroaches on pasture
land. The most that is good that can be said of such plants as this and its
close relation, the Lantana, is that, while it has possession of an area, such
land is rested, one cannot say fallowed. There is nothing poisonous about
the plant. At the same time its room is better than its company, and it
ought always to be hand-pulled when it makes its appearance in a fresh
place.

Where found.— T^Q species is common in waste places and pastures in
extra-tropical South America, and has spread as a weed of cultivation over
South Africa, the Mauritius, and some other countries, and is evidently
introduced only into Australia. (B.FL, v. 37).

It is a very old Australian colonist, and now it is found practically over
the settled parts of Australia. It has been proscribed in the following
municipalities and shires: —

' SHIRES.
Cockbum Gloucester Munibulla.

MUNICIPALITIES.

Burwood Dubbo Hamilton Ulmarra.

Concord East Maitland Moss Vale

Blu 3 Weed (Verbena venosa Gill, et Hook.)
(VERBENACE^E: Verbena Family.)

Botanical Name. — Verbena, Latin for the herb Vervain (a Verbena), an
equivalent also for all sacred leaves, such as laurel, olive, myrtle, rosemary,
&c., used to adorn ahars in Roman times. Paxton, however, says it is said
to be derived from its Celtic name " Ferf aen." Venosa (Latin), full of
veins, referring to the under side of the leaves.

Botanical Description. — Genus — Verbena, Tournef : —
Calyx. — Five-toothed.

Corolla. — With five spreading slightly unequal lobes.
Stamens. — Usually four, enclosed in the corolla tube.
Ovulary. — Four-celled.
Fruit. — Dry, separating into four nuts.
Herbs or rarely shrubs with opposite leaves.
Flowers. — Usually in terminal bracteate spikes.

Species. — Venosa, Gill, et Hook. — A perennial herb with a simple erect
quadrangular stem, about 1 to 1$ feet high, the whole plant rough, with
short harsh hairs.

Leaves. — Opposite, oblong-lanceolate, acutely and remotely dentate, sessile,

with a broad subcordate base, strongly veined underneath (the

character from which the specific name "venosa" has been derived).

Flowers. — Blue-purple, in short spikes, terminal, and on rather long

peduncles in the axils of the uppermost bracts and floral-leaves.
Corolla. — Three times longer than the cylindrical calyx, and twice longer
than the bracts; the tube hispid.

THE WEEDS OF NEW SOUTH WALES.

71

A. Part of Inflorescence. B.

Blue Weed (Verbena venysa Gill, ct Hook.).

Whole flower, with bract. c. Corolla opened, showing stamens and pistil.
D. Calyx, with bract. K. Pistil.

THE WEEDS OF NEW SOUTH WALES.

Calyx. — Splitting when the enclosed fruit is ripe. (Description taken
from New South Wales specimens, with the help of Dr. Gillies and
Hooker's original description in Hooker's Botanical Miscellany, Vol.
1, p. 167 (1830).

It is only likely to be confused in New South Wales with Verbena
bonariensis, a taller and much more widely diffused plant.

Vernacular Names. — People in New South Wales most commonly call
it " Blue Weed," a name it shares with other Verbenas, with Ecliium, and
other plants. The colour of the flowers is, however, of a rich purple. " Wild
Verbena " or " Vervain " are also applied to it.

Fodder or other Uses. — I cannot find any use to which this plant is put.
It is harsh, and stock always reject it. It possesses no poisonous properties.
It is a very pretty plant, and hence leniency has been shown to it, but it
should be pulled up wherever it makes its appearance in a fresh place.

Where Found. — It is a native of the Argentine, South America, but it
has now spread to most sub-tropical regions of the world. In New South
Wales, though not the commonest Verbena by any means, it is widely
diffused in the coastal districts, and is spreading westerly. It frequents
grass land, and commonly invades a district through the sides of its roads.
It was doubtless originally brought to this State as a garden plant.

It has been proclaimed in the following shires and municipalities : —

SHIRKS. MUNICIPALITIES.

Cockburn Gloucester Moss Vale, Ulmarra.

Copmanhurst Patrick Plains.

Stagger Weed (Stachys arvensis L.).
(LABIATE: Mint, &c., Family.)

Popular Description. — An annual herb £ to 1£ feet high, with opposite
leaves, oval, or occasionally almost heart-shaped at the base, and with
wrinkled margins. The flowers are grouped in circles round the upper part
of the square stem, one circle immediately above each pair of leaves.

It is a native of Europe and Western Asia.

Botanical Description. —

A weak, spreading, hairy annual. Leaves small, petiolate. ovate-crenate.
Flowers small, pale-purple, in false-whorls of 2 to 6. Calyx with five nearly
equal teeth as long as the tube. Corolla upper-lip erect, concave and entire.

Experience in other States. — It is common in South Australia, Victoria,
and Queensland. Ewart suggests that somebody has confused the word
"Stachys'' and "Staggers" and has thus helped to perpetuate the popular
idea as to its poisonous nature. Bailey deals with it in his book on weeds
and more fully in the Queensland Agricultural Journal for 1899, p. 49.
There is, however, nothing fresh in his note; he records popular experience
over large areas in the Australian States.

Experience in New South Wales. — This is one of the weeds most frequently
sent to me for determination, and almost invariably I am informed that
it has caused staggers or that it is suspected of poisoning. So numerous
are the letters, particularly in the autumn, that this is one of the weeds for
-which a set reply has been formulated to save time in correspondence.

It is to be found all over the State, but chiefly in the coastal districts and
tablelands.

N

STAGGER WEED (Stachys arvensis L.).

1. Bud, showing calyx. 2. Calyx opened to show corolla. 3. Corolla thrown open to show

stamens and pistil. 4. Seed.

THE WEEDS OF NEW SOUTH WALES. 73

I published the following representative notes in the Agricultural Gazette
for 1895, p. 299, concerning it: —

Sent in also as " Shivering Weed," " Wax Weed," and " Dummy Nettle."

" A very prolific seeder. Introduced into district through the agency of birds
and winds. Careful agriculturists experience little or no difficulty in keeping
it in check. Causes animals that feed on it to stagger or shiver; hence its
name. Flourishes alike in rich or poor soils." (Rothbury.)

••Crows throughout the district." (Eglinton, Bathurst.)

" Is considered good food for milking cows, though if eaten by horses and
cattle while engaged at work causes trembling and loss of the use of their
limbs, and sometimes even death. It is not spreading, and no steps have been
taken to eradicate it." (Booral.)

" Introduced five years ago by floods." (Codrington.)

" A most noxious weed, found growing throughout the district, as a rule in
cultivated land." (Bega.)

A supplementary note by G. R. Brown, of Port Macquarie, is " most
frequently seen about the edges of lucerne paddocks; very little in this
district. Said to give horses the shivers if overheated when driven. Cattle
not affected by it. Introduced here in lucerne seed and hay." (Agricultural
Gazette for 1895, p. 677.)

Mr. C. T. Musson (Agricultural Gazette for 1894, p. 848) speaks of it as
" &, valuable bee plant, but I think its room is better than its company."

Mr. Turner figured the plant in the Agricultural Gazette for 1890, p. 307,
and suggests that its injurious properties may be attributed to mechanical
action : "By means of its very fine hairy stems and leaves (it) irritates the
alimentary canal in some part and produces acute inflammation." He
then describes hew this weed is accused of giving animals the staggers, and
that horses are particularly liable to this serious disease.

In the Agricultural Gazette for 1895, p. 32, we have a " Revised Report on
the Disease Shivers, i.e., Tremors in Horses, Cattle, and Sheep," by
E. Stanley, Chief Veterinary Inspector. This was the first Australian
official report on the weed so far as I know. He has preliminary remarks,
and then notes on the symptoms, etiology, and remedies.

He speaks of it as a disease existing amongst horses grazing on certain low-
lying lands, and that it had been known on the Richmond and Hunter
Rivers for fifteen years. He says that it resembles in many of its aspects
Paludism or Malarial Fever in mankind.

He adds, " It is interesting and important to note that this disease is
generally attributed to animals eating #13 hedgQ nettle (Sjackys arvensis},
but I see no foundation for such a belief ;I^ Js Vie/rely*. a* Coincidence that
this weed flourishes at the same season, ,int the^ same, pasture, ^ at the time
that this disease is prevalent. It also flo^lis%es^:an^"4d,^a^hibi" numberless
animals, in thousands of places where the disease has nav'er b'een heard of."

The paper is an important one, and cannot usefully be abstracted. The
original should be consulted by every stock-owner.

Some incidental references to Stachys arvensis are to be found in a paper
in the Agricultural Gazette for 1900, p. 1112, by Mr. (now Prof.) J. D.
Stewart, entitled " Staggers in Sheep. Progress report on investigations
carried on at Narrabri." The weed in the Narrabri experiments is referred
to as Marsh Mallow, but the botanical name is not given, and, in view of
the looseness with which the name Marsh Mallow is applied in Australia,
I do not feel justified in guessing at it. It is, however, one of the Malvaceae.
At all events Stachys arvensis does not appear to be concerned, and the
point seems to be therefore made that you can have staggers without
Stagger- weed (Stachys).

74 THE WEEDS OF NEW SOUTH WALES.

In England it goes under the name of "Corn Woundwort," and it is
figured in Sowerby's "English Botany." Sowerby says:

No uses or peculiar properties are ascribed to this herb, nor has it any beauty
to »boast. It partakes of the disagreeable smell of others of the same genus.
As a weed it gives little trouble, though not infrequent in kitchen gardens on
a light soil, being easily eradicated when the first flowers appear.

Here is a weed that has been known to Britons for centuries, and its
power to induce disease (staggers or any other) does not appear to have
been known. This is negative evidence which supports Mr. Stanley's views.

The plant is probably harmless enough, though its nutritive value is not
likely to be high. I have already quoted a statement that it is good for
milch cows.

The late Rev. Dr. Woolls said the same thing many years ago :

Stachys arvensis is useful in the winter season as food for cows. Many
cartloads of it have been cut down for that purpose in the orange orchards near
Parramatta, but I am informed that, when the plants are old, they impart an
unpleasant flavour to the milk. (Proc. Linn. Soc. Lond. x, 40.)

The late Mr. Sylvester Browne, of Minembah, near Singleton, had a large
dairy, and was one of the most observant men I ever knew in regard to
forage plants. One day, after seeing his beautiful cows, I was walking over
his property and came across a large patch of Stachys arvensis. I said,
" Are you afraid of that, Mr. Browne ?" He said, " Certainly not. Cows are
fond of it and they yield good milk on it.''

The truth seems to be that germs allied to malarial fever are found in
similar localities to those in which Stachys arven-sis grows, and animals,
particularly horses, which are overdriven, or which otherwise have a predis-
position to this disease, catch it as they browse the plant.

How to deal with it. — It is a lover of moisture and is found in low-lying
places — depressions, ditches, creek-sides, borders of swamps and of cultiva-
tion, &c. Endeavour should be made to drain the land in paddocks, to
permit the growth of useful grasses.

Stachys palustris L., an allied and larger plant, has been found once on
the Richmond River, N.S.W., but little is known concerning it.

Buffalo Burr (Solanum rostratum Dunal).
(SOLANACEJE: Potato Family.)

Botanical '}Va'fri,pn. — S olaniim,/^^ Latin name for a herb called " Night-
shade or Banewort,'' 'S'olarv&rri 'bfeing the botanical name for the plants
commonly ^npwfi: ft$[ ^ 'Nightshade * m Britain; rostratum, Latin, beaked,
in allusion }i & 3ie feeaViike- appearance of one of the stamens, as shown in
the drawing.

Vernacular Name.—" Buffalo burr." Called "burr"* from the fruit,
which was " doubtless spread to some extent by. the buffaloes, as it has been
found along the buffalo wallows." " Beaked Horse-nettle " is another name.
The prickly Solanums are often called " Horse nettles " in the United
States, on the lucus a non lucendo principle; the meaning of the adjective
" beaked " has already been given. " Sand burr," because it prefers sandy
land; it is also called "Rocky Mountain Sand burr." Sometimes called
" Spiny Nightshade."

Botanical Description. —

Annual, densely stellate-pubescent with 5 — 8-rayed hairs, usually copiously
armed with yellow subulate prickles ; stem erect, branched, 1 to 2$ feet high ;

*"Bur" is the American spelling.

THE WEEDS OF XEW SOUTH WALES.

Buffalo Burr (Solanum rostratum Dunal.).

A. Imperfectly expanded flower, showing the beaked stamen to which the plant owes its specific name
B and c. Two seeds, greatly enlarged. D. Flower, showing the cluster of prickles under the calyx.

76 THE WEEDS OF NEW SOUTH WALES.

leaves ovate or oval in outline, irregularly pinnately 5 — 7-lobed or 1 — 2-phmati-
fid, 2 — 5 inches long, petioled, the lobes mostly oblong, obtuse; flowers race-
mose, yellow, about 1 inch broad; racemes lateral, pedicels stout. 3 — <> lines
long, erect both in flower and fruit; calyx densely prickly, surrounding and
wholly enclosing the berry, the prickles becoming as long as the fruit, or
longer ; calyx lobes lanceolate, acuminate ; corolla about 1 inch broad, slightly
irregular, its lobes ovate, acute ; stamens and style declined, the lowest stamen
longer with an incurved beak ; fruit, including its prickles, 1 inch in diameter,
or more,

Fodder or other Uses. — I have vainly searched for any use or redeeming
feature that I can ascribe to this bad weed.

How to get rid of it. — The burr or fruit is a spiny ball, full of black
seed. It becomes attached to passing animals, hence its liability to rapidly
spread. " It is often blown about as a tumble-weed in the prairie region of
the United States."

It is an annual and should be pulled up or mown down before it matures
its seeds. If, therefore, people recognised it and pulled it up before seeding,
it could be destroyed in one year. It is stated to be "expected to be an
impurity in West American Alfalfa (lucerne) and clover seed." It is
a matter of common knowledge that rubbish-heaps in the vicinity of town-
ships are allowed to propagate weeds unchecked, it being simply nobody's
business to eradicate them. One of the Farmers' Bulletins of the United
States Department of Agriculture, speaking of this as the way in which the
Buffalo burr has often been spread, says : " Similar instances might be
multiplied; in fact, probably the majority of the cities and towns of this
country are harbouring noxious weeds which should be destroyed in simple
justice to the farming communities which aid most directly in supporting-
the prosperity of these towns." These observations can with justice be
applied to New South Wales also. One Bulletin says it has been trans-
ported in packing materials. In the United States it is looked upon as
likely to occur " wherever western grain is handled," and I am afraid we
may trace its advent here to dirty seed-wheat or dirty chaff. It is recog-
nised as a bad weed in the United States, and a number of experiment
stations have published warnings concerning it.

Where Found. — Native of the United States of America, originally grow-
ing on the western plains, close to the mountains, from Mexico northward.
The Buffalo burr has been working eastward until it is now found in many
States east of the Mississippi River, and has even crossed the ocean,
threatening to become a troublesome weed in Germany.

In 1904 I announced this as a new Australian weed making its appear-
ance at Boggabri in this State. Shortly afterwards it made its appearance
at Yass. Later it appeared in the Hay district, and it has been proclaimed
at the request of the Berrigan Shire.

Thorn Apple or False Castor Oil Plant (Datura Stramonium L.).

(SOLANACE.E : Potato Family.)

Common Names. — In the Jerilderie case to be presently referred to, the
local doctor informed me that the plant was known as "Wild Castor Oi!
Plant." Throughout the greater part of New South Wales its most common
name is " Castor Oil " without any qualification, and I will presently show
how regrettable the use of this name is, causing the greatest confusion.

THE WEEDS OF NEW SOUTH WALES.

77

Thorn Apple or False Castor Oil Plant (Datura Stramonium L.).

A. A flower laid open to show the arrangement of the five stamens and pistil.

B. The fruit, showing the leathery pericarp, dehiscing by four valves.

c. A seed, which is somewhat kidney-shaped, and covered with large shallow pits.

78 THE WEED 8 OF NEW SOUTH WALES.

Confusion of name is especially to be regretted when a poison-plant may be
referred to. In most English speaking communities it goes under the name
of " Thorn Apple," and I would like to see the use of this name encouraged
by people who find Datura too much for them. In the United States it has
other names, which I have not seen used in Australia and which need not be
mentioned here, except " Jimson Weed " (a contraction of " Jamestown
Weed," from the North Carolina town), which is much employed in
American literature.

Botanical Description. —

A rather tall, bushy annual. Leaves ovate, angular, irregular toothed or
lobed. Flowers solitary, shortly pedunculate. Calyx loosely tubular. Corolla
funnel ("trumpet") shaped, above 3 inches long, white. Capsule nearly
.globular, very prickly.

Popular Description. — A somewhat succulent, bright green, heavy-smelling
herb of 2 or 3 feet high, growing in waste places. The leaves are rather
large, irregularly cut or toothed, and paler on the underside. Flowers large,
white, usually described as trumpet-shaped. The fruit (the " prickly pod "
of farmers) is rather large, much rougher than a nutmeg grater, and it sheds
a large number of black, kidney-shaped seeds which have little dots over
them.

Other Species. — Ewart and Tovey ("'Weeds, &e., of Victoria") have a
figure of Datura/ Stramonium; while in the Queensland Agricultural Journal
for July, 1917, p. 31, C. T. White has useful notes on and photographs of
Datura Tatula, the Purple Thorn Apple (a species with purple stems which
is obtaining a rather firm hold in the colder parts of New South Wales),
D. ferox, a Thorn Apple new to Queensland, and D. Metel, the Hairy Thorn
Apple, not uncommon in Queensland, but not an escape in New South
Wales, as far as I .know. There is also a native species of Datura, viz.,
D. Leichhardtii F.v.M., which is confined to Queensland.

Confusion with the True Castor Oil Plant. — A few years ago I started a
discussion in the papers as to whether this plant is poisonous, and to what
•extent. The statements made were most of them very interesting, and I
tried to sift them out into (a) Thorn Apple or False Castor Oil Plant
(Datura Stramonium) and (fc) True Castor Oil Plant (Ricinus communis).

Most of the correspondents referred to the Thorn Apple; a few, including
the following, evidently referred to the True Castor Oil Plant : —

From the contradictory evidence given, would it not be possible to suppose
that its poisonous properties depended somewhat on the district in which it
grew? Although introduced into the Loyalty Islands, its medicinal properties
are well known there. The natives, and also the Europeans, will chew from
half to a whole seed, throwing away the residue. In New South Wales, on the
other hand, I know of an instance where only a small portion of a seed was
eaten, resulting in terrible pains in the abdomen, accompanied by violent vomit-
ing. The plant is of great use for shade purposes in poultry runs, where I have
seen the young leaves eaten off with no ill-effects.

The following two I will not be certain about, although I can make a
guess, as the True Castor Oil Plant is far more sensitive to cold than the
Thorn Apple. They were probably the latter.

I distinctly remember that on one occasion, about two seasons ago, cattle
ate down quite a large and well-grown patch of this plant without suffering any
ill-effects whatever. They left only stalks about, from 1 foot to 18 inches high.
I cannot clearly recollect, but I think the plants could not have reached beyond
the flowering stage.— (" Guabinga," Terra Bella, via Wellington, 21st November.
1907. )

THE WEEDS OF NEW SOUTH WALES. 79«

In a recent Agricultural Gazette you inquired of readers whether cattle ate
the wild castor oil plant. I state positively that they eat it in all its stages of
growth, and after it is dead. As to its effects, I may say that I saw twelve
head of young cattle (out of a travelling mob) die within an hour after eating
dry castor oil, and last autumn, after turning a six months' heifer out of a
yard that it had been in all night without food, I found it dead in a patch of
dry castor oil close by shortly after. It appears to me. to be very fatal to
hungry stock. I have seen my sheep eating both dry and green, also rabbits
eating the small young plants. — (Murga, 6th January, 1908.)

Further classification of the evidence. — (1) Evidence that stock eat the.-
weed (Thorn Apple), but that it does not poison them:—

Mr. E. W. Turner, junior, writes : — In reply to Mr. Maiden's inquiry whether
stock will eat castor oil weed, I have seen sheep eat the dry pods freely. I
could not guarantee there were many, or even any, seeds in the pods, but can
swear to the pod-eating all right. Of 1,000 sheep running amongst castor oil
for a fortnight, only two died, and as most of the mob were eating the pods, 1
could not understand why it should affect some and not others. The paddock
in which the sheep were had plenty of castor oil and a fair amount of grass.
The identity of castor oil cannot easily be mistaken, because, no matter what
name it goes under, it always has the same beastly smell.

Mr. H. V. Jacob, Boggabri, writes : — I have seen this plant growing in large
quantities in this district, and some ten years ago the late Mr. A. T. Brooke,
who at that time owned Milchengorie Station, told me that he would never
allow the plant to be cut up, as it was good feed for sheep. I have seen the sheep-
at times strip every particle of leaf off the bush, and apparently it did them no-
harm, although I must confess the sheep did not touch it till practically every
other particle of food was consumed. In the 1902 drought the plant wras fairly
luxuriant, and the sheep cleaned every leaf off without any harm, while the
plague pf mice, which were at that time very thick, climbed the stalk of the
plant and devoured the seed very rapidly. As the seed is enclosed in a very
prickly pod, the cattle or other stock could not touch it, but the mice were able
to gnaw the pod through, and thus get at the seed. The latter is small and
black, and probably each pod contains a few hundred seeds. The castor-oil
plant prefers the rich river flats, as a rule, although it often grows on the black
soil near the river, but I have never seen it grow anywhere but fairly handy
to the river, and it never seems to spread to any extent.

Mr. van der Merwe, then of the Hawkesbury Agricultural College, wrote to
me tha't in the Orange Free State, South Africa, stock never seemed to touch
it, but they must have gradually acquired a taste for it, for one year after the
plants were nearly fully developed the cattle started eating them, and soon
stripped off all the leaves, leaving only the stems and thorny seed heads, and
even these, which were not quite ripe, were eaten. I distinctly remember a cow
picking off one of these heads and chewing it, wThile I wondered how they
managed to eat the prickly stuff. The following year the young plants were
not given a chance, but were eaten as soon as they grew high enough to be fed
off. It was known that the plant was poisonous ; but we had begun to look upon
it as not poisonous to cattle. It may be that the cattle were gradually immun-
ised against the effects of the poison by small doses, until they could even eat
the seeds with no bad effects, and that this may account for the fact that there
were no fatalities.

Mr. Percy Murray, of Canowindra, writes : — I have seen cattle and sheep
eating these pods greedily all day long, and when I have killed ration sheep the
stomach has been full of seeds. Fowls are also very fond of them ; also quail
I have shot have nothing else in their crops but the castor seed. The cattle
also eat the leaves, but sparingly; rabbits will eat all the bark when they are-
cut down. I am satisfied in my mind that the castor oil here is not the cause of
deaths.

Another letter is from a well-known pastoralist in the Merriwa district, who-
desires that his name shall not be published. He writes: It is a common thing
for cattle to eat the leaves of the castor oAl plant, without any ill effect.

80 THE WEEDS OF NEW SOUTH WALES.

(2) Evidence that stock eat the weed and that it poisons them : —

Mr. P. R. Gordon, the late Chief Inspector of Stock, Queensland, reported
that the stomachs of cattle that had died contained Stramonium plant, and
analysis traced the poison to this plant. He adds: It may be remarked that
in each instance the poisoning was confined to quiet milking cattle, and it will
be found as a rule that mortality from poisonous plants is confined to quiet
milkers, or their progeny. These pet animals will nibble at and eat plants that
ordinary bush cattle will not touch, unless forced to do so from sheer
starvation.

Mr. R. W. Peacock, late manager of Bathurst Experiment Farm, wrote : —
Last year a couple of our sheep died suddenly, and upon post-mortem examina-
tion their paunches were found full of this plant, and the lining membrane in
a very inflamed condition. I haven't the slightest doubt but that death was
•caused by it.

(3) Evidence that stock will not eat the plant. — My own cow (and her
successor) grazed in a paddock containing Thorn Apple plants. I eventually
•eradicated them entirely, but I never saw a cow (nor a horse) touch one of
the plants, although I watched carefully for years. The old Benevolent
Asylum grounds at Sydney (now resumed for the railway station) always
liad Thorn Apple plants growing amongst the grass, and the Asylum cows
treated them with contempt. I watched those plants for years, and never
Tmew them to be touched.

Many stock-owners have told me, during the last twenty years, that they
have never known stock to eat this plant.

For twenty years I have systematically observed it near milking yards
and stables in hundreds of places in country districts. In cases where I
Tiave mentioned to the farmer or dairyman that the plant might be
poisonous, my remark has been invariably received with incredulity, as
indeed the very presence of the weed would indicate.

V. K. Chesnut, an authority on the subject, in his " Thirty Poisonous
Plants of the United States " (Farmers' Bulletin, U.S. Dept. Agric... No. 86,
p. 30), says: " One or two instances are recorded [the italics are mine], in
-which cattle have been poisoned by eating the leaves of young plants which
-were present in grass hay." I look upon Prof. Chesnut's evidence as very
important.

The evidence is more or less contradictory, but not irreconcilable. There
is no doubt that some cattle and sheep eat the plant, and that most cattle
refuse to touch it. The evidence that some cattle and sheep eat it without
injurious effects is perfectly cle&r. The probable explanation is that given
by Mr. van der Merwe, that animals eating it in small quantities to begin
with, gradually become immune to its poisonous effects. A rigid modern
series of experiments on the effects of this plant on stock is a desideratum,
and I hope it can be carried out, for we have already too many " open
verdicts " in regard to the deaths of stock. I think that my suggestion
as to the licking up of seeds from the ground should be followed up, as this
may be a clue to some reputed cases of poisoning.

The question of prolonged use of small doses and consequent immunity
is so important as to require emphasis. I have known wharf labourers tc
•chew such a quantity of tobacco as I think would either kill or seriously
affect the health of an ordinary man.

THE WEEDS OF NEW SOUTH WALES. 81

Drageiidorff writes of Datura Stramonium : — " Leaves and seeds are used
like Atropa (Deadly Nightshade) and Hyoscyamus (Henbane). . . .
The seed contains Hyoscyamin, Atropin, Hyoscin, and Oxyatropin." The
leaves contain the poisonous alkaloid Daturin of some chemists, but in
much smaller proportion than the seeds. Even the Matter possess only
1.10 per cent.

In cases in which stock have eaten the herb, I desire to know whether the
toxic effect which has been recorded is in any way owing to the very danger-
ous seeds (in some cases the empty seed-pods have been eaten), or can be
attributed to foliage alone. It is a disgrace to us, an important -stock-
owning country, that we have not yet settled this point. Personally I have
raised it frequently enough.

A farmer, of Kingsthorpe, Queensland, wrote to me as follows, after he
had read my article on Thorn Apple in the Agricultural Gazette of New
South Whales for January, 1918 : —

An old farmer here had blight in his eyes, and was pulling out the weed by
hand, and then went and bathed his eyes without thoroughly washing his
hands. The lids turned out, and the doctor said this was caused by the poison
in the Thorn Apple. His eyes have been bad now for over fifteen years, so
anyone pulling it out cannot be too careful.

I had some growing in a prairie-grass paddock, and the horses were running
in it, and their legs swelled up very much; they could hardly walk. A
neighbour told me they would die, as he had had one die from the swelling like
mine. I kept them out of the paddock, and in a few days the swelling went
down and they got well.

I have noticed that when cutting it, it has a tendency to bring on headaches.
(This is a common experience. — J.H.M.)

Until recently it was chiefly confined to the scrub soils on the Darling Downs,
hut now it is spreading everywhere.

Our best-known Asthma Remedy. — The leaves of Thorn Apple have been
used in Europe for a century or more, for mixing with tobacco for smoking
in cases of asthma, just as EupJiorbia pilulifera is sometimes employed by
people in Australia, who use it for a similar complaint. There is no doubt
it often gives relief in this distressing complaint, and Stramonium cigars
could be made locally just as they have been in Europe for close on fifty
years. A rough article could be made for domestic use, or the leaves may be
merely smouldered (with or without the aid of saltpetre) and the smoke
inhaled. As regards the sale of these medicinal cigars, the revenue authori-
ties offer no objection to them, provided they are made wholly of
Stramonium, and are not so made up and advertised as to lead the public to
Relieve that they are tobacco.

Poisonous nature of the Seeds — Following are extracts from an illustrated
article I wrote for the Sydney Mail of 5th April, 1890 :—

In the early part of the last month two men were camping near Jerilderie,
when one of them gathered a quantity of a plant which he believed to be marsh-
mallow, made a decoction of it, which was drunk cold by himself and his com-
panion, with the result that they became so seriously ill that they had to be
conveyed to the Jerilderie Hospital. Under the skilful treatment of Dr. A. C.
Hobinson the men fortunately recovered, and to that gentleman I am indebted

82 THE WEEDS OF NEW SOUTH WALES',

for a sample of the plant, together with some notes on the case. The plant
proves to be Datura Stramonium L., the well-known Thorn Apple of Europe,
which, singularly, bears the name of " Wild Castor Oil Plant," in the district
in which this unfortunate occurrence took place.

Although, as far as I know, this is the first recorded instance of poisoning
by Thorn Apple or Stramonium in the Australian colonies, cases are on record'
of poisoning by it in Europe, while in India Thorn Apple poisoning is a common
occurrence, chiefly because it is administered from bad motives. The plant is-
common enough in all the colonies, chiefly near populated places, and its chief
situations are near waste-heaps on which the rubbish of cultivated places has
been thrown. It is also by no means a " new churn," and was probably intro-
duced, with garden seeds in the first instance.

I now quote Dr. Robinson's words in regard to his Jerilderie patients: " One
of the men when brought here was comatose, the other was able to walk, but
was excited and suffering from delusions. I used emetics (zinc sulphate) and_
the stomach pump, after which I administered copious draughts of strong, hot
coffee. In about twelve hours after taking the plant both were able to walk
about, but the mind was deranged in the worst case for forty-eight hours. Both
afterwards described the effects they felt to be a swelling of the tongue, thick
speech, giddiness, and drowsiness. One man said his head and body seemed
to swell as if it would burst through the skin." From wrhat I can learn, the
men were fortunate in escaping with their lives, and one man has particular
cause for gratitude. I make no apology for detailing the symptoms and treat-
ment, especially as the plant is spreading, and poisoning by it may have to be
coped with in the absence of a medical man.

Mr. C. Pierrepont Johnson records that accidents have frequently happened
in Europe in swallowing an infusion of Thorn-apple herb in mistake for other
preparations, as was the case at Jerilderie. Dr. Taylor records an instance in
which a woman took two teacupfuls of the infusion, instead of senna tea. She-
was seized with giddiness, fainted, and became quite insensible in two hours,
but the contents of the stomach being removed by the stomach pump, she
eventually recovered.

The seeds are by far the most poisonous portion of the plant, and have caused1
death in numerous recorded cases. In India there were twenty-one deaths out
of ninety-two cases. Sixteen grains killed a child in twenty-four hours, and,
as the plant seeds freely, it is proper to put people on their guard.

The following amusing account of the effect of Thorn Apple on some British
soldiers in North America early in the seventeenth century is taken from
Beverley's " History of Virginia " : — " This, being an early plant, was gathered
very young for a boiled salad by some of the soldiers sent thither to quell the
rebellion of Bacon, and some of them ate plentifully of it, the effect of which
was a very pleasant comedy, for they turned natural fools upon it for several
days. One would blow a feather into the air, another would dart straws at it
with great fury ; another, stark naked, was seen sitting up in a corner, like a
monkey, grinning and making mouths. A fourth would fondly kiss and paw
his companions, and sneer in their faces with a countenance more antic than
any on a Dutch doll. In this frantic condition they were confined, lest in their
folly they should destroy themselves. A thousand simple tricks they played,
but after eleven days returned to themselves again, not remembering anything
that had passed.

From the following statement it will be seen that we have a far earlier
record of poisoning by the seeds, but there are few records altogether; it is
hardly possible that there are not more occurrences of this kind: —

Dr. Henry Early (Australian Medical Journal, vol. ii. 1857, p. 241) describes
seven cases of poisoning amongst children in the Immigrants' Home, Melbourne.
The symptoms and signs were dilated pupils, a bright scarlet efflorescence,
rapid pulse, much thirst, great excitement, maniacal paroxysms, starting^,
muttering, and occasional screaming, and catching at imaginary objects. Half

THE WEEDS OF NEW SOUTH WALES. 83

a drachm of the seeds, which were fortunately immature, were obtained from
the motions in one case. All recovered. Dr. P. T. Thane, of Yass, New South
Wales, in 1899 (Australian Vertical Gazette, p. o4) records three cases, two
fatal. One was a girl of 5 at Yass. There were flushed face and rapid
breathing, and later dilated pupils, loss of conjunct! val reflex, tonic spasms of
the muscles. ;i temperature of 104-4 degrees, and drowsiness without delirium.
The seeds were vomited, passed in the motions, and found post-mortem in the
stomach. Another case had occurred at Wagga three years before. The tem-
perature rose to 104-6 degrees, and there were coma, clonic spasms, delirium,
dilated pupils, and death in fifteen hours. A previous case at Yass, under Drs.
English and Doolau, had had delirium, dilated pupils, and a dry skin, but no
rise in temperature; recovered. — Dr. J. B.. Cleland, in Agricultural Gazette,
Tasmania, .\xii, 306, 1914.

Where it is Found. — It is now widely diffused in New South Wales, as is
shown by the following information supplied by the Local Government
Department in June, 1919, as to the shires and municipalities in which it
has been declared to be noxious.

SHIRKS.

Cessnock Crookwell Marthaguy

Cobbora Hume Port Stephens

Coreen Illabo Wingadee.

MUNICIPALITIES.

Aberdeen Braid wood Picton Warren

Armidale Coonamble Tenterfield Windsor

Bingara Dubbo Tumut Woollahra

Botany Kiama Uralla Young.

Wiser than we, Victoria has long since proclaimed it for the whole State.

Following are abstracts of some typical reports published by me in the
Agricultural Gazette many years ago : —

Pretty well diffused; usually in good land, in the warmer, moister parts of
the colony, but, like many other weeds, adapting itself more and more to cir-
cumstances. In the valley of the Hunter and other northern rivers it is very
abundant.

As a rule, grows in rich soils, especially cultivated laud, in which it is
spreading. No special attempt has been made to eradicate it. Locally called
"Devil's Stinkweed." (Emu Plains.)

An utterly useless weed, with a most unpleasant smell. Mostly frequents
the rich river flats and the roadsides, where it grows in countless numbers
unchecked. Is kept in check on cultivated land by hoeing annually (Pomona.
Wellington.) Erroneously known here and in many other parts of the colony
as "Castor Oil Plant," but not to be confused with Ricinu* cnnininnim, the real
Castor Oil Plant.

Spreads rapidly in cultivated land and rich soils, while poor grass lands are
almost free from it. No steps have been taken to eradicate it. (Wellington.)

Found growing throughout the district. (Eglinton, Bathurst.)

Mostly frequents cultivated land. Introduced with the packing of fruit-trees
from the nurserymen. (Manilla.)

Is rapidly spreading on cultivated lands, and utterly useless. It is locally
known as "Oil Plant." (Singleton.)

84 THE WEEDS OF NEW SOUTH WALES.

How to deal with it. — It would be a good thing to make a raid on these
plants year after year, wherever they work mischief ; pulling or hoeing them
out when the plant is in flower is best. They should never be allowed to
seed. To carry out this advice effectively will be a matter of the greatest
difficulty, since the weed is enormously developed in New South Wales;
and, further, its commonest habitat is the banks of rivers and creeks — pre-
cisely where cattle have to go to drink.

Castor Oil Plant (Ricinus communis L.).
: Spurge Family.)

Often confused with Thorn Apple, — The Castor Oil of the average Aus-
tralian is the Thorn Apple (Datura Stramonium}, see above. The true-
Castor Oil plant is, however, very much larger, and with smaller fruits, than
the Thorn Apple. An old figure of the true Castor Oil plant will be found
in the Botanical Magazine,, t. 2209.

A form with rich coppery leaves, known as var. Gibsoni, is often seen in
Sydney gardens, for it is very ornamental.

Botanical Description. —

A tall, erect plant. Leaves peltate, palmately lobed, irregularly serrate.
Calyx, 5-partite in the male flowers, 3-partite in the females. Stamens
numerous. Styles 3, bifid. Capsule echinate, 3-celled. Seeds large, mottled.

Where Found. — It grows in many tropical and sub-tropical countries,
preferring light sandy soils. It is well known to us in New South Wales,.
having been proclaimed as a weed by no less than five shires and ten
municipalities, as follows : —

SHIRES.

Eurobodalla Narraburra Rylstone.

Mulwaree Jindalee

MUNICIPALITIES.

Burwood Concord Manly Yass.

Coonanible Corowa Jimee

Cootamundra Cowra Woollahra

Castor Oil Leaves as Fodder. — In the Agricultural Gazette for October,
1911, p. 888, Mr. Mark H. Keynolds, Inspector of Agriculture, writes as
follows: — On the Macquarie flats, in the Dubbo district, this plant was the
predominant vegetation in 1876. After the first frost the plant begins to
die, and it was then that Mr. W. Baird turned 1,100 wethers into about 90
acres. At first the sheep would not touch the Castor Oil plants, but ulti-
mately they fattened on them. The mutton was slightly tainted by the feed,
but the flesh was of good colour.

Three years ago Mr. Baird did likewise, on the same piece of land. The
prickles on the pods of the plant become very soft after they have been
frosted, and the seeds were what the sheep particularly relished; but they
also ate the wilted leaves.

THE WEEDS OF NEW SOUTH WALES.

85

A. Male flower.

Castor Oil Plant (Ricinus communis L).
B. Female flower. c. Capsule. D. Seed. E. Longitudinal section of seed.

86 THE WEEDS OF NEW SOUTH WALES.

Its use as a fodder is new to me.

"The Castor Oil Industry," by Charles M. Daugherty, Year-look, U.S.
Dept. Agric., 1904, p. 287, gives an admirable account of this substance. At
that time the use of castor oil in the United States, being only measured
by hundreds, of thousands of gallons, was small in comparison with that of
cotton-seed oil or linseed oil, which ran into tens of millions. At the same
time, it is a most important oil.

It is used in dyeing and printing cotton goods, and the well-known
Turkey red owes its fastness to castor oil. Its use as a domestic remedy is
proverbial, although the quantity so employed is diminishing since the rising
generation prefer something more palatable, even if it is not so efficacious.
The work quoted gives an account of its minor uses.

Then is given an account of its manufacture, and the residue, known as
" Castor pomace " is a valuable fertiliser for potatoes, wheat, oats, and
maize.

Follows an account of the sources of supply of castor beans and their
distribution. It is pointed out that the one great castor bean-producing
country of the world is British India. The most important paper on castor
beans that I have seen in recent years is entitled, " Breeding New Castor
Beans," with the sub-headings, " Castor oil now becoming of immense com-
mercial importance as motor-lubricant — Careful breeding of varieties having
desired attributes necessary to produce best commercial seed — Many
characters show Mendelian behaviour."

The paper is by Orland E. White, Curator of Plant Breeding, Brooklyn
Botanic Garden, Brooklyn, New York, and is published in the Journal of
Heredity for May-June, 1918, pp. 195-200.

It is stated that the growing of the beans used to be a useful local industry
in the middle-western United States, but that over-production and competi-
tion with cheap Hindu labour soon made it unprofitable. The United
States chiefly imports its castor beans from India. Castor oil has proved
itself valuable as an aeroplane motor lubricant.

The author has some splendid illustrations, especially plates of beans, to
show (a) variation in size, shape, pattern, and colouring, (fr) commercial
types of castor beans, (c) results from crossing diiferent types. There are
also plates of (d) male and female flowers of the castor bean, and (e) loose
and compact fruiting spikes.

The paper is an admirable brief resume of original work done.

In Australia, even more than in the United States, castor bean growers,
when they have got over the difficulty of deciding on the most profitable
sorts, are still faced with the competition of , the cheaply-paid natives of
India.

Will it be a Profitable Crop in New South Wales? — The fact that it is a
weed over such large areas shows that it can be easily cultivated, and it may
be that the best way of getting rid of the pest is to harness it in the service
of man. But in order to do this, the utilisation of the weed-form may have

BUSHY STARTWORT (Aster subulatus Michx.).

1. Flowering branch. 2. Flower, 3. Floret opened to show stigma and anthers. 4. Ligulate floret.
5. Achene showing arrangement of pappus. 6. Achene (seed) much enlarged.

THE WEEDS OF NEW SOUTH WALES. 87

to proceed concurrently with the cultivation of improved forms, such as
Mr. Orland White has already selected and raised. Cultivation is essential,
as a crop can be controlled while the indiscriminate produce of a weed is
-difficult and expensive to collect.

It may, of course, be that the industry will have to be assisted by the
State, in view of Indian competition, but the oil is so essential to industries
in New South Wales that the expediency of such assistance should be con-
sidered.

Dr. 0. Ercole, who interested himself in this plant, published a pam-
phlet entitled "The Cultivation of the Castor Oil Plant," which was
reprinted in the Agricultural Gazette for February, 1906, p. 173, to which
imv readers are referred.

Bushy Starwort (Aster subulatus Michx.).
(COMPOSITE : Daisy Family.)

Popular Description. — A rather wiry branched plant, bearing a pro-
fusion of not showy small white, daisy-like flowers, and small, narrow
leaves. Its usual height is about 2 feet.

Botanical Description. —

An erect herbaceous biennial with a paniculate! y branched inflorescence.
Involucre narrow turbinate ; outer florets ligulate ; achenes shortly pubescent,
pappus bristles simple.

Vernacular Names. — "Bushy Starwort" is one of those manufactured
names that I very much dislike, but it is either that or Aster subulatus,
which is probably no more difficult to remember, and much preferable.
The word " Starwort " is sometimes given to Asters. It is sometimes
known as " Cobblers' Pegs/' but this name is better deserved for Erigeron.

In Britton and Brown's " Illustrated Flora of the United States" it is
Igiven the name of " Annual Salt-Marsh Aster " from its favourite habitat.

Habitat. — It is a native of the eastern United States, in salt-marshes,
ifrom the coast of New Hampshire to Florida.

It is common in New South Wales, having been recorded as Aster

dumosus L. for many years. That is a closely allied species, but as our
New South Wales plant has been determined as A. subulatus by a well-
known American botanist, his determination has been accepted, and those
who wish to look up the references may turn to the Proceedings of the
Linnean Society of New South Wales, xxxiv, 363, for the year 1909.

Properties. — This Aster is an aggressive; coloniser whichv h&s taken
possession of large areas in New South Wales, u&li^y\ui damp}sltuations,
in districts so far apart as the coast and Pr,ewarrina. Except that it is
not ornamental and is of very little fodder val^, ;I h^ve.^rio^ecajiq charge
to make against it, for it does not appear' ~ to pVssW arty' Irfjtirl tills ^pro-
perty whatever. It is simply a cumberer of the ground — one of many
plants that, under ordinary circumstances, possesses no positive virtues,
and no special vices.

88 TEE WEEDS OF NEW SOUTH WALES.

Stinkwort (Inula graveolens Desf.).

(COMPOSITE: Daisy Family.)

Botanical Name. — Inula, a Latin classical name for Elecampane, and,
perhaps, a contraction of the word Helenium, which was applied to the
same species. By mediaeval writers it was written Enula (Bentley and
Trimen). Graveolens, the Latin word for strong-smelling.

Botanical Description. —

This will be found by persons interested in the botany of the plant at page
468 of vol. v of De Caudolle's Prodrontus. It is there described as a hairy-
viscid, very branched, small shrub; the lower leaves being oblong-lanceolate
and sub-dentate, while the upper leaves are linear and entire.

This pest is one the most serious that has ever afflicted Australia, and
is much better known in South Australia and Western Australia. I
appealed to Mr. W. Catton Grasby, who is a native of the former State,
and who has been for a number of years agricultural editor of the
Western Mail in the latter State. He is a well-known agricultural
authority, and he has favoured me with the following valuable and
interesting account of it : —

Introduction of Stinkwort. — I think that the late Dr. Schomburgk was cor-
rect in stating that it was first introduced in the Onkaparinga district of
South Australia, and the date he gives, 1863, is probably the year or so before
the plant was brought under his notice. My father was chairman of the Onka-
paringa District Council, and it must have been about 1865 or 1866 that he
pointed out to us children a patch of green in the summer time on Mr. Spoehr's
farm not far from the Balhannah bridge across the Onkaparinga River. I
could only have been 6 or 7 years old at the time, but I have a mental picture
of that spot, and remember how the pest increased from year to year until it
spread all over the district, and we boys had the yearly task of pulling and
hoeing it up for some time on our farm. There is no possibility of my memory
playing me false in regard to the spread of the pest and the efforts made by
many farmers to keep it in check. The dates must be approximately correct,
because I left Balhannah to go to school in Adelaide when I was 10 years old.
which would be the beginning of 1870, and we had then had a number of years'
experience in trying to keep the pest off the farm.

I do not think that Mr. Spoehr really knew how the weed came on his place.
He was a German, and had obtained seeds from Germany. That is all that is
known about it. When my father first saw it spreading, he took green speci-
mens to Dr. Schomburgk, Director of the Adelaide Botanic Gardens, and I can
remember from boyhood my father giving an account of the interview. The
doctor said, " Vot is de use of dese plants? I cannot identify from them.
You must bring me plants in flower." As soon as the plants were in flower,
father took him further specimens, and in due course the doctor identified the
plant as " Stinkaster," or Inula graveolens. The doctor said that it was;
a common weed in Germany and Central Europe, but riot dangerous, and he
persisted in this attitude for some time, until the pest got a firm hold. By 1879
he had changed his views. The plants, as I first remember them on Mr.
Spoehr&'la^d, would be ffrc»ni 18 inches to fully 2 feet tall, because the land
was ricfrjatuj they 'were; not crowded. My father endeavoured to get the plant
proclaimed 'a noxious weed, but he was unsuccessful. Years later, when the
pest Jbjid r |nietK>me • e^taftlisheft and beyond control, my father, in recalling the
above" ^cls^us'ed ,to sa#V "^i"; instead of bothering about names and regulations,
I had taken you boys and anyone else we could have got to help, and pulled and
burned out every plant, we might have exterminated it."

Spread of the Pest. — The above shows that it is something over 50 years
since the plant was introduced, and I have watched it spread from Spoehr's

TEE WEEDS OF NEW SOUTH WALES.

89

Stinkwort (Inula graveolens Desf.).

A. Lower leaf, oblong-lanceolate and sub-dentate. B. Upper leaf, entire and nearly linear.

c. Portion of flowering twig. D. Flower-head, passing into fruit. E. Receptacle, showing
concave depressions and radiating bracts. F. Seed with pappus

:90 THE WEEDS OF NEW SOUTH WALES.

farm in every direction, until now it is common in every portion of the agri-
cultural area of South Australia, a large portion of Victoria, and a consider-
able part of Western Australia. Around Balhannah efforts were made by
many farmers to keep it off their farms, but gradually all but two gave in.
These persistent men were Mr. Thomas Edwards, of Oakbank, and Mr. John
-Comae, of Bonney's Flat. Each of these men was determined not to let his
laud become infested. Mr. Edwards succeeded until he died, but the property
is now as badly infested as any other. Last time 1 saw Mr. Comae's little
property (of, I think, 80 acres or so) it was still free from Stinkwort, although
it adjoined the farm on which the pest originally appeared. When last I was
there Stinkwort still grew freely on the spot where I first saw it. This is
mentioned as an answer to those people who say that it is not necessary to
bother about Stinkwort, because in time it dies out It certainly becomes
weaker, but the dying out is a myth. As the pest began to spread there was
a great deal of talk about suppression, eradication, control, and so forth, .lust
as there is in New South Wales and Western Australia at the present time.
My opinion is that when once it gets a hold, any attempt at eradication is
nearly as useless as trying to block back the tide.

Value as a Fodder. — As long as I can remember, discussions have taken
place in regard to the utility of Stinkwort. The first man that I can remember
having given it a fodder value was one who was too lazy to attempt to try and
keep it in check ; he used that argument as a reply to my father, who was
urging him, in the interests of the district, to pull or hoe up the Stiukwort on
~his property. All who have claimed a food value for it have not been actuated
by the same motive, but some have. I think that the following seems to state
the case as to its fodder value : —

(1) No kind of stock will eat Stinkwort freely, and it cannot be classed
as a fodder.

(2) When it is young and growing amongst other feed, cattle, horses, and
sheep eat it to a certain extent, and if it is not too plentiful and there are
sufficient stock on the paddock they will keep it eaten down ; in some cases, as
was mentioned by a well-known Meckering farmer in the Western Mail of
15th March, 1018, under the pen-name of " Granite," they may keep it right

'down for a season. Stinkwort will affect the flavour of milk and butter, and,
if eaten freely, the mutton of sheep.

(3) The majority of people do not appear to exercise ordinary observation
when claiming that their stock freely eat Stinkwort. I have heard men make
this claim on their farms, and have pointed out to them that the Stinkwort
plants only showed evidence of being nibbled, which was proof positive that the
stock did not eat it freely. I took a good deal of notice of it when I was
Head Master at Roseworthy Agricultural College, from 1894-96, and it was a
frequent subject for discussion with farmers.

Value as a Subsoiler. — I look upon Stinkwort as being up till now a useless
plant so far as profit to the farmer is concerned. It is objectionable, but I do
not think that it is directly noxious, and the only harm it will do to stock is
when, owing to a shortage of feed, they eat the well-developed plants and are
injured by the accumulation of woody fibre, as mentioned by Mr. F. E. Place.
I think, however, that it has some value, especially in heavy lands with strong
clay subsoil, because it sends down a deep tap-root, and for this reason it may
be considered as one of Nature's subsoilers. In decaying, the roots let in the
air, and, of course, furnish a certain amount of humus. Undoubtedly these
thick crops of Stinkwort On lands with clay subsoils do a considerable amount
towards opening and aerating the soil.

Control. — My opinion is that every farmer should endeavour to keep the
plant in check as long as he can do it at reasonable expense. This is best done
by pulling and hoeing up the odd plants when they are green. They must not
be allowed to stand until the buds are ready to open, because if they are pulled
at that time the flowers will open and seeds will be produced sufficiently mature
to germinate. When, owing to the neglect of neighbours, Stinkwort becomes
too plentiful on a farm to permit of being pulled or hoed, it is best to let it
go. It is not a serious trouble to wheat or hay crops ; it is fairly easily dealt
Avith on fallows ; it is not actually noxious ; and, as it grows in summer when

THE WEEDS OF NEW SOUTH WALES.

nothing else does, it is more an objectionable than a strictly injurious weed.
It does not grow nearly so freely and vigorously in ordinary years in Western
Australia as it does in South Australia, where summer rains are much more
common. In our agricultural areas only an average of about 10 per cent, of
the rain falls in the five summer months. During the last three summers we
have had a bigger proportion of summer rain, and the iniluence on Stinkwort
has been very marked. It therefore seems probable that in portions of New:
South Wales Stinkwort will be found more troublesome than it is in South
Australia. The secret of treatment against Stinkwort is for every farmer in a
district to keep it down when it first appears. As the seeds blow so freely, if
one man neglects it he may seed the whole of his neighbourhood.

In the 1894 report, page 60, of thu firm of Merck, of Darmstadt, we find
"Extractum Inulce graveolentis spir. spiss." In other words, dried
alcoholic extract of Stinkwort. It is prepared from the leaves, freed from
essential oil. The report goes on to say : "It was known to the ancient
Greeks, and has long been used for colic dysuria, and amenorrhoea. In
Australia it has been used as an anti-asthmatic. The plant, or rather the
extract obtained from it, has lately become more interesting, as M. Men-
delsohn (Deutsch. med. Wochenschr., 1891, No. 30) produced with it
paralysis of respiration and the locomotor apparatus in animals of various^
species. Closer investigations proved that in symptoms of paralysis two*
different substances are concerned, of which one convulses the front
extremities, whilst the other produces paralysis of the hind extremities,.
which latter eventually predominates in the general effect. These results-
of investigations might lead to practical application of the remedy."

But do not let these investigations incline the farmer to look upon>
Stinkwort with a more tender eye., for even if a very large demand (which.
is exceedingly unlikely) were to spring up for this drug, it could be-
readily satisfied from its native home on the shores of the Mediterranean.

In the Garden and Field for July, 1894, it was pointed out that in
Europe the dried plant is used for smoking bacon and hams. One gentle-
man in South Australia tried the experiment, and reported it to be a.
success.

Elecampane (Inula Helenium) is a very close and well-known relation-
of the Stinkwort.

A decoction of the root of the Elecampane was said by Dr. Withering
many years ago to have cured sheep affected by scab. Elecampane was at
one time largely used in medicine, but now its use is chiefly restricted
to veterinary medicine.

How to get rid of it. — In discussing methods of eradication of Stink-
wort (Garden and Field, April, 1894), it was agreed that vigorous.
measures should be used by everyone who had an interest in keeping the
land clear, as those who had no experience of Stinkwort did not realise-
the immense loss which would accrue through allowing it to get beyond
control. One gentleman intended to plough it under before it flowered.
Another speaker thought such a course would be very dangerous, as
ploughing would not destroy it — indeed, stirring the land, he was afraid,
would only increase its vigour. He was hoeing it, and found it effectual,.
although it might require several years' hoeing to thoroughly eradicate it.
He believed that hoeing before the plant flowered, as well as pulling up,
which was better still, though more troublesome, was the only effective
means of dealing with the pest.

92 THE WEEDS OF NEW SOUTH WALES.

This advice is clear and specific enough. Where it has once seeded it
will not be got rid of in a year, and its eradication means more hard
work for the farmer, who has quite enough work to do already. (See
Agricultural Gazette, 1895, page 308.)

Where Found. — Countries round the Mediterranean Sea, from which it
has spread to many warm countries.

Stinkwort in New South Wales. — As will be seen from the accompanying
list, the pest has already got a footing in New South Wales, as could have
been confidently predicted. I do hope that our farmers will be able to cope
with it, as it has been one of the most costly weed-pests to the South
Australian farmer.

In April, 1889, I reported as follows to the Agricultural Society of New
South Wales in regard to Stinkwort, specimens of which had been sent over
from the Royal Agricultural Society of South Australia : — "To none of my
correspondents nor myself is the plant known as having been introduced
into New South Wales, though that is only a matter of time, probably short.
Specimens of an Inula were sent to Sydney last year from southern New
South Wales, suspected of doing injury to stock. Except by analogy,
nothing is known of its properties here, but I do not for a moment believe
that it is poisonous, although such a rank-growing weed, so full of fibre,
would be highly indigestible, and the bitter would probably be very palatable
to stock, especially to horses. The hyaline sticky resin is probably an
interesting substance, common to many composites, but I do not think
European chemists have worked at it, while Australian ones certainly have
not. Species of Erigeron (cobblers' pegs) are almost as great a curse in
parts of New South Wales as this species of Inula appears to be in South
Australia, and no practicable plan appears to be known for the eradication
of either."

In the Herald of 28th March, 1890, is the following telegram from Albury.
It refers to Stinkwort: — "A noxious weed new to this district has been
found in the paddocks near Burrumbuttock. It is said to be identical with
the weed common in South Australia. It begins to grow in the summer
months, has a straight stem, and grows (according to the nature of the soil)
from 3 inches or 4 inches to 3 feet and 4 feet high. It is of a nice green
colour, has small yellow flowers, and a very strong and nasty smell. It
spoils all grazing land, especially for dairy cattle. The milk becomes green,
with a very offensive smell, and the butter, after about two days, will give
an unbearable smell."

Mr. G. S. Mackay, Secretary of the Albury Pastures and Stock Board,
writes to the Department under date of 15th March, 1894 : " Stinkwort has
only lately made its appearance." In the Agricultural Gazette of May, 1895,
page 308, Mr. Odewahn, of Walla Walla, near Albury, reports it (the word
Inula is spelt Mula through a typographical error).

It has made up for lost time since then. Up to June, 1919, the Stinkwort
had been proclaimed by thirty-four shires and twelve municipalities,
making forty-six in all, and to-day it is well advanced in the list of New
South Wales weed-pests. Following is the list, furnished by the Local
Government Department, of shires and municipalities that have pro-
claimed the weed • —

SHTRES.

Adjungbilly Boree Coreen Demondrille

Berrigan Conargo Crookwell Goobang

Bogan Coolamon Culcairn Goodrabigbee

(Soliva sessilis Ruiz, and Pav.).

1. Flower-head. 2. Inner, male florets. 3. Male floret open to show anthers.
•J. Capitulum in fruit, sessile in a fork. 5. Achene (seed).

THE WEEDS OF NEW SOUTH WALES. 93

SHIRES —continued.

Gunning Lachlan Narraburra VVeddin

Holbrook Lockhart Timbrebongie Windouran

lllabo Muhvaree Tumbarumba VVmgadee

Jemalong Murrungai Urana Yanko.

Jindalee Murray Wakool

Kyeamba Namoi Waugoola

MUNICIPALITIES.

Albury Corowa Murrumburrah Wallendbeeh

IBalranald Junee Parkes Wyalong

Cootamundra Moama Wagga Wagga Yass.

Soliva sessilis (Ruiz and Pavon).
(COMPOSITE: But it would not be proper to call it Daisy Family.)

Popular Description. — A small, insignificant plant with finely divided
small leaves and inconspicuous greenish flowers, and bearing a profusion of
burrs armed with numerous spines.

Botanical Description. —

Villous, or the leaves glabrous, twice divided, primary divisions 3-5, petiolate,
parted into 3-5 narrow lanceolate lobes; flower heads depressed; achenes
broadly obovate, thin-winged, the wings entire or sometimes panduriform-
excised near the base, spindulose-pointed at summit, in some wings reduced
to an acute margin ; persistent style long and stout. (Gray's " Synoptical Flora
•of North America," p. 365.)

A Close Relation. — "Gymnostyles anthemifolia is stated by M. de Jussieu
to be a native ;of New South Wales, but as I have observed it only in cul-
tivated ground in the neighbourhood of Sydney, and as it has certainly
been found in South America, of which four other species of the genus are
undoubtedly natives, it has probably been imported into New South Wales,
perhaps from Brazil." (Robert Brown, in the " Proceedings of the Linnean
Society of London," vol. xii, p. 102, published in the year 1818.)

This is Soliva anthemifolia, which, although described in the Flora Aus-
traliensis iii, 552, is clearly indicated as an introduction, in these words: —

" A small genus, apparently limited to the warmer regions of America,
except where introduced with cultivation.'7

Nevertheless, Mueller placed it in his " Census of Australian Plants." It
is a larger plant, and less prickly than 8. sessilis, and is found more or less
over the State, extending to the North Coast and the Western Plains.

First Record in New South Wales. — The Australian history of the present
species (S. sessilis) so far as I know it, is as follows: —

It was first sent to the Botanic Gardens in October, 1899, from the Cricket
Ground in Moore Park, Sydney, by the late Mr. Sheridan, managing trustee.
It is quite easy to imagine how it came to Sydney. A sailor from, say,
Chili, where it is very common, would get the burrs hi his shore trousers
and fold them up when he returned to his ship. Arrived at Sydney he
would sit down and witness a cricket match, leaving one or more of the
seed-containing burrs on the cricket ground. A small and insignificant
plant, it was not noticed until it got a good hold, and I remember how it
grieved Mr. Sheridan, for he had received many complaints from patrons
who, said that they could no longer sit on the grass with comfort; they had
to stand up.

The following year it was reported from Parramatta. In 1903, Mr. Jesse
Gregson sent it from Newcastle. Since then it has spread abundantly in
the coast districts, particularly in sandy grass land.

t 64225— D

94 THE WEEDS OF NEW SOUTH WALES.

A Mr. Burgess wrote from East Maitland : " It grows very plentifully in
the local show ground. The fruits are very sharp and hard, and it is almost
impossible to sit' on the grass. The fruits also enter the bicycle tyres, and
in the course of a day or two work their way through and cause a puncture.
The local name is ' Jo Jo.' "

The Mayor of Lambton wrote : " Lambton Park is at present overrun with
it. It has completely grown all over the 20 acres, and is a menace to cattle."'

It seems to have a preference for well-kept grounds for cricket and other
games.

It is impossible to say when it first came to Australia. New South Wales
has had direct traffic with South America for very many years, and it is very
likely that it came in the tails of horses to Sydney or Eden, or some other
part of the South Coast more than half a century ago. It is inconspicuous
and therefore could easily be passed over — unless you sat on it.

While a native of Chili, it has spread extensively in other parts of South
America, and also to California. It is now widely distributed in sub-
tropical countries.

How to get rid of it. — When it is present in quantity it is too costly to
attempt to deal with it, except in the case of valuable lawns. In such
cases I would get rid of it partly by means of a small, sharp steel trowel,
and partly by encouraging the growth of the couch grass by top-dressing,
and also by the use of such a stimulant as sulphate of ammonia, which will
cause a heavy and smothering growth of grass. There seems no trouble with
buffalo grass, the weed, as a rule, losing itself under the coarse mat of this
grass.

Bathurst Burr (Xanthium spinosum L.).

(COMPOSITE: A Family which includes Daisies and plants widely differing

in aspect.)

This pest owes its name to its having been first prominently brought to-
notice at Bathurst, in this State. At the present time no product, no
institution of the " City of the Plains," is so identified with it as this
wretched weed. The association clings to Bathurst as tenaciously as the
burr to a fleece; but it is undeserved, as the weed is far more abundant in
some other parts of the State.

It originally came in the tails of horses from Valparaiso, Chili, South
America, in the forties. I think it came to Twofold Bay first. Not many
years afterwards it arrived at Bathurst, via Molong. At Bathurst it was
first noticed on the site of the Old Black Bull Inn, corner of Bentinck and
Howick streets.

Its hooked fruits readily attach themselves to the hides and fleeces of
animals, and the clothing of man. The presence of these burrs greatly
depreciates the value of wool; what with the actual deterioration of wool,.
and the cost of the labour in eradicating the plant, it must have cost the
State enormous sums already, and is at the present time a steady drain on
the resources of the State.

For some notes on the spread of this burr on advertisement cards, see
p. 12 of this work

THE WEEDS OF NEW SOUTH WALES.

95

Bathurst Burr (Xanthium spinosum L.).

A. Fruiting head (Burr), covered with prickles (enlarged).

B and c. Leaf, showing also the strong. trifid spines (both natural size).

96 THE WEEDS OF NEW SOUTH WALES.

Botanical Name. — Xantliium f Greek Xantlios, yellow, some plants belong-
ing to the genus having been used in ancient times by the Greeks to dye
their hair. Spinosum, Latin, in allusion to the strong spines possessed by
our plant.

Popular Description. — A rigid, much-branched, annual shrub, of 1 to 3
feet high, very spinous. The fruit is nearly egg-shaped, and covered with
hooked prickles.

Well known as the plant is, many people are still ignorant of it; the
object of this article is to forewarn such, and to stimulate to action those
who know the pest, and who are passive in regard to it.

Botanical Description. —

This will be found at page 535 of the third volume of the Flora Australian siit.
The Bathurst burr belongs to the same family as the Daisy, viz., the Compositce.
It is what is called a monoecious plant — that is to say, the male and female
flowers are distinct, though on the same plant. The female flowers are, of
course, succeeded by the fruit, and these fruits form the burrs to which the
noxiousness of the plant is mainly due. The hooked prickles on the fruits
seem to be wonderfully contrived to attach themselves to wool, £c. The trih'd,
or three-pronged spines, are very strong, and increase the formidable nature of
the plant.

Is the Bathurst Burr Poisonous? — In the year 1880, Dr. Joseph Bancroft
read a paper before the Queensland Philosophical Society, entitled " The
newly-introduced poisonous burr, Xantliium strumarium." This plant was
reputed to have caused the death of a number of cows, and Dr. Bancroft,
having experimented on small animals with an extract of the plant, pro-
nounced it to be poisonous. He adds, " To follow out further the inquiry
into the properties of the genus Xantliium, I prepared extract from X.
spiriosum, the so-called Bathurst burr. This plant is not eaten by cattle,
and in its young state possesses none of the soft, tempting foliage of X.
strumarium, so that we never hear of cattle being poisoned by eating it.
Extract of the Bathurst burr gave similar results, differing in no way from
the poison of Xantliium strumarium." I refer my readers to the paper itself,,
but such advances have taken place in the methods of inquiry into poison-
plants during the last few years that I do not think Dr. Bancroft himself
would now consider his experiments conclusive. At the same time, I invite
my readers to state any evidence they can bring forward which may seem
to point to the poisonous nature of the Bathurst burr. Speaking of X.
strumarium, which in America is known as Cocklebur or Clotbur, Mr. Goff,
Bulletin No. 39 of the Agricultural Experiment Station of the University
of Wisconsin, says : " It has been said that the plant is poisonous to cattle,
but this is probably a mistake. It is at least known that cattle sometimes
eat sparingly of it without serious results." (See an article by me on X.
strumarium, " Noogoora Burr," in the Agricultural Gazette for October,.
1899.)

How to get rid of it. — It is too much to expect to entirely get rid of this-
all-prevailing pest, but, with patience, it can be largely kept in check. It
should be prevented from maturing seed, and, therefore, it should be cut
down with a hoe or mattock in the spring or summer; where convenient it
is also desirable to burn the plants as soon as they are dry enough to admit
of this being done, as large quantities of seeds are produced, the destruction
of which should be ensured. Serious as has been the spread of this weed
already, it is still spreading, and to permit this to go on unchecked is simply

THE WEEDS OF NEW SOUTH WALES. 97

unpardonable. I am quite aware that farmers and pastoralists have not, as
a rule, the funds with which to employ sufficient labour for its extirpation,
but, even under present conditions, much more can be done to combat this
terrible pest. I would still remind those in charge of roads of the amount
of good they can do to the country by insisting on keeping the roadsides
free from the worst weeds. In this connection the roads are the arteries
of the country; along them course things good and bad, and bad weeds
allowed to establish themselves on the roads will as assuredly contaminate
the surrounding country, as impure blood will induce disorders throughout
the animal system. Let us have some enthusiasm in this matter of weed-
repression.

Its introduction to South Africa is attributed to the merino sheep brought
from Europe. Writing in 1873, Dr. Shaw (Journ. Linnean Soc. xiv, 202)
says : " The weed extended itself throughout the sheep-walks of the Colony
to such a degree, and so endangered the character of the wool through its
achenes, that special legislative enactments have been made in regard to its
extirpation ; and rigid enforcement of penalties alone has kept it from being
a sweeping curse to the wool-producers. In the Orange River Republic, where
only until last year this weed was allowed to revel undisturbed, it had so
affected the wool of some parts of the country as to make it 'nearly unre-
munerative as a staple product. Tardy legislation on the obnoxious intro-
duction had to be adopted there also." In a note in the Victorian Naturalist,
vol. 71 (1888), Consul Layard, of Noumea, stated it was introduced to the
Cape in a cargo of wool wrecked off Cape Agulhas and spread out to dry
on the^ shores of Simon's Town. He adds that he " believes and hopes that
he destroyed the first and last plant of Bathurst burr that sprang up in
New Zealand, about 1863." Unfortunately, as we find from Cheeseman's
" Flora," it is by no means scarce in the North Island of New Zealand,
while I feel sure it was an introduction before 1863.

Magnitude of the Pest in New South Wales. — The B'athurst burr (leaving
out Prickly-pear, which is in a class by itself) is far and away the most
widely diffused and most feared weed pest in New South Wales. Up to
June, 1919, it had been proclaimed a noxious weed in ninety-seven muni-
cipalities and 103 shires, making 200 local authorities in all. The next
pest is the blackberry, which is proscribed by 101 municipalities and shires
altogether.

It always seems to have been our premier pest. Mr. L. Shepherd, of the
Darling Nursery, Sydney, wrote in December, 1856, to the Sydney Magazine
of 'Science and Art, i, 109: and Mr. F. Creswick, in June, 1858, had a
paprr in the same magazine, ii, 23, urging its importance and suggesting
its destruction.

The following is the list, as furnished by the Local Government Depart-
ment, of shires and municipalities in which the Bathurst burr is pro-
claimed:—

SHIRES.

Abercrombie Bibbenluke Canobolas Copmanlmrst

Adjungbilly Bogan Carrathool Coreen

Amaroo Bolwarra Cessnock Crookwell

Ashford Boolooroo Cobbora Culcairn

Bannockburn Boomi Cockburn • Dalgety

Barraba Bulli Coolah Demondrille

Bellingen Burrangong Coolamon Dorrigo

Berrigan Byron Coonabarabran Dumaresq

98

THE WEEDS OF NEW SOUTH WALES.

SHIRKS — continued.

Eurobodalla

Liverpool Plains

Narraburra

Tumbarumba

Gadara

Lockhart

Nuiidle

Tweed

Gilgandra

Lyndhurst

Nymboida

Urana

Gloucester

Macintyre

Oiara

Wakool

Goodradigbee

Macleay

Patrick Plains

Walgett

Gostwyck

Macquarie

Peel

Wallarobba

Gundurimba

Mandowa

Port Stephens

Waradgery

Gunning

Manning

Severn

Warrah

Gwydir

Marthaguy

Stroud

Waugoola

Harwood

Mitchell

Sutherland

Weddin

Holbrook

Monaro

Talbragar

Windouran

Illabo

Mulwaree

Tamarang

Wingadee

Imlay

Mumbulla

Tarro

Wollondilly

Jemalong

Murray

Tenterfield

Woodburn >•

Jindalee

Murrumbi idgee

Terania

Yallaroi

Kyogle
Lachlan

Murrungal
Nambucca

Timbrebongie
Tintenbar

Yanko
Yarrowlumla.

Lake Macquarie

Namoi

Tomki

MUNICIPALITIES.

Aberdeen

Casino

Gunnedah

Molong

St. Peters

Adamstown

Concord

Hamilton

Mosman

Stockton

Albury

Coon amble

Hay

Moss Vale

Temora

Alexandria

Cootamundra

Homebush

Mullumbimby

Tumut

Annandale

Coraki

Hunter's Hill

Murrumburrah

Ulladulla

Armidale

Oorowa

Illawarra North

Murrurundi

Ulmarra

Ashfield

Cowra

Inverell

Murwillumbah

Uralla

Ballina

Cudgegong

Junee

Narromine

Wagga Wagga

Balmain

Drummoyne

Kempsey

New Lambton

Walcha

Balranald

Dubbo

Kiama

Newcastle

Warren

Bathurst

Dundas

Lambton

Nyngan

Willoughby

Bega

Forbes

vLismore

Orange

Windsor

Bingara

Glebe

Maclean

Peak Hill

Wollongong

Botany

Glen Innes

Maitland East

Penrith

Woollahra

Braidwood

Goulburn

Maitland West

Picton

Wyalong

Burrowa

Grafton

Manilla

Queanbeyan

Yass

Burwood

Grafton South

Manly

Quirindi

Young.

Camden

Granville

Mascot

Richmond

Campbelltown

Gulgong

Merewether

Rookdale

Carcoar

Gundagai

Moama

Singleton

It is legislated against by the Commonwealth and all the States.
Where Found. — It is believed to be a native of Chili, South America, but
it has spread to most warm countries of the world.

Noogoora Burr (Xanthium slrumarium L.).

If a ship brings small-pox to our shores, the most stringent quarantine
regulations are put in force, and the disease is forthwith stamped out;
if a suspicious case arises inland, a medical man of much experience is
despatched to the district, and the matter is inquired into on the spot at
once; but I am sorry to say that as regards weed, fungus, and insect pests,
which war against the tiller of the soil or the pastoralist, we have no such
ready method of treatment. In the first place, we usually hear of the spread
of an unknown weed from some chance correspondent, and then, when it
gets so bad that something must be done, the time for arresting its spread
has passed. I was talking to Mr. F. M. Bailey, the Government Botanist of
Queensland, a few days ago (this was written in 1896) about the pest which
forms the subject of this article. He said, " I well remember when £50 would
have stamped it out in my colony; now it would take untold wealth to
do it."

THE WEEDS OF NEW SOUTH WALES.

99

Noogoora or Cockle Burr (Xanthium strumarium L. ).
A. Fruit (burr). B. Transverse section of fruit. c. Convex and flat (furrowed) sides of seed.

100 THE WEEDS OF NEW SOUTH WALES.

In 1899 I estimated that in New South Wales £1,000, judiciously spent,
would entirely free us from the pest. Without any desire to be sensational,
I stated that, if allowed to spread unchecked, it would in a few years
deteriorate our territory to the value of a million of money. To-day — 1920 —
this is probably not very wide of the mark. The weed has spread enor-
mously, and has already been proclaimed by twenty-seven municipalities
and fifty-five shires.

Vernacular Names. — It is called " Noogoora " burr in parts of Queens-
land, owing to its prevalence in that locality; the name is, however, scarcely
suitable in New South Wales. In. the United States it goes by the name
of Clot burr or Cockle burr.

Botanical Name. — Xanthium (already explained) ; strumarium, from the
Latin struma, a swelling, in allusion to the shape of the fruit.

Reports from New South Wales in regard to it. — It has been recorded
from New South Wales for at least twenty-three years. Following are two
reports concerning it: —

Mr. A. H. Hammond, of Rose Yale, Byron Bay, wrote under date 21st
April, 1896 : — " I am forwarding a specimen of noxious weed which we
would like to know the name of. It has been brought here only recently, but
bids fair (as you will see by the seed) to spread far and wide in a very short
time. This specimen is the top of a plant 6 feet high, and the limbs at the
base are about 5 feet across. It grows very much like the castor-oil plant
when young. It is. at present growing on the side of a road, and if a noxious
weed, I think the maintenance man on that portion of the road should be
instructed to keep it brushed down."

On the 15th April, 1896, Mr. Forester Pope wrote from Burringbar,
Tweed River : — " I forward specimen of a burr which has recently made
its appearance in this district, and which, I fear, is likely to become a severe
pest if not checked in time. It is my belief that it was originally brought
here by men who brought horses from Queensland to work on the railway.
Mr. W. M. Charles, of ' Warrana,' Tweed River, says it is the ' Narcoora '
(Noogoora) burr, and that he has seen whole paddocks destroyed by it. He
also says that the seeds will germinate after lying two years in the ground.
The plant grows to a height of 5 feet from the ground, with spreading
branches, covering a space 5 or 6 feet in diameter. The burrs when ripe
are light and easily catch in horses' manes and tails, from which they are
only removed with great difficulty. It is confined chiefly at present to the
Tweed district. I have seen very little of it on the Richmond, but I am
quite sure from what I have seen of it myself that, unless it is checked, the
consequences will be most serious. I have not noticed that anything will
eat the leaves. It dies in the winter, but comes up again stronger than
ever in the spring."

Mr. G. H. Gordon, Chairman of the Warialda Sheep and Pastures Board,
writing to Mr. Bruce about the spreading of the burr in that district, said :
" During the week ending Sunday, 9th July, 1898, I visited with Mr. Kirk-
patrick, I.S., the country about Boggabilla, thence to Goondiwindi, at his
request and in compliance with your wish to him, and now advise that the
Noogoora burr has for this season advanced to a stage when it would be
useless in expending' money in cutting it. All that can be done, pro tern.,
is to thresh it out about the Goondiwindi Bridge and Boggabilla Common
Crossing of the river, at a cost not to exceed from £10 to £15. By so doing

THE WEEDS OF NEW SOUTH WALES. 101

a certain amount would not be carried away by stock and distributed
through the country; but unless the same thing is done by the Queensland
Government, on the other side of the river, the expenditure would be of
very little use. The balance of money available now should be utilised
when the burr is fit to cut next season, and this amount it will be necessary
to largely supplement if the pest is to be coped with. I regret to say that
both sheep and cattle have already largely distributed it all over this north-
western portion of the colony, and I feel sure that unless legislation to cut
both the Bathurst and Noogoora burr is at once brought about, the loss
.-nstjiined by the colony will be enormous. It is apparent that all commons
and stock routes are the growers and distributors of the pests. The
Xoogoora-burr comes down from Queensland waters, and unless the Queens-
land Government at once takes the matter in hand with New South Wales,
it will be useless New South Wales expecting to do any permanent good by
cutting, unless by a large annual expenditure."

Mr. Stock Inspector Kirkpatrick added, in reference to Mr. Gordon's
communication : " I agree with Mr. Gordon's recommendations, but would
suggest that a few pounds — say, £5 or £10 — be spent on either cutting or
threshing at the plants near to where travelling stock are likely to come
in contact with them, and so prevent the seed from being distributed along
the stock routes." This, of course, will be done. In Queensland, the pest
has, unfortunately, become well established, and the Department is indebted
to the Honorable the Minister for Agriculture in Queensland for the fol-
lowing report upon it : — " The Colonial Botanist, Mr. F. M. Bailey, the
author of the article, has received no reports that it can be generally met
with in the north, but it has overrun many parts of South Queensland,
especially on the coast side of the Main Range, the main cause of dis-
tribution, in his opinion, being attributable rather to the dissemination
of the burrs by means of stock, to which they stick, than by flood waters,
though, of course, the latter have done their part. No systematic attack
has yet been made upon this pest, the cost of which would be very great:
but, under the powers of the Divisional Boards Act of 1887, clause 177,
some Boards have attacked the pest within their boundaries. In such divi-
sions where there are unoccupied Crown lands and reserves for the condition
of which the Crown is liable, the course usually followed is for the Divi-
sional Board to notify this Department that this or that area requires
clearing of noxious weeds, and to submit tenders for the cost, with the
recommendation of the Board as to which should be accepted. Upon
approval of the work and tender, supervision of the contract is carried out
by the Board, who, upon completion of the work, certify thereto, and pay-
ment is made to the Board by this Department. With regard to reserves,
those vested under trustees for certain purposes are, in connection with
noxious weeds, treated in the same manner as in the case of private persons,
and are cleared at their expense; and such reserves as camping, water, road
metal, crossing, gravel, pasturage, quarry, and road reserves that are under
the control of the local authorities, are paid for by them, and not by this
Department."

Referring to the statement above in regard to the delayed germination
of the seeds of this plant, this is a fact well ascertained, and one which adds
to the danger of the plant. Those who are interested in the question are
invited to consult an interesting paper by Prof. J. C. Arthur, of Purdue

102 . THE WEEDS OF NEW SOUTH WALES.

University, United States of America, on " Delayed germination of Cockle-
burr and other paired seeds." (Proceedings 16th Annual Meeting for
Society for Promotion of Agricultural Science, Springfield, August, 1895).

The Cockle-burr in Queensland. — This weed has been established in
Queensland for a number of years, and there is no doubt that it is working
its way south from that State. In this way we obtained Paddy's Lucerne,
which, year by year, moves onward into our territory. It is commonly
known in South Queensland as " Noogoora-burr," covering (in 1879) 110
less than 500 acres on the Noogoora Estate, near Brisbane, alone. It is a
well-recognised pest in the northern State.

Ex-Senator Walker writes : — " I may inform you that this burr came to
Noogoora much earlier than 1890. -The Noogoora property at one time
belonged to a Mr. Bauer, a cotton planter, and the burr is supposed to have *
come from either Mauritius or Natal with some imports. It grows pro-
lifically on the banks of the Brisbane River, and I think I can say pretty
•confidently it came as far back as 1871. I had occasion to visit "Noogoora
in 1871. The burr was not then the nuisance it afterwards became, but
it got its name from having broken out at Noogoora. Doubtless you can
make further inquiries from Queensland, if you wish to ascertain the exact
date at which it became troublesome. Cattle are rather fond of it when the
shrub is young; when older it is dangerous. I am not sure it was not intro-
duced with the cotton seed." (It is supposed to have been so introduced
in that way during the early sixties.)

7s Cockle burr poisonous? — I alluded to this matter in my article on the
Bathurst burr, in the Agricultural Gazette for July, 1896, page 445, and
expressed doubt as to its poisonous nature. Months before my article could
have reached him, Professor J. C. Arthur, of Purdue University, U.S.A.,
wrote to me : ,"I am preparing an account of what we know as Cockle-burrs
(Xanthium canaden^e, strumarium, and spinosum) for the farmers of this
State. I learn that in Australia these plants, when young, are reputed to be
poisonous. They do not have such a reputation in this country, and I wish
to obtain all information regarding the matter I can." I sent Prof. Arthur
a copy of Dr. Joseph Bancroft's paper and of my own. He replied : " I am
unable to entirely account for Dr. Bancroft's results, but I am convinced
that whatever may be true of decoctions of the plant, Xanthium is not
poisonous in any form in which domestic animals will eat it in the field. I
have recently been able to trace the supposed poisonous effects of Xanthium
in one district in this State to an outbreak of anthrax."

A. Zander (Pharm. J. Russl., 1881, quoted by Sohn) has examined the
seeds of the Cockle-burr, and finds in them a poisonous glucoside, to which
he gives the name of Xanthostrumarin. It is most probable that this poi-
sonous principle is present in minute quantity, and I agree with Prof.
Arthur that the form in which cattle eat the plant is innocuous. Xantho-
strumarin develops a succinic odour on warming, and is soluble in alcohol
and ether. For its behaviour with reagents, I must refer my readers to
Sohn's Dictionary of the Active Principles of Plants.

The late Dr. J. Lauterer, in Proc. Roy. Soc., Q., xviii, 60, says: "Pigs
die after eating the young plants."

Dr. J. B. Cleland, in 3rd Rep. N.S.W. Bureau, Micro'biol., collects the data
as follows, and it is obvious that here we have another plant which is worthy
of the attention of a Stock Institute.

THE WEEDS OF NEW SOUTH WALES. 103

Bailey (Queensland Agricultural Journal, vol. iii, 1898, p. 356), thus
refers to this plant: —

. . . . Year after year I have received specimens of it for identification,,
with the report that it was suspected of poisoning stock. Only the other day. I
was instructed to visit Nerang, where stock had died, as was supposed, frorm
browsing upon poison plants. At the spot where the stock had died there was
a dense growth of Noogoora Burr, and it was said that there was a similar
young growth of this plant when the deaths occurred (September). At the time
of my visit (5th October) young stock were feeding upon plants of this species,
but these were, for the most part, very weedy and not at all succulent, on
account of there being such a dense growth of them. I consider that this plant
would only be really dangerous when making a rank, succulent growth. Mr.
W. C. Quinnell, Government Veterinary Inspector, who accompanied me to
Nerang, furnished a report for the Chief Inspector of Stock, and by kind per-
mission I am enabled to attach hereto an extract from same.

Experiments made by the late Dr. Joseph Bancroft, soon after the plant
made its appearance in the colony, proved conclusively its poisonous nature.
Its effect on cattle was to paralyse the heart, induce torpor, and cause death
without pain or struggle. He also advised most exact measures being taken to
avoid adding this poisonous weed to the flora of Australia.

Various medicinal properties have been ascribed to this plant by writers, but
none of sufficient importance to in any way compensate for its noxious char-
acter as a weed.

The only way to keep this plant in check is to destroy the young plants as
they spring, so as to prevent the production of seed.

Extract from report of W. C. Quinnell, M.E.C.V.S., London, to the Chief
Inspector of Stock, re poisoning of stock at Nerang: —

. . . . Arriving at Nerang, Mr. Bailey and I were met by Mr. Clare, the
acting Clerk of Petty Sessions, who took us to the locality where the animals
had been pastured, and where we soon discovered the weed which had caused
the injurious effect, for on examination of the pasturage it was seen that the
Noogoora Burr was generally abundant, and it had been eaten down over
certain areas ....

I regret not having had the opportunity of seeing an animal attacked with
the reported malady or making a post-mortem examination, as deaths in the
township had ceased two or three weeks previously. However, we received
from the owners and those that interviewed us a very clear description of the
symptoms and post-mortem — the latter made by Mr. Clare — and I have no hesi-
tation in stating that the mortality was due to the cattle feeding too freely
upon the succulent spring Noogoora Burr, producing the disorder known as
Tympanites, or Hoven, viz., a distension of the rumen or paunch with gas
derived from fermentation of the ingesta, and ultimately death by asphyxia,
induced by pressure of the stomach on the lungs by the medium of the dia-
phragm, or from absorption of noxious gases into the blood.

Symptoms. — Tympanites (variously known as "Hoven," "Blown," or "Fog-
sickness") is easily recognised by the swelling on the left side, which may
make its appearance while the animal is feeding, or shortly after. The symp-
toms are rapid, as a rule, in their appearance ; rumination is suspended there
is dribbling of saliva from the mouth, and the nostrils are dilated. As the
accumulation of gas increases the greater is the distress of the animal, owing
to the increasing obstruction to the entrance of a^r into the lungs ; and this is
characterised by means of grunts, bloodshot and staring eyes, staggering gait,
and, insensibility at length supervening, the animal falls prostrate to the
ground.

Prevention and Treatment. — Animals should be immediately removed from
affected areas, and the localities thoroughly cleared of the noxious plant.

In Early Stages of the Disorder. — Diffusable stimulants administered
promptly are efficacious in dispelling accumulated gases, viz., a full dose of
ammonia, ether, alcohol, or chloroform, in solution. Exercise and friction to
the abdomen hasten the expulsion of gas. The introduction of a hollow probang
allows escape of gas when the amount of food in the stomach is limited.

104

THE WEEDS OF NEW SOUTH WALES.

In Extreme Cases. — When disteiition and distress are present, puncture
abdominal wall (the most prominent part of the swelling is generally a suffi-
cient guide for the operator) with trocar and cannula ; or, when these are not
ut hand, a butcher's, carving, or other large knife would serve the purpose.

After abatement of acute symptoms, administer a strong purgative to remove
any irritant, and feed for several days on soft, digestible food.

It would seem that in most of the instances recorded by Mr. Bailey, death
was due to tympanites. In other cases, however, hydrocyanic acid may
play a part.

Some Alleged Medicinal uses for Coclcle burr. — The plant was formerly
used in medicine in Europe, and its burrs and the prickles on them are
still employed in India and China; its seeds yield a lamp-oil, and are made
into a flour. An extract is prepared from the roots, and in China applied
to ulcers (Smith, in Balfour's Cyclop, of India.}

In some parts of Germany, where it is called " Spitzklette," it has a
popular reputation as a remedy for ague, and in Russia it is considered
to be a prophylactic in hydrophobia.

The control of this weed is the same as that of its close relative, Bathurst
Burr (see page 96).

Where Found. — Southern Europe and Central Asia, whence it has spread
to many sub-tropical countries.

In Queensland it is believed to have been introduced with cotton-seed
imported for a plantation. Mr. T. W. Kirk, in one of the New Zealand
" Leaflets for Farmers," traces its introduction into that Dominion through
earth ballast, deposited by a ship from Buenos Ayres.

It has been proscribed in the following shires and municipalities : —

S HIKES.

Ashford

Bannockburn

Barraba

Bellingen

Bolwarra

Boolooroo

Boomi

Byron

Cessnock

Cockburn

Oopmanhurst

Crook well

Culcairn

Dorrigo

Dumaresq

Gundurimbu

Gwydir

Harwood

Hume

Illabo

Jemalong

Jindalee

Kyeamba

Kyogle

Lachlan

Liverpool Plains

Macintyre

Macleay

Mandowa

Manning

Mulwaree

Muswellbrook

Namoi

Nambucca

Narraburra

Nundle

Nj'niboida

Orara

Patrick Plains

Peel

Port Stephens

Rylstone

Tamarang

Tarro

Tenterfield

Terania

Tintenbar

Tomki

Tweed

Upper Hunter

Walgett-

Warrah

Wingadee

Woodburn

Yallaroi.

MUNICIPALITIES.

Aberdeen

Ballina

Bingara

Botany

Burrowa

Casino

Cootamundra

Coraki
Corowa
Dungog
Gunnedah
Grafton
Grafton South
Inverell

Junee
Kempsey
Lismore
Maclean
Maitland East
M ait land West
Moree

Mullumbimby
Murwillumbah
Singleton
Stockton
Ulmarra
Wagga Wagga.

GROUNDSEL (Senecio vulgaris L.).

1. Stamens. 2. Tubular floret opene out, showing adnate stamens and bifid stigma. 3. Stigma.
4. Achene with the pappus hairs sessile on the top 5. Involucre after the shedding of the seeds

THE WEEDS OF NEW SOUTH WALES. 105

Groundsel (Senecio vulgaris L.).
(COMPOSITE: Daisy Family.)

Popular Description. — A very common annual on cultivated and waste
ground. From 6 to 12 inches high ; its stems are furrowed and bearing half-
clasping pinnatifid leaves. Its flower-heads are composed of a number of
small yellow flowers which ripen quickly and are distributed by the wind.
Each plant keeps on flowering during several months of the year, and it is
usual in spring and summer to find heads in all stages of development upon
the same plant.

Botanical Description. —

An erect, nearly glabrous annual. Leaves iregularly pinnatifid and toothed.
Flower-heads in close terminal corymbs or clusters. Involucre cylindrical.
Florets all tubular and bisexual.

Vernacular Names. — The name Groundsel is in almost universal use in
Britain, and has doubtless been employed for many more than a thousand
years. It is of Anglo-Saxon origin, and the syllable " sel " is from a root
signifying " to swallow," since the plant was considered valuable when
taken internally for " a running of the eye."

" In several parts of England it is called Simson, apparently a corruption
of the Latin Senecio., perhaps through the medium of the French Senesson."
— (Sowerby.)

Where Found. — It is a native of Europe and Russian Asia.

" Everyone knows the common Groundsel, a weed found in all kinds of
cultivated ground in Britain, as well as on banks by roadsides and similar
places." — (Sowerby.) This also expresses the situations in which it is
found in New South Wales. Although abundant near houses, it is not an
aggressive weed, and can certainly not be looked upon as a serious pest by
the agriculturist.

Native Senecios. — We have many native Senecios, there being no less than
eighteen species in New South Wales, without including varieties, but it is
generally reported that stock will not touch them.

On one which in the Armidale district had become so plentiful as to
exclude almost every other plant, I reported as follows a few years ago : —

" I have never heard of a native Senecio (which belongs to the Daisy
family) being reported as injurious to animals. An allied plant, Senecio
Jacobwa, though a weed, is eaten by sheep in England without injury,
although in New Zealand it is reputed as inducing cirrhosis of the liver in stock.

" In the present case what has probably happened is this : The ordinary
herbaceous vegetation (including grasses) edible by stock may be mainly
composed of annuals depending on the annual production of seeds, and
consequently not able to withstand cropping by animals beyond a certain
point.

" There are certain plants, of which the present one is an example, which
provide themselves with a defence against herbivorous animals in the shape
of bitter or acrid or other deleterious properties, or strong smelling oils, or
resinous exudations, or a covering of hairs or spines. These, being not inter-
fered with by animals, go on to the seeding stage and take the place of the
fodder plants which are either eaten out or have not been permitted to
propagate their kind. The ripening of this weed-seed may of course take
place some distance away, but makes the presence of seedlings from this
weed-seed obvious to a lessee, when he sees them actually spring up on his
property, where they have taken the place of the forage plants which have
been eaten out.

106 THE WEEDS OF NEW SOUTH WALES.

" From what I have said you will observe that no remedial measure of
the ' press-the-button ' order is applicable in this case."

Economic Aspects of Senecio. — Sowerby wrote of Groundsel over a cen-
tury ago : — " It is annual, and flowers almost all the year round. The
flower-buds and young tops are the food of many small birds, and are given
to canary-birds and others in a state of confinement." This is no unim-
portant use, for the welfare of small cage-birds affords great pleasure to-
many people.

We are also interested in two introduced species — one a yellow flowering
ivy-leaved creeper (Senecio scandens), which has made itself very much at
home in many parts of coastal New South Wales, not far from the sea, and
which is often called " Cape Ivy " ; it comes from the Cape of Good Hope,
but it is not a true ivy, of course.

The other is the Ragwort (S. Jacobcea], which is common in Victoria, but so-
far as I know, it has not been officially recorded as having made its appearance
in New South Wales, although I am perfectly certain it is in this State.

In the Cape of Good Hope species of Senecio are /recorded as having
induced cirrhosis of the liver in stock, and in New Zealand 8. Jacobcea is
blamed for the similar and fatal complaint amongst horses known as
" Winton disease."

It will thus be seen that at least one species of Senecio has fallen under
suspicion, and, bearing in mind the fact that the properties of one species
of a genus are often shared more or less by other species, it is very possible
that our Groundsel contains some principle worthy of investigation.

In the Agricultural Gazette (October, 1898), I published the following
paragraph : —

An extract is prepared from the plant and roots of the European Senecio
vulguris (Common Groundsel), which is used medicinally in some ailments
peculiar to women. See Dalch§ and Heim (Nouv. remedes, 1896, pp. 409 and
697), Therap. Monatshefte, 1897, p. 275; also Merck's Ann. Report, 1897, p. 05.

Our native species of Senecio are numerous and widely diffused; here is a
suggested line of research for some of our medical practitioners.

Now, I do not wish to suggest that there is anything deadly lurking in
the humble Groundsel, but I desire to emphasise the point that the examina-
tion of plants by chemical methods is even yet in its infancy, and I fully
believe the plants all around us are coyly smiling at us, and that many of
them contain active principles of great interest and perhaps of economic
value; but the said principles can only be wooed and won by the chemist,
As regards our plants, we are walking over nuggets, which, until we use our
pick, will remain where they are.

I know no branch of science that is more likely to secure interesting, and
perhaps economically valuable, and possibly, sensational results, than that
of the chemist. For some lines of research it would be desirable that he
should have pharmaceutical training, and he should be in close co-operation
with the physiologist.

Black or Spear Thistle (Carduus lanceolatus L ).

(COMPOSITE : Daisy Family.)

Other Vernacular Names. — Its usual name in England is Spear Thistle,
In the United States it is called " Boar Thistle/' or " Purple Thistle." In
Canada it goes under the name of the " Bull Thistle." In New South Wales
it is often known as " Green Thistle," and, by reason of its comparatively
dark colour, " Black Thistle."

THE WEEDS OF NEW SOUTH WALES.

107

e Black or Spear Thistle (Carduus lanceolatus L.).

A. Under side of a leaf, showing venation (three-fifths natural size). B. Pappus, natural size),

c. Individual bristle of the pappus (magnified). D. Fruit (magnified).

108 THE WEEDS OF NEW SOUTH WALES.

Botanical Name. — Carduus (Latin), a thistle, lanceolatus , lance-shape 1,
in allusion to the leaves.

Synonyms. — Cirsium or Cnicus lanceolatus L. (old names).

Popular Description. — It would be waste of time to fully describe this
plant on the present occasion, but attention may be drawn to the fact that
it is usually in this country supposed to be the true Scotch Thistle. The- !
latter, however, differs in being whitish-cottony in appearance, and in other
respects. Spear thistle seeds (fruits) are greyish, striped, smooth, andi
shining. It is a biennial.

Botanical Description. —

A rather stout thistle, attaining 3 or 4 feet. Leaves waved, pinnatifid, and:
very prickly, rough on the upper side, white and cottony underneath, decurrent
into prickly wings along the stem. Flower-heads not numerous, rather large.
Involucres ovoid, above an inch long, the bracts lanceolate, ending in a stiff
prickle. Florets purple, all tubular. Receptacle with bristles between the
florets. Achenes glabrous. Pappus of plumose bristles.

Uses. — " The plant contains the large percentage of 2-44 of nitrogen and
5-53 of potash, and will thus pay largely for the little trouble it takes to
kill it, if properly composted after cutting." C. F. Millspaugh, Bulletin
23, West Virginia Agric. Exp. Station, U.S.A.

A tea of the root has been used in rural medicine for rheumatism and
also for neuralgia in the United States, but I am afraid its medicinal
virtues largely exist in the imagination.

Dr. Withering, an old British botanist, says of this thistle, " Few plants
are more disregarded than this, and yet its use is very considerable. If a
heap of clay be thrown up, nothing would grow upon it for several years,
did not the seeds of this plant, wafted by the wind, fix and vegetate thereon.
Under the shelter of this, other vegetables appear, and the whole soon be-
comes fertile. The flowers, like those of the artichoke, have the property of
curdling milk."

It is, of course, occasionally eaten by stock in Australia when more
tempting food fails.

VJliat our Farmers and Pastoralists said of it in 1895 : —

Frequents both cultivated and uncultivated land, on which it is rapidly
spreading. In order to keep it in check it is sometimes cut while in flower, but
before seeding. ( Sassafras. )

First made its appearance in 1861. Is spreading rapidly in cultivated lands.
On account of the lightness of the seeds, which are carried for miles by the
winds it is almost impossible to eradicate. Locally known as Scotch Thistle.
(Crookwell.)

As a rule frequents cultivated land. No steps have been taken for checking
or eradicating it. (Queanbeyan.)

Notwithstanding that considerable sums of money have been expended in
endeavouring to eradicate this weed, it still has possession of large areas of the
best alluvial land. (Queanbeyan.)

Introduced into district in hay or chaff, and spread by winds. Mostly fre-
quents old camping grounds and alluvial flats along the creeks. Wherever it
is allowed to grow unmolested for a lengthened period the native pasture grasses
are crowded out. Is relished by stock, even when there is no great scarcity of
grass. (Moama.)

Brought into the district a number of years ago by travelling stock. Is very
plentiful, and is spreading -rapidly. (Deniliquin.)

Will be found growing on almost all old cultivated land ; is a rapid grower,
and- is spreading extensively. (Young.)

Utterly useless. Grows, as a rule, on cultivated and rich lands. (Singleton.)

THE WEEDS OF NEW SOUTH WALES. 109

Grows throughout the district, and is spreading rapidly. (Glen Innes.)

First appeared about sixteen years ago, when it was introduced by travelling
stock. As a rule, it grows along the road sides, and in cultivated and ring-
barked land, wherever growing excluding valuable grasses. Little or no
attempt is made to eradicate it. (Manilla.)

Is spreading in both cultivated and uncultivated lands. It is kept in check
on cultivated land by cutting down. It is injurious to sheeps' wool. (Cowra.)

Injurious to stock. Introduced into the district eight years ago by travelling
stock, and is now spreading in both cultivated and uncultivated lauds.
(Molong.)

This weed appears to have been introduced to the Bathurst district by the
millers about seven or eight years back in New Zealand wheat. In that colony
this thistle is highly esteemed on the stations, where sheep and horses thrive on
the buds and flowers during the hot dry weather, when grass has become scarce.
(Eglinton, Bathurst. )

Flourishes and spreads in any soil or under any condition. It is kept in
check by chopping down and burning. (Narrabri.)

Found growing throughout the district. It is utterly useless. (Singleton.)

Occupies some of the best lands, particularly alluvial flats. Kangaroo rats
feed on the roots. It is gradually dying out. (Booral.)

Thrives in almost every class of soil. It is sometimes cut down or brushed.
(Tintenbar.)

Though growing in the district, it is not at present very troublesome.
(Wardell.)

Spreads rapidly. Mostly frequents public roads. No attempt has been made
to eradicate it. (Byron Bay.)

Grows vigorously at first, but is soon either crowded out by grasses or dies..
It is never found growing in cultivated land. (Murwillumbah.)

As a rule, frequents cultivated land, in which it is very troublesome. Many
of the farmers cut it down, while others make no attempt to keep it in check,
thereby seeding the adjoining clean lands. (Mudgee.)

Grows throughout the district. (Oberen.)

Very common in the district. (Blayney.)

First appeared in 1884, when seed was introduced by sheep. It is now
spreading all over the district. In cultivated lands the farmers do their utmost
to keep it under control, but in uncultivated land no steps have been taken for
its eradication. (Orange.)

Appears around root stumps immediately after ringbarking, also at the sides
of fences in cultivated land. In cultivated land it is annually destroyed by
hoeing, though in uncultivated land it is untouched, and is spreading. (Pomona,
Wellington.)

Not edible by stock, and it sticks in theVool of sheep. Introduced from the-
Upper Macquarie River by the waters of the river. Spreads rapidly in culti-
vated land and rich soils, while poor grass lands are almost free from it.
(Wellington.)

Made its appearance about eight years ago. Has an extremely long thorn.
Grows wherever the soil has been disturbed. (Neville.)

One of the most troublesome and useless weeds in the district. (Dubbo.)
Appears immediately after ringbarking. The local municipal council has
passed a bylaw compelling the eradication by fire of all noxious weeds in the
district. (Dubbo.)

Frequents mostly cultivated and forest land, and, owing to the opening up
of country by ringbarking, is rapidly spreading. In cultivated land only it is
kept in check. ( Narromine. )

How to Get Rid of It. — It may be removed by cutting the first year plants
below the crown of the root with a spud. Second year old plants can be
mown down in flowering time. Never let them seed. In this way, by care-
ful treatment, a paddock may be cleared of it, but, as a rule, the ground
in the vicinity of thistles contains a plentiful sprinkling of seed, unless the
very greatest care has been taken to kill the thistles before the seed has had
time to mature. At an Agricultural Conference, the late Hon. G. H. Cox,
M.L.C., gave an amusing account (to the hearers) of his experience with

110

THE WEEDS OF NEW SOUTH WALES.

this thistle. He first discovered a plant or two on his property, and had
them cut down. Next year there were four thistles, which were carefully
eradicated. The following year there were a great many; these were cut
down, and the year after their number was so great that repressive measures
were discontinued. In a few years they died down naturally, and have
since given no trouble. This is not an age of miracles, and the thistles
spread, either because the men carelessly allowed them to seed, or because
seed blew in from infected paddocks. This thistle may be eradicated from
any paddock in one or two seasons by hard work directed by intelligence,
but the circumstance remains that clean land may be readily infected by
seeds blown over from dirty land in the neighbourhood. I have dealt with
this aspect of the question elsewhere, and need not repeat myself here. The
key to such problems is that this weed only dies out on a large scale pro-
vided the rains do not reach it at a critical time, e.g., for germinating the
seed, for stimulating it into flower or seed. Although land owners are
sometimes lenient to this weed, because it dies out of itself after a term,
and its leaves have some manurial value, there is no doubt that its disad-
vantages far outweigh its advantages, and the careful farmer will look
upon it as a mortal enemy, while the pastoralist will regard it as a nuisance,
only to be tolerated because its eradication involves too great a monetary
tax upon him.

Where Found. — Europe, North Africa, and Siberia, but introduced into
most (perhaps all) temperate countries in the world.

As showing what a pest it is considered, it has been proclaimed a noxious
weed by eight shires and forty-six municipalities, as follows : —

SHIRES.

Harwood Nymboida

Macleay Orara

MUNICIPALITIES.
Manilla

Bolwarra
Bulli

Port Stephens
Tarro.

Aberdeen

Adamstown

Alexandria

Annandale

Armidale

Ashfield

Balmain

Bathurst

Bega

Burwood

Botany

Carcoar

Concord

Dubbo

Glebe

Glen limes

Grafton

Graf ton South

Goulburn

Hamilton

Hunter's Hill

Kiama

Lambton

Maclean

Manly

Maitland East

Maitland West

Mascot

Merewether

Molong

Mosman

Moss Vale

New Lambton

Orange

Quirindi

Richmond

Stockton

Temora

Ulladulla

Ulmarra

Uralla

Walcha

Willoughby

Windsor

Yass.

True Star Thistle (Centaurea calcitrapa L.).
• (COMPOSITE: Daisy or Thistle Family.)

Vernacular Names.— This is the Star Thistle, or the True Star Thistle, so
called in England. It has been sent to the Department from Grenfell and
Gunnedah as the " Pink Chinese Thistle " (to distinguish it from the yellow
one, Kentrophyllum or Carthamus), but the Chinese would be justified in
repudiating the association as an insult.

Botanical Name — Centaurea — With an allied plant, the Centaur Chiron
is said to have cured the wound in his foot, caused by the arrow of Hercules.
Calcitrapa. — The name is in allusion to the resemblance of the calyx to the
Calthrops, or iron ball, covered with spikes, formerly used for throwing
under horses' feet to lame them on a field of battle.

THE WEEDS OF NEW SOUTH WALES.

Ill

E
TrueTStar Thistle (Cer.tauteacalcilrapaL.).

A. One of the individual flowers of which the " head " is composed.

B. A " he«od " or thistle, in fruit, showing the formidable involucral bracts — hence the comparison to calthrop*
c and D Two extreme forms of involucral bracts K. Seeds.

112 THE WEEDS OF NEW SOUTH WALES.

This thistle seems to be execrated by everybody. In regard to most plants
which are reputed to be a nuisance, apologists find at least one redeeming
feature in them, but I have never heard a good word put in for the Star
Thistle. It is a vegetable outlaw, and every man's hand is against it, or
would be, if it were not so prickly.

The indictment against the Star Thistle is that it is a terrible pest. It is
;not edible (fresh or as ensilage), it covers the ground with a prickly growth,
which impedes the locomotion of sheep, cattle, and man; it smothers all
.other herbage and grass.

I have spoken of the Thistle Acts of Victoria and South Australia in my
.account of the "Saffron or False Star Thistle " (K entrophyllum or Car-
.thamus), Agricultural Gazette, 1894, page 298. Apropos the South Aus-
tralian Act of 1887, the " Star Thistle " aimed at was K entrophyllum., as
this was supposed to be the genuine article, but, curiously enough, the real
.Star Thistle (Centaur ea calcitrapa) made its presence felt about the time
-of the passing of the Act, and so, as it was not specifically stated which
.Star Thistle was alluded to, it may be taken to refer to both.

Popular Description. — A weak-stemmed, crawling, scrambling plant with
small pink or purple thistle-like flowers. It forms masses 2 or 3 feet high
.and more than that in diameter. It is not so rigid as the K entrophyllum
described in the Agricultural Gazette for 1894, but the prickly leaves and
flowers are sufficiently formidable to cause it to be handled very carefully.
Its spreading habit protects the main stem, so that it is not easy to get at
the root for the purpose of destroying the plant.

Botanical Description. —

Wex have several weeds and garden flowers belonging to the genus Centaurea
in New South Wales, and therefore it will be useful to many to have a descrip-
tion of the genus.

Genus Centaurea. — Involucre globular or ovoid, the bracts imbricate,
numerous, ending either in a prickle or in a fringed or toothed appendage.
Receptacle bearing numerous bristles between the florets. Florets all
tubular and five-lobed, the outer row often larger and neuter. Anthers
tailed. Style branches linear, often cohering, thickened at the base.
Achenes glabrous usually obliquely or laterally attached at the base. Pappus
.short, of simple bristles or scales, sometimes very short, or rarely wholly
wanting. Erect or prostrate herbs, usually rigid. Leaves alternate, entire
or pinnatifid, rarely prickly. Flower-heads large and solitary, or smaller
and paniculate. Florets purple-blue or yellow.

Species calcitrapa. — A coarse green annual, rarely slightly woolly. Leaves
pinnatifid, not decurrent. Flower-heads sessile amongst the upper leaves
•or in the forks ovoid. Receptacle with bristles. Involucral bracts ending
in long, stiff, spreading spines with smaller prickles at their base. Florets
purple, all tubular. Pappus, none.

How to get rid of it. — Being an annual, the Star Thistle should be
destroyed when just coming into flower. It can be ploughed in if the pest
is abundant. It bears an enormous quantity of seeds, which are wafted
about by the wind, so that it is of little use to clear a paddock of the weed if
there is plenty of it on your neighbour's land. Road maintenance men
should be instructed to carefully destroy this and other weed pests found
growing by the road-sides. Road-sides are notoriously such propagating
places for noxious weeds (which are brought along by travelling animals, in

THE WEEDS OF NEW SOUTH WALES.

113

the first place), that it is to be hoped that officers in charge of roads will,
as a national duty, see to the extermination of the most injurious weeds.
The eradication of the worst weeds would, in most instances, hardly increase
the work of a man to a perceptible degree, and, with vigilance, the work to
be done would rapidly diminish.

Where found. — The Star Thistle is a native of the countries in Europe,
Asia, and Africa surrounding the Mediterranean, and also Great Britain
and other countries of middle and northern Europe. Its range is pretty
well that of Kentrophyllam (or Carthamus). Now, however, it is to be
found in probably every country in the world except the coldest.

The following paragraph, taken from my original article in the Agricul-
tural Gazette for 1894, may be instructively compared by all landowners
with the lists of municipal and shire councils (supplied by the Local Govern-
ment Department) of the New South Wales areas in which it has been
proclaimed up to 1919. If it continues to spread at the present rate, in a
few years it will be proclaimed for the whole State : —

There are a number of plants in the vicinity of the cattle and sheep sale-
.yyrds at Homebush. At first I knew of only one, which I used to visit regularly
for specimens, but since then I have found several in Homebush and Fleming-
ton. It was probably brought to these localities by sheep, the seeds being stuck
iu their wool. Only a month ago Mr. Ross, of Bathurst, writes that he has
noticed it there for the first time. It has been sent recently to the Department
from Wagga Wagga, Grenfell, and Gunnedah. I have seen it in other parts of
the colony, and have received it from additional localities. Generally, I have
noticed it in small patches at very wide intervals. It is a most insidious foe,
.and landowners are recommended to make themselves acquainted with it, and
to keep their land clear of it.

The list of. shires and municipalities in which this pest has been pro-
•claimed is already formidable, as may be seen from the following, furnished
by the Local Government Department, 1919 : —

Abercrombie

Barraba

-tferrigan

Bibbenluke

Bland

(Janobolas

Cai rathool

Cobbora

Cockburn

Coolamon

Coreen

Crook well

•Culcairn

SHIRES.

Dalgety

Macquarie

Dumaresq

Mandowa

Gadara

Mulwaree

Gilgandra

Mumbulla

Goodradigbee

Murrumbidgee

Gundurimba

Murrungal

Gunning

Narraburra

Hume

Patrick Plains

Jindalee

Peel

Lachlan

Rylstone

Liverpool Plains

Talbragar

Lockhart

Tamarang

Lyndhurst

Tenterfield

Terania

Timbrebongie

Tumbarumba

Tweed

Wakool

Wallarobba

Waradgery

Waugoola

Wingadee

Wollondilly

Yarrowlumla.

MUNICIPALITIES.

Balmain

Bathurst

Botany

Braidwood

Burrowa

Burwood

Carccar

Concord

Coonambl«

Cootamundra

Coraki

Co row a

Cowra

Dubbo

Goulburn

Hay

Junee

Lismore

Maitland, West

Manilla

Molong

Mullnmbimby

Murrumburrah

Murwillumbah

Orange

Queacbeyan

Quirindi

Richmond

Temora

Wagga Wagga

Windsor

Wyalong

Yass

Young.

114 THE WEEDS OF NEW SOUTH WALES.

Cockspur or Saucy Jack (Centaurea melitensis L )
(COMPOSITE: Thistle Family.)

Other Vernacular Names. — " Saucy Jack" is a name by which this weed
is very commonly known. " Burr/' " Yellow Burr," and " Chinese Burr "
are less common names. It does not come from China, nor am I aware that
the Chinese have had anything to do with its introduction or dissemina-
tion. Its name melitensis denotes "Maltese" (adjective), hence "Malta
Thistle," though I do not remember having heard it called by that name by
farmers. It would be simply impossible now to upset the names of " Cock-
spur " and " Saucy Jack.''

.Botanical Name. — Centaurea. With an allied plant the Centaur Chiron is
said to have cured the wound in his foot, caused by the arrow of Hercules.
Melitensis,, Latin for Maltese, Malta being one of its Mediterranean
localities.

What our Farmers and Pastor alists say of it. — Following are some of the
replies relating to Cockspur sent in answer to the Department's circular
in 1893:—

Utterly useless. Grows as a rule in cultivated lands. No attempt has been
made to eradicate it. (Singleton.)

First made its appearance about thirty-two years ago. Mostly favours culti-
vated land, and promises to be a most troublesome weed. It excludes valuable
grasses wherever it makes its appearance. Little or no attempt has been made
to eradicate it. ( Manilla. )

Flourishes and spreads in any soil, or under any condition. In some instances
it is kept in check by cutting down and burning. (Narrabri.)

Is exceedingly troublesome in wheat paddocks. Many of the farmers cut it
down, whilst others make no attempt to keep it in check, thereby seeding their
adjoining neighbours' clean land. (Mudgee.)

Found growing throughout the district. (Egliuton, Bathurst.)

The sharp spines and bitter taste destroy the value of hay when it becomes
mixed with it. Frequents good alluvial lands, either cultivated or uncultivated,
also public roads, by which means many weeds are spread. Many farms in the
district are perfect seed-beds for noxious weeds. (Comobella.)

Grows in almost any situation, though, as a rule, on the rich river flats. It
is spreading on uncultivated land, but kept in check on cultivated lands by
annually hoeing. (Pomona, Wellington.)

Introduced from the Upper Macquarie by the waters of the river. No steps
have been taken for its eradication. Spreads rapidly on cultivated land and
rich soils, while poor grass lands are almost free from it. (Wellington.)

Depreciates quality of forage crops, and is spreading all over the district.
First appeared in 1884, when seed was introduced by sheep. In cultivated
lands the farmers do their utmost to keep it under control, but in uncultivated
lands no steps have been taken for its eradication. (Orange.)

Brought sixteen years ago into the district by travelling stock. Is very
troublesome in cultivated land. (Molong.)

Will thrive in almost any soil. When mixed with hay and chaff it greatly
reduces the price of these fodder's, on account of the bitter taste and thorny
quality of the seed, which makes it a very difficult task to separate from other
grain. In order to keep it in check several of the farmers resort to summer
fallowing, and destroying the weeds with the hoe. (Neville.)

THE WEEDS OF NEW SOUTH WALES.

115

Cockspur or Saucy Jack (Centaurea mclitensis L.).

Section of flower heal, showing young sseds (natural size). B. Involucral bracl (magnified),
c. Seed (magnified).

116 THE WEEDS OF NEW SOUTH WALES.

Made its appearance about fifteen years ago. It is very troublesome to the-
wheat or hay grower. When young, during the winter months, it is splendid
feed for stock ; later on the leaves and seed-pods are surrounded with spikes,
which at times penetrate strong boots. Early in the morning during dry
seasons, before the dew has left the plant, certain portions of it are eaten by^
stock. It is spreading throughout the district, especially in cultivated laud.
The local municipal council has a bylaw compelling the eradication, by burning,
of all noxious weeds in the district, 'and a notice is forwarded annually to-
residents, requesting them to do so. This effectively keeps the weed in check.
(Dubbo.)

Introduced by travelling stock and floods, and mostly frequents low-lying^
flats along the river banks and watercourses. Stock will not eat it. No special
effort has been made to eradicate it. (Dubbo.)

After the first autumn rains it springs up, and retains a green, fresh appear-
ance when almost every other plant is dead. While young it is eaten by cattle,,
though to butter made from the milk of cows feeding on it, it imparts a dis-
agreeable flavour. (Hillston.)

Is spreading in ringbarked country and on the plains. With a few exceptions,,
no general or effective measures have been taken to keep it in check. (Con-
dobolin. )

Almost completely covers roadways and old folding grounds. In time of
drought cattle and horses eat it with avidity, and are kept in good condition.
( Condobolin. )

Makes it appearance with hay and wheat crops. Possesses an exceedingly v
bitter fruit, and if eaten by horses has a dangerous effect. (Young.)

Cattle will not eat it. Crowds out valuable grasses. Thrives on both culti-
vated and uncultivated land, and is spreading rapidly. A number of land-
owners cut it down annually, but fresh seed is soon sown from neglected1
holdings. ( Forbes. )

Introduced into district in hay and chaff, and spread by winds. Spreads
rapidly, and wherever allowed to grow unmolested for any length of time-
crowds out native pasture grasses. It is a most troublesome weed, and, except
through dire necessity, is never eaten by stock either in a green or dried state.
In order to keep it in check it is, as a rule, cut down and ploughed in.
(Moarna.)

Does not grow very extensively. The farmers keep it in check. (Corowa.)

First appeared about twelve years ago. Useless as a fodder. Generally
occupies the richest soils, and is spreading in both cultivated and uncultivated:
lands. (Yass.)

A very troublesome weed, especially in cultivated land, in which it is rapidly
spreading. (Queanbeyan.)

Since farmers left off folding their sheep, it is not very common in the
district. (Crookwell.)

Cockspur as a Fodder-plant. — Stock will eat this wretched plant when it
is quite young. What will the poor things not eat if they are compelled by
stern necessity? A speaker at an Agricultural Conference in 1892 stated
that on certain runs, near the Lachlan, sheep had to eat this or starve, that
they ate it and thrived upon it, and that it is, in fact, a pastoralist's
stand-by. But I hope no one will relax his efforts for the eradication of
this weed for this reason. Scarcely any vegetation can be more thoroughly
indigestible than the Cockspur, to say nothing of its aggressiveness and
prickly nature, and the serious extent to which it deteriorates wool. In
making a list of fodder-plants it must be remembered that a far simpler
process would be the enumeration of plants which animals never touch in
Australia. The list would not be a very long one, so that the ranking of a
plant, such as the Cockspur, as a fodder-plant, may not mean much after all.

THE WEEDS OF NEW SOUTH WALES. 117

Popular Description. — A so-called thistle with yellow flowers. The Saffron
or False Star Thistle (Cwrtliamibs or Kentrophyllum lanalum), also has yel-
low flowers, but they are very much larger, and the plant' is altogether larger,
more robust, and more rigid than the Cockspur. The flower-head is sur-
rounded with prickly involucral bracts. The leaves are hoary and even
.slightly silky. The edges of the leaves are wavy. Their shape may be
made out from the accompanying plate. It will be observed that they clasp
and run down the stem, a characteristic which may be noted. The shape
of the seed can be readily made out from the drawing. It is larger than
that of St. Barnaby's Thistle (Cvntaurea solstitialis) .

Botanical Description. —

The Cockspur is not a British plant, and therefore a description of it will
not be found in the ordinary British text-books. It may be described as
follows: — An erect, rigid annual, slightly woolly white. Stem-leaves narrow,
entire or nearly so, decurrent. Flower-heads terminal, sessile, ovoid. Recept-
acle with bristles. Outer involucral bracts with short palmate spines, inter-
mediate bracts with a long spreading terminal spine and short divaricate spines
at the base. Inner bracts with only a short terminal spine. E'lorets yellow,* all
tubular. Pappus bristly.

How to get rid of it. — It is a proscribed plant under the Victorian Thistle
Act, and it is even worse in New South Wales than in the southern State.
It is an annual, and should be cut down as it begins to flower. Do not allow
it to mature its seed. Farmers will be disposed to reply, " That is easier
said than done," but without setting ourselves at present to the herculean
task of freeing the country from its worst weeds, the Cockspur is a weed
that must be dealt with seriously. It is nothing less than terrible to reflect
on the havoc worked by weeds in this country of recent years. The galling
part of it is that much of the mischief is preventable.

Where found. — It attains its full luxuriance in the dry western Country.
It is not a native of Australia, and has extended here just as it has to most
of the warmer countries of the world. Dr. Schomburgk states that it was
first introduced into South Australia in 1844. It is a native of the
Mediterranean regions.

The Local Government Department's list of shires and municipalities
in which this weed is proclaimed, shows that it is spreading, but does not
fully indicate its spread. We have it from Byrock and Tenterfield, so that
Tvith Culcairn the State is pretty well embraced. It will also stand the cold
of Jenolan Caves and other cold places.

It is frequently confused with other Star Thistles, though the hope may
be expressed that the present book will tend to reduce errors of that kind.

SHIRES.

'Cessnock Coonabarabran Terania Wollondilly.

Culcairn Tamarang Wingadee

MUNICIPALITIES.

Botany Lismoro Tumut Windsor.

Coonamble Murwillumbah

118 THE WEEDS OF NEW SOUTH WALES.

St. Barnaby's Thistle (Centaurea solstitialis L.).
(COMPOSITE: Thistle Family.)

Popular Description. — An annual plant, with a yellow, prickly thistle-like-
flower; the whole plant covered with a short whitish cottony covering; the
lower or radical leaves dissected, the terminal lobe larger than the lower
ones, and the upper ones linear, with wavy edges.

Botanical Description, —

Stem near 2 feet high, alternately branched, winged from the decurrent
leaves, which are lanceolate and entire, slightly waved ; the radical leaves are
4 or 5 inches long, lyrate, the lobes alternate, acute, the terminal one large, and
more or less triangular. Flowers solitary at the end of each branch, bright
yellow. Scales of the calyx tipped with palinated yellowish spines, of which
the central one is very long, strong, and different from the rest. The whole
herb is harsh and rigid, but clothed with a cotton-like web (as is the calyx),
somewhat viscid, and intensely bitter. — Sowerby's " English Botany," xii, t.
243.

Allied Thistles. — We have already figured and described two Centaur eas,
viz., C. calcitrapa, the other ordinary Star Thistle (see* page 110), and
C. melitensis, the Cockspur (see page 114). The former is pink-flowered,
and the latter is yellow-flowered like the weed now under description.

Comparing the two yellow thistles, Bentham says that " C. solstitialis i&
an annual, with the habit, foliage and yellow florets of C. melitensis, but
with a much longer and stouter spine to the intermediate involucral bracts,
while the inner ones have a jagged scarious appendage without any spine.'r

Names. — Sowerby wrote in his " English Botany " considerably over a
century ago, "It flowers about midsummer, whence the name, but lasts till
late in autumn, and in the south of Europe even till December." The name-
referred to is St. Barnaby's Thistle (apostle and saint), and his day is llth
June, which explains the reference to midsummer.

"Yellow Thistle" or "Yellow Star Thistle" which it shares with C.
melitensis.

Where found. — It is a native of Europe, North America, and Western
Asia. It has become extensively distributed in Australia, having been
recorded from practically every State. In New South Wales it is
widely diffused. Western localities are E-ichmond and Bathurst; southern
ones, Burrinjuck and Queanbeyan; but it doubtless occurs far beyond these
boundaries. A correspondent from Tamworth in January, 1917, wrote : " I
saw only a very few plants of it until to-day, when I saw a paddock very
badly infested."

As a rule it is looked upon as a weed pure and simple, and the advice is-
given to eradicate it when it is in flower, as it is an annual and must not be
allowed to seed. The following paragraph will give food for thought.

ST. BARNABY'S THISTLE (Centaurea solstitialis L.).

1. Flower enlarged. 2. Flowering branch (natural size). 3. A floret. 4. Floret opened to s^ow

stigma and anthers 5 Achene showing arrangement of pappus. 6. Mature achene (seed).

THE WEEDS OF NEW SOUTH WALES. 119

A Pica for Further Investigation. — A Western Australian farmer having
raised the question of the value of this weed as sheep-food, and the danger
of sheep eating the seeds infecting clean land, Mr. W. C. Grasby dealt with
the matter in an informative manner in a recent issue of the Western Mail.
Mr. Grasby had had a good deal of experience with this weed in South
Australia, where it seems to be commoner than in any other State. He
says : —

If a farmer desires to carry on the business of wheat-growing pure and simple,
it is desirable to do everything possible to prevent the spreading of Cockspur
(St. Barnaby's Thistle is meant), Cape Weed, and other plants which grow on
the fallow. If, however, it is desired to conduct the business of wheat-growing
in conjunction with sheep, it is desirable to have every kind of plant which will
produce good sheep feed, growing on the land. A Tammin farmer in reply to
an agricultural expert who pointed out the presence of Cockspur, Cape Weed,
Wild Mustard, &c., said, " I want to keep sheep, and the more weeds my land
will grow the more sheep I can keep, and if I have sheep I can Control the
weeds when I want to grow wheat."
•

In boyhood I have spent many weary days in hoeing up such weeds, but now
I look upon Cockspur and other weeds from a different point of view, and,
before I condemn, I ask their value as sheep feed. As I go through the wheat
belt I find tnat farmers who keep sheep would rather have Cockspur than be
without it. There is a prevailing opinion that wheat-growing by itself is not
profitable with present averages and prices, and, in order to keep sheep, farmers
must have what are called weeds, which will suport the sheep when the land is
not in crop. From another point of view, it is 'necessary to have weeds and
sheep. We cannot carry out the systems of rotation developed in countries
where summer rains are the rule and not the exception ; and, under clean fallow
and alternate cropping, land must rapidly deteriorate in fertility. It is not in
accordance with book teaching, but it appears to me that we have to look upon
edible weeds, such as have been mentioned, and more especially the wild
clovers, as a rotation of crops which cost nothing and are best suited to our
climatic conditions. Of course, it is not suggested that clovers and trefoil are
.as valuable as Cockspur.

As to the distribution of seeds by sheep, there is room for difference of
opinion. A farmer of wide experience says that sheep do not, to an appreciable
extent, distribute the seeds of plants that they eat, but those which are carried
in the wool, and lie gives a good deal of evidence in support of his opinion.
He points out that weeds of various kinds grow where horse droppings and
cattle droppings are found, but not to the same extent when sheep have
travelled. He states thaf* he has carefully examined and washed the droppings
of sheep, and, so far, has failed to discover clover seeds which have not been
'digested.

Looking at the question from every point of view, I think I may, without
hesitation, advise that, if a farmer wishes to keep his fallow clean, the wise plan
will be to keep the sheep off. Probably the best plan will be to put the mower
•over weedy ground, rake up the Cockspur and burn it, and then keep the ground
free of crop and surface cultivated, whenever the Cockspur appears, until it is
;all destroyed. The ground, in the meantime, should not be ploughed, for that
will bury the seeds. It is entirely for any individual to decide whether the
value of the Cockspur on the fallow for the keeping of sheep will pay for
'having this weed present on the land. I think it will, but I would be glad if
those old farmers who have had considerable personal experience would be
enough to contribute their experience.

120 THE WEEDS OF NEW SOUTH WALES.

Saffron or False Star Thistle (Carthamus lanatus L.).
(COMPOSITE: Thistle Family.)

Other Vernacular Names. — As people usually call this " Star Thistle," T
have simply prefixed the word " false " for a reason indicated below.
Baron von Mueller proposed the name " Saffron Thistle " for it. It is, of"
course, open to the objection that it has nothing to do with saffron; its-
congener (C. tinctorius) is the well-known safflower of India, sometimes said
to be used for adulterating saffron. But in adopting the name Saffron
Thistle, I have taken into account the fact that in the illustrated work on
thistles (by Baron von Mueller), issued by the kindred Department of
Agriculture of another State, this name is employed, and it would be a
convenience to adopt a uniform vernacular nomenclature for the pest. But
whether the public of these two great States will take the slightest notice-
of these benevolent efforts to save confusion, time alon^ will tell. My own
opinion is that they won't, and having started to call it " Star Thistle,"
star thistle it will remain to the end of time. It is called " Chinese Thistle "
in the Gunnedah district, and "Yellow Chinese Thistle" (to distinguish it
from the " Pink Chinese Thistle," Centaurea calcitrapa) in the Grenfell
district. But the Mongolians are not responsible for its introduction.

Synonym. — Kentrophyllum lanatum DC., et Dub. By many authors at
the present day (notably Bentham and Hooker, Genera Plantarum), Ken-
trophyllum is included under Carthamus, of which the best known species
is C . tinctorius, the safflower of India.

Following is tne earliest record I can find of the Saffron or False Star
Thistle in Australia : — " Woolly Kentrophyllum (Kentrophyllum lanatum
DC.), a native of 'the Mediterranean coast; a great nuisance. It is of
modern introduction. Cattle and sheep do not eat the plant, and its exten-
sion becomes very rapid, especially in the north and south. In 1887, the
Legislature passed an Act for preventing the further spread of this thistle,
but which was then erroneously thought to be the true Star Thistle,
Centaurea calcitrapa. The further spread of the true Star Thistle should
also be prevented." (Schomburgk, Annual Report Botanic Gardens, Ade-
laide, 1888, p. 23.)

The South Australian Act referred to is No. 409, assented to 9th
December, 1887, and its title is "An Act for amending the Act. No. 26 of
1862, and for preventing the further spread of the Star Thistle."

Mr. Albert Molineux, General Secretary of the Agricultural Bureau of
South Australia, says of it: " K. lanatum is eaten to some extent by stock,
and it might make ensilage; it is not worse than Onopordon acanthium
(true Scotch thistle). I hope, however, this will not convey the impression
that it is anything but a real nuisance.

f< Star Thistle as Fodder. — Mr. Margarey, Narracoorte Branch, Agricul-
tural Bureau, S.A., noticing a query in the report of the Burra Branch
in the Journal for April as to whether star thistles had ever been utilised
as food for any animal, reported that he had mown and cocked a large-

THE WEEDS OF NEW SOUTH WALES. 121

Saffron or False Star Thistle (Carihamut lanalns L.).

1. Stem-clasping leaf. 2, 3, 4, 5. All stages, from a floral leaf to a bract. 6. Individual florets.
7. Anther snowing1 bristly appearance at upper part of filament. 8 Fruir., crowned with the
pappus and the remains of a floret. 9. Extreme forms of the scales of the pappus.

122 THE WEEDS OF NEW SOUTH WALES.

quantity during the dry weather; that he had left it in cock till the rains
came, when the sheep took to it, and have now eaten nearly all of it, which
leads him to believe that it would make excellent silage. The Chairman
stated that from observations he believed that the seed would be very suit-
able for poultry." (Journal Bureau Agric., S.A., i, 64, July, 1890.)

The following account by a Kiverina grazier of its fodder value was
circulated in the press in September, 1911, and is instructive: —

My experience of Saffron Thistle is in direct opposition to those who consider
it a noxious weed. Until it runs up to a hard stein it is one of the sweetest of
grasses to be found. Its root is open and fibrous, and has the fertilising quali-
ties of rape, as it opens up the surface of the ground, and renders it mellow,
and allows the air and moisture to enter, which in grazing land is a very
necessary result to obtain. The thistle runs up to a long stem in the end of
October and November, when the grass has developed, and the thistle stalk pro-
tects the grass from blowing off in the winds of summer ; and between the cover
protected and the fertilising influence of the thistle roots, the first autumn rains
send up a coat of grass that is the principal food that the stock depend on for
Ihe winter, unless the rains are very plentiful, as the difference in a medium
dry autumn between the land protected by Saffron Thistle and the open bare
places on which it doesn't grow is most noticeable. I have seen the thistle
some years ago in the Goulburn Valley, and some of the sheep farmers are of
opinion that it was a great loss when it died out, which it does after a reason-
able time. As an objectionable weed it has no comparison with Cape weed or
cockspur. Both these weeds start with the first autumn rains, and smother
grass and crops where the seed has an opportunity of spreading, while the
Saffron Thistle only begins to grow up in October and November, wrhen the food
for stock is well advanced, and when wheat is nearly fit to cut for hay; and, as
far as cultivation is concerned, if land is well ploughed it will not come up
again until the land is allowed to go out of cultivation, and then the thistle has
the same effect as a crop of rape, as any farmer can prove by ploughing up a
paddock on which a good crop of thistle grew. His yield will always be a fail-
bit above the average.

These are meritorious attempts to utilise a weed-pest. I would, however,
recommend that uncompromising war be waged against it; that it be
destroyed utterly. In cocking and carrying there is great danger of the
seeds flying about and infecting clean land.

In Victoria there is in force a lengthy Act " To consolidate the law
relating to the Eradication of Thistles," No. MCXLV, 10th July, 1890.
Clause 3 gives a list of the thistles and allied plants included in its opera-
tion, but Carthamus lanatus is not included in the list. It is, however, de-
scribed and figured in the " Illustrated Description of Thistles, &c., included
within the Thistle Act of 1890 " (Department of Agriculture, Melbourne,
1893), so it has presumably been proclaimed a thistle under clause 3 of " An
Act to amend the Thistle Act, 1890" (No. 1,337, 6th November, 1893).
Landowners, lessees, or occupiers are, under these Acts, to destroy thistles
under a penalty not exceeding twenty pounds.

In New South Wales it has been proclaimed (1919) by thirteen muni-
cipalities and thirty-two shires.

Popular Description. — A prickly plant, growing in bushy masses, and
attaining a height of 2 or 3 feet. The flowers are yellow, and are sur-
rounded with prickly clasping leaves almost of the same shape as those
which clasp the stem. The stem is a little furrowed and, in this State,
usually more or less silvery in appearance; plants growing in Europe are

THE WEEDS OF NEW SOUTH WALES. 123

greener. The plant, particularly the upper portions of it, is more or less
thinly-woolly, or rather spider- webby. Perhaps these few notes will supple-
ment the plate in making the identity of the thistle clear to every farmer.

Botanical Description. — A botanical description will only be understood
by botanists, and is perhaps unnecessary here. Those who desire the original
description will find it in De Candolle's Prodromus, vol. vi, p. 610 (1837),
while a botanical description in English will be found at page 17 of Baron
von Mueller's Illustrated Description of Thistles, Melbourne, 1893.

In Moloney's " Sketch of the Forestry of West Africa," p. 376, I find
under Carthamus lanatus, " Blessed Thistle " of the Parisians, said to
possess sudorific, febrifugal and anthelmintic properties, Merat et Sens,
Diciionnaire Medicale, tome ii, p. 115. " Widely cultivated." The last
statement is apparently taken from Oliver's "Flora of Tropical Africa,"
vol. iii, p. 439. Why it is " widely cultivated " I do not know. It may be
that the seeds yield oil. It is closely related to the safflower (Carthamus-
tinctorius') , but -contains very much less colouring matter. But I recom-
mend Australians not to attach the slightest commercial importance to the
supposed medicinal or tinctorial properties of our wretched weed.

How to get rid of it. — It is an annual, and the only way to get rid of it
is to cut it before it comes into full flower, and then burn it. Landowners
should not be content with cutting it, as the dried plant may lame or other-
wise injure sheep, &c., and a few seeds may escape destruction. It is
manifest that united action should take place in dealing with the pest, for
if there be an infested paddock in a district, the wind will waft the seeds
like .little shuttlecocks into the surrounding land. The pest is not yet so
prevalent in this State as it is in South Australia and Victoria, and it is
to be hoped that landowners will eradicate it on the principle that " a stitch
in time saves nine."

Where Found. — This plant is a native of the Mediterranean region
(Europe and Africa, and South-West Asia). It has found its way into most
temperate and warm regions of the world.

I have received it from most parts of New South Wales. It is proclaimed
in the following areas : —

SHIRES.

Abercrombie Oulcairn Mulwaree Wakool

Berrigan Dalgety Mumbulla Waradgery %

Bland Gadara Murray Waugoola

Canobolas Gilgandra Murrumbidgee Windouran

Carrathool Goodradigbee Murrungal Yarrowlumla.

Cobbora Gunning Patrick's Plains

Coolamoii Imlay Rylstone

vCoreen Lyndhurst Talbragar

Crookwell Macquarie Tumbarumba

MUNICIPALITIES.

Blayney Glenlnnes Tamworth Wyalong

Braidwood Moama Temora .Yass

Burrowa Orange Tumut Young.
Cowra

124 THE WEEDS OF NEW SOUTH WALES.

Cat's Ear or Flat-weed (Hypocharis radicata L.).
(COMPOSITE: Thistle or Daisy Family.)

Popular Description. — A dandelion-like plant from which, however, it can
ireadily be distinguished by its less deeply toothed and more hairy leaves,
.and its branching- flower-stalks.

Botanical Description. —

A hispid perennial, leaves all radical, spreading, toothed or pinnatifid. Stems
•erect, branched, with large terminal flower- heads. Florets yellow, all ligulate.
much longer than the involucre. All achenes with slender beaks ; the pappus
iplumose.

I regret the necessity for reducing the size of the plant in the accom-
panying plate, as it is likely to cause confusion with another species, but
any erroneous idea will, as far as the flower is concerned, be corrected by
^examination of figure 1.

Names. — In Australia this is generally known as " Flat-weed," because its
leaves, like a rosette, lie flat on the ground. It is also known, to a not
inconsideraDle extent, as " Dandelion ;" this in ignorance, as it bears some
superficial resemblance to the true Dandelion (Taraxacum Dens-leonis).

In Smith and Sowerby's classical " English Botany " the name is given
of " Long-rooted Cat's Ear," in contradistinction to other species of Hypo-
which are known as Cat's Ear.

Objectionable Features. — Like so many of our weeds, this comes from
^Europe, Northern Africa, and Western Asia. It has now spread in every
Australian State, chiefly in grass paddocks. It is one of those plants with
which we are so familiar and which has no outstanding characteristics, that
little has been written about it.

The chief objection that is raised to it is that its rosette of leaves
-smothers good grasses, and, as stock are not attracted by it, it often forms
large patches to the exclusion of most other vegetation. On a lawn it is a
positive disfigurement, especially as the long flower-stalks add to its un-
•sightliness. It possesses no poisonous properties, and can only be got rid
•of by means of the hoe, or some other cutting implement, which is of course'
only practicable where the cost of labour is relatively unimportant, as in the
•case of a tennis-lawn. It is of advantage to cut down* the flowers by means
of a scythe or lawn-mower according to circumstances, but, like the Sow
Thistle, it is a matter of luck to what extent one's land may be re-seeded by
'it in any particular year.

CAT'S EAR OR FLAT- WEED (Hypochceris radicata L.).

1. Flower, natural size. 2. Ligulate floret (x 20). 3. Floret opened to disclose anthers.

4. Seed showing beak and pappus. 5. Seed greatly magnified to show sculpture.

THE WEEDS OF NEW SOUTH WALES. 125

Prickly Lettuce or Compass Plant (Lactuca Scariola L.).
(COMPOSITE: Daisy Family.)

Botanical Name. — Lactuca, Latin for lettuce; Scariola, Latin for wild
salad.

Botanical Description. —

Rather scabrous below, leaves suberect, radical obovate-oblong, sinuate-
toothed or runcinate, upper sagittate amplexicaul, auricles acute spreading,
branches of panicle long spreading, fruit grey. Waste places, rare, Worcester,
Norfolk, Essex, Kent, and Surrey; native (?) Watson; fl. July-August. Closely
allied to L. virosa, but prickly only towards the base; branches more erect;
leaves usually more runcinate ; heads smaller ; fruit narrower. (" The Students'
Flora of the British Islands." Sir J. D. Hooker, 2nd Ed., p. 226.)

The Prickly Lettuce a Parent of the Common Lettuce. — Alphonse De
Candolle (" Origin of Cultivated Plants ") says :—

Botanists are agreed in considering the cultivated lettuce as a modification of
the wild species called Lactwa Scariola. The common lettuce is, indeed, known
to botanists as L. Scariola, var. sativa.

Vernacular Names. — "Prickly Lettuce," from the prickles on the wavy
margins, on the midribs of the leaves, on the lower side, and lower part of
the stem. Its milky juice, yellow heads of flowers, and other characters,
show its affinity to the common vegetable lettuce. It is sometimes known
as " Milk Thistle." Its name of " Compass Plant " is so interesting that it
will be specially referred to in the next paragraph.

The Compass Plant. — In Europe the leaves of this plant markedly twist
themselves in the sun, so that their margins become directed upwards and
downwards (i.e., in a vertical position), with their margins directed north
and south ; hence this is called a " Compass Plant." The physiological
reason for this is to enable the lower and upper surfaces of the leaves to be
approximately uniformly presented to the action of the sun's rays. Sil-
phium laciniatum is another Compass Plant. The following observations
refer to our Silphium and Lactuca : —

Healthy living plants as they grow in the sunny meadows look as though they
had been laid between two gigantic sheets of paper, somewhat pressed, and
dried for some time in the way plants are prepared for herbariums, and had
then been removed from the press and set up so that the apex and profile of
the vertical leaf-blades point north and south, i.e., in the meridian, while their
surfaces face the east and west. This inclination is so well and regularly
observed by the living plants on the prairies that hunters are enabled TO guide
themselves over such regions, even under a clouded sky, by means of these
plants ; for this reason Silphium laciniatum has been called a " compass "
plant. The life of the compass plant is assisted by this placing of the vertical
leaves in the meridian, in that the broad surfaces are placed almost at right
angles to the incident sunbeams which illuminate them in the cool and relatively
damp morning and evening, while at the same time they are not too strongly
heated nor stimulated to excessive transpiration. At mid-day, on the other
hand, when the sun's rays only fall on the profile of the leaves, the heating
and transpiration are proportionately slight. It is of interest that the leaves
of these compass plants, as well as those of the above-mentioned lettuce, show
this inclination and position when they grow on level, moderately dry, unshaded
ground ; and that in damp and shady places, where there is no danger of over-
transpiration from the powerful rays of the noontide sun the twisting of the
leaves does not take place and they are not brought into the meridian. (Kerner
and Oliver, 1, 338.)

t 64225— K

126 THE WEEDS OF NEW SOUTH WALES.

It would be interesting for dwellers in the country to observe whether the
Prickly Lettuce, transferred to the Antipodes, still retains the property
•of causing the plane of its leaves to be north and south.

Fodder or Other Uses. — Mr. M. W. Thompson says, " Cattle and horses are
very fond of it." Other correspondents have stated that stock nip at it;
but, as a rule, very little is known about it in New South Wales, and
senders always express their ignorance concerning it. In Sowerby's " British
Flora " it is described as " a bitter, acrid, and foetid weed." It cannot be
specially nutritious, though it is likely enough that stock eat it with other'
food.

If one turns to Watt's " Dictionary of the Economic Products of India,"
interesting notes will be found as to the economic value, not only of the
Prickly Lettuce, but also of the Common Lettuce. For example, the seeds
yield a clear, sweet, transparent oil, while the dried juice (lactuarium) has
medicinal properties.

How to get rid of it. —

While this weed cannot now be exterminated, it may yet be subdued. If
prevented from seeding, in most places, it will decrease in numbers and
aggressiveness. When mown, the plants stool freely, and so must either be cut
with hoe or pulled to prevent altogether the ripening of seeds. Community of
effort will be most effectual in limiting its spread. — Ohio Bulletin, 83.

Prevention of seeding is the remedy. — Wyoming Bulletin, 31.

A most vigorous but insidious foe. — Wyoming Bulletin, 31.

The plant has many of the qualities of a successful intruder, as well as an
uncompromisingly weedy appearance. . . . Where the top is injured, sprouts
are sent out from the base of the stem in a very troublesome manner. —
Indiana Bulletin, 52. In Indiana its extermination is no longer considered
a possibility.

" A most pernicious weed, a single average plant has been found to bear more
than 8,000 seeds." — Farmers' Bulletin, 28, Dept. of Agric., U.S.A.

I look upon it as a plant whose room is better than its company. In New
South Wales it attains a height of 6 or 7 feet. It spreads rapidly, not
merely by seed, but also vegetatively, when bruised or cut. So that if hoed
out this should be done below the ground surface.

Unlike most annual weeds, the prickly lettuce is very troublesome in meadows
and permanent pastures. Clover intended for a seed crop is often entirely
ruined. Oats and other spring grain crops suffer more or less damage.

Sheep, and sometimes cattle, will eat the young prickly lettuce, and in some
localities their services have been found very effective in keeping it down,
specially in recently cleared land where thorough cultivation is impossible.
Repeatedly mowing the plants as they first begin to blossom will prevent seeding
and eventually subdue them. Thorough cultivation with a hoed crop, by means
of which the seed in the soil may be induced to germinate, will be found most
effective. The first ploughing should be shallow, so as not to bury the seeds
too deep. Under no circumstances should the mature seed-bearing plants be
ploughed under, as that would only fill the soil with seeds buried at different
depths to be brought under conditions favourable for germination at intervals
for several years. Mature plants should be mowed and burned before ploughing.
The seed appears as an impurity in clover, millet, and the heavier grass seeds,
and the plant is doubtless most frequently introduced by this means. As the
seed may be carried a long distance by the wind, the plants must be cleared
out of fence rows, waste land, and road-sides. — Farmers' Bulletin, 28, U.S.
Dept. Agric.

Where Found. — It is a native of Europe (doubtfully of Great Britain)
and Asia Minor, but it has now spread to many parts of the world. More
definite localities may be found in De Candolle's " Origin of Cultivated

PRICKLY LETTUCE (Lactuca scar-iota I..).

1 .A single flower-head. 2. A single ligulate floret. 3 Floret opened out, showing stamens, style and stigma.
4. Head of fruits (with their pappuses) 5. A single seed (fruit) with their pappus parachute appendage.

THE WEEDS OF NEW SOUTH WALES. 127

Plants." During thirty-five years it has traversed the United States, from
the Atlantic to the Pacific, and has established many permanent colonies
by the way. In New South Wales I recorded it as a new weed before the
Royal Society of New South Wales in November, 1903, and in the Agricul-
tural Gazette, February, 1904, and April, 1905, although there is no doubt
it has been in the State long before that.

The surmise in an article written in 1905 that it is spreading has been
amply confirmed, especially during the last few years. Most of our corrres-
pondents simply report it as a' new arrival, and are puzzled by it, but the
consensus of opinion, where it is expressed at all, is that it is not wanted,
although a few report that it has some forage value. In Britain, where
it is a native (a doubtful one according to some), it has not been recorded
as a fodder plant. ,

A whole countryside can be sown by one gust of wind from a few plants,
hence it is difficult of control by man. If a man's land were free of it
to-day, he cannot tell whether it will be not sown with it to-morrow. This
remark applies to thistles and allied plants generally. If only a few plants
are seen they should be cut down or eradicated before or during the flower-
ing season. If the seed is already in the land, one can only hope that the
precipitation of rain may not favour either the germination of the seed or
the development of the plant, for certain periods in the life of every plant
are critical as far as rainfall is concerned.

Sow Thistle (Sonchus oleraceus L.).

(COMPOSITE: Thistle or Daisy Family.)

Popular Description. — An annual with a yellow flower like a dandelion,
with a tap-root and an erect, branched stem, with toothed clasping leaves
It has a hollow stem and milky juice.

Botanical Description. —

An erect, glabrous annual with hollow stem. Leaves alternate, sometimes
prickly toothed, the upper ones stem-clasping and undivided, the lower ones
usually pinnatifld. Flower-heads in a short corymbose terminal panicle.
Florets yellow, all ligulate. Achenes not beaked, with a pappus and numerous
fine simple bristles.

Names. — The name " Sow Thistle " is a very old English one. I do not
know that sows are especially identified with it, although pigs, in common
with all grazing animals, eat it greedily. It is not a thistle in the modern
sense of the term; a century or two back the word had a very extended
meaning and was applied to almost any plant that, after flowering, produced
thistle-down.

In Sydney, where the old name has no special significance, it is most
commonly known as "cocky weed," as it is so frequently gathered for
cockatoos.

Character as a Weed. — This .is a pest of gardens, for its parachute-like
seeds settle on the land like a light cloud, and the weed springs 'up in a
tidy garden by the thousand. It is not poisonous, and the only way of deal-
ing with it is by hand-pulling.

128 THE WEEDS OF SEW SOUTH WALES.

Two Forms. — There is a more rigid form, with prickly toothed leaves which
also occurs in New South Wales and possesses the same properties. It is
known as variety asper (rough), and some, following Linnaeus, look upon it
as a distinct species, under the name of Sonchus asper, but there are grada-
tions between it and the normal form.

If we turn to the plate, figure 5 (it is magnified a dozen times) shows the
seed of the normal form like a minute maize-cob, the individual " grains "
corresponding to minute transverse roughnesses. In variety asper the seeds
are quite free from these roughnesses.

In other words, the ordinary Sow Thistle, which is quite a smooth plant,
has rough " seeds " or achenes, while the variety asper, rough or prickly as
its name denotes, has smooth seeds.

Its Economic Value. — This is a plant known to everyone who keeps birds.
The singing birds at once eat the underneath portion of the flower, particu-
larly if it is going to seed, and so does the tame cockatoo, while a handful
thrown to the fowls is at -once devoured, and no growing plant of it is ever
seen in the fowlyard. It has some slight food value for. stock.

There is little fibre in it, and, so far as I am aware, there is no deleterious,
property of any kind in this weed.

Leichhardt, in his " Overland Journey to Port Essington," says that the
young shoots make an excellent vegetable, and on more than one occasion
I have known it to be boiled and used for food when vegetables are scarce.
It is, however, only a stop-gap, and certainly not a rival of spinach and
cabbage.

An Alien. — Bentham speaks of it as "a weed of cultivation, probably in-
digenous to Europe and temperate Asia, but now distributed over the
greater part of the globe, and perhaps truly indigenous in Australia."

It is now found in many districts in all the States.

It occurs near the water's edge in most countries, and sometimes is found
in places where there is scarcely an introduced plant competing with the
native vegetation. Hence the difficulty, in any particular country, of saying
that it is an alien. In Australia it has spread, during historic times, in
many localities in which it is now abundant, but, so far as we know, it
existed in Australia before the advent of the white man. Hence some
botanists look upon it as indigenous, but, bearing in mind its facility of
migration (its seeds can be blown across the water for great distances), its
colonising power, and the fact that it is not specially Australian in its
relationships, it is better, I think, to look upon it as introduced.

How to get rid of it. — It is a weed of cultivation ; it becomes a " nuis-
ance " ; it interferes with the orderly appearance of the tidy garden, and
hence it chiefly offends the aesthetic sense. It contains no trace of poison.

Wherever ground is broken up, or there is a holding place for ever so
little soil the Sow Thistle may establish itself. It is an annual, and the
only way to get rid of it is to pull it up before it matures its seeds. It is,
however, very difficult to control; I have known an area apparently com-
pletely free from it one year, sown thick with it the next, the seed having
come we know not whence, carried by the wind, helped by the thistle-down.

It is only in a garden that one desires to get rid of it, and I recommend
no method other than hand-pulling.

SOW THISTLE (Sonclwa oleraceus L.).

1. Portion of stem showing the clasp'np base of the leaf. 2. Section of stem showing hollow centre.

3. Flower (natural size). 4. L'|?ula*e floret (x 12) 5 Seed with pappus (x 12).

THE WEEDS OF NEW SOUTH WALES. 129

Cape Weed (Cryptostemma calendula: eum R.Br.).
(COMPOSITE: Daisy Family.)

Popular Description. — A spreading herb with a rosette of leaves deeply
"cut," and hoary on the underside. Flowers, yellow, daisy-like. Seeds
enveloped in a woolly covering.

Botanical Description. —

A prostrate herb with rosolate leaves, sinuate lyrate or pinnatifid, scabrous
above, hoary beneath. Flower-head solitary on a scape-like peduncle, radiate,
yellow. Achenes thickly clothed with long soft hairs.

Experience in other States. — This is a very old introduction to Australia.
It is a native of South Africa, and probably came to Western Australia first.
At all events it seems to have first got a good hold there. In Huegel's
Enumeratio Plantarum, p. 67 (1837), it is recorded from King George's
Sound from collections made in 1833. In Mueller's Report as Victorian
Government Botanist, dated 14th September, 1868 (printed in Journal of
Botany, vii, 183), he notes that Baron von Huegel noticed and recorded it in
1833, " as a exterminable weed of Australia." In Lehmann's Plantce
Preissiance, i, 487, it is recorded as having been collected at Fremantle in
1839.

The late Dr. Schomburgk, Director of the Botanic Gardens, Adelaide,
wrote of it in one of his Annual Reports (1875) : —

Cape Dandelion. — A native of the Cape. It was in the year 1850 that I first
noticed a few isolated plants on the side of the road leading through the Gawler
Plains. The following year a few made their appearance on the banks of the
Gawler River. From year to year it is rapidly taking possession of pastures,
as well as cultivated land, and is now found quite 200 miles towards the north
from its starting point, covering even the untimbered mountain ranges to their
summits. When in bloom the country presents a peculiar appearance, and as
far as the eyes reach a yellow carpet only is seen. It is an annual, and although
doing much harm to the more tender indigenous herbage, it is much liked by
cattle and sheep, which eat it eagerly, preferring it even in a dry state to
wheaten hay and licking the large and very abundant seed from the ground.
When in bloom many people consider it injurious to the lungs from the
inhalation of the pollen by which the air is impregnated. This circumstance
may also be attributed to the moist atmosphere prevailing when the dandelion
is in flower. Though the plant has taken possession of the land for the last
twenty-five years it grows as vigorously as ever, and it seems that over-
stimulation fails to bring about degeneracy and subsequent extinction.

Now we come to Victoria. It seems to have got a hold in that State
almost as soon as in South Australia. Thirty-nine years ago in the suburbs
of Melbourne I saw large grazing paddocks with the plants all over as thick
as they could stick, as the phrase goes. So abundant was it over half a
•century ago that a proposal was made to utilize the cotton on the seeds for
commercial purposes.

See a paper " Remarks on a filamentous material grown upon the plant
Cryptostemma calendulaceum, believed to be suitable for manufacturing
purposes," by Henry H. Hayter. (Trans. R. S. Vic., vi, 26). (Read llth
November, 1861.)

He speaks of it as exceedingly common around Melbourne, and of its
" gradually working its way into the interior, where it is much disliked as it
forms only indifferent pasture for animals, and when it dies away, as it does
during the summer months, it leaves the country quite bare, and almost as
black as if it had been passed over by a bush fire."

130 THE WEEDS OF NEW SOUTH WALES.

The " filamentous material " (fibre) which formed the subject of his paper
was the hairs of the seeds. He adds :

" I have been informed by a hatter in Melbourne that it would form very
good material for the manufacture of felt hats, and I believe it could also
be converted into textile fabrics and paper. The fibre is short in staple,
but curly, fine, and exceedingly tough."

Specimens were sent to the London Exhibition of 1862, but it did not
appeal to manufacturers.

Experience in New South Wales. — I do not know when it first came to
New South Wales, but it certainly did not get a firm hold until long after
it had done so in the southern States.

Mr. Turner has figured and given an account of the weed in the Agricul-
tural Gazette for 1891, p. 505. He quotes south-western localities and Wil-
cannia (in both cases probably coming from South Australia or Victoria).

I published the following notes concerning it in the Agricultural Gazette
for 1895 :—

Was introduced from Milton about five years since by horses, and is one of
the most troublesome to keep in check. It is spreading rapidly in both culti-
vated and uncultivated lands. In order to keep it in check it is sometimes cut
down. ( Sassafras. )

Supposed to have been introduced in packing in cases of goods. It thrives in
almost any position. Spreads rapidly, chokes pastures, and is a prolific seeder.
No attempt has been made to eradicate it. (Bombala.)

Will thrive almost anywhere, no matter how poor or dry the soil. Wherever
allowed to grow any length of time it will crowd out native pasture grasses.
Although it imparts a bitter taste to milk and butter, it is a fodder plant by
no means to be despised. It certainly makes its appearance in spring when the
young grasses are abundant, but it lasts into the middle of summer, and being
of a succulent nature, allays the thirst of cattle. In the dry season it is
regarded by some settlers as a boon. In lands under cultivation it is kept in
check by ploughing and hoeing. (Moama.)

As a rule, grows among wheat, barley, and other cereals. Crowds out
valuable fodder plants. (Hillston.)

Made its first appearance in 1884, when seed was introduced in sheep's wool,
and is now spreading with great rapidity. In cultivated lands the farmers do
their utmost to keep it in check, but in uncultivated lands no steps have been
taken for its eradication. (Orange.)

" This has made its appearance in the neighbourhood of Nowra, where it
has created a small scare. It is one of those plants which will spread through-
out the colony unless eradicated on its first appearance in fresh localities."
(Agricultural Gazette for 1897, p. 81.)

Since then the weed has spread by leaps and bounds. During the drought
of 1902, when dirty chaff from all over the Commonwealth and from many
places beyond, came into New South Wales, weeds spread as they had not
done for years. At that time several correspondents stated it had not pre-
viously been seen in New England, but there is plenty there now. Its
course seems to have been from south to north, and pretty well the whole
State is covered now.

It belongs to the Daisy Eamily, reputed to be a non-poisonous family, but
the seeds are covered with fibre and they are licked up by grazing animals,
and may form hair-balls (phyto-bezoars) in their stomachs, which may even
cause death.

It has some food value, though sometimes it is so succulent that hungry
animals may gorge themselves on it and become blown.

CAPE WEED (Cryptostemma calendulaceum R.Br.).

1. Floret. 2. Ring of connate anthers unfolded. 3. Bilobed stigma and style
4. Seed enclosed in woolly covering. 5 Seed naked.

THE WEEDS OF NEW SOUTH WALES. 131

About seven years ago a stock inspector on one of the Northern Rivers
stated that Cape Weed had been found on different parts of the river, and
appeared to be becoming- more plentiful. He thought it had probably been
introduced in chaff. He says the plant is rich in chloro (whatever that is),
and is very deadly to horses, causing in the first place a swelling of the head
and glands. Horses become very violent, then coma ensues, with tetanus
symptoms, shivering fits, low temperature, and finally death. Cattle are not
affected if feed is mixed, but where Cape Weed predominates impaction
ensues, with fatal results.

This was the first occasion I had heard of poisonous characters being
attributed to Cape Weed by a responsible officer, but I have not heard the
report confirmed, and suspend my judgment. Years ago, when I was stay-
ing with a friend near Melbourne, his cows habitually fed on this weed
(they had little else to eat at that time), but I never heard the suggestion
of poison. I have seen horses, cattle, and sheep feed on the weed many
times since, and do not know of evidence justifying it being branded as a
poison.

How to deal with it. — It is very difficult to get rid of an overwhelming
plant like this. Its rosette-habit enables it to smother grasses and better
plants. The seeds with their beautiful fibre-attachments are caught by the
wind and blow all over the place. When a paddock is full of it, unless
money is no object, it cannot be got rid of, but I would strongly recommend
any landowner to dig it up by the roots and burn it when it first makes its
appearance on his property. He may thus stave off the invasion for a
number of years, which is worth while, even if the invasion becomes more
persistent as time goes on, and he may ultimately not be able to resist it.

Much of the turf in the suburbs of Sydney contains many Cape Weed
seeds, and as the plant dies down in the winter, when turf is usually moved,
the purchaser of turf for a new lawn should be very alert for Cape Weed as
the weather begins to get warm, say in September or October. Dig it up
with a knife; never let it seed.

Our roadsides are the great repositories of this weed. As the local
authorities become more alive to its detrimental character, vigilance in
regard to this pest will be even more active than it is. It is proscribed by
many municipalities and shire councils. It is a source of great satisfaction
to note how many shires and municipalities are becoming vigilant as to the
dangers of weeds.

The weed has been proscribed in the following Local Government areas : —

SHIRES.

Bulli Erina Manning Terania

Bolwarra Gundurimba Orara Tweed

Byron Harwood Stroud Wallarobba

Cessnock Kyogle Tarro Wollondilly.

MUNICIPALITIES.

Ballina Goulburn Hurstville Mosman

Burwood Grafton Kiama Moss Vale

Casino Grafton South Lambton Mullumbimby

Concord Hamilton Lismore Stockton

Coraki Homebush Maclean Ulmarra.

Glen Innes Hunter's Hill Maitland West

INDEX.

PAGE.

Acacia armata 24,25

Acacia Hedge 24

Accena ovina Cunn 11,20,22

sanguisorbce Vahl 1, 20, 22

Aconite 47

Achryanthes aspera L 44

Adonis autumnalis 47

African Box Thorn 29

African Weed 2U

Ageratum conyzoides L 20, 21, 55

Agrostemma Githago 3, 23

Alfileria 23

Alligator Head 20

Allium fragrans Vent 38, 39

striatum 40

vineale L 40

Alternanthera Achryantha R. Br 26, 42

var. echinata 42

echinata Sm 42

triandra Lam 44

Amarantacese 42

Amaranth Family 42

Amaranthus alhus L 20,22

artemisifolii Mayn. and Walp 20, 22

paniculatus 26, 28

retroflexus L 2)

viridis 26, 28

Amarantu? Weed 42

A mbrosia artemisifolia 20, 22, 26, 28

A msinckia angustifolia Lehm 19

intermedia 26, '^8

Anagallis arvensis 6

coerulea 6

Andropogon acicularis Retz. 9

halepense 24, 25

Andropogon Sorghum 3

Androssemon 64

Annuals 17

Annual Salt-Marsh Aster 87

Anthemis arvensis L 19

Cotula L 19, 26, 28

Aphis disease 6

Apple of Peru 4

Apple of Sodom 20, 27, 30

Aqua vitse 62

Aquavit 62

Arctium Lappa L 12,19

Argemone mexicana L 10, 19, 26, 28, 50

Aristida 9

Asclepias curassavica L 20, 22

physiocarpa 26, 28

Askyron 64

Asphodel 19

Asphodelus fistulosus L 19, 40

Aster, Annual Saltmarsh 87

Viscid 27, 29

Aster dumosus 87

subulatus Michx 87

PAGE.

Asthma remedy 81

Atropa 81

Avenafatua~L 8,20,22,61

sterilis 8

Ball, in stomach of animals 8

Barbary Box Thorn 26, 29

Barley Grass 8,61

Bartsia 19

Bassia quinquecuspis 26,28

Bastard Cress 21

Bathurst Burr 11, 12, 16, 18, 20, 27, 28,

61,94

Beaked Horse-nettle 74

Bean Tree 8

Beggar's Blankets 66

Beggar-tick 21

Bendy-eye 30

Bezoars 8

Bidens 12,61

Billy Goat Weed 21,55

Bindii 30

Bindi-eye !.. 12, 61

Bindweed, Black 20

Common 24

Lesser 19

Binneguy Thistle 26, ;0

Bitter Melilot 53

Blackberry 15,20,27,28,30

Black Bindweed 20

Black Currant, Wild 27, 30

Black Oat 61

Black Thistle 16, 26, 28, 106

Blackthorn 26, 28

Bladder Campion 20

Bladder Wort 20

Blanket Weed 26

Blessed Thistle 123

Blind-your-eyes

Blue Couch Grass 3

Blue Devil 21, 66

Blue Pimpernel 6

Blue Thistle 21,50, 66

Blue Weed 6, 21, 26, 64, 66, 70

Boar Thistle 106

Bogan Flea 12

Bokhara Clover 55,56

Borage Family 64

Boraginaceae 64

Box Thorn 24,28,29

African 29

Barbary 26,29

Chinese 26,29

Native 26, 28

Bracken 21, 23

Bracted Plantain 21

Brake 21

Brassica Sinapistrum L 19, 24

134

PAGE.

Brazilian Fire Weed 21

Broad-leaved Dock 20

Mouse-ear Chickweed 20

Brome Grass 8

Bromus 8, 61

secalinus L 20, 22

Broom 10

Gape 24

English 29

Yellow 27,.29

Buckwheat 6

Bugloss 64

Purple 19

Viper's 21, 64

Buffalo Burr 74

Bulhine bulbosa , 38

Bull Thistle 106

Bunch Spear Grass 9

Burdock 12, 19

Burnet, Greater 20,22

Sheep's 20,22

Burr 114

Bathurst 11, 12, 16, 18, 20, 27, 28, 61, 94

Buffalo 74

Chinese 21, 114

Clot 96, 100

Cockle 96, 100, 102

Narcoora 100

Narrawa 27, 28, 30

Noogoora 10, 11, 27, 28, 98

Rocky Mountain Sand 74

Sand 74

Sheep's 20

Yellow 114

Burr Grass 19

Burr Weed 20

Burrawang 27, 29

Bursaria spinosa 26,28

Bushy Starwort 87

Buttercup 47

Celery-leaved 20, 48

Corn 20

Family 47, 49

Poison 47

Bough-seeded 49

Button Weed 20

Calabazita 20

Calandrinia caulescens H.B. and K 19

Californian Lucerne 53

Calif ornian Stink Weed 19, 24, 26

Californian Thistle 27, 30

Perennial 24

Calptis cuneifolia ; 12,61

Caltrops 27, 30

Camelina saliva L 20, 22

Canada Thistle 24

Cape Broom 24

Cape Dandelion 129

Cape Ivy 106

Cape Tulip 19,26,29

Cape Weed 8, 10, 19, 26, 28, 47, 129

Capsella Bursa-pastoris Moench 19

Carbenia benedicta 24

PAGE.

Carduus 19

arvensis 24

benedictus 24

lanceolatus 16, 26, 28, 106

marianus 3, 26, 28

pycnocephalus 26, 28

Carrot, Dwarf 20

Native n

Carthamus HO

lanatus L 26, 28, 117, 120

tinctorius 26, i!8, 120, 123

Caryophyllacese 44

Cassia Sophera 26,28

Cassinia arcuata 24, 25

Castanospermum australe 8

Castor Oil Plant 4, 21, 27, 28, 76, 78, 84

False 26,28, 76

Wild 76

Castor pomace 86

Cat's Ear 124

Long-rooted 124

Smooth 21

Cat's Head 12, 26, 29

Celery-leaved Buttercup 20, 48

Cenchrus australis 11

tribuloides L 19

Centaurea 19

cakitrapa L 26, 28, 110, 118, 120

melitensisL 26, 28, 114, 118

solstitialis L 26, 29, 117, 118

Cerastium glomeratum Thu 20, 22

vulgatum L 20, 22

Chatochloa 8

Chamomile, Corn 19

Field 19

Eed 47

Bounded 19

Wild 19,28

Charlock 19,24

Jointed 20, 24

Cheat 20

Chenopodium album L 20, 22, 26, 29

Chess 20

Chickweed 3, 21, 22

Mouse-eared 20

Chinese Box Thorn 26, 29

Burr 21, 114

Scrub 24

Thistle 120

Chondrilla juncea L 20, 22

Chrysanthemum Leucanthemum L 19

parthenium Hoffm 19

segetum L 19, 26, 29

Cicuta virosa 4

Cirsium lanceolatui 108

Claytonia caulescens 19

Cleaver's Grass 19

Clematis 10

Clot-burr 96, 100

Clover, Bokhara 55, 56

Crimson 8

Sweet 56

Clustered Dock 20

Cnicus lanceolatus L 108

135

PAGE.

Cobblers' Pegs 26, 29, 87, 92

Cockle-burr 96, 100, 102

Cocky Weed 127

Cockspur 26, 28, 114, 118

Coco 31

Common Bindweed 24

Common Matricary 19

Common Persicaria 20

Common Thistle 27, 29

Common Tjmble- weed 20

Commonwealth Government Weed List 19

Compass Plant 125

Composite ... 87, 88, 93, 94, 105, 106, 110,

114, 118, 120, 124, 125,

127, 129

Conium maculatum L 4, 19, 26 . 29

Convolvulus arvensis L. 19, 24, 25

Copper Sulphate 15

Corn Buttercup 20

Corn Chamomile 19

CornCockle 3,23

CornGromwell 19,26,29

Corn Marigold 19

Corn Spurry 20

Corn Woundwort : 74

Cotton 10

Cotton Tree 28

Weed 24

Wild 26, 28

Cotton-leaved Jatropha 21

Cow Cockle 44

Cow Soap Wort 20

Crepis japonica 22

virens L 20,22

Cress, Bastard 21

Field 19

Hoary 19,24

Swine's 20

Wild 26, 29

Cretica hedypnois 20,22

Crimson Clover 8

Crop rotation 15

Crops, smothering 15

Crotalaria arborea 6

Burkeana 6

sagittalis L 20, 22

Crowfoot, Cursed 48

Cryptostemma 10, 47

calendulaceumE,. Br. ...8, 19, 26, 28, 129

Cucumis myriocarpus Naud 19, 26, 29

Cucurbita fcetidissima 22

petennis Gray 20, 22

Curled Dock ....'. 20,27,30

Cursed Crowfoot 48

Cuscuta 19,26,29

Cut-leaved Nettle 21

Cyanogenetic plants 3

Cyathium 58

Cynodon incompletus 3

Cyperaceae 31

Cyperus Hydra 31

rotundus 7,14,24,25,31,34

var. Hydra 31

scariosus 31

PAGE.

Cytisus canariensis 24,25

scoparius 25,26,29

Daisy Family 61, 87, 88, 105, 106, 110,

124, 125, 127, 129

Dandelion 23, 124

Cape 129

Darnel 4

Datura ferox 78

Leichhardtii F.v.M 78

Metel 78

Tatula 78

Stramonium L 4, 19, 26, 28, 76, 84

Daucus brachiatus Sieb 11, 20, 22

Deadly Nightshade 81

Delphinium 47

Dermatitis 6

Trefoil 6

Devil's Claw 27, 29

Devil's Stinkweed 83

Deyeuxia Forsteri 10

Digger's Weed 19,24

Diodia teres Walt 20, 22

Dionysius 64

Dipsacus sylvestris L 21, 23

Dispersion of species 11

Dock 27, 41, 30

Broad-leaved 20-

Clustered 20

Curled... 20, 27, 30-

Dodder 19, 26, 29

Double Gee 12

Drainage 15

Drosera 3

Dunbible Weed 22, £6, 28

Dummy Nettle 73

Dwarf Carrot 20<

Dwarf Mallow 19

Dwarf Nettle 21, 41

Dye Berry 27, 29

Dyer's Weed 27, 29

Eagle Fern 21

Echinospermum lappula 2$

Echium 72

italicum 66

plantagineum L 6, 26, 28, 64

violaceum L 19, 66

vulgare L 6, 21, 6 6

Eichhornia speciosa Kunth 19, 26, 28, 34

Elecampane 91

Elm 8

Emex australis Steinh 12, 19, 26, 29

English Broom 26, 29

Erechthites quadridentata 24, 25

valerianaefolia DC 21, 23

Erigeron 87, 92

canadensis 26, 29

linifolius.. 26, 29-

Erodium moschatum L'Herit 21, 23

Erysimum repandum L 19, 24, 25

136

PAGE.

Euphorbia Drummondii 5

helioscopia L 19

peplus L 19, 56

pilulifera 81

Euphorbiaceae 56, 84

Exccecaria Agallocha 7

Fagopyrismus 6

Fagopyrum esculentum Moench 6

False Castor Oil Plant 26, 28, 76

False Flax 20

False Sunflower 21

False Star Thistle 112, 120

Feather Top

29

Fennel

19

Festuca elatior

4

Feverfew

19

Field Chamomile

19

Field Cress

19

Field Poppy
Flat Weed

20
124

Flax, False

20

Hairy Toad

29

Weed

21

Fleabane

26, 29

Fceniculum vulgare Gsertn

19

Four-leaved Wood Sorrel

20

Foxtail Grass ;

8

Franseria

21

Franseria discolor

23

French Catchfly

21

French Weed

21

Fruits, adhesive

12

with burrs

11

Sling

10

with pappus or parachute .

10

JFumaria officinalis L

19

Fumitory

19

Furze

27, 30

Gcertneria discolor

21,23

Galinsoga parviflora Cav

19

fraUum aparine L

19

Garden Orpine

21

Garlick, Sweet-scented

38, 39

Wild

21

Gilia squarrosa Hook, and Arn.

19, 24, 25, 26

Githago lychnis L

21,23

Glasswort

30

Goat Weed

20

Gold of Pleasure

20

Goossberry Cucumber

19

Goosefoot

20, 26

Wild

29

Goose Grass

19

Gorse

27, 30

Gossypium

10

Grass, insect-catching

11

Grass-seed fleece

12

Greater Burnet

20, 22

Great Mullein

27,30

PAGE.

Green Stem Thorn Apple 26

Green Thistle 106

Ground Needle 21

Groundsel 105

Guildford grass 20, 24

Gymnostyles anthemifolia 93

4, 19

Hair-balls

Hairs, barbed

Hairy Toad Flax

Hairy Thorn Apple

Hairy Thrincia

Hawkbit

Hawk Weed

Hawk's Beard, Smooth

Hedgehog Grass

Hedge Mustard

Hedypnois cretica

Helenium autumnale L

Hemlock

Water

Henbane

Heraldic Thistle

Heteropogon contortus

Hexham Scent

High-water Shrub

Hoary Cress

Hog Weed

Homeria collina Vent

var. miniata Sweet

Hordeum murinum L

Horehound .,

Horse Nettle

Humea elegans

Hyacinth, Water 19, 26

Hyoscyamus

Hypericacese

Hypericon

Hypericum

Androsaemum L

bacciferum <

barbatum

cayenense

ciliatum

Coris

cnspum

empetrifolium

hircinum :

perforatum L ..- — 19, 26

Hypochceri& glabra L

radicata L. ..

8
8

29
78
21
20
20
20
19
20
22
21, 23

26, 29

4
81

27, 29

9

53
21

19, 24
20

26, 29
19

8, 61

27, 29
21, 74

17

28, 34
81
62
64

6

19, 64
64
64
64
64
64
64
64
64

, 28, 62
, 21, 23
23, 124

Indian Hedge Mustard 20

Indigestible plants 8

Indigo 27, 30

Ink Plant 29

Inula graveolens Desf 19, 26, 28, 88

Helenium 91

Iron Weed 19

Irritants, mechanical 61

Iva axillaris Pursh 21, 23

xanthifolia Nutt 21, 23

137

PAGE.

Jatropha, Cotton-leaved 21

Jatropha curcas L 21, 23

gossypifolia L 21, 23

Jatroplui multifida L 21, 23

Jelly-leaf 58

Jimson Wee . 78

Johnson Grass 3, 24

Jointed Charlock 20, 24

Kamara Lantana 21

Kangaroo Thorn 25

Kentrophyllum HO

lanatum Desf 19, 117, 120

Khaki Weed 26, 42

King Island Melilot 54

Knot Weed 20

Koris . 64

Kudnamarra 31

Labiata?..

Lactuca saligna L.

Scdriola L

Lamb's Lettuce ...
Lamb's Quarters.

72

19

125

64

20

Lantana 26, 29

Lantana Camara L 21, 26, 28, 29

Sellowiana Link and Otto 21, 23

Laportea gigas

photiniphylla : 7

Lappago racemosus 11

Lappula lappula 21, 23

Larkspur 47

Legislation, Weed 18

Leguminosae-Papilionacese 53

Leontodon hirtus L 21, 23

Lepidium 12

campestre R.Br 19

DrabaL, 19,24,25

ruderale L 21, 23, 26, 29

Lesser B ndweed 19

Lesser Swine's Cress 20

Lettuce, Lamb's 64

Prickly 125

Wild 19

Liliacese 38, 40

Lily Family 38, 40

Linaria elatine 26, 29

Linum catharticum L n 21, 23

Lithospermum arvense L 19, 26, 29

Live-for-ever 21

Lolium temulentum 4

Long-headed Poppy 20

Long-rooted Cat's Ear 24

Loranthus 25

celastroides 24

pendulus 24

Lucerne, Califomian 53

Paddy's 27,58,1 2

Lycium barbarum 26, 29

chiiense 26, 29

horridum 24, 25

PAGE.

Macrozamia spiralis 27, 29

Madagascar Cotton Bush 20

Madia sativa Mol 19, 24, 25

Mallow, Dwarf 19

Family 58

Marsh 73

Small-flowered 19

Malvaceae 58>

Malva parviflora L 19

rotundifolia L 19>

Malta Thistle 114

Manures, chemical 15

Margold, Corn 19

Wild 26,29

Marrubium vulgare 27, 29

Marsh Elder 21

Marsh Mallow 73

Martynia proboscidea 27, 29

Matricaria discoidea DC 19

Ma Iricary, Common 19-

Mechanical Irritants 61

Medic 11

Medicago 11

denticulata 6-

intertexta 11

orbicularis 11

scutellata 11

Medick 6, 11

Melilot 53

Bitter 5£

King Island 54

Melilotus alba 56

indica 53

officinalis 55

partiflora Desf 53

Mexican Poppy 10, 26 28, 50

Milk Thistle 26, 28, 125

Milk Weed 5, 56

Milk Cotton Bush 20

Milky Mangrove 7

Mint Family 72

Mistletoe 24

Moity fleece 12

Monkshood 47

Moreton Bay Chestnut 8

Moth Mullein ... 21

Mouse-eared Chickweed 20

Mucous membranes 8

Mullein 66

Great 27, 30

Moth 21

Musk Melon 26, 29

Musk Weed 19, 24

Musky Heronbill 21

Mustard, Hedge 20

Treacle 19, 24

Tum'bling 21

Wi'd - 24

Myagrum perfoliatum L 19, 23, 24, 25

Myrioph'Jlum 27, 29

Naninup Weed
Narcoora Burr

54
100

138

Narcotics

Narrawa Burr 27,

Narrow-leaved Amsinckia

Narrow-leaved Pepperwort

Narrow-leaved Stickseed

Native Box

Native Boxthorn

Native Carrot

Native Nettle

Native Plants as Weeds

Native Tobacco ..

Navarretia squarrosa

Nerium Oleander

Nettle, Cut-leaved

Dummy

Dwarf

Family

Horse

Native

Small

Sting

Tall

Nettles 7,

New South Wales, Weeds proclaimed in

Twenty worst weeds in

Nicandra pkysaloides

Nicotiana glauca Grahm 19, 27,

suaveolens

Nightshade, Dsadly

Pincush on

South European

Spiny

Noogoora Burr 10, 11, 27,

Norris's Weed

Nut Grass 7, 14,

PAGE.
4

28, 30
19
21
21
28

26, 28

11

21

17

4

19

3

21

73

21,41
41
21
21
21
41
41

41,42

26

27

4

28,29
4
81
20
30
74

28, 98

54

24,31

Oats 8,61

Oil Plant 83

Oleander 3

Olearia viscidula 17, 27, 29

Onion Grass 20, 24

Skin ; 40

Weel 19, 40

Wild 25, 38, 39, 40

Onopordon acanthium L 19, 27, 29, 120

Opuntia 8, 18, 61

Osteospermum moniliferum 27, 29

Oxalis cernua Thunb 20

Oxalis corniculata L 21, 23

Oxalis telraphylla Cav 20

Ox Tongue 20

Ox-eye Daisy 19

Paddy's Lucerne 27, 58, 102

Paddy Melon ;... 26, 29

Papaveracese , 50

Papaver dubium L 20

hybridum L 9, 20

rhoeas L 20

Pappus 10

Parachute arrangements in fruits 10

P,arsley Fern 4

PAGE.

Paspalum scrobic latum 4

Passiflora alba 6

Passion-flower, White flowering 6

Paterson's Curse 6, 19, 26, 28, 64

Pea Family 53

Peach-leaved Poison bush 8

Pepperwort 12, 23

Narrow-leaved 21

Perennial Calif ornian Thistle 24

Perennials 17

Persicaria, Common 20

Petty Spurge .- 19, 56

Physic Nut 21

Phytobezoars 8

Phytolacca octandra 27, 28, 29

Picris echioides L 20

hieraciodes L 20

Pigweed 20,26,28

Pimpernel, Blue 6

Scarlet 6

Pincushion Nightshade 20

Pines 10

Pink Chinese Thistle 110, 120

Pink Family 44

Pink Star 20

Pisonia Brunoniana 12

Pitch-fork 12

Pitch Weed 19, 24

Plantago 12, 41, 64

aristata Michx 21, 23

Plantain 12, 41

Bracted 21

Poison Bush, Peach-leaved 8

Poison Butter cup 47

Poison Ivy 21

Poison Oak 21

Poison Vine 21

Poison Weed 6

Poisoning of goats 6

Poisonous weeds 2, 5

Polanisia viscosa 12

Polygonum aviculare L 20

convolvulus L 20

hydropiper 27, 29

persicaria L 20

Pontederia crassipes Mart 34

Pontederiacese 34

Poppy 9

Family 50

Field 20

Long-headed 20

Mexican 10, 26, 28, 50

Prickly 10, 19, 5f)

Wild 20

Yellow 50

Porcupine Grass. 9,61

Potato Family 74, 76

Poterium sanguisorba 22

Poverty Weed 21

Prickly Acacia 24

Lettuce 125

Pear 8, 12, 15, 18, 55, 61, 97

Poppy 10, 19, 50

Prince of Wales Feather 26, 28

139

PAGE.

Procumbent Pearl-wort 21

Pteridiurn aquilinum L 21, 23

Purging Flax 21, 23

Nut 21

Purple Bugloss

Calandrinia 19

Corn Cockle 21

Thistle 106

Top 27, 68, 70

Thorn Apple 78

Weed 70

Purple-stem Thorn Apple 26

Queensland Hemp 27, 58

Ragweed 20

Ragwort 20, 24, 106

Rainfall, Fortuitous 16

Ranunculaceae 47, 49

Ranunculus arvensis L 20

muricatus L 20, 47, 49

sceleratus L 20, 47

Raphanus Raphanistrum L 20, 24

Rattlebox 20

Red Chamomile 47

Redhead 20

Red Ink Plant 27, 28, 29

Redroot 20

Reseda luteola L 20, 27, 29

Rhus radicans L 21, 23

Ricinus communis L 27, 28, 78, 84

var. Gibsoni ; 84

Rocky Mountain Sand Burr 74

Rodent Ulcer, Treatment o 57

Roly Poly 10, 16, 26, 28

Roman Wormweed 20, 28

Wormwood 26

Romulea cruciata Ker-Gawl 20, 24, 25

Rosa rubiginosa L 20, 27, 28, 29

Rough Fig 8

Rough-seeded Buttercup 49

Rounded Chamomile 19

Rubus fruticosus L 20, 27, 28, 30

Rumex 27,30,41

acetosella L 20

conglomerate Murray 20

crispusL 20,27,30

oUusifolius L 20

Russian Thistle 21

Sacred Thistle 24

Safflower 123

Saffron Thistle 19, 26, 28, 112, 120

Sagina procumbens DC 21, 24

Salaola Kali-tragus (L.) Moq 21, 23

Kali 10,27,30

Saltwort 27, 30

Salvia verbenacea 24, 25

Sand Burr 74

Saponaria officinalis 46

vaccaria L. 20, 44

PAGE.

Saponins 2

Saucy Jack ; H4

Scandix pecten-veneris L 20

Scarlet Pimpernel 6

Scolymus maculata 27, 30

Scotch Thistle 19, 26, 27, 29, 120

Sedge Family 31

Sedum telephium L 21, 24

Seeds, boring 9

fine as dust 9

gummy..... 12

hygrometric 9

should be screened 14

Sellow's Lantana 21

Senebiera coronopus Poir 20

didyma Pers 20

Senecio Jacob JL a L 20, 24, 25, 105, 106

scandens 106

vulgaris L 105

Senesson 105

Setaria 8

Sharp-pointed Crowfoot 20

Sheep's Burnet 20, 22

Sheep's Burr 20

Sheep, Jaw of 8

Sheep's Weed 19, 24, 26

She-oaks 10

Shepherd's Blanket 27, 30

Shepherd's Needle 20

Shepherd's Purse 19

Shivering Weed 73

Sida retusa L 21, 27, 58

rhombifolia L 21, 27, 58

Silene cucubalis L 20

gattica'L. 21,24

Silphium laciniatum 125

Simson 105

Sisymbrium altissimum L 21, 24

columnae Jacq 20

officinale L 20

orientate L 20

Slavering 6

Sleepy Grass 4

Slender Thistle 26, 28

Sling fruits 10

Sm ll-flowered Galinsoga 19

Small-flowered Mallow 19

Small Nettle 21

Smart Weed 27, 29

Smooth Cat's Ear 21

Smooth Hawk's Beard 20

Sneezeweed 21

Soap Wort 46

Solanacese 74, 76

Solanum 4

Solanum carolinense L 21, 24

cinereum 27, 28, 30

heterandrum Pursh 20

nigrum 27, 30

rostratum Dunal 12, 74

sodomwum L 20,27,30

verbascifolium 27, 30

Soliva anthemifolia 93

sessiiis Ruiz and Pavon 93

140

PAGE.

Sonchus asper 128

oleraceus L. 127

var. asper 128

Sorrel Weed 20

South African Wood Sorrel 20

South European Nightshade 30

Sow Thistle 127

Spartium junceum 27, 30

Spear Grass 4, 9

Spear Thistle 26, 106

Spergula arvensis L 20

Spinifex 9, 61

Spiny Emex 19

Spiny Nightshade 74

Spitzklette 104

Spotted Golden Thistle 27, 30

Spurge Family 56, 84

Petty 19,56

Sun 19

St. Barnaby's Thistle 26, 29, 117, 118

St. John's Blood 62

St. John's Wort 6, 19, 26, 28, 62, 63

Stachys arvensis L 5, 15, 21, 72

palustris L 74

Stagger Weed 5, 15, 21, 72

Star Thistle 19, 26, 28, 110, 118

Starwort 87

Bushy 87

Stellaria media DC 3, 21, 24

Stepkania kernandicefolia Walp 7

Stick-tight 12

Stinging weeds 7

Stinkaster 88

Stinking Mayweed 19

Stinking Roger 21

Stink Weed, Calif ornian 19, 24, 26

Devil's 83

Stinkwort 19, 26, 28, 88

Stipa 9

robusta 4

setacea 9

spartea 9

Sundew 3

Sun Spurge 19

Suspected plants 5

Swainsona galegifolia 27, 30

Sweet Briar 15, 20, 27, 28, 29

Sweet Clover 56

Sweet-scented Garlic 38, 39

Swine's Cre-s 20

20

Tagetes glandulifera Schranck 21

Tall Nettle 41

Tape Vine 7

Taraxacum Dens-leonis 124

Teazel 23

Wild 21,23

Temperance beverage 42

Tharaka 31

PAGE

Thistle 10, 19

Binneguy 26, 50

Black 16, 26, 28, 106

Blessed 123

Blue 20, 50, 66

Boar. 106

Bull.. 106

Californian 27, 30

Canada 24

Chinese 120

Common 27, 29

False Star 112, 120

Family 110, 114, 118, 120, 127

Green... 106

Heraldic 27, 29

Malta 114

Milk 26, 28, 125

Perennial Californian 24

Pink Chinese 110, 120

Purple 106

Russian 21

Sacred 24

Saffron 19, 26, 28, 112, 120

Scotch 19, 26, 27, 29, 120

Slender 26, 28

Sow. 127

Spear 26, 106

Spotted Golden 27, 30

St. Barnaby's 26, 29, 117, 118

Star 19, 26, 28, 110, 118

True Star 110

Variegated 3, 26, 28

White 28, 50

Yellow 118

Yellow Chinese 120

Yellow Star 118

Thlaspi arvense L 21

Thorn Apple 19, 26, 76, 84

Green Stem 26

Hairy , 78

Purple Stem 26

Thread of Life 27, 29

Three-pronged Spear Grass 9

Thrincia hirtus 23

Tobacco Bush 29

Native 4

Tree 19, 27, 28, 29

Wild 17, 19, 27, 30

Tragus racemosus 11

Treacle Mustard 19, 24

Tree Tobacco 19, 27, 28, 29

Trefoil

Trefoil Dermatitis

Trema aspera 8,

TribuLus terrestris 12, 27, 30

Trifolium incarnatum 8

Triodia 9 61

Triumfetta rhomboidea Jacq 21

True Star Thistle HO

Tumble Weed, Common 20

Tumbling Mustard ...:...... 21

Turkey Red 86

Tutsan : ™'

141

PA(}E.

(Ilex europceus 10, 27, 30

Urticaccae 41

Urtica

dioica 41

incisa Poir 21, 41

urens L. .... .. 21, 41

Variegated Thistle 3, 26, 28

Venus' Comb 20

Verbascum 66

Ikapsus L 21, 27, 30

Verbenaceae 68,70

Verbena, Wild 17, 27, 68, 70 72

Verbena bonariensis . 27, 68, 72

Family 68, 70

ve nosa Gill et Hook 27, 68, 70

Vervain 70, 72

Victoria, Weeds proscribed in 24

Viper's Bugloss 21, 64

Viscid Aster 27, 29

Wallflower Cotton Bush 20

Wart Weed 57

Water Hemlock 4

Water Hyacinth 19, 26, 28, 34

Watsonia augusta 27, 30

Watsonia 27, 30

Wattle-hedge. 25

Wax Weed 73

Weeds, aesthetic aspect of 7

bad points of 1

cemeteries neglected 17

definitions of 1

disappear naturally 16

dispersal by animais 11

natural means 9

distributed by floods 10

wind 9

eradication 15

exterminators, chemical 15

gummy *... 12

legislation 18

Manuals, Australian .'.... 16

and manure 13

migration of 11

native plants 17

New South Wales 26,27

pertinacity and predominance of .. 1

places that harbour 17

poisonous 2, 5

prevention from seeding 14

property destroyers 7

roadsides 17

special treatment 15

Victorian 24

with silky hairs 10

with "tumble-weed" structure ... 10

with wing structure 10

worry 14

Weed-seeds, burying dangerous 14

fine as dust 9

in packing of goods 14

Weld ................................ 20,

Wheat Thief ....................................

White-flowering Passion Flower .
White Thistle ................................ .'

Wild Amaranth ............................

Black Currant .......................

Castor Oil Plant ........................

Chamomile .......................... 19,

Cotton ....................................

Cress ......................................

Garlic .......................................

Goosef oot ..................................

Gourd ....................................

Lettuce ...................................

Marigold ...................................

Mignonette ..............................

Mustard ........................

Oat ........................................

Onion ............................ 25, 38,

Pineapple .................................

Radish ..

Teazel

Tobacco

Plant

Tree

Verbena 17, 27, 68,

Wire Weed

Witch's Herb

Wood Sorrel, Four-leaved

South African

Yellow

Wool washing

Woolly Kentrophyllum

Wound Wort

Coin

Wurta

PAGE.

27,29

20

6

28, 50

26, 28

27, SO
76

26, 28
26, 28

26, 29
21
29
20
19

20, 29
20
24

20 61
39,40

27, 29
20

20, 24
24

21, 23
17
19

27, 30
70, 72
20
02
20
20
21
12
120
21
74
31

Xanthium canadense 102

strumarium L 10, 11, 27, 28, 96, 98

spinosum L 11, 12, 16, 18, 20, 27

28, 94, 102

Xanthostrumarin 102

Yellow Broom 27,30

Burr 114

Burr Weed 26, 28

Chinese Thistle 120

Forget-me-not 28

Pea 26, 28

Poppy 50

Star Thistle 118

Thistle 118

Wood Sorrel 21

Yower 31

Zygophyllum

64225— F

| 14 three-colour plates, 1 lithoj.

SYDNEY :
WILLIAM APPLKGATE UULLICK, GOVERNMENT PRINTER.

1920.

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USE

WHICH BORROWED

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