LIBRARY FACULTY OF FORESTRY UNIVERSITY OF TORONTO1 WESTERN GRAZING GROUNDS AND FOREST RANGES . Water color by N. Brenizer LUPINE (L*ti**s) ^5 Western Grazing Grounds AND Forest Ranges A HISTORY OF THE LIVE-STOCK INDUSTRY AS CONDUCTED ON THE OPEN RANGES OF THE ARID WEST, WITH PARTICULAR REFERENCE TO THE USE NOW BEING MADE OF THE RANGES IN THE NATIONAL FORESTS BY WILL C. BARNES INSPECTOR OF GRAZING U. S. FOREST SERVICE CHICAGO: THE BREEDER'S GAZETTE 1913 COPYRIGHT. 19!:*. SANDERS PUBLISHING; CO. All rights reserved. SF 95 837 TO ALBERT F. POTTER, Associate Forester and Chief of Grazing United States Forest Service, who, through his practical experience on the western ranges, and genius for organization, built up from the very foundation, without precedent or guide, a system of controlled grazing on the national forest ranges, that will always be a monument to his ability, judgment and foresight. ERRATA. Page 172. Lines 22 and 23. Read "This gives the sheep eight incisors, the same as the cow, and two more than the horse." Page 254. Line 20. For "paunching or rumenotomy" read ''tapping." Page 255. Line 4 and subsequent. For "canula" read "cannula." Page 277. Line 6. For "eight ounces of water" sub- stitute "one to two drams of distilled water'' for the hypo- dermic dose. Page 279. Add to Symptoms of Ergot. 'The poison in cattle acts more slowly, causing sloughing sores about the fetlock, and may induce sloughing of horns, tail or hoofs. Abortion may also be caused. These facts are perhaps a little more noticeable in the central west than in the range country, but are indicated in both regions." Page 312. In lines 12 and 13 substitute "one dram of calomel" for "two drams." A safer dose still is raw lin- seed oil. Page 313. Line 20. For "a teaspoonful of ordinary morphine or opium" read "laudanum or tincture of opium." The hypodermic dose for an adult horse is three to six grains, four grains usually sufficing. By month, two to ten grains is the rule. A teaspoonful of ordinary morphine or opium would prove fatal. Page 319. At the close of line 19 insert the following: "All cases of this disease should be reported immediately to local and state authorities. State and federal laws pro- vide for the control of the disease, but ranchmen in par- ticular are apt to be careless relative to the observation of the law. Knr that reason the disease often conies from the far west." TABLE OF CONTENTS. PREFACE 15-19 LIST OF BOOKS CONSULTED 20 CHAPTER I— THE EARLY WESTERN RANGE. Early events — The genesis of the trail herds — The buf- falo— The stockman's westward advance — The inevita- ble happens — The era of re-adjustment — Advent of the sheepmen — Range wars — A sample attack — Govern- ment control of grazing lands — Curtailment of the open range — The new era 21-32 CHAPTER II — PROGRESS OF THE RANGE BUSINESS. The southern steer trade — Southern steers in the north — Curtailment of northern movement — Southern lamb trade — Grasses and forage of the southern ranges — Alflleria — Semi-desert range of the south — Higher ranges of the southwest — Southwestern grasses — Black grama grass — Sacaton — The sages — Prickly pear — Feeding mistletoe — Mountain forage — The northern desert ranges — The northern range — Features of north- ern range — Spring ranges — Carrying capacity of ranges — Horses the worst grazers — Range for cattle 33-80 CHAPTER III — COMING OF THE SETTLERS. Extension of holdings — Displacing stockmen — Early settle- ment in the Great Plains region — The settlers' second attack on the arid region — Success of the settlers — The Mormons — Nesters — Dry farmers 81-90 CHAPTER IV— LIVE STOCK ON THE RANGE. Live stock in United States — Live stock in western states — Short-horns on the range — The advent of Herefords — Early horses of the plains — Stockmen's horses — Mus- tangs— Wrong use of names — Sheep introduced — Early shepherding — Impress of the Merino — Securing mutton type — Angoras — Hogs on the ranges 91-113 CHAPTER V— HANDLING CATTLE ON THE RANGE. Number of range outfits — Past and present range condi- tions— Old time equipment — The bog rider — Developing water — Range methods — Herds not large — Branding the calves — Night guard duty — Brand inspectors — Loading for market — Loss of "downers" — Hay-fed cattle — Rule for measuring hay 114-139 7 8 WESTERN GRAZING GROUNDS AND FOREST RANCH-IS CHAPTER VI — HANDLING SHEEP ON THE RANGE. Lamb feeding — Rise in price for lambs — Advance in wool prices — Increase in cost of production — Grazing leased lands — Double profit from sheep — Time of shearing — Weight of fleece — Dipping — Time of lambing — Lambing grounds — The herder's work — Marking — Castrating — Docking — Night herding — Following the "drop band" — Lambing in tents — A critical period — Moving to mountain pastures — Weight of lambs — Shipping the sheep — Size of bands — Bedding down at night — Sheep in fenced pastures 140-160 CHAPTER VII— GOATS ON THE RANGE. Kids are tender — Little herding needed — Common goats breed best — Shearing and dipping 161-163 CHAPTER VIII— DETERMINING THE AGE OP STOCK. The mouth test for cattle — Horn buttons — Rings — Age of horses — Age of sheep 164-172 CHAPTER IX— RANGE STOCK MANAGEMENT. Objections to repeated use of bed grounds — Salting stock — Salt and sulphur — Kind of salt to use — Effect of exces- sive salt — The salt lakes — Making a salt lick — Salt- hungry cattle raid camps — Source of friction — Experi- ments with salt — Bulls on range — Number of bulls to cows — Age of usefulness — Dehorning cattle — Dehorning the calves — Value of dehorned cattle — Marking cattle — Ear and lip tattoo — Earmarking — Castrating — Usual methods — Keeping tab on sex — Earmarks — Brand books — Brands — Names of brands — Changing brands — Pick- ing over brands 173-198 CHAPTER X — COST OF RUNNING STOCK ON RANGES. Cost of grazing cattle — Cost with sheep — Basis of estimates • — Investment necessary — Other cost factors — Cost of raising sheep — Factors equalizing costs — Tables of Tariff Board : 199-207 CHAPTER XI — STOCK ON RANGES IN NATIONAL FORESTS. Timber the first consideration — Liberal policy followed — Improving the ranges — Elimination of tramp stockmen * — Tramp sheepmen in California — Changing from cattle to sheep — Cattle vs. sheep — The permit system — New settlers — The cash value of permits — Permits non-sal- able and non-transferable — Permits for more than one year — Drifting of stock onto forests — Fencing privi- leges— Fees moderate — Possibility »f romprt it ivr bids — Krsult of competitive bids — Exchanging lands — Stock losses less — Policy of Government growing in favor. . .208-225 TABL1-: OF CO.NTKXTS CHAPTER xn -Tin-: ('AKi<; OF TIII-: I;.\N<;K. Burning off a range — Range erosion — Over-stocking — Suc- cess in handling the range — Restoring former r.i re- conditions— Reseeding a range — Over-grazing vs. close grazing- -- '• - ( •'• CHAPTER XIII — POISONOUS PLANTS. lU-rders should be posted — Remedies — Permanganate of potash — Poisons do not affect all animals alike — Bloat — Loco — Loco symptoms — Remedies — Larkspurs — Lupines — Death camas — Water hemlock — Aconite — Scrub oak — Pingue — Rubber weed — Ergot — Sneeze weed — Choke- cherry — Sleepy grass — Fox tail and squirrel tail grass. 246-273 CHAPTER XIV— SYMPTOMS AND REMEDIES. Bloat — Remedies — Loco — Remedies — Larkspurs - Lupines — Camas — Water hemlock — Oaks — Ergot — Sneeze weed — Choke cherry — Pingue — Kafir corn arid sorghum 274-281 CHAPTER XV — DISEASES OF LIVE STOCK 28L'-L'Sr> CHAPTER XVI— T UK MSKASES OF CATTLE. Blackleg — Remedial measures — Texas fever — Scabies <>r mange 286—303 CHAPTER XVII— DISEASES OF SHEEP. Scabies — Remedies — Dips in use — Lip and leg ulceration. . .304-309 CHAPTER XVIII— DISEASES OF HORSKS. Colic — Engorgement or obstruction colic — Wind colic — Azo- turia — Remedies — Snake bites — Glanders or farcy .... 310-319 CHAPTER XIX— INSECT PESTS. Insect pests — Heel flies 320-326 CHAPTER XX — PREDATORY ANIMALS IN THIS WTEST. Coyotes — Wild cats and lynxes — Wolves and mountain lions — Bears — Trapping and poisoning predatory animals — Scents — Poisons — Prairie dogs — Poison for killing prairie dogs 327-347 CHAPTER XXI— SADDLE HORSES ON THE RANGE. Type of horse for range work— Gaits — The American saddle horse 348-354 CHAPTER XXII— HORSE TCQUIPM KXT Foil RANGE WORK. Saddles — Bits and bridles — Blankets — Rope — Spurs and quirts — Hobbles — Pack saddles— H iicln-s X ,.\v for Un- hitch 3.r,.v 375 APPENDIX. (Jrsi/ing bill — A few definitions 377-384 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. LUPINE (LUPINUS) IN COLORS Frontispiece THE OLD TYPE OF TEXAS LONG-HORN STEER 23 THE CERTAIN RESULT OF OVERGRAZING 32 A TYPICAL SOUTHWESTERN MOUNTAIN VALLEY RANGE IN THE YEL- LOW PINE REGION 37 A DESERT, OR MESQUITE RANGE, NEAR TUCSON, ARIZ 41 ALFILERIA (ERODIUM CICUTARIUM), "FILAREE" 42 GALLETA (HILARIA RIGIDA), PRONOUNCED GUY-ET-TA 44 NEEDLE OR DOGTOWN GRASS (ARISTIDA LONGISETA) 45 BUFFALO GRASS (BULBILIS DACTYLOIDES) 46 CURLY OR CREEPING MESQUITE (HILARIA CENCHROIDES) 47 BERMUDA GRASS (CAPRIOLA DACTYLON) 48 BLUE GRAMA GRASS (BOUTELOUA OLIGOSTACHYA) 51 HAIRY GRAMA GRASS (BOUTELOUA VESTITA) 52 BLACK GRAMA GRASS (MUHLENBERGIA PORTERI) 53 SACATON (SPOROBOLUS AIROIDES), SOMETIMES CALLED SALT GRASS. . . 55 SWEET SAGE OR "WINTER-FAT" (EUROTIA LAN ATA) 56 SERVICE BERRY (AMELIANCHIER ALNIFOLIA) 59 MOUNTAIN MAHOGANY (CERCOCARPUS PARVIFOLIUS) 60 SEMI-DESERT SAGE RANGE IN WYOMING 62 PRAIRIE JUNE GRASS (KOELERIA CRISTATA) 67 BLUESTEM OR WESTERN WHEATGRASS (AGROPYRON SMITHII) 68 MOUNTAIN BUNCH GRASS (FESTUCA VIRIDULA) 69 BRIDGES BUILT TO CROSS SHEEP OVER THE BOISE IRIVER IN IDAHO AND BLACK'S FORK, UTAH, UINTA NATIONAL FOREST 71 BLUEGRASS (POA PRETENSIS) 73 FOXTAIL (HARDEUM MURINUM) 74 BRONCHO GRASS (BROMUS RUBENS) 75 FESTUCA MYUROS (SOMETIMES CALLED POVERTY GRASS) 76 A TYPICAL WESTERN STOCK RANCH (IN UTAH) 83 TYPE OF SHORT-HORN BULL 93 TYPE OF DEVON BULL 94 TYPE OF HEREFORD BULL 94 TYPE OF ANGUS BULL 95 TYPE OF GALLOWAY BULI 96 A PEN OF SHROPSHIRES 100 A PAIR OF LINCOLNS 101 HAMPSHIRE SHEEP 101 RAMBOUILLET RAMS 102 A COTSWOLD RAM 105 A BAND OF COMMON NEW MEXICO GOATS 107 11 12 WESTERN GRAZING GROUNDS AND FOREST RANGES ANGORAS ON BRUSHY HILLSIDES IN ARIZONA 108 THE CHAPAREJOS WITH THE GOAT SKIN FRONT ARE MORE THEATRI- CAL THAN PRACTICAL 117 THE "Boo RIDER" AT WORK. PULLING A Cow OUT OF A BOG HOLE. . 121 A NEW MEXICO ROUND-UP OUTFIT AND AN OLD-TIME CHUCK WAGON 124 "STOOP AS You NEAR THE AVERAGE Cow PONY." l^.'j THE CATTLE ARE BUNCHED IN ONE GREAT HERD AT THE ROUND-UP GROUND 127 A DAY HERD 128 A ROUND-UP OUTFIT BRANDING CALVES 129 "THEY ARE ROPED AND DRAGGED TO THE FIRE'' 130 PUTTING A "BUTT" BRAND ON A CALF 131 "A QUICK JERK AND THE ANIMAL LANDS UPON ITS SIDE*' 132 THE "SQEEZE CHUTE" FOR BRANDING AND DEHORNING 133 WESTERN INSPECTORS EXAMINING BRANDS OF STEERS 134 YEARLING STEERS IN YARDS AT MAGDALENA,, N. M., AWAITING IN- SPECTION 135 LOADING FAT STEERS IN COLORADO 137 A SHEEP WAGON OR CAMP ON WHEELS IN WYOMING 140 AN ARIZONA "SHEEP WAGON" — BURRO PACKED WITH GRUB AND WATER 141 "AN AVERAGE HAND SHEARER WILL CLIP 60 TO 70 SHEEP PER DAY" 145 "THE IMPROVED MACHINES ENABLE A SHEARER TO HANDLE 200 SHEEP IN AN EIGHT-HOUR DAY" 1 4<; PENS AND YARDS IN WHICH SHEEP ARE DIPPED AND HANDLED IN NORTHERN ARIZONA 148 A BAND OF RANGE LAMBS AND EWES ON A HOT DAY 149 THE "GALVANIZED EWE" OR ORPHAN LAMBS ARTIFICIALLY FED 150 A LAMBING TENT IN OREGON 153 IN HEAVY TIMBER "CUTS" MAY OCCUR, AND THE BAND SHOULD NOT BE so LARGE AS ON THE OPEN RANGE 155 A HERDER CAN LOOK AFTER MANY MORE SHEEP ON AN OPEN RANGE THAN ON A BROKEN RANGE 157 A COYOTE-PROOF FENCE IN THE WALLOW A MOUNTAINS. BUILT BY THE FOREST SERVICE IN OREGON 158, 159 A PEN OF ANGORA KIDS IN NEW MEXICO 16:2 TEETH OF THE CALF 164 TEETH OF THE Cow 165 TEETH OF THE HORSE .- 168 TEETH OF THE SHEEP 170, 171 "Hoc TIED" — A HORSE TIED DOWN FOR BRANDING OR DOCTORING. . . 1s- EAR MARKS 185 BRAND BOOKS ISC. 187, 1X8. ISO, 190, 191 BRANDS i:n'. 193, 194, 196, r.'T "DOWN THESE TRAILS THK WATKK KIXAI.LY TOKK" Hi's OLD STOCK TRAILS WASHED OUT. FOKMIXI; AUKOYOS i.\ MKAHOW LAND if i' :> Ax ARIZONA RANGE AFTER A HARD SPRING -."! l A RANCH <.K "SNAKK" OR "I«'II:K" WKKM WHICH Is SI»MI:TIMI:S MIS- TAKEN FOR FEED . 237 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 13 < MJ.'H AK1> (JKASS (I)ACTVI.JS GLOMERATA) . . 239 TIMOTHY ( I'M LEUM PRATEXSE) '-39 liKD Tor ( ACKOSTIS ALBA) 240 HUNGARIAN BROME GRASS (BROMUS IXKRMIS) 241 WOOLLY OR PURPLE Loco (ASTRAGALUS MOLLISSIMUS), IN COLORS, Facing page 256 WHITE Loco OR RATTLE WEED IN K LOWER (ARAGALLUS LAMBERTI) . . i'.~>7 Loco ON THE RANGE NEAR ALBUQUERQUE, N. M 258 A LofoKi> ANIMAL WILL STEP HIGH OVER ANYTHING — EVEN A ROPE OR A TRAIL 260 A TYPICAL LOCOED ANIMAL 261 PURPLE LARKSPUR (DELPHINIUM BICOLOR), IN COLORS . Facing page 264 DEATH CAMAS (ZYGADENUS VENENOSUS), IN COLORS .. .Pacing page 266 WATER HEMLOCCK (CICUTA VAGANS), IN COLORS Facing page 267 ACONITE (ACONITUM COLUMBIANUM), MONK'S HOOD, IN COLORS, Facing page 268 PORTION OF A STEER'S HIDE., SHOWING THE TEXAS-FEVER TICK 295 DORSAL AND VENTRAL VIEWS OF THE TEXAS-FEVER TICK 299 1 MPPING CATTLE IN OKLAHOMA FOR TEXAS-FEVER TICKS 302 AFTER BEING DIPPED, THE SHEEP PASS THROUGH A DRIPPING PEN AT THE END 307 THE HEEL FLY ( HYPORDERMA LINEATA) 322 A BOGGED DOWN Cow OVERLOOKED BY THE "Boo RIDERS" 323 THE CAMP OF Two GOVERNMENT HUNTERS IN THE BOISE NATIONAL FOREST 328 A COYOTE IN A TRAP 329 "THE LION is DIFFICULT TO TRAP BUT EASY TO CAPTURE WITH HOUNDS" 331 A PRAIRIE DOG MOUND IN AN ALFALFA FIELD 341 NOTE THE NOSE MARKS MADE IN THE WET SOIL WHEN THE PRAIRIE DOGS REPAIR THEIR MOUNDS 341 DISTRIBUTING PRAIRIE DOG POISON 345 AN AWKWARD WAY TO MOUNT 352 THE PROPER WAY TO MOUNT — "READY TO SWING INTO THE SADDLE". 353 THE Low HORN TEXAS TREE, WEIGHT, 40 POUNDS 355 THE SWELLED FORK TREE ; 355 THE MCCLELLAN SADDLE 356 THE CALIFORNIA SADDLE 356 SPANISH BITS 358 SPURS 362 THE FIRST STEP IN HOBBLING 363 THE SECOND AND THIRD STEP IN HOBBLING 364 PACK SADDLES 366 THE HITCH 371, 372 PACK POCKETS 374 A FIRST-CLASS JOB OF PACKING 365 PACKING DOWN A MOUNTAIN SIDE 367 A HANDY BED PACK, SOMETIMES CALLED THE "OREGON WIND".. . ::»;:i PREFACE. Every author believes that the book which he is plac- ing before the public will "fill a long-felt want," and success or failure depends very much on how closely he has been able to gauge the nature of the "long-felt want." In writing this book, I have had in view the de- mand for some practical work on the grazing side of their profession by the young men who are entering or preparing to enter the Forest Service of the United States. The science of forestry is a new one to the most of us, and the conditions here are so very different from those in older countries, where it has been studied for many years, that we are forced to meet and solve many new problems for which there are no precedents or es- tablished rules. Among the most perplexing questions which the student of forestry must cope with here is that of utilizing the area included in the National For- ests so as to get for the people the full value of all its resources. One of the greatest of these resources is the feed and forage which will furnish sustenance for millions of cattle, horses and sheep. Like the "wheel that will not turn with the water that has passed," this feed must be used as it grows each season or be forever wasted. It cannot be stored or saved for future use. From the first settlement of this country the pioneers have used the vacant lands about them for grazing their stock with little or no supervision or restraint, and no 15 16 WESTERN GRAZING GROUNDS AND FOREST RANGES scheme which presumes to lock up these grazing areas against the coming of the settlers' herds will ever meet with the approval of the American people. It is true we must have trees and lumber, but we must first of all be fed, and the meat-producing powers of the grasses growing on these forested areas are entirely too valu- able to be overlooked or ignored. Therefore it is well that this has been recognized at the beginning of our forestry work, and careful plans laid to utilize every spear of grass and bit of forage where it may be done without defeating the original purpose of establishing the National Forests. Heretofore those handling the grazing side of this work have been drawn from that class of men who have all their lives been identified with stockraising — practical men accustomed to the range and understand- ing the needs of stockmen from a utilitarian rather than a scientific standpoint. But this source of supply can- not always be depended upon. The author believes the two matters go hand in hand, and that there is room for the trained forester and the trained grazing man on the same platform. Scientific as well as practical for- estry demands men educated especially for the work, and the young fellows who are graduating from our forestry schools will eventually fill the places on the for- ests now held by graduates from the western school of "hard knocks," the course of which, for most of them, covered many long and weary years before they re- ceived their diplomas. These young graduates cannot of course have any great knowledge of the practical side of the stockman's work, because so much of it must be learned from actual experience and every-day life on the ranges. Never- PREFACE 17 theless the author believes it possible to put the ex- perience of thirty years' handling live stock on the open ranges under all sorts of conditions into a book that will be of some practical use and benefit to these stu- dents and others engaged in the work. So far as pos- sible, I have endeavored to write things down from the practical point of view, and to put them in language that would not smother their meaning in a haze of scien- tific or professional expressions. The chapters on poisonous plants and range grasses will, I trust, be found of value, not only to the forest man but to the stockman. In my experience I have found few stockmen who could identify by their proper names even the commonest grasses on their ranges or the various plants poisonous to stock, and I hope that the illustrations and plates scattered through the work will furnish a means of identifying them that will make the book of value for that, if nothing more. It is possible that the trained botanist will find errors in my classifi- cation of some of the plants. I have made every effort to check up each one of them and make certain they were correct, but in several instances I found that the scien- tists themselves did not all agree as to their proper names. In the chapter on diseases of animals I have only tried to show the plainest symptoms of the ordinary diseases that affect live stock as they appear to a stock- man and not a veterinarian. It is of course impossible to have a veterinarian at hand for every sickness that the stockman finds among his domestic animals, and it is to cover these emergency cases that I have written. Most of the remedies are those to be found in every stock-owner's cabin, and if not they should be there. To the forest ranger, out in the hills with his saddle 18 WESTERN GRAZING GROUNDS AND FOREST RANGES horses and possibly a milk cow or two, I deemed this information of unusual value, because of his isolation and dependence upon his own efforts to relieve the suf- fering animal. Most of these remedies have been tried by myself or used by others under my own observation. In handling the various sections of the country in regard to the ranges it has not been possible to cover every state, but I have taken some specific well-known range and let it answer for that region as a whole. Doubtless many readers will wonder why such and such a plant or bush, prominent on his immediate range, has not been mentioned. Because of lack of room, many forage plants and grasses have been omitted, but I be- lieve those which have been included are the species most generally found through the range country, and it was out of the question to mention them all. In run- ning down the local names for many grasses and browse I have found different names for the same plant very common. Buck brush in California is not the buck brush of either Arizona or Montana, while there are as many different kinds of bunch grasses as there are states in the West. The chapter covering saddle horses, saddle equip- ment and packing is for the benefit of the beginner who may want some information on these subjects as a guide to his investments in such things. The author desires to acknowledge his indebtedness to many friends for advice on matters connected with the work, and especially to Mr. Frederick Coville, Dr. A. S. Hitchcock, Dr. R. H. True and C. D. Marsh of the Bureau of Plant Industry and James T. Jardine of the Forest Service, whose kind suggestions upon matters on which they are so well posted has been of great benefit. PREFACE 19 I have also received much assistance which I desire frankly and gratefully to acknowledge, from the many Government publications written by such well-known authorities as David Griffiths, F. Lamson-Scribner, V. K. Chestnut, E. V. Wilcox, Dr. C. Hart Merriam, Ver- non Bailey, James T. Jardine, Richard W. Hickman, D. E. Salmon, Herbert T. Osborn, C. D. Marsh and others, who are always so reliable and thorough in their inves- tigative work. In identifying the various plants and grasses the work "American Grasses," by F. Lamson- Scribner, constituting Division of Agrostology Bulletins Nos. 7,9, 17 and 20, has been of the greatest assistance and frequently consulted. The labor involved in getting together the material for this volume has been considerable, but the pleasure derived and the information gained, made it indeed a labor of love and well worth while. If the book is of use to the young men who are taking up forestry as their life-work, in assisting them to a better understand- ing of some of the many problems which they will meet in handling grazing matters upon the forests, or to stock- men themselves in managing their herds, the writer will feel well repaid for his work. WILL C. BARNES. Washington, D. C, July, 1913. 20 WESTERN GRAZING GROUNDS AND FOREST RANGES LIST OF BOOKS CONSULTED. The author gladly acknowledges his indebtedness to the writers of the following publications, among the many others which he has consulted in getting together the material for this book : "AMERICAN GRASSES/' Buls. 7, 9, 17 and 20, Division of Agrostology, Department of Agriculture ; F. Lamson-Scribner. "A PROTECTED STOCK RANGE IN ARIZONA/' Bui. 177, Bureau of Plant Industry, Department of Agriculture ; David Griffiths. "COYOTE PROOF PASTURE EXPERIMENT/' Cir. 160, Forest Service, Depart- ment of Agriculture ; J. T. Jardine. "DESTRUCTION OP WOLVES AND COYOTES/' Cir. 63, Bureau of Biological Survey ; Vernon Bailey. "DISEASES OF CATTLE/' Issued by Department of Agriculture. "DISEASES OF HORSES/' Issued by Department of Agriculture. "FOREST TREES OF THE PACIFIC SLOPE/' G. B. Sudworth. "INSECTS AFFECTING DOMESTIC ANIMALS/' Bui. 5, New Series, Division of Entomology, Department of Agriculture ; Herbert Osborn. "Loco DISEASE OF THE PLAINS/' Bui. 112, Bureau of Animal Industry; C. D. Marsh. "METHODS OF ERADICATING CATTLE TICKS," Cir. 110, Bureau of Animal Industry ; L. A. Klein. "PASTURAGE SYSTEM FOR HANDLING RANGE SHEEP/' Cir. 178, Forest Service; J. T. Jardine. "PRINCIPAL POISONOUS PLANTS OF THE UNITED SPATES/' Bui. 20, Di- vision of Botany, Department of Agriculture. "SCABIES OF CATTLE/' Farmers' Bui. 152 ; Richard W. Hickman. "SCAB IN SHEEP/' Farmers' Bui. 159 ; D. E. Salmon and C. W. Stiles. "SOME POISONOUS PLANTS OF THE NORTHERN STOCK RANGES," Year- book, Department of Agriculture, 1900 ; V. K. Chestnut. "STOCK POISONING PLANTS OF MONTANA/' Bui. 26, Division of Botany, Department of Agriculture; V. K. Chestnut and E. V. Wilcox. "TEXAS OR TICK FEVER AND ITS PREVENTION/' Farmers' Bui. 258 ; John R. Mohler. "THE LARKSPURS AS POISONOUS PLANTS/' Bui. Ill, Part 1, Bureau of Plant Industry; G. H. Crawford. "THE PRAIRIE DOG OF THE GREAT PLAINS/' Yearbook, Department of Agriculture, 1901 ; C. Hart Merriam. _ "THE RED DESERT OF WYOMING/' Bui. 13, Division of Agrostology, De- partment of Agriculture ; Aven Nelson. "THIRTY POISONOUS PLANTS OF THE UNITED STATKS," farmers' Bui. sr, ; Chestnut. CHAPTER I. THE EARLY WESTERN RANGE. From the time of the Pilgrim Fathers down to the present day one of the greatest resources of the United States has been the natural grasses and forage plants upon which millions of domestic animals are annually supported. Owing to the nature of the grasses and herb- age, the business of the grazier was not developed in the eastern portion of the United States to the same ex- tent as in the states lying west of the Missouri River. The climatic conditions in the eastern states made it impossible to utilize the grasses all the year round, ex- cept by harvesting them and storing the crop away for winter use. In the more arid sections west of the Missouri, known as the region of the Great American Desert, are found grasses that cure on the ground in the pure dry air, while a shortage of rainfall allows them to lie on the ground without serious deterioration. Here in this desert coun- try are also found the great family of the sages and many other forage plants of more or less value known as "browse" the "cha-mi-za" of the Spanish herders. Early Events. — As early as 1800, before the tide of settlers had crossed the summit of the Alleghanies, the Spanish had established themselves on the far west coast from San Diego north, and their herds of cattle, 21 22 WESTERN GRAZING GROUNDS AND FOREST RANGES sheep and horses covered the ranges in great numbers. In 1834, according to Dana in his "Two Years Before the Mast," a single trading vessel picked up in one trip no less than 40,000 steer hides at three California ports, San Diego, Monterey and Santa Barbara. Little effort was made by these early graziers to grow feed for their animals. They simply allowed them to scatter over the hills and plains of the Pacific Slope where the unlimited ranges afforded plenty of feed to meet all in- crease without danger of overstocking. With the gradual settlement of the coast country, due to the rush of gold seekers, and the increase in the herds, the owners began to crowd over the summit of the Sierras with their stock into Nevada and across deserts and mountains into Arizona. While this east- erly movement was taking place on the western slope, the hardy pioneers from the eastern part of the United States were pressing slowly out across the Mississippi River. They passed through Missouri and across the Missouri River into Kansas, where on those great sweep- ing plains the tide spread out fan-shape, working slowly and steadily westward. To the northwest they drifted through the states of Minnesota, the Dakotas and Mon- tana; to the southwest through what is now Oklahoma, across the staked plains of Texas to western Kansas and to Colorado. Another stream flowed in the track of the Mormon expedition, which in 1847 blazed the trail across the plains in an almost due westerly course through the center of the then trackless and practically unknown American Desert until Utah was reached. The Genesis of the Trail Herds. — Probably the cradle of the range grazing business was in the great state of Texas, where the raising of cattle and horses, and later TIIK !•:. \RI.V \VKSTKKX KANC.K 23 sheep, on the wonderfully grassed plains that stretched for unbroken leagues wherever one went, was under- taken on a business basis. By the time the first Pa- cific railroads began to work their way across the Kan- sas prairies, Texas had increased her herds until there was a glut of stock all over the state and it was almost worthless because of the lack of a market. In 1867 began the movement to relieve the Texas ranges of their surplus cattle by establishing those great The Old Type of Texas Long-horn Steer. trails from the south up through the staked plains, across the Indian Territory into Kansas. There they met the iron horse and found an opening to the eastern mar- kets. Thousands of long-horned steers grazed their way over the grassy plains, starting in the early spring from the southern ranges. There was no hurry and no 24 WESTERN GRAZING GROUNDS AND FOREST RANGES crowding of the animals ; they slowly fed their way to market, gaining flesh with every day's drive, seldom making more than eight or ten miles a day and arriving at their journey's end almost ready for beef. As the railroads forged westward the tide of emigra- tion followed. Farms were taken up ; lonely stations grew into towns and cities, and the cattlemen, seeking constantly the unfenced open ranges and fresh feed for the herds, moved westward with the end of the road. The Buffalo.— The first Pacific railroad, with its line of settlements, acted like a wedge in splitting the great herd of buffaloes that covered the country in the early days in almost countless numbers. Gradually their annual migrations from the north to the south and back again ceased until there were two distinct buffalo herds : a northern and a southern. Each was gradually exterminated through many causes, the chief of which doubtless was the wanton and incomprehen- sible lust of civilized man for killing. However, in the final analysis it was simply the sur- vival of the fittest, and the cattle and sheep belonging to the settlers were far more valuable as meat producers than the buffaloes. The Stockman's Westward Advance. — In the latter part of the 70's the West awoke to the opportunities offered for raising cattle and sheep upon the open ranges that lay west of the Missouri River, from the Mexican to the Canadian line. Great cattle companies were form- ed in the East and also in Europe, whose promoters went into Texas and bought thousands of long-horned cattle and moved them north onto the vacant ranges. Millions were invested in the enterprise and for a few years millions were made, principally in speculation, promotion, and on paper. Tin; K. \RI.Y \VISTI. k.\ RANC.I-: 25 The stockmen of the West were a prodigal as well as a restless lot. With an almost unlimited world in front of them they resented the crowding that began to de- velop, and there was a constant pushing forward fur- ther and further out into the prairies. They disputed with the Indian and the buffalo for the occupancy of the land, with the result that always follows where the white man comes. The red man, and his friend the buffalo, slowly melted away and eventually the advance guard from the far eastern coast met the tide of pioneers from the west coast. In the Southwest they met along the Rio Grande in New Mexico and Colorado, while to the Northwest those that crowded over the Cascades in Oregon and Washington met the advancing tide from the East pouring over the backbone of the Rockies, and — the frontier was no more. The Inevitable Happens. — Not an acre of the land was left unoccupied, and ranges that for permanent and regular use would have been overstocked with a cow to every 100 acres were loaded until they were carrying one to every ten. Into western Kansas, Nebraska, eastern Colorado, out into the Red Desert country of Wyoming and Utah, up across Montana and the two Dakotas clear to the Canadian line, they pres- sed in their mad search for grass. No one provided any feed for the winter, the owners preferring to risk the losses. Gradually the native grasses disappeared. As fast as a blade of grass showed above the ground some hungry animal gnawed it off. A few men sounded a note of alarm, but the most of the owners declined to realize the approaching disaster and drifted along in their fancied opulence. Then came the inevitable. The winter of 1886 saw 26 WESTERN GRAZING GROUNDS AND FOREST RANGES the almost total extinction of the industry in the north- western states. Thousands of cattle went into that win- ter never to see the spring flowers again. Great cattle companies with managers riding back and forth to the frontier towns in coaches and six, drawing princely sal- aries for doing nothing, went out of existence. Millions of dollars were lost beyond hope of recovery. A few years later, in 1893, the Southwest went through the same experience, and still greater losses were piled up against the industry. The Era of Readjustment. — Then there was a grad- ual readjustment of the business. Many of the great companies operating on borrowed money went to the wall, and the remnants of their herds were bought up by men whose faith in the business still was strong. From that time to this the business of raising cattle upon the open ranges has been a fluctuating one. Man's greed to obtain something for nothing has never yet been able to content itself with a moderate profit. Each man looked upon the grass of the range as something which he must grab before anyone else could reach it. Hence the grasses were given no chance to grow, and a few good years were followed by a bad one which wiped out all the profits. What the winter storms did not kill the "bog holes" caught in the spring. The Advent of the Sheepman. — Along in the early '90's the sheepmen began to gain a foothold on the ranges, especially in the northwestern states. Gradu- ally they forced the cows back from their old ranges, and many long-headed cowmen in sheer self-defence turned their cattle into sheep and joined the ranks of the wool-growers. The sheepman was much more able to cope with the elements than was the cattleman. He Till-. KAKLY WKSTKKN RANGE 27 had his herd under his eye at all times, and could move it to better feed before the animals became too weak to travel. He also found out much earlier than did the cattleman that buying feed against a hard winter was money well invested. In many ways the sheepmen profited by the bitter experience of the cattlemen, and avoided many of their pitfalls. Thus the ranges were divided and in many of the states, especially Wyoming, Montana and Idaho, the sheepmen gradually forced the cattle interests into the background. Range Wars. — Bitter range wars followed. All over the Rocky Mountain region the conflicts between the two interests have cost many lives, both human and animal, together with great financial losses. Dead-lines were drawn by the cattlemen across which no sheepman could cross with his herd and not pay dearly for his temerity. In Arizona the Tonto Basin war waged for three years and cost more than thirty lives, besides keeping a whole country in a state of terror in the meantime. In western Colorado, especially in Routt county, the con- flict between the sheepmen and cattlemen over the use of the ranges has been a serious menace to both sides. In the Blue Mountains of Oregon thousands of sheep were killed by irate cattlemen, and in the Green River district of Wyoming there have been frequent whole- sale slaughterings of sheep. The sheepmen in turn swept across the ranges oc- cupied by cattle, leaving a wide swath as clean of vegeta- tion as if a fire had passed over it. Fierce conflicts fol- lowed such action. Herders were killed, camps raided or "shot up" and the sheep were taken from the herders 28 WESTERN GRAZING GROUNDS AND FOREST RANGES and scattered to the four winds a prey to coyotes. On one occasion several thousand were forced into a stream full of quicksands and boggy places, in which hundreds stuck and died like flies on sticky fly-paper. Saltpetre was scattered plentifully over salting grounds used by the cattle, which the salt-hungry sheep eagerly sought, and the saltpetre, harmless to the cattle, killed many sheep. A Sample Attack. — Once in northern Arizona ten bands of sheep, each with about 2,500 head, had swept across the ranges along the little Colorado River, ha- rassed by the cattlemen every foot of the way. But with an armed force of forty or fifty men as a guard, they were never seriously checked in their westward march. One night the whole outfit camped in one of the beau- tiful open parks under the shadow of the San Francisco peaks. The ten bands were bedded down in peace and quiet, when a hundred or more range horses, wild as deer, were driven among them, followed by fifteen or twenty cowboys whose yells and shots from their six- shooters sent the half-crazed horses down onto the sheep like a cyclone. The horses had been previously placed in a corral, and the boys had worked hard for several hours throwr- ing and hog-tying a lot of them to prepare them for the "ceremony." Several horses had been decorated with dry raw hides tied hard and fast to their tails, while huge cowbells had been strapped about the necks of fif- teen or twenty more. The herders sprang to their feet and met the oncoming horses with shots from their rifles. This served rather to make the work of the ani- mals even more destructive, for they tore back and forth across the park into and out of the bands, leaving a TIIK I-:. \RI.V \YKSTI.K\ RANCK wake <>f dead an I'KnCKKSS <>K 'I' 1 1 K RANCK 151'SINKSS 57 true salt grass of this region is Distichlis spicata, a light soft-feeling grass seldom more than (> inches in height and of no great feeding value. It also is a very tough, hardy grass. The Sages. — These two grasses, grama and sacaton, are the principal ones of the foothill region, but the for- age is greatly augmented by the great sage family, es- pecially the sweet sage or "winter fat" (Eurotia lanata), which furnishes an unequaled feed for stock, especially sheep and horses. There are many varieties of sage in the southern ranges, nearly every one of which is eaten by stock of every class. Salt sage (Atriplex) is the one most generally called by the generic name sage by stock- men all over the West. There is another favorite forage bush known as shad scale (Atriplex canescens) called esta- fi-etta by the Mexican herders. To the ordinary observ- er it would seem to be absolutely worthless, but it is eagerly eaten by all stock, especially sheep. It furnishes a great supply of dry husk-like seeds which the sheep lick up from the ground, and even crawl on their knees under the bushes in order to get them. Greasewood (Sarcobatus vermiculatus) is another favorite browse well liked by most range animals. Prickly Pear (Opuntia). — In the foothills of this re- gion prickly pear furnishes an article of diet for the cat- tle that in times of feed scarcity has saved many an old cow. In feeding it, the stockmen go out on the ranges armed with pitchforks and axes. By means of a lighted torch or a forkful of weeds, bear grass or yucca leaves, the sharp needles are singed off the broad leaves of the pears and then the plant is cut up with the axe and pitched to the cattle. Two men can thus feed a good many poor cows in a day and while it acts on the bowels 58 WESTERN GRAZING GROUNDS AND FOREST RANGES with considerable effect the cattle thrive on it. It is as- tonishing how quickly range cattle catch onto what is being done, following the men with the torches and burn- ing materials and waiting for it to be thrown to them. In southwestern Texas dairymen feed it regularly to their milk cows with good results. Spineless varieties of the opuntia can be grown as any forage plant and furnishes a remarkable amount of feed On irrigated land 25 tons per acre have been grown and harvested. Although advertised as a potent factor in securing some new range forage plant, the spineless cac- tus is not at all adapted to use on the open range. Its spineless character makes it an easy prey to rabbits and other rodents as well as grazing stock, hence if planted it must be carefully protected and looked after. Also any temperature below 20 degrees, if continued for sev- eral nights will kill it. Feeding Mistletoe. — In the Southwest the mistletoe which is found so extensively clinging to trees on the ranges, especially the oaks and mesquites, has been util- ized by the stockmen as a hard-times feed when other forage was scarce. The stockman armed with a long slender pole, to the end of which is attached an iron hook, reaches up into the trees, and by the aid of the hook the mistletoe branches are easily broken off, as they are very brittle. The cattle feed on it eagerly, following the men from tree to tree and watching for the branches to drop. An analysis of the plant shows that it possesses feeding value comparing favorably with timothy hay. Many cat- tlemen believe that if fed to cows about to calve or just having calved, it will cause them to "clean" more readily than otherwise. In southern Arizona, New Mexico and western Texas Service Berry (Amelianchier alnifolia). Mountain Mahogany (Cercocarpus parvifolius). J'KoCRKSS Ol- TIIK K.\\ry habits of raiding the herds of the I.IVK STOCK ON TIIK RANGE 103 Pueblos and Spaniards alike. Due to their unsettled mode of living, they did little towards raising sheep until they were placed upon a reservation in southern New Mexico near Fort Sumner in the early '60's. There they were forced to take up more civilized industries, and when they were later removed to their present reserva- tion in northern Arizona and New Mexico they had progressed so far in the arts of peace that the Govern- ment aided them by supplying the tribe with 30,000 sheep and 2,000 goats. It was the hope of the Govern- ment officials that through such means they would for- sake their warlike methods and become peaceable, and the results have more than justified the trial. No nation with a million sheep scattered out over the deserts and mountains can afford to risk its property by making war upon its neighbors. Hence the Navajos ceased their raids. Early Shepherding. — The conditions surrounding sheep-raising in New Mexico up to within a few years were almost ideal in their character and much like those of ancient biblical times. The whole people were in- terested in the industry, and it was the sole means of support for a large majority of them. Some of the heads of the older families were veritable patriarchs in their holdings, and the lands and herds descended from father to son for many years. Some of the older Spanish-Mexi- can families have grazed their sheep continuously on the same lands for more than 200 years, and are today occu- pying the same ranges upon which their forefathers set- tled. The New Mexican sheep-grower was not so advanced, however, in his ideas as to improving his flocks as Amer- ican flockmasters, and for this reason until recent years 104 \VKSTKR.N ('.RAZING GROUNDS AND FOREST RANGES tin- standard of New Mexico sheep has not been very high. They have been light shearers, bare-bellied and small-bodied, but extremely hardy and excellent feeders when placed under feedlot conditions. California, with its great mountain ranges for summer grazing and vast desert ranges for wintering and early lambing grounds, offered an ideal place for sheep-raising. It did not take the early Spanish settlers long to realize this fact, and they built up their flock with the very best strains of Spanish blood, principally Merinos. As the country settled up the more enterprising California sheepmen pushed out into the deserts and country to the east, crossing the big Colorado River into Arizona. Here they found a virgin area similar in character to the coast ranges. Drifting across the desert that lies along the western border of Arizona, they worked their way into the San Francisco mountain country, where they established themselves permanently. Impress of the Merino. — To this day the impress of the Merino sheep, which the early settlers like the Daggs Bros., the Clarks, Scotts, Campbells and other coast sheepmen brought into Arizona, can be seen in the herds of northern Arizona and especially about the San Fran- cisco mountain region. Their good weights, splendid shearing qualities and hardiness make the sheep of iiMithern Arizona superior to the sheep raised in any other portion of the Southwest. In the Northwest the California sheepmen also left their imprint upon the herds. A large portion of the original stock of sheep in Oregon, Washington, Idaho and Montana was brought from the Golden State, and through careful crossing the sheep «»f this region have become large- bodied and lu-avy shearers 1. 1 VI-. STOCK OX TIIK RANCH 105 All over the \\ est the original stock of sheep came from the Merino foundation, but there is a great variety of opinion among sheepmen as to the relative value of the various breeds. Next to the Merino probably comes the Shropshire, which is a great favorite with flock- A Cotswold Ram. masters in the West. The Lincoln, Cotswold, Rambouil- let, Hampshire and other standard breeds of the heavy mutton sheep, each with a strong following advocat- ing its superiority, are found doing well all over the western range country. The western range sheepman has learned by experi- 106 WESTERN GRAZING GROUNDS AND FOREST RANGES ence that the ewes he breeds from must have a certain percentage of Merino blood in them to give strong consti- tutions and the power to exist under the many trying conditions of climate and natural surroundings which beset range sheep. The Merino, together with Delaines and Rambouillets, which are but highly bred types of Merinos, is a breed peculiarly well constituted to meet such climatic conditions as are found on our western desert ranges. To such qualities they add the herding instinct, which is almost unknown in any of the various types or breeds of mutton sheep. Securing Mutton Type. — Shropshires, Cotswolds, Hampshires, Lincolns and the other breeds of coarse- wooled or mutton races do not herd well in large bands. They scatter out too much and if alarmed, instead of "bunching up" as will Merinos, often run in every direc- tion. Of recent years, however, range sheepmen have turned their attention more to the mutton end of their business than formerly. Americans are learning to eat mutton more and more every year, and the long-headed men in the sheep business saw where they could have two strings to their bow by looking after the mutton business as well as raising wool. Where this has been done rams of the various mut- ton breeds are used to produce the class of lambs de- sired for feeding purposes. Then, in order to retain the vitality of the ewe band, part of the ewes are bred to Mirino rams, retaining the resulting ewe lambs to take the place of the old ewes. For these reasons it is evi-