Historic, archived document Do not assume content reflects current scientific knowledge, policies, or practices. ng: ide Issued November 24, 1911. - U.S, DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, FOREST SERVICE—BULLETIN 101. “HENRY S. GRAVES, Forester. WESTERN YELLOW PINE IN ARIZONA AND NEW MEXICO, BY ‘THEODORE S. WOOLSEY, Jn., ASSISTANT DISTRICT FORESTER, DISTRICT 3. i ay = EA WASHINGTON: GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE. 1911, St. % Bul. 101, Forest Service, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. - PLATE | TYPICAL OPEN STAND OF WESTERN YELLOW PINE, AFTER CONSERVATIVE CUTTING, TUSAYAN FOREST. Issued November 24, 1911. poo PeAKn vie NT OF AGRICULTURE, FOREST SERVICE—BULLETIN 101. HENRY S. GRAVES, Forester. WESTERN YELLOW PINE IN ARIZONA AND NEW MEXICO. BY ) pe THEODORE S“WOOLSEY, Jr., ASSISTANT DISTRICT FORESTER, DISTRICT 3. WASHINGTON: GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE. 1911. LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL Unirep States DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, Forest SERVICE, Washington, D. C., July 25, 1911. Str: I have the honor to transmit herewith a manuscript entitled ‘“ Western Yellow Pine in Arizona and New Mexico,” by Theodore S. Woolsey, jr., assistant district forester, district 3, and to recommend its publication as Bulletin 101 of the Forest Service. Respectfully, Henry 8. GRAvEs, Forester. Hon. JAmres Witson, Secretary of Agriculture. 2 CON TE NaS: . SOUMIS@ C8 UNG MSEIG ecco aha re meen eee ese ae RE TDEO: cence bat dels Rea 6 Say eee I ec en ere Rr ae FGEMGMMERNCROOULNWESt see 2h oe. coat. t Os b ee da Gules ane awece teases Soreincselmarierequirements .-. 22.2 5..5.. as sass eg ens eee e dela: SIMeSAMOMLOM SNR eee Ss Se NS edo tk SA Es Cet TP.GYO(T GAVE eS SS eB eee a ec ee ene ee MMSramreP eR emot hp eetim Sef ect. oe eo Le Leis ta A hs Dee a Be Cheer ISG Toi. SESE S Sis = eee ea ne nee re A are aay OR ete ee Tere a LEME: PNG! OPO. LEV ORR ss Se ee ee cae et ead a ‘LUO REN CB e.ce odie Sesto 0S ded ie a ten etc CETDSES) CHL TM (DIA tis bee Slee ole nea st ee Eee SCC LSE rN aes alt Soe eas EOS, oe ager ene ae Ts te AES ne nee aS at roe Ia GO NLS ees Soke i ee LD SROUUEAD Ge Ao ie erase HE SG aes a ee aetna PE pee ee NUS s 33S SSG 6 SCI ee rae eR pe SUCEK. eS oe dai ee de ots WE ee ee ee ee Cy eT eee ees oe MiemaraneS Bye Loire liste SY ee mee a eee CEA ee a ele ee em mE ee ST NICMCUOMS S5 Gale Bee aie eee TOE eee res SEA. Wroltmleroronmt Nereis. tee os te ie Se CEN SS Lk Wem] DOTS Ty Oe a ea eae at i ern ee eee A SPEEDS SBTC IS SR Se ee PoP Maximum stands..-.- Re ete eh ees a ee Pe et np A PepeROckedentamOs pea ets. ory samo. Ook Poe nat LS ate Net ee tees I re ee eS 8 oe nb as Se as be tine oe sd Selene Peace masta xml Vield. 2. i... bees ene oS lene ene ce payee esses ME Monee Vicia On-sAmple plots - ..-. 2... -- 2.02 --ocese eset eee + esse sees TIA SEEETRE GML SEPTIC Ss SUE la Sr Ga oe ULE Miltdl 2.2 hcc cisco iets See gr gee a Microscopic characters. ---... - LIFES IAA er ae aR CL Sh Mrsiacreranes or cell elements: ....2.-...-...--s-2+<-2-25205-sss5e Poi EMO G man st(rencthe.. ct 2025022. we) Sos ek os eee ee le te mee ONES vases res See Cee Rs ee a ee Peer MeemVeRReaMMCM tee. oes ajo seat ae ok he dee Set ee nee weak Pere ronieoinantie SOUT West... .-2-s-2-- 225-22) 2222 5+ ee ek eee eee Grades of yellow-pine lumber obtained.............----- Rashi eee Me Meee PIRI EUR TIR RE MGV TRU CP os newt Ge Fey mend ek Lisle we ae Ses Niece HOR: Sale of timber on the National Forests ................ Sere hae ea re ph Re 4 CONTENTS. Page Management of yellow pine on the National Forests ........................- 47 General policye-— see -eenceees Aig ibalatet he's Sie =, ROSY Segre tie eee ere 47 3a Method of cutting: 5.2.55 255555 ae ee ee 43 aN Marking the timber 522% 5524 ss3ocse ee See 49 Rotation of Cut. ci2s52 2.h es oie Sete eee 51 Fire protecttOn<. =< 2.e.cmsaiks Jone ee 52 Disposal..of brush. :. o223 25 Sas fos ee ee A ee a 53 Cost of handling Government timber sales....-.._._......1...1 2-2. 54 Reforestation... -.. Ss f5 sd. Sas fe Se Sop ee 55 seed collectioniand extractlioncee === ee 5 5 eee es 56 OF Nursery practice: 22 222sse 5 See aa ee 57 | Field:sowineiand: plantings) ¢25- sy 5 ees ae ee ee 58 oa Other-sources Of InCOMC 255.2 ees a aes ee 59 Conservative lumberins/ om private lam disses ae eer 60 SUMMIMANY. «ia ass assess Sates ae eae i ore a se sc 62 Appendix— Volume tables: 4. 32/22 20a ee ee 63 ILLUSTRATIONS: PLATES. Page. Puate’ I. Fig. 1—Typical open stand of western yellow pine after conserva- LIVE® CULLING Sa sch: 2 2o ees er ee Frontispiece. II. Fig. 1—Fully developed stand of western yellow pine being marked for cutting. Fig. 2—Thrifty blackjack left after con- servative Cull Os -eeaes eee eee 2 Hs Sees eres 48 III. Fig. 1—Close utilization; tops cut for coal-mine props. Fig. 2— Standing dead timber; a waste and a fire menace............... 56 IV. Fig. 1—Extracting western yellow-pine seed after drying. Fig. 2— Western yellow-pine seedlings killed by sheep. ............... 60 TEXT FIGURES. Fic. 1. Distribution of western yellow pine within the National Forests of Arizona jand New Mexico S22 =2 oe 2 ae = ae ee 8 2 (a, b, c, d). Root systems of a western yellow pine and a blackjack. 9,10, 11,12 3. Leaves, seed, and cones of western yellow pine. ................... 16 4. Relative quantity of reproduction on Coconino and Tusayan Forests. . 21 Fy 5. Distribution of blackjack ons 5-acre plotes=ss-ee— eee ee 28 6. Various types of western yellow-pine wood...........-......--.-..-- 34 7. Transverse, radial, and tangential sections of western yellow-pine WOOd 22 2. 1a se ae eee Sie ee ee 35 8. Transverse section of a western yellow-pine resin duct-.-.-....-.-.--. 36 9. Two western yellow-pine tracheids, magnified 50 diameters .......-.. 37 10. Ordinary pith ray, cut longitudimally == see == ae eee 38 i 11. Ordinary pith ray as viewed in tangential section. ..........-...--- 39 94 12. A pith ray containimea resin ducts 9-52 ss eee eee 39 H WESTERN YELLOW PINE IN ARIZONA AND NEW MEXICO.’ PURPOSE OF THE STUDY. Western yellow pine is to the Southwest what white pine is to the Northeast, or longleaf pine to the Southeast. The commercial for- ests of Arizona and New Mexico are three-fourths western yellow pine, which furnishes by far the greater part of the lumber used locally as well as that shipped to outside markets. To describe the characteristics of the species and to explain the methods of management applied to it on the National Forests of the Southwest, in the hope that they may be applied as well, wherever possible, by private owners, is the chief purpose of this bulletin. It should serve also to assist Forest officers in their regular work, and to indicate opportunities for the purchase of Government stumpage in the National Forests of Arizona and New Mexico. THE TREE. FORMS IN THE SOUTHWEST. The western yellow pine (Pinus ponderosa Laws) of the South- west, sometimes called bull pine, scrub pine, and infrequently white pine, is the same species of tree as the yellow pine of the Pacific slope. In Arizona and New Mexico it is, in general, a smaller, knottier tree, with a larger and wider crown than in California, Oregon, and Washington, the result of a different situation and climate.? Lumbermen and others distinguish two forms of the tree within the region, which they term, respectively, blackjack and yellow pine. The difference, however, is one of age and not of kind. Blackjack is merely the form which yellow pine assumes before it reaches the age 1 Many of the figures and other data contained in this bulletin are the results of investi- gations by Messrs. G. A. Pearson, A. B. Recknagel, J. H. Allison, A. E. Cahoon, R. McMil- ate vets sO. Ds hagnee, He Ie Rerry: He B. Burrell, PR: PB. Pitchlyn; and He M- Curren, of the Forest Service, to whom the author desires to acknowledge his indebtedness. ° In Forrest Service Bulletin 17, ‘““A Check List of Forest Trees of the United States,” a separate species of yellow pine, Pinus ponderosa scopulorum, was noted for portions of the Rocky Mountain region. It is now the judgment of Mr. George B. Sudworth, author of the Check List, that whatever differences exist between this form and that designated as Pinus’ ponderosa are due solely to differences in site and climate and not to any inherent difference in the trees themselves. D 6 WESTERN YELLOW PINE IN ARIZONA AND NEW MEXICO. of 125 or 150 years, during which period its bark is dark red-brown or blackish, with narrow furrows, in strong contrast to the lghter, widely furrowed bark of mature trees. This distinction between the two forms, which will be followed throughout this bulletin, has also no basis in size, although the average yellow pine, being older, is necessarily larger than the average blackjack. Many blackjacks grown in the open, however, have a larger diameter than the average forest-grown yellow pine. SOIL AND CLIMATIC REQUIREMENTS. Western yellow pine is not fastidious in its soil requirements. It does best, of course, on deep, rich soils, yet it thrives on moist to dry eravelly loam, on limestone formations, on malpais or lava, in volcanic cinders, and in gravel. It seems to adapt itself, in fact, to the most impoverished sites, and saplings may be seen growing on dry, rocky south slopes. Trees in such situations, however, are often stag-headed and invite attacks from mistletoe and insects. The distribution of yellow pine in the Southwest therefore depends upon altitude, with its corresponding rainfall and temperature, rather than upon the composition of the soil. Table 1 gives for certain situations in Arizona and New Mexico of known elevation and ex- posure the mean annual rainfall and the character of the yellow-pine stand in the vicinity. TABLE 1.—Character of yeilow pine under different conditions of altitude, rain- fall, and exposure. SOUTHERLY EXPOSURES. Eleva- | Mean : Localities. leerrorits annual Character of yellow pine. * | rainfall. Feet. | Inches. Santachie pNewMexce. 22-55 7,013 14.72 | No stand. ID Eras pit, JNabencen aa aooeseBac 6, 907 23.87 | Good stand. Fort Bayard, N. Mex......... 6, 040 15.20 | No stand. Hort Apache Ariz. ass 5, 200 18.90 Do. Natural Bridge, Ariz......... 4,743 18.05 Do. NORTHERLY EXPOSURES. Cloudcroft, IN: Mex: 2. =. 22 =- 8, 650 24.39 | Scattering in mixture with Douglas fir. Wrumna aN eee ope eee 7,300 16.58 | Good stand. Fort Wingate, N. Mex......-- 6, 997 14.53 | No stand; slightly below yellow-pine type. (aos, NecMe xn tas ieee ee 6, 983 12.81 | Scattering stand in Taos Canyon near by. Walliams ieAri7 ees ees 6, 750 20.64 | Good stand at slightly lower elevation. Magdalena, N. Mex........--- 6,557 14.49 | No stand. Showlow, cAvi7 <2 f20 ase ine 6, 300 19.75 | Scattering, on edge of woodland type. Prescott wATiz epee 5, 320 17.40 | Scattering stand near town. Table 1 would seem to indicate that on southern exposures below 7,000 feet, even 18.9 inches of rainfall does not necessarily insure the growth of yellow pine, but that on northern exposures above 7,000 a = THE TREE. | 7 feet the species will thrive with as little as 16.6 inches. In general, however, the indications are that no stand of large extent is likely where the annual rainfall is less than 20 inches. In Taos Canyon, with only 12.81 inches of rainfall, there are scattered individuals, but the presence of even these few trees is probably due to the moisture and shade from the canyon walls. It is the variability of annual precipitation in the Southwest, coupled with drying winds, which make conditions for tree growth particularly trying. Droughts are periodic and severe, and un- doubtedly impair the vitality of mature yellow pine and curtail the local distribution of the species. At Prescott, near which are com- mercial stands of yellow pine, the average annual rainfall for 35 years was 17.4 inches. Yet during that period there were 7 years with less than 12 inches, and two periods of 4 years each with an average annual rainfall of but 11.5 and 13.3 inches, respectively. Increase in altitude brings, as a rule, increase in rainfall and climatic conditions in general more favorable to tree growth. Western yellow pine, however, is seldom found in pure stands of any extent above 8,500 feet, since it can not compete with the shade- enduring species which grow at the higher altitudes. It is present, in mixture with Douglas fir, at 10,300 feet, on the Gila National Forest. At the other extreme, it is not found ordinarily in any quantity below 6,500 feet, though in the sheltered beds of canyons and on favorable north slopes it grows at altitudes as low as 6,000 feet, and at one place at least,-along Oak Creek in the Coconino National Forest, is abundant at 5,300 feet. Its presence here, how- ever, 1s due to the moisture and partial shade from the canyon walls. The heaviest extensive stands of yellow pine in Arizona and New Mexico are on the comparatively moist, rolling plateaus at elevations of from 7,200 to 7,800 feet. Probably the heaviest stand, though of small extent, in the two States, is on a well-watered flat north of Bellemont, on the Tusayan National Forest, at an elevation of 7,400 feet. Here 2 acres of unusually tall, clean-boled timbers scaled 72,000 board feet. From April to July the heavy and continuous southwest winds, which lessen the air moisture, increase evaporation, and bake the surface of the soil, are particularly trying to tree growth. Even at Flagstaff, where the climatic conditions are considered favorable, the average wind velocity for the past five years has been 7 miles per hour, and the average humidity for the same period, 62 per cent. SIZE AND LONGEVITY. Yellow pine in the Southwest does not attain large size. Seven average logs are often necessary to make a thousand board feet, and on one section in the Tusayan National Forest the average was 10 8 WESTERN YELLOW PINE IN ARIZONA AND NEW MEXICO. logs to the thousand. During an inspection trip of six weeks over — the Datil National Forest the largest yellow pine observed was 100 feet high and 50 inches in diameter, estimated to saw 3,420 board feet. A single bole on the Coconino National Forest scaled 4,300 board feet, while abnormal forked trees have scaled as high as 5,000 board feet. There are few yellow pines on the Forests of the South- west over 120 feet in height, the highest so far observed being 129 feet. Trees more than 46 inches in diameter are also rare, the largest diameters recorded being 58 and 60 inches, on the Coconino and Manzano National Forests, respectively. Average sections are esti- nse nae 109° 37° 37° iy 8 y te, hy x . Ws 35° 35°. iD ) Naiggo 33° Cy 07? td wie 109° WIA, \NESTERN YELLOW PINE PINUS PONDEROSA Fic. 1.—Distribution of western yellow pine within National Forests of Arizona and New Mexico. mated at from 3 to 3.5 sixteen-foot logs to the tree, a number of others at from 4 to 4.5, while on the Sitgreaves Forest a few individual trees have been estimated at 7 logs. On a sale on the Coconino Forest, in a typical stand, 926 blackjacks averaged 19.2 inches in diameter, — 36.9 feet used length, and 218 board feet merchantable volume. On | the same area 1,863 yellow pines averaged 23.6 inches in diameter, 52.4 feet used length, and 522 board feet merchantable volume. The blackjack form develops into the yellow-pine form when the tree is from 125 to 150 years old. Typical stands of overmature timber vary in age from 250 to 350 years, and the trees composing THE TREE. 10 eA TAT UG? TT ry 4 5 3 Sca/e 7 Feer: ——=} or i r es ——=— —— —_— za — = @ a eS B a eB &. G y ge na Cra 10 WESTERN YELLOW PINE IN ARIZONA AND NEW MEXICO. them usually begin to decline in vigor when from 180 to 220 years old. From all stem analyses taken at random in timber sales on the Forests of the Southwest, the age of the oldest yellow pine was 418 years, while that of the oldest veteran yet recorded for the region was 489 years. It is likely that the periodic droughts of the Southwest tend to shorten the tree’s life. GROUND L/NE WLU) }} hg) CLG DD ZZ TELL wy ETT E ee oe rc i G Ke Y) X >> dh Se YD) Ni S ZLB GI) At in AAW YY q la ti Ly SY i ; cme y CRI, Ly a & WY = R Ss Ss ., F iS) % : | &) 8 4 £ Sca/e sr Feer: (@) 5 10 Se ee eee % LQ D> % reap, TGs Zia CO) ROOT SYSTEM. Western yellow pine has a deep-reaching tap root and exceedingly long and strong laterals. Development of the root system in the seedling stage is very rapid. Seedlings sown on April 20, 1910, at the Gallinas nursery had an average height on October 3, after the growing season was over, of 1.12 inches and a tap root of 14.5 inches. Two-year transplants at the same nursery were 3.1 inches in height and had a tap root of 32.3 inches. Seedlings in the forest have ep Tre THE TREE. iat shorter tap roots, since the ground there is not so easy to penetrate. The usual length at the end of the first season is from 5 to 8 inches. Figure 2 shows graphically the root system of a blackjack and a yellow pine. Both trees were growing on a moist to dry gravelly loam. The surface root system of each was uncovered and the area 10 Sca/e sn Feer Hie. 2 (e). divided into 4-foot squares, so that direction and length of each root could be carefully plotted. It will be seen that the roots of the blackjack extend over a large area, while those of the yellow pine, though larger in diameter, do not extend the same distance from the tree. Probably this is because, as the tree nears maturity, many of the roots become diseased and die off. 40a7 Us 8/099 ee cae ak ee Ee ee ee WESTERN YELLOW PINE IN ARIZONA AND NEW MEXICO. Hies 2 3(d)- 12 THE TREE. 108; Veterans have laterals extending from 60 to 100 feet from the base of the tree, and in extreme cases 150 feet. After maturity the tap root often decays. MERCHANTABLE LENGTH. The merchantable length of a tree—that is, the length of bole actu- ally utilized in lumbering—depends upon the rapidity of its taper and the diameter limit to which it is cut in the top. The figures in Table 2, which express the merchantable length in relation to diam- eter breast high, are the result of actual logging operations, where the top diameter limit was 8 inches and the stand from two to three million feet to the section. TABLE 2.—Merchantable length of western yellow pine. Merchantable length. Diameter breast high. Yellow Black pine. jack. Inches Feet. Feet Ae eaten ay 32 1 fits gaa 41 32 haces eaeee 47 41 Dao ee 53 47 SD OS ae 59 33 De Benet ace 64 o7 By ASt a pet ac Ae eet GQ) d pears sae TR Boum tae Tomlencenenee | SO tee ee 80 [occ ecceceeee CLEAR LENGTH. Western yellow pine, when growing in pure stands, has but a short clear length in comparison with its total height. When in mixture with Douglas fir, however, natural pruning greatly increases the proportion of stem free of branches. Table 3 is based on the meas- urements of 800 trees on the Apache and of 65 trees on the Zuni National Forest. TABLE 3.—Clear length of western yellow pine compared with total height. Apache National Forest. Zuni National Forest, pure Height. Pure west- | In mixture | western yel- ern yellow |with Douglas} low pine, pine, clear fir, clear clear length. length. length. Feet Feet. Feet Feet Seccsse i Sooccoosécsssaliscoscocscososss OOP seeees 12 25 8 (USS 16 25 10 80b aS... 19 31 12 ODEN Ei 22 37 14 1K) Re See ees Sees 42 17 : ; 14 WESTERN YELLOW PINE IN ARIZONA AND NEW MEXICO. BUTT AND TOP TAPER. Table 4 gives separately for yellow pine and blackjack the taper in inches of the butt of a tree from 1 to 5 inches from the ground. In addition the table gives the reducing factor used to determine the breast-high diameter of a tree from the diameter of a stump 18 inches in height. The proper breast-high reducing factor for stumps of any height can be secured from the other figures of the table. Taste 4.—Butt taper and reducing factor of yellow pine and blackjack, 1 to ) 9) feet from ground by 6-inch classes.’ Distance from ground in feet. Breast-high diameter reducing fac- torforstump 1to2 2 to3 3 to 4 4to5 18 inches in Breast-high diame- height. ter, class. Inches outside bark. Yellow | Black- | Yellow] Black-| Yellow| Black- | Yellow} Black-| Yellow | Black pine. | jack. | pine. | jack. | pine. | jack. | pine. | jack. pine. | jack. Inches Re Rear ENE yop 0.6 0.8 0.5 0.5 0.3 0.3 0.2 0.2 1L.@) 1.0 T/A Ste Aaa NN Seba 1.0 1.2 SU -8 .4 .4 a, 38 13 1.5 D0) heats wean beeen 15% Mee 1S 76 .8 .8 .6 -6 4 US 7E 1.8 Tae etek Renee gar BORE aS 8 2.0 malt 1.0 Tigal SU -8 a5 .4 D2, 2.3 OS Me 3 See ie a PRAT aes Sac VA Tal ho) a See QV RG saad Pe fp eee 28s ae 3 8o Gaeta Seen ya te ES Sul artes oe gOS Fal ee a ec ALE OE eee 28s) ene Shel LG Sees 1 Based on 404 yellow pine and 200 blackjack on Zuni, Jemez, and Datil Forests. In deciding between different top-diameter limits it is essential to know the average tapers of the top log. These are given in Table 5. According to the top taper as given for the Zuni Forest, the lumberman may choose between cutting a 16-foot yellow-pine log 6.9 inches at the small end, scaling 20 feet, or a 12-foot log 8.5 inches at the small end, also scaling 20 feet. Similarly, the table can be used to determine the differences in scale by cutting to different limits. Where the volume of scale is the same, the problem of what top limit should be used resolves itself into a question of manu- facture. TABLE 5.—Top taper of yellow pine and blackjack 2 to 8 feet from merchantable limit. Distance from merchantable limit, in feet. 0 | 2 | 4 | 6 | 8 Variety. Jemez: Forest sie 22 ee ee eee ee 8.4 10.3 2 11.0 12.8 au Oreste SE Re ers Serer et Se Loa 6.9 7.8 8.5 9.2 10.0 \Yellow pine emeZ Forests a5 5 See ese ae eer igen eee 7 9.4 10.0 10.8 ZMH OLS G 5) Soo Bese ee Oe eet eee eee a 6.9 G36 8.4 9.0 9.8 \Blackjack. /_ we oem ot < THE TREE. 15 TOLERANCE. Western yellow pine is intolerant of shade, except in the seedling stage on very favorable situations. Investigations conducted at the Coconino Forest Experiment Station indicate that most seedlings get their start under protection of the seed trees, while in small openings the bordering stand shields the seedlings from the full effect of the weather. Saplings may exist under the shade of veter- ans, and a 74-year-old pole was found growing in full shade, though it had but a few more years to live. If once suppressed during the sapling stage, western yellow pine can not recover and develop into saw timber. Dense mature stands often decline in vigor and become stag-headed through lack of side light. CAUSES OF INJURY... INSECTS. The Dendroctonus beetles, of which six species, including the Black Hills beetle, have been observed in Arizona and New Mexico, are perhaps the most destructive enemies of western yellow pine.t Records of depredations by the Black Hills beetle indicate that these have been far more continuous and extensive in comparatively hu- mid sections, like the Black Hills of South Dakota and certain sec- tions of Colorado, than under the more arid conditions of Arizona and New Mexico. The fact, however, that practically all of the Dendroctonus beetles are known to be primary enemies of western yellow pine in that they attack and lill perfectly healthy trees makes it important that Forest officers should watch for any evidence of the abnormal dying of pine timber, and should take prompt steps, if it is found to be due to the work of these beetles, to check further depredations, in accordance with the methods advised by the Bureau of Entomology. FUNGI. The bluing and red rot of western yellow pine are due to the attacks of fungi, and have been described fully in Bureau of Plant Industry Bulletin 36, “ The Bluing and Red Rot of Western Yellow Pine, with Special Reference to the Black Hills Forest Reserve.” The blue fungus attacks the contents of the wood cells and not the cells themselves; consequently the blued wood is not rotten. The spores of the fungus which causes red rot lodge in bark grooves of dying trees, and after germinating grow through the cambium and sapwood, and attack and destroy the cell walls of the heartwood. 1For complete information concerning the work of these insects and their control, see Bureau of Entomology Bulletins 83, Part I, and 58, Part V, and Circulars 125, 126, 127, and 129, 16 WESTERN YELLOW PINE IN ARIZONA AND NEW MEXICO. In Arizona and New Mexico considerable losses occur through the bluing of the sapwood of saw logs left in the woods during wet weather. There are two ways to prevent this—one, to take the logs to the mill immediately, which is the best way; the other, to separate the logs so that the ends will be exposed to the air. Yet if logs are _ left for a few months in the woods during wet weather there is always likelihood of serious bluing, and in dry weather of season checks. Lumbermen speak of losing from one-fourth to one-third of their total cut of western yellow pine through defect, but this is certainly an exaggeration. Three large operators place the average loss through red rot at 20 per cent on the Coconino Forest, 25 per cent on the Zuni Forest, and from 5 to 10 per cent on a land grant in northern New Mexico. On an area of 80 acres in the Tusayan National Forest, bearing some very overmature timber, the total loss through defect and breakage, including unsound logs left in the woods, was 12.8 per cent. On a section in the Coconino National Forest the stand amounted to 4,009,180 feet board measure. The cull logs left in the Forest totaled 278,000 feet, and the cull deducted on logs hauled to the mill was 271,488 feet. The total loss through defect. on the section, therefore, was 549,488 feet, or 13 per cent. Probably from 2 to 15 per cent is a fair amount to allow for loss, with a mean of from 5 to 8 per cent. In general, the timber on south slopes appears to be more defective than that on north slopes. Pin rot in the form of spots one-eighth to one-fourth inch or more in diameter usually indicates serious interior rot. Ground or stem rot seldom extends more than from 4 to 6 feet above the ground. Usually it can be eliminated by butting a log 4 feet in length. In October, 1910, Dr. Hedgcock tentatively identified the following fungi in a timber sale on the Tusayan National Forest: Fomes pinicola, Trametes pini, Lentinus lépedius, a genus of Hydnum, Polystictus abietinus, and Fomes officinales. Fortunately, the dry climate of the Southwest retards decay, but defective trees which are left in the woods because they are too costly to log are a menace to the sound trees, and may cause considerable financial loss in the future through the spread of the fungus. DROUGHT. While the extensive root system of western yellow pine enables it to withstand the seasonable dry weather, many trees succumb to the periodic droughts which occur about once in every decade. In a sale of approximately 30,000,000 feet of timber on the Coconino National Forest, fully 10 per cent of the standing trees were dead, the result largely of unfavorable moisture conditions. Lack of moisture undoubtedly weakens the vitality of western yellow pine so that it can not withstand the ordinary insect and fungus attacks. Seedlings ~" 3 3 zz ~~ od fol @) 9 wel SU, Sel a) fap py Sl tpl) GD) Shes ret fap ee SB a ee bao) wy Be Le oe BN 4 (‘9oL osvd oovy OF) ‘“TE—TOL T11had—,866S ‘souod ‘9 {poos “Q S Jeol ‘py : BUOZTIYV ‘OZIS [BIN] VU ‘ould MoOT[oA ULO]SOAA—'S “OIL Ng v7, ey , Fia. 3.—Western yellow pine, natural size, Arizona: a, leaf; b, Seed; c, cones. 5998°—Bull. 101—11. (To face page 16.) i a ba! = =i se THE TREE. 517 are particularly susceptible to drought, and ordinarily can not secure a foothold except under partial protection of older stands. MISTLETOE. Mistletoe, Razoumofskya robuata, is a serious menace to western yellow pine. In the Coconino and Tusayan National Forests there are large areas where over 60 per cent of the timber has been attacked. On some situations, particularly on the Sitgreaves Mountain, groups of blackjack with every tree infested are common. According to Dr. George G. Hedgecock, from 1 to 2 per cent of all the western yel- low pine is attacked. The mistletoe usually starts in the forks of lateral branches and spreads as the tree grows, or it may even infect seedlings. The seeds of the mistletoe, which are sticky, are formed in the summer and ripen in the fall. When the seed covering bursts they may be shot from 5 to 20 feet, and often adhere to the bark of trees, soon developing roots which penetrate the cambium. Saplings attacked by mistletoe are deformed. Some of their branches are killed outright, their height and diameter growth is stunted, and the seed crop is lessened. In case of severe attack no seed is produced. A dry climate such as that of the Southwest lessens the danger from attack. Sometimes when a host tree is weakened the mistletoe may die from lack of nourishment. STOCK. Damage to seedlings and saplings from uncontrolled sheep and cattle may be excessive. When the range is overstocked cattle trample and injure seedlings, particularly in the vicinity of water- ing places, while saplings are occasionally horned and the bark par- tially rubbed off. If grass is scarce sheep nibble small seedlings, and vhen close-herded, as in crossing regular driveways, trample repro- duction. Over extensive areas on the Coconino and Tusayan Na- tional Forests bands of sheep have stunted yellow pine seedlings by nibbling the terminal shoots. Some sheepmen claim that this was done chiefly by the “markers,” or goats that go with every band. If sheep are salted continuously near reproduction the damage to the young seedlings is likely to be very great. Goats are so destructive both to seedlings and to saplings that they. should be excluded from western yellow pine stands. On the Datil National Forest is an area where yellow pine seedlings have been com- pletely destroyed and saplings permanently injured by having their _ bark eaten from 4 to 5 feet above the ground. The value of properly regulated sheep and cattle grazing in securing reproduction, however, must be recognized, since it prevents the formation of a heavy mat of grass, and loosens the soil so that the seed can germinate. Grazing 5998°—Bull. 101—11——2 18 WESTERN YELLOW PINE IN ARIZONA AND NEW MEXICO. before a reproduction cutting is beneficial, but after seedlings have come up and before they are firmly established it should be re- stricted. LIGHTNING. As a result of severe thunderstorms in the Southwest during the summer months, the damage to yellow pine from lightning is con- siderable. Often when a dry tree is struck a ground fire follows. On a sample plot of approximately 154 acres, on the Coconino National Forest, 1.5 per cent of the stand had been lightning struck. Trees are rarely killed outright, but lose a strip of bark from 6 to 10 inches in width, circling the tree spirally. Occasionally, however, trees are killed when struck. Evenif lightning-struck timber remains standing, there is considerable loss in quality unless it is logged within one or two years. In the latter case the wood is merely blued, and can be cut into the lower grades. If, however, the trees are left standing for a number of years, lightning scars usually develop into serious rot. FIRE, Because of the open character of the stand and the fire-resisting bark, often 3 inches thick, the actual loss in yellow pine by fire is less than with other more gregarious species. A crown fire in mature timber is almost unheard of, and in a ground fire in the virgin forest young saplings often escape complete destruction, though with a fair wind and on a steep slope destruction of seedlings and saplings is often complete. It is after logging that the damage from fire is greatest, on account of the inflammable and unburned slash. The butts of mature trees are often fire scarred, but ordinarily this does not result in either death or decay. Even in the case of very serious scars, the butt log is usually sound, and much of the scar is eliminated in the slab. During recent years the yellow-pine type has been heavily grazed by sheep and cattle, and in consequence the grass is kept short, and the damage from fire very much reduced. In June, 1910, a fire occurred on the Gila, Datil, and Apache Na- | | tional Forests which burned over about 60 square miles. The area burned was steep and rocky, with an unusual quantity of dry forage. An investigation showed that the injury to the yellow pine was con- fined very largely to the reproduction. On the area as a whole, from 40 to 50 per cent of the seedlings were killed. The greatest damage © was done where the seedlings were in groups, and less where they were scattering. Of the saplings on the area, from 23 to 40 per cent were killed. While the greatest damage was done in groups, since there the fire seemed to burn with the greatest intensity, it was_ seldom that all of the trees in any one group were killed. A few trees with diameters from 6 to 10 inches, and even up to 20 inches, | THE TREE. | 19 had been killed, but none of a diameter above 20 inches. The injury to the mature yellow pine was very slight. Few of the larger trees were burned through the bark. WIND. The extensive root system of western yellow pine, especially the strong laterals, enables the tree, under ordinary conditions, to with- stand severe wind pressure. In early spring, immediately after the snow has melted, and during the summer rains, however, the com- bination of soggy, water-soaked soil and high winds results in con- siderable windfall. Observations made on the Coconino National Forest show that, unless left in groups or otherwise protected, seed trees which remain after a stand has been removed are very likely to be wind thrown. Isolated trees that have always grown in the open can, of course, withstand the wind; the damage occurs when trees that have been growing with other trees in dense groups are suddenly exposed to its full force. A tract of 480 acres on the Tusayan National Forest was logged during August, September, and October, 1909, after about one-third of the stand had been carefully marked for cutting. Yet in Sep- tember, 1910, a year later, 8 blackjack and 10 yellow pine, total- ing 2,250 and 8,520 feet board measure, respectively, had been blown down. The total windfall of 10,770 feet was, however, only 0.0067 per cent of the stand left after cutting. In this case the area: was not exposed to the full force of the wind, and the marking was carefully executed with a view to preventing windfall. On less favorable situ- ations and with less careful marking the loss has been as much as 2 per cent of the total stand left. FROST AND SNOW. Young seedlings of western yellow pine are susceptible to frost damage, particularly when they have not come up under the pro- tective cover of brush. Moreover, dense reproduction, even from 2 to 5 feet in height, often suffers severely from either very early or very late frosts. In the Lincoln National Forest, along the Rio Bonito, there was considerable damage to young western yellow pine from frost in 1907. South of Sitgreaves Mountain, in the Coconino National Forest, dense reproduction was seriously damaged by frost in 1905. The results of experiments indicate that seedlings which have grown up under brush cover are not liable to frost, but may damp off during wet weather. Mature timber, also, is not damaged, and frost cracks in green timber are unknown. During the winter, however, frost in saw logs makes milling expensive unless the logs are thawed in a hot-water mill pond. 20 WESTERN YELLOW PINE IN ARIZONA AND NEW MEXICO. Since western yellow pine rarely occurs at the higher elevations, damage from snow is negligible. Occasionally a slender sapling is bent over after a particularly heavy storm, but the damage over large areas is infinitesimal. At higher altitudes, in mixture with Douglas fir, the young western yellow pine are afforded ample pro- tection by the older stands. MAMMALS AND BIRDS. Undoubtedly an enormous quantity of yellow-pine seed is con- sumed each year by squirrels, mice, and chipmunks. When the seed supply is exhausted, squirrels eat the bark from the slender twigs of black jack, temporarily damaging the crown, but doing no perma- nent injury to the tree. Rodents nibble the roots of seedlings, and appreciable damage results, especially in plantations. Occasionally a tree is girdled by a porcupine. Bird life is not plentiful in the Southwest, but what birds there are probably do more good by eating noxious insects than harm by damaging yellow-pine seed. Woodpeckers bore holes in dead trees and in live trees infested with insects, but healthy green timber is exempt from their attacks. REPRODUCTION. ! Under poor moisture conditions, even with protection from fire and proper regulation of grazing, reproduction of western yellow pine is both difficult and uncertain. With sufficient rainfall, how- ever, it is practically sure. Since the seed of western yellow pine often does not germinate until the coming of the summer rains, its vitality is impaired by the usual period of drought during April, May, and June. Moreover, the seedlings that do come up are subjected to another drought from the latter part of September to November or December. Early frosts damage or destroy seedlings, particularly those not protected by a brush cover. Yet this same cover often induces damping off. There are large areas on the Coconino and Tusayan National Forests, particularly of malpais formation, where reproduction is entirely lacking; yet this may in part be explained by recurring fires and overgrazing. Both of these are common in the Southwest, and account for lack of reproduction in many other places than the ones mentioned. On the Prescott division of the Prescott National Forest, where the yellow-pine type is about half cut over, reproduction over the entire logged area is practically complete. Between Leoanard Canyon, on the Sitgreaves Forest and the southeastern boundary of the Coconino Forest reproduction is completely established in over 10,000 acres of virgin timber. 1See also Forest Service Circular 174, Reproduction of Western Yellow Pine in the Southwest, by G. A. Pearson. * se THE TRER. PAs Very complete data on reproduction in the Coconino and Tusayan National Forests, gathered in the course of reconnaissance estimates, and shown graphically in figure 4, give an excellent idea of the aver- age quality and quantity of western yellow-pine reproduction on an area of 1,258,240 acres, where unfavorable conditions exist. Good reproduction means that seedlings already stock the ground; fair reproduction, that seedlings are scattered, but sufficient in places for a second crop; and poor reproduction, that new growth is entirely lacking or very incomplete. GROWTH. Under the climatic conditions of the Southwest western yellow pine is not a tree of rapid growth. It must, in fact, wage a continual warfare with nature for its very existence. The growing season is short, and frequently the seasonal drought lasts well into July, when the growing season is half over. In the seedling and sapling stage energy that must be expended in_ estab- G00D REPRODUCTION 282,080 ACRES-22 of, FAIR REPRODUCTION I34880 ACRES-27 % lishing the tree’s root POOR REPRODUCTION system results in dwarfing its develop- 458,400 ACRES. - 36 of, FARK LAND ment above ground. /82,880 ACRES/5-% HEIGHT GROWTH. The height growth of seedlings depends entirely upon local conditions, principally whether they are partially suppressed or grow in full light. The average figures in Table 6 are for seedlings grow- ing in the open with some side shade. Fic. 4.—Relative quality of reproduction on Coconino and Tusayan Forests. TABLE 6.—Height growth of seedlings. Colfax P Prescott | Apache Datil Jemez “ Age. oe Forest. | Forest. | Forest. | Forest. Average. Years Feet. Feet Feet. Feet Feet Feet [elena ORSP iBee eee: (RA Saral eee ce oe A gee lg Ops pee |e ea ee JE reauteh cme nme nite pl Ge Rericneese 55) LED Jil ate ere Gl eae cee Arties e, .9 67 .6 ie he | ses es even ceo | overt parents ein) Sand» ial 1.6 .8 12 0.5 1.04 Greens 1.4 2.0 9 153 .8 1. 28 (peers 5 07 2.6 1.0 1.4 1.2 1.58 pal te ae 1.9 Sal ilo lt 1158) 1.6 1.80 Ores ie 2.2 a 7 Ue, U7 1.9 2.14 1K see era 2.4 4.3 1.33 1.9 728 2. 44 Maliees 2a 4.9 1.4 Pi 2.8 2.78 Heel 22 es = 3.0 5.6 1.6 ie, 38 3.14 jee 3.4 6.4 1 e¢/ 74.83) 3.8 BL ay 11d Lgiy sae 3.8 Tod 1.8 2.4 4.3 3. 92 i eee 4.2 fst dL 2.0 Met) 4.8 4.32 22 WESTERN YELLOW PINE IN ARIZONA AND NEW MEXICO. Under conditions best suited to its development—that is to say, in mixture with Douglas fir—the height growth of western yellow pine, as shown in Table 7, based on the measurements of 80 trees in the Apache National Forest, is most rapid at from 60 to 100 years of age. After 100 years the rate of height growth declines, until from 160 to 180 years it falls below the mean annual growth of 0.37. TABLE 7.—Height growth of western yellow pine in mixture with Douglas fir. Annual Anna ae growt ) . growt Age. Height. for last Age. Height. for last 20 years. 20 years. Years Feet. Foot. Years Feet. Foot. 20S Ra ee 520 0. 25 2002 sae ee 95.8 0.28 A (Veiner nee ee ts ee 13E5 -45 290 Be eee 100. 4 ae GOR eae es Sa Pas fe? .61 DAS lee Roe eer 104.3 .19 SOME a 8 See eee 40.3 ie, 260 Saree ae 107.2 14 TIC Vee ey ae Sas 54.0 = 7A 280 58 Seni ee oe 109.5 = 1Ul TIPLE Re Mel ves eyo 65. 4 AGYS BOOS A eee eee lhe .08 CA QS oe eas eee 75.0 48 GO ee eee 83.2 41 Mean annual growth. . -30 SQ sce on 2 eee 90. 0 34 The relation between diameter and height is shown in Table 8, the figures in which are derived from hypsometer measurements. A com- parison between height and age may be secured by substituting the ages in Table 7. On the Zuni Forest, distinction was made between blackjack and yellow pine, and the figures show that for the same di- ameters blackjack is shorter than yellow pine; yet on the Jemez Forest, where blackjack and yellow pine were also measured sepa- rately, this difference was not borne out, since the heights were prac- tically identical. TABLE 8.—Height of western yellow pine on basis of diameter. j: . iF : | Apache Forest Patil Zuni Forest Pr eseott Diameter orest, orest, breast Pure With | ee pure Jemez Average. high. western | Douglas ees Black- | Yellow ee Forest. yellow fir in eine jack pine. fae pine. | mixture. Inches. Feet Feet Feet. Feet Feet Feet. Feet. Feet DU ea eee ba ae eee roy Ci Bee nen freee a 40 64 52.7 14 57 73 58 52 60 48 68 59. 4 17 66 82 65 63 7 o7 73 67.6 20 74 91 74 72 73 65 78 G23 23 81 98 82 80 80 72 83 82.2 26 85 103 89 88 90 78 88 88.7 29 89 107 ofc | en yee dee 98 83 95 95.0 32 91 AE. a ee ote oe | aa ene 105 87 104 99. 4 35 92 TT 2-5 SSR eit ee ay a 110 QO: 5) Sao 101.0 DIAMETER GROWTH. Tables 9 and 10, based on the measurements of 400 trees on the Coconino and Tusayan National Forests, give the diameter of yellow pine and blackjack at different stages. It is apparent that the THE TRER. 23 mature yellow pine when in the blackjack form grew much slower than the present blackjack of the same size. This difference in diameter growth during the youth of the yellow pine is difficult to explain, unless it is because the more recent blackjack forests have been thinned by fire and the diameter growth stimulated. The cur- rent annual growth falls below the mean annual growth after 80 years in the blackjack form, and after 100 years in the yellow pine. TABLE 9.—Age of yellow pine and blackjack on basis of diameter breast high. Diameter Yellow see ee breast high. pine, | Blackjack. Inches. Years. Years. pa a Ae 21.0 355 Sy Ps eee ee 38. 0 26. 0 Ce a eee BY GS) 39.5 11) espe ieee Sa 79.5 5355) 1. EI te es a ee 108. 0 70.5 BA eee eee eerie 145.5 91.5 71 LE eas Saat Seas 190.5 127.0 Dot ee ae PEY EO Al Atk seo ess DORA SRLS Se oe 2855 Og |Pemerees sere TABLE 10.—Diameter growth of yellow pine and blackjack on basis of age. Blackjack. © Yellow pine. : Age. Diameter Growth Diameter Growin f breast high.| per year. |breast high. P ie 2 st 20. Years Inches. Inch Inches. Inch PLS a Ea Se ee ONOO ME Seco seeees SH) =" [earn ae A () eat pes pere operas ere on 8.15 0. 227 5 0.170 C50) eer ar nec oe Ae 12. 20 . 202 8. 45 160 C0 Sa Ee Go een eae 15. 50 . 165 11.10 132 NOD Me eee a A 17.95 B22 13. 20 105 IS 3 ae ee le oe ee 19. 70 . 087 14. 95 087 A) Bee en eee dee She. Be es 20. 80 . 055 16. 55 080 GO Remmi c peer Palys 17.95 070 De se Se SS HOSED CAS eee ee (nee oe ae 19. 30 067 POO) So Sect ee RE Se (are aero) (eee ee ae 20. 65 067 RANE 5 Se sheae SO Coan | Cee area ee Pennie eee 21. 90 062 sah Sas Se eS ee ee ee eee eens 23. 20 065 A) pee ne eames 2 ws Ne Ao [ee ot es 24. 50 065 Mean annual diame- (HOLRO aB Sess SEA Cmemaeroe S148 eee se . 094 In Table 11, which is based on measurements of from 17 to 205 trees, on five National Forests, no distinctions were made between blackjack and yellow pine, although most of the trees measured be- longed to the latter class. The average for the five Forests gives the diameter of 160-year yellow pine at 19 inches, while the Srna for the Coconino Forest, in Table 10, gives it as 17.95 inches. 94 WESTERN YELLOW PINE IN ARIZONA AND NEW MEXICO. TABLE 11.—Diameter of western yellow pine breast high on the basis of age, i Annual Apache | Prescott | Jemez Zuni Datil Meo | Aaa Age.l from | ment for Forest. | Forest. | Forest. | Forest. | Forest. SiO. last 20 years. Years. Inches. Inches. Inches. Inches. Inches. Inches. Inch. 20 eee eerste 2.6 2.8 4.0 Pn, 2.0 2.6 0. 130 AQ) lnk i roe ts by 72 6.1 8.2 4.6 4.2 5.8 . 160 GOR2 eee 8.0 9.4 12.3 foil 6.6 8.7 . 145 SOR Raa LOW 12.0 15.8 9.4 8.8 11.4 a bs) OOS Se aie 13.4 14.1 18.6 ie) 10.8 Bi, 7 .115 20 RS nonce ek 16.0 16.2 20.8 16}, 77 12.5 15.7 . 100 AO see yore 18.5 18.0 22.8 14.6 13.9 17.5 . 090 GOR eee aoe 20.9 19.4 24.6 15.9 15.0 19.0 075 SON ee Dane, 20.5 26.1 16.9 15.9 20.2 . 060 OO Re eee 25.3 21.6 27.6 17.8 16.7 PNG S3 055 7A) ests tae pe Dai fest: lal Visage og ee | LSE eee ee Ba 18.7 17.4 223 . 050 DA re ee PAD BOs: (eee hs ey er nonce 19.5 18.0 Dol . 040 PAG OEY Aaa gen SOE eee be eas | ey ernest 20. 2 18.6 23.8 - 035 280 ee BQ Oy od eete ke el Reena aes 20.9 19.1 24.5 - 035 S002 Re eee SOHO | eceeeeny ae ete es et sre wil. 7 19.5 25m 030 Mean.... . 1130 . 1080 . 1380 . 0723 . 0650 SUSStN) Wecsccsssoc | 162 years allowed for stump height. VOLUME GROWTH. Volume tables for western yellow pine are given in the Appendix. The increase in volume of single trees can be computed readily for a given number of years by applying the diameter growth, Tables 9, 10, or 11, to a tree of known diameter; and by finding the volume of the tree, Tables 29 to 32, on the basis of present and future di- ameters. The difference between the two trees represents the volume increment. It is often desirable to apply the increase in height and read the present and future volume from the diameter-height volume tables. THE YELLOW-PINE TYPE. The typical western yellow pine forest of the Southwest is a pure park-like stand made up of scattered groups of from 2 to 20 trees, usually connected by scattering individuals. Openings are frequent, and vary greatly in size. Within the type are open parks of large extent, whose origin may be due to peculiar soil conditions, such as hardpan, or in other cases to periodic flooding. What is known as Garland Prairie, in the Coconino National Forest, contains some 16,800 acres of rolling, open land. In a timber-sale area of 9,250 acres on the Tusayan National Forest, bordering the woodland type, and with a westerly and northerly exposure, 6,609 acres were for- ested, while the remainder, about one-third of the total area, was | open land. At the lower limits of the yellow-pine type, pinion, alli- gator juniper, cedar, cypress, Gambel oak, and other woodland species occur in mixture with the pine. At the higher elevations | ure Douglas fir, white fir, limber pine, Mexican white pine, Engel- STAND. 25 mann spruce, aspen, and occasionally Gambel oak, until with in- crease of altitude yellow pine may be altogether replaced by pure stands of Engelmann spruce. In pure stands of yellow pine the ground cover is usually pine grass, bunch grass, and in openings erama of various species. The grasses are distributed in clumps or patches, interspersed with layers of pine leaves of various depths, according to the density of the sand. Underbrush is rare. Occa- sionally buck brush is found at the lower and briers at the higher elevations. Varying age classes give pure western yellow pine a variety of aspects. In places it is made up of thrifty pole stands of blackjack, with an occasional mature yellow pine fast declining in vigor. In others there may be an old mature stand of veterans, with complete reproduction beneath. On the limestone formations, with deep soil, the stand is usually more thrifty than on lava (malpais). STAND. AVERAGE STANDS. To determine the number of trees per acre in an average stand of western yellow pine, surveys were made in different situations with varying conditions, and the results tabulated by 3-inch diameter classes. Table 12 gives the results of valuation surveys on a portion of the Prescott National Forest, upon which a working-plan estimate was based, and which are indicative of average conditions in the more open yellow-pine stands on dry situations in the Southwest. The small number of trees per acre is typical. The largest tree recorded was 37 inches in diameter breast high. TABLE 12.—Average stand of western yellow pine on 128 strip acres, Prescott National Forest. Diameter | Trees per || Diameter | Trees per | breast high. acre. breast high. acre. Inches. Inches. 4-6 ad 25-27 0.5 7-9 5.3 28-30 2, 10-12 4.2 31-33 - 03 13-15 3.4 34-37 03 16-18 Divi Over 12 10. 46 19-21 28 Over 18 4. 36 22-24 1.3 The number of trees per acre in average stands on the Coconino and Tusayan National Forests is given in Table 13. Here again, though under more favorable conditions than on the Prescott, the number of trees per acre is small. Since no healthy blackjack are marked for cutting in Government timber sales, except in thinnings, timber-sale estimates usually differentiate between blackjack and 26 a Oe ee TABLE 13.— TABLE 14.—Mazximum stands of western yellow pine based on 10-acre calipered sample plots. Over 18. yellow pine. WESTERN YELLOW PINE IN ARIZONA AND NEW MEXICO. ing parks, Coconino and Tusayan National Forests. Diameter breast high. Carson Forest.1 Trees per acre. Coconino. Tusayan. Black- Yellow Black- | Yellow jack. pine. Total jack. pine. Total H(A es ee tae 4.37 ASST ice ae ieee 4.31 1.89 1.07 2.96 BOL 0. 55 1.07 stat TAL 1.92 - 40 . 68 1.08 BOS 2.36 2.89 -48 1. 62 2510 51% 1.55 1 =e) . 66 . 76 .07 1.03 1.10 - 08 .53 - 61 -O1 44 45 . 02 Boll 588 ipady ane Sart 44 44 -O1 opi! .32 Cia ese ele, py AR Peageonee hon . 04 . 04 Si Se he Ne .05 S05; |e eens . 04 - 04 4.88 8.27 Seal'5 Seplelt 4.74 7.85 1.49 7.20 8. 69 1.09 4,19 5. 28 1 Approximated. Carson Forest.? (Trees per acre.) Alamo Forest. Zuni Forest. 9 Oe he GPa ho ey W2eOCUH PONS Sor d WOR el ord Wee) d o pip ds |! dS ee @ le SS = : Ss = Spo ae SS & Oo S & oO aa) va a faa) va DAs ee eres Mean Ges eee eee 2.0 SAS ES 4a a4 3 0.4 AiFal ONO | AG eal O) |e tens 167 |=) 454.) (650 SV || See eee IZ | APA Aner Onrk eee WD | WB e-b5.)) Gok Re See 7.0 Toad eeeeall. 260 EL Yepl SUCH os OMe eA also aes 1.8 liste SonKe -6 Bee, 2.4 DAS eos a2, a ae on iil eee oil: teh |) ZB eee GH || Selb} Bags -0 | 38.8 | 38.8 seb OLE 1 Five 1-acre plots Total. — aT SK ate ye SS NDOFM OOO COLO WO z 3 a ? = 5 s/s |3 fo) ol o i faa Pp it Nal eee 3.9 29 aan MH el asl areas CP iral fee ey tl say: 1.5| 2.5] 3.4 1. Sh tS es 1.5: |.) 56325 ak 7a fal Nae ee fee 3. Ode emer ed Lrecleeee 2.2 pehee eecewe 1.¢ we BENS we SA ees Ne 1 15.7| 6.4 | 23.7 10:74) 9,2 tate 2 ENN 2Two 10-acre plots. Total. Jot yah i base MG Hexlaell 9) HERD STD CLOT T OO CO OO The figures for the Coconino Forest are the average of 1,888 acres, chiefly on well-watered, rolling malpais flats, the stand frequently very dense; while those for the Tusayan Forest are the average of 5,920 acres on southeasterly exposures, with a dry soil and a considerable area of pure volcanic cinders, the stand rather an open one. Average stand of western yellow pine on timber-sale areas, HEA Jemez Forest. >. wb pam STAND. 27 TABLE 14.—Mazximum stands of western yellow pine based on 10-acre calipercd sample plots. (Trees per acre.)—Continued. Coconino Forest. Datil Forest.1 = Sitgreaves Forest. | Average of all plots. ~~ Diame- ; : B : . ter stele ies ge: Sele lees | 4 breast | < a, cs io oa | ry Gi a, high. a= Es ; 5 = ; co) = = ; a = 22 Ad 5 a 4 S mo q td iS = 4 S = oO om oS oO = 3 o oO = oS oO = 3 Sacm eo ete co miees Seles tse.) | Sees —A val a ca) Pp = =a a a H ea val B Inches Aq Ors cee ene eaoe aa esoes (SG Iksossoc USGY leadegad DADA A ere ec Des 1.29 0.0 1.29 ZO See eee eee eee 1.6 0.1 ZO) |e aeee Beri 0.2 SeOulelato .04 | 1.90 Tera) alee eels esa ihe 250%, 6 PW fal arsenic 3.0 off 3.7 | 2.66 -58 | 2.88 IBA s Ho} |) PeG4) 4beh Bec eR) hz 5.4 4.1 8 4.9} 3.18 | 1.58 | 4.83 GH Soll Pe I) She Hod qe aw 2.23 | 3.83 4.9 1.3 1.8 3.1} 2.37 | 2.86 | 5.20 19-21. SO OsB al CoP | dolla: B52! 3. 57 5.0 ot! 1.2 1.9) 1.36] 4.72) 5.96 22-24...| 1.0] 4.8] 5.8 -43 | 2.43] 2.86 4.6 9 2.8 3.7 -16| 4.58 | 5.26 DI ieah oll) eee ete eal JOSi ola8 1.83 4.8 Sal 2.4 2.5 14] 3.53 | 3.80 2.30 el eee WE) | Ae) SOB ihe} 1.33 2.2, SP 1.9 Po Ak | -10} 2.03 | 2.15 S1—33'. 2 .|-.- 2-2 5 6 Uf - 03 -93 - 96 feel [ere patie 1.5 1.5 -02} 1.25 | 1.15 Si E055 cllesancs| Wseser Seeaee 03 ~20 - 30 =O) ese ual ileal -O1 78 | .80 78M odlecosce fal Ls | eee 13 ~13 7 SAA ee ae) SBSSosone -16 17 AA Ve ee es -2 Dis lero sete - 07 OTe ere oases aa odl Syl ere -12 11 Ate ay Se | See | es ese | eee ae leet ee 07 CO |e sel yee eye | ies ae | re (ena 02 02 H=49)5 Selloca see boomer lod Sol erste esl [ree ene [oc Rep egesy [eco sees tenes Fea ene | eta cter sy ee enn! (LS OL 01 Over12.| 6.1 | 26.0 | 32.1 5.75 | 12.96 | 18.71 29.1 583 13.9 21.2 7.94 | 21.64 |29. 46 Overtss| 220) | 1805) 2050) | 22727 9240) |) 112) | 1858 1.9) 11.8] 13.2] 2.89 | 17.20 |19. 43 1 Three 10-acre plots. 2 Blackjack and yellow pine calipered together. 3 Includes Apache under ‘“‘ Total.” MAXIMUM STANDS. Figures for a number of the heaviest stands on the Forests in _ Arizona and New Mexico, on each of which the local officers selected the heaviest 10 acres that could be found, are given in Table 14. Trees above 12 inches breast high represent all that would ordinarily be merchantable under present market conditions if the stands were eut clean, while those above 18 inches represent the usual cut in a Government timber sale, subject, of course, to local variations. Even on these maximum stands the average number of trees per acre over 12 inches in diameter is only 29.46 and over 18 inches only 19.438. Out of all the areas there was only one tree over 45 inches in diameter and only three trees over 42 inches. No trees were found which con- tained over five logs, although on the Apache Forest there were 31 five-log trees on the 10 acres measured. Of blackjack over 26 inches in diameter, there was an average of only 0.27 per acre; over 12 inches, 7.94; and over 18 inches, 2.39. What is probably the heaviest stand of pure western yellow pine in the Southwest is shown in Table 15. It consists of an irregular ‘strip of 2 acres on the Tusayan National Forest. The trees are all long-boled yellow pine of good quality. The average of 35.4 trees per acre shows the unusual density of the stand, yet there are 11 trees with diameters over 30 inches breast high and 22 trees which will yield five logs. 28 WESTERN YELLOW PINE IN ARIZONA AND NEW MEXICO. TABLE 15.—Mazrimum stand on 2-acre sample plot, Tusayan Forest. (Trees per i ) acre.) Estimated number of 16-foot logs to : ~ trees. Diameter breast high. Py 2 3 4 5 Total Inches IG=N82 ees se OG) *|Keabesse OS5I leeeeere 1.0 NOU eed 5 0.5 TO) eee es 2.0 DWN Sone cues 5 ileye 2.0 1 & 5.0 DED eee ae eye | ea rc ra Bh Ono 9.0 2830 beh: arn eos ie ees 5 1.0 10.5 12. 0° BI E88 See sal Serene es | eee ee 1.0 Dd, 5) 3.5 BASS Gee = ere nbs | es |e ae al Ee nee 11,53 16 BLO OS es HN Pete eee pat tee || eee a ato 5 63) OvierslSeenees 1.0 2.5 9. 0 22.0 34.5 FULLY STOCKED STANDS. The open and grouplike character of even the heaviest existing stands of western yellow pine in the southwest prevents the figures for maximum stands from being a fair measure of what an area is capable of producing if fully stocked; that is, when the trees are evenly distributed over it at distances apart conducive to their best growth. Here and there, how- ever, are small areas that may be considered fully stocked, though these are seldom over 1 or 2 acres in extent. An example of a fully stocked stand was noted on the Zuni Forest, where on an area of 24 feet by 78 feet, comprising one twenty-third of an acre, were 8 splendid veterans, averaging over Fic. 5.—Distribution of blackjack on 100 feet in height, and from 23 to oe eee 35 inches in diameter breast high. If this same density were maintained it would give a stand of about 184 veterans per acre. Two sample plots on the Datil National Forest, figures for which are given in Table 16, illustrate the grouplike character of even a fully stocked stand when grown under natural conditions. Figure 5 shows graphically the location of the trees on one plot. Through almost all stages of growth the openings remain approximately the same size until gradually the parent stand dies | out, the small blanks become stocked with seedlings, and the cycle 1s complete. The figures given in Table 16 for two fully naturally stocked stands of blackjack are an indication of the maximum stand capacity for soil YIELD. 29 of moderate fertility. A plantation on similar soil even without thinnings would exceed these stands. TABLE 16.—Two fuliy stocked stands of blackjack. (Trees per acre.) pee Ble Black- Black- = jack 62 | jack 82 a, : jack 62 | jack &2 Acne years old,| years old, eae years old,| years old, 8M. | °34.3 feet | 42 feet 8h. | °34.3 feet | 42 feet high. high. high. high. Inches. Inches Aa Ole se tear 21.6 19. 2 DEH (SRA ae 0.0 0. 2 (Ue ee eee 39. 4 40.8 28-30 Sane ene AO el Cena hs OED ey eee 38. 4 43.8 BUS Rs oe Aelia |e Meee eee lpia eee ee 21.6 27.4 Overt2e =e. 38. 0 46. 2 NG-IS eee ee a: 13.0 11.6 Over 18......! 3. 4 Uo” 10) eerie 2.6 5.6 2922 4G ee .6 1.4 Total over 4.. 137. 4 150. 0 YIELD. AVERAGE AND MAXIMUM YIELD. As compared with the Pacific coast, the yield of western yellow pine in Arizona and New Mexico is relatively small. On the Tusayan and Coconino National Forests are approximately 1,317,000 acres of the western yellow-pine type. Allowing for the underrun of past estimates, the stand of western yellow pine on the average acre for the entire area, including parks, barren land, and cut-over areas, 1s about 3,500 board feet to the acre, or 2,250,000 board feet to the sec- tion. The best township on the two Forests is estimated to cut 177,365,000 board feet, or, roughly, 7,700 board feet to the acre, which is approximately 5,000,000 feet to the section. The largest recorded cut in any lumbering operation within the Coconino and Tusayan National Forests was 9,522,000 board feet to the section. According to T. A. Riordan, president of the Arizona Lumber & Timber Co., however, this was an extraordinary section, and no other has cut within a couple of million feet of this quantity. On 5,920 acres taken as an average for a large timber sale on the Coconino Forest, the average stand per acre was blackjack 516 feet and yellow pine 3,299 feet, a total of 3,813 feet. On another sale 2,135 acres averaged 725 board feet of blackjack and 5,797 of yellow pine, or a total of 6,522 board feet per acre. Exclusive of small parks and openings the average stand per acre on the forested area amounted to 7,390 board feet. On a timber-sale area of 9,520 acres on the Tusayan Forest, of which 6,609 acres is forested and the remaining 2,911 made up of open parks, the total cut is estimated at 31,000,000 board feet, or 3,256 board feet per acre. For the forested area only the cut will average 4,691 board feet per acre. On this sale about 25 per cent of the stand was left uncut to reseed the ground. 30 WESTERN YELLOW PINE IN ARIZONA AND NEW MEXICO. Both Mr. A. B. McGaffey and Mr. Charles F. Wade, of Albu- querque, N. Mex., remember a section within the Zuni National For- est on private land that cut slightly over 7,000,000 board feet, though exact figures are not available. Mr. Wade reports that during the period from June, 1907, to May, 1910, the largest cut from any sec- tion of which he has knowledge was 5,458,256 board feet. What he considers an average cut during this period from 6,720 acres totaled 35,282,462 board feet, or 5,250 board feet per acre. This would amount to approximately 3,333,000 board feet per section. As a guide in cruising, a poor stand might be considered as running 1,000,000 feet to the section, a fair stand 2,000,000, a good stand 3,000,000, a heavy stand 4,000,000, and a very heavy stand 5,000,000. These figures, of course, are merely an. approximation. MAXIMUM YIELD ON SAMPLE PLOTS. Maximum stands found on small areas prove that with artificial regeneration and a fully stocked stand, a large yield can be counted upon. Table 17 shows the yield upon twelve 10-acre sample plots on eight National Forests in the Southwest. As will be seen, the highest yield was found on the Jemez National Forest, where the sample plot averaged 1,303 board feet of blackjack and 15,800 feet of yellow pine per acre, or 17,103 feet in all. Next to this is the Coconino Na- tional Forest with 1,440 board feet of blackjack and 13,686 feet of yellow pine per acre, a total of 15,126 feet. The average of the twelve 10-acre plots gives 1,457 board feet of blackjack and 9,665 of yellow pine per acre, or a total average per acre of 11,395 feet. TABLE 17.—Maximum yield per acre of western yellow pine from calipered sample plots. Forest. | Blackjack. ae Total. Forest. Blackjack. ae Total. | | Feetb.m.| Fectb.m.| Feetb.m. Feet b.m. | Feeib.m. | Feetb.m. Sitgreaves..... IR SYAl 10, 980 WPA Sil ||, 7AM seseeeae 591 9, 582 10, 173 Date 1,061 7, 642 8, 703 1D) Ones 1,637 9, 060 10, 697 DOR Senne 575 10, 751 TAG326" || Jemegues. sae. 1,303 15, 800 17, 103 Dossy 2,160 8, 380 10,540 || Carson 2...... 579 12, 359 12,974 Apache....... () (1) 14, 401 eS INEMINO) = Sseccc 5, 308 8, 041 13, 349 Average.... 1, 457 9, 665 311,395 Coconino. ..... 1,440 13, 686 15, 126 ‘ 1 Not separated. 2 Two 10-acre plots. 3 Includes Apache total. On very small areas the maximum stand sometimes far exceeds those just given in the table, a fact due to the natural grouping or crowding so characteristic of the species. Five 1-acre plots on the Carson National Forest averaged 622 board feet of blackjack and 26,730 feet of yellow pine, a total of 27,352 board feet per acre. Per- haps the heaviest yield of western yellow pine for an area of 2 acres within the Southwest was found in the Tusayan National Forst. YIELD. Bit Here the trees, which were all veterans, totaled by volume table analysis 66,110 board feet, or 33,055 board feet per acre. The enor- mous volume of single groups of mature trees is illustrated by a plot of one twenty-third of an acre in extent on the Zuni National Forest which totaled 8,767 board feet or 201,641 board feet per acre. INCREMENT OF STANDS. Table 18 gives the results of measurements of two 5-acre plots in a pure, fully stocked stand of blackjack, and shows the mean annual increment per acre that may be expected in a fully stocked stand of this species. TABLE 18.—Yield per acre of fully stocked blackjack. | Number of Moan Present Average Average see ue ce _ annual age. height. diameter. cach Osan per acre. pee diameter. Penge Board feet. | Board feet. ZIG byl see OE Se ss 62 34.3 11,9 115.8 6, 326 102.0 Oi eee see ESee Senne As 82 42.0 12:3 130.8 7,590 92.5 eraieens ee et 72 | 38.1 1 123.3 6, 958 96.6 No reliable yield table for western yellow pine in the Southwest exists, though it is planned during 1911 and 1912 to measure a large number of sample plots in fully stocked, even-aged stands, on which such a table may be based. A tentative yield table for yellow pine has been compiled on the Kootenai National Forest, in Montana. In that region a 70-year-old stand on second quality soil is estimated to yield 7,400 board feet per acre. In Table 18 it is shown that a 72- year-old stand in the Datil National Forest on average soil averaged 6,958 board feet per acre. In Montana there were 240 trees per acre, 9 inches in diameter and 51 feet in height, while on the Datil there were 123.3 trees per acre, 12.1 inches in diameter and 38.1 feet in height. Though the stand in the Southwest is larger in diameter, it is shorter than that in Montana, and there are fewer trees per acre. Adapting the Montana figures to the southwest, it may be estimated that on average soil a fully stocked stand of western yellow pine will give the following yield per acre: TABLE 19.—Estimate of the yield of average fully stocked stand of western yellow pine from 40 to 140 years. Yield per acre. Yield per acre. Yield per g Age. acre. Years. Board feet. Years. Board feet. || Years. Board feet. AQ Me a= 4,000 SO Sees UU) ai) WAY See ce 10, 900 OO eirals = 4,900 Seer ee 8,700 US Seesoe 11, 400 i) eae 5,850 Ieee ee 9,500 TAD en sae 12,000 MOSz co 824 6, 900 DO Kea Ss 2 10, 250 oe WESTERN YELLOW PINE IN ARIZONA AND NEW MEXICO. When yield tables are not available and it is desired to estimate the future growth on cut-over land, it is necessary to caliper a certain per cent of the stand left. Compute the average acre and the size of the average tree, and apply the average diameter growth for any 10- year period desired. As an example, Table 20 shows the average stand on eight selected acres on good soil in the Coconino and Tusayan National Forests. TABLE 20.—Averdge number of trees per acre of different classes in virgin forest before cutting. | Yellow pine. Blackjack. Diameter breast high.) | Diseased To be | Thinned | Sound. | to be cut. | Dead. saved. | to becut. Dead. Inches A= GB tee pe sie oe baie | 0.01 0.03 0.03 0.55 0.16 0.03 [aOR a A ie ee ete .16 . 54 16 Sa2o - 26 09 11(0 5 PAS te eee ere ne . 36 sou 20 3.16 oo 06 IB Sb 6 sees cameo 1.02 26 11 2.41 5 1183 02 MC es Sean Se Oca 1.92 39 21 1.74 al) 01 1S EA) eS, Sipe ee eS 2.44 24 33 1 27/ -OL 03 DOM ee ee aaa 2 Wee eD 31 50% Sus 02 uiltsae seers DO—D [pe eee oa eee 1.97 Pil 20 SUGen| Sees 01 DS—SE il ferss e| 1.35 .19 21 04 03 01 SESE ee hee ee eee ae 52 . 06 13 03) shasetenes es oe eee BER Meda een ae ee 45 .05 Ed een eared teammate Rhett Soe ob S1=09 as sae nes | .38 OL Sp FSRe eee Rae re ee es | eee ADR AD eee ead 51163 02s ieee ie, So OS | ee eee ee sea eee ASA aha i fees day pe Xe reel ae ey ma eee ae i | ee INDOWeN 25sec ee 12. 47 1.74 1. 64 6.13 34 08 IADOVE WI See es ee | 9.53 1.09 | 1587 1.98 06 05 a 1 To be left for second cut in 20 years. Ordinarily in a Federai timber sale all the merchantable diseased yellow pine would be cut, as well as’the healthy yellow pine above 21 inches in diameter, and the blackjack in need of thinning. The dead trees yielding saw logs would also be marketed. Of the trees over 12 inches in diameter left on the ground, the average diameter for both blackjack and yellow pine is 17.8 inches. The stand over 12 inches in diameter left on the ground amounts to 1,054.3 board feet of black- jack, and 1,194.3 board feet of yellow pine, or a total of 2,249 board feet per acre. From Table 10 it appears that in 20 years the 17.8-inch blackjack will grow to 19.55 inches, and the 17.8-inch yellow pine to 19.15 inches. In addition, there wiil be trees of 12 inches and less in diameter that have in the meantime grown into the merchantable class. In 20 years the 11-inch blackjack will have a diameter of 14.30 inches, and the 11-inch yellow pine one of 13.10 inches. This gives in 20 years a total stand of 3,093 board feet per acre, composed of 1,418 feet of yellow pine and 1,675 feet of blackjack, a natural increase of 37.5 per cent, or about 2 per cent annually for the 20- year period. | The growth of stands will, of course, vary with the percentage of blackjack in composition. The more blackjack, the more rapid will THE WOOD. 38 be the increase. Careful measurements on a simple plot of 336 acres on a cut-over area on the Coconino National Forest showed that of trees 10 inches and over in diameter, there were at present on the area 2,644 blackjacks, averaging 15.9 inches in diameter, and 814 yellow pine, averaging 21.7 inches. From Table 10 it is seen that a blackjack with a diameter of 15.9 inches will in 20 years grow to a diameter of 18.35; while a yellow pine, with a diameter of 21.7 inches, will grow to a diameter of 23 inches in the same period. Using volume Tables 29 and 30, these mean trees have a volume of 510 board feet, and will have in 20 years a volume of 808 board feet, showing a growth in volume for the 20 years of 63 per cent, or 3.15 per cent per year. This calculation does-not allow for loss through lightning and decay, but since the total volume of blackjack and yellow pine at present classed as unhealthy amounts to 6,660 and 24,490 board feet, respectively, it is apparent that the growth would equal at least 2 per cent per year. This figure, of course, is for very favorable situations, where the total volume of blackjack is prac- tically equal to the total volume of yellow pine left after cutting. THE WOOD. STRUCTURE.* A discussion of the characteristics of western yellow pine wood is presented here as an aid in the identification and for a better under- standing of its variable qualities. The characters helpful in recog- nizing the wood are treated under two heads: (1) The gross char- acters, and (2) the microscopic characters. Under the first head are considered such general characters as can readily be seen with the unaided eye or with a pocket lens magnifying from 4 to 6 diameters, while under the second is presented a full discussion of the minute ‘structural characters of the wood. GROSS CHARACTERS. While generally the wood of western yellow pine is hard, com- pared with that of white pines, a good many trees yield wood closely resembling white pine in color, weight, and softness. However, in all grades of western yellow pine the late wood, the hardest part of the annual rings, is more pronounced, and therefore darker and harder than that of white pine, which has a more uniform structure. The heartwood of western yellow pine, very variable, but usually hard, is moderately heavy (30 pounds per cubic foot kiln dried), strong, and light reddish-brown in color. The sapwood is nearly white, usually varying from 3 to 6 inches in thickness (from 100 to 900 annual rings of growth). 1 Prepared by George B. Sudworth, dendrologist, and C. D. Mell, assistant dendrologist, Forest Service. 5998°—Bull. 101—11—-—3 34 WESTERN YELLOW PINE IN ARIZONA AND NEW MEXICO. | | On a smooth transverse section of the wood the annual rings of © {] erowth are distinctly visible, though more so in wood having wide | rings (fig. 6, @) than in wood with very narrow rings (fig. 6, c). The width of the annual rings varies greatly in different trees (fig. | 1, a, b, and c), which in great measure accounts for the difference in the character and quality of the wood. Very old trees, as well as young ones growing on poor soil, invariably develop narrow annual rings. Such wood has a more uniform structure than that with wider rings, and superficially often resembles white pine. Thrifty, rapidly grown trees have wood with wide annual rings, in each of which there is a conspicuous contrast between the soft early wood and | the hard late wood. di a NEG E EINE NAL ATT TE C= Fic. 6.—Various types of western yellow pine wood as shown in smooth transverse sec- tions photographed natural size; e. w., early wood; J. w., late wood; r. d., resin ducts. The contrast between the wood formed in early spring (fig. 6 a, e. w.) and that formed later (fig. 7 a, 7. w.) is due partly to the | general reduction in the radial diameter (fig. 7, f. ¢.) of the cell ele- ments, as growth advances from the early to the late wood, and partly to the greatly increased thickness of the cell walls (fig. 7, 1. w.) of the late-wood portion of the ring. The cell cavities in the wood formed in the early spring are usually much larger, and the cell walls thinner than in the wood formed later. (Fig. 7 0, e. w.). These two parts of the annual ring show a gradual transition from one to the other (fig. 7 a, a. 7.) which is characteristic and often serves to distinguish western yellow pine wood from that of other — j { ai \ es | . Ned THE WOOD. By pines which show a more abrupt transition from early to late wood. The width of the annual rings and the proportion of early wood to late wood in them are characters which determine the quality of western yellow pine wood as recognized by lumbermen. Where the growing season is short, and other conditions are unfavorable to rapid growth, the greater part of the annual ring consists of early wood, and very little contrast 1s seen between the rings, because of the small amount of late wood produced. A small proportion of this wood means a lack of the more stable wood elements, and hence a deficiency in strength. Lumber characterized by layers of growth of this type is comparatively brittle, and may be rather easy to work, features which permit narrow-ringed grades of western yellow pine waive Sh ie ws eiety . Bait i+ u * =o 5 ogtet eee Gt! yy : ne oeseee 0 at oo 8 | a ty st sain nee sk Oy . wi ROB ' pty c. Tangential Fic. 7.—a, transverse, b, radial, and c, tangential sections of western yellow pine, magni- fied 20 diameters; a. 7., annual (layer) ring; e. w., early wood; l. w., late wood; p. r., pith rays; r.-d., resin ducts; t., tracheids; f. t., flattened tracheid. to be substituted for white pine. Where, however, the growing sea- son is longer and conditions are favorable to rapid growth the ring produced each season is much wider, and shows a strong contrast be- tween its early and late wood, the latter being particularly abundant. The cell elements in the late wood of trees grown under these con- ditions are stronger, more durable, and as a result of the large pro- portion of late wood the lumber of fully matured trees is of the best quality. Resin ducts, which are conspicuous in this wood and easily observed in a smooth transverse section (fig. 6 a, 7. d.), are confined, in annual rings of average width, to the transitional part of the ring between the early and late wood, but in very narrow rings resin ducts are usually present only in the late wood. These charac- teristics are, to some extent, helpful in distinguishing western yellow 386 WESTERN YELLOW PINE IN ARIZONA AND NEW MEXICO. pine wood from that of such closely related species as shortleaf, long- leaf, and other pitch pines. In a smooth end view of the wood the pith rays are visible to the unaided eye only as faint, narrow, radially disposed lines, but they are plainly visible under a hand magnifier. (Fig. 7 a, p. 7.) The microscopic characters of the pith rays furnish the most reliable means of distinguishing the wood of western yellow pine from that of closely related species. MICROSCOPIC CHARACTERS. In a transverse section + of the wood (fig. 7, a), the inner and outer boundaries of each annualring are distinctly outlined (fig.7 a, a. 7.), while within the ring is seen a very gradual transition (, e. w. and t. w.), the latter from early to late wood (fig. usually occupying from one- fourth to one-third of the width of the annual ring. This gradual transition is in striking contrast to the ab- rupt changes from early to late wood seen in shortleatf and longleaf pine. Trache- ids (fig. 7 a, t.) in early wood uniform in size, and arranged in regular radial rows _ be- tween the pith rays, while in late wood they are compressed radially so that the cell cavi- ties appear elongated (fig. 7 a, l. w.), or are sometimes completely obscured (fig. 7 a, Fic. 8.—Transverse section of a resin duct with | Foes : the surrounding tissue magnified 250 diame- ii .). The very prominent ters; r. d., resin duct; ep. c., epithelial cells; resin ducts oceur chiefly in Ww. p. C., wood parenchyma cells; ¢., tracheids ; 2 ee b. p., bordered pits; p. r., pith rays; c. w., the early wood (figs. ( and 8, G208S (ELS r. d.). The main passage in these, a continuous channel, is lined moderately thin-walled much- flattened resin-secreting (epithelial) cells (fig. 8, ep. ¢.). The pith rays (figs. 7 and 8, p. 7.) are of two kinds, one with resin ducts and one without ducts. Those without resin ducts are more abundant and always one cell wide, and are separated from one another by from 1 to 20 rows of tracheids. 1 The section must be cut precisely at right angles to the vertical axis of the tree. are round or polygonal, quite THE WOOD. : a7) The radial section (fig. 7, b.), exhibits the broad tracheids (¢.) of early wood (as seen in longitudinal section) and the radially flattened tracheids of late wood (fig. 7 6, p. r.). Ordinarily pith rays, those without resin ducts, are from 1 to 20 cells high, and always 1 cell wide, while rays with resin ducts, the more conspicuous form, are from 4 to 6 cells wide and from 10 to 25 cells high. Resin ducts within 9 the pith rays communicate with the resin ducts (fig. 7 6, vr. d.) running parallel to the axis or lengthwise of the trunk and its branches. 2 A tangential section* (fig. 7, ¢) of western yel- rh low pine wood shows two kinds of pith rays (as a2 > 9 seen in transverse section) which together consti- tute about one-tenth of the volume of the wood and are composed of continuous rows of short cells , extending in a radial direction (from the center or pith of the tree toward the bark). One form of ray consists of a single row of cells, as noted above, while the other is made up of from 4 to 6 rows of cells, including also a resin canal. bp.- 550° © CITARACTERISTICS OF CELL ELEMENTS. The following is a more detailed description of the cell elements pointed out as visible in trans- verse, tangential, and radial sections of the wood. Tracheids (figs. T a, t. and fig. 9), which form the principal bulk of the wood, vary from 1.7 to 3.2 mm. in length, with an average length of about 2.5 mm. Those of the early wood have an aver- age diameter of 0.05 mm., while tracheids of late wood have the same tangential diameter, but are considerably narrower radially. The length of tracheids varies not only in different parts of the same tree, but within the same annual ring at the same distance above ground. The aver- age length of tracheids in both the trunk and _ F's. 9.—Two trache- branches increases from the center toward the A eee e outside of the trunk until the tree reaches its bordered pits ; s. p., maximum height growth, after which the length preGar's remains nearly constant. The average length of tracheids increases also from the base of the tree upward until the tree attains its maximum height growth, after which it again decreases. The great- .+ Unless cut accurately with its surface exactly parallel with a plane from the center to the circumference of the tree the section will present a misleading view. This should be cut in a plane exactly perpendicular to the pith rays. | es he 38 WESTERN YELLOW PINE IN ARIZONA AND NEW MEXICO. est length of tracheids is usually less in the branches than in the trunk; the length in the branches, however, depends upon the part of the trunk from which they arise. Moreover, the length of tracheids in branches increases upward for some distance from the -point where the latter are given off, and then gradually diminishes again. It is difficult Dyan m to determine the mean average length of tracheids in western yellow pine wood, particularly because the tree has such a wide natural range and grows under a great variety of soil and climatic conditions. As already pointed out, the length of cell elements of this wood is determined by the character of the soil, soil moisture, and the length of the growing season. i se AROSE ARES elaG 7 — gi wee SCE i. rm Og a Fie. 10.—An ordinary pith ray cut longitudinally (radial section), magnified 250 diam- eters; p. r., pith rays; r. t., ray tracheids; r. c., ray cells; ¢c., thin-walled ray cells; 6b. p., bordered pits; s. p., Simple pits; ¢., tracheids. Tracheids (fig. 9) differ from the wood fibers of broadleaf trees in possessing bordered pits, while their ends are blunt and often slightly curved, due to the manner in which these elements overlap. The bordered pits of tracheids in early wood (fig. 9, 6. p.) are arranged in one (rarely two) rows on the radial walls. In late wood the tracheids are compressed radially to such an extent that the pits are slit-like and usually smaller and less numerous. Where pith ray cells are in contact with tracheids, the communicating pits (fig. 9, s. p.) within the walls of the latter are small and simple, 1. e., without border, and arranged chiefly in two vertical rows. Pith rays (fig. 7 a, p. 7.) appear in transverse section as radially disposed rows of elongated cells with vertical or oblique cross walls (fig. 8, c. w.). The majority of the pith rays are only a single cell THE WOOD. wide (fig. 7 c, p. r., and fig. 11), while others which contain resin canals are from 4 to 6 cells wide (fig. 12). In radial sections these rays are cut longitudinally (fig. 7 b, p. vs.), and are made up of two kinds of cells. Figure 5 shows the character of an ordinary pith ray 8 cells high. The cells in the upper row and those in the lower two rows (fig. 10, 7. ¢.) are ray tra- cheids. These have teeth-lke projections on their upper and lower walls, and bordered pits both in their side and end walls, characters which distinguish ray tracheids from the next inner row of cells (parenchyma cells), the latter hav- ing thick walls and large simple pits (fig. 10, s. p.) on the inside walls. There are from 1 to 5 simple pits within the width of each vertical tracheid (fig. 10,7.). The end walls of these pa- renchyma cells are thin or sometimes locally thickened (fig. 10, ¢. w.). Other pa- renchyma cells, with thin, smooth, entire, upper and lower walls, and partly ab- sorbed cross walls, occur within the pith rays (fig. 39 _--4p Cras re. | RADIAL Ea ex aay Root Fig. 11.—An ordinary pith ray as viewed in a tangential section magnified 300 diam- eters; a, walls of adjoining tracheids; r.t.. ray tracheids; mGp Tay Cells: 0 aps. bordered pits. 12.—A containing a duct, vr. d., magnified 300 diameters; r. t., Fie. pith ray resin ray tracheids; r. ¢., ray cells; ep. ¢., epi- thelial cells; 0b. p., bordered pits. 10, c.). These parenchyma cells have small elliptical or oval pits (fig. 10, s. p.), from 1 to 4 of which usually occur within the width of each tracheid. Transverse sections of the two forms of pith rays just described, as they appear in a tangen- tial section of the wood, are shown in figures 6 and 7. The ordinary pith ray shows 3 ray tra- cheids (fig. 11, 7. ¢.) above and 2 below. The 5 thick-walled elements (fig. 11, 7. ¢.) in the middle of the ray are pith ray parenchyma cells. The form of pith ray containing a resin duct (fig. 12) presents the same details of structure as the ordinary ray, with the addition of epi- thelial or resin-secreting cells (fig. 12, ep. c.) which line the resin duct (fig. 12, 7. d.). The upper and lower rows of cells (fig. 12, 7. ¢.) are ray tracheids, corre- sponding to those pointed out in the ordinary pith ray (fig. 11, 7 ¢.). 40 WESTERN YELLOW PINE IN ARIZONA AND NEW MEXICO. QUALITY, WEIGHT, AND STRENGTH. The wood of western yellow pine is heavy, hard, and brittle, but not coarse-grained. The sapwood resembles the eastern white pine, is easy to work, and has been widely used as a finishing material, since it is light colored and velvety. On the market it has quite a reputation as “ western white pine.” | According to Sargent the specific gravity of the wood is 0.4715 end the ash 0.85. Lumbermen figure the shipping weight of 1,000 feet board measure of logs to be 9,250 pounds. In October and November, however, the weight may fall as low as 8,250, and in July and August 1t may rise to a maximum of 10,000 pounds. Dry, sound lumber weighs from 2,500 to 3,000 pounds per 1,000 board feet. Table 21 shows the results of tests by the Forest Service on 15 western yellow pine sills, 5 inches by 8 inches by 16 feet, cut from first and second grade common lumber about April 1. The sills were tested in bending with the load applied at two points one-third of the span from each end. At the conclusion of the bending test specimens 2 feet long were cut from the uninjured portion of each sill, and tested under compression parallel to grain. In the com- pression test the maximum load was the only reading taken. Crush- ing tests gave very uniform results. In 13 out of 15 car sills failure was due to knots. In the crushing tests 10 failures occured at knots. In all the tests the strength of air-dried material is evident. Comparison of the bending strength of western yellow pine sills with those of Douglas fir sills of the second grade* gives a value of 70 for the pine on the basis of 100 for the fir. In the same way the stiffness or modulus of elasticity of the pine is 68 per cent that of the fir, and the crushing strength 74 per cent. The dry weight of the fir upon which the tests were made was 27 pounds per cubic foot, and the rings per inch about 8. Tests made upon western yellow pine car sills were very few, and the results must, of course, be regarded as tentative. TABLE 21.—Results of laboratory tests on car sills of western yellow pine. Green ma- | Air-dry ma- terial. terial. IMOISCUT OR ie a cra te en eae eo ee) ee eres tees Beare agar ee mene per cent. . 38.2 10.7 Rings per inehts.2 5 ces ase rae eso ao eee ee Ane ete eras 12.8 iS Per Cent Ol Sap gist ok qa eter ears aie eeic le ire tetas Sete Sen = eres ems reat PH feria SAEs oc Specificwrawity, Gry qs shoe See eee See Bee eee Bee eee ee $08 [etcaee scenes Wieichitipercubicdtootasitesve teases seer asses eae eee eer pounds. - 32.8 PAGAL Wierphitipericybictoobiowentdiny ees saa eee ee eee ee area donee 23.8 22.4 PDETYSERESSiaie) AS HIG MITm eye ete eee ieee Ibs. per sq. in... 2,259 2,830 Modulus ofripture:2. 2c aace Se coc cene eens ee ee ee anc em eer dom 3, 223 4,702 Modulusiofielastictty.u 5 .22ae ose eee ne eer ne eee ate ee ae ees doz. : 962, 000 1,311 ; 000 WIaStie resilience ee. Ba Se ae te Ee Oe OS ee eee .4 A 1Three grades of Douglas fir car sills are usually designated, select, merchantable, and second. USES OF YELLOW PINE. 41 USES. The wood of western yellow pine is not durable in contact with the ground, and must be treated with a preservative before it can be used for ties, telegraph poles, or fence posts. Locally the chief uses are for lumber, mine timbers, lagging, stulls, and ties, The butt logs of dead trees, if thoroughly impregnated with pitch, make excellent fence posts. Settlers often use saplings for corral poles, since there is seldom a more durable species at hand. The use of wood from dead trees is becoming more extensive. a =) 2) 5p SG O ro Q 101, Forest Service, U. S. De r Ar Bul. at an ED YELLOW PINE BEING MARK Fia. 1.—FULLY DEVELOPED MATURE STAND OF WESTERN FOR CUTTING. LEFT AFTER CONSERVATIVE LOGGING BLACKJACK” THRIFTY Fia. 2 MANAGEMENT OF YELLOW PINE. 49 MARKING THE TIMBER. Ordinarily all mature and over mature western yellow pine should be marked, except when required for seed or protection, since they have practically stopped growing. Similarly, all trees which show such defects as punk knots, spike tops, bad crooks, low forks, and injurious fire scars should be marked for cutting. Even an approxi- mate diameter limit should be flexible.. Young, thrifty, rapidly growing trees should not be marked, even if larger than the stated diameter. Defective trees of any usable size should be marked unless there are technical or practical objections. At least one-third of the stand should be left to reseed the area, provide a second cut, and protect the soil. No ironclad rule, however, ean be made that will apply to all conditions; consequently the amount left standing should be varied according to local require- ments. ‘The economic need of an early second crop should have weight. Where the danger of windfall is great, but few trees should be marked for cutting. This rule would also apply where a dense forest cover is needed for the protection of a watershed or to prevent erosion. The probable harm from too heavy marking on all slopes and in exposed situations must be carefully considered. Each tree left should have its crown free enough for vigorous growth. If usable, trees which have been badly grouped and have only small, sickly crowns should be marked, unless needed to preserve proper soil conditions. Where there are not enough young trees to form a good stand in the future seed trees must be left. These should be thrifty and capable of bearing large quantities of seed at once. Occasionally it will be necessary to retain seed trees too misshapen or defective to be merchantable, but as a rule young trees which will yield good lumber in the future should be chosen. Where western yellow pine is growing in mixture all seed trees should be of the more valuable species, but poorer species are better than none. In situations where logging is difficult the practicability of logging individual trees should be considered. Fewer seed trees should be left where partial reproduction is already established than where there are no seedlings, yet if there is danger that fire will run over the area enough trees should be left to seed the ground fully, whether reproduction is present or not. Large openings should not be made or small openings enlarged where the future forest will suffer. Seed trees should always be left on the edge of openings, such as old burns, on the side from which the pre- vailing winds blow. On ridges and along the edges of parks it is usually advisable to mark very conservatively. 5998°—Bull. 101—_11——4 50 WESTERN YELLOW PINE IN ARIZONA AND NEW MEXICO. It often happens that some dry-topped and diseased trees which can and should be removed are overlooked in the original marking. It may also be advisable to reserve seed trees that were originally marked. Necessary changes in the first marking should be made before the sawyers have moved away. It is only by a careful re- marking that undesirable trees can be completely eliminated and necessary seed trees retained. In marking timber a simple rule to remember is: Mark most yel- low pine and leave all healthy blackjack except when in need of thinning. This rule should be varied according to the age and con- dition of the stand marked. If the timber is mature, with no repro- duction, it may be necessary to retain trees that are fully mature, and approximately one-third of the volume may have to be left standing, even at some risk of windfall and decline in vigor. In a mature stand with good reproduction the marking may be heavier, but suf- ficient trees should be left to provide for reproduction in case of fire. The marking should aim to open up the reproduction and enable each group to enlarge. It should also tend to improve the stand by removing dry-topped or otherwise deteriorating trees. Ina pole stand of blackjack thinning can often be made to advantage, but these should never be heavy and should aim to preserve a close canopy. Trees which should be removed are those that are deterio- rating and which may be eventually suppressed. In marking any sale area innumerable variations will be encoun- tered, and no uniform system should be adopted for the entire stand. On the border of the woodland type the marking should be merely an improvement cutting, and if the stand is less than 2,000 feet per acre no cutting whatever should be allowed, except the occasional removal of dying trees, and this only if practicable from a lumber- man’s standpoint. On the borders of parks and where windfall is likely, or where it is desirable to preserve forest conditions, marking should be particularly conservative. On dry south slopes and on ridge crests but a few trees should be removed. Ordinarily in west- ern yellow pine an approximate diameter limit of 20 inches should be stated, though not followed lterally in the marking, as already explained. Wherever practicable advantage should be taken of good seed years to increase the cut or to direct the marking where the local seed crop is best. The scenic value of timber along roads must be carefully weighed. Table 28 shows the actual results of marking on a large timber sale area in the Coconino National Forest. Figures are given for each section, in order to show how uniform the cutting has been. The windfall on seven sections was; respectively, 0.7 per cent, 0.2 per cent, 0.6 per cent, 0.2 per cent, 0.8 per cent, 0.3 per cent, and 0.8 per cent of the stand from one to two years after cutting. This loss was almost MANAGEMENT OF YELLOW PINE. 5] entirely in mature timber. The damage from lightning was also considerable. TABLE 28.—Results of cutting on Greenlaw Lumber Co. sale, Coconino National Forest, amie A Average | Percent : Number | Average | amount | of origi- Location. of acres. cut. left | nal stand |standing. left. | Ft.b.m.| Ft.b.m. 7 EE TNS TRY DRESS) Be ne a re 396 3,350 1, 294 27.9 emp row ee SC CH Oceana ee norma an aioe Son ose cosine neous 229 3, 590 1, 330 DA sAL 2. El Whos Io ibe ses Wa eae ae ee ae ee ee 238 3, 246 1,060 24.6 TE Zl Beg DRS) SS SSO See a a ee 310 2, 228 1,339 37.5 2, EE INTE TRIS TDs 100002) nee 211 2,105 1, 240 37.1 TD, SE I Nleg Ua v BS SOS GIs ne eee a er aan 160 3, 125 1, 521 32.8 Meee BN ep Seb SCC ro eames sees Soe bok Bases atcoe Ss ee eee 195 3, 069 1,020 24.9 TD. BB IN IRS leh SCS CPs a ns ee ae 622 3, 550 1,349 2 , BO ISI URS IBV 0 BEL a eee ee ee a neers 434 5, 645 1, 422 20.1 BE, INL TRAYS ID ov se PNE e a a aea 590 | = 5,302 1, 493 21.9 BB lag Tata ie Bigg SCs GI th see ia ate encarta epg eve 610 2, 571 1,152 30.9 > BE) Nee Re bey ROY Oe eee eee ea ae ee ee ee 60 2,760 1, 418 33.9 TD Du ING IRS aa SECS 2 Sgoceso Sansa eee see ee eee 126 2,998 1,579 34.5 BB IN TS) lige SOC 7 es oe Seana eee es aoe ieee 370 2, 886 1 500 34. 2 Bee ZBNG i Cetin SCCa Lone eens mine ha eee Sesseceosuce eee 310 5, 376 1,898 26.0 5 BB IN egelite Sie GOGs CALI DS aes i Ser ee 275 3, 489 1,449 29.3 TP; ED Wiog RASS) Liss SEOs Be cons anaes eae eee ee ere 7 1,876 1, 556 45.3 . BIL INlby Lets DAS OSs ee ee see ee ge ee 160 3, 955 Wey 25.9 INSTRU S, SC BAS a le pls 2 5 Aaa RS Sn |b pee 8 a | 3,395 | 1,388 | o0s0 Cutting on private land in the Southwest is usually in decided contrast to that on the National Forests. On all private land within the Tusayan National Forest logged north of Challender the average stand left per acre amounted to but 699 board feet. About 300 feet, board measure, of merchantable timber was left on the ground through wasteful logging. ROTATION OF CUT. The best rotation for western yellow pine can not be predicted with certainty until regulated cutting has been more thoroughly tried out. Tentatively, a rotation of 200 years is recommended. The average _ mature blackjack is from 125 to 150 years old. Ordinarily the overmature yellow pine which is now being lumbered is from 300 to 400 years old. All available figures indicate that it will take 200 years to grow saw timber. It will be seen from the preceding tables that diameter growth begins to fall off at from 100 to 160 years, and that height growth declines from the mean annual after 170 years. In Table 10 a yellow pine 200 years old averages only 20.60 inches in diameter, and in Table 11, 21.3 inches. This is certainly the mini- mum size that can be estimated to yield timber of fair quality that will justify shipment. With thrifty, well-thinned stands, however, it is hoped the growth will be greater. In some localities approximately 1 per cent of the total growing stock is believed to be a safe annual cut. This figure will, of course, 52 WESTERN YELLOW PINE IN ARIZONA AND NEW MEXICO, vary with local conditions. It is justified by Van Mantel’s method of regulating the yield, in which the growing stock, divided by half the number of years in the rotation, is the annual cut. This method tends to reduce automatically the excess growing stock to normal, and to increase the growing stock where it is dangerously low. The Austrian method of regulating the yield may also be followed. By this the annual cut is equal to the mean annual increment, plus the difference between the real growing stock and the normal growing stock, divided by the period during which the surplus is to be re- moved. The normal growing stock in turn is determined by multi- plying the mean annual increment by half the rotation. The chief difficulty in applying this method in the Southwest is the lack of exact information regarding annual growth after cutting. Steps have, however, been taken to secure accurate data, which should be available within 10 years. On some Forests empirical methods of limiting the cut may be adopted. For instance, where a certain area is to be cut on a 200-year rotation, 1t may be assumed that the stand on one two- hundredths of the area could safely be cut each year, provided regen- eration follows. Whatever the method employed, the object is to limit the annual cut so that a sustained annual yield is possible. FIRE PROTECTION. During the year 1909 a total of 91,895 acres were burned over on the 19 National Forests in Arizona and New Mexico. It is remark- able that the total damage to timber on the entire area amounted to only $73,971. If the Gila National Forest were omitted, the total damage to timber on the 18 other Forests would amount to only $21,471. The damage on the Gila, amounting to $52,500, was the result of extraordinary conditions of drought and of the lack of settlement in the region, which made it exceedingly difficult to secure quick assistance in fighting the flames. The total number of fires which gained headway in Arizona and New Mexico in the calendar year of 1909 was 259. The causes of these, as far as it has been possible to ascertain, were: Cause: Number. MTU TV i a ir 108 CAMA POLS: ks ee 69 Tesh tare Ss ea i Se 30 Railroad) 2282 2 sr ee Bele eee ee 12 SUV DG ss ne es sg i eee 9 Brush burning? 22 ot) oe ee ee ee eee 7 Incendiary £02222. 2222.22 oe ee eee + Miscellancous) 32222 =a=—2 2 a a SAE ge LS Oz ei rein eG 1 Wc) 7 eee een CU er rere a OP a 259 1 MANAGEMENT OF YELLOW PINE. 53 The best preventive measures are a careful and efficient patrol and the education of the public to the destructiveness of forest fires. In the open western yellow pine forest fire lines are seldom necessary, but where reproduction is present it is advisable to burn the débris re- sulting from timber sales after it has been piled. Where, in order to secure natural reproduction, it is necessary to risk brush scattering, it would undoubtedly be advisable to burn fire lines bisecting the area, if possible, at least 300 feet in width. If the fire danger is particularly great, the line should be burned over every year. This would, of course, mean a large expense. Ordinarily, back firing is © possible without regular fire lines, providing dry débris resulting from logging has previously been cleared and burned. With brush scattered on the ground and a bigh wind it is almost impossible to stop a fire until the wind subsides. Dead snags are a particular menace in fire fighting, and the following clause is now being inserted in all timber-sale contracts: All dead standing trees considered a fire menace by the Forest officer in charge will be felled; but only such portions of them as are merchantable under the terms of this contract will be logged and paid for. This does not include black- jack nor stubs too small to be merchantable under the contract. In order to ascertain the cost of such a provision, the dead trees on a representative area of 640 acres were felled. The actual cost of the operation was 0.024 cent per thousand board feet of dead trees. Watch towers, lookout points, telephones, trails located along ridges, and roads cleared of pine needles are of great assistance in locating and combating fires. Engines operating on National Forest land should burn oil, but if coal or wood burning engines are per- mitted, an efficient spark arrester should be insisted upon. Since the average spark arrester is far from efficient, railroads passing through National Forests should, in addition, be compelled to clear their right of way annually of all inflammable material, and, if necessary, maintain a patrol to follow each train. Fire tools should be available at convenient points. After a fire is under control a sufficient guard should be maintained to put out additional fires set by smoldering logs, or that break out in any other way. DISPOSAL OF BRUSH. As a general rule brush from western yellow pine should be scat- tered, except where there is danger of fire, or where the timber is dense or reproduction present. The brush should be scattered thickly enough to afford actual protection. A cover of brush apparently dense when green will, when it dries out and the needles drop off, give little protection against the sun and wind. Occasionally in open- ings where it is necessary to keep cattle or other stock away from 54 WESTERN YELLOW PINE IN ARIZONA AND NEW MEXICO. existing or expected reproduction, the brush may be merely left as it falls. Ordinarily, the brush should be lopped so as to le not higher than 2 feet above the ground. Brush disposal should always keep pace with logging. Where the fire risk is great all lops and débris, including» lar chips, should be piled at a safe distance from sangre trees. The piles should be large and compact enough to kindle easily and burn cleanly. Brush should not be piled on stumps, large tops, or unmer- chantable logs, nor in groups of seedlings or young growth, or against dead snags. “Whenever possible, the brush should be piled in openings with all branches lopped from the tops placed together with those cut from the logs. The trimmed tops and large branches should be left where they le, and should not be covered by brush piles. Where there are no large openings and the brush must be piled near living timber, the piles should be small. Brush burning is necessary wherever there is danger of fire. Ordi- narily, however, it is not advisable over an entire sale area. It is frequently possible to burn the brush so as to form fire lines, espe- cially along railroads and wagon roads. Fire hnes through brush should ordinarily follow ridges rather than canyons, and should be laid out according to the topography rather than by section lines. Where to burn brush completely would result in damage to existing reproduction, or would be destructive to sound seed, unburned piles should be left, unless the fire danger is excessive. The effect of burn- ing on grazing and future reproduction should be carefully con- sidered. The best time to burn brush is after a shght fall of snow, or early in the spring before the snow has melted, or during or im- mediately after summer rains. In insect infected areas brush should be burned, if the pupa can thus be destroyed. The débris from fungus-infected trees should be burned, but not necessarily that from trees infected with parasites such as mistletoe. COST OF HANDLING GOVERNMENT TIMBER SALES. An objection often raised against conservative methods of forest management is that their cost is excessive. It has been claimed by some lumbermen that to log western yellow pine conservatively entails an extra cost of from 75 cents to $1 per 1,000 board feet. In consider- ing the question of cost it should be borne in mind that from 40 to 50 per cent of the added expense is chargeable directly to the cost of brush disposal, which is often an essential operation if the future stand is to be safeguarded against fire and reproduction secured. The cost of supervision on Government timber sales in the Southwest varies, of course, with the size of the salé and the local difficulties of | i | MANAGEMENT OF YELLOW PINE. 55 administration. An estimate based on past experience shows the cost per 1,000 feet board measure, under favorable conditions, to be: AES eee EAA Te OM Otee Sell) Creer ere he ale NS ST EN $0. 02 PIT ebr cin pea cere naire nee Ae ee es) eT oe ee es . 04 SS CERIN omen cme ne eee steew CN ae | Ee ate ea eee 15 TBF CUDA ate) OVD eRe HUGE ee ieee ee ee ge ee ese . 03 Genera PeAGMEMISET A OMe aes ec 2 ee et eee al) . 34 Assuming that 34 cents is an average figure for operations of any magnitude, it does not seem an excessive figure to pay for conservative management, including scaling. A private company could probably supervise conservative logging on a very large operation for a less amount. REFORESTATION. As already explained, with a reasonable number of seed trees, under favorable conditions of soil and moisture, natural reproduction of western yellow pine is almost certain. Where timber is cut from a stand already overmature, and the danger from windfall, fungus, and insects makes it impracticable to leave seed trees, planting or sowing will eventually be necessary. Between 4 and 5 per cent of the total area of the National Forests in Arizona and New Mexico, or approximately a million and a quarter acres, will require more than a hundred years to restock naturally, and in consequence should be planted artificially. In addition to areas covered by timber sales, there are small parks, blanks, and openings that eventually may be planted. The most favorable situations will probably reproduce naturally, and sowing or planting will, therefore, be done on sites not altogether favorable. An exception might be made in the case of a large burn, where it is not thought advisable to wait the neces- sary length of time to secure natural reproduction, or on timber-sale areas where reproduction is slow in coming in. The problem of artificial. reproduction in the Southwest is made difficult by the unfavorable climatic and soil conditions that will undoubtedly have to be met. Judging from the results in the Karst, in Austria, unfavorable sites can be reforested only by planting thrifty stock with well-developed root systems. Though the long tap root of the western yellow pine makes planting especially difi- cult and expensive, it is at the same time peculiarly well adapted to withstand the drying out of the surface soil. Recent experiments © have indicated that 2-year-old seedlings can be planted successfully on favorable sites, though this success may only be temporary. It is possible that planting can never be entirely successful unless it is done on carefully prepared ground and the young trees given proper protection. 56 WESTERN YELLOW PINE IN ARIZONA AND NEW MEXICO. SEED COLLECTION AND EXTRACTION. Before sowing or planting on a large scale one of the most im- portant steps is to secure for a reasonable cost seed of good germi- nating power. The cost per pound of collecting and cleaning 1,335 pounds of seed on the Coconino National Forest in 1908-9 was as follows: Galerie: > COMES 2 es si ee, Sestak oe $0. 576 Drying, and “separatinign os 2. es she ees Se ee Oil Cleaning ee eae ieee eee so aA lp oa eae ao ames . 046 BO ENY G) 961s) 01 pinem ee a ae Mim ae Whee NE cee ee a yh ea ate . O86 Potal es Leek se ee ee . 909 Later, in 1909, the total cost of securing seed on the Coconino Forest was reduced to 53.3 cents a pound, due to the opportunity which was presented of collecting seed where logging was in progress. At elevations of approximately 7,000 to 7,500 feet on rolling mesa land the collection of western yellow pine cones may usually be begun on September 20 and continue until November 10. To collect economically it is necessary to establish a regular seed-collection camp, and have a large crew of men to push the work rapidly. The best time for collecting the seed is when the cones are beginning to turn brown, but before they commence to open. On any area where lumbering operations are in progress the cones can be secured very cheaply without interfering with the logging. The cone should be removed from the tree as soon as it is filled; otherwise they may open and considerable seed be lost. Occasionally it is practicable to collect western yellow pine seed from squirrel hoards. Two-bushel sacks are convenient for collecting purposes, but care should be taken that needles and débris are not mixed with the cones. To allow for expansion the sacks should be only half filled. When the cones are gathered and sacked they should be hauled to the camp and spread out on the drying rack with free air circulation around and through each sack, which should be shaken thoroughly once a day. Should a storm come up during the drying process, the sacks should be covered, since if the cones absorb moisture drying will be materially delayed. To separate the seed from the opened cones, a box 4 by 4 by 3 feet on an axis suspended from a wooden frame should be con- structed. Two sides of the box should have numerous one-fourth to three-fourths inch holes through which the seed can sift when the box is turned. The box should be protected from the wind and provision made for the seed to drop onto a canvas underneath. As the cones open farther they should again be churned until all the seed is extracted. When dry, about 15 pounds of seed at a time should be placed in a washtub and tramped until the wings have PLATE III. Bul. 101, Forest Service, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. Tops CUT FOR MINE PROPS. CLOSE UTILIZATION. 1 FIG A WASTE AND A FIRE MENACE. —STANDING DEAD TIMBER; Fig. 2. MANAGEMENT OF YELLOW PINE. . 57 been separated. The seed is then run through a grain fanning mill until it is thoroughly clean. It is then sacked and stored, preferably in air-tight earthenware jars, in a dry, cool, rat-proof building, until ready for shipment. The germinating vigor of the western yellow pine collected has varied considerably. In 1909 samples from the Coconino National Forest were 82 per cent sound; in 1910 seeds from the same Forest germinated 63 per cent in a soil test of four weeks’ duration. Ac- cording to tests made in 1907, germination of seed collected on the Pecos National Forest averaged 73 per cent at Halsey, Nebr.; 75 per cent at Pasadena, Cal.; and 85 per cent in the laboratory at a tem- perature of 77° F. Examination of the seed showed 1,300 to the pound and 500 to the pint. One pound would sow 200 linear feet of seed drill, and one pint 90 feet. NURSERY PRACTICE. . Western yellow pine nurseries should aim to produce thrifty trans- plants, 2 or 3 year old stock, provided the cost of production can be kept low. Broadcast sowing in seed beds gives the best results. The beds should be graded so that the center of each may be slightly higher than the sides to provide for irrigation and drainage. One pound of western yellow pine seed, with a germination per cent of from 60 to 80, is sufficient when broadcasted for 48 square feet of seed bed, allowing 100 to 150 seedlings to the square foot. The beds should be mulched during germination in order to conserve the mois- ture and yet transmit heat. Burlap is excellent for the purpose. Where seedlings are heaved or lifted by frost the beds should be mulched during the winter months. Sowing should be done between April 15 and July 15. Early sown seedlings are larger and hardier, and less likely to be winterkilled. A system of low shade frames with wire netting to exclude birds and animals is satisfactory. Nursery experiments conducted at the Gallinas planting station on the Pecos National Forest indicated that April sowing gives bet- ter results than March or May. The best root pruning was secured by making an artificial hardpan from 8 to 12 inches below the sur- face. Seed beds gave better results when mulched after sowing, but a lighter mulch of needles should be substituted when germination begins, followed by moderate watering. Low shade frames were best, particularly when the danger from rodents was great. Seed did well on all soils, but burned a little on pure sand. Damping-off was stopped by removing the shade, by sanding the seed beds, and by cutting off the water supply. At another time it was eradicated in 24 hours by spraying with Bordeaux mixture. It was found that heeling-in transplants over winter prevented loss by throwing. 58 WESTERN YELLOW PINE IN ARIZONA AND NEW MEXICO. FIELD SOWING AND PLANTING. There are three different seasons when planting is possible; spring, just before the summer rains, and just before the winter snows. There are indications that each of these seasons is the most favorable time, though there seems to be an inclination toward planting before the summer rains. Winter losses from summer planting have been severe. Probably spring planting will in the long run be the most successful. Planting of thrifty stock with well-developed root systems seems to be the only successful method, except in very favorable sites on high elevation, where direct seeding promises success. Where sow- ing is attempted, careful soil preparation and some protection against adverse climatic conditions are essential. Systematic poisoning of rodents is also often necessary. Cool northern or eastern exposures where moisture conditions are most favorable, or a partially protected draw at moderate elevations, are the best planting sites. The stock planted should, if possible, be raised fairly near the site, and should consist of 2-year-old trans- plants, except in favorable situations, where natural seedlings may be used. Ordinarily the pit method is best, with a spacing of 5 by 5 feet, care being taken to select the most protected places for each spot. It is essential that the surface of the hole should be shghtly below the rest of the land, and that protection be given transplants while being planted. Western yellow pine when broadcasted should be sown about 6 or 8 pounds per acre on the basis of 70 per cent germination in pre- pared soil. Poisoned wheat or other grain should be scattered where rodents are numerous. Perhaps the cheapest method would be to sow on the ordinary soil where the grass is not thick, and either rake © or harrow the seed in. A crude brush rake will often give the de- sired results by wounding the soil. The cost of sowing western yellow pine broadcast will seldom amount to less than from $10 to $12 per acre, depending upon the cost of the seed. There is a general impression that but a few pounds of seed are necessary in sowing. On the contrary, to be successful artificial sowing must be lavish, yet there is danger of going to extremes in the matter. Thus in seed- spot sowing, even with seeds of a comparatively low germination per cent, from 10 to 15 seeds to the spot will furnish at least one or two seedlings, provided any germination at all takes place. When a much larger number of seeds are sown, the seedlings often come up in a dense mass, and so do not stand as good a chance as 1f there were only one or two seedlings with correspondingly less competition. Moreover, rodents are attracted to a greater degree. In seed-spot sowing, as well as in planting, it is hightly important that the loca- MANAGEMENT OF YELLOW PINE. 59 tion of each spot be selected with care. Another important point in direct seeding is the necessity for firming down the surface of the soil where any preparation is given it. If the soil is loosened up and the seed sown merely on the top of it without being pressed down, the surface layer of the soil is likely to dry out and make it impos- sible for the seed to germinate or for the seedling to get a start should germination take place. The seed should not, of course, be pressed too deep into the earth, but should merely be stepped on and the soil pushed into place. The important point in seed-spot work is to clear away a sufficient area of sod and other vegetation that would be likely to choke out the young seedlings, and then to bring the seed sown into close contact with the firm mineral soil. There is also danger of sowing the seed too deep, especially where furrows are plowed and the seed sown either on the bottom or side of the furrow. The danger is that the soil on the side of the furrow will wash down and either cover the seed so deep that it will not germinate or else bury the seedling after it has got a start. OTHER SOURCES OF INCOME. In addition to furnishing timber, the western yellow-pine forests offer range for horses, cattle, and sheep. The grass within the western yellow-pine type is above the average quality, yet it takes at least 8 acres to support 1 sheep and 40 acres for each horse or cow. It must be remembered, however, that both cattle and horses usually run over the same area within the limits of the western yellow-pine type. The average yearlong fee is 12 cents for sheep, 35 cents for cattle, and 40 cents for horses, or approximately 1 cent per acre per year for each class of stock. Seed from western yellow pine will readily sell for $1 a pound, but as yet this industry has not been developed. There is but one com- mercial seed collector in Arizona and New Mexico. There is no evidence that western yellow pine has been tapped for resin in the southwestern United States; yet during the Civil War it was successfully boxed in Butte’ and Tehama Counties, Cal., while the high prices prevailed. After the war operations ceased. Extensive commercial operations with this species are carried on at Madera, Chihauhua, Mexico.?, In August, 1910, turpentine experi- ments were started on the Coconino Forest.* Ninety trees were boxed and hung with 190 cups, under a cup system. The first streak was put on August 3, the first dipping was made on August 24, and the last dipping on September 14. The two dippings yielded 272 1. A. Sterling, Forest Conditions in the Sierras, 1906. 2 Reported by W. D. Sterrett, Forest Service. 3H. S. Betts, Turpentine Experiments on Western Yellow Pine, preliminary report in manuscript, 1910. 60 WESTERN YELLOW PINE IN ARIZONA AND NEW MEXICO. pounds of crude gum. Mr. Betts’s deduction is that this is equal to © an average of 23 barrels of dip at each dipping, to a crop of 10,000 cups; the average yield on the Florida National Forest is 25 to 30 barrels. Further experiments will begin earlier and be on a larger scale, but the results this far indicate that the amount and quality of turpentine and resin does not differ greatly from the average of the Southeast. CONSERVATIVE LUMBERING ON PRIVATE LANDS. The common question of the lumberman operating in yellow pine, “Will it pay me from a financial standpoint to practice forestry,” can be answered in the affirmative. Just how much it will pay will depend, of course, upon the conditions under which each individual lumberman operates. The lumberman’s chief loss is undoubtedly through fire. Manifestly, then, it will pay him to protect his timber from fire and to use reasonable precautions in his logging opera- tions. To burn oil in his engines and to see that his steam skidders and donkey engines are provided with suitable spark arresters may be the means of preventing large and irreparable losses. Close utilization is undoubtedly wise from a financial standpoint. While the lumberman may not care to work his trees to a 6 or 8 inch top diameter unless the product can be marketed for small stulls, nar- row-gauge ties, lagging, and the like, it would certainly be profitable to cut western yellow pine to a top diameter inside the bark of from § to 10 inches. Dead timber can be closely utilized, and one of the largest manufacturers in Arizona is now doing this. The loss from waste in the woods is often ignored, since by permitting waste the cost of logging is slightly reduced. A loss of 10 per cent on the original product will decrease the hfe of a manufacturing establish- ment and take away 5 years from a 50-year undertaking, while the cost of equipment must be distributed over 45 years instead of 50, a factor to be reckoned with in considering profits. A problem which always confronts the owner of private land is” whether to log it clean or leave enough timber on the ground for a second cut. Manifestly, a small tree yields a disproportionately small amount of lumber. A yellow pine 28 inches in diameter breast high, cutting four 16-foot logs, scales 950 board feet, while a black- jack 14 inches in diameter breast high scales but 70 feet and will yield nothing but a few ties, a couple of stulls, or a knotty saw log. By comparing the volumes of the two trees it is apparent that that of the 28-inch tree is more than 13 times greater than that of the 14-inch tree, though the diameter of one is only double that of the other. Small timber, moreover, yields products of poor quality and costs more to log and to saw at the mill. Consequently, the lumber- pn — —— PLATE IV. Bul. 101, Forest Service, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. qa hase he te ee ae ae ER DRYING —EXTRACTING WESTERN YELLOW PINE SEED AFT Fig. 1 Fic. 2.—WESTERN YELLOW PINE SEEDLINGS KILLED BY SHEEP; SALTING GROUND NEAR WATER, PRESCOTT NATIONAL FOREST. CONSERVATIVE LUMBERING. 61 man with an eye to the future may reasonably plan to leave the small timber and return in 20 years to relog when the young stand has increased from 40 to 65 per cent in volume. Trees left after logging with plenty of light for their crowns will increase rapidly in diameter. The private timber owner to secure best results should remove trees that are deteriorating in value, since these will not increase in volume and will decrease in quality. Reproduction must be pro- tected. Experience in New England has shown that forest land without merchantable timber, but fully stocked with reproduction, has a much greater sale value than land absolutely denuded. The steady development of the Southwest assures a strong local market for the conservative operator who gets his present profit out of the mature and overmature stands and reserves his thrifty young growth for the future. In New Mexico cut-over tracts may be assessed as grazing lands at 25 cents per acre. The average tax rate on this class of property is estimated at 4 per cent, or 1 cent per acre per year. Assuming that 2,000 board feet of timber is left per acre, this means, at a stump- age rate of $2.50 a thousand, an investment per acre of $5. If this land is held for from 10 to 20 years, what will be the cost and the profit? A reasonable charge for fire protection is 1 cent per acre per year. It will be much greater than this immediately after logging, but when the needles and débris have rotted, an efficient patrol, with occasional expenses for fire fighting, will mean but a small annual cost distributed over a wide area. From experience elsewhere stumpage is bound to increase in value. In Maine stump- age values have increased $1 per 1,000 board feet per decade, and in a newly settled country such as the Southwest, a future stumpage price of $4 in 10 years and $6 in 20 years seems a conservative esti- mate. Placing the interest at 5 per cent, compounded annually, fire protection at 1 cent per acre, land valuation at 25 cents, taxes at 4 per cent per annum, present stand 2,000 feet, valued at $5, initial expenses at 10 cents per 1,000 board feet, stumpage at $4 in 10 years and $6 in 20 years, and growth at 10 per cent per decade, the total cost and sale value would be as follows: OP PESSEpOUE FVII Ea a a a re eee $5. 00 OU PEETE, TAD DUEPD UID “SS [CSL Bac gn pes Zo Oop Re AOC EE 5. 20 In 10 years: BES hrcY od CCA 9 a By Se eed ee 8. 72 Sil ema meee nek hs Sn ee Begs. SN a 8. 80 In 20 years: SRGNTS LL COS Es gt a eA ne ee age ee Pee 14. 46 SG: SORT Se A a ee ee er ee eee eee 14. 40 Under total cost is included all annual expenses and taxes com- pounded at 5 per cent, so that it will be seen that the investment has 62 WESTERN YELLOW PINE IN ARIZONA AND NEW MEXICO. netted almost exactly 5 per cent on the capital. If the shortage of lumber becomes as great as freely predicted, stumpage values will be much higher than those just given and the profits in consequence much greater. Changes in the present method of taxation to one in which a tax will be levied only on the final output would also ma- terially increase the net returns. In addition to the revenue from the timber, most tracts can be leased for grazing during the 20 years be- tween ane first and second cuts and a substantial revenue secured from this source. SUMMARY. Western yellow pine in the Southwest does not reach the develop- ment attained on the Pacific coast. Yet it is a tree admirably adapted to the semiarid conditions of the region and is capable of yielding excellent saw timber. It withstands disease well and ex- cept in early life is not especially susceptible to fire, drought, frosts, or snow. Its growth is slow; from 160 to 200 years are usually necessary to produce a saw log. The better grades of lumber are ex- cellent for finish, and with preservative treatment the wood is durable in the ground. Lumbering in the Southwest is expensive, chiefly on account of the high price of labor. The higher grades of lumber are easily disposed of, but the lower grades are difficult to market. Nevertheless the timber on the National Forests in the Southwest offers excellent opportunities for investment. A conservative method must be adopted upon the National Forests, and it appears essential that the cut should be regulated, either by volume or by area, upon the basis of a 200-year rotation. Western yellow pine yields excellent resin and turpentine, which may become of commercial importance as by-produets. While fire lines are not essential, an efficient patrol.is an absolute necessity. Where natural regeneration fails artificial reforestation will be necessary. Sowing is preferable, but where impracticable transplants or seedlings may be set out. The private owner can well afford to protect his holdings from fire, to insist upon a close utilization of the product, to plan for a second cut, and to adopt many of the conservative methods of lum- bering used on the National Forests. By doing this he may reason- ably expect a 5 or 6 per cent return upon his investment, plus the rental value of his land for grazing purposes during at aes a portion of the time. re eee mens . “¢ 2 Syard ate =" APPENDIX—VOLUME TABLES. The tables which follow are based upon volume analyses taken on the Tusayan TForest in 1905 and 1906. Tables 29 and 30 are based upon diameter breast high, but the height of the trees through which the measurements were taken is indi- | cated in used length. These two tables are distinctly local, and will not give | accurate results unless the timber is of the same height as that which formed the basis of the tables. Tables 31 and 382 will be found accurate for any western yellow pine stand in the Southwest. Accurate local volume tables based upon diameter alone may be constructed by measuring the diameter breast high and total height or total merchantable length, and after determining the average height of trees of each diameter, read the average volume from either Table 31 or Table 382. TABLE 29.—Volume of blackjack in board feet (Scribner decimal C rule) on basis of diameter. | Used length. Used length. Diameter} Volume F Diameter) Volume : breast (board Bess Y breast (board pose: high. feet). | Poot. | 16-foot : high. feet). | poet. | 16-foot Tees: e logs cae logs. Inches. Inches Oe Soe 3 Oe ees nested | ite tc Cee sl ieee ag of PS eae 400 47 3.0 34 1G eee cee AC) eae | Be pape | pee Mest meas a Fk DYN ele 450 49 3.0 27 Oe ae ee BO | erases seater, ae PAD) 520 51 3.0 19 1Base555 60 20 1.0 16 26a sae 580 53 355 10 AST 70 22 Le & 80 Dilan 640 55 3.5 6 Eee 90 25 1 & 153 28RD Nae 700 56 3.5 5 GR eeoe: 110 29 2.0 161 DAD ie eae 760 57 Sue |e eee [eee S 2 140 32 2.0 125 SO Me ace 810 59 385 4 Aja ac 180 35 220 116 Siege ae 870 60 4.0 i i Ge ae 210 38 Qe 64 SD Rot 930 62 4.0 2 20 Sees 250 41 250 46 Sweetie ae OR OR ig ere eae | et eaee eek oe re Die eae 300 43 225 34 DI ieee tee 340 45 3.0 25 928 TABLE-30.—Volume of yellow pine in board feet (Scribner decimal C rule) on basis of diameter. Used length. | Used length. Diameter | Volume Basis Diameter | Volume Basi breast (board freee 2 breast (boards |\\eeeerin aan t Ree 2 4 high. feet). | ret, | 16-foot eee. feet). | sroet. | 16-foot F logs. : logs. Tnches. Inches nr ony Aaa | Merwe ese conte te OO cee ate e620. 64 4.0 57 eS ete S (O10) esoo0SeS Stee SeSeeaeeae 30 Sense 1,140 66 4.0 44 Bie cosae (COME ee tae eer vases Sool OMS ke 1,270 68 4.5 26 eiSeteere 90 27 5 22 Bscsecool a als ZN) 69 4.5 28 oe 110 32 2.0 7 SBiscccsnol! US Bao) 71 4.5 22 eer sae te 130 35 2.0 93 Saecet ee 1,730 73 4.5 21 Rak Ne 160 38 74565) 119 Ob) saeaer 1,910 75 4.5 Uff tea 190 41 Deo 142 Wiectonel | AyOsty 76 5.0 12 oS 230 43 205) 140 SWeseeceall 2,220 78 5.0 6 Breet x 270 45 3.0 138 Wocccessl| Zea) 80 5.0 4 ae 310 47 3.0 108 3 Oe eo 430) 81 5.0 5 Tee 360 49 3.0 128 WN secal| 2hGRD 83 baO 2 Seer 420 51 3.0 138 AM ee sscall ZAyloill) ee ee Cocco soSe5eee 480 53 310 102 AD Sores ASU eaotonod poor aserrc havsoles coe ere See 550 55 3.8 109 BY Gececelli Peal le sonoadlgeceneaeaeleaceogsecc eee ER 630 57 Se & 88 AG Se ooo uP 2EOOOW esas se = lsioetseite ae | A eeeeeeeee vee ae 710 59 ae 95 ee 2 re 800 61 4.0 85 | 1, 863 ee Sie a 910 62 4.0 65 63 64 WESTERN YELLOW PINE IN ARIZONA AND NEW MEXICO. TABLE 31.—Volume of yellow pine in board feet (Scribner decimal C rule) on basis of diameter-height, in fect. Height cf trees. Dic . ame- 1D) Hae ter of} Basis, high. 40 | 50 | 60 | 70 80 90 100 110 120 Ae trees. feet. | feet. | feet. | feet. feet. feet. feet. feet. feet. Fee Board| Board|Board| Board | Board | Board | Board | Board | Board Inches feet. | feet..| feet. | feet. Feet. feet. feet. Feet feck. \\ Is: Dy ee 50 60 70 SO ears Ease on | rete eta | See ete ae | oe eer 3:3 |= eee Ls Joes 60 80 90 HOO E52 NSE el | severe [eset ee eae 8.5 23 IE eee 70 90} 110 120 140 5 Osi ete cere | bs my eee | eee ee Baz 48 i ee Ae 90 | 110 130 150 170 180 MOQ ei ere aoe A ee 8.9 91 el OP ee 110 130 160 180 200 220 230 DAO eee O82, 117 lie 130 160 180 210 230 260 280 290 310 | 9.4 142 Were ocedec 160 180 210 240 270 300 320 350 370 | 9.6 136 ORS sete 180 210 250 280 310 350 380 410 430 | 9.9 135 20ers! 210 250 280 320 360 400 440 470 500 | 10.1 104 DER Ps ter 240 | 280| 320 370 410 460 500 540 580 | 10.4 127 DERE ee 280 310 360 410 470 520 370 620 670 | 10.6 135 Sa Pee eel had Peele 35 410 470 520 590 640 700 760 | 10.9 103 Artsy Wea ee pe oe 390 | 450 520 590 660 720 780 850 | 11.1 105 7A Sahm te el Oe eee | 430 | 500 580 650 730 800 880 950 | 11.3 85 26 en ley week 470 | 550 630 720 800 890 980 | 1,070 | 11.6 93 epee rd aye A eyes 610 690 790 880 980 | 1,080} 1,190 | 11.9 83 DES o ech ee Sel ees peerteee 660 7C0 860 960 | 1,080! 1,190 | 1,310 | 12.1 63 20 Uae | Cae = gee eee eee 820 930 | 1,040 | 1,170} 1,300 | 1,440 | 12.4 51 Sverre Wee te eee | ae kee S805) COONS L301 2705 | 4208 eles fOs haart 42 Sil mer Ny ha ee aiene oe 9407) S070) 152205) 15380") 155500) 1 7200259 21 30 cult. le egies Be 1,010 | 1,150 | 1,310} 1,490} 1,680 | 1,870 | 13.2 28 Sant | Sore eae ee bk Buse 1,230 |. 1,410 | 1,610 | 1,820°) 2,020 | 13.5 22 aes PR 9 ON Ne es | er SS TS SLOM Sa LON S40 se GCONE 2 180m seo 22 Saye ea erent oll aekece Cra eee | secre oe 1,390 1,620 1,870 2,110 2,330 | 14.3 il? Gee ie [ese yt bcs |e shelly pee oat 1,470 | 1,720] 1,990] 2,260] 2,500 | 14.7 13 7 Tee | Re este oP pe ee eat 1 SL0)}) 251207), 325410: |} 25660) thao 6 yee Bata Negi ae ee gM eae AN Eel |p 1,900 | 2,250| 2,550] 2,820 | 15.8 4 SIS als ae a Ne oes Perea ee aeer eye Ae Salacueaous 2,390 | 2,690 | 2,980 | 16.4 5 2 ieee cla AR Ee (ae ee eee ts 2 2,530 | 2,840 | 3,150 | 17.0 1 1,822 TABLE 32.—Volume of yellow pine in board feet (Scribner decimal C rule) on basis of diameter, merchantable length in 16-foot logs. Merchantable length 16-foot logs. Diameter |_ 3 breast high. 1 log. 2 logs. 3 logs. 4 logs. 5 logs. 6 logs. Inches. |Board feet.| Board feet. Board feet. Board feet. Board fect. Board feet. 1B ona 50 0) a |r oO Ne] Ee eee rse see | Mere ane | (Sete nN Aes eee 60 100 140 GO) 74) Sass ere | Smee ep eae 1 Dee een 70 120 160 210) hes: eo eee Fee GaSe wees 80 140 180 ZAQ is aes eee Bee eee 17 (eee 100 160 210 21 OS OS els See Nes I Se ee Ss 120 190 240 310 Sis) patency eee [19 3es Sete ee 140 220 270 350 AR) dimer eee oe PA rene eae! 160 250 310 400 490 3 ease ee Dileeet ape ee te pead ca 290 360 450 DOO pales sae PNR es od sia pes Saeed | 330 410 500 GLOR | Ra=saece Vn Rat Se SG 380 460 560 G80 rg eee DA os esl ee a ee 420 520 630 (OOM EE Sere sy oe Ses Sere eee Mines 470 580 700 S400 eae 2G sta Sates tn lhe eee eee 530 640 780 920 1,060 A (ea ea ee oes ee ae 580 710 860 1,010 1, 150 As ie Waa kl Poem norma et 630 790 950 1, 100 1, 250 PAS ei iit: Nee Sa a 2 680 870 1,040 1, 200 1,360 BORER aa ees ee 730 960 1, 130 1,300 1,470 Sie eee Oa ee oe 780 1,050 1, 230 1,410 1,590 SON eel ae cans ere 830 1, 140 1,340 1,530 1,710 S Ria ae Wl er ea do 880 1, 240 1, 460 1, 660 1,830 BA Se patie ts ne ee gee 930 1, 340 1,580 1,780 1,960 Bier Eee iperea aes Aa 980 1, 440 1,710 1,910 2,090 BOs Sse aes Ne ae ees fava eee 1,540 1,830 2,040 2,220 STR eee is leet Be seer |e eee ee 1,640 1,950 2,160 2,340 Baer eer ee ose locke aean ce 1,740 2,060 2,280 2, 450 BOR ek A Gaeree seo ee eee bos see 2, 160 2, 400 2,560 AQ ee eee ee ote een eee | (Se ecmece 2,260 2,520 2,670