Mire ie gaunt Hae i ae 0 i LARD Meehan bore Bi phetebeass Alena 8 ss ieyceeten ie ‘ i Aalst, aa ig st rh ute : } “ ra iH ese M! abt tay : ite pe hee Be he a iM a i 1} SN} tahene yy i] iitieies — nah iG i ea ee | a sitet Bet i ee we ry pat ie ‘¢ he ¥ % vis ne aac 8 Se oe i te) Pat, iv s i ae ’ it i ean an on ae Supls 2 vi 8 it Hi Rhee mae Nt i) i} iain t ean Hs ay ie if iNeh ihe i iii ih ae ae a a io “ aie if 2 a i seat AN) tia + ete ce : i nih e fe fs ns Dente Ga oe Tt inet at ath i fh . as satenat pith yeaithates ist ne ai He 2 3 oa oe aa t ‘ Ny . peti a tints ieee vent vi ¥ i ie fi ee ia ee ch a _ h ‘, itive rar H t i v ays ites toh stig hs ifs remain ie " ni VA yi ¥, TERS Talon Cee Wiz, Nii JESS) WwW LoEEA MS, ORIGINATOR OF THE AMERICAN CHEESE FACTORY SYSTEM. SEaees a -WILLARD’S PRACTICAL DAIRY HUSBANDRY: A COMPLETE TREATISE ON DAIRY FARMS AND FARMING,—DAIRY STOCK AND STOCK FEEDING,—MILK, ITS MANAGEMENT AND MANUFACTURE INTO BUTTER AND CHEESE,—HISTORY AND MODE OF ORGANIZATION OF BUTTER AND CHEESE FACTORIES,—DAIRY UTENSILS, Erc., Erc. BY X. A. WILLARD, A. M,, Editor of the Dairy Department of “ Moore's Rural New- Yorker,” and Lecturer at the Maine State Agricultural College, Cornell University, Hic., Etc. FULLY AND HANDSOMELY ILLUSTRATED. SC @ay 1D) a ee Eas - NEW YORK: D. D. T. MOORE, PUBLISHER, RURAL NEW-YORKER OFFICE. 1872. Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1871, by DDL eOOR Et In the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington. 4 PRESS OF WYNKOOP & HALLENBECK, SmitH & McDovaeat, Electrotypers. 113 Fuuntron STREET, NEW YORE, . INDEX TO PARTS, PAGE Part I—INTRODUCTORY...........0.0s000. Se eat ares ets ea eee 7 i DAIRY. BARMS AND RIXTURES.. 9. <2. struts sues u. 25 IIL—MANAGEMENT OF GRASS LANDS........00c.c0ecceeceeeceeece 51 IV.—STOCK— SELECTION, CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF FOR BIETSE) «TAMER ts BO} ie | JR ayes on oe ces tes ae alee 106 “ii LS NVOC UTE sami ak eae gg BP eee EROS TU Ue 153 -VIL— ASSOCIATED DAIRYING—ITS RISE AND PROGRESS......... 213 Vil ENGLISH DAIRY PRACTICE ....i..5.¢..cl2 ee 287 VIL— COMPOSITION OF CHEESE, ..........2...0.¢2¢. 0220s edececseeeee 207 IX.— VOELCKER’S CHEESE EXPERIMENTS.........00--cc0e.cecceees 333 X.— PRELIMINARY TO CHEESE-MAKING...........0000seeeceeceees 352 Xb CHEESE: MANUPACTUREL: Jacke coches. gee ee eee is Ras 426 Sa BEE TE RUM AN UMN OWURE:: S825. oesieeccuesia sevse engines 479 BS TaN a te a DR culate ere oT Many crotalel ciate, sjaveeva wtaietsire rts startle plete eealahen tie eaters 516 - INDEX TO ILLUSTRATIONS. PAGE EMU SA UCROUDEE COS BOUCIDY DOGanGoiIe scans. NBIC le ian coke oinsid ais en cinistersie SOOSOBOCo SE OnDdG Hac ssace . 467 idence DEST Pree yecttaeee ciate puooCasccS Peres eeeions 116 BTS OWincict ie cteieis oaje eal aie staielols siaiie oie sitelaia elolersreiere sisters Foo lily ratte Heater and Cheese Vat............000 - 386 Ayrshire Bull........ jocoae djdosoebocar ds bab aan eooae -. 114 eaten OO Wate alols xlais oie nis olatatein(o alaeiatsietalaleletets leteie stele aieteteaionels ee 115 Barn, Large Stock, Hlevation Of.................5 : a —— t= GT INC NOOM sense saccieseeeeieeeceae teers 401 i= SECON fOOLe sepienereoee cesar aeineeanieels . 401 — — — Sectional view of frame................065 401 — Meadow Brook, Elevation........ nonoooscadeenon 34 a TOWEL NOON ces nat quicecinaccislecuicinasineiiceisieee 35 — —— Upper floor.... — Model Farm......... — — — BaSCMenh... seccccvesccececescrnecsdvercesus — —-— End view of frame-work Bully AVGerney era cece cite see cteeia baa meere cadeieae.s fae _ yrshire........ ae — Devon............- — Holstein.......... s MOTE = EVOL ecetacte aaa claciclomatelelowinierniene ota cleraiiciare cleo 6 Butter Bow] and Ladle........0...0.ccsseecsvceccscns 250 — Factory, Ground Plan “Of Orange County Milk Associution............6 Male pense aeseinin ereiaieials Wetetee 251 — — — — — ROCKVI]e 2... . cece eee cece eee eseee 252 — — Weeks’, Hlevation...............cececence reece 492 = =— Ground LAN OL rece a ae rec rabiocte sleet ictsiae 493 Butter Packages, Orange County..........s++.-..-- 254 — Pail, Return......... de ac aloo setae a eoeeint ative . 254 omit ome DUVIE SUC ODE Sete cietelaictnistec cieleicla eid areitlo uicie biclalslniecctele eiatce 513 = WVOLKEM, (CONRDINI Seis ss ckcchisciste asrectede «a deeicisisteene 512 OLA CO OUNL Vcc oe caicic ce cialsiertalee visioeseistelciseinon 253 Me ELON NO MElremeericcscinticislsiociesiiseisia onietesieteicesie 512 — Workers with fluted rollers.................... . 511 — — Cortland County.............. AB ere ee ar onsen 210) Can, Factory weighing....... 399 Gastoror CurduSinken ss, wee ceend eee ceee nee: Cheese Hoop. English, Expanding................ - 293 ——SeNEAIUIMIO ‘I Wins s octclenes be eteces cokes 350 — Press, Factory........... — — Frazer’s GATOR eetaietoecie hela ctaeeetoe Notes crete — — Oysten’s Herkimer County...............+0+ 400 Churn, Orange County............. Race t anne eae ore 249 NOTING Opeeeleieieintnininreleierciats pee OU G Churning by water power... Conductor Head. Cow, Alderney. — Ayrshire.. 115 —— FA EVIOM ric/cbyisivcles « cicles 113 — Escutcheon of bad. 125 — — — first-rate.. 123 — .— — mediocre 124 — Holstein.... 118 — Native...... . 109 Short-Horn. eerie Cream Gauge.. — Strainer, Baker’s Excels Creamery, Ground Plan of Walki Circulating Coil, Heater and Cheese (Cio Fe AS asmadoncedndaeponce padre oqoepa tesco 408 ti HUM PINS PAMMOCTICAM Gauci ccucen cco eaisericetececcice 409 =) SYSOY0) ORB ASS SMB ae HER OA 6 SECC Mano etic, Uaor See Son 410 Dairy Barn, Meadow Brook Farm................. . 34 — — — — — Lower flOor.........cceeeenecee eevee 5 3 i= LI POK MOOT se cscs ceive se ecidvien ences ri 1 Dhow se eecadcod Te eetate neues Sal aibiste wateiotescioe 409 — House, Cheese............ .. jeicooae oe — — — Basement........ * Spe no Sac besEE ocoorCaas. CuO 45 — = — SECON AMOOL.... 2.0... eee c ecw e ccc eee eeeees 45 — Knives................. SHC AaacHagaeaa spanasoanuaeC 405 MPASHMEN Ss CHUM se. nen meis ere seieets seen ee ctueelceste 249 Dog Power for Churning ODS vives cae bcsne eee 508 Se ea IMCL Y?ZS) vo cisiceaiciviecisornec oe sietelsicinisis seem siele 508 —p—/— = Old styles ge. sk ss cee eec cao teee 6 507 Elmere Butter Package......... Sooa GIB} Engine Room for Barn... wos. se lhe ioc ce sec eens 41 Factory, Ground Plan of Truxton.................- 227 — Herkimer, End Elevation Manufacturing De- partment....... Gadsodondoachoousasuodobeneseba 228 — Front Hlevation............... babi alias tue 20 — — Ground Plan of........ bociocacddosdeuaHoabaGsoS 229 — Ingersoll............. AIDC OLOdS Due BEBO oDGaO0 . 378 — — Ground Plan ayia acme gdaadapsdeadnodcnosuses 379 MTT OATISY 2 Sitios wjajeieiniele clehaysiSielple «.-. 396 — Newville, Ground Plan.................ceeeeeee . 3870 — — Second Story..........ssseeeees dovacnpncm oie — — Third Story.............. BLSBasSauabadaEsoosao . BTL — Sanborn....... paduooudomdegondsqoaoee sees O59 _ Filler, Curd............... Ris staete ooianetc Feng CD TSS ase sca ON ee Se re rene AR ve 20d a! EP metas nein cbisicieie civ wrediswiclase oe pines GANOOHCE Ce Frame for Milk Cooler Water Tank. ...0...0000000 376 PAGE. Humipator, Hutchins’, for Destroying Lice on jattle ......... Sbabaesnoarcds a’ la nieitwi ofa eiaie ete eta oe Gate, Weigh-Can..... AoOnABCoS ein eheie alewieleleleieitete sae ae Gauge, Cream............ dajelclesiepian see receteree Soccaens IB) Glass,fCream., .2. 22. .062ss02 opsasens 24hnoS dasocse Grass, June.......... Neto UO onosueosoebadeoonsons — Meadow Fescue........ BAe Sasoe Pooobosnoondbecces, 2k! — Orchard........... PEO a nar monoosdacco uD Bocaaccoce a4! — Poa Compressa........ o cai meeeeennieete Sgtnonasenoe Ze = Red Lop o.oi niece detee eee eee ene sevee 243 — Sweet-scented Vernal..............c00see00e . 245 Hand Power for Churning—Horizontal Shaft... 506 Handle, Can COVEr 6. Jj sciacers ante Cen ee eee eee 398 Siders ooi0 -peemeaenre ws oe cia 5 Sa RR ee EOE ae 393 Handles, Miik Wamieenise =9 eccinesnsee amen Seemer see 398 15 Kh: iNet Dee ane me cere cceeene see nee eee mppoocaeos 394 a hh Rassoocor Sor cons seeests 2070 76 goles eet ee 392 — for Cooking Feed for Stock.......... a SA eres 5) Holstein Bull De nee Bloietelacuale araeiaeetetoene ebjers nips ere eiee anil Les Cowan oor roe cwees tewecen JUaeees ce ceeaeeeeee . 118 Hoops, Cheese Press..........2+45 ss aloletols Panaontiaania le! — and Wooden Press Rings.......0......c0)..eeeee 405 Horse Power for Churning, Richardson? Baa ceeee 509 Jar) ENWEG. ore os encw sels atcecias comee ntact eaeE 360 Knives, Dairy..... Anoodacanaoncn4 Penner aac Geesoss 406 Tactometert Wick sccc c/o: See Be cudsnbapnocd:: 156 Machine, Cheese Bandaging..................00 one ADL Meadow Fescue....... delat civsie chin see ee eree eee E pea 244 Milk Can; Ractoryi.csce- oesaceecseeee sleteieleoeiietes ae . 396 — — TIron-Clad.:....... HEHE Bade o0c BAS os heats Forwood — Cooler, Burnap’ Ba kecossieemen DP aaa MEME 38 Pais 375 — — Bussey’s Improved............... Sao E ee cea al 374 — — Hawley’s........ vtec ee ee sees eeeseeeees shitessehe 375 — —“NOLCHTOp’S + cocceesnuacdeene ariclelasibeldetarcanmeee 376 == COOIETS «ajo c/s\<.0nec mine nin.de seb Eee ee CEE ee 374 — Factory, Ground Plan of Provust’s means Me Mop, RUD Deri sis\,.0-- > oc ese neisines eee Eee Eee ee -. 410 Native COW: iissocaes enedcesesoneenee babtepivie ce sume : 109 New Boiler and Mngine................. ov erelsiate tae meta 386 Oneida Vat and Heater....... Adgnosdas soislenieiceemieee 389 — — Cross Section of........ dh ehe daicieideee ences Badscs . 390 Pail, Flat-sided........... Saew ccs vie nscsenii se eeeemene 410 = for Setting Milkens. 5 c2.sceeusseemene oie ai 6 yale ere 494 — —~— the Milk, and Cream Dipperteesetnee scence 249 — Philadelphia Butter................. siteoleheiae eos 491 Pan, Jennings’ Milk............... sioayalaluie-o ete eevetieraiome 486 =. ewettis, Milles. 54). ..ce.le de eens eee as 487 Pans} Milk, Diapram Of: 2 1320 .ccacsee seen eigaee 486 Per Cent. Glass . aoe .. 159 Pipes Heating? A eee 393 Poa Compressa,.....0..0 cence. J onaeur ea Position of Heater and Vats veers OOD Plaster Sower, Seymour’s... eee (68) Press, English Ceeese.........- . 291 — Oyston’s Herkimer County . 400 Presses, Factory...........scecees .. 401 Puncture, Point for in Hoven ........ -. 152 Rectangular Cheese ep and Press. . 414 Red Top.... . 243 Rennet Jar . 360 Return Butter Pail... 6 . 254 Rubber Ring - 405 Sanborn Factory, Basement....,.. . 370 — — Ground Plan.............. soeeees . 370 Scales. (oss. esau Sees oie Homme oe -. 411 — Jones’ Stock... .. 412 Scoop, Curd............200- RRP ABER ohn a 2 1) ease -- 410 Scréws, Cheese*Press\o.28 j.skcoceceeee eee 402 Sectional Steam Generator and Boiler, Clark’s.... 383 Self-Heaters............... UO doo socd ane sanase slater 388 Short=HornsBully oieneeeeese ee eceenne titscas center 110 COW iar okic dik eeiwins crete lo nlalcleelele ie] tele ee ee eee Sona 1 Spring-pole Power aia Churning.......... Aaa .-- 504 Stock Barn, Large.... ....... s.s.eeeee Ropscaneosocsen 2) == "Saconds hoor sae eae RN coystieic day il — — Sectional View oOf...............-ceceecesee oboe ache Stomach, Cow’s first......... ee ciais visleelite cap eaiene eae eel Dt Sweet-scented Vernal Grass............. se usiupee woe 245 Tester, Milk, Glass wubes fori tee aes Cicicit beac 100 422 Thermometer, Dairy. snlelaisinisaeeecen Baodee > oped Zt) — Floating........ Sak DRE eae Betas es hte (315) — Nickel Plated............ aoa eee Bscboccclcnes, Lae Tin Milk Pail, Ralph’s............... Bosse soson a: sues. Od — — Pails, Millar’s................. ees oer jathoceaeeren 353 MornadONCHULNs sere cies seeeese eee eee Eee Spacers Shy MPFOCAL ge-eaese a eerie AGHBOS OS ooonaaaaas panoecdcccincs Lait Vat, Oneida Farm 22220200 bale leds wisietenioe ee REOO! — Ralph’s Oneida Factory..... Bebcabcccs Dep oee sobod ise) Vats and Heater............... oie wieielelelalsie wie Selsioeei ee EOE Vertical Engine and Boiler........ See pp eecceaen ce. Water-Power for Churning................. Roe eese MDUD Weigh-Can Gate..........ccceecsecseees secon pecson 382) Whey Strainer and Siphoni.ce sae Procuascscaa Ly (Pe tee bebe AC CB, Up to the present time there has been no Standard Work on Practical Dairy Husbandry, or upon the improved American methods of manufacturing Butter and Cheese. A book treating of these topics has long been needed, and this work is designed to meet the wants of those who are looking for a safe, practical Dairy Manual. With more than twenty years’ experience in Dairy Farming, and an acquaintance from extensive personal observation with the best methods of dairy management in this Country and Europe—accustomed to the practical handling of Milk and the manufacture of its products—in fine, having made a specialty of this branch of industry, the writer ought to be able to discriminate between the practical and merely theoretical in dairy management. Dairy Farming in this country is no holiday affair. The men who engage in it are, for the most part, seeking useful information—such knowledge as may be turned toa good account in their business. In other words, they seek to learn how Dairying in its several branches can best be made to pay. With this standpoint in view, no theories have been recommended which cannot stand the practical test of usefulness. I am not insensible to the favor with which the results of my experiments and observations have heen received, or to the confidence reposed in me by American Dairymen. 1 can only say that I have been earnest for improvement in this branch of industry, and have labored heartily for the advancement of the whole Dairy Interest throughout the whole dairy districts of our country. The work here presented is not a compilation—though I have not hesitated to quote from other writers whenever their statements seemed to be useful. In making such quotations I have aimed to give proper credit, since nothing seems to me more repre- hensible in a writer than the appropriation of another’s labor and brains without due acknowledgment. Among the papers to which special attention is called are those of Dr. YoELCKER on the “Composition of Cheese” and ‘“ Cheese Experiments;” also on “Recent English Dairy Improvements,” by Mr. Harpine of Marksbury, England. These papers hitherto have not been in an available form for the American reader, and will be found, it is believed, both interesting and valuable. In a few instances I have selected matter from my own pen which has appeared in the Rural New- Yorker, Western Rural, and other publications; but for the most part the work has been freshly written, ‘and gives the most approved practice in dairying as conducted at the present day. I trust it will not be deemed out of place here to say that I feel under deep | obligations to the Press for the uniform courtesy extended to my various contributions to _ Agricultural Literature, through a long series of years. Profoundly grateful for these ‘favors, I can only hope in the present instance that this volume may be worthy a candid 1eriticism. And that it may prove useful to the class for whom it is intended is the sincere ‘wish of the Author. AOE LirrLe Fars, Herkimer Co., N. Y., 1871. Pints. Fagen: ae ete FES Fetes ae: GL seer ee GN RE Ae a : beebe apd pirbgW SURAT or F ¢ Wah Se ify re) hiReaLD dined one vols ccrmgetasibeil okie saith eRe Deb th POW ee! wee" Bred ey) ott) pm ayy HA thar : sadn ohn sii ate ety baie jemi ra ith opesth a Bes) pga th Caen $79 lass aie yl iiatd: neh 8g, Sid th oe a8 ig sig ‘ ra riage tty ae cy ee Hh leney oor Bae : ony uh att Hoe Lapa yo ore ETE aia it Heit 7 ihoale ae ttl? susie filbs wart i Gite Hk sib “das DER ORES Ee owns au chibi ad. naowrintGl Were uM a prt pipet aaa f gyre LIA - apa Leah coe Ramey Tp Absa dro {yas mat 1 ely 8 sae oe Te Ad 4 hte pitt, : “3 4 Lang ; ins ae sit be pine Mitaipes nitty Ma ‘Be bas Rig ts yee i Saige & _ igaugyiil, spa’ Q7* : its ncn Le aerated wt alt coe 4 Tae ‘wth UH eb: aa i ba he ao Y We ie nua fh aed we re ‘ fon nates pw igi te seth roto Es seeetoitoer Sik pas gsi ie elt hah today Toh Real ys fe i 5 Pore | INTRODUCTORY. THE AMERICAN DAIRY BELT. THE great American dairy belt lies between the fortieth and forty-fifth parallels of latitude. It stretches from the Atlantic to the Mississippi, and possibly to the Pacific. Within its limits are New England, New York, Pennsylvania, the Northern parts of Ohio, Illinois and Indiana, the greater portion of Michigan, Wisconsin, Iowa and Minnesota, and a part of the Canadas. Of all this belt probably not more than a third of the land is adapted to dairying. The dairy lands are quite irregular in outline, lying not always continuously together, but often detached, and not unfrequently, if repre- sented on the map, would have the appearance of islands. THE CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD DAIRY COUNTRY are, high, undulating surfaces; numerous springs and streams of never failing water; a soil retentive of moisture; a sweet and nutritious herbage, that springs up spontaneously and continues to grow with great tenacity; a rather low average temperature ; frequent showers, rather than periodical drouths, and sufficient covering of the ground in winter to protect grass roots, so that the herbage may be permanent or enduring. Doubtless within the limits of the United States, on high tablelands, or on the lower slopes of mountainous ranges, there are soils eminently adapted to dairying ; but we have no large and continuous stretch of country, like that to which we have referred, where the business natur aly would develop itself into a specialty. DAIRY COMPARED WITH OTHER HUSBANDRIES. In my opinion, upon this Northern belt of dairy lands, there is no descrip- tion of farming that promises better prospect of remuneration than the dairy. I refer now to farming in the broadest sense of the word, where thousands grow certain products, and compete with each other in the great markets of the world. If one happens to be possessed of land in the immediate vicinity of towns and cities, upon which market gardening may be conducted with facility, that land may without doubt be put to more profit in growing vege- tables than in dairying. Fruit lands, eligibly situated and intelligently man- aged, may also be a source of greater profit. 8 PRACTICAL DAIRY HUSBANDRY. Limited specialties of this kind, in which only the few comparatively can engage, must not be embraced in the statement. Compared with other great interests of the country, such as the production of wheat or corn, and other cereals, the raising and fattening of stock for the shambles, sheep hus- bandry, hop growing, and the like; each and all are inferior in their re- munerative prospects to the dairy. In the first place, the milk producer enters the great markets of the world, with less competition than he who is engaged in almost any other branch of farming. He has a wider range and a more diversified product to dispose of. The milk farmer may be a breeder to some extent of thorough- bred cattle. After the first outlay, (and that may be on a small scale at the commencement,) the expense of raising a thorough-bred cow will be no more than the raising of the meanest scrub of our common stock. Then, if there is any profit in fattening stock for the shambles, animals which fail in milk for the dairy, and are to be “ turned,” can be employed for this purpose. Both of these specialties are in the line, and connected with the dairy, as is also the fattening of swine on dairy slops. Again, the yield of his cows takes three forms of a commercial product, each of which enters into universal consumption, and is regarded both as a luxury and a necessity—Milk, Butter, and Cheese. The last two are highly concentrated forms of food, and less bulky of transport than other articles of food of the same value—for, two hundred pounds of butter, costing eighty dollars, will occupy no more space in a railroad car than a barrel of flour costing but six dollars. In other words, the eighty dollars’ worth of butter can be carried as cheaply to market as the six dollars’ worth of flour. This alone is an immense advantage, for when the farmer comes to deduct freights on a low-priced, bulky product, together with commission to the middle men for handling, and there will remain often but little profit for the producer. In New York we have studied this question of THE DAIRY AND ITS RELATIVE ADVANTAGES, for many years. We cannot afford to grow corn, for the West, with its rich prairie and bottom lands, easy of cultivation by machinery, can undersell us. Look at the average price of wheat for a series of years, and consider whether the hard, tenacious soil of New York and New England can produce it at a profit. How is it with wool? The immense plains of Texas and the West are competing with us, and can always afford to sell for less money — than it costs us to produce it. We have no chance to enter European markets with our wool, for Australia and South America stand in the way. A GOOD DAIRY FARM, is a good Stock Farm, but stock farms are not necessarily good dairy farms. It is doubtful whether the great-stock farms of the Southwest will ever be employed largely for dairying. The lands are not so well provided with | water, and the climate is too warm to secure the finest flavored goods. Be- PRACTICAL DAtrY HUSBANDRY. 9 sides, the stock farmer of the West and Southwest can at present make more money in raising stock than by dairying. With the great railroad facilities being developed in these directions, the New York and New England farmer will find it more and more difficult as a specialty to compete with these people in raising fat cattle for the shambles. On the other hand, there has been for the past few years a gradual but constant increase in the demand and price of dairy products. If you take THE GOLD PRICES FOR DIFFERENT KINDS OF FOOD in London for a series of years, the statistics present the remarkable fact that dairy products have remained steady, while other products have fluctuated in prices, and at times become very much.depressed. The reason of this is that the whole world is not competing in this class of production. The supply being uniformly within the limits of consumption, A GOOD ARTICLE IS ALWAYS NEEDED, and prices do not fall so low, comparatively, as for other products. It must be observed, too, that upon dairy lands the milk product, year after year, is pretty uniform as to quantity. Upon natural grazing lands there is no crop so reliable as grass. Grain, fruit, hops, and the like, are liable to numerous accidents that lessen or destroy the yield, but which do not obtain in the grass crop. Hence, the dairyman can’ count pretty accurately upon what his farm will yield, if stocked with an average lot of cows. Again, his lands are not so liable to be exhausted as those devoted to grain growing, and with an abundant source of manure at his command should be growing more and more productive from year to year. The great question with dairy farmers has been in regard to OVER-PRODUCTION OF DAIRY GOODS. Since the inauguration of the Associated Dairy System, fears have been entertained that the cheese and butter product of the country would be beyond a healthy consumptive demand. Dairy products are so liable to decay that dealers do not care to take the risk of storing and holding in large quantities. They must go into quick consumption, and hence, any considerable surplus, accumulating from year to year, would so depreciate prices that the business could not be carried on with profit. Statistics thus far show that in Europe production does not keep pace with consumption, and this difference is every year growing wider and wider. In the United States the HOME CONSUMPTION OF BUTTER AND CHEESE, of late years, has more than kept pace with production, notwithstanding the extraordinary development of dairying under the associated system. Previous to the war of the Rebellion we exported butter; but for some years past the home consumption has taken all our make, and at a price which consumers denounce as extortionate. ; 10 PRACTICAL DAIRY HUSBANDRY. The best Normandy butter sells in London to-day at about 150 shillings per cwt., or thirty-two cents gold per pound. Deducting freight and com- missions, and turning the gold into currency, it would net the shipper in the States a price below what the best grades are worth at home. In 1860 THE PRODUCTION OF BUTTER IN THE UNITED STATES AND TERRITORIES was nearly four hundred and sixty millions of pounds. It is, perhaps, to-day over six hundred millions of pounds, and if we were over-producing prices would decline, so that shippers could afford to export. Wherever you go among consumers in towns and cities you hear loud complaints of the diffi- culty of getting good butter, and the monstrous price which they are forced to pay. They talk bitterly against the cheese factories, charging them with the crime of absorbing the butter makers, and thus cutting off production. They forget that the rapid increase of population and the gormandizing habits of our people in the use of butter, are the causes which have led to this condition of things. There are NO SUCH BUTTER EATERS on the globe as we Americans. Everything that we cook must be swimming in butter. Our Irish domestics, many of whom never ate a pound of butter during their whole lives before-reaching these shores, seem never able to get enough of this unctuous food. The waste of butter among all classes is enormous, and, in an economic point of view, is truly alarming. To those who have traveled in Europe and contrasted the difference in the habits of people there and here in the use of butter, it need be no surprise that our dairies are taxed to their utmost to satisfy the craving demands of our butter eaters. Ifthe habit increases with our constantly increasing population, the prospects of butter dairying cannot be considered at all discouraging. If we take the article of cheese, our people are evidently beginning to follow English tastes in their appreciation of this nutritious article of food. We are exporting now but little more cheese, comparatively, than in 1861, perhaps twenty millions of pounds more, and yet our production has in- creased from one hundred and three millions of pounds, in 1860, to two hundred and forty millions of pounds in 1869. Notwithstanding the war of the rebellion, and the consequent poverty of the Southern States, which cut off THE CHEESE TRADE in that direction, the home consumption has gone on increasing from sixty- three millions of pounds, in 1860, to one hundred and eighty millions of pounds, in 1869. The average increase of home consumption has been at the rate of thirteen millions of pounds per year. When the Southern States get into a healthy, prosperous condition, with the wonderful development of railroad facilities, the opening of the Southern Pacific Railroad, the influx of Chinese laborers, and a direct trade with China, it is doubtful whether the dairies in this country can be developed sufficiently to supply the demands. PRACTICAL DAIRY HUSBANDRY. 11 But there must always be a large dairy interest employed in supplying fresh milk to our cities and manufacturing towns. This is more apparent from year to year, and the real question of the dairy interest to-day should be, to so equalize the supply of MILK, BUTTER AND CHEESE, that the highest prices may be reached for eacn. ‘1‘he difficulty 1s not so much the fear that dairying will be overdone, as that the equilibrium will be disturbed, and either one or the other of these products be increased beyond its proper proportion. Ifa large proportion of the cheese makers were to go to making butter, the butter interest would be overdone and prices decline; and the same would result to the cheese interest from a large change from butter to cheese dairying; while the milk interest would be greatly injured ifa large proportion of dairymen should enter into that branch, either by furnishing condensed milk, or fresh milk, for city con- ‘sumption. When Jussz Witiiams, the unpretending farmer of Rome, in 1850 conceived the idea of ASSOCIATED DAIRIES, it was forced upon him as a necessary means for accommodating members of his own family. He had not the remotest idea that he had hit upon a great principle—a principle that was of wide application, and which was destined, in all coming time, to be the means of lifting heavy burthens from the arms of toil. It is estimated there are now more than a thousand factories in the State of New York alone, and they are extending rapidly in other States. They have been carried to the Canadas and across the Atlantic; and wherever cheese-making shall be known in after times, it will be inseparably connected with the name of Jesstze Wiiiams. But aside from the burthens of toil and the drudgery from which this system operates to relieve our farmers, it has developed another great economic principle, THE MEANS OF PRODUCING FOOD CHEAPLY, a principle which the Creator, in His infinite wisdom it seems, is now im- pressing upon the minds of people, by the establishment and wide-spread dissemination of this system. The question of food in all densely populated communities is one that underlies all others. No nation can rise to the highest civilization and power without her people are supplied with an abundance of CHEAP AND NUTRITIOUS FOOD. Where food is scarce, or is wanting in nutrition, there you will find poverty, squalid wretchedness, demoralization and crime—elements of weak- ness, opposed to progress and civilization. Food nourishes not only the body but the brain, and the cheapness and abundance of good food has had much to do in the rapid progress and active development of mind among the American people. But our population is increasing with wonderful rapidity, 12 PRACTICAL DAIRY HUSBANDRY. and already the supply of meats in the Atlantic States is becoming compara- tively scarce. They are to-day at such a price that poor people have difficulty in obtaining them. As our population increases there will be a still further scarcity of meats for the supply of our people. Some other form of animal food must be substituted in part, at least, for beef, and the question is be- coming every year more and more urgent, as to how it can be produced cheaply. And,in my opinion, we must look to the dairy as the chief means of solving this difficulty. I can illustrate this more satistacpo perhaps, by drawing a comparison between THE RELATIVE COST OF PRODUCING BEEF AND CHEESE. A steer which will weigh one thousand five hundred pounds at four years must be a good animal, and will yield say one thousand pounds of meat. Three steers at four years, on the above assumption, would produce three thousands pounds of beef. Now, a good cow will yield from five hundred to six hundred pounds of cheese per year; if we take her product for twelve years at four hundred and fifty pounds per year, deducting the first two years in which, as a heifer, she yields nothing, we have four thousand five hundred pounds of good, wholesome animal food. In other words, three steers at four years old, representing twelve years’ growth for beef, amounts to three thousand pounds, while one cow, twelve years for cheese, four thousand five hundred pounds. But a pound of cheese, equal in nutrition to two pounds of beef, would make the difference still greater, giving for the dairy nine thousand pounds of food on the one hand, against three thousand pounds of meat on the other. Then there is cost of cooking, and the bone to be charged against the beef, which, as will be seen, adds further to the expense of that kind of food. THE ECONOMICAL USE OF FOOD is not well understood by the majority of people, and perhaps there is no food ingeneral use the nutritive value of which is more under-estimated than that of milk. Indeed, many people regard it more as a luxury than as affording any substantial nourishment like that obtained from meats or vegetables. Milk is often used sparingly, under the impression that it must always be an ex- pensive article of food, when in fact it is generally cheaper than any meats that can be had in the market; and we believe if its relative nutritive value, as compared with beef, was more generally understood, it would be more largely consumed, as a matter of economy. Good beef contains from fifty to sixty per cent. of water, aul milk about eighty-seven per cent. On an average, then, three pounds and a half of milk, or a little more than three pints by measure, are equal in nutrition to a pound of beef. Ifthe beef is worth twenty cents per pound, the milk, at ten cents per quart, would be the cheaper food of the two. Dr. BrtLows gives the following analysis of several sibaais of food, in their natural state, from which PRACTICAL DAIRY HUSBANDRY. 13 THE RELATIVE NUTRITIVE VALUE OF MILK may be readily compared. We place them in a table, as more convenient for reference and comparison: NITRATES. p CARBONATES. PHOSPHATES. WATER. ENO TNC OW os cbc s cee se ce aac 5.0 8.0 1.0 86.0 PCCP A ec teet es oo sls accle houeiee clos 15.0 30.0 5.0 50.0 DIR TaN OP Nevep share avers uci ene acaic, old sl apeiaone 11.0 35.0 3.5 50.5 PNINTET OME eeS lc soc cba ote Sine eels eyeek 12.5 40.0 3.0 44.0 PES Ree ora al ora Sea evellcce aracareca wa mires 10.0 50.0 1.5 38.5 (ORES SOR ara ee EES 14 very little. 5 to 6 79 PIO Me wise ica ONS cate An he ae 17 very little. 5 to 6 75 SVIEOL CR ES. oi. ec eine oe ens =e 154g none. 41g 80 Of the nitrates, or flesh-forming elements, the beef contains just three times that of the milk, while the carbonates, or respiratory and fat-producing elements in the beef, are three and three-fourth times richer than the milk. The solid constituents of the two, in a hundred parts, would be in milk fourteen, and in beef fifty, or very nearly as one to three and one-half. Con- sequently, if both be represented in pounds, it would take three and one-half pounds of milk to give the same amount of nutrition that is contained in one pound of beef. In fish and eggs the difference would not be so great. Now a quart of milk will weigh about thirty-six ounces, consequently the three pints of milk by measure will weigh three pounds six ounces, representing very nearly the equivalent in nutrition for a pound of beef. As there is always more or less waste in beef, even after it is separated from the bone, on account of muscle, tendons, cartilage and the like, which cannot be con- sumed, the three pints of milk may be considered to represent a fair equiva- lent in nutrition for a pound of beef, exclusive of bone. On this assumption, if a pound of beef, exclusive of bone, is worth twenty cents, milk should be counted at a little over thirteen cents per quart, the exact figures being thir- teen and one-third cents. But if we reckon the loss from bone which the consumer takes with the meat, it will be seen the cost is considerably more, which would by so much farther enhance the value of the milk. When milk is selling at six cents per quart, beef, exclusive of bone, at nine cents per pound would be the equivalent. It will be seen by carefully comparing the analysis of milk and meats, and making the proper deductions on the latter on account of waste, of bones, etc., that there is less difference between the economical value of milk and beefsteak, or fish and eggs, than is commonly supposed. Milk contains all the elements of nutrition, and is more whole- some than meats like pork and veal, which are justly regarded with suspicion. It should be more largely used in hot weather than it is, and especially in the diet of children, as it supplies material for building up the bones and muscles, which superfine flour, and butter and sugar, do not. It may not be advisable to substitute milk wholly for meat in any system of diet. Still by using smaller quantities of meat with which to make up the requisite propor- tion of animal food, health would doubtless be greatly promoted, and at 14 PrRAcTICAL DAIRY HUSBANDRY. much less expense, than where meat is exclusively used. The market value of milk is generally very much below its nutritive equivalent in beef; and those who are looking to economy in foods will do well to give this question attention. MILK AS A FOOD. Professor Lyon Puayratr, in speaking of milk as a food, says :—“‘ We see how carefully nature has provided for the growth of the infant. In the casein there is abundance of structural food for the building up of organs ; in the highly combustible fat or butter, and in the less carbonaceous sugars we have a full supply of heat givers; while in the mineral substances, bone earth for the building up of the young skeleton, besides common salt, potash salts, iron, silica, and every mineral ingredient that we find in the body. It may be interesting to inquire with regard to the typical food, what proportion the structural materials bear to the respiratory or heat-giving substances. For this purpose, we must convert both the butter and sugar into a common value, and calculate them as if they were starch, which is the most common heat-giving body in different kinds of food. Estimated in this way, the quantity of heat-givers is three times greater than that of flesh-formers. But the nutrition of the young animal is in many respects different from that of the adult. In the case of the latter it is only necessary to supply the daily waste of the tissues ; in the former it is also requisite to furnish materials for the growing body, and also abundant fuel to maintain the higher temperature . of the infant. With this difference kept in view, all our efforts in diet ap- pear to aim at imitating the typical food, milk, by adjusting a proper balance between the flesh-formers, heat-givers, and mineral bodies. Thus with a flesh-forming aliment like beef or mutton, we take a rich heat-giving one like potatoes or rice. To fat bacon, abounding already in heat-givers, we add beans, which compensate for its poverty in flesh-formers.. With fowls, poor in fat, we consume ham, rich‘in this combustible. Our appetites and tastes become the regulators of food, and adjust the relative proportions of its several ingredients ; and until the appetite becomes depraved by indul- gence or disease, it 1s a safe guide in the selection of aliments.” MUSCLE-MAKING FOOD. The importance of using food containing a due proportion of muscle- making elements, or albuminoids, has been demonstrated in repeated experi- ments, when loss of vigor and health has followed a continual use of food lacking in these elements. The experiments made in five prisons in Scotland bear upon this point. They were made to ascertain the smallest amount of food, and the proportion of nitrates and carbonates, that would keep the prisoner up to his weight while doing nothing, when it was found that by reducing the proportion of nitrates in the food from four ounces to two and three-quarter ounces daily the prisoners lost weight rapidly. Dr. BELLOWS, in commenting upon these experiments, which he gives in detail, says : PrActTicAL Dairy H USBANDRY. 15 “Tt is a remarkable fact which shows the importance of connecting science with practice, that the deterioration in the quality of the diet in Dundee prison consisted in substituting molasses for milk, which had been previously used with oatmeal porridge and oatmeal cakes, molasses being entirely destitute of muscle-making material, while milk contains a full proportion of these important principles. This one experiment and its results are worthy of study by every mother and every housekeeper in the land. If any class of persons would suffer less than others from the use of too much carbonaceous and too little nitrogenous food, it would be that class who are idle; and yet the one hundred prisoners of Dundee, with an ounce more of the fat and heat-making principle than those of Edinburgh, lost two hundred and seven- teen and one-half pounds, while the same number in Edinburgh lost only twenty-seven pounds; the difference in their diet being, as stated in the report, that the prisoners of Edinburgh had milk with their porridge and cakes, while those of Dundee had molasses instead.” And he remarks further :—“If the same experiment had been tried on men in active life, or on-children who are never still except when asleep, the result would have been more remarkable, in proportion to the greater waste of muscle in those who are active, and the greater demand for nitrogenous food; and yet how few mothers stop to consider or take pains to know, whether gingerbread made of fine flour, which has but a trace of food for muscle or brain, and sugar or molasses, and perhaps butter, which have none, or cakes made with unbolted wheat mixed with milk or buttermilk, all of which abound in muscle and brain-feeding materials, is the best food for a growing, active child; indeed, the whole food of the child is given with the same want of knowledge or consideration. ‘** But in view of these simple experiments in the Scotch prisons, who can doubt that a want of consideration of these principles of diet is the means of consigning to the tomb many of our most promising children. An intelligent farmer knows how to feed his land, his horses, his cattle and his pigs, but not how to feed his children. He knows that fine flour is not good for pigs, and he gives them the whole of the grain, or, perhaps, takes out the bran and coarser part, which contains food for muscles and brains, and gives them to his pigs, while the fine flour, which, contains neither food for muscle or brain, he gives to his children. He separates, also, the milk, and gives his pigs the skim milk and buttermilk, in which are found all the elements for muscle and brain, and gives his children the butter, which only heats them and makes them inactive, without furnishing a particle of the nutriment which they need.” Milk and cheese are doubtless the cheapest forms of animal food that can be had in our markets. They deserve to be more extensively used, and it is very likely they would enter more largely into consumption were it not from mistaken notions of economy, which exclude them from the table on the sup- position that they are costly luxuries rather than healthful and nutritious articles of food. 16 PRACTICAL DAIRY HUSBANDRY. Our country is vast, and of great diversity in soil and climate. New England and the Middle States have long since ceased to be regarded as the most favorable sections in which men of moderate means may engage in grain farming. There is a tide of emigration sweeping westward; there is another tide ebbing to the cities, and so the rural population in these States is constantly decreasing. We live in an age of intense competitive industry ; our people are impatient for gain ; and with a natural fondness for adventure, and an eagerness for any change that holds out prospect of better- ment, it is not strange that old landmarks are dying out among the farming population of the North Atlantic States. I shall not stop now to discuss all the causes which have led to this condition of things. It will suffice for the present to name one, THE MISDIRECTION OF THE USE OF LAND, by failing to adopt the kind of farming suited to the peculiarities of soil and climate. With a favorable climate, and the proper expenditure of money, by the aid of science you may force an unpropitious soil to yield ample returns in crops to which originally it was not well adapted. But temperature, moisture and climatic influence are in a measure beyond our control. | Hence, with many disadvantages facing us at every step, we cannot compete successfully in growing grain with those sections which have none of these to contend with, but have everything in their favor. If we propose to grow corn and make it a specialty, the rugged lands of New York and New Eng- | land will not present equal advantages with the fertile bottom and prairie soils of the West. From the natural fertility of these soils, and from the ease with which they may be cultivated, the Western farmer can put his surplus grain in our markets at a price which compels us to sell at meager profits. If we grow grain, therefore, it must be as an adjunct to some specialty, which gives us decided advantages over other sections. The dairy is one of those branches from which the great bulk of lands in the United States by natural causes is excluded. To the farmer, then, whose lands are adapted to dairying, it presents one of the most remunerative branches of agriculture in which he can engage; and it may well be a question whether the older States, lying within the dairy belt we have named, and especially those of New England, with their established institutions and nearness to the best markets in the world, may not now present inducements to the agriculturist through the channels of dairying second to no other sections in the Union. THE ‘PROGRESS AND PRESENT MAGNITUDE OF THE DAIRY INTEREST OF THE UNITED STATES will be shown from the figures in the following tables, made up from official sources, some of which have been printed in the Patent Office reports, and reports of the Department of Agriculture : PRACTICAL Dairy HusBANDRY. 17 The following statement shows the number of Milch Cows, for the years 1840, 1850 1860, and their relations to the total population for each _ ee as STATES AND TERRITORIES. 1840. a eae Ratio. | 1850. | RATIo. | 1860. Ratio. PMV ANINE 6. wi si5 oc aces 189,042 | .32 227,791 30 Wiricansas...........4. | 40,981 | 142 | sist | 145 | i7toos | 36 CHO TITS Sea eee 4, 280 05 4 ,280 05 205 ‘407 65 Connecticut .......... | 74,395 24 85,461 .23 98, 877 21 Delaware. ie ise 17, ,189 22 19,248 21 22, ‘595 .20 Florida. . Bence esa AT. 395 .87 72,876 .83 92 974. .66 PACT Dee 276,557 .40 334, 1223 .o7 ae ,688 .28 PURTOISG cnc 2 Sls ss weve 157, 140 .00 294. 671 ead 22 634 “on LONGI D Gs aes ee ee ote | 212. 618 .ol 284. 554 .29 se 553 -36 MONA Se se cegene SER oe 9 ‘A85 .22 45,704 24 189, 802 28 MTSU cis csc cute altos ay Pe 28, ot 20 entmchsy s. sse6¢ elses 210, 554 Say 247, ANB 20 269.2 23 MOWMISIANA...6 60-2 ss 74,006 221 105, 716 .20 129, ae .18 SVE TTA OR eed itsies eves arei siiee'sya0e 120, 430 24 133,556 .28 147,314 .28 DIEVRVNG GAaee aeeeees 75, 2038 .16 86,856 15 99 ‘463 14 Massachusetts ........ 110, 655 15 130,099 .13 144 492 5 ile Michigan.. Ay Ashahate het 55,189 .26 99,676 .25 179,543 27 Minnesota. . Mr re cectataiel a1 te 607 .10 40, 344 .23 Mississippi............ 127, 721 34 214,23 .30 207,646 26 BMISSONMMI Ses eas cee le 126, 622 .83 230,169 04 345, 243 29 New Hampshire...... 88 218 .bl 94,277 .30 94, 5880 .29 New Jersey........... 97 060 26 118,736 24 138, 818 21 ENTE WRORIE fc 4.664 siela' 752, ,966 ol 931,324 .30 1,123,634 29 North Carolina ....... 188, 255 20 221,799 .20 928) 623 .20 ONTO ME ye clonic ole cictece’s 486, 229 .o2 544,499 | .28 676,585 .30 Meron Ks La. 6 c.)5 sees if 9,427 | ait 53,170 1.01 Pennsylvania.......... 431,008 25 530,224 23 673,547 .23 Rhodelsland......... 15,286 14 18,698 | 13 19,700 sili South Carolina........ 184,263 131 193,244 29 163.938 23 Tennessee.........--+ 223,887 227 250,456 25 249 514 22 Texas.. is ee ta ne iH 217,811 1.02 601,540 99 Vermont. . Galata Veils 151. 814 .52 146,128 47 174,667 04 ‘SUAS oe On ee 285, 153 28 617,619 22 330,713 21 Wisconsin. . Bees 6, 808 22 64,339 21 803,001 | .25 District of Golumbia... 874 02 818 02 GBD) sil 1DEILECT ESS Gea Ui eee aM i see | 286 il! Me brasisa. soe)... se see ue : 6,995 .20 New Mexico.. ae Aah t ou 10,635 AY 34,369 2) HM ftreUlN Aes S seese.cisd «4s etn ero« Naar Ne 4861 48 11,967 02 Washington........... Weeds ae adie ) 9,660 .90 BNGVIAC A dela siscene ee ees ade. ks Ment i 947 eh Motaleecnsie eal) 4.000043) ||" — 28 6,885,094 —|-27 8,581,735 | —.28 ARE THE FIGURES CORRECT? In absence of the last official census report, not yet printed for distri- bution, we take the statistics of 1870 from abstract of census returns of 1869, as given in the Tribune Almanac, and which purports to be a correct copy of the official returns. It must be evident, however, that the butter and cheese products are here put very much below the actual make, for it will be observed that the amounts are but little in excess of those made in 1860. Now it is well known that the increase in Dairy Farming since 1860 has been very large, and has been carried into new districts, while the increase of more than two millions two hundred and eighty thousand cows must plainly 2 18 _ PracticAL DAIRY HUSBANDRY. indicate a larger increase in dairy products than is here represented. In the last of the two subjoined tables the statistics are given in such form that the whole may be readily understood and compared. The following table shows the number of Milch Cows, and the quantity of Butter and Cheese, made in the United States, in the year 1869, according to the census of 1870: STATES. | Miicu Cows. |Pounps or CHEESE.| POUNDS BUTTER. INVENT 5 oe coos cid 270,537 15,923 6,028,478 IAT IKAN SAGAS Soe goede solemieeic she oh ane: 190,500 16,810 4,067,556 Calitormiairen eueie hye Sete cee ate 1,330,800 1,348,689 3,095,085 Connecticutcnd tess ceas es ts eee 99,350 8,898,411 7,620,912 MD CTA WAT Oe tit toc oracats ocevivels dake mies 24,198 6,579 1,430,502 PUL ONI Mae yee eiicisrcbin aisles sis ais Seite ae 99,108 5,280 408,855 Georeiaias ceases 3." .... 15,878 14.575} 1,676,823 385,697 31,167 JSG RS ae Bee anne 18,561 18,226) 1,547,217 1,060 134,099 Wratten ie. vos... 6,016 5,874 478 08014 71,139 17,485 Washington......... 17,315 16,863] 1,817,897 807,374 21,819 VEN AC CR oe eee 14,256 14,229] 1,320,004 | . 90,591 47,305 Westchester........ 16,719 17,154 525,032 186 2,928,845 BWavoming 1 flees). 19,499 18,3829] 1,279,761 1,801,781 43 407 “YORICRIAR Ss Cosas eee ener 6,919 6,828] 642,324 | 30,084) 10,551 Metalie sta. | 1,195,481] 1,147,251] 84,584,458] 72,195,887 29,631,53014 20 Practicat DAmryY HUSBANDRY. As a basis for estimating the probable production, the following table will be useful: This table shows the total produce of Milk in thirteen States, for the year ending June 30, 1860, and also the quantity used for food, and the amount manufactured into Butter and Cheese for each State : Manvurac- TOTAL Man’FACTUR’D STATES. Cone. PRODUCE. Wie Pi eae Fae ‘ NUMBER. QUARTS. QUARTS. Quarts. Maine.......................| 147,814] 265,165,200) 112,018,085) 146,097,262] 7,054,853 New Hampshire.............| 94,880} 170,784,000) 75,052,828) 86,959,550) 8,772,122 Vermont.............2.+-.-| 174,667) 309,056,400) 81,288,157) 196,022,925] 31,745,318 Massachusetts...............] 144,492] 260,085,600) 135,555,626) 108,724,200) 20,805,774 Rhode Island................} 19,700} 85,460,000} 21,570,272} 18,193,128 696,600 Connecticut.................| 98,877) 177,978,600) 63,585,989} 99,071,856) 15,320,755 New York... ........22-e0+-{1,123,634/2,022,521,400) 543,030,641|1,288,695,987|190,794,7'72 Pennsylvania................| 673,047/1,212,884,600) 553,828,525] 648,697,450) 9,858,625 INKY UGIBAZ, cb dcodonoooonaue 138,818} 249,872,400} 109,868,653) 139,287,811 715,936 Delaware. ......ceeseceeeees-| 22,099! 40,671,000) 22,768,870) 17,881,275 25,855 WigiavlenNvdlemigostn son 6 loan Odeo 99,463} 170,033,400} 96,286,486} 73,714,130 32,784 Wisconsin. ........0+22---+-! 203,001} 349,192,800) 174,214,114) 170,638,162} 4340524 Virginia............22+22----| 330,713) 595,128,600) 405,561,119) 188,463,968! 1,103,513 Total................../8,281,701|5,858,334,000!2,394,618,865/38,172,447,704/291 267,431 - According to these statistics fifty-four per cent. of the entire produce was made into butter. Now, on thisbasis, if we take one thousand eight hundred quarts of milk as the annual product on an average for each cow, and eighteen (18) quarts as the average quantity of milk required for a pound of butter, then the eleven millions and nine thousand cows of 1870 would yield, if their milk was all made into butter, one billion one hundred million pounds; and if fifty-four per cent. of this is the actual product of the country, as is represented in the table for 1860, then we have the butter product of 1870 represented by nearly six hundred million pounds. But we think it may be safely estimated at more than this. The report of the Amer- ican Dairymen’s Association for 1870, gives.a list of nearly one thousand one hundred cheese factories. The list is very incomplete, as it is well known that there are a much larger number ; but this list alone, at an average of four hundred cows to the factory, would embrace nearly a half million of cows. There are a large number of farms scattered over the country, where cheese manufacture is carried on at the farm, and if the number of cows so employed be added to the number belonging to factories not reported, there ean be but little doubt but that the whole number employed for cheese dairy- ing would be swelled to eight hundred thousand cows. At three hundred — pounds of cheese to the cow, we should have the product of 1870, amounting to two hundred and forty million pounds. Now, according to the table for 1860, forty-one per cent. of the milk product is consumed directly as food, fifty-four per cent. is made into butter, and five per cent. is made into cheese. Therefore we find that, allowing five quarts of milk to the pound of cheese, and taking five per cent. of the gross PRACTICAL DAIRY HUSBANDRY. 21 amount of milk, the cheese product of 1870 would amount to nearly two hundred million pounds, and this too on the basis that ratios are the same in 1870 as 1860. We may remark here that THE ANNUAL AVERAGE PRODUCTI OF COWS in our estimate, (viz.,—three hundred and sixty pounds of cheese per head ; or, if the milk is made into butter, one hundred pounds of butter per head,) is considered only a fair average annual product. These estimates of the — present annual cheese product correspond very nearly with the quantity estimated by those who have kept statistics in regard to this branch of industry. They put the whole product of cheese made in 1869 at two hundred and forty million pounds. If anything more was needed to show THE INACURACY OF THE CENSUS RETURNS of 1869 as here reported, we might refer to the cheese product of New York for that year in the table which is put at forty-eight million five hundred and forty-eight thousand two hundred and eighty-nine pounds, when according to the New York census returns of 1864 the quantity of cheese made in the “State that year for salé and exclusive of what was consumed in families of farmers amounted to seventy-two million one hundred and ninety-five thou- sand three hundred and thirty-seven pounds. Cheese dairying in New York since 1864 has been largely increased. From the incomplete returns published in the report of the American Dairymen’s Association for 1870, we find eight hundred and twenty-five factories given, and if each averaged three hundred cows they would make a total of two hundred and forty-seven thousand cows. If we estimate four hundred pounds of cheese to the cow as the average product, the gross make of | cheese at these factories would amount to ninety-eight million eight hundred thousand pounds. Inview ofall the facts in my possession, I feel warranted in placing the butter product of the United States and Territories during 1870 at more than six hundred million pounds, and the cheese product at two hundred and forty million pounds. The table, on next page, given by Dr. Loomis in the Patent Office report of 1861, will be of interest, as showing THE PER CENTAGE OF MILK CONSUMPTION, PREVIOUS TO 1861, IN THIRTEEN STATES. “It is worthy of notice,” he says, “that but five States, viz., New Hampshire, Vermont, Massachusetts, Connecticut, and New York, use over three per cent. of their milk for cheese, and that all south of Pennsylvania ‘use less than one per cent. Rhode Island, Massachusetts and Maryland ‘produce the least in proportion to their population; Vermont, New Hamp- ‘shire, New York and Wisconsin produce the most in proportion to their (population. Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Connecticut, New York and Maryland, consume the least in proportion to their population. Virginia ‘consumes as food nearly seventy per cent. of the entire milk product of that ‘State ; Rhode Island over sixty per cent., and Maryland, Delaware, Massa- 92 PracticAL DAIRY HUSBANDRY. chusetts and Wisconsin over fifty per cent. of the product of the States | severally. New York and Vermont manufacture into butter nearly two- thirds of their entire milk product. But one State, Virginia, uses less than one-third of its milk in the manufacture of butter. Rhode Island uses the | largest per centage in the manufacture of cheese ; New York the largest per | centage in butter; and Virginia the largest per centage as food. Virginia uses the smallest per centage in butter and cheese, and Vermont the least per centage as food. This table shows the per centage of Milk consumed as food, and manufactured into Butter and Cheese. Also, the average produce in quarts to each person, and the average amount each consumed : Manurac- | AveRAGE | AVERAGE CONSUMED. BUTTER. TURED Propuce To | CONSUMED STATES. Per CENT. PER CENT. CHEESE. |EAcH PERSON. a EACH | PER CENT. QUARTS. ERSON. QuARTS. | Maine ee ee Ne [he eta ats) 03 422 177 New Hampshire............ 44 .50 .06 524 230 WAIN Nie @ STOUR OO rICee -26 .63 old 980 255 Massachusetts..........-.06- 02 .40 .08 211 110 Rhode Island.............. 61 a3 .02 203 124 | Wonmecticutz.)) 3.2.5 caine ole. .30 .06 .09 287 135 ING WO NCOL yee itee ta tecistorc racers 220 64 .09 520 140 Pennsylvania ...)........2.. -46 53 .O1 417 192 ING WrJELSCY:<\cciie's sein iciels » © 44 .55-|- .01— 372 163 OP) Van wid Oops ewes aclamate sie ccevets .d06— .44— .01— 362 208 Miaiaydanclers ieee chides sels bide ye .438— .01— 247 141 SWHSC OMS. euch eoale aheie ot ieeis .00 48 .02 463 282 AVSIM TINT Daye tNeaces ec cicrets eter aera .68-|- .31-|- 01i— 373 254. “The average amount consumed daily by each individual, taking the whole thirteen States, is one pint. The greatest average daily consumed by each person is 1.6 pint in Vermont and Virginia. The least average daily consumed by each person is 0.6 of a pint in Massachusetts. Dr. Loomis gives the following table, showing the quantity of Milk received in the city of New York, at the depots of the Erie, Harlem and Long Island Railroad compa- nies, for the year ending June 30, 1861: Hartem R.R.| Ene R. R. yee pee Torat. MontHs. QUARTS. QUARTS. QuARTs. QUARTS. CFiUD Daye PEERS ea ts tad sev bah apace opavcnsinn Gaeeay Sars | 2,816,720 2,743,750 282,530 5,843,000 — PANIOUS bret ssepoleietey orate sais) afuus austere tee epeiec 2,657,150 2,636,880 286,250 5,080,280 DE BUCMMMEN.,). mo teal ceceecs ose we: 2,399,410 2,225,800 265,190 4,890,400 Ocioberyas. Sacah toms e hs «tweed 3% 2,320,610 1,959,740 269,890 4,550,240 ISO SECTS ea ee ea a Ber 1,715,128 267,890] 4,040,588 IDEeeMbereiia ar .ie soe ete. s eee 2,068,320 1,564,670 262,660 3,895,650 AMMA Y psf AS isishs: exe ldesdhee Sr uakee ees 2,061,730 1,547,630 260,010 3,869,370 HEC WE WARY ict a vains. hg ook sya siatefelore id oaiaens 1,853,080 1,474,150 266,740 3,093,970 March. ............ cscs eee eee eee 2,169,590 1,788,910 275,840 4,234,340 PASINEG Ee yeaksr that run from top to bottom so as to give good ventilation. Saw-dust and | — l S| ». MEADOW BROOK FARM DAIRY BARN-ELEVATION. cut straw are used for bedding stock. Of the straw, about four hundred loads are used for the purpose during winter. The hay is cut into chaff, and at | certain seasons, when cows are in milk, it is mingled with meal or bran before | being fed. When bran is used the cows get each about four quarts per day. The root cellar holds about four thousand bushels, and the roots are fed during winter. It is the only barn I have seen arranged on this plan. The bays for hay extending into the basement seems to me to be objectionable. | The arrangement for storing both hay and grain, and the feeding of stock, appear to be convenient. MEADOW BROOK FARM DAIRY BARN. By the politeness of Mr. Gzo. S. Bowen, of Chicago, Ill, I am in re- | ceipt of the accompanying cuts showing elevation and plan of Dairy Barn ; PRACTICAL DAIRY HUSBANDRY. 35 erected in 1870 upon his Meadow Brook Farm, near. Elgin IIL, the following description being taken from the Western Rural: “The barn is L-shaped, the main being 96x36, the wing 40x36; its hight from the ground to the ridge-pole is forty-two feet. The lower floor, as will be seen by the accompanying diagram, is devoted to stalls, milk-room, water-trough, root-cellar, ete. “Mr. B. has contrived to secure ample and ready ventilation —a point which is very often considered too lightly in the construction of buildings of this character. The stalls occupy portions of both the main part and the wing, and will ac- commodate sixty-three cattle, with single feed boxes for each, and STALL FORE z< LOWER FLOOR. long, hinged supply lines immediately in front. There is a space of seven feet from the drop (or receptacle for the droppings) to the: windows, which UPPER FLOOR. are large—their size admitting of increased ventilation during hot weather, and facilitating the re- moval of excremental matter. ‘‘ A wind-mill pump is to be sup- plied to raise water into a reservoir so constructed as to fill the cooling vats in the milk-room, and to pro- vide water for the stock during stormy weather. “« A protected flight of stairs leads from the lower to the upper floor, where there is a large room for storing farming utensils; a grain- bin, 36x20; two bays for hay, one 76x12 and the other 36x12. The entrance floors are seventy-six and thirty-six feet, respectively, and reached by bridges or causeways leading from the ground. There are eight large sliding double doors, all moving on rollers, and four hay slides to get whatever is needed to the lower floor. Successive flights of 36 PracvicAL DAIRY HUSBANDRY. stairs communicate with a large cupola. The cost of this barn was three thousand six hundred dollars. There were used in its construction one hun- dred and ten thousand feet of lumber, fifty-five thousand shingles, and two thousand eight hundred pounds of nails.” ANOTHER STYLE OF BARN is used by those who have a prejudice against manure cellars. It is built with or without abasement. The cows stand in two rows opposite each other, with their heads facing the outside of the building, and the space in the center between the cows and the drop is wide enough for a drive way for hauling out the manures. The cows enter at the central door, and take their places on either side. Absorbents may be used for taking up the liquid manures, and every day, when the stables are to be cleaned, it is piled upon a sled or wagon and taken directly to a field where it is to be used. HOW MANURES ARE MANAGED. Harris Lewis, Herkimer Co., N. Y., has been quite successful in managing” the manures from his stock, from a barn of this description. He uses saw-dust for absorbing the liquid manures in his stables, at the rate of about sixty bushels per week for a stock of fifty cows. The liquid manure thus absorbed is hauled from day to day to a meadow lot containing twenty-five acres. Itis spread as evenly as possible with a shovel or fork, and in the spring it is brushed, so as to be completely broken up and distributed in fine particles. By underdraining, and the use of this top dressing, he has been able to bring a piece of ground containing twenty-five acres, originally of only ordinary fertility, to a condition in which the annual yield of hay is sufficient for the winter keep of fifty cows. THE CONVENIENCE OF MANURE CELLARS. Buildings of this kind, however, are much less convenient than those pro- vided with manure cellars, as there are many days in winter when it is stormy, and inconvenient and difficult to haul manure from the stables. Besides, if they are to be applied upon grounds that are somewhat descending, a consid- erable portion of the manure is liable to be washed away as the snow goes off in the spring. With the cellar, on the contrary, advantage can be taken of the time in applying manures, and practically they are found to be productive of the best results. BARNS FOR CUTTING AND STEAMING FODDER. I have yet another barn to describe, adapted to a level surface, and where the straw from considerable quantities of grain is to be cut and steamed for cattle food. This barn was erected for Mr. TrunspaLz, an extensive dairy farmer in Wisconsin, who spared no expense in obtaining the best models and architects, and who is said to have the most perfect dairy barn in that State. I visited this establishment in 1869, and give a sketch of it from my notes: The barn is an immense structure, being in outline the form of a T. The PRACTICAL DAIRY HUSBANDRY. aya) \top of the T is one hundred and twelve feet long by forty feet wide, with twenty-two feet posts. The whole stands upon a heavy wall, which forms a cellar under the building for manures. The part representing the top of the T is used for threshing, shelling corn, grinding the grain and cutting the fod- der. Immediately to the right, but separated only by a short platform, is another building in which all the fodder is cooked by steam. The cattle stand in the body of the T, in two long stables at the sides, with their heads facing each other, the central alley being sixteen feet wide. The stables are nine feet wide, and the platform on which the cows stand is four feet nine inches to the stanchions, leaving a ditch one foot wide and a space of three feet back of the ditch to the sides of the building. The stanchions are three feet three inches apart from center to center, and the platform on which the cows stand is raised so as to give a drop of nine inches. Of this drop a space of five inches is left open, through which the manure is pushed to the ‘cellar below. The stables will accommodate one hundred and forty cows Seventy animals on aside. The second story (above the cows) is used for ‘oats, grain unthreshed, and hay, the hay being stored in the lower end, in a section by itself, for spring use. THE THRESHING ‘is done as the straw and grain are needed for the stock. The threshing imachine and straw cutter are in the second story of the top of the T. The grain in bundles or loose, is thrown on a car, which runs on rails through ithe different sections over the cows, and a load is drawn up to the machine iby a simple arrangement operated by power from the engine. The various machines are then set in motion, and as the straw is threshed it passes to the ‘straw cutter, and falls chopped in pieces, to a large bin below. The chaff is ‘blown out of the grain and falls into the same bin, while the grain passes on and falls into a fan mill below, where it is cleaned, and goes into a bin. \Everything is arranged so conveniently, that but little labor or time is em- ployed to do this part of the work, from time to time as needed. PREPARING THE FEED. ‘The corn sheller and mill for grinding the grain are below with the grain bins opposite. Oats and corn are mingled together in the proportion of two-thirds of the former to one-third of the latter, when it is carried by machinery above, falls into the hopper, and is ground and passed to its appropriate bin. There are two steam boxes sixteen feet long, five feet wide and five feet deep. They ‘stand upon cars, with a track leading through the central alley of the stable ‘to the steaming room. These cars are run up to the straw and meal bins, and ‘the boxes filled. First the straw is filled into the steam box a foot deep, then ‘one bushel of the mixture of oats and corn meal is sprinkled on, and so alter- mately with straw and meal until the box is filled, which gives four bushels of ‘meal to the box. Then the boxes are run into the steam room and the con- tents wet down by pumping water through a hose. 88 Practicat DAIRY HUSBANDRY. At the bottom of the boxes are perforated iron pipes running three times | lengthwise across the bottom, and arranged at one end so as to be locked on to the steam pipes connected with the engine. The cover is then fitted to the | box, and the steam let on. In about half an hour the contents of the box | are broken down and cooked. FEEDING THE COWS. The food steamed in the morning is thrown out into the car and left to cool till evening, when it is just pleasantly warm to the hand, and is ready for | feeding. The night’s steaming is treated in the same way for the morning feed. The cars are run along the central alley, between the heads of the cows, and each animal receives her share in the manger before her. ‘The two | boxes of steamed food are sufficient for one feed of one hundred and forty head of cattle. It will be seen, therefore, that in addition to the straw, the one hundred and forty head get sixteen bushels of meal, or about three and | one-half quarts of meal each per day. The cows are very fond of their rations, and under this treatment were looking sleek and in good condition. GAIN BY STEAMING FOOD. Mr. Truesdale’s estimate shows about twenty-five per cent gain in cost of — feed over the ordinary method where hay is used, to say nothing of the im- portant saving made in converting his straw into available manures.. The stock is wintered in this manner, and when the cows begin to come in milk, he commences feeding hay. The stables, I should have remarked, are well lighted, and ample provision ismade for ventilation, so that the cows have really a luxurious abode in their winter quarters. j THE MANURE CELLAR is immediately under the cow stables, and is well lighted and ventilated. In the fall of the year, or during summer when work is not pressing, muck, which has been thrown out of the ditches and dried, is carted into the cellar and piled in the central alley as an absorbent. From five hundred to eight hundred loads of muck are thus stored annually. The liquid and solid excre- ment from the cows goes down into the cellar through the opening in the stable floor as I have described, and every day or two the muck from the central alley is thrown upon the dung until all moisture is absorbed. HOW THE MANURE IS USED. Mr. Truesdale’s system here is, without doubt, a good one, and the large quantities of manure annually made, must in a few years give ample returns upon the farm. A portion of this manure is used for top-dressing meadows and newly seeded lands, in the fall, at the rate of about twenty loads to the acre, evenly spread and brushed down fine, and about fifty acres are annually treated in this way. . Under this arrangement of barns and machiner y, two men will take care of one hundred and forty head of cattle, steaming the food, cleaning the PraActTIcAL DAIRY HUSBANDRY. 39 stables, and doing all the work necessary for the care and comfort of the ani- mals. There are two open yards, one on each side of the barn, where the cows from each stable are provided with water, which is pumped from a never- failing well. These yards are partly planked, and are to be whelly planked the coming year. BARN WITH FOUR ROWS OF STABLES. An Ohio correspondent of the Rural New-Yorker sends the rallosine description of a Dairy Barn: Its distinguishing charaeteristics are a free use of tram-ways, and a separ- ate building for the factory operations incident to feeding a large drove of cattle, and for the stor age of gr ain and feed. The size of the main barn is 96 by 56 feet; of factory, 24 4 20.0 ihe barn will hold one hundred and twenty cael: and hogs ad libitum. The basement story, or hog and manure cellar, is not shown in the elevation. It is divided into pens for hogs, on either side of a central alley. The base- ment story of factory contains the steam engine and a continuation of the tram-way which passes through the hog cellar. The second floor of the barn contains the cattle stables, arranged for four rows of cattle, each double row facing a feeding alley in which there is a tram-way for the easy conveyance of the cooked food. The second story of the factory is for the grist mill, cider mill, saw frame, or any other machinery it is desired to use. A belt also runs to a separate shaft in the main barn, for turning the hay cutter, threshing machine and corn sheller. The third story of the barn contains the barn floor, with large bays on either side. Also a room for cutting hay and a bin for the cut feed. A tram- way and hay car are provided for the easy handling of the hay and fodder used. The corresponding story of the factory is for the reception of grain, and of meal from the grist: mill below. The necessary spouts and elevators are pro- vided, as common in grist mills. In the fourth story of factory is stored the bran or mill feed. On a level with the purline plates is laid another floor for corn in the ear. This floor is also provided with tram-way and car. The stables are provided with manure traps, one foot by twelve, running the whole length of the stalls, and hung upon hinges. These render the cleaning of the stalls an | easy task. If more accommodations are required, the length of the barn might be increased.’ One correspondent says :—I believe in this barn, three | ‘men might take care of one hundred and twenty cattle and five hundred hogs, including the running of the engine and the machinery. As to cost, no estimate can be made, since lumber and stone or brick vary so much in price in different localities. Where both are abundant, the cost would not exceed four thousand dollars. The accompanying plans will, perhaps, the better enable the reader to comprehend the arrangement of the barn. In Fig. 1 is shown the plan of the stables on the second floor, S, 8, 8, 8, PracticaL DAIRY HUSBANDRY. ; A, A, alleys in e traps; ¢, ¢, tramways; St, switch track between alleys; attle; M, M, M, M, mangers stalls for ¢ front of cattle; Mt, Mt, Mt, manur a SSS SSS —————— SSS SSS SSS a —< SSS ——— SSS ——— Saas SSS 53 = —————SS_— SSS EEEE feel aL ce aoe ‘Ea|= ITpLITH Ht ut Ign ti el Fig. 2, S8, steam engine. if HL ja U Ses ill = SSeS ESSE —S—= a rT Oh ARTA iat pat i i lt tt! ii" y N | Mt } il al ui QUA Ni : == Ea a SS S| —— ———SSSSSS 535355555555) 655 ESSS= i bi. i NM HIN S| We = Cu = Ni ry] Slit HG | NY = UE | machinery room is shown at end of elevation. 4 = = BE = IE): Ae 5 SS = = = as = : ca 7 : : — = S| s ~~ = PractTicAL DAIRY HUSBANDRY. 41 Fig. 3 shows a sectional view of barn and factory. 5 972 | 21580! 8 5 40 G. |) WMiniriig OE NOI Nc Gabo 5ehed deo ode005008 Fab Or 6 884; 3 756] 9 16 28 eae Surolrate: Obppoteishis ..isse% sedasyon isles eit eee wisi 5 716 2 128 eee 8 | Sulphate of lime. . ..| 4 912} 21060) 6 19 72 9 | Mineral superphosphate and nitrate of soda.. 101796 | 2 0 0} 12 17 96 10 | Mineral superphosphate and muriate of potash. . 9 0 0| 4 15 40 | 18 15 40 Abt ean UNTomamunee eee to hak jrsicine tee eapsd Ag Meas ty 6 8 4| 21540] 8 18 44 An attentive perusal of the preceding figures will bring to light several particulars on which a few observations may not be out of place. 1. In the first place it will be noticed that two plots were left unmanured. In all experimental trials, at least two, or, if possible, three plots, should be left unmanured. Although the crop in a field may appear quite even and the soil uniform as regards depth, texture and general character, the weight of the produce of such a field invariably differs to some extent in different parts. Natural variation in the productive powers of different portions of the same experimental field must be expected to occur in all cases ; but these variations must not surpass a certain limit, or else no fair and legitimate deduction with respect to the efficacy of the manuring matters employed can be made from the results of the experiments. Many of the anomalies which so much per- plex the experimenting farmer, I am inclined to think, are often solely due to inequalities in the soil, or to differences in the agricultural condition of the several experimental plots. For this reason it is absolutely necessary in field trials to determine whether the natural variations in the productive powers of different parts of the experimental field are not so great as to spoil the exper- iments altogether. In the case before us it will be seen that one of the un- manured plots yielded, when calculated per acre, eight tons five hundred weight and forty pounds, and the second plot eight tons eighteen hundred weight and forty-four pounds; the variation in the production of the two PRACTICAL DaAIrY HUSBANDRY. 63 plots thus amounted to thirteen hundred weight and four pounds, showing no greater difference than can be expected under favorable circumstances. 2. Neither common salt nor sulphate of potash appears to have had any effect upon the produce, for it will be seen that the weight of the clover seeds on plots 4 and 7, dressed respectively with salt and sulphate of potash, was somewhat less than that of the unmanured plots. I attach no value to the apparent diminution of the produce on plots 4 and 7, for the increase is not sufficiently large to entitle us to infer from the result that the saline matters used on these two plots had an injurious effect upon the crop. 3. On plot 8 sulphate of lime was used at the rate of one ton peracre. This is a very large dose. Although sulphate of lime and gypsum is but spar- ingly soluble in water, and for that reason may be used with perfect safety in much larger quantities than in this experiment, provided it is well mixed with the soil, a large dose of finely-powdered gypsum, when applied as a top- dressing to young clover seeds, appears to injure the plants and to retard their growth. 4. It is worthy of notice that while common salt had no effect upon the produce, muriate of potash materially increased it. We have here another direct proof that soda is incapable of taking the place of potash in the nutri- tion of plants. 5. On plot 3 mineral superphosphate alone had no effect whatever on the crop. This is an interesting result, for it seems to indicate that the great de- ficiency of potash, which is characteristic of the soil of the experimental field, entirely prevented the display of the useful functions which we know per- fectly well that superphosphate of lime does discharge on land of a better char- acter. On poor, light, sandy soils we may learn from this that a purely mineral superphosphate cannot be used with advantage for clover seeds. I may observe in passing that on such soils mineral superphosphate has even little effect upon root crops, for which phosphatic manures are so largely used with the best effect. 6. It is remarkable that while plot 3, manured with mineral superphos- phate, gave no increase whatever; and plot 6, manured with muriate of potash, gave an increase of one ton four hundred weight and forty-two pounds over the average produce of the two unmanured plots, (average produce eight — tons eleven hundred weight and ninety-eight pounds,) the mixture of both manures on plot 10 gave the largest weight of clover seed and rye-grass per acre of any of the eleven experimental plots. In the first cutting plot 10 produced nine tons, and in second nearly five tons of green clover seeds, or both cuttings yielded in exact weight thirteen tons fifteen hundred weight and forty pounds, which is an increase of five tons three hundred weight and sixty-four pounds per acre over the average yield of the two unmanured plots. . Plot 10 gave not only the largest increase per acre, but the quality of both 64 Practica DAIRY HUSBANDRY. the clover and rye-grass was much superior to that of the produce of any other of the various experimental plots. 7. There is another circumstance connected with the result obtained on plot 10, which deserves the best attention of the practical agriculturist. It will be seen that, although the first cutting produced a heavy crop of clover seeds of by far the best quality of any of the experimental plots, the land was left in a better agricultural condition after the first cutting than where no manure at all was applied, and a much smaller weight of green clover seeds ws reaped at first; for on plot 10 the second cutting yielded nearly five tons of green produce, in addition to the first, whereas the two unmanured plots, 5 and 7, yielded only two tons fifteen hundred weight of additional produce in the second cutting. The liberal supply of available potash and soluble phos- phates thus had the effect of greatly increasing the weight of the crop, im- proving its quality, and leaving the soil in a better agricultural condition for - the next crop. 8. Again, it will be noticed that on plot 6, on which muriate of potash - alone was employed, the second cutting weighed more than the second cut- tings of the other plots, except that of plot 10, where superphosphate was added to the potash-salt. It therefore appears that the beneficial effects of potash on soils so poor in this element as the land on which these experiments were tried, has a more permanently beneficial effect than some of the fertili- zing matters which were used on other plots. 9. On the other hand, nitrate of soda unmistakably had a tendency to ex- haust the land; for it will be noticed that on both the plots 1 and 9, on which nitrate of soda was used, the second cuttings weighed less than those of the unmanured plots. As already mentioned, the nitrate of soda on plots 1 and 9 encouraged the growth of very coarse and inferior rye-grass, which completely smothered the clover plant. When I saw the experimental field late in the autumn of 1867, after har- vest, the contrast in the appearance of the various experimental plots was most striking. While the land on plots 1 and 9 appeared quite burned up and exhausted, and scarcely any clover was visible, the potash plots could be readily distinguished by a dark green color and healthy look of the remaining herbage, in which clover predominated. We may thus learn from these experiments that nitrate of soda alone, or even in conjunction with superphosphate, should not be used as a top-dressing for artificial grasses on very poor sandy soils, like the soil of the experimental field, inasmuch as nitrates hasten the exhaustion of the potash naturally present in such soils in very small proportions. Indeed, nitrate of soda, and in a minor degree, ammoniacal salts, are the worst artificial manures that can be used under such circumstances. It may be further observed, that no just estimate can be formed of the real value of a special manure if no account be PractTicaL DAIRY HUSBANDRY. 65 taken of the condition in which the land is left after the crop has been removed from it. This is not the first time that I have noticed this tendency of nitrate of soda to produce rapid exhaustion of naturally poor soils, and I would therefore strongly recommend farmers to abstain from the employment of it as top-dressing for grass or corn crops which are intended to be grown on naturally poor, sandy soils. The following simple method for breaking down bones has been recom~ mended : DISSOLVING BONES. is. Bones may be dissolved or broken down by taking a box or hogshead, and covering the bottom about two inches deep with ashes and lime mixed —one part of lime to two of ashes. The lime should be newly slaked and mixed with the ashes, both dry; then put in a layer of bones, then two or three inches of lime and ashes again. Fill up in this way to about eight inches of the top, and then fill out with clean ashes on the compound and wet _it gradually until the whole mass is thoroughly saturated, but not so as to drain. Let it stand at least six months, and when wanted for use take it out, fork it over, pick out all the bones that are not soft, and save them for the next batch, and then pulverize and mix the ingredients well together. It | makes one of the strongest and best fertilizers in use, and when composted with fine manures is admirable for top-dressing grass lands. The more ready way of dissolving bones is by the use of sulphuric acid. To every hundred pounds of bones about fifty or sixty of acid is'taken. If bone dust is used, from twenty-five to forty-five pounds of acid. The acid must be mixed with two or three times its bulk of water, because if applied strong it would burn and blacken the bones without dissolving them. — The bones are placed in a tub, and a portion of the previously diluted acid poured upon them. After standing a day another portion may be poured on and finally the remaining portion on the third day, if they are not already dissolved. ‘The mass should be often stirred. Dr. J. F. Hopexs of Belfast, at a meeting of the Chemico Agricultural Society of Ulster, recommended the farmers to adopt the following plan: Place in a wooden trough or tub, the bones, broken into as small pieces as possible, and pour upon them one-third of their weight of boiling water, and, having steamed the mass so as to render the bones completely moist, add one- third of the weight of the bones of sulphuric acid and common vitriol of the. bleacher, and mix the materials completely, by stirring them, by means of a wooden shovel or old spade. The mixture may be conveniently made in an old sugar hogshead, and should be allowed to remain some weeks previous to being used. It may be mixed, if necessary, with dry peat, mold, or refuse charcoal, or with sawdust; but lime should not be added to it: By carefully following these reno” the farmer may obtain a compound of high fertiliz- ing value, ae much superior to many of the specimens of dissolved bones 66 Practica Dairy HUSBANDRY. offered for sale. The addition of slacked lime and soap-boilers refuse, which some persons occasionally use, should be avoided. By employing the bones as described, the manure will be found to contain a large amount of soluble phosphate, which very few of the advertised manures afford. ASHES are valuable in eradicating mosses, and furnishing food for grasses, and are worth at least twenty-five cents a bushel for most of our grass lands. LIME is of great service to some soils. Six years ago I limed an old side hill meadow, mossed over and not producing. It was applied at the rate of forty bushels per acre, and the annual crop of grass has ever since been good. I am inclined to think that good old pastures produce a better quality of milk than those recently re-seeded, and that it would be cheaper and better to renovate by top-dressing than to plow and seed. THE TROUBLE WITH RECENTLY RE-SEEDED PASTURES is, the grass early in the season is apt to be rank, watery and more fleshy than the thick, fine herbage of old pastures, Considerable portions of it often get the start and soon become woody, and are rejected by stock. A recently re-seeded pasture will not bear cropping like one that is old. The coarser varieties of grasses are so rank as to crowd out the smaller and finer grasses, which are the most valuable for the production of milk. The feed in old pas- tures springs up earlier and lasts longer than on grounds recently re-seeded. MILK-PRODUCING GRASSES. White clover, wire-grass, (poa compressa,) and June or Kentucky blue- grass are valuable for producing milk; they are indigenous to most dairy soils, and are generally abundant in old pastures, where they seem to thrive best. The character of food a cow eats has a greater influence on the quality of milk she yields than many imagine. During the season of drouths, when the cows begin to eat the tufts and portions of pasture that have been rejected or left to grow up high and rank, I have found the quality of milk so depreciated that it took from twelve to thirteen pounds of milk, and in some instances more, to make one of cheese. We may perhaps get more bulk of grass by plowing and re-seeding, and yet obtain poorer results in milk than from the old, thick sward that has been broken up. One great source of failure and decline of grass in old pastures, is over-stocking, as I have already remarked. The lands are crowded to their utmost capacity year after year and receiving scarcely any attention, must. succumb at last. Again, weeds are allowed to go to seed and get possession of the soil, and where they thus overrun the ground and destroy the grasses, doubtless the best course to adopt is to plow and re-seed ; but the true course is to pay attention PRACTICAL DAIRY HUSBANDRY. 67 to pasture lands in season, giving them an occasional top-dressing, scarifying the surface in spring, and sowing seeds here and there upon patches that begin to fail. As a top-dressing SAWDUST, in which the liquid manures have been absorbed, applied in fall or spring, gives great vigor and growth to grasses. It can be spread over the surface in a finely divided state, and is in condition to be available to plants. Road-scrapings and composts of muck, earth, and manures applied in the fall, and pulverized. over the surface with a brush harrow, together with the use of ashes, plaster and lime, all of which are available to farmers, will be found of service in keeping up a permanent pasture. And it is believed, by taking a few acres annually and treating them with manure, better results will be obtained at a less cost than by plowing and re-seeding. I may remark that, in the use of barn-yard manures, fresh cow-dung ought not to be used on pastures for the dairy, as it produces grass distasteful to dairy stock, and some claim it to be the cause of abortions. The more common method of improving pastures and meadows in the dairy district of Central New York is by THE USE OF GYPSUM (SULPHATE OF LIME). It is very extensively employed by the farmers of Herkimer and the adjoin- ing counties, and with the most marked results. In the Valley of the Mohawk there are mills for grinding the stone into powder. The stone is taken from the quarries in Western New York, and is transported in boats on the Erie Canal in large quantities during the summer, and in this way the mills are supplied. The grinding is mostly done in winter, in spring and early summer. It is applied to lands usually in early spring and up to the middle of June, and sometimes as late as July, though for meadows an earlier application must be made to be of much benefit to the crop of standing grass. Many farmers commence hauling their gypsum in winter, depositing it in small box-like houses, located in different parts of the farm, where it is con- venient for an early application in spring, when the roads are bad, and thus ad- vantage can be taken of sowing or scattering it upon the land at the earliest — moment after the snow is off the ground. Others living within a few miles of the mills haul and spread directly upon the land during the spring or early part of June. . It is sown either by machine or hand. Machine sowing is best, as it ‘scatters it more evenly over the surface, a matter of considerable importance in the application of mineral fertilizers of this description. One of the best machines for the purpose with which we are acqua‘n‘ed is Seymour’s Improved Plaster Sower. It can be used not only for sowing plaster, but many other fertilizers besides, such as guano, bone dust, ashes, salt, 'im2, &c., at the rate of any 68 PRACTICAL DAIRY HUSBANDRY. quantity per acre as desired. It will sow them as well when damp as when dry, and as the machine is light, simple, not liable to get out of repair, not expensive and sows rapidly, dairy farmers will find its use economical. The machine is represented in the accompanying cut. THE QUANTITY OF GYPSUM USED PER ACRE differs considerably with different farmers—from one hundred to two hundred or more pounds to the acre. Some sow upon the land only every second year, taking half the pastures or meadows every year alternately. It has been estimated that in Herkimer county, a third more feed is obtained from the land, one year with another, by the judicious use of gypsum. However this may be, the increase in grass from its use, both in meadows and pastures, is very considerable, and dairymen regard “ plaster,” as it is termed, as one of the important adjuncts in dairying. It is certain that our pastures are kept fresher and greener by the use of gypsum, and a neglect in its application for any considerable time is made apparent in the milk pail, and decrease of the cheese product. Gypsum in its natural state is a compound of sulphuric acid, with lime and two equivalents of water, and has the following composition in one hundred parts : Tenner SUS SENTINEL OS AEN AN bath, DECC Gn 10 i ars Sulphuriclacdees. 2 ee see BEN AVL ISR SOY ae Qe em cee hes hee Auge te eee ‘Wal teen Siva) 32 Spotpsd Bab lias ate Wd ots eget ‘ave al Fuca! ato tye Buiotaidt ty dp etoald stp ap fea eee me mete PrRaActTicAL DArrY HUSBANDRY. 69 It is sometimes artificially made by pouring sulphuric acid upon quicklime. The fertilizing power of gypsum, when used in conjunction with animal ma- nures, is very apparent in the growth and richness of the vegetation produced, and experiments have placed its value beyond a doubt, in the cultivation of the artificial grasses, and especially such plants as sainfoin, lucerne and clover. -It is found to answer best when spread in moist, damp weather. THE VALUE OF GYPSUM in agriculture has been the subject of great diversity of opinion; due in part, no doubt, to a want of proper observation of the circumstances in which its application has or has not been successful. Upon some soils it is said to be of no appreciable benefit, while there is considerable difference observable in its effects upon the dairy soils of New York in different seasons. There are various theories put forth in explanation of its action, and the question is not altogether a settled one. Lizxzia thus speaks of it:—‘The evident influence of gypsum upon the growth of grasses, the striking fertility and luxuriance of a meadow upon which it is strewed, depend in some mea- sure upon its fixing in the soil the ammonia of the atmosphere, which would otherwise be volatilized with the water which evaporates. “The carbonate of ammonia contained in rain water is decomposed by gypsum, in precisely the same manner as in the manufacture of sal-ammoniac, soluble sulphate of ammonia, and carbonate of lime; and this salt of ammonia possessing no volatility, is conseqnently retained in the soil.” One hundred pounds of gypsum, Lirsie calculates, would be equal in ammoniacal fertiliz- ing energy, to what would result from six thousand five hundred and twenty pounds of horses’ urine. Sir Humpnruey Davy held the opinion that the influence of gypsum on clover and other plants of this description is due to their containing naturally a large proportion of sulphate of lime, and consequently required it in greater abundance than all soils are capable of furnishing. He examined the ashes of these plants, and found that they afforded considerable quantities of gyp- sum, which substance, he thought, might probably be intimately combined as a necessary part of their woody fiber; and he believed that when gypsum failed to produce a good result, it would be found that the soil naturally con- | tained so much of the salt that its artificial supply was unnecessary. LOCATION OF PASTURES. Pastures, it may be remarked, should be located upon uplands, or well- drained soils. Thisis of great practical importance. The grass upon swampy or wet lands not only yields an inferior quality of milk, but milk often highly charged with the elements of putrefaction. When pastures are wholly or mostly composed of low or wet lands, the herds are liable to become more or less dis- eased. Foot-rot, bloody murrain, and febrile diseases are not unfrequent. I have known bloody murrain to be so virulent on such lands that they had to be 70 PRracTIcAL DArirRY HUSBANDRY. abandoned; but by under-draining the land and returning to pasture the stock was rendered healthy. The excessive drain on the animal system in the production of milk, has an important influence on this class of animals, rendering them less able to withstand disease than those that are not yielding milk; hence they require more favorable conditions in their management than other stock. ‘ DEFICIENT DRAINAGE OF PASTURES. In some remarks on this subject the London Field has the following : “‘There can be no doubt, for experience has proved it, that one of the chief causes of periodical disease is a want of drainage. In this respect our tillage lands are generally better managed than grass lands, for many imagine that pastures do not require under-drainage; but this is essentially a mistake. On some lands scouring takes place periodically; others are liable to produce splenic apoplexy, black leg, and red water. Now, however different these may be in their characteristics, Dr. VoELcKER, in his investigations, has thrown much light on the subject. It would appear that ‘Scour is partly caused by a too rapid growth of grass, and its consumption, either green or converted into hay, while in an unripe state—that is, while containing an excess of saline and nitrogenous ingredients, and a lack of sugar.’ And this is especially the case on imperfectly drained lands. Again, splenic apoplexy, which was very frequent during last autumn, was owing, in a great measure, to the rapid growth of grass from some warm showers in the autumn after the very dry summer. ‘The plant found in the soil an excess of mineral matter; the ani- mal eating such rapidly-formed and raw food was affected, the blood rendered viscid, and inflammation of the spleen ensued.’ Even the liver-rot in sheep is caused hy a rank state of grass upon undrained or partially-drained lands, - and Professor Smronps, in his investigations, shows that the conditions causing this terrible disorder only occur during two months of the year, and generally from rank vegetation. Professor CormMay, in a paper lately read at the Central Farmers’ Club, states:—‘ As two instances of very fatal dis- eases which arise from unhealthy grass, 1 may mention black leg and red water. Black leg invariably attacked animals grazing on some peaty, swampy pastures, and disappeared when the same were thoroughly drained.’ It may be objected to this, that these diseases may also be found on land that has been drained. But though this may be so in many cases, the fact still remains that in almost all cases where grass land is unhealthy for stock, it is because an excess of moisture impoverishes the herbage,-and during the summer causes a too luxuriant and rapid growth.” The importance of draining wet lands is so well understood, that I need only briefly allude to ithere. A few years since I paid a visit to Joun Joun- sToN, the great farmer of Geneva, the pioneer of draining in this country, and who, it is said, has had more practical experience in draining than any man in America. He said to me that in his first efforts he had made great mis PractTicAL DAtiryY HUSBANDRY. 71 takes; that all drains should be laid directly up the incline, instead of trying to cut off springs by running the ditches horizontally or diagonally across the inclines ; that it was not necessary to drain land when stagnant water stood more than four feet below the surface, but that when water stood within two feet of the surface, land is benefited by drainage. A soil filled with water cannot be heated downward, as experiments have shown that ice will remain unmelted in the bottom of a vessel filled with water, which has been made to boil by the application of heat to the surface. Under-drained soils are heated by the warm rains sinking into them. Mr. JounsToN said that he would not build drains of stone, even if a supply were found on the farm, if he could get tiles at reasonable cost, because the excava- tions for stone drains would require greater labor, and such drains were liable to fill with mud or dirt, especially in soft lands. He would lay drains at least four feet deep, in order to secure their full benefit in heavy rains, and to place them beyond the reach of subsoil plows, moles and roots. In order to prevent obstructions, drains should have a continuous fall, and this could be easily ascertained by stretching a line and measuring the depth of each tile from it. There was no danger of uniting the tiles too closely; the joints should not have over a quarter of an inch space, and ground tan- bark or shavings are a suitable covering to the joints. LAYING DOWN PASTURES. In seeding for permanent pastures, a greater variety of seeds should be sown than is commonly employed. The grasses are evidently social in their character, and delight to congregate together. From a single sod in a rich, natural pasture as many as thirty varieties have been counted. If we mix the varieties of early and late blooming, we get not only a succession for feed, but also a heavier growth upon the land. The mixture of varieties recom- mended by Mr. Frnt is excellent, and may be advantageously adopted. He recommends for seeding the following proportions: Sweet-scented vernal, flowering in April and May.................0002ee0e0> 1 pound Mentonmescuey May Andina. s.ctiho ni tie ats apok ete iain lw eye ele cise aptiotere «heal Mr Meadow Foxtail “ ORS CEe ere sinc Sas 352 eseum epee baa Bi acts ielalccagthcA IG oat Dips Orchard-grass Ny SecaisaiseeteVs eaccetas ate ate a bensulte Secanehss sagen en ctehataite eyed greual sot Ges June-grass ‘: i aig Soin ls Naha altel tiem Peace aOR MM es Mi MUN Ie OIE SASSI: Races cays o Bed ete sche eee Senn salys s tice eee htiee somes Aeauks PREM AIEEE OTAGO IAF Seeds: ila Seely Soin Ieee aie: Hab vieiele Slate Minmete ee © wiele tale o's elalata fe Gy 7% HRSRemIaleClovera hein erat spice sfais ciate siete ai eles «lola erecta sfetalale aie oevgiei ste late ofeieterens ee Salt iyapeMIN EcaT Gs Ply, fei shill n! 3) a/s§hes sqaa:e Rhepepe,oigualeyarau es slap shah oka si NY oie ole Si Red-top, Y Ce Uae trae: dint kes Lady stan, Sicha ea otha alah Yamin A nasueaneanys chia h Cori pier thse FOUS Stalled Meadow, June ANC i ULY .,. «. 32008 = apyeinnbvesagss «esis neko eirieee ep CAMO White Aas May to September.....:-.----0-- « OU eaienca eh ena RED ahs Sek Or 1 ACen een et BE Bo S's OOS Oc clas Ro RCE RS CUTER 40 pounds To this we should add, blue-grass (Poa compressa,) three pounds, and Al- sike clover, three pounds. v2) PRraAcTicAL DArryY HUSBANDRY. ALSIKE CLOVER has only been recently introduced into this country, but from all the accounts we get of it, it would seem to be extremely valuable as a pasture grass ; more productive than white clover, and quite as hardy, highly relished by stock, and, like white clover, is adapted to the production of milk of good quality. Mr. Ricuarp Gipson, of New York Mills, N. Y., who has for some years past managed with great success the noted thoroughbred herd of Wa.cotr & CAMPBELL, gives the following communication to the New York Central Farmers’ Club as the result of his observation and experience, both in this country and England, in relation to PASTURE GRASSES. He says the objects sought are, to get our pastures as thickly covered with as good a quality of herbage as our soil is capable of growing, and to have them bear stocking early in the spring to withstand drought, and to continue to yield a “‘ good bite ” all through the season. To accomplish this, it will therefore be necessary for us to ascertain which of the cultivated grasses are best adapted to our particular soils, and in what proportion they should be sown. I shall not attempt to recommend a particular mixture of seeds, but will merely give a general description of some of our best pasture grasses, and the quantity of seed per acre generally sown in mixture with other grasses, and leave each one to select such as may seem best suited for his soil and purpose. If we take them in alphabetical order, we shall find first, agrostis vulgaris, a very common grass in some districts. * Agrostis Vulgaris, or red-top, is well suited for permanent pastures, ‘site it should be fed close, otherwise it becomes wiry—grows in any soil, moist or dry—and stands our hot seasons well. I think it is over-estimated by most farmers, and worth more for lawns than for pastures—2 to 3 pounds. Anthoxanthum odoratum, or sweet vernal grass (6 pounds,) should be introduced into all mixtures for permanent pastures, on account of its early spring growth, as it is also one of the latest in the autumn—luxuriates most in rich and cool soils—}? pound. Alopecurus pratensis, or meadow fox-tail (54 pounds). Thisis one of our very best pasture grasses, being quite early, much liked by cattle, and with- _ stands our hot summers without burning. It flourishes best in a rich, moist, and rather strong soil (14 to 24 pounds). Dactylis glomerata, or orchard grass, (11 pounds), is in my opinion the most valuable grass we have, and should enter largely into all mixtures in- tended for permanent pasture. It is one of our earliest, as well as most nutritious and productive grasses, and is exceedingly palatable to stock of all * The numbers immediately after the name of grass indicate the average weight of the seed per bushel. The numbers after the description the number of pounds generally sown per acre in mixture with other grasses. PRACTICAL DAIRY HUSBANDRY. 5 73 kinds. Asa pasture grass it should be cropped close (four to five pounds). Festuca duriuscula or hard fescue (9$ pounds). This is not so productive as some of our pasture grasses, being one of the fine and dwarf-growing varieties, still it is desirable as thriving well in dry situations, and with- standing drought better than many other kinds (2 pounds). Of the numer- ous varieties of the fescues. Festuca Pratensis, or meadow fescue (13 pounds), is the most desirable, and it is one of our best grasses, producing a large bulk of very nutritious ' grass, highly relished by cattle, does not attain its full growth until three years from the time of sowing; prefers soils of good quality (34 pounds). Lolium Italicum, Italian rye-grass (15 pounds). Occupies the same posi- tion among grasses in England as timothy does here. Is remarkable for its early maturity and rapid reproduction. I have not succeeded’ in growing it satisfactorily here, but I think it can be done, as it succeeds well in the dry Australian climate. If it can be grown here it will become one of our standard grasses (6 to 8 pounds). Phieum Pratense, or timothy (44 pounds). Is so well known that it needs no description. More valuable for meadows than pastures, as it will not bear close grazing (3 pounds). . Poa pratensis, or blue grass (133 pounds). Is common in most sections of the country, but prefers limestone lands. Starts early in the spring and remains green until checked by frosts (14 pounds). Poa trivialis, or rough-stalked meadow grass (15 pounds). Much like the blue grass in appearance, except that the one has a smooth and the other a rough sheath. It is one of our most valuable grasses, highly nutritive, and both cattle, horses and sheep are very fond of it (2 to 4 pounds). The above are some of the most valuable of the grasses; the list might be extended, and I should always recommend sowing in a mixture with above grasses, red clover and ¢trifolium repens, or white clover, say 3 or 4 pounds of each per acre. . Mr. GrorcE Srnciair wrote a very instructive essay on “Grasses,” in which he says, after advancing some reasons why a variety of grasses should be sown, “‘ There is another important law in the natural economy of the — grasses which governs all those species of most value to the farmer. It is this, that individual plants of the same species will not grow close to each other for any length of time, for however thickly planted from seed in one or two sea- sons, intermediate plants decay and leave vacant spaces, which are soon filled up with spurious grasses, weeds or moss; but when a variety of different species adapted to the soil are mixed together, they grow close, form a dense bottom and continue permanent.” That is just what we want in this climate, “‘a dense bottom,” to withstand our scorching sun and dry summers, and to obtain which we must have a _ variety of grasses. 74 PractTicAt Dairy HUSBANDRY. Just one instance, quoted from the same authority, to illustrate how closely plants will grow. ‘A rich natural pasture at Endsleigh, Devonshire, Eng., contained twenty-two different species of grasses on something less than the space of a square foot of the best fattening pastures ;” and in a turf one foot square of a very old pasture in Lincolnshire, on having the soil carefully washed from the roots of the herbage, and the individual plants of which it consisted separated, their number amounted to one thousand and ninety, while in a pasture formed of rye-grass and clover, only seventy-five plants were found per square foot.” In seeding, whether it be for pastures or meadows, too great pains cannot be taken to have a good seed bed. In this latitude (43°), and on most of our dairy soils, I prefer SEEDING IN SPRING, as the young plants then have longer time to establish themselves before cold weather. However, location, the character of the soils, and circumstances, will always have controlling influence on this point. For spring seeding the land should be plowed in the fall, and unless mellow and in good tilth, it should be plowed again in the spring. Then, unless the land is very rich from previous manuring, well rotted manure should be spread upon the surface and worked in with the cultivator until the surface is finely pulverised, and for covering the seed, a light harrow or brush should be used that they may not be covered too deeply. The great point in successful seeding is to have the land in good heart and fine tilth. SOILING. There is another system of management adopted by some with great suc- cess. When lands are expensive and a considerable portion of the land is arable, the rougher or broken lands, and such as are not easily cultivated, are put into permanent pasture, and a system of half soiling is adopted. The plan of whole soiling, or keeping the cows in the stable and yard, has been strongly advocated by some, and there are many- points about it that commend it to favor. But while it seems to have been successfully practised by a few persons, whose lands are located near cities and are of limited ex- tent, and are in consequence valuable, still the system is not generally adopted among the dairymen of this country or Great Britain. The profits of feeding cows wholly by soiling instead of pasturing, must depend of course upon the market value of land in different localities. Where land is cheap and a given quantity of food can be furnished cheaper by pas- turage than for the labor involved in soiling, it is evident pasturage will be preferred. But the system of part soiling, as now adopted by our best dairymen, is for the purpose of keeping up a flow of milk during the hot, dry weather, when grass in pasture depreciates in quantity and value. European writers have stated that there are PrRAcTICAL DAIRY HUSBANDRY. 45 SIX DISTINCT ADVANTAGES to be obtained from the practice of soiling : I. It saves land. II. It saves fencing. Iil. It economizes food. IV. It keeps the cattle in better condition and greater comfort. V. It produces more milk. VI. It increases immensely the quantity and quality of the manures. The second. and third of these propositions are so self-evident that I need not discuss them here; but of the other four I may allude briefly to the argu- ments urged by the advocates of this system. And first, how does it save land? Cattle that are turned to pastures, they say, waste as much and often more food than they consume. ‘This is done in various ways—by treading it down; by dunging; by staling; by blowing upon it; by lying down upon it; and again, when there is a flush of feed, by a portion of the grass not being touched by stock, thereby becoming rank, old and woody, and thus going to waste. The late Mr. Quincy of Massachusetts, who was an earnest advocate of the system, and who practiced it with great success upon his farm, says he was enabled by soiling to keep twenty cows on the product of seventeen acres of his land, but which under the old system required fifty acres. European writers make the difference between the two systems (soiling and pasturing,) as one acre to seven. But, taking Mr. Quincy’s maximum quantity, which he says was never at any time required to be increased for the full supply of food for the number of cows named, it will be seen that the number of acres needed through the soiling season for fifty cows would be forty-two and a-half acres. This, it will be seen, is quite a saving, as it would have taken, according to his statement, one hundred and twenty-five acres of this land for the same stock at pasture. The objection that the constant plowing of land under the soiling system would soon exhaust it, is answered by the argument that crops that are not permitted to go to seed make no heavy drafts on the soil; besides, by the practice cf soiling an abundance of manure is at all times at command, and | hence it is concluded that by no system of farming can land be enriched at so little cost. Under the fourth proposition, that it keeps the cattle in better condition, it is contended that animals kept under this system are healthier and not so liable to accident. HEALTH OF SOILED STOCK. The experiences of the English, as well as that of Mr. Quincy, seem to show that stock provided regularly with an abundance of food, with a plenti- ful supply of pure water, and otherwise properly cared for, are seldom essen- tially ill; seldom miscarry or meet with those accidents incident to herds that 76 PractTicAt DArry HUSBANDRY. are roaming over pastures, often subjected to hunger and thirst, drinking muddy and impure water, driven and worried by dogs, breaking down and jumping over fences in quest of food, or otherwise gratifying their propen- sity for mischief. They are also more protected against noxious weeds that often injure the milk as well as the animal. The soiling system does not necessarily confine the animals wholly to the stable. A yard is provided in which rubbing posts are set, and where shade is insured. Into this inclosure they are turned for several hours during the day, and where they can take all the exercise necessary for health. Those who have practiced soiling milch cows, seem to be unanimous in their statements that more milk is thus produced than by pasturage. The arguments proceed upon the principle that by soiling an abundance of nutri- trious, palatable food is always at command, whereby the flow of milk may be kept up to the highest point throughout the season. Experience teaches us what high feeding is capable of doing in the production of milk, and other things being equal, the argument cannot be charged as wholly theoretical. IN THE SAVING OF MANURES there can be no doubt but an immense advantage is gained. Mr. Quincy estimates the value of manures made from soiling to be equal to the whole cost of labor employed to take charge of his stock. KINDS OF FOOD TO BE USED IN SOILING. I have now gone over the chief points in favor of this system. I can only briefly touch upon the kinds of food to be used and the order of their suc- cession. The English speak of lucerne, clover, peas, cabbage, &c., as used for soiling. Mr. Quincy relied chiefly upon but four kinds of green crops for carrying onthe system. Ist. grass; 2d. oats; 3d. Indian corn; and 4th. cab- bages. He used grass for the first month of the soiling season. This was cut from his earliest pieces, patches here and there about his buildings, and the sides of a private road leading through the farm. He gives as the result of his experience, that one acre of good clover is sufficient for six head of grown cattle from the twentieth of May to the twentieth of June. Oats are made to be the food for July, one acre being sufficient for every four head of cattle soiled. The oats are sown at the earliest moment possible, and generally afford a good cut by the first of July. But when oats alone are depended upon without the aid of any other crop, he advises that one-half the destined quantity of land should be sown as early as the seed can go into the ground, and the other half a week or more later, that the crop may have some succession. Indian corn is relied upon for the month of August; and during the month of September reliance is placed upon the grass from the second crop, from those acres in which soiling was effected in the month of June. The grass of the second crop, he says, will generally enable the farmer to soil to the fifteenth of October if his grass land be in good heart. PracticAn Darry HUSBANDRY. Tan From the fifteenth of October till the time cattle are housed, reliance is placed upon the tops of winter vegetables, such as carrots and turnips, together with cabbages. This food is distributed in racks under cover, or in the barn, about six times each day in due proportion. ’ I do not propose in this place to discuss the minutiz—the time of sowing and best manner of raising crops—as my object has been merely to give a general outline of the system. It undoubtedly has great advantages under certain circumstances, and the plans of barns which I have given, are arrang- ed so that it could be in whole or in part adopted. HALF-SOILING. Now the half-soiling to which I have alluded is managed in this way (and I give simply an outline of practice adopted by some of our leading dairymen in Central New York. My description is the management of Dr. Wieut, whose location is near Utica, N. Y.): Dr. Wicut has had some experience in “ part-soiling,” during several years past, and he says he is satisfied that when the soil is well adapted to the system, as it is on the Mohawk flats, it is far more profitable than the old method of grazing. His practice has been to set apart about twenty-five acres of pasture for fifty cows. Commencing about the middle of May he lets the cows to pasture a few hours each day, still giving them what they will eat of the early cut fine hay, of the previous year’s crop, and which has been cured and stored especially for this purpose. Then he soon begins to cut some rye, sown early and thickly the previous autumn on rich soil. The advantage of rye is, that it is fit for feeding earlier than any other soiling food. But he feeds it no longer when he can get early clover, as it is too light a crop to be profitable. Early clover is then fed twice a day, as long as it remains green and succulent. Next late, and large clover, followed some- times by oats, sown thickly on rich soil, and cut just before they begin to head. Oats are succeeded by sowed corn, the seed having been drilled in at different times, and this he continues to feed till frost comes, exchanging awhile with the second crop of small clover, which furnishes as much feed as the first crop. He generally turns the cows upon such after-feed as he does not wish to — cut for a second crop of hay, both for the purpose of saving the feed and to benefit the next year’s crop of hay; as a large growth of after-math left on the ground of the Mohawk intervales, injures the succeeding crop very much. By pursuing this course, he says he finds three acres will carry as many cows through the year as four acres treated in the usual way. The expense in labor is considerably more, but that is counterbalanced by the increase in manure. Cows fed thus, he affirms, will at least equal if not surpass those kept in the usual way, in both quantity and quality of milk, and the dairyman, by adopting this method, finds his profits enhanced nearly one-fourth. 78 PracTicaLt DAmryY HUSBANDRY. Full soiling he has never practiced, as he cannot overcome the prejudice of feeling it to be better for the health and comfort of stock to roam freely in the open air a considerable portion of the time. MR. BIRNIE’S PLAN OF SOILING. In 1869 I was at the residence of Mr. Wittiam Brirntz, of Springfield, Mass. Mr. Brenie has a reputation as a breeder of Ayrshire stock, and he gave me the outlines of his management for a dairy of twenty cows, which are kept upon fifty acres of land in the immediate vicinity of Springfield, the milk going to milk dealers for consumption in the city. hia Upon this farm the practice of soiling has been adopted for the last ten years, and the results have been eminently satisfactory. Out of the fifty acres there are ten acres which make up a rough, broken pasture, upon which the cows are allowed to feed daily and take their necessary exercise. In addition to the ten acres of rough pasture land, seven and one-half acres are employed for crops, in soiling, as follows:—Rye, one and one-half acres; clover, two acres; and sowed corn, four acres. He commences cutting and feeding the rye about the 1st of June, and by the time that is fed off the clover is ready. The clover is cut over three times during the season. For ten days, while the hay is being harvested, the cows are fed from the meadows. Then comes the sowed corn which, with the after-feed from the meadows, finishes the remainder of the season. As soon as the rye is cut and fed, the ground is immediately plowed and prepared for cabbage; and from this crop a considerable profit is realized, the sound, hard heads being sold, while the loose leaves and soft cabbage are fed to the cows on mornings during frosty weather in the fall, when grass begins to depreciate. Usually the plowed land has a four years’ rotation, being then seeded in connection with an oat crop, and with the following proportion of seeds to the acre: Clover and herd’s grass, one peck each, and red top, one bushel. Now, here are seventeen and a-half acres, five and a-half only of which are under the plow, that give an abundance of food during the pasturing . season for twenty cows. Under the system of pasturage alone it would take at least forty acres to carry the cows through the same period ; and on many farms fifty acres would not suffice. It may be remarked that the rough, broken land of ten acres is of a poor character of soil, and does not afford a large amount of food, so that proper allowances should be made on this account. The labor of feeding, he said, would amount to something ; but this is partly and perhaps wholly paid back in the greater quantity of milk yielded, the better health of stock and the saving of manures—this last being an im- portant item. Where lands are cheap we cannot expect the system of green soiling to pay, but where they are valuable and scarce the plan adopted by Mr. Birnrz is suggestive, and will be found remunerative if properly conducted. PRACTICAL DAIRY HUSBANDRY. “479 RAISING AND FEEDING ROOTS. Mr. Brrntz feeds largely of roots during the winter, of turnips and man- golds, each animal getting about one-half bushel per day. The turnips are fed during the early part of the winter, and the mangolds later. He gave me a statement of a crop of mangolds grown on two and one-half acres. The land had been prepared with the design of raising tobacco, but it was thought best to put it to mangolds. Thirteen cords of well rotted stable manure were hauled on, and the land plowed the 26th of April, and again the 7th of May. The ridges were made two feet apart, and fifteen hundred pounds of bones dissolved or broken down in sulphuric acid, together with sixteen bushels of coarse salt, were used as special fertilizers. Then about the 10th of May, seed of the long red variety was drilled in at the rate of six pounds per acre. On the 3d of June the plants were hoed the first time, and seven days after they were cultivated with the horse-hoe, followed by hand hoeing, thinned by drawing a hoe through, and the blank spaces filled by transplanting. In the first week of July the horse-hoe was again run through the rows, and the plants thinned out from eight to twelve inches apart—one plant in a place. On the 16th of July the horse-hoe was again used, which was the last cultivation employed, as the plants now generally covered the ground; but wherever vacancies occurred they were filled with cabbages. On the 15th of September the leaves were stripped to feed the cows, and eighteen two-horse wagon loads were taken from the piece before harvesting. At the time of harvesting twelve loads more of leaves were gathered and fed to the cows. He commenced to gather the crop on the 9th of October, finished on the 23d, and harvested seventy-six loads of roots,.each load weighing twenty-five hundred pounds, the whole crop amounting to three thousand one hundred and sixty-five bushels, besides four hundred heads of sound cabbages. The expense of this crop was estimated as follows: i3s;cords Stable:manures at $6) per Cords. A. cck eon hess bie Ve bare Delia w clle sic dalelele ue $78 00 LUO pomnesavitriolized Onegs sty. se wkela hie teesata cick ahs «! ch ge lel fail J) s/atydualei are sy Brats 18 75 16 bushels salt..... Pee sata sist ome tayoA eeabi oy ah slats ap Sy a) cates) WacMere ray auahe lof Sve (aisiows amayounibnell ous takenesiane gars 3 20 Ko talMorsrMmamuness oasc's chee. g cee cette tere ele che creer erelslete $99 95 The labor employed was as follows: Men and teams five days in plowing; men’s labor twelve days planting; twenty-five day’s work cultivating in June; eleven days’ work cultivating in August ; twenty-seven and a-half days’ work in October, harvesting; ten days, man and team, hauling and storing roots in the cellar, &c. As the price of labor varies at different seasons and in different places, I have not thought it worth while to set any special value upon it, but let each one figure the cost of labor to suit himself. The manures, it is evident, should not be wholly charged against the crop, 80 PRACTICAL DAIRY HUSBANDRY. as their influence extends over and benefits the land for other crops. The yield was a remarkably good one and shows what can be done by thorough cultivation. THE COMMON PLAN. Now, the usual system adopted by our dairy farmers is to rely mainly upon pasturage, and in giving a little extra food from green corn fodder, so as to meet the necessities of drought, or to help carry the stock along for about five weeks, say from the 20th of July to the 1st of September, when the animals are turned into the after-feed. Grass is usually most abundant during the early part of the season, and if pastures are not over-stocked up to the middle or latter part of July the herd may be carried through the balance of the season at little trouble and expense, by having a provision of forage from sowed corn. THE TIME FOR SOWING CORN for the summer soiling of milch cows is, for the latitude of Central New York, from the 1st to the 15th of June. The land should be heavily manured and the seed scattered thickly in drills, the rows say about two feet and a half apart and not to exceed three feet. I have experimented with this crop by sowing the seed broad-cast, planting in hills, and drilling in rows at various distances apart, and have uniformly found the best result when used in the way recommended. What we want to obtain is a heavy growth of tender, brittle stalks which will be readily consumed by stock with no waste. Thin seeding or drilling the rows too far apart will be apt to give the stalks considerable size, with a large amount of woody fiber, which the cows will not eat. The breadth of land to be sown must vary, of course, according to the quantity of food desired, but should not fall below an acre for every ten cows. It is true the season may be such that the whole may not be needed, but this will not result in loss, for if the stalks are cut, bound and shocked before frost, they may be cured, and will afford a large amount of valuable fodder for the cows in fall and early winter, when something better than hay is required for the animals in milk. On rich land, well manured and in good tilth for the seed, it is surprising what a large amount of nutritious food can be grown to the acre of this crop. It is admirably adapted as a milk food, not only giving quantity but quality, and if we take into account its adaptation to a variety of soils, and wide range of climate, its productiveness and the ease with which it may be culti- vated, there is not in the whole catalogue of forage plants one so valuable for the summer soiling of milch cows as Indian corn. In sowing some use the Western or Dent variety. It gives a larger yield than any other, but the stalks are apt to grow coarse and woody, and it is less nutritious than other kinds. In our own experience, sweet corn of the Ever- green variety has given the best results in milk. From the following PRACTICAL DAIRY HUSBANDRY. ° 81 ANALYSES OF DIFFERENT VARIETIES OF CORN it will be seen that sweet corn is comparatively rich in caseine, albumen, and sugar, while the per centage of fiber is much less than that of other varieties: OxIO Write | Erent | Swenr |Tusca-| Por |Buzt’s DENT Frit, | RowED | Corn. RORA. Corn. |DutTTon YELLOW. Starch ....... re in aU 41.85 | 40.34 | 30.29 | 11.60 | 48.90 | 46.90 | 36.06 Gutnte mpage ee ee a hie. ale ig 4.62 | 7.69 | 5.60] 4.62 9.24 | 5.00 CO) tarps pera asses oie 5 05s ace cat ian ayanee 3.88 4.68 3.90 8.60 8.72 6.96 3.44 PAMIMMUMIRNG MIE eee os ato tes sy. cr ete 2-04 | 3.40 1, 6.00 | 14.30} 2.82 | 5.02) 4542 (CRASHING: AC ae aires ie One TUE aRN | 1.32 0.50 2.30 6.84 2.00 2.50 1.92 IDR XatHISINNE)etsicrseouaicets sania facet esis etetere 5.40 2.90 4.61 | 24.82 | 14.00 2.25 1.30 TED sie 6 ad eee eit ies eae | 21.36 | 18.01 | 26.80 | 11.24 | 10.00 8.50 | 18.50 Sugar and Ext. Matter.......... 10.00 8.30 5.20 | 14.62 | 18.68 7.02 7.25 IVVAebUC Rie reeeeke Asal etc nw:e oailalee Os | 10.00 | 14.00 | 13.40 10.32 12.12 | 15.02 101.07 | 99.82 | 98.10 1100.96 99.62 Hoo 6 92.91 No dairyman, looking for a profitable return from his herd should neglect to provide a patch of sowed corn for soiling in connection with pasturage during the hot, dry weather of August and September. If the seed is put in early a portion of the crop will be fit to cut in the latter part of July, when pastures begin to fail. Cows should not be allowed to shrink in their milk for want of nutritious food at this season of the year, for when once the flow of milk is checked from this cause it will be difficult to get them back again into a “ milky habit.” An abundance of food for soiling, in the way referred to, will make a larger difference in the receipts than most men imagine who are accustomed to depend solely on pasturage for summering the herd. And in case of drought the satisfaction of knowing that your stock is amply provided for, more than compensates for growing this special crop, to say nothing of the money receipts coming from its use. MEADOWS—ENGLISH SYSTEM. As to the management of meadow lands and the establishment of perma- nent meadows there is great diversity of opinion among dairy farmers. The English, who have studied these questions and who have had long experience upon a soil and in a climate particularly well adapted to permanent meadows, do not believe in setting apart much land for this purpose. In my tour through the dairy districts of England, I was often surprised at the small quantity of land put down in permanent meadows upon dairy farms. They believe that grass is most profitable when it is to be cropped by cattle ; hence the area of pastures is extended while that which we understand by meadow lands is reduced to the narrowest limits. THE ENGLISH DAIRY FARM ‘may be said to be divided up into pastures and arable lands. Upon their cultivated fields much of the hay comes from a regular rotation after grain 6 82 ‘. PracticAL DAIRY HUSBANDRY. crops; the field is mowed once or twice and is then broken up for a crop of wheat. Various mixtures are sown, and large yields often the result. I have ' geen meadows on what is termed the four or five course shift, where the first crop of hay would be at least three tons per acre. I was upon a splendid meadow of this kind in Devonshire, where the seeding of the previous year had been as follows: Eight pounds red clover, two pounds white clover, four pounds trefoil, and three pecks of Italian rye-grass. This is not given as an illustration of the best mixture, but rather as a specimen of what some of our American farmers would call heavy seeding. Lands often get more and a greater variety of seeds. The English say they can get more profit by cultivating their arable lands, raising grain, and feeding cows when not in milk, with cut straw, turnips and oil meal, instead of keeping them wholly on hay. And the profits of English dairy farms, I may remark, are very much larger than with us. Their permanent meadows are kept up by a system of mowing and cropping alternately. Ground bones and phosphatic manures are used to some extent as a top-dressing, but barn-yard manures are for the most part employed for the grain and root crops. I am inclined to think that A SYSTEM OF ROTATION IN CROPS, in which the land should lie in meadow from four to eight years, according to the character of the soil, would be much more satisfactory in results than the attempt to make permanent meadows over a large area which, from its extent, cannot be properly top-dressed with manures furnished from the farm except at long intervals. And, although grain farming alone as a specialty cannot hold out a promise of any considerable gains on many of our Hastern soils, still in connection with the dairy, by which the straw and coarse fodder can be utilized and the land, by rotation, be made to produce better crops of hay, we may, on the whole, be able to get better profits than by a system of permanent meadows. PERMANENT MEADOWS. Much, of course, must depend upon the soil and its situation. When lands are rough, or not easily tilled—lands that are filled with stone, which at every seeding would require much labor in removing—it may be desirable, if possible, to put down in meadows that are to remain long in grass. How, then, can these be made productive from year to year, in the least expensive way? Perhaps the most economical method in treating such lands would be in TOP-DRESSING WITH LIQUID MANURES, as the liquid excrements from animals produce the most remarkable results upon grass lands. In 1866 I was upon Alderman Mecut’s farm near London, where the system of liquid manuring is most elaborate, and where the results obtained are truly astonishing. His stables are constructed over cellars laid in stone and cement, so as to be water tight. The cattle stand upon sparred floors, where the liquid and solid excrements drop through the openings PRACTICAL DAIRY HUSBANDRY. 83 between the narrow joists to the manure pit below. A large tank is sunk in the ground outside the building, and pipes laid from this to the manure cellar. Pipes lead also from the tank into the fields where there are hydrants, to which gutta percha hose are attached for distributing the liquid manures. The solid and liquid manures in the cellar are every few days flushed with water, so that they can be pumped into the tank by the aid of a steam engine, and from the tank they are forced through the pipes to the fields and distributed over the crops from time to time, by simply manipulating the flexible hose. By this system his crop of Italian rye-grass yielded thirteen and a half tons green, or if made into hay about four tons seventeen hundred weight at the first cutting, and as much more at the second cutting. From THE MEADOWS NEAR EDINBURGH, on which the town sewage flows, the rye-grass has been made to yield, it is stated, at the enormous rate of eighty tons green grass, or twenty-five tons of hay, to the acre. This system is not applicable, of course, to American dairy farms, but I mention it to show the value of irrigating grass lands with liquid manures. But I have another method more practical, one that has been adopted in Herkimer with success, and which may be carried out on the majority of dairy farms. ABSORBING LIQUIDS WITH SAW DUST. _ It consists in absorbing the liquid manures of the stables by the use of saw-dust or muck, and applying as a top-dressing. Mr. Lewis of Herkimer, N: Y., has practiced this system with great success. He commenced some years ago by taking twenty-five acres of land which were then of only ordinary fertility. These he underdrained and seeded to timothy, clover and orchard grass, and began to top-dress with liquid manures. He uses saw-dust for the absorption of the liquid manures, and for this purpose it is spread in the stable behind the cows. As fast as the liquids are absorbed by the saw-dust, during the winter, they are hauled immediately to the field and placed in piles. In Spring these piles are spread as evenly as possible over the surface with a fork or shovel. Then he goes over it with a brush harrow, which completely breaks up and distributes the manure in fine particles. He uses basswood dust from seasoned wood, and which is obtained at a neighboring match factory. By this practice he has for some years past been enabled to get from this meadow a quantity of hay sufficient for the winter keep of fifty cows. LIQUID MANURES. Dr. VoELcKER, the celebrated agricultural chemist of England, in a recent lecture on the subject of manures, made the following remarks :—‘‘ He need not speak of the superior value of the liquid over the solid excremen- titious matters of dung, for that was well known to intelligent farmers ; but there was a chemical point to which he must be permitted to direct attention, 84 PrAcTICAL DAIRY HUSBANDRY. and it was this: The liquid portion of rotten dung had a most active power of dissolving the more valuable fertilizing matters of the solid excrements of animals. They know, for instance, that phosphate of lime—the material on which principally the value of bone dust depended—was soluble to a great extent in liquid manure. As the liquid in rotten dung dissolved a large proportion of the more valuable constituents of the solid excrements they would now see an additional reason for preserving their liquid manure, for in so doing they would not only retain the fertilizing matters in urine, but they would also prevent the waste of the most valuable constituents of the solid excrements. He had dwelt on that chemical point, because it had come under his notice especially, in consequence of an examination of the liquid portion of dung, sent to him by Mr. Campsxtt of Buscott Park. In that liquid he found a very large proportion of phosphate of lime, which was otherwise insoluble.” Wherever I have seen liquid manures used in this way, whether absorbed by sawdust, or muck or loam, previously dried, the very best results have been obtained. A point of great importance in TOP-DRESSING MEADOWS is, to use fine manures, or such as can be readily broken up and distributed, so that the particles may reach the roots of all the plants. Coarse manures improperly prepared, ought not to be used, as they cannot well be broken down, remaining in lumps upon the surface, obstructing the growth of grass and clogging the machines while mowing. TOP-DRESSING AFTER MOWING. In top-dressing meadows with the solid excrements from cattle, or farm yard dung, very excellent results are obtained by making the application immediately after mowing. The manure then acts as a mulch, protecting the grass roots from the scorching rays of the sun, while the fall rains carry the particles to the plants, giving them vigor, and thus enabling them to with- stand the severity of winter frosts. Gypsum should always be used immedi- ately after the application of manure for top-dressing, in order to avert the escape of ammonia. THE STANDARD VARIETIES OF GRASSES FOR MEADOWS are red-top, timothy, the clovers, and orchard grass, to which may be added perennial rye-grass, tall oat-grass, rough-stalked meadow-hard fescue, or such varieties as seem best adapted to the soil and situation. The following are the analyses of timothy and red-top at the time of flowering: ALBU- MINER- WareEr|Srarcy| V0DY | Sygar.| men, | Gum. [AL mAT- FIBER &. TER. Avian Ula Aeer see cieerel « Sadek chs te ona 70.0 5.5 | 12.5 42 40 1.8 2.0 ed=topecme ceases oi: R Ser s acacotante 71.0 3.8 | 13.0 49 | 33 1.5 2.5 PRAcTICAL DAIRY HUSBANDRY. 85 ORCHARD GRASS. Complaint is sometimes made against orchard grass, that it grows too much in tufts or tussocks. This may be obviated by heavy seeding. I have seen meadows of great productiveness from this variety alone, where the turf was solid, and the yield of hay at the rate of four tons per acre. It was cut twice during the season, and even after the second cutting a large yield of aftermath was produced. In these cases the land had been seeded at the rate of one and one-half to two bushels per acre. The following table shows THE NUTRITIVE VALUE OF GRASSES, as made from analyses. They do not always represent their experimental values, but still the table is useful in comparing approximate values of differ- ent varieties. It is taken from C. L. Fiint’s valuable work on “ Grasses and Forage Plants.” & te) h kes) | ry & ie shied ace ae toh cle Bee lide (Wace Satie) ators Name oF Grass. zh | Com. a en | cue |, | BEES) & | 28 SEE APH EN ee Maw ise a Bs g ay i in ° do < ey co} e =I Sweet-scented vernal grass,............000.-- 10.43 | 3.41 | 48.48 36.36 6.32 INTO O We OM UA leces coe Ci ctcie ec cols win iwie aimee os vei 12.382 | 2.92 | 48.12 | 33.83 7.81 PANO ATH OMASSH Mae selstelete chest ois)s) eheict sie sie el clo ols) eter 12.95 | 3.19 | 38.03 34.24 | 11.59 MONA ERAS Ss eV iAP a: ee) syoles ejetinsy.s elejaioisinie. se Si 18.58 | 3.14} 44.32 | 33.70 5.31 Orchard-grass, seeds ripe,............2.+e.0e- 23.08 | 1.56 | 26.53 | 43.32 5.51 MiendovaSOtLOrass, SNH HR. ek lee eee sie ds 11.52 | 3.56 | 39.25 39.30 6.37 Meadow barley-grass,.............s+eseseeeee 11.17 | 2.30 | 46.68 81.67 6.18 BERET EY “CLASS, « Driep. |UNDRIED| WATER. Mcoey an lates Byes ed Wh aes SUGAR oA 1, Meadow hay, 100 | 1.384 | 1.15 14 30 40 iA 92 tod) autod OD 2. Red clove hay.: soll. 1.70 1.54 14 25 40 9.3 8 to 5 9 Biivestaw. 9.1 4791 0/30 P0248 Helto1d| 45 |. 38) 1.3 | 9 4 4. Oat straw....| 383 | 0.36 | 0.30 12 45 85 | 1.3 | 0.8 6 5. Wheat straw, 426 | 0.386 | 0.27 |12to 15) 50 30 ibe} wh PA tho B 5 6. Barley straw,} 460 | 0.380 | 0.25 |12to15} 50 30 1.3 2 9) 7. Pea straw....| 64 1.45 1.79 {10 to 15 25 | 45 19.83 1.5 4to6 CONSTITUENTS OF FOOD OF ANIMALS. The importance of attention to the proper constituents of the food of animals is very properly insisted on by Dr. Tuomson in his little work entitled “‘ Experimental Researches on the Food of Animals,” and is clearly pointed out in the table given in the next page, which I have extracted from it. From this it is evident that food containing the greatest amount of starch or sugar does not produce the greatest quantity of butter, although these substances are supposed to supply the butter; but the best product of milk and butter is yielded by those species of food, which seem to restore the equilibrium of the animals most efficiently. The first column in the table represents the food used by two cows; the second column gives the mean milk of the two animals for five days; while the fourth contains the amount of nitrogen in the food taken by both animals during the same period. MitkK BUTTER NITROGEN IN IN IN FOOD IN FIVE DAYS. FIVE DAYS. FIVE DAYS. | Ho Ubay leva) ans Ibs. PRGA S SMP eee Peace ciel n a, 1h svalvinie, Syeedene $005 #ase SiS & 114 3.50 2.382 MME ATLA COM AV eis dsc aletaroidierei cla airsielala owe « 107 3.43 3.89 eeapely Leal Hea CU NAVs spaschs eg esaye, ays Sota sic ade lefinie’ & oid ets, Valor 102 8.20 3.34 Aoelatleyymolasses aNd WAY. «2c... ..:e00/.4 esi «sas 106 3.44 3.82 De batley, linseed and Nay... yes. eens coe ees 108 3.48 4.14 Rae ENE ANS CATA LOLI DV aes oey cis, ec) opens) ia) 0 ov avein esieleFe ea foun 108 8.72 5.27 “From this table,” continues Dr. Tuomson, “ We may infer that. grass affords the best products, because the nutritive and calorifiant constituents are combined in this form of food in the most advantageous relations. The other kinds of food have been subjected to certain artificial conditions, by 104 PRACTICAL DatrY HUSBANDRY. which their equilibrium may have been disturbed. In the process of hay- making, for example, the coloring matter of the grass is either removed or destroyed by fermentation, while certain of the soluble salts are removed by every shower of rain which falls during the curing of the hay.” OATS. Oats are of the least value for fattening purposes of all the cereals, and, unlike the others, the meal is most nutritious when made from the kernel alone. When made into bread, it possesses very great nutrition and excellence. It is rich in flesh-formers, and consequently valuable for food for the laboring classes, in furnishing elements contained in a meat diet, which is not always attainable to them. This is particularly the case in portions of Europe, where it furnishes one of the principal articles of food. The composition of oats, after most of the husk has been removed, is as follows: WW oe Ghia 45 40 Jeb 4A aocrnin doses 14.0 Or economically : @iutenand “albumen!: 2.0.5.2. ¢..... 18:0 Wrateros 2252 unc a eeniceee ae ee 14.0 Stare ooo bl ceka bee ec See 2 89.9. WMlesh-formiens. ¢ oc 5 .ic. cio Oe SUNG ANS apo uw Mini se avers ha rabes oseeiotoneseet stats 5.3 Fat-formers .......22 esse eee 51.1 (Gira gi ae A A a las FG or aa tee de 2.8 ACCESSOTIES. ..cc05 60 vce Lo ele Oe ea ea DEAR et Sk ROS ARSE O CREO CIC aa cna aot 5.9 Mineral matter. 2...... 5 .eeeieeee 2.2 TOT STeT Ra 5 uD at Lf ese ea ERS saree mem Meee 11.9 Mineralimatten..c..ecccs cc cece oe 2.2 Tt is a fact worthy of remark, that of one hundred pounds of oats, two- ninths, or about twenty-three pounds, consist of husks, which are of no value as food. Oats are most valuable as food for horses, and in this country are used almost entirely for this stock. BARLEY. The composition of barley is as follows: \NVANIG, Jo Gotan Gooeo goo dogaboos.due 13.9 Or, economically , GilnbemR ees ee pare eens fee o Mea als chased LBYO) OV Wialtele ce amar cee ener EA A cach 3 13.9 Starch ia isc eee es ode cael ck eee. 47-5 (| Blesh=formers: 2435.5 oes eee ee Sugar siesede AE Suede Ona Mat-formers yee ee 52.0 GTI Ge Pea cone oe sate ere eel cae ie 3.5. | ACCESSOLIeS: 2.0. 5 cic cow ols eee aa One) ERIS Ceele eerste Ree Parnas age t PM EANIS el 054) Mineral "matter 2\9322.02). eee 4.2 LEGS DEA cat ea atl sas PP cdl eye 13.4 : Mineralmauttere celem cre cates sncie ciel 4.2 BUCK WHEAT. Buckwheat, although valuable for fattening purpose, is grown but little in this country, comparatively with other grains. The composition of the grain when ripened is: NYGARD Rats cece On Oe OO eS Sete 14.0 Or, economically : Glaeser atc ener, AUS ie hls tea 9:07" Waterers eoe eon cae. eee etre 14.0 SURE) Tas oie Seas oleboeein ICCC SacaeReteec sa 48.0) > Flesh-formers 242552 S62. cstetela sere cee 9.0 (CHOTA ey CaS CREPE ict CCleRiS c CaPeehr ns carci 22" > Hat-formers’.hicae. c-section 52.1 USUI lapee tee wabe) si ais cuetclc sichate eteve eo ANGCESO UES sa San soGoes bub SsNo bo ooc 23.3 UAV ABR ANA tye Sins Sane Ck cere dale tate ee 1.6 Mineral matter ....0............... 1.6 Woo Give) Glgoriaielepattversiedeueare less ecslese 20.8 Mlimerallumi atelier ctoste a «ches icisleiess wets 1.6 The good returns, easy cultivation on poor soils, and ability to stand extremes of temperature, render this a desirable grain on the farm, and there is no reason why it should not occupy as high a position as some of the other cereals. PRACTICAL DAIRY HUSBANDRY. TABLE OF COMPARATIVE EQUIVALENTS OF DIFFERENT CATTLE Foops. Foops. LENIN, (DODO RAS Re been Sree bee a tcl pour cate (ORTETO(, 3 Sid ok Boleeei PCs Mica Aten Gch Saneren ea oa ae se eee IPDS). are Saco Oe COS OO ORE eee eee ere MenUSAle Meant CHOK ON s sratee sc seine = cise Scucihes/etucjoke othe 6 SUM CC ENS ie hee eisccceeeo plats. ahha Morice s aay EPRICE SME CRS INELTUGINUP) setae leet atas Sib Ss eye feec eres Biches Sep Sys 5 sissies CommNnOn WAHT TRIB DS sisiguls Mon ooeed dolby oocsdd cole MIRO OMURWUEZE Ih Jaa. Shek ade See san Mac PSG SPEC UMMC AMS CANES ES sare is wid scvadinliaiel salen uve eee wie, Ged ove SME VRUARCEM) seitpsyals i araialo gyanle Se ae eRe Oe ao biewle ee Green stalks of Buckwheat,................0cc00:: Wommmamavetehy (SEEM), 5 acct a stohale tletete/ Sites ciayecsls «Ps Une Me eve ue lig (REET) sic c:~ «i cos sah stsmiaeteneiolnlc cs.ctw Bre &) Green stalks of white lupine,....................-- Green stalks of white bean,................0cee0e ROME CHRO HESR (LO CLCLET) ca paves ofsvac!cpu eyesc wsysiere/s) ala! dociay 2) ol RCEHMTMMO GY OTASS Gece s cls tls Sa's see seine be ce ees REC MAUEO TOD POMS. ats cers c.sretiiwis «6s csie bets Sheol wg ae PUP CMOPMEMONTSIN gieuyac ce Me). ois jaye obs c's 0. d¥ee salsa ee HRC UNGIOVETECLECII «tener cies foe hic wstacie alsa e's cheat wy Pe aniberel Omete (CCCI) fels te er cic se ssnidiaite oletet shes wie WETICE REMAIN UN yet opsitv cians) 2 eves notes sieve dieig aie sscisie wieinre oie IWalresvtitl OA es eis iis a eee e se a nle wk ste earner ats LID TNE ODT ANS Pe ORR Se Ret OO ne ge Pa OVER MNGM Me ter i cioretatncrs ewigaiie Mates soe wha ceeds § AMC V IMC M eames ici Paci wes aurea a stdes Se ttre wes Oat meal,....... ae aerate avavsihaenedosieicia ntetals Sisters tele S oats PES ULe ey ln Cartigtn eal suet cetaneds ce aw le mreietarete craks Won revere cis IREAS alte cies d EcS bie OER Se nc IS ea ate nen Eee Se PRGTOMA VENUS clcrevayctcices cueiaisteleieSs nln eS «edie ea ceeiaee» POVAIIGE PRC LEBD SUSY oi s.ay se sna wiaiai'tia d elole = B cpeva, aracsinge eae ILD EL 6S Fe Seca BO GAO TCR TE CEST REE REIS CLE NE AANA CI SO BM MISHPHMISee MY Case) eck 5 EVER uit Wy Golea sets PAIN HICAMMEINSEE Me CAC a eters cag, sisi ecis, G aiaceieuolei sie overs 105 CENTAGE IN ONE HUN- FORMERS IN ONE HUN- DRED POUNDS. FORMERS IN ONE HUN- DRED POUNDS. PERCENTAGE OF FLESH DRED POUNDS. PERCENTAGE OF FAT TOTAL NUTRITIVE PER- NUTRITIVE EQUIVALENTS eS Ci) oer WWWDWOOODNWNOPWPHPWVWWWOW OIC OD CO LES OD SEBO OAD WD TAT ON IW IRHAWWORWWADORDO ees CO HO He 8 CO 2 © a rary — WW W Or C8 oo PREWWWRRPHHOHOWOHOHOHHOH WR BPOOHMOCOCOWOVVIVMNOMOAIWOSOCOSOHBAIOWROSOOHSOHONAE oo ae S WE Od Go OF Rob o1e ww Ow ROP BOG DEBDVIWOHMH SHIH IUIWAIWAWDORIANGHERASODANWWNDWW FID DD DODD AD IIOP CW RWWOR OOO SH O® OF SUPERIOR ENGLISH OF ONE HUNDRED LBS. HAY, 245.3 691.6 607.3 251.5 336.5 803.2 1185.7 067.6 565.9 960.0 1016.3 1106.6 922.2 1212.1 1345.9 524.2 863.4 415.0 100.0 907.1 1185.7 905.4 120.8 84.6 98.2 61.4 64.2 71.0 76.0 72.0 81.5 76.0 (hovers 78.2 77.0 68.0 70.3 A careful examination of this table, prepared from the best English, American and German authorities, and the comparison of the money value of these articles of food, modified as experience may suggest, with their feeding value as here given, would be of immense benefit to farmers, and save them much money, often injudiciously expended.— U. S. Ag. Rep., 1865. STOCK—SELECTION, CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF FOR THE DAIRY. Which is the best breed of cows for the Dairy and how is it to be obtained? This question has been before the dairy public for the last quarter of a century, and to-day is by no means settled among practical dairymen. If you go among the breeders of thorough-bred stock, you will get no end of argument, backed by a formidable pile of statistics, to show that this or that breed is best. It is now Short-horns, then Ayrshires, or Alderneys, or Devons, or Dutch cattle; just as you happen to meet those interested in one or the other of these breeds. Now it may be presumed that none of these men intend to mislead; for they may have strong convictions of the truth of what they advocate, and, under certain conditions, I think it might be proved that either would be right. But that any one of these breeds is best adapted to all soils, all climates, and for all purposes, is quite another matter, and which is not true in fact. The practical questions for dairymen to decide are, first, what breed of cattle is best adapted to the climate, the soil and the surface of the country, or farm where the stock is to be kept, and second, what breed is best adapted to the particular purpose for which it is wanted. It would, it seems to me, be exceedingly poor economy for the butter maker, located on a rough, hilly surface, affording scanty herbage, to select short-horns; because they are not an active race, and demand a plentiful supply of nutritious food, food easy to be obtained. And to the cheese dairyman, located on a level or slightly undulating surface, yielding an abundance of rich food, who desired to get the greatest profit from making cheese and beef, it would be equally bad economy to select the Alderney. And yet if one was to engage in butter dairying alone, where extra quality and high prices were looked after sharply, the Alderney might serve his purpose altogether best. It is from overlooking certain conditions, and hoping to realize every excellence, such as quality and quantity of milk, of butter, of cheese, of beef with activity and endurance all centered in some one breed, that has caused so much dissatisfaction and difference of opinion among dairymen, in regard to particular breeds. PracvicAt DAIRY HUSBANDRY. 107 I have not proposed to discuss the breeding of stock at length, and in its various relations. The subject is a broad one, and a better knowledge of it can be had by taking up some special treatise like the admirable little work, for instance, of Mr. Goopatx, Secretary Maine State Board of Agriculture, or that on American Cattle, by Hon. Lewis F. Atten. But what I have proposed is to to touch briefly upon some leading points of most practical utility to dairymen. Without entering upon the history of the different races of horned cattle, it will be sufficient to state that cattle have been domes- ticated from the earliest ages, and have been so varied by breeding that it would be impossible to say from what species of wild animals they have been derived—whether they had a common ancestry in one wild species, or in several. It is contended by some that the origin of the more marked breeds is due to several wild species, and that these have contributed to make our cows what they are. But however that may be, we know that different breeds have existed from very remote times. BREEDING INSTEAD OF PURCHASING COWS. No one will deny that one essential requisite to success in dairying is to have good cows for the business, and in considering how this is to be obtained, it is evident the surest method would be to rely upon breeding animals upon the farm where they are to be used, rather than to purchase at random from droves, providing a kind, or race of animals can be obtained that will transmit desirable qualities or excellencies from geueration to generation with reason- able certainty. Experience teaches us that we cannot rely upon the common stock of the country, to transmit any desirable quality with that certainty we can obtain from cultivated breeds which have been long bred in reference to special qualities, and have, in consequence, established a fixed type in this regard. I think our dairymen need not look beyond four or five breeds of thorough-bred cattle for obtaining desirable results ; namely, the Short-Horns, the Ayrshires, Devons, Alderneys, and the Dutch or Holstein cattle. There are other breeds more or Jess famous in the districts where they originated; such as the Galloways, the Kerrys, the Herefords, the Bretons, the Swiss and other European varieties. Some of them, at least, when transported from their native districts, have not given such satisfaction on the whole as the breeds I have named. a ACCLIMATED CATTLE. Again it is of some importance to have cattle acclimated. How long it may take a race of cattle reared in a climate different from ours, to become perfectly adapted to the change from one country to another I cannot say, but it evidently requires some time. Hardiness and good constitution are of the utmost importance in milch stock. The drain on vitality from the yield of milk for long periods together, with the annual production of the calf is excessive, and hence the greatest attention should be given to this point. For what would it avail to have cows capable of yielding an enormous 108 PRACTICAL DAIRY HUSBANDRY. product, that were wasting away with consumption, or of so little vitality as not to be able to resist disease or the ordinary inclemencies of our climate? | I have seen such herds and the cost of nursing and keeping them up, with | the annual loss of stock, left no profit in their product. BREEDING FROM HEALTHY ANIMALS. From ascertained physiological laws, says Prof. Verrin1, “it appears that | the ova of the female which are to become the germs of the future young, | begin to develop at a very early period and continue to increase up to the | time of impregnation. It is obvious then that constitutional diseases or | imperfections, will be most likely to affect the ova. Hence only healthy or | vigorous females should be used for breeding purposes, and they should be in | the prime of life—not too young nor too old. It is equally important that the | male should be perfectly healthy and sound, and free from all constitutional and hereditary diseases or imperfections. THE EXCESSIVE USE OF THE MALE for breeding purposes, either by placing him with too many females, or employing him too often, is to be carefully avoided. The production of sper- matozoa is one of the most exhaustive operations of the animal system, and ‘if carried to excess, not only weakens the organs and destroys more or less the vitality of the spermatozoa, but seriously impairs the general health, and espe- cially the nervous system.” I feel it the more incumbent to allude to this point because over a considerable area in New York, and in other dairying districts, ABORTION is excessively common among cows, and has become epidemic, causing immense loss. In New York commissioners have been appointed by the State, and have carried their investigations over the infected districts during a period of three years, but without arriving at any positive conclusion as to the cause of the disease. It doubtless has its origin in several causes, and it is strongly suspected that one of the principal causes of the disease is the employment of inferior males, or those that have been so over-taxed by excess as to weaken the reproductive organs and impair the quality and quantity of spermatozoa. A low vitality too, of the cow from excessive milk- ing and perhaps constitutional imperfections, operating with the other, have doubtless had an influence in developing this disease. “From the manner in which the young becomes united with the mother, so that the liquid portion of the blood may pass freely from one to the other, we may readily under- stand how the health or food of the mother may affect the embryo, or also how the mother’s blood may be affected by the constitutional peculiarities of the embryo; and therefore, since the embryo partakes also of the qualities of the father, how the mother may be so affected indirectly by the peculiarities of the male, that she may transmit those qualities to subsequent young by other males. ‘The tainting of the mother’s blood is produced in this manner. Practica DAIRY HUSBANDRY. 109 Examples of this are common where a mare has first brought forth a mule. Subsequent colts for several years will present more or less the mulish fea- tures. One of the earliest and most striking cases recorded, occurred in 1815, when a pure Arabian mare was served by a quagga, a species of wild ass, striped somewhat like a zebra. The resulting hybrid had the quagga characters well marked. Afterwards, in 1817, 1818, and 1821, she had colts by a pure blooded black Arabian horse, but each of them bore more or less of the peculiar features and markings of the quagga, although she had not seen him after 1816. Cases have been noticed in breeding between horned and hornless breeds of sheep and cattle, where the first calf of a cow of a hornless breed has been by a bull having horns, subsequent calves, although by bulls without horns, and of the same pure blood as the cow, have had long horns. Similar facts have often been noted in regard to dogs. A bitch of pure blood having once had pups by an inferior dog, will not afterward produce pure-blooded pups by a dog of her own breed. From these facts all breeders of choice animals should learn the necessity of allowing females to breed only with pure-blooded or desirable males, even if all the young are not to be reared.” | CROSSING COMMON STOCK WITH THOROUGH-BREDS. As a general rule however, the dairyman must rely upon the common stock of the country on the one hand and the thorough-bred bull on the other, for the SS SSS EE WA mi == SS SS SEE SESS I pA» 7G NATIVE COW. . base of his operations. It is useless to talk about the exclusive introduction of pure thorough-breds to meet the present wants of dairymen. The animals would be altogether too expensive even if it were possible to find them. Again, it may be doubted whether any advantage would be gained in the mere production of milk, over a judicious crossing of common stock with 110 PRAcTICAL DAIRY HUSBANDRY. thorough-breds. The grade animal, as a milker, may prove equal to or even superior to the thorough-bred. It may be better acclimated and, as a rule, is more hardy. Losses are constantly occurring from time to time in every herd, from accident and disease. A portion of the herd must be turned off for this reason and on account of age. The only practical course, therefore, it would seem for the majority of dairymen is, to start with a good herd of native stock, using a thorough-bred bull, and breed up to the qualities desired. In saying this I do not object to the breeding of thorough-bred stock on dairy farms; that may be done, and may be found advisable ; but I would commence at first in a small way, extending the business by degrees, as found profitable. WHAT IS TO BE CONSIDERED IN BREEDING. I have said, the first thing for the dairyman to decide, is the use which he intends to make of his stock, and to what breed his lands are best adapted. To this end he must have some knowledge of the leading characteristics of the several breeds from which his choice is to be made. We may, therefore briefly glance at some of the chief features of the five breeds which have been named. SHORT-HORNS. First, of the short horn or Durham, which has done more, perhaps, to improve our cattle than any other breed, and which is really the most won- $M) i s if if WZ ; yy ue hy B i Lo yy | i 4 Wilf U7: i Wt YH: WL WWM S 3 ii S Ny oe AS Tah oy 4 Gs < es Sd SHORT-HORN BULL. derful exhibition of the skill of the breeder. This large, docile, and rather inactive breed originated on the richest pastures of England. It has been bred especially for beef, and from its breeding was never intended to roam over rough, hilly surfaces, and gain thrift upon the lean feed of thinnish soils. PRACTICAL DAIRY HUSBANDRY. 111 That breeders have accomplished eminent success in this animal is unques- tioned, and in nearly all countries where it has been introduced it has improved the size of cattle, and the quality as well as the quantity of beef. Some strains of this blood have been remarkable for their milking qualities, as we have abundant proof in England, and from early and late importations into this and other countries. Indeed, Mr. ALLEN, in his work on American Cattle, affirms that they are the greatest milkers in quantity of any breed whatever, with the exception of the Dutch, or that they may be compara- tively inferior, as education, keeping, or purpose may govern. We have numerous well authenticated instances, he says, of their giving six, seven, SHORLT-HORN COW. eight, or even nine gallons a day, on grass alone, in the hight of the season, and yielding fourteen to eighteen pounds of butter per week, and of holding out in their milk as well as other breeds of cows through the year. And he remarks further, that if the breeder’s attention be turned solely to the dairy quality, he succeeds in obtaining, with few exceptions, good milkers. But if” he turns his attention, regardless of milk, to the grazing qualities of his stock, he can gradually breed out the tendency to milk. THE SHORT-HORN GRADES. When Short-Horns are crossed on the common stock of the country, where good milking strains have been selected, the grades have often proved of great excellence as milkers. Upon fertile lands, rather level, or slightly undulating, and that furnish a large yield of nutritious grasses, this breed, from its peculiar aptitude to fatten readily, will naturally commend itself to those dairymen who desire to get a profit from their animals in beef, as well as in milk. 112 PractTicAL Dairy HUSBANDRY. DEVONS. The Devons originated in the south-western part of England on other and different pastures. They have another kind of beauty, and have been bred for ancther kind of use; not so large as the Short-Horn, thriving better on thinner soils and poorer forage, making good working oxen, and tolerably good milkers; in fact, more of an animal for all uses than the Short-Horn, but inferior to it for certain special purposes in certain localities. The Devon yields a milk of rich quality, that will yield more butter in proportion to quantity than that of any other breed, except the Alderney. She is in some respects well fitted for a dairy cow, being docile in temper, easy of keep and readily managed. Her udder is of good shape with good teats, the milk aa. Sa il li iil ie )) a mi MW yy by} DHVON BULL. easily drawn, and not unfrequently remarkably good milkers have been found in this breed. We have good authority, says Mr. ALLuN, that some of them have yielded ten to twelve pounds of butter per week, and they have given eighteen, twenty, and twenty-two quarts of milk per day, for months after calving, under steady milking. As a beef animal the Devon has always ranked first class. The flesh is fine, juicy and of delicate flavor. The Devon matures early, and develops rapidly under good feeding. Devon oxen have always been regarded as among the best. DEVONS FOR BUTTER. The butter dairyman on rather thinnish soils, or on rough, hilly pastures, and especially if he looks to the production of beef in connection with butter- dairying, will scarcely pass over the Devon as wholly unworthy his considera- tion. I cannot agree with some authors in their deprecating estimate of this PRACTICAL DAIRY HUSBANDRY. 113 breed. In the southern dairy districts of England, I found them largely used for the dairy, and highly esteemed; and my own experience with Devon grades satisfies me they are much higher in the scale of good milkers than the Herefords, with which they are sometimes classed, for dairy purposes; of course it is important to select stock from good milking families. THE AYRSHIRES, originating on the western side of Scotland, in a moist climate, have been bred specially for milk; and for this use no-one questions their value. They are medium in size, hardy, healthy, pretty well fitted to our climate and pastures; and for the milk farmer and cheese dairyman, where milk or its products alone are the object, considering the size of the animal, the = hi) Hy a See SS =e. DEVON COW. food required for its keep, the great variety of soil and surface of the country to which it is adapted, perhaps no breed can show a better record. YIELDS OF MILK FROM AYRSHIRES. We have European accounts of some most remarkable yields of milk from Ayrshire cows. According to some writers, from six hundred to eight hun- dred gallons of milk per year is not unusual, while in some instances a thousand and more gallons have been produced. We may remark that these high yields have not been generally made by Ayrshires in this country, though the testimony of our dairymen in regard to their superior excellence as milkers is universal. Their only fault is in their short teats, which often renders them difficult to be milked, and in their highly excitable or nervous organization, which requires gentleness and extreme care in their manage- ment. They are not esteemed as a beef-making breed, though breeders claim 114 PracticaAL DAir¥Y HvusBANDRY. that they readily fatten. J have fattened and used the meat of Ayrshire grades, and find them inferior, as beef-makers, to the Short-Horn and Devon. SHORT TEATS. It may be remarked in this connection, that a short teat is a serious defect in a cow. The milk is not only drawn slowly from such cows, but milkers often neglect to milk clean, and in consequence the cow is made to decrease in her yield, and not unfrequently loses the use of one or more teats from obstructions resulting from neglect in drawing the milk. Hundreds of valuable cows in the dairy districts are injured and ruined from this cause. HE Ne aI, 4 LP NO ez WILLA ZZ 4G OPI Y OIE. Y AYRSHIRE BULL. When Ayrshires are crossed on the common stock of the country, or with cows having more or less of Short-Horn blood, the grades are generally good milkers, and the teats are greatly improved. Some of our dairymen insist that a high grade Short-Horn covered with a thorough-bred Ayrshire, gives the best result, and is to be preferred to the thorough-bred Ayrshire for the dairy. ‘ THE ALDERNEY OR JERSEY. The Alderney or Jersey, comes from the group of rough, rocky islands in the channel between England and France. The pastures here are not luxu- riant, the feed is generally rather short, but very nutritious, and in that damp, mild climate, the feed extends through most of the year. The Alderneys are small in size, with deer-like head, thin neck, high shoulders, hollow back, large belly, and a clean, good sized udder. Though by no means a handsome animal, I do not think they are so homely and mean looking as many writers charge against them. PRAcTICAL DAIRY HUSBANDRY. 115 RICHNESS OF ALDERNEY MILK. It is perhaps needless to say that the Jersey cow is famous for the richness of her milk. It has a deep yellow, creamy color, and in England the Somersetshire cheese dairymen nearly always have two or three Alderneys in their herds, to give quality and color to their milk. At Versailles it was shown that milk of this breed yielded six and a-half per cent. of butter, and Sir Witi1Am Coxtines of the Isle of Jersey, carefully observed the quantity of butter from one of his cows; it amounted to three hundred and ninety-four pounds per year. In another case, five cows for five years yielded three hundred and fifty-three pounds per year each. Many similar statements might be given. ALDERNEYS AS BUTTER COWS. As a butter cow, the Alderney undoubtedly has great merits; and where ? rich milk and a fine quality of butter is sought after, for fancy prices, the 5 y it ‘ey Yi =: & “= =e iy = ZEEE ah Ih iY ii ah ti a ZED LE Fig. 1. considered first-rate as milkers, if in the absence of a well developed escut- cheon, they possess the following marks:—Veins of the perineum, varicose and visible externally, or at least easily made so by compression at the base of the perineum; veins of the udder large and knotty; milk veins frequently double, and equal on both sides of the animal, and forming zigzag or wavy lines within the belly. In addition to the marks shown by the veins and by the escutcheon, the udder should be large and yielding, of homogeneous. texture, having a thin skin covered with fine hair, and yielding or shrinking much under the process of milking. The chest should be ample, and a good constitution displayed by regular appetite, and a disposition to drink much ; the skin soft and supple; hair short and soft; head small; horns fine and smooth ; eye quick, but gentle; fine neck and feminine air. GOOD COWS are those that present the mammary portions of the escutcheon well devel- oped; but the perineum portion is either wanting or but partially developed. (Figs. 3, 4). If the escutcheon is ever so well developed, the cows are middling or bad, and do not belong to the first or second class, if the veins 124 PRACTICAL DAIRY HUSBANDRY. of the udder are not in considerable numbers, and the milk veins under the belly are not large. MEDIOCRE COWS possess the lower tuft of the escutcheon of the mammary part, little devel- oped or indented, and the perineum portion irregular, narrow and contracted. Hl a a Nat Ni Vi Vhs Ny ! a Wy hit My Wh Til Y ANN IN 1. af h HN ae ALN Hi Ms WAH i \ | il WRT ‘i a ) LWA (Figs. 5,6). The perineum veins are not visible, and the veins of the belly are small and straight. The head is large, skin stiff and thick, and the animal is often peevish and restless. ; BAD COWS — possess escutcheons of very small extent (as shown in Figs. 7, 8); no veins are visible in the udder or the perineum, and the milk veins are feebly developed. The cows of this class are generally in good condition, and. showy, taking animals, the thighs are fleshy, the skin hard and thick, neck thick, head and horns large, and the latter of large dimensions at the base.” I have perhaps quoted sufficient to show the general outlines of M. Gux- Non’s theory, without going into an elaborate essay on the subject, which would need a large number of cuts to be clearly explained. But desirable as it may be for the dairyman to have a good strain of milking stock, his success will not depend altogether upon blood and skill in breeding. THE FEEDING AND MANAGEMENT of his herd is an art which he will find is not to be learned in all its details ina day. Some dairymen never can, or at least never do, learn it. During PractTicaAL DAIRY HUSBANDRY. 125 the past ten years my business has called me very much among dairymen, where almost every variety of management is adopted. I have seen men with ‘ scrub-herds,” picked up here and there from the common stock of the country, obtaining an enormous product. I know men who get from common stock an annual yield of between six hundred and seven hundred pounds of cheese to the cow, while perhaps a neighbor with much superior blooded stock is unable to obtain anything like that product. How is this effected ? In the first place these men have a natural talent for selecting good cows, and in the second place, they seem to be in perfect sympathy with the animals under their control, attending to every detail for their comfort, providing wholesome, nutritious food, pure water and pure air—everything of this kind in abundance—keeping the animals properly sheltered from storms; feeding always with great regularity ; paying the most marked attention to the time and manner of milking, and withal preserving a uniform kindness and gentle- ’ Fig. 7. Fig. 8. ness of treatment throughout every operation, a gentleness extending even to the tone of the voice. It is really astonishing what a large difference in the yield of milk it makes by attending properly to a number of small things, which would seem to many quite too insignificant to be worth observing. Indeed, had I not seen these effects in numerous instances and in my own experience, I could never have believed that their influence was so potent. DRYING COWS OF THEIR MILK. It would be impossible, in the scope of the present volume, to discuss all the essential points of management for dairy stock. I can allude only to some 126 PRACTICAL DAIRY HUSBANDRY. of the leading requisites for success. I commence first with drying cows of their milk at the end of the milking season. There is great difference in opinion among farmers as to the time that a cow should go dry. Some contend that no injury follows from milking cows so long as they will yield milk, or up to within a week or two of the time at which they are to calve; while others insist that at least from two to three months should be given a cow to go dry. The latter is doubtless the more sensible and judicious course to be adopted. A cow that is to “come in” during the early part of March, should be allowed to go dry in December. She will then have time to recu- perate and repair that waste which has been going on in the production of milk, and in building up the structure of th: young which she carries. It is a great drain on the system to continue the milking of a cow in winter, and up to near the time of giving birth to her calf; and it is to be doubted whether an animal treated in this way will yield any more, if as much profit, as she would were the other course adopted. For it is not altogether the quantity of milk that is to be looked after, but its quality must also be taken into account. Cows that are overtaxed and weak, yield milk of poorer quality than when in vigorous health. And as to the question of health, endurance and long life, all experience must show that the animals wear out sooner, are more liable to disease and mishaps, under the “ excessive milking system,” than when allowed a reasonable time for rest. FALL AND WINTER FOOD FOR COWS. But what makes the matter worse is, that many dairymen provide no feed beyond hay to animals yielding milk during the winter. They are often exposed to biting storms of rain, and sleet and piercing winds, all of which operate in reducing the tone of health, and in undermining the constitution. Hence we not unfrequently see cows wasting away with consumption, and meeting with little accidents that prove fatal, because the cows have not the vigor to resist them. Some cows, it is true, are inclined to give milk the year round, and are difficult to be dried off. Such animals require some- thing more than hay; and an additional feed of ground grain (oat and corn- meal mixed), should be commenced to be given in the fall, or at least as soon as grass begins to depreciate in its nutritive quality. “Frozen grass and moonshine,” even though furnished in great abundance, are not the kind of food on which deep milkers thrive and are invigorated. Cows, whether in milk or dry, ought not to be allowed to fall off in flesh late in fall, or at the commencement of winter. Thin cows are sensitive to cold, and require more food for their winter keep than they do when commencing the season with a good coat of flesh. It is always less expensive to get stock in - condition during warm weather, or before winter sets in; and it is therefore very poor economy to allow deep milkers to run down thin late in fall, as it often entails a good deal of careful nursing all the winter through, in order to bring the animals safely over to grass. PrRAcTICAL DAIRY HUSBANDRY. 127 DRAWING ALL THE MILK FROM THE UDDER. In drying cows of their milk, attention should be given that all the milk be drawn from the udder at any one milking. Some are in the habit of only partially drawing tne milk trom time to time, when drying otf cows. It is not a good practice, as the milk left in the udder becomes thick and putrid, causing irritation and inflammation, and not unfrequently results in the loss of a teat, or a portion of the bag, the next season. When cows are being dried off, they should be examined every few days, and their udders completely emptied of all accumulated milk; and with cows supposed to be dry, their teats should be tried at least once a week, all winter, to see if there be any accumulation of milk. I have had serious losses from trusting to hired help in this matter, and taking for granted that it had been properly attended to. There is no safety unless the work is done under your own eye, or an exami- nation made with your own hand. And it may be remarked that in the management of dairy stock, nothing pays better than a frequent oversight of the creatures by the master’s eye. Hands, however trusty, sometimes get careless and indifferent in their care of stock, which can only be corrected by constant oversight on the part of the proprietor. SHELTER. The importance of keeping stock well housed from storms during inclement weather is often under-estimated by dairy farmers. Much more food is required for stock exposed to cold, bleak winds and storms of sleet and snow, than when properly sheltered. A certain amount of food is needed to keep up animal heat, and it is much cheaper to supply this warmth in properly constructed stables than to use extra fuel in the shape of hay and grain, to keep up heat in the open yard. It has been estimated that an animal wintered in the open yard, without any other shelter than that afforded by fences and the sides of buildings, will consume a third more food than if properly housed. And even with the additional food, the animal does not come out so well in spring as the sheltered animal on less food. The principle is abund- antly established, and ought to be recognized by every one who has had the eare of stock; and yet, strange as it may seem, a large proportion of the herds are left shivering in the cold from morning till night, under the impres- sion, it would seem, that the stable can only be used economically during night, or as a place in which to give food. Some insist that this exposure is promotive of health, that it imparts vigor and tone to the system, and that attention in housing from cold and storms during the day is a species of pampering, highly injurious to the constitution and well-being of the animal. Unfortunately for those who hold these opinions, the record of .losses, of accidents, of diseases incident to milch stock, are against the theory, and in favor of those who are careful to shelter their stock from undue exposure. A CERTAIN AMOUNT OF EXERCISE, of sun and air, together with freedom from restraint, is without doubt condu- cive to health, but the conditions must be favorable or such as the stock enjoy. 128 PracTicAL DAIRY HUSBANDRY. An animal may be trained to endure cold, exposure and fatigue, and under certain conditions, health may be maintained. But you cannot impose, at the same time, the duties of maternity and the yielding of large quantities of milk, because the waste of the system from these sources is so great as to leave only a small amount of vitality to be employed in another direction. This is particularly the case with milch cows, which, under a system of domestication and breeding, have been educated into a “ milky habit.” Left to themselves under the most favorable circumstances, in warm weather, they like but little exercise compared with other classes of animals; and when required to exercise much, always fall off in milk. Warmth, comfort and quietness are particularly essential to these animals, and any system of man- agement opposed to these conditions, must in a measure, fail to be profit- able to the dairyman. DISEASES FOLLOW EXPOSURE. Cows that are in milk, or that have been milked late, are peculiarly sensitive to cold, and they are frequently injured. by being exposed to storms. By getting wet, and becoming chilled, pulmonary complaints and other diseases are induced, and thus the farmer has a sick animal on his hands which is a source of trouble and anxiety, and not unfrequently a total loss. Many of the troubles that come upon cows at the period of calving, may be traced directly to exposure during the winter ; and therefore on this account alone will it pay the farmer to shelter his stock on the approach of storms, either of wind, or snow, or rain. During those days in winter that are sunny and warm, there may be no objection to allowing stock to run at large in the yard a greater portion of the day ; but in extreme cold weather three-quarters of an hour in the morning and the same length of time in the afternoon, to slake their thirst at the trough, will give them all the exercise needed. The remaining portion of the time they will be better in a warm, well-ventilated stable, where they can quietly ruminate, without fear of being hooked and driven about by master cows. Any one who may have closely pbkocied the alate of milch cows kept out in the yard during extreme cold weather, it would seem, could not well come to a different conclusion. The animals often stand about the buildings, pinched up and shivering, the cold exciting to bad temper which they vent upon the underlings, severely punishing them without cause, and many times to the serious loss of the owner. At such times open the door of your stable, and give them choice of entrance, or to remain without; and if they do not seek warm quarters they differ from any of the herds with which I am. acquainted. THE LOSSES FROM NEGLECT of, and inattention to stock during winter, are so large, that the subject cannot be too urgently pressed upon the attention of dairymen. If farmers will only take a common-sense view of the question, and seriously count the cost of the neglect to which I have referred, I am convinced they will PRACTICAL DAIRY HUSBANDRY. 129 agree with me, that an important saving may be made by the proper sheltering of stock during the rigors of winter. CARDING COWS.—SCRATCHING POLES. The practice of carding cows is of great importance in promoting health, and increasing the profits of the dairy. It not only improves the health of _ stock, but leads to habits of neatness and cleanliness about the stables, that have an important influence in securing good, clean milk, during the spring months. I would furnish cattle with scratching posts in the yard, and place a pole firmly on posts with one end higher than the other, to accommodate animals of different sizes, that they may pass under and scrateh themselves as desired. When these are erected, they will soon be found polished from frequent use. THE STOMACHS OF RUMINANTS— PREPARING FOOD FOR ASSIMILATION. Before discussing questions in regard to feeding stock, it will be well, perhaps, to allude briefly to the manner in which ruminants prepare their food for assimilation. We quote from Dr. J. V. Smiru:—“‘ The cow requires large quantities of food; it remains in her stomach a long time, but the relative amount of nutrition needed is small. A carnivorous animal has only one stomach, and requires food more condensed and nutritious. Generally animals that chew the cud have four stomachs, to fill which requires a great bulk of food, and they must be filled or they will collapse, and the opposite walls will meet and destroy each other by their involuntary action. Hence, when the food of such animals is too concentrated, health rapidly declines. The slops of distillers do not sufficiently distend the stomach, and the milk secreted from such diluted food, lacking the elements of nutrition, is doubt- less the cause in cities of many diseases of children that partake of it. The first stomach or paunch, may be called the receiving organ; it is very capacious, and is divided into four compartments. The animal takes its food at first with very imperfect mastication, storing it away in the rumen or paunch, and at its leisure, converts the food into nutriment. It makes balls of its food, by chewing it, then, one after another, lets them down into the paunch till this organ may be compared to a basket filled with eggs. The food becomes moistened, and is perpetually revolving through the different — compartments of the rumen, and undergoing important preparation for future digestion. The muscular coats of the rumen consist of two layers, running in different directions, and these muscles are the mechanical agents by which the food is kept in motion, and by running in these different directions they are enabled to act upon all the differently-formed cells of this enormous viscus. The animal when at rest, or on lying down, commences the process of using the food. These animals like company, for they are social. A cow generally will not give as much milk when solitary, as when associated with her kind. Digestion now commences with a reversed action. One of the balls comes back into the mouth, where it is chewed over and made into a 9 130 PrRAcTICAL DArirY HUSBANDRY. smaller ball, when it is discharged into a second stomach by another passage, the entrance to which is under the animal’s control. There a fluid is secreted, and mixed with the food so received, and becomes of a yellow color. Here the animal has no further control of the food. ‘Thence the food drops into the third stomach, which is smaller, and here the food, if not completely broken down, is ground into pulp and mixed with a white fluid, when it drops into the fourth stomach in a yellow, creamy stream. In this stomach it becomes arranged in layers, and by the secretion of another and peculiar fluid, is changed into chyme. This form it must of necessity assume before its nutri- tive matter can be separated. The solution being complete, or so much so as it can be rendered, the food passes through the lower orifice of the stomach into the duodenum or first intestine, where its separation into the nutritive or innutritive portions is effected, and the former begins to be taken up by the lacteals, and carried into the system.” IN SUCKING CALVES this fourth stomach is the one that is active, and it is the one which is used for rennet in coagulating milk for cheese making. In the earlier ages of the world, when habits were simple and wants were few, the only cheese used was obtained from this stomach of the animal. But afterward it was found that the material of the stomach itself would curdle milk, and hence came the manufacture of cheese. Thus we see the food of these animals must go through the various wonderful processes described before it is fitted to furnish nutriment. BALLS OF HAIR are sometimes found in the first stomach, from one inch to four inches in diameter. In the spring cattle curry each other, to allay itching, by licking, and in so doing they cannot get the hairs off their tongues, and are forced to swallow them, when they naturally take the shape of a ball. The animal tries to expel it, but the structure of the tongue prevents, when it is swallowed again, and is kept going to and fro up and down many times. Of course such a foreign substance will often produce disease, which is likely to. have many names and for which medicines totally inefficacious are prescribed. It is obvious that, at the season named, it is very important in the treatment of cattle to curry them with the curry comb, to prevent the formation of these hair-balls. COWS IN CLOSE CONFINEMENT. In the winter management of dairy stock it has been urged by some that the animals winter best when kept confined to the stable most of the time. Some dairymen scarcely allow the cows to leave the stable during the whole winter. Each cow has a water box before her which is supplied with fresh running water as desired. I have examined herds and taken the testimony of the advocates of this system, and although cows kept in a well-lighted, well-ventilated and cleanly stable, daily curried and bedded with straw PracticaAL DAIRY HUSBANDRY. 131 appear healthy, still I cannot approve of the system. Such cows may for the time give more milk and lay on more flesh, but at the expense of health and vitality. Health and physical development are indispensable. Locomotion is not only natural but necessary. There is not a respectable medical authority in the country that dare recommend the dispensing with daily exercise in the air for man and beast where health and physical develop- ment are sought after. Weakness and incapacity are induced by confinement. We must not sacrifice indispensable ends to temporary profit and conveni- ence. Temporary profit is often the wanton violation of physiological law. Provide warm sheds, and well ventilated stables, with bedding ; feed well and groom well, but allow stock an opportunity for free exercise, at least an hour or two each day, whenever the weather permits. HOW COWS SHOULD GO INTO WINTER QUARTERS. Now we have said that one essential point in the wintering of dairy stock is to have the animals in good, thrifty condition, when they go into the stable at the commencement of winter. Deep milkers are apt to milk down thin in fall, and when there is a disposition to lose flesh in this way, it is always well to commence feeding ground grain, oat-meal, bran and ship-stuffs; since it is much easier and less expensive to put on flesh in the fall, when the weather is comparatively warm, than in winter. If the animals go into the stables in good condition, and are properly dried of their milk, they will continue to gain through the winter, on good hay alone. But if they get a daily ration of roots—either carrots, turnips, or mangolds—with a little straw to pick at from time to time as a change, they will come out in spring in good, healthy, serviceable condition. They must be fed and watered with regularity, and I prefer that the feeding be three times a day—morning, noon and night. In Herkimer Co., where we have been engaged in dairying for seventy years, a great many experiments or different methods of management have been tried, but our best dairymen say that when cows are wintered on early cut hay, with an allowance of roots of some kind, and treated in the way I have indicated, the cows almost invariably do well after calving, with no trouble from retention of after-birth or from garget. EARLY AND LATE CUT GRASS— RELATIVE VALUE FOR MILCH COWS. The opinions of dairymen in regard to the nutritive value of grass cut for hay at different stages of maturity have changed materially during the last few years. Grass now, in the best dairy districts of New York, is cut much earlier than it used to be; and it is found by experience that cattle thrive in winter upon early cut grass properly cured, and come out in spring in a much better condition as to flesh and health, than when fed upon grass cut when over-ripe. When grass is left to stand till over-ripe there is a large amount of woody fiber, which the animal cannot assimilate. Hence, in order to get sufficient nutriment, a large bulk has to be consumed. It has been proved by experiments made by our best Herkimer county farmers, with a 132 PRAcTICAL DAatry HusSBANDRY. view to determine the relative value of early cut grass, that the early cut grass in feeding will give as good results when given without any additional food as the late cut grass with a moderate daily ration of meal. Some farmers, therefore, prefer to cut a portion of their grass early in June, before it comes fairly into flower, curing it without allowing it to get wet, and storing it where it can be used specially for spring feeding. In this way some avoid feeding grain in spring, when cows begin to come in milk. I have made frequent examinations of herds carried through to grass without a particle of grain, or indeed any other food except the early cut grass, nicely cured, and the animals on turning to grass were in good, fair condition. I do not approve, however, of wintering milch cows on one kind of food, believing they should have variety, such as roots, straw and coarse fodder, in addition to a full supply of the best hay; and then, when cows begin to come in milk, before turning to grass, a little ground meal, bran or ship-stuffs should be given daily. I mention these facts in reference to early cut grass in order to show that it is much more nutritious than many farmers suppose. STOCK SHOULD BE WINTERED WELL. To have stock make a good yield of milk during the season, it is important that the animals be wintered well, and not allowed at any time to get poor in flesh, or weak. The cow that comes through the winter weak and debili- tated, and reduced in flesh, will require the larger part of the summer to recuperate. She will yield not only a small quantity of milk during the time she is recuperating, but it will be poor in quality, and hence such an animal can render but meager profits even on the cheapest kind of land; for her care, and the labor of milking, &c., will nearly if not quite eat up in cost the value of her product. THE VARIATION IN THE QUALITY OF MILK, on account of poor keep, thinness of flesh, and a debilitated condition of the animal, has been very abundantly set forth by the chemists, in their analyses of milk from such animals. In such cases the butter has been found to fall off from five per cent. to less than two per cent., with a considerable reduction also in the casein. The influence of poor keep on the quality of milk, is a question not very well understood or appreciated by the majority of farmers. The man who keeps his herd poorly, and delivers his milk at the factory with those whose herds are well fed and cared for, ought in justice to make a proper allowance for an inferior quality of milk. To come in on an equality with his neighbor’s good milk, is in fact to take from his neighbor a certain amount of property without accounting for it. There is no practical method as yet, at the factories, for regulating this abuse, except by excluding such milk from the factory. But there is another question of considerable importance in connection with cutting grass early. The meadows are more enduring and yield better returns year after year. In New York we find PractTicAL DAIRY HUSBANDRY. 133 ONE GREAT CAUSE OF MEADOWS RUNNING OUT, is allowing the grass to stand until ripe or over-ripe, before cutting. When meadows are thinly seeded, and it is not desirable to break them up, the turf will be greatly improved by cutting the grass early, just as it comes in flower. It is very poor economy to let the grass stand until over-ripe to shed seed, hoping to re-seed in this manner and get a good turf. A much better way will be to cut the grass early, and then as the fall rains approach go over the ground, scattering seed wherever it is needed; but when the earth freezes deeply, and the roots of the grass are liable to be destroyed by frost, this operation of seeding can be done early in spring. One great trouble in GETTING A GOOD TURF UPON MEADOWS, results from using too little seed and too few varieties. When timothy alone is to be raised, a half bushel of seed to the acre is none too small a quantity to be used. A very successful farmer in Herkimer, who grows large crops of timothy, adopts the following system:—If old land (or land upon which a hoed crop has been grown), it is plowed in the fall. Then in the spring a coat of manure is spread on the surface and worked in with the cultivator, and the grass seed sown with some spring grain. VALUE OF EARLY.CUT GRASS. In regard to the value of early cut grass for dairy stock, the experiments, not only in my own dairy but numerous well authenticated statements from others, leave not the slightest doubt. The most remarkable result, however, on record, was that obtained in the feeding of the Vermont cow. Taking into consideration that the animal received no grain, and was fed nothing but grass and hay, her record is worthy of a place beside the celebrated Oakes cow. The Oakes cow, it will be remembered, produced four hundred and eighty pounds of butter besides suckling her calf for five weeks, and all between the fifth of April and the twenty-fifth of September. She received, however, in addition to her full allowance of grass, a bushel of corn-meal per week, and all her own milk skimmed. The Vermont cow, upon grass and hay alone, produced during the year 1865, five hundred and four pounds of butter, and the following is her record, given by her owner, Mr. A. Scorr of Crafts- bury, Vermont: Dec. 20th, 1864, to Apr. 20th, 1865, 200 Ibs. @ 60 peas pee Thea eR $120.00 PAT ics Bar RAN atts Sastre. SOM S x Bs BOs 145s Hui 1a Bicnatehireleis hoitey Epes 54.00 Ue cu Sephari 6M. AO Tbs. @ 40 0 re AU EOE SE Sa Oe EON 16.00 Bept. “ eC tes sie hn, ae LDS: O0 by ne lal aes crea Ces oy cca ta 17.00 Olin NOV, 80 Ibs. @ 90.) * SP uptaresePe oman taale sar bio 16.50 INGven ae er eee © SS NEN SET SO Ibs: '@'bo" Oo Lnbn Ando hall eaten um am 11.00 Total for the year, - 504 lbs. $234.50 This cow is described by her owner as of good size, and of native breed, and when purchased, four years before, was considered a very ordinary cow. 134 PracticAL DAIRY HUSBANDRY. The Oakes cow was also of native breed. In the Transactions of the New York State Agricultural Society, we find a notice of several cows remarkable for their large yield of butter during a short period, but it is not stated upon what feed the animals were kept. Thus we have the Nourse cow of Danvers, that produced fourteen pounds of butter per week for sixteen weeks; the Sanderson cow of Waltham, fourteen pounds weekly for the same length of time ; the Hazelton cow of Haverhill, the Bosset cow of Northampton, and Buxton of Danvers, the first two yielding fourteen pounds, and the last sixteen pounds weekly for twelve weeks. Gro. Kerr, of Ontario Co., N. Y., reports nineteen pounds of butter from a native cow in one week, and sixteen pounds weekly for the two succeeding weeks. T. Comstock of Oneida Co., from a three-fourths native and one-fourth Durham cow, seventeen pounds five ounces in one week, and C. D. Mitier of Madison Co., twenty and one-half pounds in one week; and from the same source we learn that G. A. Mann of Onondaga Co., made sixty-seven and a-half pounds of butter from the milk of one cow, in thirty days. The Vermont Cow came in milk on the 15th of December, and on the 25th Mr. Scorr commenced setting the milk. The first nine days she made twenty-three pounds of butter, and in twenty-six days she had filled a tub of fifty-two pounds. In the detailed statement which Mr. 8. gives in reference to the feed and management of this cow, we find considerable difference from the usual practice, and indeed from the commonly received opinion of farmers on this question. He believes as much butter can be made in the barn by having the cow come in in winter and fed upon hay, as in the summer upon grass, and the remarkable results obtained seem to prove it. He does not believe in feeding meal to cows, and has not fed any for the last five years. He remarks :—“If I had a cow as good as one I spoiled with meal a few years ago, I think, with my present treatment, she would make three pounds of butter a day, instead of two and a-half as the cow alluded to above has done.” MR. SCOTT’S MANAGEMENT OF COWS. The management of his stock is as follows: The cows arefed on hay three times a day, no more or less; are watered morning and evening, and then put back into the stall, and kept there night and day during the winter. The amount of hay fed to this cow did not vary a pound from twenty-five pounds a day; smaller cows take about twenty pounds. The hay that cattle eat, he says, does them little good until they raise it up and chew it over in the cud ; then it goes to form milk or flesh, as the case may be. If the animals have a comfortable place to lie down in they commence chewing it over as soon as they get their meals eaten, and when twelve o’clock comes they are ready for their meal again, and so on until evening. There should always be regularity in feeding and watering. He describes his barn as double-boarded, outside and in, with double windows, and so ventilated that the temperature may be controlled at pleasure, PRACTICAL DAIRY HUSBANDRY. 135 even in the coldest weather. It is thrown open all round or shut up, just as the weather happens to be, and is kept above freezing point. But another important point, from which the highest results named have been reached, is in securing the hay in such a manner that a large percentage of the nutritive matter is retained. Haying is begun about the 8th of June, and finished, if possible, by the 25th. Another crop is cut the last of August, and in some places a third crop in September; and he well remarks that instead of com- mencing haying about the 4th of July and finishing in August and September, as has been the practice from time immemorial, all the grass ought to be cut and in the barn by July. Here then, after all, is a part of the secret of Mr. Scort’s success. It is in making the hay so that it shall be equal in nutritive value, or nearly so, to the fresh grass of pastures. There can scarcely be a doubt but that immense losses are sustained by our best farmers in this matter of harvesting the hay crop. We do not commence harvesting early enough, but wait until much of the nutritive value of the grass has been wasted and used to form woody fiber, under the impression that we are getting more bulk and therefore more available food. Some years ago Mr. Lewis of Herkimer, abandoned the use of meal and grain in spring, believing better results were obtained from early cut grass properly cured. I went out to Mr. Lewis’s farm in spring, and made a personal examination of his herd, for the purpose of seeing how far flesh and condition could be maintained in the way suggested, and I found the animals as thrifty as had been represented. The experiment of Mr. Scorr is valuable in this: it demonstrates the relative value of early cut and late cut grasses, for no one can doubt the fact that his hay must have contained a more than ordinary amount of nutrition to produce the result—a result, we venture to say, which could not be realized from late cutting. Most farmers are aware that hay as usually cut and stored is insufficient to keep milch cows in a full flow of milk for any considerable length of time. When no additional food is given they fall off rapidly in flesh, and the milk depreciates in quantity and quality, even if the cow has all the hay she can consume. INJURY FROM FEEDING CONCENTRATED FOOD. There is another question raised by the experiment of Mr. Scort, and that is, to what extent milch cows are injured by feeding concentrated food? He - asserts that he spoiled a cow by feeding meal. Of course cows are liable to be injured by over-feeding ; but we are not prepared to admit that a judicious use of meal will injure a cow for milk. The feeding of meal may be, and doubtless is, more expensive than grass cut and prepared as he suggests ; and admitting that such hay makes the most milk, it does not prove that meal fed judiciously will spoil the animal, without it be from over-feeding. Cows doubtless are injured and their lives shortened by excessive feeding of meal and grains, but if hay is poor or cut after half of its nutritive elements have passed away, the waste must be made up in some way in feeding, or the animal runs down, and when turned to pasture, is a long while recuperating. 136 PRACTICAL DAIRY HUSBANDRY. CUTTING AND COOKING THE FOOD. But where considerable quantities of straw and coarse fodder are raised on the farm, it may be of advantage to utilize it by cutting and cooking. In the English dairies, as I have observed, stock is mostly wintered upon cut straw, pulped turnips, and oil cake. The food is not generally cooked. In using cooked straw, a certain proportion of meal, bran, or ship stuffs is added to make up a nutritive equivalent equal to good meadow hay, and the experi- menters pretty generally agree that the gain by cutting and cooking is about one-third ; that is, that the expense of food is one-third less than when hay alone is used in the usual way. I have referred to this system in the account I gave of the TruEspALE barn. A few years ago Hon. Wm. I. SkiInnER of Little Falls, N. Y., set up machinery and experimented during one winter, to satisfy himself in regard to the system. He divided his stock, feeding forty-four head upon straw and shippings, and twenty-six head upon hay. The forty-four head were consuming four hundred and forty pounds of oat straw and three hundred and fifty-two pounds of shippings per day, and two men were employed to cut and steam the food and take care of the stock. ‘The whole expense was as follows: AZ bs. Straw, @ BLO, Per COM. ye iees apciccins or arg siohaye Srer's wi wiaieley ote el eysteielssekers oteheuel aan $2 20 aoe lbs. shippings, @ 244c., mragket PrCe wn «sie. dees ole «,a/ere ofa m2 oteia 5) final ee 7 92 CUM Vb OG SNTNIMIMS DET AY CACM 21a opel cps oleieiniel ale sister sucleneetereietehacvaiell eee 2 25 Wood used™ for Cooking Per Gay... 2 ain secs coe tc ee oc eee e ves el eleie ¥ieveielelaiele/a)s Mane ene 39 $12 76 or twenty-nine cents for each head per day. Each cow received ten pounds straw and eight pounds shipping per day. The twenty-six cows consumed six hundred and fifty pounds of hay per day, and the expense for this lot was as follows : GoOMS MHAY AO pao PEE LOW. cf Ee ance mre sale oe coletecene tee alata eye) atc] aie ee $8 1216 Kaboridman, 9'shillings: per'day. Soe). ee THAR ACS MH AAP SALA ch lis | 1 121g $9 25 or thirty-five cents per day for each cow, showing a balance in favor of straw and shippings of six cents per day for each head. Cut straw averages about five pounds to the bushel, and cut hay eight pounds. The eight pounds of shippings make a little over ten quarts. J examined this stock several times during the winter, and to all appearance those fed on the cooked food were plump and doing better than the lot on hay. The several descriptions of feed used are put at the market price that winter. MR. E. W. STEWART’S EXPERIMENTS. Mr. E. W. Stewarr of Erie Co., N. Y., who has experimented largely in cooking food for cattle, says :—“ Steaming renders moldy hay, straw and corn-stalks sweet and palatable, thus restoring their value; renders peas and PRaAcTICAL DAIRY HUSBANDRY. E37 beans agreeable food for horses as well as other stock, and thus enables the feeder to combine more nitrogenous food in the diet of his animals. Half hay and half straw, mixed and steamed, more than equals hay unsteamed. When cows are kept in milk through the winter, cooking their food will greatly increase the yield of milk.” He estimates the saving in food for each cow inmilk at $8.00 for the season. Again he says, that a mixture of oil and pea meal and bran makes an excellent food to produce milk, and keep up the condition of the cow; one and a-half pounds of oil and pea meal and three pounds of bran mixed with ten pounds of hay steamed per day for each cow weighing eight hundred pounds, will generally be sufficient. This, he says, has been determined by his experiments, long and faithfully tried. And, he adds, this may be thought a small quantity from which a cow of that size, at her best season, could produce four gallons of milk and keep up her condition ; but it must be remembered that four gallons of milk contain only about four pounds dry matter, which will leave a supply for the thrift of the cow. And when this sixteen pounds of hay, oil, and pea meal and bran, are thoroughly cooked together the nutriment is all extracted by the animal. In experi- menting to determine what amount of bran or meal upon straw would make it equal to hay, he found two quarts bran and one quart corn meal on one bushel of oat, wheat or barley straw rendered it equal to the best of hay. When considerable quantities of coarse fodder are raised on the farm, doubt- less cutting and steaming could be practiced with considerable advantage, but it is a question whether it will pay to introduce machinery for cooking early cut hay, and the general impression of our dairymen is, that for this kind of food, considering the extra labor and expense in cooking, there would be no advantage. COWS CALVING. The practice is now quite common in New York to allow cows to drop their calves while confined in the stanchion. The practice isnot to be recom- mended. It is better as this critical time approaches, to separate the cow from the herd, placing her in a roomy stable, where she may have perfect freedom, and where she may be at liberty to perform the necessary office of cleansing the young calf and giving it suck. In most cases parturition will be natural and easy, and, as Mr. Fiint remarks, “the less a cow is disturbed - or meddled with the better.” Soon after calving a bran mash, made with tepid water, should be given to the cow, which operates favorably on the expulsion of the afterbirth. SPRING AND SUMMER FEED FOR MILCH COWS. There is a great difference of opinion among dairymen in reference to the kinds of grain best adapted to milch cows in spring. Dairymen generally suit their own convenience in this matter, without much regard to the opinion of others. If they have raised and have on hand asurplus of corn, or barley, or oats, they are very apt to feed one or the other as best suits their conven- ience at the time; and if grain is to be purchased, the matter of prices has 138 Practica DAtryY HUSBANDRY. more of a controlling influence than what is best adapted to the animal economy. So widely do people differ on this question that many prefer to feed in spring nothing but hay, if of good quality, claiming that the cows will be healthier when turned to grass, and that the net profits from the dairy will be greater than where grain is used in spring feeding. In other words, that the value of the grain fed in spring more than balances receipts from the extra quantity of cream and butter produced; and hence grain feeding in spring must be very poor economy. Another class of dairymen, who claim to have looked pretty closely to the profits to be realized from milch cows, and to have compared results one year with another, say that nothing is gained by having cows “ come in milk” as early as February or March. ‘They prefer the months of April and May, as not only more agreeable, but actually resulting in greater profits. They argue that cows “coming in milk” early in the season, are more exposed to cold and storms which must injure the health and weaken the constitution of the animal; that it sooner wears out the cow, and yields no more net profit than when a later date is had for commencing the business of dairying. Why, they say, should one do extra work in milking and nursing stock through the bad weather of February and March, when the result from stock calving thus early, not only is no pecuniary gain, but brings positive injury to the herd? Others insist that greater profits are realized when cheese and butter making is commenced early in the season. But if we assume that cows are to come in milk as early as March, then some kind of food other than hay —at least hay as usually harvested—seems to be imperatively demanded, in order to keep stock in decent condition as to health and strength, until it comes to grass. THE SECRETION OF MILK A HABIT. Now, the secretion of milk is in some respects a matter of habit or educa- tion, and should be promoted and kept up from its first flow. This cannot be accomplished on late cut hay alone, since the cow cannot be induced to consume the quantity necessary for her maintenance and a full yield of milk of good quality. This will be made evident by comparing the constituents of milk and those of ordinary meadow hay. Suppose the cow is yielding but eight quarts or twenty pounds of milk perday. This will contain a little over two and a-half pounds of dry material, as follows: Tbs, OF Casein. ee eee oc cle cele bic eo eben cles ee cee oc nee sieisanlale leis elulelele|wuele\s ©lelels winie 1.000 Ofiutterseys wes | cesses cigs FP Ee Mee ON en eon AMY erg in Cis COME OD O.F0% ¢ 0.625 Ossetia’. eilcisierei eis 2 een een a on ORT ANEMIA Me mineh Gelato c 0 0.875 Of phosphate of lime. ........ 6... ee cee ee ce eee eee eee eee ee en ee eee este nes 0.045 Other mineral ingredients. ............ 0 cece eee eee eee eee e ee tee eee enn ees 0.055 if Wak c'mon SLA) SOE eos vate 2.600 Twenty pounds of ordinary hay contain of albuminous matter, fibrine and casein, &c., say about 1.85; oil, butter, d&c., say 5.36. So it will be seen that Practicat DArrY HUSBANDRY. 139 this quantity of hay (considering that a part of the nutritive matter is not assimilated, and passes off in the excrement), will be mostly needed for the manufacture of the milk alone, while a like quantity and more must be used for her maintenance. Experience as well as science amply demonstrates the fact that late cut hay when used as an exclusive food for milch cows is insufficient to produce milk rich in quality and large in quantity. Mr. J. B. Lawes of Rothamsted, England, in a recent paper on the EXPENDITURE OF FOOD BY RESPIRATION, says:—“ If there is one thing which is more firmly established by scientific inquiry than another, it is that actual waste or expenditure of substance is going on during the whole period of our existence, and that unless this waste be compensated by food, death must quickly ensue. ‘“‘' The nearest approach to the continuance of life without food is in the case of those animals which pass through a period of hybernation. A dor- mouse for instance, sleeps through a great part of the winter; the little animal becomes cold to the touch, shows no sign of respiration, and is to all appearance dead. Nevertheless, careful experiments have proved that slow respiration is going on all the time, accompanied with gradual loss of substance; and if the cold weather be sufficiently prolonged, or the animal be subjected by artificial means to a continuance of low temperature, death will take place; if not from other causes, at any rate as soon as there ceases to be a supply of accumulated fat, or other material within the body, avail- able for the purposes of respiration. “Indeed, the resources of the body itself, unreplenished by food, can supply the necessary material for waste for only a limited period. The minimum amount of food required to maintain existence will vary for a given live weight according to the description of the animal, the description of the food, the conditions of life and individual peculiarities. But, to say nothing of other losses, as part of the substance of the body passes off into the atmosphere with every respiration, it is absolutely certain that death cannot be far off whenever the supply of food is stopped. “The fact of a constant expenditure of food by respiration has a very important bearing on the economy of the farm. Every animal that is kept, whether for labor or for the production of meat, requires a given amount of food for the mere maintenance of life. If it receive more than this, the remainder may serve to enable the working animal to perform his labor or the meat-making animal to increase in substance and in weight, and conse- quently in value. “It may be mentioned, in passing, that direct experiments have proved that the expenditure by respiration is very much greater within a given time while an animal is awake than while it is asleep; and again, very much greater in exercise than when at rest. “ Confining attention to the case of the animals fed for the butcher, it will 140 PRACTICAL DAIRY HUSBANDRY. be obvious that the economy of the feeding process will be the greater the less the amount of food expended by respiration in the preduction of a given amount of increase; and it is equally obvious that one ready and efficient means of lessening the proportion of the waste or expenditure to the increase produced, is to lessen, as far possible, the time taken to produce it; in other words, to fatten as quickly as possible. “« An example taken from the ordinary practice of the farm clearly illus- trates the point, and shows the great importance of bearing the facts in mind. From the results of numerous experiments made at Rothamsted, it may be assumed that on the average a pig weighing one hundred pounds will, if supplied with as much barley meal as he will eat, consume five hundred pounds of it, and double his weight—that is, increase from one hundred pounds to two hundred pounds live weight, in sixteen or seventeen weeks. The following table shows the amount of dry or solid constituents in the five hundred pounds of barley meal, and how they will be disposed of in the case supposed: 500 POUNDS OF BARLEY MEAL PRODUCE 100 POUNDS INCREASE AND SUPPLY. SSS SS SSS SSS SSS SSS eeaeuooweoss=S=SSS.S.S 00am In 100 In M be In RESPI- | Eyes: INCREASE. "ORE: | ace lL A Se a a a ee Lbs Lbs Lbs Lbs Nitrogenous substance,.........-.-se cece essences 52 7.0 Non-nitrogenous SSRN CC oe gaey ae es oe emee 307 66.0 | oo i NVINMERAL INAUCEI ee as ace oe. cs ote ve oc wie ote sen) siecle sive 0.8 LOPS Te eae cretate Total dry. substance,......2. <0... ..- 420 |! 73.8 70.0 | 276.2 eee en See eee Se SS “From the figures in the table we learn that the four hundred and twenty pounds of dry or solid substance which the five hundred pounds of barley meal contain, about seventy-four are stored up in the one hundred pounds of increase in live weight, about seventy are recovered in the manure, and two hundred and seventy-six, or nearly two-thirds of the whole, are given off into the atmosphere by respiration and perspiration—that is to say, are expended in the mere sustenance of the living meat and manure-making machine, during the sixteen or seventeen weeks required to produce the one hundred pounds of increase. “ But now let us suppose that instead of allowing the pig to have so much parley meal as he will eat, we make the five hundred pounds of barley meal last many more weeks. The result would be that the animal would appro- priate a correspondingly larger proportion of the food for the purposes of respiration and perspiration, and a correspondingly less proportion in the production of increase. In other words, if the five hundred pounds of barley meal be distributed over a longer period of time, it will give less increase in live weight, and a larger proportion of it will be employed in the mere main- tenance of the life of the animal. Indeed, if the period of consumption of five hundred pounds of meal be sufficiently extended, the result will be that PracTicaL DAIRY HUSBANDRY. 141 no increase whatever will be produced, and that the whole of the food, excepting the portion obtained as manure, will be expended in the mere maintenance of the life of the animal. The conclusion is obvious, that provided the fattening animal can assimilate the food, a given amount of increase will be obtained with a smaller expenditure of constituents by respiration, the shorter the time taken to produce it. In fact, by early maturity and the repid fattening of stock, a vast saving of food is effected. It is true that the flavor and quality of the meat of the one-year old sheep or the two or three-year old bullock, are not as good as that of the three or four-year old sheep, or the four or five-year old ox. But it is obvious that the mutton and beef of the older animals can only be produced with a much greater expenditure of food, and generally at an increased money cost, which must put them beyond the reach of a great majority of consumers.” HORSFALL’S EXPERIMENTS. Some of the most valuable experiments for feeding milch cows are those made by Mr. Horsratt of England. By affording a full supply of the elements of food adapted to the maintenance and produce of the animal, he was enabled to obtain as much milk, and that which was as rich in butter during winter as in summer. He used, to some extent, cabbages, mangolds, shorts, and other substances rich in the constituents of cheese and butter. ‘¢ My food for milch cows,” he says, “after having undergone various modifica- tions, has for two seasons consisted of rape cake, five pounds, and bran, two pounds for each cow, mixed into asufficient quantity of bean straw, oat straw, and shells of oats, in equal proportions, to supply them three times a day with as much as they will eat. The whole of the materials are moistened and blended together, and after being well steamed, are given to the animal in a warm state. The attendant is allowed one pound to one and a-half pounds per cow, according to circumstances, of bean meal, which he is charged to give to each cow in proportion to the yield of milk, those in full milk getting two pounds each per day, others but little. It is dry and mixed with the steamed food, on its being dealt out separately. When this is eaten up, green food is given, consisting of cabbages from October to December, kohl-rabi till February, and mangolds till grass time.” His cows under this treatment: usually yield from twelve to sixteen quarts of milk (wine measure) per day, for about eight months after calving, when they fall off in milk, but gain flesh up to the time of calving. From these experiments, conducted in a careful manner, it would seem that food rich in albuminous matter produced the best results. Bean meal contains twenty-eight per cent. of this substance. Beans are not used in this country as food for stock, but if we select other grains, rich in cheesy matter, the principle may be carried out, and satisfactory results obtained. _ The three grains containing albuminous or flesh-forming matter in largest proportion next to beans (if peas are excepted), are rye, oats and barley, each 142 PracticaL Datry HusSBANDRY. containing from ten to fourteen and a-half per cent.; these, when ground into meal and mixed in equal quantities, taking their usual market value into con- sideration, are perhaps the best that can be selected. My own experience in the use of these grains asa spring food for milch cows corresponds with that of others as giving most satisfactory results. Ihave used oats and peas ground into meal together, and could wish for no better feed, but the cost was more, which was not met by increased production of milk. Barley and oats ground and mixed together have also been used with good results. Corn-meal I deem objectionable, on account of its heating nature. Its influence at times is very deleterious, having been known to lessen the quantity and injure the quality of milk, and in some instances dry up the cows. Bran is a very valuable feed for milch cows; it is rich in phosphates and nitrogenous or flesh-forming material, and when mingled with oat meal, gives the very best results. FEEDING GRAIN IN SUMMER. On the question of feeding cows grain through the summer, the general opinion among dairymen is, that it does not pay so long as the herds have an abundance of good grass. When shorts and bran can be obtained at cheap rates, and feed is beginning to fail, they may doubtless be employed with profit. Mingled with the hay and fed to cows, the milk gives a larger per- centage of cream, while the quantity of milk also is increased. The most natural, and of course the healthiest food for milch cows in summer is the green grass of our pastures. When cows are giving an extra quantity of milk, and in consequence are milking down thin and poor, it will be advisable to use concentrated food. The principle to be understood is that milk of good quality and large quantity depends upon food, and that the condition and strength of the animal must at all times be kept up. If allowed to run down and become poor and weak, we are undermining the constitution of the cow, and by inattention and neglect defeating the ends by which our best interests are to be promoted. TURNING TO GRASS. When cows are first turned to grass in spring, if feed is abundant, they should not be allowed in the pasture but a few hours each day, for several days—the change of food should be gradual. Serious troubles have some- times resulted from inattention to this point, especially when turning cows into luxuriant afterfeed in autumn. SALTING COWS. Another important matter in the management of dairy stock is to have it properly provided with salt. The best way to salt dairy cows is to have the salt in some place conveniently located for stock, where daily access may be had to it, and the animals allowed to take whatever their appetites crave. It may be placed in boxes arranged in the feed alley of the stables, or in troughs in the shed, or open yard. Where cows have free access to salt, they soon PracticaLt DarryY HuUSBANDRY. 148 regulate their appetite to the daily use of small quantities of it, taking no more than is required to promote health. Animals require more or less salt, according to the character of their food, and the practice of salting at certain intervals is often injurious, since they are liable to overfeed of it, causing excessive scouring and derangement of health. This is particularly the case when salt is thrown out to stock indiscriminately in the fields at intervals of a week or more. In such cases the master cows not unfrequently gorge themselves, preventing the weaker animals from getting a due supply, and thus one part of the herd is injured by overfeeding, and the other part by not obtaining what is needed. When the animals have access to salt, nature dictates as to its use, and hence the best results, both as to health and yield of milk, follow. Salt is very necessary for milch cows. Without it the milk becomes scanty and imperfect. It is an important element in the blood, and furnishes the soda necessary to hold the cheesy part of the milk in solution. Har.in found in one thousand pounds of milk, analyzed by him, nearly half a pound of free soda, and over a third of a pound of chloride of sodium. There was also one and three-quarter pounds of chloride of potassium. There are various purposes in the animal economy that require salt, and cows in milk should at all times have free access toit. Perhaps the greatest necessity for its use is in spring, when cows are first turned to pasture. The food then is rather deficient in saline matter, and does not furnish sufficient for a large quantity of milk. As grass becomes more mature the mineral elements are more abundant, and there is less desire on the part of animals for salt. It is on this account and because cows have been dried of their milk, that in winter much less salt is required in the dairy than in summer. From experi- ments that have been made it has been found that in May and June, when milch cows have been deprived of salt for several days, the milk shrunk from one to two per cent. in quantity, and from two to four per cent. in quality. Later in the season the experiments showed less difference. Thus it will be seen that dairy stock, to produce the best results, should have a daily supply of salt, and that the quantity is much better regulated by the animal than it can be by the stock-keeper who doles it out at intervals. WATER FOR COWS. I have alluded to the importance of providing milch cows with good water, and something more may be said on this point, because it is one of the secrets of success, which the great majority of dairymen to-day do not fully comprehend. The importance of providing an abundance of water for cows in milk cannot be over-estimated. Every practical dairyman must have observed how rapidly cows shrink of their milk in hot, dry weather, when water is scarce and the animals do not get their usual supply. But although in such cases the cause of milk falling off is traced to its true source, many forget to take a hint from such observation in their management of milch stock during the summer and fall. Cows of course will live where the daily 144 PRAcTICAL DAIRY HUSBANDRY. supply of water is limited, and by yielding a less quantity of milk, they adapt themselves to the circumstances under which they are placed. And if water is not abundant or is situated in out of the way places, where it is not easy of access, the animals soon educate themselves to get along with a much less quantity than they would were it placed before them in abundance. Up toa certain point, the animal will accommodate herself without complaint to the conditions, and it often happens that because cows show no very marked uneasiness nor falling off in flesh, it is supposed they get all the water which they require, when in point of fact they are taking only a limited supply. Herds thus situated do not yield large returns. The fault is not in the cows, but in their management. Now, milch cows should rather be induced to take all the water they will, and at no time should they be allowed to suffer from thirst. A cow that gives a large quantity of milk, must of necessity require more water, other things being equal, than the cow that gives only a small quantity of milk, for we must remember that of the constituents of milk eighty-seven parts or thereabout are water. To what extent the quantity of milk can be increased and at the same time a good quality be secured, by inducing the animal to take an abundant quantity of liquid, is still a question undetermined, but that milk of good quality can in this manner be increased and without injury to the animal, there is not the slightest doubt. Upon this point we have some interesting experiments by M. Dancert, as communi- cated to the French Academy of Sciences. He found that by inciting cows to drink large quantities of water, the quantity of milk yielded by them can be increased several quarts per day without materially injuring its quality. The amount of milk obtained, he says, is approximately proportional to the quantity of water drank. Cows which, when stall fed with dry fodder, gave only from nine to twelve quarts of milk per day, at once produced from twelve to fourteen quarts daily, when their food was moistened by mixing with it from eighteen to twenty-three quarts of water per day. Besides this water taken with the food, the animals were allowed to drink at the same intervals as before, and their thirst was excited by adding to their fodder a small quantity of salt. The milk produced under the water regimen, after having been carefully analyzed and examined as to its chemical and physical properties, was adjudged to be of good quality, and excellent butter was obtained from it. The precise proportion of water which can thus be given to cows with advantage, he says, is a point not readily determinable, since the appetite for drink differs very considerably in different animals. But by observing the degree of the appetite for drink in a number of cows, by taking note of the quantity of water habitually consumed by each of the animals in the course of twenty-four hours, and contrasting this quantity with that of the milk produced, M. Dancer asserts that any one can see that the yield of milk is directly proportionate to the quantity of water absorbed. He asserts, more- over, that a cow that does not habitually drink so much as twenty-seven PRACTICAL DAIRY HUSBANDRY. 145 quarts of water per day—and he has met with such—is actually and necessa- rily a poor milker. She will give only from five and a-half to seven quarts per day. But all the cows he has seen which drank as much as fifty quarts of water daily, were excellent milkers, yielding from nineteen to twenty-three quarts of milk. In his opinion the quantity of drink consumed by a cow is a valuable test of her worth as a milk producer. Now, whether the inferences drawn by Dancen from his experiments be strictly true in any particular or applicable in all cases, need not be discussed for the present, but they illustrate in some degree at least, facts familiar to practical men. The most common observer must have taken note that in the human family the mother suckling her infant requires and consumes more liquids than she did before or after her period of nursing. And the practical dairyman must have been dull indeed if he has not observed the difference in the appetite of cows for water before and after they have begun to give milk. The lesson which practical dairymen should learn from these facts is, that cows to yield the best returns must be provided with an abundance of pure water, so located that it is easy of access at all times. In fine, that induce- ments held out in this way for cows to drink, are a paying investment to dairymen. But while milch cows can be made to yield larger returns by a judicious use of liquids, we cannot recommend pushing the point to that excess which may affect the health of stock or reduce the quality of milk to a low standard. FALL FEEDING. As pastures begin to fail the latter part of July, soiling in part either with green corn fodder, lucerne, millet, oats, or clover must be resorted to, for keeping up a flow of milk, until cows go to the aftermath. It is essential that the flow of milk be kept up, for if cows are allowed to fall off in milk at this season of the year, it will be impossible to bring them back again by fall feeding. I need not discuss this point further, and I have only a word more in relation to the fall treatment of stock, since it is here that many dairymen make very grave mistakes. As the season advances occasional frosts begin to appear, and although grass may be abundant it is flashy and the frosts injure materially its nutritive value. At this season more than any other cows are apt to milk down poor, and often before the dairyman is fully aware of the fact. If it is desirable to keep up a flow of milk, a little bran or ground grain can be used with profit ; even a few nubbins of corn fed daily will prove serviceable in keeping up the strength and condition of the animal. But this is not all; the cold storms and frosty nights are injurious unless the animals are sheltered. Cows in milk, as 1 have remarked, are susceptible to cold, and if not protected from the inclement weather fall off rapidly in flesh and milk; even in summer a cold rain storm lessens the quantity of milk, as every dairyman must have observed; but towards the approach of winter, after yielding milk for several months, the general tone of the system is reduced, and the animal is unable 10 146 PrRacTicAL DAIRY HUSBANDRY. to withstand sudden changes without being injuriously affected. Stock that is reduced in flesh at the commencement of winter, will require at least a quarter more food to bring it through to grass than it would did it start in high condition. This fact is lost sight of by many who suffer their cattle to run down in the fall, milking them late, and allowing them to be exposed to all kinds of weather. In cold, stormy nights during the fall cows will do better in the stable, even with no feed, than to be left out exposed to the inclemencies of the weather. What little food they pick up at such times is not of much account; they will seek out some spot that affords a partial protection from the storm and cold, huddle together, and stand there shiver- ing and discontented till morning. It is at such times that more or less injury is done to the underlings of the herd from being hooked and driven about by master cows. Perhaps at no season of the year does stock require more care and attention than late in the fall, and at no season is it so generally neg- lected. Many never think of housing an animal at this season so long as the ground remains uncovered with snow, and many fancy they are saving fodder by withholding food so long as there are patches here and there of frozen aftermath, that are not eaten down. Such persons are often found complain- . ing that their hay rapidly wastes away after feeding has commenced, and is wanting in nutrition; that their stock comes out thin in spring, and the yield of milk during the summer is less than it should be. They have no definite idea where the trouble lies; it is either in the hay or in the season, or in the cows, and they mourn over their bad luck, when in fact the real cause of all the trouble arose from neglect and want of care and attention in the fall treatment of stock. Cows that are expected to yield largely must have careful treatment and liberal feed—they must be protected from the inclement weather in roomy, well- ventilated stables. The importance of comfortable, well-lighted and well-ventil- ated stables for milch cows is imperfectly understood, although much has been written on the subject. It should be remembered that a large share of the food eaten is used in furnishing warmth to the animal, and if we can supply warmth by artificial means, it will be equivalent to a certain percentage of food. Good shelter, therefore, serves in part for food. It has been well remarked that “beside the actual loss of food from the increased amount required under exposure to cold, there is a further less in milk from the feeling of discomfort. The secretions are always disturbed by influences that cause pain or uneasiness, and every shiver of a half-frozen cow will make itself visible in the milk pail.” It will often therefore, be a matter of economy for dairymen to commence feeding cabbages, the tops of roots, or small quantities of grain, just as soon as the grasses of the pasture have been touched with frosts. A daily allowance of bran, shorts, or ground feed of barley and oats, or oats and corn, in the proportion of two parts oats to one of corn, will be of the greatest service in keeping up a flow of milk and at the same time keeping the animal in health and condition. PRACTICAL DAtTRY HUSBANDRY. 147 There are many more topics in regard to the management of stock which I could have wished to discuss, but enough perhaps has been said to give an outline of the more important requisites in this branch of dairy management. RAISING CALVES. In raising calves they should always have a good start, and for this pur- pose I know of nothing equal to milk as it is drawn from the cow. Some people recommend separating the calf from the cow a day or two after it-is dropped. I think it should be allowed to run with the cow and have all the milk it can take for at least four or five days. Ordinarily the cows milk will not be in a proper condition for human food under four or five days from the time of dropping her calf, though many dairymen who are anxious to make the most out of the milk insist that it is good enough for cheese-making at the fourth milking. After the calf is taken from the cow it should be generously fed with new milk until it is two weeks old at least. This should be the earliest period at which the commencement of any substitute for new milk ought to be given. I should prefer to feed new milk for some time longer, but still very good calves may be raised by compounding a food for them a little less expensive than new milk. If skim milk can now be afforded, the calves will thrive on liberal feeding, but the cheese dairymen often feel that even skim milk is too expensive to be long continued, and are not satisfied till the diet of the calf is reduced to whey. Now, if whey and oil meal be properly prepared, it can be made to serve as a very good substitute for milk. The whey should be dipped off when sweet from the vat, then bring it to the boiling point and turn it upon the oil meal. Let the mixture stand till night, and then feed. In the morning, whey sweet from the vat may be fed. At the commencement a little less than a pint of oil meal per day will be sufficient for four calves. This may be gradually | increased till each calf has a daily ration of half a pint. At first 1t 1s better not to feed calves all the whey they will drink at a time. ) £ S 2,824,179 2,046,083 Pounps or CHEESE MADR, 124,284 141,728 122,415 138852 82,214 114,499 121,800 175,146 136,271 113,564 122,966 127,345 126,254 111,799 148,174 207,634 209,360 171,760 208,747 128,478 111,539 249 603 264,865 151,960 178,152 136,809 176,000 173,815 142/518 134,050 49,386 58,875 71,000 128,846 165,000 162,000 50,560 106,268 75,004 127,685 124,649 91,639 364,000 247,120 150,437 81,536 207,121 165,165 102,835 165,165 102,835 155,559 296,259 145,941 210,010 130,000 177,115 89,016 182,111 272,460 155,400 170,284 284,379 199,839 PRACTICAL DAIRY HUSBANDRY. 219 Table showing capital invested in buildings, &c.— Continued. ‘| uae ; | ; 3 us PERSONS EM- a 2 Be PLOYED. 4 a a z x .S) p i 2k 6 | | s a CounrTIzs. a = 6 4 | a = | a Zz 2 4 g | z fe | fx i | 33 a | é . : : SOMES A oad ei ae 3 é : : 5 cain S a 5 FY a 3 8 4 3) = >) < n n a a Meck... Epeieiistscaisis 65 | 3,200 2 2 400 | Apr. 12, 1864 | Nov. 7, 1864 | 1,356,000 135,621 66 | 1,600 | 2 2 | 350 | Apr. 25, 1864 | Oct. 25, 1864 | 12201000 | 122,105 67 | 3,000 2 3 575 | Apr. 20, 1864 | Nov. 1, 1864 | 1,200,000 120,000 68 | 1,000 1 3 450 | May 1, 1864 | Oct. 20, 1864 705,990 10,600 69 | 3,000 4 2 575 | Apr. 22, 1864 | Oct. 28, 1864 | 1,880,000 199,400 70 | 2,500 3 3 650 | May 21, 1864 | Nov. 15, 1864 | 2,265,543 225,341 v1 | 2300.) 4 4 | 400 | Apr. 18, 1864 | Nov. 4, 1864} 1.175.117 | 115.175 Montgomery, ........ 72 | 2,500 2 2 325 | May 23, 1864 | .....do..... 975,625 98,101 73 | 3,400 3 2 500 | Apr. 16, 1864 | Noy. 10, 1864 | 1,473,619 147,361 n4 | 5,000 | 2 3 | 450 | June 6, 1864 | Nov. 7, 1864 | 1,308,069 | 134.161 "5 | 3,000 | 2 Q 340 | Apr. 11, 1864 | Nov. 1, 1864 990,589 | 103,640 Oneidastoy. seca 3h 76 | 2,400 2 2 380 | May 2, 1864 |} Oct. 22, 1864 849,852 86,556 wv | 1,800 | 2 2 | 450 | May 27, 1864 | Oct. 17,1864] 826,282 | 86,156 78 | 1,800 2 2 588 | May 1, 1864 | Oct. 31,1864 | 1,639,910 164,875 79 | 4,000 3 q 1000 | Apr 20, 1864 | Nov. 1, 1864! 3,027.943 295,115 80 | 2,000 2 2 350 | Apr. 25, 1864 | Oct. 25, 1864 | 802,500 78,000 81 | 2,000 2 2 300 | May 2, 1864 | Oct. 22, 1864 802,359 75,000 82 | 2,000 2 2 400 | Apr 11, 1864 | Nov.10, 1864 | 1,000,000 100,000 83 | 1,200 2 3 400 | Apr. 25, 1864 | Oct. 24, 1864 850,000 82,584 84 | 3,000 | 2 3 | 425 | Apr. 18, 1864 | Nov. 1, 1864 | 1,399,380 | 135,858 85 | 2,600 | 2 3 | 650 | Apr. 11, 1864 | Oct. 31, 1864 | 1,665,621 | 166,585 86 | 2,100 | 2 3 | 350 | April 8, 1864 | Oct. 29, 1864 | 1,028,799 | 102,392 87 | 2,000 2 4 600 | Apr. 14, 1864 | Oct. 1, 1864 | 1,670,000 167,720 88 | 3,500 | 2 5 | 900 | Apr. 11, 1864 | Nov. 20, 1864 | 2,227,295 | 222,678 89 | 1,500 1 2 350 | Apr. 18, 1864 | Novy. 15, 1864 | 1,059,579 102,350 90 | 1,000 | 1 2 | 300 | May 1, 1864 | Nov. 1,1864 | 882,252 | 81,123 91 | 5,000 } 1 3 530 | May 3, 1864 | Oct. 29, 1864 | 1,419,251 | 141,645 92! 4.000 | 2 3 | 525 | May 20, 1864 | Dec. 18, 1864 | 1,866,917 | 181,082 93 | 4,000 | 2 4 | 500 | April 1, 1864 | Dec. 1, 1864 | 2,020,409 | 264,161 94 | 2,500 2 3 400 | April 5, 1864 | Oct. 29, 1864 709,908 68,431 95 | 2,000 al 1 400 | Apr. 12, 1864 | Novy. 20, 1864 915,562 55,000 96 | 1,500 1 2 350 | May 11, 1864 | Nov. 1, 1864 |} 1,777,500 180,000 97 | 3,400 | 2 4 | 725 | Apr. 17, 1964 |-..... dose 1,883,004 | 180,000 93 | 2,500 | 2 3 | 550 | May 1, 1864 | ..... dose 1.484.443 | 184,721 99 | 3,000 | 3 3 550 | April 4, 1864 | Oct. 31,1864 | 1,746,784 | 173,691 100 | 3,000 | 3 3 | 400 | Apr. 29, 1864 | ..... dows 1,416,750 | 130,545 101 | 3,000 | 2 3% | 325 | Apr. 28, 1864 | Nov. 1,1864| 745,692 | 78,976 102 | 3,000 3 Q 675 | Apr. 18, 1864 | Nov. 12,1864 | 2,177, 920 208,260 103 | 2,400 Q 2 350 | Apr. 25, 1864 | Noy. 5, 1864 | 1,114,288 107,805 104 | 1,800 2 2 430 | Ayril 4, 1864 | Nov. 30,1864 | 1, 331, ,048 128,045 105 | 3,000 | 2 5 | 500 | Apr. 18, 1864 | Nov. 10, 1864 | 1,440,590 | 144,059 106 | 1,500 2 ay 400 | Apr. 25, 1864 | Noy. 1, 1864 1.184.591 121.701 107 | 2,300 | 2 2 480) | a dome Oct. 29,1864 | 1,318,412 | 129,604 108 | 5,000 2 3 700 | Apr. 11, 1864 | Oct ue 1864 | 1,900,000 185,000 109 | 2,200 2 2 420 | Apr. 20, 1864 | ..... COsaceq 1,453,352 136,606 110 | 3,000 2 3 575 | April 1, 1864 | Nov. 30, 1864 | 2,051,688 204,025 @nondaray-.--.-4-..- 111 | 3,200 1 3 400 | May 1, 1864 | Noy. 1, 1864 1,831,304 123,734 OSWEEOF Sos e22 sie 2122 112 | 2,200 2 2 (6200 ha Bic doseeen Oct. 1,1864 | 1,400,000 97,700 113 | 2,000 Q 1 500 | Jun. 18, 1864 | Oct. 15, 1864 800,000 88,888 114 | 2,500 2 3 500 | Apr. 15, 1864 | Oct. 3,1864 488,288 46,476 115 | 1,000 1 2 300 | Apr. 19, 1864 | Sept.29, 1864 382,804 35,009 116 | 2,000 | 2 2 | 400 | Apr. 15, 1864 | Oct. 15, 1964 | 1,443,082 | 142,500 417 | 2.500 | 2 1 350 | May 25, 1864 | Nov. 15,1864 | 803,718 | 84,662 118 | 3,500 2 4 600 May 12, 1864 | Oct. 29,1864 | 1,714,269 155,180 119 | 2,700 2 1 375 | April 7, 1864 | Oct. 15,1864 | 1,117,873 110,365 120 ! 1,600 1 2 300 | Apr. 15, 1864 | Oct. 22, 1864 | 1,187,948 119,784 121 | 2,500 1 3 800 | May 16, 1864 | Oct. 1, 1864 515,430 51,543 122 | 2,000 1 3 400 | May 10, 1864 | Noy. 2, 1864 | 1,215,185 126,625 ESE RO ashe soos Sica sc 123 | 4,200 | 2 4 | 500 | April 1, 1864 | Sept. 1, 1864 | 1,226,700 | 136,300 124 | 3,000 1 2 500 | Mar. 9, 1864 | Dec. 12,1864 | 1,749,974 172,894 125 | 3,000 | 2 2 | 400 | Apr. 25, 1864 | Dec. 6, 1864 | 1,446,871 | 137,886 126 | 2,000 2 2 500 | Apr. 19, 1864 | Oct. 29,1864 | 1,140,000 114,000 127 | 3,200 2 2 280 5 are GOs Sea5 Oct. 31, 1864 881,539 86,583 St. Lawrence,....... 128 | 3,000 1 2 375 | May 17, 1864 | Oct. 23,1864 | 1,107,373 109,518 Tompkins,........... 429 | 1,200 | 3 7 | 900 | May 2, 1864 | Nov. 3,1864| 2,871,042 | 302,215 Wyoming, "Scenes 130 | 3,000 2 2 400 | June 8, 1864 | Nov. 2, 1864 820,803 84,142 131 3,000 2 3 600 | May 31, 1864 | Oct. 29,184 | 1,243,469 125,664 132 | 3,000 2 2 350 | May 15, 1864 | Oct. 25, 1864 990,000 100,000 123 | 2,500 1 2 505 | Apr. 25, 1864 | Nov. 12, 1864 | 1,139,121 120,205 920 PractTicat DAIRY HUSBANDRY. The above statistics present the following aggregates :—Cost of buildings and apparatus, $378,187; persons employed (males), two hundred and fifty- eight; persons employed (females), three hundred and sixty-two; number of cows used, sixty-seven thousand and thirty-four ; pounds of milk used, one hundred and eighty-seven million, eight hundred and twenty-two thousand, eight hundred and thirty-eight; pounds of cheese made, eighteen million, nine hundred and forty-three thousand, four hundred and thirty-five ; average number of pounds of milk for one of cheese, 9.915; pounds of milk to a cow, two thousand eight hundred and two; pounds of cheese to a cow, two hun- dred and eighty-three ; value of cheese at twenty cents per pound, $3, (ees 6875 average value of cheese to a cow, $56.52. The prices at which cheese sold in 1864 ranged from ten to thirty cents, and averaged about twenty cents. The quantity of salt used to one hundred pounds of cheese was reported from three hundred and seventy-seven factories. In one hundred and one of these the amount used was three pounds; in eighty-seven, two and a-half pounds ; in fifty-one, two and three-fourths pounds; in forty, two and seven- tenths pounds; in nineteen, two and four-fifths pounds; in nine, two pounds, and in six, five pounds. The least quantity used was three-tenths of a pound. In Limburg cheeses the quantity was much greater, ranging from fourteen to seventeen pounds. It would be proper to remark that since 1864, considerable improvement has been made at many of the factories, in securing a better quality and larger quantity of cheese from a given quantity of milk. In comparing the quantity made per cow, as deduced from the foregoing statistics, with that made in family dairies, it should be remembered that the factories are not in operation during the whole milking season, and therefore due allowance should be made on this account. These statistics are of interest, and will be found of great value, as comparisons can be made of the product of cows in different parts of the State. COST OF MANUFACTURING CHEESE IN FAMILIES, ETC. In many counties of the State, family dairying is still largely in practice, and in order to compare the two systems understandingly, it will be well to make an estimate of the actual cost of manufacturing cheese in families, after the ordinary method—say from a dairy of forty cows—together with the care and marketing of the same. We estimate from the point when milk is in the vats, putting values, &c., on a gold basis: Original cost of cheese house, including tables, &C.,....00s.ecsccecesscceseccee $410 00 Via USPANOMINCA LCDS. 1s acerca a iace ciacade' ois wise ete it ee eee SRE eal ito a SieeMa a ais de Rb aterious 50 00 Press, hoops, curd knife, &c.,........... eA ei suielalefemleverseuere 45 Sa ESAS IS Se OBIE 5 + 40 00 $500 00 PraAcTicAt DAtryY HUSBANDRY. oT Per pTEKeStOMIOL inal Outlays singel wok tae Wateke eee Sanh $35 00 Dairymaid, say half time, for nine months, including board,.................000- 60 00 Man’s time about the dairy, turning cheese, &., say average of one hour each day for nine months—twenty-five days, at one dollar,............0.+.e:e++0-e 25 00 Annual cost of fuel and its preparation for vats and curing room,...........-... . 1500 Man’s time boxing aud marketing cheese, including team, say two days per month Cian CHE, tt ONS Goileye eyovel GANANE CF ee Ao se oc Sono dba mancocscnoeece 27 00 Annual wear and tear of dairy utensils, and keeping buildings, &c., in repair,..... 15 00 $177 00 Forty cows, averaging five hundred pounds of cheese per cow, gross amount, twenty thousand pounds; cost per pound for manufacturing, nine mills; thirty cows, fifteen thousand pounds, say eleven mills; twenty cows, ten thousand pounds, seventeen mills. It will be seen then, that the cost of barely manufacturing cheese in single dairies will average a little more than one cent per pound; and this sum, for the most part, is the actual cost in cash paid out, for we have not taken into account the general care and supervision necessary in the manufacture and curing of cheese, which cannot be entrusted to domestics, but must daily occupy the time and attention of the proprietor or some member of his family who has something beyond mere wages to stimulate to action. And here it may be proper to observe that one of the inconveniences which is widely felt among dairymen, results from the difficulty of obtaining careful and reliable hands for the management of the dairy. If it is desirable to make first class cheese, that will command in market the highest price, all the operations of manufacture must be performed by tried and skillful hands—hands that can rarely be obtained for hire, and when obtained commanding comparatively large wages. Now, as cheese making is an art which must be learned like other trades, and as most of its operations are performed by females, the dairy farmer may be said to have, for the most part, nothing but apprentices in his employ; for when his dairymaid has been carefully taught the trade, she marries, and is at once lost to him. This scarcity of skilled cheese makers is severely felt throughout the whole dairy region, necessitating the farmer and his family, and more especially the female portions, to arduous labor ; taxing their strength to a degree that tells heavily on health and constitution. The result is, that persons prematurely aged and with broken health, are more frequently found in a dairy region than in other farming communities, The introduction of improved dairy apparatus has, it is true, lessened the labor of cheese making, but the business still demands the same skill and careful oversisht; the want of one or relaxation of the other, resulting not only in immediate loss, but exerting a damaging influence upon the reputation of the dairy. There is no desire to say one discouraging word of a business which has added so much to the wealth of the country, and in which those who are engaged generally prosper, and soon become independent in worldly goods, but the truth must be told, nevertheless. Wealth has its advantages, but its 999, PracticAL Dairy HUSBANDRY. price should be kept in view, and if overtasked muscle, incessant care without relaxation, and, finally, disease, is to be the patrimony of wives and daughters, its charms, to say the least, are very much diminished. A point of some moment to those engaged in cheese making is high skill and perfection in manufacture. It is not deemed necessary to enumerate all the reasons why this does not generally obtain. The fact is patent that choice cheese is made by acomparatively small number, rather than the majority of dairymen. Even among those noted for producing a strictly prime article, the process of manufacture, as well as other work of the dairy, is at times hurried and neglected, and must be necessarily so from the nature of things. It does not pay to keep an extra force on hand to take the place of those who may be disabled by accident or sickness, or who from other causes are obliged to suspend work. Occasional periods of farm labor, too, demanding immedi- diate and pressing attention occur more or less frequently; the result of which is imperfect cheese, which must be marketed as such and at corres- sponding prices. One or all of these causes have been in operation in every farm dairy, and must continue to occur from time to time. What the losses from this source may be through the year depends of course on the many and various circumstances that have controlling influence in each particular case. We have known it to be large enough, in many instances, to cover the whole cost of manufacturing the entire cheese of the dairy for the year. Dairymen are conversant with these facts, and they are points to be considered, and should have their proper bearing in making up our estimate of the two systems. | ADVANTAGES OF THE FACTORY SYSTEM. The advantages claimed for the factory system are, superior quality, uniformity, higher prices, saving, by buying at wholesale, such materials as salt, bandage, annatto, boxes, &c., and, finally, relieving the farmer and his family from the drudgery of the manufacture and care of cheese. It is not pretended that a better quality of cheese can be made at the factory than in families, but that it is quite as fine as the best, and therefore above the average of that manufactured in small parcels. We have enumerated some of the causes that conspire to depreciate the quality of cheese when made in single dairies; these are not present in the factory system. The agent or superintendent makes it his business to see that all parts of the work are properly performed. He employs skillful workmen, and his interest and reputation are at stake, prompting him at all times to do his best. He knows that neglect or mistakes will not be tolerated, and the desire to satisfy persons interested, in order to secure their patronage, stimulates him to make every exertion to build up and sustain a reputation for “fine goods.” He has every convenience at hand for manufacturing to advantage and making the business a sole employment. He is not liable to be disturbed by other matters which might serve to call his attention away from time to time, to the prejudice of the immediate work at hand. PrRAcTICAL DAIRY HUSBANDRY. 223 The same rule must hold good with him as among those engaged in other professions and arts; for he who gives his whole attention and energies in a certain direction is likely to become more skilled, and arrive nearer to per- fection in his calling, than he who is striving to do many and diverse things at the same time—more especially in cheese manufacture under this system, as a high degree of skill is expected, and jealous and interested eyes are daily watching and noting every short-coming. Uniformity and fine quality are more likely to obtain under this system, and whatever progress can be made towards improvement will naturally develop itself more rapidly here than among persons scattered over a broad extent of country, and who are so occupied with a variety of work as to have little time to spend in the improve- ment of any one particular branch. The factories, so far as we are acquainted, have acquired a high reputation for fine quality and uniformity. At some of these establishments we have seen a large number of cheeses, making in the aggregate more than one hundred thousand pounds, so uniform In appearance as they lay on the tables, that the most practiced eye could detect scarcely any difference in their manufacture. Such a quantity of cheese uniform in size and quality will command a higher price in market than that of single dairies, from the fact that in the latter an allowance is always made by the purchaser for unequal or imperfect cheese. We have alluded to some of the causes that operate to increase the price of well-made factory cheese over that of private dairies. Another may be added the—saving of time, trouble, and expense in purchasing. The whole quantity made from six hundred or a thousand cows can be bargained for and bought in the same time and at no more expense than a “‘twenty-cow dairy.” This item amounts to a considerable sum in the aggregate, as experts are employed by the prin- cipal commission houses in cities, by shippers and dealers, to select and purchase cheese, under salaries ranging from $500 to $1,000 or more per year. Others, again, get a certain percentage on what they buy. “These sums, of course, come out of the produce, and hence by so much must depreciate the price of cheese. We come now to consider the most important advantage to farmers in this union arrangement. It is the relief from the drudgery of cheese-making and the constant care and attention necessary in properly curing and fitting the cheese for market. It would be difficult to estimate this in dollars and cents, since health enters into the account more largely than is generally suspected. It is believed, and we speak advisedly, that the old method of cheese-making has done more to injure the health of women in cheese-dairy- ing districts than any other cause. Much of the work about the dairies ought to be performed by men; but too often the manufacturing and most of the care of cheese are left wholly to females, overtasking their strength by hard and exhaustive labor, thereby laying the foundation of weakness and disease. As the same process has to be gone through with in manufacturing cheese, OBA PrRAcTICAL DAIRY HUSBANDRY. whether the quantity of milk be large or small, and as nearly the same time also is occupied, it will be seen that what requires the labor of a great many persons to do, when cheese-making is divided up in families, can be accom- plished with but few persons on the factory system—some five or six being sufficient to do all the work about an establishment manufacturing the milk of a thousand or more cows. OBJECTIONS TO THE FACTORY SYSTEM. The objections urged against cheese factories are, difficulty of detecting adulterated milk; the carrying of milk to the factory, and lability of sour milk; difference in quality of milk, arising from the manner in which cows are fed and managed; the cartage of whey; and the necessity of manufac- turing the early and late made cheese in the family. These are the principal objections urged by dairymen. As the milk is measured at the factory and each credited with the amount daily furnished, it is evident that, when there is a considerable quantity, a dishonest person could add water, and thus increase the number of gallons. Such cases have occurred, and the indi- viduals cheating have been summarily expelled from the association. We now have devices that will detect watered milk, and therefore a watchfulness on the part of the superintendent, and the exclusion from the association of persons of doubtful honesty, are sufficient means of meeting the difficulty. Some object to the labor and trouble of carrying milk to the factory, and the necessity of keeping regular hours for its delivery under all circumstances of weather, &c., since no delay at the factory can be made for the milk of a single dairy without hazarding the acidity of a large quantity—at least that contained in one vat—besides deranging in some degree the regular factory works. Others contend that, having the milk, the cheese can be made by the family with but little more trouble and labor than that of carting the milk, while one’s own time and convenience can be studied at pleasure, and the cheese be at all times under immediate control. Without extra care and cleanliness as to the pails and milk cans there is liability of sour milk from time to time, which, of course, would not be received at the factory, as milk only slightly acid would damage that with which it came in contact. The milk cans for carrying the milk, it may be observed, are somewhat difficult to cleanse and to keep sweet; and the con- finement of the milk and its agitation while being carried in hot weather, render it susceptible to change, especially if there be the least taint of acidity about the cans. Dissatisfaction often occurs at the factory with regard to the condition of milk, the superintendent being certain that the milk is slightly and perhaps perceptibly changed, while the farmer stoutly insists that it is perfectly sweet ; and he goes home in no pleasant mood, complaining that his cans were not per- fectly cleansed, laying the fault of the sour milk upon some member of his family, or disbelieving that the milk was changed. If the milk is not received PrAcTICAL DAIrnY HUSBANDRY. 225 at the factory there is a loss to the stockholders. Hence it will be seen that more or less trouble is brought about on this account. Not unfrequently bad feeling -is engendered on the part of the farmer and his family, and he with- draws from the association. Another objection is urged, and with some apparent reason, that the quality of milk varies with different persons, according to the manner in which the cows are supplied with food and are managed throughout the sea- son. It is contended that clean, sweet, upland pasture, an abundance of food, and plentiful supply of pure water, cattle wintered well and receiving careful treatment in every respect, will produce a better quality of milk, from which more and better cheese can be made, than when the reverse is practiced. And yet the poor herd that has been wintered improperly, that is pastured on the coarse herbage of low lands, with general bad treatment on the part of the owner, is credited according to the quantity furnished on an equality with the better herd. It is not easy to see how this can be remedied without excluding such from the association. Then there is trouble with the whey, which is regarded by some to be an important item in pork making, or as a feed for cows—for the whey in some cases is the property of the person who runs the factory, but even were it given the farmers, there is the trouble and expense of carting it home. An objection is also urged against the system, that in fall and spring, when the cows are “ coming in” or being dried off, the quantity of milk is too small to be carried with profit to the factory; that the family butter is to be made; that it pays better to take off the cream for butter and turn the skimmed milk into cheese; and that, therefore, as the factory does not do away wholly with cheese making in families, cheese apparatus and implements are neces- sary; and if the spring and fall cheese are to be made at home, the other portion of the dairy may as well be made there also. This objection could be partly met be setting the milk and taking off a part of the cream and delivering the milk every other day, or at longer intervals. We have now presented both sides of the question, and are prepared to advance another step in the discussion, which brings us to THE ORGANIZATION, SELECTION OF FACTORY SITES, ETC. Cheese factory associations are organized in neighborhoods of ten ora dozen or more farmers. When it is proposed to start a factory, if enough are found willing to turn in their dairies, so as to make a fair start, say three hundred cows, a committee is appointed to look further into the matter, to visit factories, and get all the information on the subject that can be had. The favorable report of the committee being had, they then organize, choose directors, and adopt some general rules or plan for the guidance of the association. The next stép will be the selection of some experienced cheese- maker as superintendent, and the plan for the erection of the factory building. Sometimes a person proposes to put up the building on his own account, 15 226 Practica DAIRY HUSBANDRY. and to manufacture and take care of the cheese at a fixed price per pound, demanding a contract on the part of the farmers to furnish the milk of the requisite number of cows for a certain number of years. The milk of about three hundred cows, it is believed, is the smallest quantity that can be employed by the manufacturer (when cheese making is his sole business) to obtain a fair living compensation for services, while the milk from a thousand cows can be manufactured at but little extra expense, comparatively. FACTORY SITE. In choosing the place for the erection of the factory buildings two requi- sites are sought after—good water and convenience of access and distance for the dairies furnishing the milk. The site, above all, should command an abundance of pure spring water. This is regarded by those who have had longest experience at the business as imperative. Even in family cheese making a considerable quantity of water is needed in various ways about the dairy, for cooling milk, cooking the curd, and keeping the buildings clean and sweet; but, for the factory, the quantity of water should be abundant and unfailing. In the old factories it was usual to have a considerable stream of water passing under the manufacturing room, so as to carry off the drip- pings of whey and refuse slop, so that there be no accumulation of; filth or taint of acidity hanging about the premises. At the modern factories this is obviated. When whey and slop are allowed to collect from day to day about the milk room, the stench at times becomes intolerable and must do great damage to the milk, which absorbs taints of every character with great readi- ness. Hence means must be taken to have all the refuse matter swept far beyond the premises.. Some factories are being built where dependence for water is placed upon wells of large capacity. At all events it will be seen that much more labor will be required, with greater liability to taints, when water is deficient or too warm in temperature. THE EARLY CHEESE FACTORIES. The buildings consisted of a manufactory or place for making the curd, a press room, dry house or curing rooms, and an ice house. The dry house was thought best to be a separate building, so as not to be affected by dampness, and in case of fire, that the cheese could be more readily removed. At one of the early establishments near Rome, Oneida Co., and where the milk of six hundred cows was used, the sizes of the buildings were as follows: Manu- factory, twenty-six by twenty-six feet—story and a-half; press room, thirty- nine by thirteen feet; dry house, twenty-six by one hundred feet—two stories high. Cost of the buildings, with fixtures, about $2,500. These buildings consisted in nothing but frames, shingled and covered with nothing hut rough siding, and even not lathed and plastered. The curing house, where it is not proposed to lath and plaster, should be sided with matched floor plank and provided with ventilators at the sides and top. In 1863 Mr. Frazix built a factory at Truxton, Cortland Co.,N. Y. Mr. Fraziz had formerly conducted Practical DAtiryY HUSBANDRY. 227 a factory near Rome, N. Y., and had there made considerable improvement over the original or early built factories. The buildings at Truxton were a great improvement over the Rome establishment. The ground plan of these buildings is here represented in the following cut: GROUND PLAN OF TRUXTON FACTORY. 1 1, Vats; 2, Sink on rails; 3, Truck for Sink; 4, Presses; 5, Engine and Boiler; 6, Ranges in the Curing Room; a, Platform and Delivery Windows. The factory has capacity for manufacturing the milk of fifteen hundred cows. The manufacturing room is thirty-two by forty feet, and contains seven vats fifteen feet long by three and a-half feet wide, of six hundred gallons capacity each. There are two places at which the milk can bé delivered, so as to keep the wagons waiting the least possible time. Adjoining the work room is the press room, fifty by sixteen feet; there are ten presses on each side. The sink containing the curd stands on rails, so as to be run into the press room opposite the presses. There is a space of four feet behind the sink, so the hands can work the curd and not interfere with those who are dipping it out. The engine of eight-horse power stands in a separate build- ing. There is a (horizontal) main steam pipe, six feet from the floor, to which are attached six steam pipes connecting with vats. The hands can in this manner go round each end of the vats. The buildings are on a level, so the cheese can be run from the press room on trucks into the curing house, between the counters ; no carrying by hand of the cheese as at the original factories. The back side of work room is built of masonry, and the water, fifty feet fall, brought into a large reservoir directly under the platform upon which stand the receiving cans. Under the work room is laid flagging, over which flows a stream of water to keep it free from any matter that might collect there if the soil under the building was soft. The whey vats are a long distance from the building, so that the milk may not absorb any impurities from the atmosphere. Hog pens are dispensed with entirely, for Mr. Frazrz was of the opinion that if cheese is properly made, there is not enough nourishment left in the whey to make it profitable for pork-raising. The accompanying cut shows the ground plan and buildings of the factory near Herkimer, Herkimer Co. The cut shows the bank or mound supposed to be necessary with the early factories, where the teams deliver the milk. This is now obviated by the use of a crane. The floor of the manufacturing room should incline a little towards the center, so that in cleaning the slops may be discharged into the creek. 228 PRACTICAL DAIRY HUSBANDRY. THE HERKIMER FACTORY had facilities for manufacturing annually three hundred thousand pounds of cheese. The manufacturing room is twenty-eight by forty-eight feet and the curing house twenty-eight by one hundred feet, and two stories high. There _ are four tin cheese vats, placed inside an equal number of wooden vats, the milk heated by steam; each vat holds four hundred gallons. COST OF MANUFACTURE AT THE FACTORY. The cost of manufacturing cheese is, to the farmer, one cent per pound, ren- net, salt, bandage, annatto and boxes, as ‘ well as carting the cheese to market, \\ being charged to the association and Enp ELEVATION MANUFACTURING DEPoT HERKI- MER Factory, SHowiNe OLD STYLE the season. The whey, as has been be- the quantity of milk furnished during DELIVERY WINDow. : Ae x ik fore observed, usually is a perquisite of the factory. All other expenses, including the care of the cheese while curing, &c., is paid by the manufacturer. To run a factory using the milk | of six hundred cows will give constant employment to at least four persons, = paid by each dairyman in proportion to half or more of whom may be females. Before the war, when prices had not become inflated, the actual cost of manufacturing the milk from six hun-— dred cows was about eight hundred dollars for the season. This sum does | aT == Oa wlan ie i ley | i i niin Hl - mt) | fi Hh h_ i *_@ = SSS=—SSSSSSSSSSS== ——<——— = 2 = —_—_SSSSSSS!= Front ELEvATIon or HERKIMER Factory. not cover interest on capital invested for buildings and fixtures, but was the amount paid for labor, board, fuel, &c. From these data it will be easily estimated what amount of money can be realized from the business of manu- facturing. Allowing that the six hundred cows produce, on an average, four hundred pounds of cheese each, there will be in the aggregate two hundred and forty thousand pounds. The cost of a well-constructed factory will not be far from three thousand dollars. Practricat DAtryY HuSBANDRY. 229 We have then two hundred and forty thousand pounds, at one cent,............ $2,400 Cost of running factory, say....... aIetepes sinlgiase cole sctateitiscatia AtMe aes eh oes ee . $800 Interest on buildings, &c.,.............00c00 apkinvatarseaeret smears Kei aby ats Av oteas 210 Annual wear and tear, or depreciation of property,............ Sopeual sail --- 200 —— $1,210 Protts, {0,2 eae HL seine Brersepsts abkecoeeiece sta paieh eral eienchetekotaerceate $1,190 Now, for three hundred cows, nearly the same expense would be incurred, and the factory account would stand thus: One hundred and twenty thousand pounds of cheese, at one cent,.............. $1,200 Bee SChO re HUMINT, LAC tOl yy PEAY Aes ceerayit a s/sinve!s/slasye cha. o. essere: NU bala aeltbgd eu tlenhe $700 Interest on capital invested,.......... Shae ake(e: sre ceisl eta eno cacenerarcuoneeees socosod od Caw) PMU GePrecCiatlOMs Ol MLOPEILY, ra art i>} a oa oO = WOOE HSVM 8 Nenttd wo a] = z [2 O OWltlelS 3SnoH 3d GRoUND PLAN OF ORANGE County MILK ASSOCIATION BUTTER FACTORY. establishment, in addition to the spring room there is a cellar twelve feet by fourteen feet, with walls nicely laid up with stone, and extending into the bank, at the rear end of the building. Here the butter is stored in summer as -soon as packed, where it remains until ready to be shipped. In the fall of the year, when cream does not readily sour, it is put in the churn in the evening and a can of water raised to 100° set in the cream. It is left there over night, and by morning the cream sours. ROCKVILLE MILK ASSOCIATION. The main structure is twenty-five by fifty feet—two stories, which are used for manufacturing and curing cheese—adjoining this on one end, is the spring room, and on the side running back in the shape of L, is the churn room, twenty by thirty fect. On the end of the churn room is the ice house, which is arranged so as to lead out of the churn room with a broad hall or alley, which serves as a cellar for storing butter. rs 952 PRAcTICAL DAIRY HUSBANDRY. This hall has double sides packed in with tan-bark, and the ice-house being on one side, with communication by door, makes it a cool and nice place for keeping butter or cream in summer. In the spring room there are two vats, one nine feet by twelve feet, and the other eight feet by twelve feet, sunk even with the floor, and arranged so as to be filled from one spring. The temperature of the water is 48°. It is soft water, but less so than those at the other factories to which we have referred. The delivery of the milk is at a window and on a platform the hight of the wagon. As the teams drive up, the cans are slid upon the pees m and emptied into a large receiving box or can of = tin inside the window, standing upon platform scales, where the milk is weighed and then conducted out by two faucets into the long tin pails or coolers. The cost of structure and fixtures was $3,000. The number of cows from which milk is delivered is four hundred and twenty-five, and on November Ist the receipts were eighteen hundred quarts —estimating a quart, wine measure, to weigh two pounds. Milk varies in weight, and a wine quart weighs at some seasons of the year, a trifle over two pounds. During the A "ADLLNG OMs/0LS SOF “FSNOH FI "LS OE X OF Wood N&NHI OSRenaa § fE A a TsaNa PRESSES. 2 & Pa MANFG ROOM. x 25 X 50 Fr. = S 3 S eet = PRESSES. — B GrounD PLAN OF ROCKVILLE BUTTER FACTORY. month of May, when cows are in pasture, Mr. SitavenTer finds that one hundred quarts, wine measure, will weigh two hundred and eleven pounds. The milk here is kept in the spring from twenty-four to thirty-six hours, when the cream is taken off and allowed to sour, and then churned. Mr. Uprs- GROVE, the Superintendent of the factory, says that about one-tenth more butter is obtained from the cream when churned sour than when sweet. BUTTER MAKING AT THE ORANGE COUNTY FACTORY. The churns are the barrel and a-half dash churn, and are filled about half full of cream, which is diluted by putting in cold water in summer and warm Pracricat Darry HUSBANDRY. 253 water in cold weather, at the rate of sixteen to thirty quarts for each mess or churning. The temperature of the cream in summer, when the churns are started is about 60°, but in cold weather they are started at about 64°. When a mess of cream is to be churned the churns are filled about half full, and a pail of spring water added to dilute the cream; in warm weather cold water is used and in cold weather warm water, so as to make the mass at a temperature of 60° to 62°. The temperature of the cream while churning is kept below 65°, for if at the close of the churning the buttermilk should be at a temperature above 64° the flavor and color of the butter are injured. When the butter begins to come, the churn is rinsed down with cold water. After the butter is taken from the churn, care is taken not to touch it more than is necessary with the hands. The butter trays are elliptical in shape, and the ladle is used for turning over the butter while it is being washed. In salting and working over, the whole is done by the butter-worker heretofore described, and great care is taken not to work it too much, as overworking spoils the grain and makes the butter salvy. A twenty-two pound batch is laid upon the inclined slab or butter-worker, and the lever applied, first beginning at one side, until the whole is gone over. Only a few manipula- tions of this kind are required, and one is surprised at the expedition with which this part of the process is effected. The salting and working of the butter is by the same rule adopted at the other factories, eighteen ounces of salt being used for twenty-two pounds of butter. The butter-worker is similar to the one alluded to, except that the lever is diamond-shaped, which it is claimed is an improvement. The inclined triangular slab on which the butter is worked stands upon legs, and has beveled sides about three inches high. It is four feet long and twenty-five inches wide at the upper end, tapering down to five inches at the lower end. At this point there is an opening for the escape of the Onancz counry Burren. WORKER. butter-milk into a pail below. In salting, the butter is washed and then spread out with the ladle upon the worker, and fine, pure Ashton salt sprinkled over the mass. It is then turned over alittle with the ladle and afterwards worked with the lever. At this factory there was a little contrivance consisting of a wheel and lever and weight for regulating the stroke of the dashers when churning. The trays are elliptical, being two and a-half feet long and one and a-half feet across, and will hold twenty-five pounds of butter. The butter is packed in Orange county pails or tubs holding sixty pounds, or in oak firkins of eighty pounds, as at the other factories, and shipped twice a week to New York, bringing seventy cents per pound. The association is composed of twenty- eight farmers who have dairies running from five to ten and up to thirty cows. 954 PracticAL DAIRY HUSBANDRY. Four farmers not belonging to the association deliver milk here and are charged $1.50 per cow extra. 0. —————— — Lo RETURN BUTTER Pat. ORANGE CouNTY BUTTER PACKAGES. DAIRY PRODUCTS OF THE UNITED STATES. The following tables give the number of pounds of butter and cheese made in different sections of the Union, according to the census returns of 1850 and 1860. The total production of butter in the United States and Territories in 1850 was 313,345,306 pounds, and in 1860, 469,681,372 pounds. Of cheese, the product in 1850 was 105,535,893, pounds, and in 1860, 103,- 663,927 pounds, showing an increase in the production of butter, and a decrease in cheese during that decade. From the tables it will be seen which States are largely interested in this branch of industry. For convenience of reference we have arranged the States in groups: Amount of Butter and Cheese made in 1860 and 1850. BUTTER. CHEESE. STATES, ae ae 1860. 1850. 1860. 1850. NEW ENGLAND STATES. COUMCENICUL, eee. Locale. Laie Sachin 7,620,912 6,498,119 3,898,411 5,363,277 Maine may RebO AE J Se a Mead 11,687,781 9,243,811 1,799,862 2,434.454 Massachusetts, . 8,297,936 8,071,370 5,294,090 7,088,142 New Hampshire... 6,956,764 6,977,056 2,232,092 8,196,563 node Wsland Maris bo) oo tas 10,211,767 995,670 181,511 316,508 AVFSTIMOME rors fesliesessorersialnsld cid’. seaereles 15,900,859 | 12,187,980 8,215,030 8,720,834 Motaly. Myce os hm. aap 60,675,519 | 52,924,006 | 21,620,996 | 27,119,778 MIDDLE STATES, | INTE SY OLE Aer 5 Oe ee a eT 103,097.280 | 79,766,094 | 48548289 | 49,741,413 Pennsylvania, po OST CERES ISSUE eke 58,653,511 | 389.878.418 2 ‘508, 556 2,505,034 WNewlderseyntoh hoped os, oh 10,714,447 9 487,210 182.172 365,756 Del arpremiens ale oy ait resets 5 5 cues ee 1,430,502 1,055,308 6,579 3,187 Mary land, 5,265,295 3,806,160 8,342 3,975 District of Columbia,. Oana Cates 18,835 ALTO SIs ee oye atehs tye 1,500 75 LaLa GAM este EAL SUE 179,179,870 | 134,008,062 52,620,865 51,253,938 PrRAcTICAL DAIRY HUSBANDRY. STATES. WESTERN STATES. Hinasiesersree ss os bore ws Sica Shee wee Illinois, LOW Dis J6E6 ARE Soee SSG ict JMUICINT RE (sereastngea aaa ere aaa Eis Minnesota, Missouri, ING eee ge PR oe icc cee LE Gia\( TKS) VV ieee Wisconsin, TCE Sse Ee Snr SEN an Nebraska, eee eres ee oe ee ee meee eee eee ee i i ee eee er ee oe ee ores eee ee eo ese ee eere ee cee sere sees eer ee eee ere e eee eee ee so ee ee oe SOUTHERN STATES. INVENTING Sa's Seto Der oro Hoa ee eee PATISAN SASH siotte class cio hiaeetles 6 avavstes On daar c ses iste sae deco iaslees Georgia, Mississippi, Louisiana, Morin Canolina,. x jercaiisis duje +e shs's se 2 South Carolina, Tennessee, Texas, eee reese ee eee es eee eee ee eee eee eee ee ese oe ere sees ase eee eee es oes eo te oo oe os ere see eer ee eee oe oe we oe eee eos eee ee eee ee ore et worsens ee ees ee ee 2 tee eee ee eo eee PING U Ml be pepe cra Skis) ssarotee sh ctalereas PACIFIC STATES AND TERRITORIES. California, OREGON 5.55 oh doOR eee en oem e Ne wANleMiGaitec ec. seek aus See es WaSHetOn occ, fo fiarisile: Utah, veces ee ere tere cere esas ees e se 255 Amount of butter and cheese made in 1860 and 1850.—Continued. BUTTER. CHEESE. 1860. 1850. 1860. 1850. 18,306,651 12,881,535 605,795 624,564 28,052,551 12,526,548 1,848,557 1,278,225 11,953,666 2,171,188 918.635 209,840 15,503,482 7,065,878 1,641,897 1,011,492 2,957 673 1,100 ROO STAs Sees 12,704,837 7,834,359 259 633 203,572 48,543,162 84,449 379 21,618,893 20,819,542) 11,716,609 9 947,523 190,400 213,954 13,611,328 3,633,750 1,104,300 400,288 1 OOB AG Ti yaaa wes ess QO OAD cas aoe BE A ee cine evercrsi ais TO BAO Ai Sere Se ielaya ges 164,786,997 90,511,255 28,428,811 24,761,472 —__——_——— | =e 6,028,478 4,008,811 15,923 31,412 4,067,556 1,854,239 16,810 30,088 408,855 371,498 5,280 18,015 5,489,765 4,640,599 15,587 46,976 5,006,610 4,346,234 4.4237 21,191 1,444,743 683,069 | 6,153 1,957 4,735,495 4,746,290 1,119 95,921 3,777,984 2,981,850 1,543 4.970 10,017,787 8,139 583 183,575 177,681 5,850,588 2,344,900 275,128 95,299 13,464,722 11,089,859 280,852 436,292 60,242 258 45,206,392 808,397 959,802 8,095,035 705 1,343,689 150 1,000,157 211,464 105,379 36,980 13,259 111 37,240 5,848 T5309 2 Mite ec eae 12.946 ie oaes 316,046 83,309 $3,381 30,998 4,577,589 295,589 1,551,785 73,976 We have not the exact figures on hand for giving the statistics of butter and cheese made in the Union during the year 1865, but the production of cheese in the middle and western States alone, it is believed, was more than two hundred millions of pounds. From facts gathered by the American - Dairymen’s Association, it is known that there are now upward of a thousand cheese factories in operation throughout the United States. If the number of cows to each be estimated at five hundred, we have half a million cows employed in the associated dairies, and if the average annual yield per cow be put at three hundred pounds, we have in the aggregate one hundred and fifty million pounds. But there are a large number of private or family dairies in operation, especially in the eastern or middle States, the production 256 PracvicaL DArtryY HUSBANDRY. of which, it is believed, will more than make up the estimated annual product of cheese for 1865 to two hundred million pounds. If the value of the cheese product of 1865 be put on an average of fifteen cents per pound, it shows a total of $30,000,000, while the butter product, if. no larger than that of 1860, at the low price of twenty-five cents per pound, would amount to over $114,000,000. In the estimate of the cheese product it will be proper to remark that the quantity is presumed to be the amount sold, and does not include that consumed in the families of producers. EXPORTS OF CHEESE AND BUTTER. The statistics of trade show that the dairy products of the country are becoming an important branch of commerce. The following table gives the S I S g quantity of butter and cheese exported from New York for aseries of years: LBS. OF BUTTER. |LBS. OF CHEESE. A terete CMe ieta le sls) ale aiesefe sie wclete aoieie ntolsla/ajatel IS eieieisiaciata doll ahha See eee 5,098,000 Ta ats Oke RAR IRR ETS Saas Oe Cut a ena 2.494.000 9.287,000 Ha eR tA TR Wk take Oe a Ee 10,987,000 23 252.000 LES oo Se el Cem Mr 8g abe 7 SE 21,865,000 40.041.000 EEG, Sk RAN bp RU ERE RL Ns TST) BE laingg iO 29,241,000 38,722,000 ‘1533. civ ciel ch i AAR TER LSE RU cL a 23,060,793 40,781,168 “SBE OG Rtg 4 RO an a EE 2 By 14.174'861 46,755,842 EGE. wong ol A a RES OIE eS NE 22,000,000 47,101,000 “GE, 5 oie Staab A RR AT HRP De EL, 8 eileen el 5,000,000 45,000,000 Sie Le Sy OA Me A eC RNY RL Wie W Ay ESE 58,000,000 The decrease in the cheese exports of 1865 from those of the year previous, resulted from an extraordinary home demand, which took large quantities of cheese at a price in advance of what shippers felt warranted to pay for it to export. The shipments abroad have been mostly to Great Britain. § { 3.70 2.76 EMeLAl MAACCELS (ASIh),. 0. .ce so cl se csss's cu cescc nace 3.93 2.20 8.20 5.51 100.00 ; 100.00 ; 100.00 | 100.00 BContainin gs nvitrogenys 0s dik ind hontalas dou Miah DuOOC Pa. ae 3.83 3.90 7. Comlaj nine: COMMONSAl bss: % vsiaye)- do blame operons Kou ate ..89 .29 79 2.55 The two Stilton cheeses are very rich in butter, especially the second, which contains forty-four per cent. of pure fatty matters ; and as we have in common butter from fifteen to eighteen per cent. of water, besides caseine and other impurities, the pure fat in the second Stilton represents more than fifty per cent. of butter. The first analysis expresses the composition of a rather new Stilton. It was sold at one shilling per pound last October. The second analysis is that of an old Stilton, selling at fourteen pence per pound. There is about twelve per cent. less water in it then in new Stilton: more butter and less salt. Notwithstanding the smaller amount of salt, it had a more saline taste and much better flavor than the newer cheese. This saline taste is generally ascribed to the salt, and complaints are sometimes made by persons fond of mild-tasting cheese, that old cheese, in other respect rich and good, has been injured by too much salt. This is a mistake, of which the proof is found in the analysis of these two Stilton cheeses. The first was quite mild in flavor in comparison with the other, and yet it contained three times as much salt as the more saline-tasting older cheese. The fact is, the saline PrAcTicAL DAtrY HuSBANDRY. 805 taste is developed during the ripening of cheese ; newly-made cheese, though strongly salted, is always mild in taste. During the ripening of the alieese! a portion of the caseine or curd suffers ecu mapnaitiens and is partially changed into ammonia ; the latter, however, does not escape, but combines with seve- ral fatty acids ca med in te course of time from the butter. Peculiar ammo- niacal salts are thus produced, and these, like most other salts of ammonia, have a pungent, saline taste. The longer cheese is kept, within reasonable limits, the riper it gets; and as it ripens the proportion of ammoniacal salts, with their pungent, saline taste, increases. It can be readily shown that old cheese contains a good deal of ammonia in the shape of ammoniacal salts. All that is necessary is to pound a piece with some quick lime, when, on the addition of a little water, a strong smell of spirits of hartshorn will be devel- oped. In well-kept, sound old cheese the ammonia is not free, but exists in the form of salts, in which the base is ammonia, in combination with butyric, caprinic, caprylic, and other acids, generated under favorable circumstances by the fats of which butter consists, Ripe cheese, even if v ery old, but sound, instead of containing free ammonia, always exhibits a decidedly acid reaction when tested with blue litmus paper. Rotten cheese, on the other hand, is generally alkaline in its reaction, and contains free ammonia. Ihave made a quantitative determination of the amount of ammonia in old Stilton cheese, and found it to amount to 1.81 per cent. The first Cotherstone or Yorkshire Stilton was made near Barnard Castle, in the Vale of the Tees, and sold at one shilling per pound. It is highly esteemed in Durham and Yorkshire; but to my taste, the cheese which I analyzed is not to be compared with eel genuine Stilton, nor is it equal in flavor to Cheshire or Cheddar. Cotherstone cheese, it will be noticed, contains a very much larger pro- portion of water than even new Stilton. This imparts to it a smooth and apparently rich texture, but the proportion of butter is not really as great as it appears to be, nor, in point of fact, equal to that found in an average Ched- dar. It has usually a very strong taste, which would be decidedly objected to by Cheshire or Gloucestershire factors. In its preparation a good deal of whey appears to be left in the curd in mechanical combination, and to be the principal cause of the strong taste and smell which are its characteristics, and in which, more than any other English cheese, it resembles the foreign Rochefort. CHESHIRE AND CHEDDAR CHEESE. In making best Cheshire and good Cheddar cheese the whole milk is used, and cheese generally made but once a day. The first analysis illustrates the composition of good ripe, and the second that of good new Cheshire cheese. Since a good deal of water evaporates in keeping, the proportion of dry caseine, of mineral matters, and especially of butter (pure fat), must become larger with age. 20 306 PracticAL DAIRY HUSBANDRY. The following table shows the composition of two kinds of Cheshire and a number of Cheddar cheeses. eee | CHEDDAR CHEESE, No. 1.| No. 2.| No. 1.| No: # | No. 3. tal ee Abel, he 5] ee 6 mos. No. 4.| No. 5. | No. 6. Witter raya s oysse of «+ 65 .58 81 .86 .644 100.00 | 100.00 | 100.00 | 100.00 | 100.000 *Containing nitrogen,............+-e2.eee- 19 18 15 5.14 228 {Containing free lactic acid,.............. 48 AL 36 41 - .120 Vi DUET oie elie a ieee A pari ECS SR Cr Cae 92.95 | 98.150 | 92.95 | 93.30 | 93.25 Butter (pure fatty matters),............... 29 .546 24 ol 26 ae yinice meinsiend at By ot -aose ~.su |! stasis Milk-sugar and lactic acid,............4.. 5.08 | 4.662 5.27 4.68 4.70 ineral matters (ash),.......cceeeeeeeeeee 67 086 73 70 .88 100.00 {100.000 | 100.00 | 100.00 ; 100.00 PC OMLAIMITITMMTOL EN. wiajon- <6 sais. aoan oo 0s .16 S169) welt .16 .148 +Containing free lactic acid,.............- .54 | None. 39 41 41 | No. 11. | No. 12. | No. 138. | No. 14. | No, 15. DUVEINCIA see. =) hteinis = afore sisisio'p wietelee eis sit «eye 92.85 | 93.385 | 92.70 | 93.15 | 938.10 Butter (pure fatty matters),............... .29 25 31 14 .14 *Nitrogenous substances (caseine and al- 93 91 . 91 6 ANNO y sled e don topeSpocoomoUOoDaT .96 +Milk-sugar and lactic acid,.......-...... 5.03 5.00 5.31 5.06 §.31 Mineral matters (ash),.........00eeeeeeees .90 49 712 74 .69 100.00 ; 100.00 | 100.00 | 100.00 ; 100.00 FCOHUAIMINGWIULTOMENS: (5 5. sie es -eiolew's oe we 151 .148 15 .148 123 ¢Containing free lactic acid,.............- .60 48 -40 48 46 The whey which separates from curd that has been gently broken up is as bright as Rhenish wine, provided the milk has been curdled at the proper temperature by a sufficient quantity of good rennet. On the other hand, if the curd has been broken up carelessly in too great a hurry, the whey is more or less milky, and separates on standing, a large quantity of fine curd of the choicest character, for this fine curd is very rich in butter. Thus the best 320 PRACTICAL DAIRY HUSBANDRY. put of the curd, instead of becoming incorporated with the cheese, finds its way into the whey leads. Be the curd, however, broken up ever so gently, and the whey drawn off ever so carefully, the latter always throws up, on standing, some cream, which it is worth while to make into butter. But the quantity of whey butter made in good dairies is very insignificant in com- parison with that produced where less attention is paid to the breaking of the curd. I know it to be a fact, that in some dairies four times as much whey butter is made as in others. Where much whey butter is made the cheese is seldom of first-rate quality. Believing that this is a matter of some import- ance, I have visited many dairies, and repeatedly watched dairymaids break- ing the curd, and noticed the gentle, patient manner in which a clever woman goes to work, and the hurried, dashing proceedings of a slovenly girl. On these occasions I have taken samples of the whey, and submitted them after- wards to analysis. The results, as recorded in the preceding tables, show how much the whey of different dairies varies in chemical composition as well as in physical character. COMPOSITION OF WHEY TAKEN AT THREE DIFFERENT PERIODS. No. 17. No. 18. No. 16. 2d SAMPLE, 38d SAMPLE, ist SAMPLE. TAKEN 10 MINUTES | TAKEN 20 MINUTES AFTER ist SAMPLE. | AFTER 1St SAMPLE. WUVaer ee ce PN; pene tie Rise sclnle Staly eaten we 92.90 92.25 93.55 Butter (pure fat),..........ce.eeseee- 18 .18 .03 *Albuminous compounds,...........- 94 94 .94 Milk-sugar and Jactic acid,............ 5.30 5.03 4.82 Mineral matters (ash),.......-220e0+-- . 68 60 66 100.00 100.00 100.00 *Containing nitrogen,.......e.eee-0-- 15 15 15 When it is remembered that milk of good quality contains from three and a-half to four per cent. of butter, it will be readily seen that where samples of whey contain more than one-half per cent. of butter, the cheese is deprived of a very considerable portion of its most valuable constituent, and that its quality must therefore depend in a great measure on the care with which the curd is broken up and the manner in which the whey is drawn off. In some samples the amount of butter is so trifling that it is not considered worth the trouble to gather the cream and to make whey-butter. In the dairies in which this happy state of things exists excellent cheese is made. When the whey first separates from the curd it is always more or less turbid, but by degrees it becomes clearer; and if sufficient time is allowed, and it is then tapped off without disturbing the curd, it runs off almost as clear as water. By this means nearly the whole of the butter may be retained in the cheese. In order to place this beyond a doubt, I exam- ined the whey which Mr. Krxvi1, the inventor of the excellent cheese-making PractTicAt DAIRY HUSBANDRY. 321 ‘apparatus which bears his name, allowed me to take on the occasion of a visit which I recently paid to his dairy farm at Laycock, near Chippenham. One sample of whey was taken at the stage in which it was usually tapped off in Mr. Krrvir’s dairy; the second when the whey had become a little brighter, about ten minutes after the first; and the third about twenty minutes after the first. It then was as clear as water. These three samples when analyzed gave results as shown on preceding page. The first two samples are almost identical in composition; they both contain very little butter, but, small as that quantity is, it can be further reduced to a mere trace by letting the whey stand a little longer. In prac- tice it may for other reasons not be desirable to let the whey stand at rest quite so long as the third sample stood; and a dairymaid may congratulate herself when she succeeds in breaking up the curd so carefully that the whey contains as little butter as that made under Mr. Krrviw’s personal direction and excellent management. It may perhaps be supposed that the successful manner in which the butter is retained in the cheese in Mr. Krrvit’s dairy is entirely due to the use of his patent apparatus, and that by its introduction any dairymaid may be enabled to make good cheese. But this supposition is not correct. KEEVIL’s apparatus, useful and good as it is in many respects, is no safe- guard against carelessness. Cheese is spoiled with, as well as without it. It does not supersede patience and skill, but its merit consists in saving a great deal of hard labor and time. Beyond this, I may say, without dis- paragement to his ingenious contrivances for breaking the curd, straining off the whey, and other appliances, that it effects nothing which may not be done by hand. But this saving of time and hard labor is a great merit in an apparatus which can be bought at no great cost. Where from thirty to forty milking cows are kept, it may be safely recommended; in smaller dairies there may not be sufficient use for it. Having made frequent trial of KEEvit’s apparatus, I am anxious that its true merits should be known, but no unreasonable expectations be entertained. It has been said that it makes more and better cheese than can be made by hand. My own opinion is, that it makes neither more or less, neither better or worse cheese than a skillful dairymaid will make by hand, and that a careless one is as likely to spoil her cheese when using this apparatus as when making it according to her own fashion. Some of the very best and some of the very worst of cheeses which I have examined were made in dairies where KEEvi1’s apparatus is in daily use. The superior character of the one cheese is as little a proof of the merits of KrEviu’s apparatus as is the bad quality of the other an evidence against it. Again, I may point to the composition of the whey analyses marked No. 2, No. 3, No. 8 and No. 14, in the preceding large table, and to the three whey analyses to which I have just referred: 822 Practica Dairy HUSBANDRY. No. 2, containing .68 per cent. of butter, was made from curd taken by KEEryr1’s apparatus. No. 16, containing .18 per cent. of butter, was made from curd taken by KEEVIL’s apparatus. No. 18, containing 08 per cent. of butter, was made from curd taken by Kenvin’s apparatus. Here, then, we have two samples of whey very poor in butter, and one sample containing more butter than any of the seventeen which I analyzed. On the other hand: No. 3, containing .55 per cent. of butter, was made from curd broken by hand. No. 8, containing .24 per cent. of butter, was made from curd broken by hand. No. 14, containing .14 per cent. of butter, was made from curd broken by hand. Here, again, we have two well-separated samples of whey, and one rich in butter, all three. being made from curd broken by hand. Passing on from the loss of butter to that of the curd itself, I find that, although no doubt some fine curd is lost when the whey is very milky in appearance, yet as a rule this loss is small in most dairies. Indeed, my analyses prove positively that whey seldom contains much caseine or curd which might be retained by ever so careful filtration. I have filtered whey from good milk through the finest blotting paper, and obtained it as bright as crystal. On heating the perfectly clear whey to the boiling point, how- ever, a considerable quantity of a white, flaky substance, resembling in every respect albumen, or the white of egg, made its appearance. Collected ona filter, washed with distilled water, dried at 212° F., and weighed, this albu- minous or curd-like substance amounted on the average to about .9 or nearly one per cent. in good milk; in very rich milk there may be a little more, in poor a little less. This albuminous matter is contained in the whey in a state of perfect solution, and differs from caseine or curd in not being coagulated by rennet. I have called it an albuminous matter, because, like albumen, it separates in flakes from the whey at the temperature of boiling water. Any one may prove the existence of this substance, which, however bright the whey may be, it invariably deposits in abundance at the boiling point. Assuming, then, .9 to be the average proportion of this albuminous mat- ter in whey, and deducting this proportion from the total amount of nitro- genized substances in the eighteen samples of whey, we obtain the amount of curd held in mechanical suspension. Thus we get for No. 1 whey, .80 per cent. of curd, held in a state of mechanical suspension. No. 2, 4, 8 and 15 whey, none. No. 3 and 18 whey, .06 per cent. of curd, held in a state of mechanical suspension. No. 5 whey, .525 per cent. of curd, held in a state of mechanical suspension. No. 6 and 9 whey, .11 per cent. of curd, held in a state of mechanical suspension. No. 7 whey, .156 per cent. of curd, held in a state of mechanical suspension. No. 10, 12 and 14 whey .01 per cent. of curd, held in a state of mechanical suspension. No. 11 whey, .03 per cent. of curd, held-in a state of mechanical suspension. No. 16, 17 and 18 whey, .04 per cent. of curd, held in a state of mechanical suspension. PRAcTICAL DAIRY HUSBANDRY. ® 823 Thus only in one sample out of eighteen there was about one-half per cent. of curd held in mechanical suspension, and one sample containing three- tenths per cent., all the other samples, practically speaking, containing no suspended curd. Thus it is not so much the curd as the butter which is lost when whey is badly separated from the curd. 4. When the curd has become sufficiently consolidated and is ready to be vatted, it is crumbled down into small fragments. For this operation every dairy should be furnished with a curd mill, a simple and inexpensive contri- vance, which saves much labor, and produces, generally speaking, a more uniform material than the hand. 5. Cheese is also spoiled occasionally by badly made rennet, that is, ren- net which is either too weak or has a disagreeable smell. In the one case the curd does not separate completely, and that which separates remains tender ; in the other the milk is tainted, and the flavor of the cheese is affected. The rennet used in different parts of England varies exceedingly in strength and in flavor. Even in the same locality the usage differs on adja- cent farms. Although I have in my possession some dozens of rennet recipes, which were given to me by experienced dairymaids, each as the very best, I shall not give a single recipe for making rennet, as my object is rather to elucidate chemical principles than to prescribe details; and also because, as long as the smell of the rennet is fresh, and a sufficient quantity is used, it matters little, in my opinion, how it is made. The ordinary practice in Cheshire is to make rennet fresh every morn- ing by taking a small bit of dried skin, infusing it in water, and using this infusion for one day’s making. In Gloucestershire and Wiltshire a — supply is made for the pickled vells, which lasts for two or three months. Generally the rennet is made in these counties twice in the season. I have had a good deal of discussion with practical men respecting the comparative merits of these two methods. The Cheshire farmers almost unanimously object that the rennet does not keep well when made in any quantity of pickled vells. This, however, is quite a mistake. I have in my possession some rennet which is as nicely flavored now as it was some nine months ago, when it was made. It has, of course, a peculiar animal odor, but nothing approaching a putrid smell. The spices which are used in some localities, such as cloves and lemons, tend very much to keep the rennet in a good con- dition and give it an agreeable flavor. The objection, then, of the Cheshire farmers, that rennet, when a supply is made, does not keep, and spoils the flavor of cheese, is certainly untenable. I am much inclined to consider the practice of Gloucestershire and Wiltshire, of making a considerable supply of rennet, a good one; for, when once the strength of the rennet has been ascertained, it is merely necessary to take the proper quantity, one or two cupfuls, to produce the desired effect with certainty ; whereas, when the rennet is made day by day, there is not the same certainty of obtaining an infusion of uniform strength. 324 PRACTICAL DAIRY HUSBANDRY. Scientific and practical writers on milk have stated that the caseine is held in solution by a small quantity of alkali; that when in warm weather milk curdles, lactic acid, which is always found in sour milk, is formed from a portion of the sugar of milk; and this lactic acid, by neutralizing the alkali which holds the caseine in solution, causes its separation from the milk. Rennet is supposed to act as a ferment, which rapidly converts some of the sugar of milk into lactic acid. Whether, therefore, milk coagulates spon- taneously after some length of time, or more rapidly on the addition of rennet, in either case the separation of the curd is supposed to be due to the removal of the free alkali by lactic acid. ; This theory, however, is not quite consistent with facts. The caseine in milk cannot be said to be held in solution by free alkali; for, although it is true that milk often has a slightly alkaline reaction, it is likewise a fact that sometimes perfectly fresh milk is slightly acid. We might as well say, there- fore, that the caseine is held in solution by a little free acid, as by free alkali. Newly drawn milk, again, is often perfectly neutral ; but, whether milk be neutral, or alkaline, or acid, the caseine exists in it ina state of solution, which cannot, therefore, depend on an alkaline reaction. We all know that milk, when it turns sour, curdles very readily. It is not the fact that a good deal of acid curdles milk which I dispute, but the assumption that the caseine in milk is held in solution by free alkali. The action of rennet upon milk, then, is not such as has been hitherto represented by all chemists who have treated of this subject. Like many other animal matters which act as fer- ments, rennet, it is true, rapidly induces the milk to turn sour; but free lactic acid, I find, makes its appearance in milk after the curd has separated, and not simultaneously with the precipitation of the curd. Perfectly fresh and neutral milk, on the addition of rennet, coagulates, but the whey is per- fectly neutral. I have even purposely made milk alkaline, and yet succeeded in separating the curd by rennet; and, what is more, obtained a whey which had an alkaline reaction. What may be the precise mode in which rennet acts upon milk, I dd not presume to explain. I believe it to be an action swi generis, which as yet is only known by its effects. We at present are even unacquainted with the precise chemical character and the composition of the active pune in rennet, and have not even a name for it. Finding the effect of rennet upon milk to be different from that which I expected, ie made a number of experi- ments, which may here find a place. lst Hxperiment.—To a pint of new milk, slightly alkaline to test-paper, and of 60° Fahr., one-fourth ounce of rennet was added. Result—No coagulation after three hours. Another quarter ounce of the same rennet was then added. Result—The milk coagulated one hour after this addition, but the caseine was by no means well separated, and remained tender and too spongy, even after twenty-four hours. The whey was slightly alkaline. PRACTICAL -DAIRY HUSBANDRY. 325 2d Haup.—To another pint of milk, neutral to test-paper, I added one-half ounce of the same rennet. The temperature of the milk was 60°, as before. Result—The curd separated (though imperfectly) after three hours. The whey was neutral. N. B.—It will be seen that the curd separated more readily from milk which was neutral, than from that which was alkaline. 3d Hxp.—tTo two pints of skimmed milk (twenty-four hours old), and very slightly acid, I added one-half ounce of rennet. Temperature of milk 59° Fahr. Fesult—Curd separated in two hours ; reaction of whey the same as that of the milk. » Thus, if the milk is slightly sour, rennet separates the curd more readily than when it is neutral, though the temperature may be low. 4th Exp.—tyTo one pint of milk, slightly alkaline, and heated to 82° Fahr., one-fourth ounce of rennet was added. Result—The milk coagulated in twenty minutes; the whey was slightly alkaline. 5th Hxp.—To one pint of milk heated to 100°, and neutral on reaction, one-half ounce of rennet was added. Result—Milk coagulated in one-quarter of an hour; whey perfectly neutral. 6th Hep.—Added to one pint of milk one-fourth ounce of rennet. The temperature of milk was 110° ; its reaction alkaline. Result—Milk coagulated in ten minutes; the whey was alkaline. "th Hap.—Milk was raised to 120° Fahr., and one-fourth ounce of rennet added to one pint of milk, which was slightly alkaline to test-paper. Result—Milk coagulated in ten minutes ; the whey had the same reaction as the milk. : 8th Hap.—One pint of milk was heated to 130°, and one-fourth ounce of rennet added. Result—Curd separated in twenty minutes; whey had the same reaction as milk. The experiment was repeated, and found correct. It will thus appear that too high a temperature is not so favorable to the coagulation of the milk as a less elevated one. The separation, which at 120° took place in ten minutes, at 130° occupied twenty minutes. 9th Hep.—Heated one pint of milk to 150°, added one-fourth ounce of rennet. Kesult—Milk did not coagulate after twenty-four hours. 10th Hxep.—Heated milk to 140°, added rennet. Result—N 0 coagulation. 11th Hep.—Heated milk to 135°, added rennet. 326 PracricaAL DAiry Huspanpry. Result—No coagulation took place, even after three hours. I then added another quarter ounce; the milk by this time had cooled down, and the fresh quantity of rennet caused the separation of curd in less than twenty minutes. Thus, at 120°, milk coagulates most readily ; at 130°, it takes a some- what longer time ; and at 135°, and upwards, it ceases to coagulate. 12th Hxp.—Heated one pint of milk to boiling point, added one-fourth ounce of rennet. Atesulti—N oo curd had separated when examined, after twenty-four hours’ standing. 13th Exp.—Heated another pint of milk to boiling point, and added one- fourth ounce of rennet. : Lteswti—Milk did not coagulate after twenty-four hours. ‘I then added a little more fresh rennet to the cooled milk, and again gently heated it, when the curd separated in less than one-quarter of an hour. Thus the temperature of boiling water, and even a much lower heat, destroys the action of the rennet, but does not so permanently change the caseine of milk that it cannot be separated. The whey in the last experiment, again, was neutral, like the milk. 14th Exp.—To one pint of fresh milk I added ten grains .of carbonate of potash, raised the temperature to 88° Fahr., and added one-fourth ounce of rennet. ftesuli—Curd separated in half an hour. The milk and the whey were strongly alkaline. After twenty-four hours the whey was neutral, and then it became acid by degrees. 15th Hxp.—tTo one pint of milk I added twenty grains of carbonate of — potash, heated to 90° Fahr., and added one-fourth ounce of rennet. Stesult—The curd separated in half an hour, but not so perfectly as in the preceding experiment, and in a softer condition. The whey was more milky in appearance, and strongly alkaline. Examined after twenty-four ‘hours’ standing, it was found to be neutral; after a lapse of two days, it was acid. Even a considerable quantity of an alkali, therefore, does not prevent the coagulation of milk by rennet. 16th Hep.—tTo another pint of milk I added an unweighed quantity of potash heated to 84°, and then one-fourth ounce of rennet. i fiesult—No coagulation took place. Much more alkali was used in this experiment than in the two preceding ; an excess of alkali, therefore, prevents the Separation of curd by rennet. 17th Exp.—To some milk, sufficient tartaric acid was added to make it — distinctly acid. Result—No coagulation took place in the cold. On the application of heat, the milk coagulated but imperfectly. 18th Exp.—To another portion of milk I added a good deal of tartaric acid. Pracrican DAIRY HUSBANDRY. 327 Result—The milk coagulated after some time, but imperfectly ; on raising the temperature, more curd fell down. In order to precipitate the caseine from milk by tartaric acid, it is thus necessary to add a very large excess of acid, and at the same time to raise the temperature of the milk. These experiments prove thus— a.—That the action of rennet on milk is not the same as that of an acid, inas- much as rennet coagulates new milk without turning it sour in the least degree. 6.—That rennet can precipitate curd from milk, even when purposely made alkaline. ¢.—That the whey of milk, when produced from perfectly sweet or neutral milk, is at first perfectly sweet or neutral, but rapidly turns sour. If made from milk having an alkaline reaction, the whey at first is alka- line; when from milk slightly acid, the whey likewise is slightly acid. d.—That et ceases to coagulate milk at about 185°, and upwards. e.—That the action of rennet upon milk is more energetic when the milk is slightly acid. This, perhaps, is the reason why some persons recom- mend putting some sour whey into the milk before or after adding the rennet. f—That an excess of alkali prevents the coagulation of milk by rennet. g—That an excess of acid coagulates milk, but not perfectly in the cold. h.—That a moderate amount of acid does not coagulate milk in the cold, and imperfectly at an elevated temperature. 6. Cheese, again, is sometimes spoiled when bad annatto is employed as a coloring matter. Annatto at the best is a nasty, disagreeable smelling sub-_ stance; it would be well if it were banished altogether from the dairy. But, so long as a good many people will prefer colored to uncolored cheese, annatto will be employed for the purpose of imparting a more or less deep yellow color. The annatto of commerce is derived from the Orelan tree (Bixa orellana). The seeds and pulp of this tree appear to contain two coloring matters; one, in a pure state, is orange-red, and is called bixin; the other is yellow, and ealled orellin. These coloring matters are insoluble in water, but dissolve readily in alkalies, and also in fixed oils and fats. Solid annatto, the annatto cake of commerce, is a preparation, which contains, besides the pure coloring matter, a great deal of potash or soda, carbonate of lime, pipe clay, earthy matters and rubbish of various kinds. Soap, train-oil and other disagreeable smelling and tasting matters are often used in preparing annatto cake. Hence the annatto of commerce is often a most nauseous material, which, when put into the cheese tub, is apt to give the cheese a bad taste and an unsightly color. Far superior to this annatto, and more handy in its appli- cation, is the liquid anflatto, which is mainly an alkaline solution of the pure coloring matter of the Biwa orellana. An excellent solution of that descrip- 328 PracticaL DAIRY HUSBANDRY. tion is manufactured by Mr. Nicuors of Chippenham, which is perfectly clear, has a bright yellow color, and is free from any of the obnoxious and disagreeable substances which are frequently mixed up with annatto cake. 7. In the next place I would observe that cheese is occasionally spoiled if too much salt is used in curing it. Salt is a powerful antiseptic, that is, it prevents fermentation ; hence we use it for pickling beef and hams. A cer- tain amount of salt is necessary, not so much for giving a saline taste, as for keeping in check the fermentation to which cheese, like other animal matters, is lable. If no salt were used the cheese would putrefy, and acquire a very strong taste and smell, at least when made in the ordinary way. When an extra quantity of cream is put to the milk, it is not necessary, or even desi- rable, to salt the curd much; we might even do without salt altogether, for the large amount of fat (butter) in extra rich cheeses, such as Stilton or Cream Cheddar, sufficiently preserves the caseine. If salt is employed in excess, the cheese does not ripen properly, or acquire that fine flavor, which depends upon the fermentation proceeding in a sufficiently active degree. Too much salt, by checking this chemical activity, is thus injurious to the proper ripening of cheese. The saline taste of old cheese, as already explained, is not due so much to the common salt used in its preparation, as to certain ammoniacal salts which are formed during the ripening process. It sounds strange, but it is nevertheless the case, that over-salted cheeses do not taste nearly so saline when kept for six or eight months, as under-salted cheeses kept: equally long. If the milk is very rich, somewhat less salt should be used than when it is poor. Onno account, however, should more than two pounds of salt be used per hundred weight of cheese; one and a-half pounds in most cases is quite enough, and even one pound will be found a sufficient quantity when rich cheeses are made. 8. Lastly, an inferior quality of cheese is sometimes produced when it is imperfectly salted; that is, when the salt is not properly applied to the cheese. I have often seen the salt put upon the curd in rough bits ; more often proper care is not taken to mix the curd with the salt, and the cheese becomes unequally salted. The consequence is that some particles of the cheese ferment too much, others too little, and that the portions which are too much salted do not stick well together, and acquire a dry and crumbly texture. The salt used in dairies should be of the finest description, and should be sifted evenly through a fine sieve on the curd, after the latter has been passed through the curd-mill, and thinly spread in shallow leads to cool. _ This plan of spreading the salt saves a good deal of labor, and is greatly to be preferred to the system of pickling the cheese in brine after it is made, or of rubbing in salt. When salt is applied, either in solution or by rubbing it into the cheese after it has been in the presses, the outside is apt to get hard, and close up too much. It is, of course, desirable to get a good and firm coat, but, at the same time, the pores should not be tgo much closed, so that the emanations which proceed from the cheese cannot escape. Thin cheeses PRAcTICAL DAIRY HUSBANDRY. ! 329 _ may be salted after they have been in the press; but, in making thick cheeses, it is far better to salt the curd before it is put into the vat. A rather novel way of salting cheese has lately been made the subject of experiments in America. As the following communication to the pages of the Country Gentleman and Cultivator, an American agricultural paper, may have some interest, I take the liberty of inserting it here: IMPORTANT EXPERIMENT IN CHEESE-MAKING. ‘The dairy season is about commencing again, and I desire the privilege of a corner in your paper, to give the result of extended experiments in cheese-making. In the first place I shall take it for granted that the whole process up to salting is well understood, for it is of salting that I wish to speak in this article. | “In June, 1859, I finished a few cheeses after the following manner: When my curd was scalded (I practice thorough scalding), I threw into the vat about four quarts of salt—sometimes only three—for a cheese of fifty to sixty pounds, stirring thoroughly. Those which went into the hoop before being well cooled off, acted badly ; but when I took time and means to cool sufficiently, the cheeses were very fine. On the whole, I did not like the process and abandoned it. “In 1860 I commenced again, changing the programme as follows: After scalding I drew off the whey, leaving just enough to float the curd, and began to cool off, hurrying the process by pumping in cold water and chang- ing often. Then, to a curd of say sixty pounds, a little more or less, I threw in sometimes three and sometimes four quarts of salt, and stirred till well cooled—then drew off the salted whey, and threw it on the compost heap— put the curd to press, and pressed rapidly and thoroughly. And now for the result. I lost from my whey tub about three pails of whey and some salt. I gained in this, that my dripping tub under the press never had a particle of cream rise upon it, and in having a cheese that gave me no trouble in curing, and that when sent to market sold for the very highest price, and called forth the unqualified approbation of dealers as being perfect in all respects—fine flavored, very solid (not porous), and very fat. ‘* And now let me talk to the experience of dairymen. In the old-fash- ioned way of breaking up and salting a curd, more or less bruising of the curd to break the lumps, in order to get the salt evenly distributed, is neces- sary; and when put to press the white whey runs off freely, or in other words the cream runs off, and of course with it the richness of the cheese, and more or less of its weight ; and if the curd is very dry you are liable to get your cheese too high salted, if not, the reverse. “‘ My experiments clearly prove that a curd salted in whey will retain no more salt than it needs, and that as every particle comes in contact with the brine through the operation of stirring, no bruising is necessary. Whether this is the philosophy of it or not, I am not chemist enough to determine, 330 PRAcTICAL DAIRY HUSBANDRY. but I do know that if there is no discharge of white whey, or cream, it is retained in the cheese, adding to it both richness and weight as a remunera- tion for the extra salt and the wasted whey.” IIlI.— PRACTICAL ERRORS MADE IN KEEPING CHEESE. The following are some of the practical mistakes that are occasionally made after the cheese has left the presses and is placed in the store-rooms. 1. Cheese is deteriorated in quality when it is placed in damp or in badly ventilated rooms. When beef or mutton is kept for a day or two in a damp and badly venti- lated place, the meat soon acquires a disagreeable, cellar-like taste. The same is the case with cheese. Kept in a damp place, it also becomes moldy, and generates abundance of mites. In some parts of Cheshire it is a common practice to keep cheese in dark rooms, carefully shutting out the free access of air. This is an objectionable practice, which no doubt has its origin in the desire to maintain in the store- rooms a somewhat elevated temperature, and to avoid draughts of cold air. It is quite true that draughts are injurious to newly-made cheese, and a somewhat elevated temperature decidedly favors its ripening and the devel- opment of a fine flavor; but the one may be avoided, and the other can be maintained quite well, at the same time that due provision is made for the admission and circulation of fresh air. During the first stage of ripening, a good deal of water and other emana-- tions escape ftom the cheeses, which, if not allowed freely to pass away, make the air damp and injure the flavor of the cheeses. Why cheese should be kept in dark rooms is to me a mystery. 2. Cheese newly made is spoiled by not turning it frequently enough. Thick cheeses especially require to be frequently turned, in order that the water which is given off from the interior warmer parts of the cheese may freely escape, and all sides be exposed at short intervals to the air. If this is neglected, that part which is in close contact with the board on which it rests becomes smeary and rots, and by degrees the whole cheese is spoiled. The boards, we need hardly say, should be wiped with a dry cloth from time to time as well as the cheese. 3, Cheese does not ripen properly, and therefore remains deficient in p flavor, if the temperature of the cheese-room is too low. The ripening of cheese is essentially a process of fermentation, which may be accelerated or depressed by a proper or by too low a temperature. Any temperature under 60° is unfavorable, and should therefore be avoided. 4. Cheese is also spoiled if the temperature of the cheese-room is too high. If the temperature of the room rises above 75°, the fermentation becomes so active that a cheese is apt to bulge out at the sides, and to lose the uniform and close texture which characterises it when good. 5. Lastly, cheese is sometimes spoiled if the temperature of the cheese. room varies too much at different times. PRAcvTICAL DAIRY HUSBANDRY. 3a A steady fermentation, which is essential to the proper ripening of the cheese, can only be maintained in a room which is not subject to great fluc- tuations in temperature. The more uniformly, therefore, the cheese-room is heated, the more readily cheese can be brought into the market, and the finer the quality will be. For this reason hot-water pipes, which give a very steady, gentle, and lasting heat, are greatly to be preferred to stoves in cheese-rooms ; with the latter it is almost impossible to maintain an equable temperature. The cheeses nearest to the stove, again, are apt to get too much and those farthest off not enough, heat. Constant attention is moreover required; and firing in the room is always productive of more or less dust and dirt. These inconveniences are entirely avoided by the system of heating by hot-water pipes. In every dairy hot water is in constant request; the same boiler which heats the water for cleaning the dairy utensils may be conveniently connected with iron pipes that passin and round the cheese-room. Beyond the first cost of the iron pipes hardly any extra expense in fuel is thusincurred. An extra pipe likewise may be introduced which connects the boiler with Coquzt’s apparatus, and by this means the curd in the tub may be scalded much more conveniently and regularly than by pouring hot whey or water over it. I have not made a sufficient number of observations to say definitely which is the best temperature to be maintained in a cheese-room; but in my judge- ment a uniform temperature of 70° to 75° is highly favorable to the ripen- ing process. The proper regulation of the temperature of the cheese-room, and the general plan of heating by hot water, I believe, is one of the greatest of our recent improvements. These are some of the practical mistakes which I have noticed in our dairies. I have endeavored to assign reasons why they must be so regarded, and have ventured to point out the appropriate remedies, many of which, however, suggest themselves naturally to any intelligent observer. My object has been, not so much to write a treatise on cheese-making, as to - enable those interested in dairy operations to read the various treatises and pamphlets on cheese-making with profit, so as to be able to sift the recom- mendations which are worth imitating from the heap of empirical rubbish under which they are too often buried. No directions, however carefully given, can ever be of much service in an art which, like cheese-making, does not so much presuppose a great amount of knowledge as practical experience, dexterity and cleanly habits. Neither skill in manipulation, nor habits of cleanliness, nor experience can be acquired by reading. A good or a sensible pamphlet, no doubt, may be read with benefit even by an experienced hand ; but the very best of treatises, in the nature of things, cannot teach a person who wants a rule or a receipt for everything, how to make a good cheese. A good cookery book, no doubt, is a useful literary production, but the best cookery-book is incapable of teaching an inexperienced person the art of 332 ' Practical DAIRY HUSBANDRY. making light and wholesome pie-crust. It is the same with cheese-making as with cookery, as we shall do well to bear in mind. Lest these observations on publications on cheese-making should seem to disparage too much the merits of the different authors, I may state distinctly that a few papers contain valuable and plain directions for making good cheese ; but I am bound at the same time to confess that the greater number, and more especially most of the prize essays on cheese-making which I have read, in my humble opinion, are next to useless to the dairy-farmer, inasmuch as they generally contain nothing good but what every dairy-farmer has long known ever since he began making cheese—and a great deal besides, which, though it may appear novel, ingenious or feasible, will at once be condemned by any man of sound judgement as visionary and utterly impracticable. There are many topics intimately connected with the manufacture of cheese on which I have not touched at all, such as the influence of the food on the quantity and quanlity of milk, an important subject as yet hardly investi- gated at all. Again, the influence of the race on the production of milk deserves to be carefully studied, besides various other points on which prac- tical men may wish to obtain trustworthy information. My passing them over in silence in the present paper will not, I trust, be taken as an indication of want of acquaintance with the real, practical wants of the dairy-farmer. Hitherto scarcely anything directly bearing on dairy-practice has been done by scientific men ; the whole investigation has, therefore, engaged my liveliest attention, and brought to light some unexpected chemical facts which have been recorded in the preceding pages. Others I hope to lay before the readers of the Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society when the researches still in hand shall be in a sufficiently advanced state to warrant their publication. VOELCKER'S CHEESE EXPERIMENTS. On Pasture Farms, where the milk is not all sold as new milk, nor used for fattening calves, the question arises, by what other means it may most profitably be converted into marketable produce, and there is still a choice between four different modes of proceeding: 1. The whole milk may be made into cheese. 2. The cream may be skimmed from part of the milk for making butter, and the skimmed milk added to new milk, and then made into cheese. 3. The whole of the milk may be skimmed and made into skim-milk cheese, and the cream into butter. 4. The whole milk may be skimmed, and made into skim-milk cheese; the cream from the skimmed milk be added to new milk, and made into extra rich cheese. | The question is, which of these four modes gives the best money return. Such a purely practical question can be tested satisfactorily in one way only, that is by actual trials. I therefore gladly availed myself of the kindness of niy friend Mr. Tuomas Procror, who most liberally placed his dairy at my command, that I might institute a series of experiments calculated to further the solution of this inquiry. Iam, likewise, much indebted to Mr. Tanner for the practical assistance which he rendered me by superintending the experi- ments which were made on a sufficiently large scale to furnish reliable data. For each experimental cheese an equal quantity of milk was used, consist- ing of one hundred and thirty quarts of evening milk and one hundred and thirty quarts of morning milk. The first experimental cheese was made on the 11th of August, 1860; the others on the following days. In Mr. Procror’s dairy at Wall’s Court (now in the occupation of Mr. Ricuarp Srratron) cheese is made in the Cheddar fashion. In making the different experimental cheeses, the same general process was adopted, being that usually employed in this dairy. — Immediately after the morning milking, the evening and morning milks were put together into a Cockney’s tin tub, having a jacketed bottom for the admission of steam or cold water. The temperature of the whole was slowly raised to 80°, by admitting steam into the jacketed bottom. No annatto was used for coloring; after the 334 PRACTICAL DAIRY HUSBANDRY. addition of the necessary quantity of rennet, the tub was covered with a cloth and left for an hour. Rennet, it may be remarked, when properly prepared and added in sufficient quantity, should perfectly coagulate milk at 80° in from three-quarters of an hour to one hour. If the milk fail to be coagulated within the hour, the curd produced will be too tender, and not easily separated from the whey without loss of butter and injury to the quality of the cheese. These results invariably follow when the rennet is not sufficiently strong, or too little of it is employed. On the other hand, if the curd is completely separated from milk at 80° Fahrenheit in twenty to twenty-five minutes, the cheese produced is apt to be sour or hard. An excess of rennet always has the effect of separating the curd from the milk too rapidly, and in a hard condition. As much depends upon the strength of the rennet, it is useful in daily practice to prepare a large quantity at a time, and to ascertain by a few trials the proper amount for mixing with a given quantity of milk. In experi- mental trials, it is absolutely indispensable to know the strength of the rennet, and to employ the same rennet in all the trials. At Wall’s Court we took special care to fulfil these conditions. Our plan of proceeding was as follows:—At about half-past eight o’clock, the curd was partially broken and allowed to subside for about half an hour, after which the temperature was raised very gradually to 108° Fahrenheit, by letting steam into the hollow bottom of the cheese-tub; the curd and whey, meanwhile, being gently stirred with a wire breaker, so that the heat was uniformly distributed, and the curd minutely broken. The heat was kept at 108° for an hour, during which time the stirring was continued ; the curd, now broken into pieces of the size of a pea, was then left for half an hour to settle. ; The whey was then drawn off by opening a spigot near the bottom’ of the tub. As the curd which is obtained by this process is quite tough, it readily separates from the whey, and no pressure whatever is at first requisite to make the bulk of it run off in a perfectly clear state. The curd, collected in one mass, was then rapidly cooled and cut across into large slices, turned over once or twice, and left to drain for half an hour. As soon as it was tolerably dry and had cooled down considerably, if was placed under the press and much of the remaining whey removed by pressure. After this the cheese was broken at first coarsely by hand, and then by the curd-mill, which divides it into small fragments. A little salt was then added and thoroughly mingled with the curd. The next operation was the vatting. The cheese vat, completely filled with the broken and salted curd, was covered with a cloth; the curd was reversed in the cloth, put back into the vat, covered up and placed in the press. The cheese cloth was removed several times, and the cheeses were ready to leave the press on the sixth morning. Mr. Procror’s dairy was furnished with one of Messrs. Cocxry’s heating apparatus. This apparatus Practican Dairy HUSBANDRY. 335 ‘not only maintains a uniform temperature in the room in which the cheese is ripened, but provides a supply of steam, by which the milk and whey may be kept at any temperature which may be required; the necessity of removing a large quantity of milk or whey to a boiler to be heated, that it may impart the proper temperature to the remainder of the milk or whey in the cheese- tub, is thus done away with. As the steam is quickly generated, careless dairymaids sometimes spoil the cheese in a few minutes by allowing the tem- perature to rise too high. When the curd is overheated, the cheese made from it is always hard and deficient in flavor. In using Cockzy’s jacketed cheese-tub, care should also be taken to stir up constantly the contents of the tub when steam is admitted into the false bottom, for the purpose of raising the temperature to about 100°, after the curd has been broken up coarsely. If this precaution is neglected, a portion of the curd adheres to the heated bottom, and melts. The melted curd pre- vents the equal distribution of the heat, and by not amalgamating with the remaining curd produces a cheese which is not uniform in texture, ripens unequally, and is altogether of an inferior quality. When steam is admitted into the jacketed bottom of the tub, the dairymaid should not leave her place for a moment, and constantly keep her hands employed in stirring the contents of the tub with the shovel wire-breaker. This is rather hard work, and therefore much better performed by men than by women, many of whom dislike CockEy’s cheese-tub. Where it is in use there is, indeed, greater risk of the cheese being spoiled than when whey heated in a boiler is added to raise the contents of an ordinary tub to the required temperature. But it is manifestly unjust to condemn a useful apparatus on account of the mischief which may arise from its misuse. Cockey’s cheese-tub, I have no hesitation in saying, is an excellent appa- ratus which saves a great deal of labor; but excellent though it may be, I cannot recommend its use to those who cannot place implicit reliance on the care and vigilance of the dairywoman. These women, as a class, are not willing to alter the plan of their operations, and learn the use of a new appa- ratus, which, if it saves much labor, still requires some special attention—an effort which to some minds seems more troublesome than down-right hard manual labor. The rennet used in the dairy was made according to the following receipt: Slice the half of a lemon; sprinkle it with about six ounces of salt, then pour upon it one quart of boiling water; cover the vessel to retain the steam. When cold put into the liquid one fresh vell; allow the whole to stand for two days, then strain the liquid through a fine cloth, and the ren- net is ready for use. This quantity is deemed sufficient to coagulate six hundred gallons of milk. Prepared in this mode, and carefully strained off from the sediment which makes its appearance in the course of some days, rennet keeps sweet and efficient for several months. 336 PracricAt Datry HUSBANDRY. EXPERIMENTAL CHEESE NO. 1 (WHOLE-MILK CHEESE.) A cheese was made from one hundred and thirty quarts of evening milk and one hundred and thirty quarts of morning milk as drawn from the cow. A sample of the mixed morning and evening milk, on analysis, gave the following results : IWWSLLOR So aus ciateva, aroeve eicasueresalcbesisjagatekevaxers (ovale, cua: eles. sisiel opie eiel ede tere et ee eee 87.30 BU Cen eats oot reat orn Biche bese sabelaieireueia se ce viel sia stacetcrsl ool overatey ce oe ema 3.75 WC ASCIME TN, MeMaeictatmrseeiee Mom rail unt care hoes Stal chiens a welche Ap alts eee eae 3.31 Malkesuear andsextractive Matters. | ceo c..9 . 2.027 ..229luhivers’« oh. Pemciigacdes Aen elt deer ae bys is Total loss in six and a-half months, four and a-half pounds, or seven and one-fourth per cent. Loss when ready for sale, three and one-fourth pounds, or five and one-fourth per cent. COMPOSITION OF CHEESE NO, 5 ON THE 11TH JULY, 1861. WEIS ee ee en anne aeeeM eer Ne ee oe eRe Sg gid 31.70 JBI DAA eh eR Lt Rie Hie he ie baie So, sora 36.18 PACTSEMNE eo cade deste su es sans enes one CoE REE ee era 27.19 Hxtrachive matters, lactic.acid, @c...+2. ..csse+s ees aae ooteees oe 1.95 jalineralematters’(ash)... 3sc\ss.0'0 6d ead tele ee ae eee 2.98 100.00 * Containing nitrogen. : > dases2 oe NASER ae ee mee < cee 4.35 { Containing: common Salt: 5:5 50h: Seer et sees heen tec eae 04 PRACTICAL DAIRY HUSBANDRY. 341 CHEESE NO. 6 (PARTIALLY-SKIMMED-MILK CHEESE). Made from one hundred and thirty quarts of new milk and one hundred and thirty quarts of skimmed milk. COMPOSITION OF MILK FROM WHICH CHEESE No. 6 WAS MADE. VENTER RIGO Ae eye Deed SENNA MRA Oe aT ORR SN 88.50 TEU REE AG ec AA a As i A a Maa rae Cee TL IS ARN 2.43 BEIM Om rere snisishucPeeoeeceiae er eetete canal e Sa sclcle esis Sh cisitrelaby ee gee ee 3.25 MONS oar rex MhACEIVe MMALLCESV OC, siiayusoss sce e cee tecaio ose ecein es 5.03 WETET AIM ELLET S| (ASM) Faces casey siete one o's .ace Slensete) aye aby sictitn seteekarbys agstebats wokele 9 100.00 BAWOntaiMine MUEOMeMs «fc cates os Liesl he aoe SOR aa fe Cocaceee 02 Ten pints of cream were taken from one hundred and thirty quarts of milk, and produced nine and one-fourth pounds of butter. COMPOSITION OF WHEY FROM CHEESE NO 6. VV ITS Gio RA EI ans tg ties GER Te aia ih cor he GM BS RE 93.05 MEM MMT sere 50) cai cry cen oh chy HR NL Han eee ela eh te hoa eh cx ear mea Ny poke AP Nhe 40 MMMM TOMS COMPO UN Sic easy toners eictevounsaayetet hors cnsnstore fous texspen re teers acorn: 95 PUB ceS UTS ATRL AC HLCP AC lca Ce hoy ars eee yoraterch sv avevcaakeveh aaisuer craton cvecaneeenaee Renae 496 UVM RERE Leh IT eA EENS/ (ASI): — osceia ve denahesialdcas eyere ove sends aera Naseer en dere AIAG 64 100.00 This cheese was made on the 18th of August and weighed : = 2. ESTOS S00 eiciots vie Mes sal rela Ra ea re en olen A aA d8 ibs, PS TET ASIEN DENS: UC UHV At AI EI COD a cot EN 5244 “ LG SEMDG Mats Sac brdeseide be eats AeA Ay Aer RNa Darin eairieel nea) ea 49% “ af BIGOT p MUN Seis. wie gchar ev ctte a Nay Ae wins aimena le heals Geko okt Sale Ma. 49 i Total loss in six months, four pounds, or seven and a-half per cent. Loss when ready for sale, three and one-fourth pounds, or six per cent. COMPOSITION OF CHEESE NO. 6, ANALYZED APRIL 22D, 1862. “AY QUID g Gt SER ie Aen PG) Santen ee Pec 38.43 PERU GUC Toa seak hh i byrne Ayes rte eR waco ede Sie ME Parte se eS ea 23.28 BUASUCr wh ing an esses HHsssed et hs S84 NUL hs MAES SS AEE L EU ELS ee toe 82.37 Ereiractivie: matters, lactie:acid,iGe:s}evssshieahtaiecnccsesseces tees 2.10 {iminteral smatters (ash): sossos25 oi stesd cuss secs s Poeae oa S Oak Seen 3.82 100.00 cieieiea s slopes ie «ole cielo clei ere .69 100.00 +) Combaininglactic Aldi): «2)-)2c.clemiecieeie asersvela toleicle’ = 2 4934 lbs. Septenmmbena Abheeyen rye cre wreeisre cetctateleloysteletelslarst yeaa atareneee tea tote 49 MEG EMIT MAY crete le caye alts a4 0. = sae louse o%e slodoce Ry ee 'otayerakelohe ay erayararane oneal 47lg UVESU CMG LAS, Behe celal cats evaycnle ts Aayaloehe.oteieligiaie /aya'e. a latatestotateyaietens 461g “ Total loss in six months, three and one-fourth pounds, or six and one-half per cent. Loss when ready for sale, two and one-half pounds, or five per cent. COMPOSITION OF CHEESE NO. 7 (SKIM-MILK CHEESE). \valligie Sates eau oecae fae seme oneteMene anna scoguobdododocon- 38.39 HSU GUCTS eet census ces ee imate cae use iaieie «ice [oleteis axe tajole chelsea th fee ten steneRsroie eta 23.21 BUCO AIG ERTL CYSaye ste are Sioue eusiestuceoss cee eleUssolaveleus lole tatere le tefabetonelStePe I TONGS Tar ROne Tea aEaen 28.37 [DEEN TUNIS IEIGNO BROKE (WOR 45 pada a5o4sodo do addaso5bondoK0- 6.80 Mite LUE HAR GLELS (ASH) S <<< cjeleiwe nie = ote arefnlaiaiein)6/elclsl© ele) ole sioaleta else hare teeaene 3.29 100.00 TC OWING 25) 6c, 2 0 10,0 zee wi eseyoneseusversvs tess rouaravateneus Veystere: sveretedatesale tater eeaetene 4.54 CHEESE NO. 8 (EXTRA RICH CHEESE). Made from two hundred and sixty quarts of new milk, to which was added the cream (twenty pints) from two hundred and sixty quarts of milk. COMPOSITION OF THE MILK FROM WHICH THE CHEESE NO. 8 WAS MADE. DUEUU ET cart teas heysnafeserievat etal wth aVula? ahta'ch ofaiel ofa oh stefan ctnols‘a/aletatateteles | atawh staf ene 86.73 NISTUGUE LU ercyayers sake lesatesar= a (atefotarels ie aisiere 4 cteelet sfaimisteiels sje eekehaaercsner ee eens 4.81 ORRENG Ss 5 Sas ooo adoenouoscddancaouco sdeducOS sb doonGsoosas 4000S 2< 2.69 Milk-sugar and extractive matters. ..............0.eeeececsecaecees 5.01 I bineeMl TES (GEN so ododé sbless ads osoabogudaosobOnoadodsboooDE ess 16 100.00 * Containing nitroren. 1242.12 4s vaccinate «ne wee cleien ser eee 43 COMPOSITION OF THE WHEY FROM CHEESE NO. 8. NAVEL Bett ete PRC Ne a MNOS e SRG Me brtas cranes Unb eo + 92.95 RESUICCER lain eieetnis ss a/ctncd seteoiels cretaeicicte re etele iene edaratene te etate eta ee eee AZ Al buminousicompounds,.\-- 4-2 teeciiveae eh eel ete tee ice eee 1.01 Milk-sugar, lactic acid; &¢). 1.12. ine dein s decimal ee 4.95 Miimerakomatters (Gslt) 22. vee semis eats eters estate ete eee ere eee 67 100.00 This cheese was made on the 20th of August, 1860, and weighed : August 26th (fresh from the press)..........0cceeeee sere reece 7434 Ibs. EIA P IANS sueadede do gdnd oe oosoaddodsuscdcuadooccdKeoS 731g “ SEH MET NACI. ia) Sind cte os. 0'0:w alecsis losers wine oleveperammte eieheteltatoseleleis eaeiets 71 ee Loss from the time it left the press until ready for sale, three and three-fourths pounds, or five per cent. No analysis was made of this cheese. . PRACTICAL DAIRY HUSBANDRY. 343 These experiments then led to the following results : Marketable Cheese. Butter. Quarts. lbs. Ibs. MOON GL TINK) PLOCUCE Cs irae sie cieiare: wie elle!) ol ol elaverels (whole-milk) ae ae 2. ‘ (one-half skimmed) peniuced shad hearts rccace Maielehore 9634 18 3. ‘s (allésiaimmed) pproduGed) str « «-)fe)<'-1-J-1-12)-1-1h-hal 9014 36 the cream from one- skim cheese 9014 v3 3 1010 «isi teh al of proaucea fT Suse 3S The cheeses were sent to Messrs. Bripacrs & Co., extensive cheese fac- tors at Bristol, who considered No. 1 to be worth seventy shillings per hun- dredweight ; No. 2, sixty shillings per hundredweight ; No. 3, fifty shillings per hundredweight. With respect to the extra-rich Cheese No. 4, Messrs. BripeEs say: “ We have examined the cheese marked No. 4; we think it cuts rather richer than that marked No. 1, but it bears no higher value in the market.” In my paper on the Composition of Cheese, I pointed out the fact that the market value of cheese does not entirely depend upon the amount of butter which it contains, I am glad to find this opinion confirmed by the testimony of a cheese factor whose practical knowledge is extensive. Mr. TANNER informs me that he has had a long conversation with Mr. Bringes on the subject of cheese-making, and in his letter to me quotes several observations made by him on this occasion, which perfectly accord with remarks made by me in the paper referred to. Thus Mr. Bripexs, speaking within certain limits, considers the richness of cheese to depend as much upon the mode of making as upon the quantity of cream in the milk. Too much heat, he says, destroys the cream; meaning, no doubt, that too much heat melts some of the butter, which then passes into the whey. By carelessly manipulating the tender curd, he justly observes, some of the cream may be washed out and passed into the whey. This gentleman is also of opinion that the best Cheddar cheese can be made from good new milk, and therefore considers the addition of cream to milk of questionable service, and certainly an extravagant practice. The addition of cream to new milk, no doubt, if not absolutely necessary, certainly improves the quality of Stilton cheese, but the market value of Cheddar is not raised materially by such an addition. First-rate cheese- makers, Mr. Bripexs observes, often take some cream from the milk, and still make a superior quality of cheese (worth more in the market) than less experienced and careless makers produce from unskimmed milk. He looks upon the temperature and careful breaking of the curd as the points upon which the quality of the cheese (Cheddar) mainly depends—apart, of course, from the influence of the natural richness or poverty of the milk. Having treated of all these points in detail in my paper on the ‘‘ Compo- sition of Cheese,” I need not refer to them in particular. These observations made by Mr. Bripcxs must be satisfactory to dairymen, as affording a prac- 344 PRACTICAL DAikzy HUSBANDRY. tical confirmation of the correctness of opinions which I have already pub- lished, as resulting from my own observations and scientific experiments. The cheeses produced in these trials were not so good as they might have been, nor like those of experienced makers, such as Mr. Harprne of Marks- bury, Mr. McApam of Gorsly Hill, or Mr. Cuanpos Porz of Derby. Anxious not in any way to thwart or disconcert the dairymaid, I thought it wise to let her have entirely her own way. She certainly made two great mistakes. 'To one I have already alluded; six ounces of salt is not enough for from fifty to sixty pounds of cheese; three-quarters to one pound would have been a better proportion. The second mistake which she made was to raise the temperature to 108° F. On no account should the heat of the cheese-tub be allowed to rise above 100° F. The higher the temperature is raised the more readily the whey passes from the curd, and the less mechan- ical work is required. The dairywoman may, therefore, be naturally tempted to save herself trouble to the injury of the cheese. Although I am a great advocate for the Cheddar system of cheese-making, I am bound to say that the comparatively lower temperature which the best Cheshire makers adopt is the main reason of the exceedingly fine aroma which so favorably characterises their produce. The finest-flavored cheese which I have ever tasted was made at Ridley Hall, near Crewe, Cheshire. I have no hesitation in saying that milk of the same quality as that which there came under the careful management of Mrs. Witris, in the hands of the most expert Cheddar maker would not produce a cheese of an equally delicious flavor. The care, skill, and enormous amount of work and time which the making of the best Cheshire entails, especially when contrasted with the Cheddar system, no doubt are the main causes why so little really first-rate Cheddar cheese is now manufactured. I would strongly recommend those who prefer in the main to follow the Cheshire plan, but find that their cheese is apt to heave and be inferior in quality, to set the milk at a somewhat higher tem- perature than is their custom; 80° is a very good temperature at the time of applying the rennet. When the curd has been carefully broken up and allowed to settle for about half an hour, the temperature of the cheese-tub may then be raised with advantage to 90° F. Returning to the Wall’s Court cheese trials, it appears, according to pre- ceding data, that one thousand gallons of milk, used according to the four different modes adopted, gave market produce as follows: No. 1. 1,000 gallons of new milk gave 8 ewt. of whole-milk cheese. No. 2. 1,000 galions of milk, partially skimmed, produced 614 cwts. 16 lbs. of cheese, and 1) ewt. of butter. No. 8. 1,000 gallons of milk, skimmed, produced 6 cwts. 24 Ibs. of skim-milk cheese, and 214 ewts. of butter. No. 4. 1,000 gallons of milk produced 3 cwts. 12 lbs. of skim-milk cheese, and 434 ewts. of extra rich cheese. Let us now compare the economic results obtained, taking as the basis of PractTicAL Dairy HUSBANDRY. ; 345 our calculation the price actually obtained by the sale of these eight large Cheddar cheeses, and assuming that butter is sold at 1s. per pound. ese ds: £ i) syed. No. 1. Produced 8 ewts. of whole milk cheese, worth 70s, percwt... ......-- 28 0 0 No. 2. Cheese, 6 cwts. 2 qrs. 16 lbs, at 60s. per cwt............-- 19 18 4 Butter, 114 cwt., at 1s. per lb... 2... eee ee eee eee eee 7 0 0 ——— 218 4 No. 3. Cheese, 6 ewts. 24 lbs., at 50s. per cwt..........-.-.-2-005- 1510 8 Butter, 214 Cwts.. 1... cece eee ee eee cece ee eee e ee eeee 14 0 0 ——— 2910 8 No, 4. Made into skim-milk cheese and extra rich cheese, 1,000 gal- lons of milk produced: Skim-milk cheese, 3 cwts, 12 Ibs., at 50s............----2 20s 715 4 Rich cheese, 4 cwts. 3 qrs., at 708. ..... 2... cece ree eee eee 16 12 6 24 7 10 Thus in these experiments it will appear that No. 2 gave the best, and No. 4 decidedly the least profitable result. Where a ready sale for butter can be found, I am inclined to think it is more profitable to make skim-milk cheese and butter than to look only to the production of a cheese of a better quality. The Cheddar plan, however, is not so well adapted for the making of skim-milk cheese as the Gloucester system, neither is it desirable to make thick skim-cheeses. A thick skim-milk cheese, when made at the elevated temperature at which Cheddar is usually produced, never ripens properly, and like all skim-milk cheese deteriorates when kept more than two months; whereas a rich Cheddar is gradually improved by keeping for many months. CHEESE EXPERIMENTS MADE AT MR. HARRISON’S DAIRY, FROCESTER COURT, STONEHOUSE. Mr. J. F. Harrison makes excellent uncolored single Gloucester, and follows the ordinary practice in his neighborhood of making cheese twice a day. The pasture in this district is good, but full of buttercups (Ranunculus). The cows kept on this pasture yield milk rich in butter. In making single Gloucester, a portion of the milk from each milking is generally set aside, partially skimmed, and then added to new milk. The rennet is applied at a temperature varying, according to the time of the year, from 75° to 80°. After an hour the curd is carefully cut across with a large-bladed knife, then ‘removed by a skimming dish from the sides and bottom of the tub. The curd is allowed to subside for about a quarter of an hour, after which the clear whey is dipped out with a wooden bowl, care being taken not to press or injure the tender curd. When most of the whey has been removed, the curd is again carefully stirred with a wooden skimming dish, and afterwards with a wire breaker, at first very cautiously and gradually more briskly. After the curd has been thoroughly broken, the whole is left to settle for twenty or twenty-five minutes; the clear whey is next drawn off, and the curd collected into one mass. This is cut into thin slices, which are heaped up and again collected into one mass, and this process of slicing and heaping is repeated several times, as it materially facilitates the separation of the whey and is much preferable to the use of pressure. Many dairymaids, anxious to be rid of this work, put the curd far too soon into the presses ; in consequence 346 PRACTICAL DAIRY HUSBANDRY. of which the pores of the outside layers of the cheese are completely closed up, and the whey prevented from escaping. No amount of ordinary pressure removes the whey so perfectly as repeated slicing and careful breaking up. When sufficiently firm and dry, the curd is placed upon cloth in the vat, and gently pressed under an ordinary cheese-press. When no more whey flows out, it is removed from the press, crumbled coarsely by hand, and then more minutely by the curd-mill. Finally the curd is vatted, and placed at first under a slight pressure, which is gradually increased. The last thing done on the day on which the cheeses are made, is often to rub in some salt. Subseqnently the cheeses are salted in the same way three times, and each time the salt is rubbed in, a clean and dry cloth is placed around the cheeses. In about a week’s time the cheeses are ready to be removed to the cheese-room. The preceding is a short description of the usual plan of making thin Gloucester cheese. Mr. Harrison does not color his cheese, and keeps it for about a fortnight in a warm room, and then removes it to a cool, airy shed for three weeks longer before he sends it to market. In both rooms the cheeses are kept on wooden shelves and frequently turned. In winter the first room is heated by a stove. Mr. Harrtson, who takes great interest in cheese-making, some years ago applied the ordinary centrifugal drying-machine to the purpose of separating whey. A small turbine or water-wheel drives the revolving vessel in which the curd is placed in a cloth. As the vessel attains its velocity, the whey is driven outwards through the perforated surface which encloses it, and escapes. The curd in this case is either not broken at all, unless by accident, or but imperfectly. Having operated with the drying machine, I am of opinion that instead of beating curd and whey together into the revolving vessel, it would be better and more expeditious to break the curd coarsely, to let it subside for twenty minutes, to dip out as much of the clear whey as possible without dis- turbing the curd, and then to place it, tied in a cloth, in the revolving vessel. Mr. Harrison obligingly placed his dairy at my disposal to try certain experiments, and for his kindness and personal assistance my sincere thanks are due to this gentleman. It has been stated by many, that in cheesemaking a considerable loss, both in curd and butter, is often incurred by adopting a faulty method, or by careless manipulation. With a view of preventing these alleged losses, Mr. Harrison was the first to adapt the centrifugal drying-machine to dairy operations. But as his excellent dairymaid prefers to make cheese by hand, the centrifugal machine is not often set in motion at Frocester Court. I was anxious to ascertain by comparative trials whether the alleged loss in cheesemaking was unavoidable, or whether it could be avoided or dimin- ished by the employment of this centrifugal whey-separating machine. The trials were made at Frocester Court on the 7th of August, 1860. PracticAaLt DaAiryY HUSBANDRY. 347 No. 1.—In the first experiments, eighty gallons of milk were made according to the usual plan into four cheeses, which may be called hand- made cheeses. No. 2.—In the second trial, eighty gallons of milk were made into four cheeses as before, with this exception—that the whey was separated by the centrifugal machine. The milk used in both trials had the following composition : NIE es GSE A GG bic Og CHEE ICO Me COREA Rants et OIA Inn RE RS RASA AOE: 87.40 TSU As Sakis Waals BASHA GSC ORR OR CUAPS en I A ae EE SONATE scorch 3.43 Es CASE TING Warner tes retetey ronstoral clita eseie wvetlast picker chic sietave ayinve ish apevevelGisyansverereienouerteie 3.12 Milk sugar, extractive matters, &e., AIRE aA ry eee ae ad eee AR Cay Reyna 5.12 Mineral matters (GSI) Weert ree hovers ayelrteiceiotetere Maret seeiciet syola sienesnohevera oye .93 100.00 * Containing nitrogen The whey obtained in each experiment was nearly clear; that produced by the machine being the clearer of the two. On analysis the following results were obtained : COMPOSITION OF TWO SAMPLES OF WHEY MADE AT FROCESTER COURT, AUG. 7TH, 1860. MACHINE-MADE, HAND-MADE. VIVELIGTE, eH Uen GIGS Ric EO AEIS SERRE ROG een enerin Gere ener 92.75 92 60 PESUME Ue Peer eyes eae ate (eleiesle chau’ she wicialcd cs (ote: Syikchasazatstaf lays 39 55 PAipmminous Compounds.) 4.5.2 lo. see. cects ler we 3 87 96 SI 6 bic gil Sais Re ticles PS Be ae Ne Rr Peete .86 81 Susarand extractive Matters,.. ... > = > => G * SS P4 : } : MANEG ROOM 241X455 } DELIV. WINDOW Fictre 8.— BAsEMeEnT. A HERKIMER COUNTY FANCY FACTORY. One of the most convenient of the modern factories is that recently erected at Newville, Herkimer Co., N. Y. The whole establishment is PRACTICAL DAIRY HUSBANDRY. 371 under one roof, the structure being three stories high. The manufactory is in the basement or first story, and the living rooms of manufacturer in the second story, with cellar in basement and chambers in third story. The illustrations (Figs. 8, 9 and 10) show the rooms in the different stories, CURIAG ROOM rs Xs ess 1-—f gh [rant = 4% X 9% WV/ KIT CHE BED ROOM —] Hii Ni ei fabitwptees: 07 Ns asl of MI A i tan eagle FieurE 9.—SrEconp Story. and the position of apparatus in the basement. These plans, with those previously given, will be useful to those about building factories, or for those who contemplate remodeling old structures, while at the same time they give the reader a clearer idea of the buildings than any written description alone. THE COST. The cost of buildings, of course, varies in different localities, and must be GHAMBER TARAS ey FieurE 10.—Turrp Story. regulated according to taste in architecture, cost of material, labor, &c., &c. Factories in the State of New York cost from $3,000 to $10,000. The prin- cipal cost of machinery will be for steam boiler, milk vats, presses and Sie PraAcvican DAIRY HUSBANDRY. hoops. Steam boiler, with fixtures, say $500; vats, $100 each; screw presses, $4 each. A factory for six hundred cows may be fitted up in good running order for from $1,200 to $1,500. Vats with heater attached, which will obviate having steam boiler, are sold (six hundred gallon size) for about $200 each. A factory with from six hundred to eight hundred cows will need five hands, and perhaps, when the curing rooms are full, more help. The manufacturer or head manager, if skillful, will command from $800 to $1,000 and board, for the cheese-making season of nine months. The second man, who perhaps has worked at the business a year or more, gets, say from $35 to $50 per month and board, and women from $4 to $5 per week and board. Women not unfrequently take charge of factories as head managers, at salaries sometimes as high as $80 to $100 per month and board. Boys and girls, or young persons of immature age, are not usually employed. The head manufacturer at a factory is expected to “ take off his coat,” and do a good day’s work every day—seeing to the delivery of the milk, working at the curds, the presses, and all the time with a sharp eye to see that all moves on in order and on time. The quantity of milk received must of course depend on a variety of circumstances—goodness of cows, quality of pasturage, the season, and time of commencing and closing operations. The Weeks’ Factory, at Verona, Oneida Co., N. Y., in 1867, had an average of six hundred and forty cows; length of season, two hundred and nine days ; pounds of milk received, 2,481,615; green cheese made, 261,904 pounds ; cured cheese, 250,540 pounds; shrinkage, four and one-third per cent. 5 pounds of milk to green cheese, nine and forty-eight one hundredths ; pounds of milk for cured cheese, nine and ninety-one one hundredths. The gross receipts per cow (average for the season, exclusive of income from butter and cheese made before factory opened and after close) varied from $34 to $78, the former being the poorest dairies and the latter the best. The cheese sales in 1867 were low, the average at the Weeks’ Factory being only $14.40 per one hundred pounds. The receipts during other years have been much larger. Some of the factories in Herkimer Co. make an average of five hundred pounds to the cow, which, at present prices (fifteen cents), would give $75. This would be too large an estimate, however, for a novice to base dairy prospects upon. DISTANCE IN DELIVERING MILE. The average distance from which milk is brought will not exceed one and a-half miles, and perhaps in the old dairy districts in New York is a little less. Four or five miles may be set down as the maximum, except in rare cases, as at the West, where we have reports of milk being carted eight miles and more; and yet, if cooled at the farm, arriving at the factory in good condition. Such a long distance is regarded as altogether too far to cart milk with profit, especially on our country roads, which, for the most : part, are rough during a considerable portion of the year. Practica Dairy HusBpANDRY. 373 COOLING MILK AT THE FARM, The practice of cooling milk at the farm does not usually obtain among dairymen. Canning milk too warm, and hauling it in this condition to the factory, results in great losses to dairymen. It is now several years since I commenced urging the importance of cooling milk at the farm, and as soon as drawn from the cow, and most especially have I urged this principle since returning from my visit to European dairies. After an extended observa- tion over the dairy districts of Great Britain, and an examination of the best English methods, it was clear that in the matter of cleanliness, care of milk and of stock, management of pasturage, &c., the English were in advance of us; but in machinery and appliances for manufacturing, the Americans were a long way in advance of the English. My report upon English methods, &c., has effected a change in American dairy practice, and it is pleasant to know that the bad practices of our dairymen are being corrected. We are now beginning to cool milk at the farm, and as a consequence the character of American cheese must greatly improve. If milk is exposed to the air and cooled to 60°, when drawn from the cow and before canning, it may then be canned, and will arrive at the factory in good order. It is quite important that milk be freely exposed to the air, while warm from the cow, in order that unpleasant odors may pass off. ‘There are now a number of devices for cooling milk at the farm. The Ricas plan is to conduct the milk in zigzag channels over a tin plate, with cold water underneath. Mr. Bussry of Oneida Co. effects the object by a tin cylinder holding water, and which floats upon the surface of the milk in the can. Mr. Hawtery of Syracuse has a somewhat similar arrangement. Mr. Burnap of Schoharie Co. introduces in the can a long tin tube, filled with water. Others simply pass the milk over a shallow tin vat, with water underneath. Mr. Arnotp believes that milk should not only be cooled but deodorized, and he effects this by exposing the milk to a current of air. For this purpose fans are provided, which are to be put in motion by a weight and gearing. The milk falls on a succession of corrugated tin plates, and is thus spread out into a thin sheet, while the fans throw forward and through it a current of air, which carries away offensive odors. The last plate gathers the milk into a stream which falls into the can, and thus both cooling and airing are effected. Recently he has invented a ventilator, to be applied to the carrying can, which is so arranged as to give the milk ventilation while being carried to the factory, and at the same time prevent any escape of milk from slopping over during its transit. Mr. Bussry, in his National Milk Cooler, has an improved strainer, which is so arranged as to aerate the milk as it falls into the can and upon the cooling apparatus. We give illustrations of four forms of coolers (see Figs. 11, 12, 13 and 14), which are to be applied to the carrying can, are quite inexpensive, and very convenient of application. 374 PracvicAL DAIRY HUSBANDRY. Fig. 11 shows an improved strainer-pail, applied to the Bussry Cooler, which operates in exposing the milk to the atmosphere, for the purpose of deodorizing it. At Fig. 12 is shown Burnap’s Can and Cooler. ES y//\ Z ell hi eh fi hh | 1\ al : ] | { rans (3 Tm Fiaure 11. A, Cooler. F, Strainer pail. D and E, Syphon pipe. G, Cover. H, Milk can. M, Milk. O, Ice in the cooler. N, Cold water in cooler. _ The principle of the Hawiry Cooler (Fig. 18) is based upon strict philo- sophical laws—the cooling of fluids from the top. Fig. 1 represents the cooler as placed within the can. The cooler is a hollow chamber, which floats upon the milk, and will therefore operate whether there is much or little milk in the can. Water is intro- duced into this float at the rubber spout, B, (Fig. 2,) through funnel attached, and is forced out at C when more water is poured in. The points marked D represent passages through the cooler which bring the milk in direct contact with the air. By the handle, if desired, the cooler can read ily be plunged into the milk occasion- ally, thus thoroughly agitating the entire mass. Norturor’s Automatic Agitating Cooler (Fig. 14) consists of an upright tube, two or three inches in diameter, having a funnel top, in the center of which is a pivot, supporting the tube in an upright position; the tube rest- ing on a pivot at the bottom of the can. At the lower end of the tube, two or more agitating and cooling tubes are attached, opening into the upright tube ; within the upright tube is an inner tube extending nearly to the bot- tom of the upright tube, its upper end being connected, just above the top T= mT OTA TT FievRe 11.— Improvep. PRACTICAL DAIRY HUSBANDRY. 3875 of the can, with one or more discharging arms, which are attached to the upright tube, and which extend out and turn downwards over the top edge A, Can. B, Cooler. FIGURE 12. C, Strainer. D, Can cooler. E, Can bottom. of the can, having their issues adjacent to the side of the can. In operation, the cooling liquid (cold water) enters the funnel at the top of the upright tube through a faucet, from a tank, or spring, or penstock, and passes down the upright tube to the agitating tubes, through these to the bottom of the upright tube, thence upward through the inner tube to the discharging arms, out of these arms (the issues of which are turned in opposite di- rections) against the outside of the can, the reaction of the streams of water causing the whole to revolve, thus distributing the water evenly all over the out- side of the can, and cool- ing and stirring the milk on the inside of the can. FietreE 13. The can should be provided with a woolen cloth or jacket (tied on), for the purpose of absorbing the water, thereby inclosing the can in a cold armor, 376 PRACTICAL DAIRY HUSBANDRY. the intensity of which is increased by the rapid evaporation from the woolen jacket. The illustration (Fig. 15) shows the manner in which the frame is arranged for supporting the water tank. The machine is quite sim- ple in its arrangement, easily cleaned, and as an agitator and cooler com- bined, is one of the best we have seen. FACTORY CHARGE FOR MAKING CHEESE. The usual charge in large factories for making the cheese is seventy-five cents per one hundred pounds cured cheese. This includes care of cheese until sold. If the factory is small, one cent per pound is charged. A large number of factories charge two cents per pound, and furnish every- thing required —bandage, annatto, rennet, salt, and the boxes in which the cheese is placed for shipping. Hauling cheese to railroad depot is done by patrons. THE WHEY. The whey is usually fed to hogs, sometimes at the factory and some- times at the farm. Ample pens and yards in the former case are provided by factories. Each farmer delivering milk is allowed one hog at the fac- tory for every five cows. He can Fieure 14. : Figure 15. have a pen where he can keep his hogs separate, or turn them in the yard with the others. The whey runs to large reservoirs near the pens, PracTicat DAir¥Y HUSBANDRY. 3877 and when the hogs are to be fed, a faucet is opened which lets the whey into the troughs. The difficulty of keeping the factory premises free from foul odors is so great that the practice of feeding hogs in connection with the factory is being abandoned. I should always advise this course, but if it is resolved upon to have swine kept at the factory, the pens should be located a long distance from the milk and cheese departments, so that there be no possibility of the air becoming tainted about the premises. It is alto- gether better, however, that the whey be carted home by farmers on the return trip of delivering milk at the factory. At some factories the whey is considered a perquisite of the manufacturer or stockholders of the factory, who extract the butter from it, purchasing hogs, and feeding them on the refuse whey. We shall describe the recent processes of making marketable butter from whey when we come to treat of butter manufacture. BRANCH FACTORIES. It often happens that farms and herds are so located in respect to the factory that long distances over rough and hilly roads have to be traveled by patrons, making the delivery of milk difficult and expensive. In such cases the plan of branch factories has been found convenient and practical in their working. In this plan a large central building is provided, where the cheese is stored, and small, cheap structures are erected at different points over the country, simply for the manufacture of cheese which is carried to the central building to be stored and cured. One of the largest central establishments on the branch factory system is located at Ingersoll, Canada (Fig. 16). This fac- tory is noted for having made a cheese weighing some seven thousand pounds, the largest cheese that has ever been manufactured. It was six feet ten inches in diameter, three feet in hight, and twenty-one feet in circumfer- ence. To make it, thirty-five tons of milk were required, or one milking of seven thousand cows. It was bandaged with wire cloth, and its shape was in every respect perfect. To transport this immense cheese (Fig. 18) to the railroads from place to place, a very heavy wagon was specially manufactured for it. Then the hoop in which it was pressed was placed upon the mammoth, and the ends inclosed with heavy plank above and below, held in place by rods of iron firmly secured with nuts. It is not very probable that an attempt will very soon, if ever, be made “in the cheese line” to “ outdo” this Canadian mammoth, and as a matter of history connected with large cheeses, we give’ an illustration of the monster as it appeared at the New York State Fair at Saratoga, and in the streets of London and other cities of England, on its way to the place of exhibition. In making very large cheeses, unless due caution be taken, there will be difficulty in expelling the whey, and if the whey is not properly expelled under the press, or otherwise, the cheese will be sure to turn off bad flavor. Several very large cheeses have been spoiled by not attending to this PRAcTICAL DAikY HUSBANDRY. 378 OT li HH i! ity TT PracticaL Dairy HuspanpRry. 379 particular. The method adopted at the Ingersoll factory, and one which proved to be successful, was to divide the curds into small parcels—say from fifty to seventy pounds—and press thoroughly in hoops. Then after the whey had been expelled, the cheeses were broken up and passed through a curd-mill, and after being thoroughly mingled together were placed in the large hoop, where the curd assumed the proper shape under a powerful pressure. Mr. Lemvrt Brown, who first suggested this plan and put it in success- ful operation, thus describes the advantages of the system. He says:—‘ In - regard to the question of branch cheese factories, I will state that, for the last four years, I have been in business which led me from one factory to another, through the principal dairy region of this State. In taking this broad view of the factory system, I have seen certain objections, which, if S = S S iS) ty ta = S = . S DISTANCE SOOF! ef | hae Es MANUFACTURING ROOM 24X32 DRYING HOUSE 36 X 60 Orr ICE 14X22 Fie 17.—GRounD PLAN oF INGERSOLL FACTORY. < BE SS carried out, would soon cripple it in its infancy. The first and greatest objection is the expense and trouble of carrying milk long distances. I therefore introduced and put into practical operation, two years ago, and to a greater extent one year ago, the plan of working the milk at different points, and drawing the cheese togetherinstead of drawing the milk. For this pur- pose I erected cheap buildings, some eighteen by twenty-four feet, furnishing them with all the apparatus and conveniences of a nice factory, with ranges to hold ten or fifteen cheeses, or a load, which were boxed and drawn to the dry-house. I prepared the rennet, annatto and bandages at the dry-house, sending the required amount to the branches when the team went after the cheese. I have closely followed up the experiment for the last two seasons, and found the plan to work admirably, even beyond my expectations. The ‘advantages are greater and the objections less than I expected. The first advantage is, that it gets a large amount of cheese together by drawing the 380 PRACTICAL DAIRY HUSBANDRY. milk but a short distance; and there is not only a saving in distance, but, as there are but few teams to deliver at one of these branches, the patron can drive up and unload at almost any moment, thus saving much time from the disadvantage of waiting his turn at a large factory. Another advantage is that as the milk is drawn but a short distance, it is delivered earlier in the day and in better condition—two considerations which will be appreciated by all practical cheese-makers. In many instances, when milk comes in a bad condition, had it been delivered an hour or an hour and a-half sooner, it would have caused no difficulty in its manufacture. As it will be admitted by all that the quality of the milk has much to do in determining the charac- ter of the cheese, these facts will argue a.superior dairy in favor of the branch system, to say nothing of the increased amount of the product. “The third advantage is the facility with which the patron can obtain his share of the whey, having to draw it but a short distance on his return home from carrying his milk. In brief, the branch system secures to the farmer all the advantages of a large factory in his own neighborhood. “ By giving the farmers these advantages and con- veniences, I think the per- manency of the factory sys- tem will be established ; but as I am led to believe that the day of drawing milk long distances is nearly over, it is my opinion that, unless the branch system is adopted, the large factories will break up into smaller ones, which will fail to be Jimported byMessrs. ny JOHN.REYNOLDS fit OAH te Hil ROB?. PRICE. fiwel iin i HY. THOMPSON. ie ea faa AN =a yy a= sufficiently profitable to : = == stimulate individual enter- Fie. 18. prise. They will then be built by a few farmers in convenient localities, and managed to save expense, much like the old private dairies. As they have learned something from the present factory system, they will undoubtedly make better cheese than of old; but there will be an end to all that progress in cheese manufacture, which has within the last few years, given American cheese the first place in the world’s market. Indeed, the quality of American cheese will be gene- rally lowered ; for, while few excel or equal the present standard, many will fall below it, from lack of that interest which is felt by the individual who makes cheese-making not only his business, but his study. “As to the manufacture of cheese in branch factories, they ean be so placed as to get the milk from two to three hundred cows into a single vat, which can be worked by one hand without any additional help. I hired a PRACTICAL DAIRY HUSBANDRY. 381 hand the past season, who ran a branch with two hundred and thirty-six cows, without receiving the least assistance from any source. “As the help has but one vat to watch, the work can always be done in season. Not so in the large factory, with a conbination of vats; for in case two or more vats need dipping at the same time, which is often the case, one of them is obliged to wait, to its injury. “These considerations argue two points against large factories, and in favor of the branch system : “© 1. The milk will be delivered at the branch earlier and in better condition. “¢2. The work can always be done at the branch in the proper time. “ One objection brought against this system by many is, that there will be as many kinds of cheese as there are places of manufacture. My expe- rience does not sustain this objection. Distance has nothing to do with the result. If the same rennet and annatto are used, and the same rules are observed in the process of manufacture, what difference can it make whether the vats are two feet or two miles apart? The conditions being the same, I see no reason why the result would not be the same. acts and observations show that it is. During the past season I visited a large number of factories, and nowhere did I find a more uniform lot of cheese than was produced under the branch system. “ As regards the amount of help, I think a dairy of one thousand cows could be manufactured nearly as cheaply at four branches, with two hundred and fifty cows each, as if the milk were all delivered inone place. I am now speaking simply of making. The additional expense and trouble would be in drawing the cheese together. Still this is less than the extra expense and trouble of drawing the milk long distances. There is not only more weight, but the milk has to be delivered in season, whatever may be the weather, while the cheese can be left over in case of bad weather or hurry. “When the milk is all drawn to one large establishment, the entire care is commonly thrown upon one person, the rest feeling little or no responsi- bility, and not working with the interest required in the successful perform- ance of such delicate business. But when the milk is worked by the branch system, the care is divided, and not only a feeling of responsibility, but a spirit of rivalry is awakened. Consequently, the labor is more carefully and thoroughly performed. “ Another objection raised against the branch system is, that it will require all experienced hands. But, as the milk comes in better season and condition, and there is only one vat to watch, with the rennet and annatto prepared and furnished ready for use, it will readily be seen that, with frequent visits from the overseer, it will not require as much experience and skill as it would to manage a large factory. I have found no trouble with hands of little expe- rience. In one case I hired a hand who was totally unacquainted with cheese- making, and he ran a branch through the season with the best of success. There isan effort among the hands to excel each other, and should any of 382 PRACTICAL DAIRY HUSBANDRY. them have bad luck, as each branch has its own mark, the superintendent will readily detect it, when a visit to the branch will enable him to soon put everything right. ; “Farmers at a distance would generally choose to pay for drawing their milk, rather than to draw it themselves. But if a branch were erected in their neighborhood, the general opinion is that each would rather draw his own milk than to be obliged to get it ready for the milk-wagon at just such a minute every night and morning. Admitting this to beso, the branch system would save to many the sum paid for drawing their milk to a large factory—it, on an average, costing $2.50 per cow. Allowing it to cost twenty- five cents per hundred pounds more to work up milk under this plan ; then, as a cow will make four hundred pounds, which would make the additional expense one dollar per cow, the saving to the farmer would be one dollar and a-half on each cow—which, with other advantages mentioned, would throw the argument in favor of the branch system. “In conclusion, I will say to those who are about to build, unless you adopt the branch system, do not build too large. I have been on the road for the last three months, and have exchanged views on this point with a large number of manufacturers. It is the prevailing opinion that the day of draw- ing milk long distances is rapidly coming to a close. Froma mile and a-half to two miles is as far as it will be found feasible to draw it. This, asa gene- ral thing, will get together the milk of from two to three hundred cows.” CHEESE-MAKING MACHINERY. In cheese factory machinery, the first thing naturally to be considered is the heater and vat. There are a great variety of heaters—the steam boiler, boiler and engine, tanks for hot water, cheese vats with heater underneath, &c., &c. There are so many kinds of apparatus, some of which are not now to be recommended, that I shall only name those of recent invention, or those which have been generally approved. The engine and boiler has been in use, more or less, from the first introduction of factory cheese-making. Some old cheese-makers are very much prejudiced in favor of steam in cheese factories, and where an engine can be utilized to do other work besides sup- plying heat to the vats, this form of heater is very desirable. Among the new things recently brought out is ! CLARK’S SECTIONAL BOILER AND STEAM GENERATOR, an illustration of which (Fig. 19) we give in this connection. It is con- structed of a series of sections of solid, heavy cast iron cylindrical hollow rings, with lathe-turned faces, bolted together vertically, one upon another, with water passages or openings communicating through the series, and made water and steam tight by thin rubber packing around each opening. The lower sections, forming the ash pit and combustion chamber, are plain hollow cylinders ; the others are constructed with corrugated and chambered projections inside for water, and for increasing the heating surfaces exposed PRACTICAL Dairy HvusSBANDRY. 383 to the fire. The number of sections may be indefinitely increased to utilize all the available heat from the fire. The small vertical spaces between the corrugations form the smoke and heating flues, while the larger central space is lined with heavy sheet iron, and forms the coal magazine, thus making at once a perpetual base-burner and self-feeding machine of the most approved shape known. The magazine is filled through a door and shute in the dome- shaped smoke top, and holds sufficient supply for its full capacity for about FIGguRE 19. eight hours, or for simply heating and cooking purposes for sixteen to twenty-four hours. For wood fuel, an additional plain section, with feeding door in the combustion chamber, is used. They are recommended as entirely safe from explosions, and cannot be ruptured with a pressure of two hundred pounds or less to the square inch, and all are practically tested under that foree at the manufactory. See view of sections (Fig. 20). They remain entirely free from incrustations or scale from hard or lime water, as the feed water enters just below the grate, and as the temperature gradually reaches to about 190° F. (which is far below boiling point), the lime is precipitated to the mud ring around the ash pit, where it remains undisturbed mud until blown off at the waste cock, or removed at convenience; as this deposition occurs before the lime and muddy water reaches the corrugated and chambered sections, they consequently do not be- “4 come clogged or choked by lime or mud. They can be readily taken all apart for handling, transportation, re-packing or other purposes, and put together again by two men, in less than two hours’ time. Mr. Horace L. Emery of Albany, who has had considerable experience with engines and boilers, and whose opinion I have asked concerning the Hh Hi Ficure 20, 384 PRACTICAL DAIRY HUSBANDRY. merits of this invention, writes me as follows :—‘‘It is my belief that, as a steam generator—for safety, economy in space occupied, fuel and attention, and, I believe, durability, and most of all, efficiency—it has no superior, whether for heating, cooking or power purposes. When to it is applied the non-conductor covering of plastic felting, called Salamander Felting, from our neighboring city, Troy, I think it the safest from fire and frost of all So BRS =6ffo |, | a i S =O=g5y | O=a== ———SSSSSSS dle /=S= SSS Sj SS =F | } Hi it L FIGuRE 21. FIGURE 22. inventions. I am putting the machine you saw into my house, in place of the portable hot-air furnace, which last is now worn or burned out beyond repairs, having been in the place twelve to fifteen years, and, as arranged, is as good a pattern as any in use in Albany; still I prefer to use steam, for the reasons that it is perfectly controllable in temperature, under different pressures, while its fire is controllable by its diaphragm automatic damper, PrActTICAL DAIRY HUSBANDRY. 885 below the grate. I shall use four hundred feet of one-inch caliber iron pipe in my heating air chamber, through which the air circulation passes, precisely as with the hot-air furnace, and use all the air-pipes and registers, precisely as they are and have been for the hot-air furnace, making no change. The hot or pipe chamber will be made of wood, and lined with a thick coating of the non-conductor felting, for economy in cost, safety, and to prevent absorption or radiation of heat. To this I have also attached a positive automatic water feed, so that while the heating air for the house does not consume or waste any water, still by drawing hot water through the house, on all four floors, as well as for washing purposes, &c., &c., the selffeed supply will maintain the water flow to its line all the time. I am operating it now, all mounted, at our works, and am pleased with its performance. For cheese dairies I am confident it is preferable to anything I have seen. I think the No. 3 size would prove more desirable, as its capacity is double ; while for a given amount of work with the No. 2, it is quite as economical in its fuel item.” VERTICAL ENGINE AND BOILER. Mr. Emery sends me the following brief description of the vertical engine and boiler (see Figs. 21 and 22), which are adapted to factory use: “ The boilers are of the upright tubular style, with internal fire box, are made of the best material and workmanship, and are all tested to one hundred and fifty pounds pressure per inch. The heating surface and area of grate are in excess of the quantities usually allowed for the same power, and it is there- fore unnecessary to purchase a greater rated power than that required for actual use ; while in cases of emergency these boilers can be depended upon for much more than their rated power. The engine is not fastened to or upon the boiler, and is, therefore, not affected by the expansion, nor are the bearings over-heated by conduction, or the ascending heat from the boiler. The fly-wheel, being at the base, secures steadiness under the high speed which is necessary for economy of fuel. Being attached to one base, the combined engine and boiler is easily transported, occupies little space, and may be very readily mounted upon wheels, rendering it peculiarly adapted for agricultural purposes.” ANOTHER NEW BOILER AND ENGINE. Messrs. Jones and Fautkner of Utica, N. Y., have also within the past year 1870 brought out a boiler and engine, which appears to be well adapted to cheese factories. We give (Fig. 23) an illustration of the boiler, &C., as applied to the common factory vat. AUTOMATIC HEATER AND CHEESE VAT, Of the recent inventions in this class of heaters, that of Messrs. WHITMAN and Burret of Little Falls, N. Y, deserves attention. It is very much liked by those who have given it a trial, and is meeting with success. The subjoined cut (Fig. 24) and description will explain its operation. 25 : 386 PRACTICAL DAIRY HUSBANDRY. The heater consists of a metallic vat or pan, Y, for holding water, with a series of flues, C C, running through it, carrying the smoke and heated air from the chamber, b, at the back end of the fire box, into the chamber, G, at the foot of the smoke pipe H. The chamber, G, is directly over the front of the fire box, J, and is connected with it only as the common termination of the flues, C. The bottom is of iron, and being directly over the fire the heat : FIGURE 23. rarefies the smoke and air in the chamber, and increases the draft through the smoke pipes. In front of the chamber, G, are slides on doors, I, which admit of cleaning the smoke flues, C C. The pan, Y, is supported over the fire box, Z, by parallel metallic pipes, which receive a supply of water from the foun- tain or spring through the pipe, E, and discharge it through the pipe into the FIGURE 24. pan at, A, in a partly heated state (not hot enough to precipitate lime, but about milk warm) ; and as, generally, water is running through the pipe, no sediment can lodge in it. When very hot water is used the pipes are dis- pensed with, as they are not important. The supply pipe, when it empties into the pan, is furnished with a T, at A, having the end entering the pan, Y, an inch or more lower than the other end, thus making a self-regulating PRACTICAL DAIRY HUSBANDRY. 387 supply to the pan, which, so long as the water is permitted to run, is always evenly full, for as soon as the water in the pan becomes as high as the outer end of the T, the water will waste instead of running into the pan. Hot water runs from the pan, Y, through the pipe, L, into the base of the milk vat, and is conducted by a set of pipes through the water, under the milk. The heated water under the tin milk vat, as it grows cooler, is returned through the pipe, U, F, to be re-heated in the pan, Y. A constant circulation may be thus kept up, through both heater and milk vat, on any number of vats. The outlet from the pan, Y, into the pipe, L, is on a level with a point to which the water is to be raised about the milk vat, while the inlet to the pan, Y, through pipe, U, F, is on a level with the bottom of the milk vats. The supply of water and circulation is regulated by faucets. The size of heater is three and a-half feet by five and a-half feet. There are five flues, C C, each three and a-half inches in diameter. The pan is made from very thick heavy English galvanized wrought iron, No. 17. Advantages.—1st. By means of the return smoke flues, C C, the heat is all utilized, thus saving one-half the fuel, while the very large heating surface (more than twice the bottom of the pan) makes the water boiling hot sur- prisingly quick. 2d. The “draft” to the fire, in the fire box, is increased very much by re-heating the smoke after it reaches the chamber, G. 3d. The saving of water as set forth. 4th. Its durability—made of extra heavy gal- vanized wrought iron, it will last a long time, and is easily repaired by any tinsmith if it gets out of order. 5th. Hot water is coming to be regarded by many manufacturers as the best heating agent that can be used in making cheese. 6th. This apparatus can be furnished cheaply, and as the price of a milk vat is also $100, the heater with, say two six hundred gallon milk vats, costs but $300; and with three milk vats, $400. THE CHEESE VAT OR MILK VAT. consists of a water-tight metallic reservoir or pan, A, sustained at the top by the wooden rim, V, and set just within a wooden vat, W, also water tight. The metallic vat is supported at the bottom by wooden strips, P, running transversely, which are retained in place by longitudinal strips, O. Hot water is supplied from the heater and, after entering the outer or wooden vat, W, at M, it is divided into two streams, which, after traversing the whole length of the vat through the pipes, M, are discharged into the wooden vat near its place of entrance. The water circulates freely around the metallic pan, and may be kept in constant circulation between the milk vat and heater through the outlet, S, which connect with the heater by the pipe, U, F; or the water may be withdrawn entirely from the milk vat by a waste pipe at the end of the vat. The discharge of the curd and whey into the cheese sink through the opening, R, may be facilitated by tipping down the cheese vat by turning over the lever, T, thus shortening two legs and rocking the vat upon two middle legs. 388 PracricAt Dairy HuUSBANDRY. Advantages.—1st. The metallic vat is made of five cross tin, large sheets, so there are but three seams in bottom and two seams in sides, thus making it much more durable and easier to clean, as there are but few seams. 24d. The bottom of the wooden vat is made of but two plank, the same being of best clear pine lumber, each two inches thick, twenty-two inches wide, and fifteen feet long; five heavy bolts, with nuts on ends of same, running through the legs across the bottom and ends of vat, so that if the vats shrink or swell it can be regulated easily. 3d. The discharge curd and whey gate, R, is five inches by six inches ; and when the “ drop floor” is put in factories it is of great use in drawing off the curd into the sink. Vat, with dip con- nections, $100; vat, with discharge curd gate, $110. OLD STYLE “‘SELF-HEATERS.” Of the heaters directly beneath the cheese-vat, sometimes called “ self- heaters,” the Ror vat and heater, the O Neil vat and heater, and the Coorzr vat and heater, are all similar in principle and all resemble each other. They were at one time quite popular among farm dairies at the West, and have been applied to factory vats for some years. We give a cut of an apparatus of this description, manufactured at Watertown, N. Y. The illustration (Fig. 25), shows the inner or tin vat raised. Beneath the wooden vat is the double iron cylinder, the space between the two parts being for water and the fire-box in the center. It will be readily understood from the figure represent- ing it. ANOTHER FORM OF HEATER UNDER THE VAT. =—— The Oneida vat and heater (Fig. BASU 26), invented by Wu. Ratpu of Utica, has long been in use, and has always held a prominent position among this class of apparatus, on account of its economy in the use of fuel and its even distri- bution of heat. Figure 26 shows a very correct representation of the external appear- ance of an apparatus that is quite extensively in use in cheese-factories and dairies throughout the country. It consists of an inner vat of heavy tin plate, with a frame of wood about the top, and is furnished with a gradu- ated scale attached to the side, for ascertaining the amount of milk that may be contained, which may also be a guide for determining the proper amount of rennet and salt. The tin vat sets inside of an outer vat of wood, usually lined with galvanized sheet-iron or copper. Between these vats, at the sides, ends and bottom, is a space for water for cooling the milk, which is run in PRACTICAL Dairy HUSBANDRY. 889 through a funnel or hopper at one end, and discharged through gates or faucets at the opposite end. Water is also used to communicate heat to the inner vat, and is heated by a fire made in the heater, which is a copper eylinder of the length of the vat, situated in a recess underneath the vat, the recess being something more than a half cylinder in form, with its opening communicating with the water chamber between the vats; the water flows around the heater and through the opening at its top, the entire length of the vat. The heater and recess is equal to about one-third the width of the outer vat. Over the heater, in the water space between the vats, is placed a platform of thin boards, movable, but held in place by suitable fastenings, upon the upper and under side of which are cleats for the support of the inner vat, between which the water flows from the heater, first around the sides and ends, then under the bottom of the inner yat, thence through pipes to the bottom of the heater. This platform or dia- phragm is technically called the “ equal- izer,” the office of which is to prevent the currents of warm water from striking the bottom of the inner vat till after they have been in contact with the sides and ends, and given off a portion of their heat, causing an even warming of the milk and cooking of the curd, with a comparatively small amount of agitation. At one end of the heating cylinder is a fire-door, damper and hearth. At the other end is attached the smoke- pipe; a whey strainer, siphon, or whey gate and heat stopper complete the arrangement. The construction and operation of the vat, and direction of the currents of water in heating, will be readily understood by the diagram shown in 0% MUNDI 390 PRAcCTIOAL DAIRY HUSBANDRY. e figure 27 of across section of the same: A, is the inner vat; B, outer vat; C, heating cylinder; D, case or jacket forming the recess in which the heater is situated; EK, the equalizer; I’, F, are pipes for returning water to the heater after having given off its heat. The arrows indicate the course of the currents of water from the heater to the tin vat, and their return through the pipes F, F, to the water. It will be seen that as the recess containing the heater is opened at the top the whole length of the vat, there is entire freedom of circulation of the warm water,—a space of one and a-half inches at the sides and ends of the equalizer being left clear for the purpose—the water is put in motion and conveys the heat to the inner vat as fast as it receives the same; as a conse- quence, the water is but afew degrees higher in temperature at the time being than the milk or curds in the vat ; itis claimed, therefore, _ that by the application and retention of so low a tempera- ture, a larger proportionate amount of cheese from a given amount of milk may be obtained than where a higher heat is brought in contact with the milk vat; that all the butter in the milk is retained in the cheese, and that the apparatus requires a comparatively small amount of labor or fuel; heats Figure 27. with uniformity; never forms hard water scale on the heater; is simple and safe, and being complete in itself, involves no expense in setting up. 5 f H UX by al ro — ———— r. s 4 ASHTON-UTICS 2 = ——s=} S esata HT =a MILLAR’S CIRCULATING COIL HEATER AND OHEESE VAT. This is another form of heater economical of fuel, the general appearance of which, with its connections, is represented at Figure 28. It is constructed on the circulating principle, by means of which very little water is required to be heated besides that contained in the vats themselves. It has been thoroughly tested for four or five seasons, and is now in use in a large number of cheese factories. A representation of the heater and water tank fitted to accompany it as shown at Figure 29. _ The heater is constructed separately from the vat, and consists of wrought- iron pipes, screwed together in such a manner as to form a fire chamber, and present a large amount of heating surface directly exposed to the action of the fire. This coil of pipes is inclosed in brick-work, which prevents loss of heat. A pan or tank, rests on the top of this brick-work, and is connected to the coil in such a manner as to form a perfect circulation; so that when PRACTICAL DAIRY HUSBANDRY. 391 this tank is filled with water and a fire started, the water is warmed very rapidly. A flue is formed underneath the bottom of this tank so that it receives the heat from the fire = after it has passed the coil. Figure 30 shows a view of the arrangement of the heating pipes of the vat. The coil is also connected with the vat and forms with that a perfect circulation. The upper pipe, the one that supplies the heat to the vat, branches off, and two smaller pipes are connected to it, and these extend through the space between the tin and wooden vats, and are perfo- rated so as to distribute the heat equally. The lower pipe, the one that supplies the coil with water from the vat, is attached directly to the bottom of the wooden vat. Proper stop-cocks are attached, so that the heat from the coil can be turned on or shut off from either the tank or vat at plea- sure. A safety pipe is attached to the cold water, or lower pipe of the coil, which allows the water and steam to escape into the tank, to prevent all danger of exploding, in case all the stop-cocks should be negligently closed at once. A most convenient and sim- ple arrangement for tipping the vat is attached, by means of which it can be tipped or righted again very easily, and without requiring any great outlay of strength. 9% HUNDI A AAA ATA ie Ih ~ THE OPERATION OF THE APPARATUS. The tank is filled with water, a fire started in the chamber formed by the coil of pipes, and the water in the tank is first warmed; the stop-cocks that 392 PracricAL DAtrY HUSBANDRY. connect it to the coil being open, while those to the vat are closed, thus forming a circulation with the tank only. After this water is warm, and when the milk has been placed in the tin vat, the stop-cock to the vat is opened, and the warm water immediately passes from the tank, filling the space between the tin and wooden vats. When filled, the stop-cocks to the tank are closed, leaving the coil in connection with the vat only, The heat- Smit i ma LTRS SOHN San —— Figure 29, ing of the vat then immediately commences. The water passes from the vat, through the lower pipe, and circulates slowly through the coil, becoming gradually heated, returns to the vat through the perforated pipes, and by them the heat is most evenly distributed. The same circuit is continued until the proper temperature is reached, when the stop-cock to the vat should be closed. This at once cuts off the circulation, and prevents a further rise in temperature. When the heat is shut off from the vat, the stop-cocks to the PRACTICAL DAIRY HUSBANDRY. 393 tank should be at once opened, and the tank, having been refilled with cold water, receives the heat from the coil until the vat is ready to be warmed again, as it also receives the heat from the fire after it has passed the coil, by means of the flue underneath it. A supply of hot water is constantly on hand for any purpose, without using extra fuel. yu Sana | — Til oe POSITIONS OF HEATER AND VATS. This apparatus is convenient to arrange for factory purposes. The heater can be placed in almost any position to suit the room. This will be readily understood from the plans at Fig. 31. Plan 1st shows vats connected to a right-hand heater ; Plan 2d shows vats connected to a left-hand heater; and Vat Vab as Vat et ane Heater Feed Door ‘esd Door Fieure 31.—Puan 1. FicurE 31.—PLan 2. Plan 3d shows vats connected to a heater placed in front of them, which can be either right or left. The feed-door can be placed at either end of heater. Many other advantages are claimed for this apparatus besides those previ- ously mentioned, but the following is the most important, viz., the manner of applying the heat. The heating pipes, or those that distribute the hot water in the vat, enter and extend through the vat, on each side of the tin 394 PRACTICAL Dairy HuSBpANDRY. milk holder, thus diffusing the heated water equally along the sides of it. The lower or cold water pipe is attached to the bottom of the vat, and as through this pipe the water is continually passing out to the coil, the warmer | water is gradually drawn under the tin vat; thus the bottom is at no time but a little warmer than the milk or curd inside, while the majority of the heat is transmitted through the sides of the tin vat. This is at all times a great desideratum, but especially in the operation of “cooking the curd,” as the curd, after it is cut, settles to the bottom. In this appa- ratus the majority of the heat is imparted to the curd by means of the whey, which receives its heat from the sides of the vat; at the same time ‘sufficient heat is imparted to the curd that lays on the bottom to keep it of an equal temperature with the rest. These heaters (Fig. 32) are made in a portable form ; they are constructed on the same principle as the stationary apparatus, except that they are porta- LECCE esas ble; their position can be changed at any time. The heater is inclosed in a enero stove, instead of brick work. In the two smallest sizes this stove is lined with fire brick, to prevent loss of heat by radiation into the room, Heater 400g, paay ACCC i fir Ih Wes ee anni init = I nti iM ) i, Ef) i mil Tm The two largest sizes have a lining of common brick work, laid up on the _ the inside of the castings, for the same purpose. They require but a small “amount of fuel, burn either wood or soft coal, and can be used for many PRACTICAL DAIRY HUSBANDRY. : 395 ~ other purposes besides cheese-making. They are especially useful for steam- ing and cooking feed for stock. When arranged for this purpose, the general iD eS HUNT ———— mM i construction of the heater is the same. The only difference is that a check- valve (see Fig. 33) is substituted for the lower stop-cock to the tank, and 896 PRACTICAL DAirY. HUSBANDRY. the pipe furnishing the hot water or steam, instead of extending out hori- zontally, is carried up perpendicularly, and a steam separator is attached, to which the steam pipes are connected. The principle of its operation is this: When the stop-cock in the upper pipe is open, the water in the tank circu- FIGURE 34. lates through the coil, and is heated in the same manner as in the cheese vat heaters ; but when steam is desired this stop-cock is closed, the return of the water to the tank is thus cut off, and it remains in the heater until steam is aco i All | a | FIGURE 35. generated, when the mixed steam and water are driven up into the separator ; the water, being separated, runs back into the tank, and the steam passes off through the pipes to the desired points. This will continue as long as the | PRACTICAL DAIRY HUSBANDRY. 397 stop-cock is open. During this operation, the coil is fed with water from the tank, through the lower pipe. We give also in this connection an illustration of the vat and heater for farm dairies, called the Oneida Farm Vat (see Fig. 34.) FACTORY MILK CANS. These cans are constructed with a conical bottom (Fig. 35), which renders them very durable and strong, and does not add anything to the ordinary weight of the can. A solid tinned A or galvanized iron band, with a projecting lip for the support of the can, encloses this bottom, at- tached by soldering. This ren- ders it durable. We also give a cut of the Iron Clad milk ean, (Fig. 36), which is stoutly made. MILK CAN HANDLES. These handles (Figs. 37 and 38) are made especially for com- bining a convenient handle for carrying or lifting a cheese fac- tory carrying can, with another for the purpose of dumping or #il@ tipping it when a crane is used. il They are made so as to embrace or inclose the band, which is usually placed near the center of the can, thus attaching them to the strongest and stiffest part of the can. The new pattern (Fig. 37) is adapted to either the ordinary hooks, or the straight or squarely bent hooks or tongs used in some localities, which re- quire a hole or socket to fit them. The old pattern (Fig. 38) is only adapted to the ordinary lifting hooks. Another form of can handle is shown at Fig. 39. It consists of a broad, malleable iron plate fitted to the curvature of the side of the can, for riveting thereto; having a flanged socket and knob, also a hinged handle for lifting by hand; which handle, when not in use, drops to the side of the can. This arrangement is adapted for hoisting and tipping the can, to empty from the top, to any and every device used for the purpose ; whether hinged bail with hooks to fit the socket, common hook or simple ring, fitting the outside of the barrel, neither of which can slip or FIGURE 36. 398 Practricat Dairy HUSBANDRY. unhook, and either of which will allow a complete revolution of the can. The plate tends to strengthen and protect the can while being hoisted. The projection of the socket and knob being but three-quarters of an inch outside of the handle, it is not liable to be broken or to jam surrounding cans while tj Z Gp /4 ai) “FiGuRE 3%. FIGURE 38. FIeURE 39. being carried. The handles represented at Figs. 40 and 41 are designed to be used on the Iron Clad can (Fig. 36). FACTORY WEIGHING CAN. The cut (Fig. 42) represents a tin weighing can for receiving the milk as it is brought to the factory. This can stands on the scales, and each patron’s FieurE 40—CovErR HanbDLe. FIGURE 41—SwE HANDLE. milk is emptied into it, weighed, and then allowed to run to the vats. The bottom is made to incline to the faucet or gate, which is extra large, generally about three inches in diameter, so that it is emptied very rapidly. A con- ductor head (shown in Fig. 48) is placed in front of the faucet to prevent the milk from spattering and to conduct it to the vats. The tube or pipe on the end can be extended to any required length, though if more than three or four feet long, it should be an open trough. Fig. 44 shows an extra strong, large, weigh-can gate, having guides to steady and regulate the handle. PRAcTICAL DaAtiryY HUSBANDRY. 399 | CHEESE PRESSES. One of the most convenient presses for farm dairies is the Oysron’s Her- kimer County Press, illustrated in Fig. 45. Description.— Between the upper beams of the stout wooden frame two sectors, EK EH, are hung by wrought iron journals in iron boxes inserted in the beams. One of these sectors is geared on the inside and the other on the outside. i are operated by a pinion, the shaft of which passes through FIGURE 42. FIGURE 43. the front beam, and on which the ratchet wheel, F, is fastened. Next to the ratchet the end of the lever, G, plays loosely, and then the crank is secured with a pin, which also keeps the lever in its place. The pitmen, or toggle levers, D D, are four in number; their upper ends are secured on wrought-iron journals, cast solid in the sectors, and their bottom ends are pivoted to the follower, and work in iron boxes. The follower, A, slides up and down between the posts, and is kept perfectly steady. To operate the press the ~ lever, G, is raised and a dog at the back of the lever, which plays on a strong pivot, is hooked on to a pin in the beam and holds the lever up. The dog, H, is then turned back so that its other end shall take into the ratchet below the center; the sectors, follower, &c., are then run up with the crank and held up by the dog, H; the cheese is then put in, the dog, H, turned to the position Figure 44 as now represented; the lever is then raised, which unhooks the lever dog and allows it to take into the rachet. Then press the lever down, or hang a weight and leave it as you please. The follower and sectors are rep- resented about half way down; the journals on which the strain comes move but one-quarter of a revolution as at each operation of pressing, which con-_ sumes little power and produces little wear, while the pinion makes over three revolutions, which gives the end of the lever a traverse of over eighty- six feet. ) 400 Pracricat DaAtry HvuspaAnpry. FACTORY PRESSES. The presses at the factories (Fig. 46) are generally quite similar in con- struction, and, except the iron screw and its fittings, are usually made upon the spot by some carpenter. These presses are not patented, and are so — = i uM FIGURE 45. simple in construction that any one handy with tools can do the wood work for less money than their cost of transportation over long distances. The wooden frames should be made of well seasoned timber, and the parts of sufficient size to be strong, so as not to spring or warp. The sills for holding PrRacTicaLt DAtrRY HUSBANDRY. -° 401 the hoops are about fifteen inches wide and four inches thick, and the beams ten inches by six inches thick. The posts are of the same thickness, and of the width of the sill at the bottom, slanting to the width of the beam at the top. The posts should be about four feet ten inches long. The sill and beam are let into the posts say about a half to three-quarters of an inch. The sills stand about two feet from the floor, and the beams are about two feet five inches above the sills. The posts are set about two feet apart, which gives a space of two feet by two feet five inches for the hoop. Iron rods with nut and screw for the ends are used for holding the wood work firmly in place, and six or eight frames or presses may be connected together. Fig. 46 gives their general appearance. CHEESE PRESS SCREWS. While for private dairies lever presses are still used to some ex- tent, the screw presses have been universally adopted by cheese fac- torymen. ‘The screws are usually placed in benches of six or eight. | These benches, as we have re- | marked, are made very strong, from heavy timber, with bolts, to hold them from spreading, between each screw. The ordinary screw has two holes drilled in its hub, fl and is turned by means of a round | iron bar. Ratchet screws are much more convenient, but, as usually made, are very objectionable, on Ficure 46, account of their complication, thereby allowing the collection of whey and dirt, causing them to rust and smell badly; they are also con- stantly getting out of order. The illustrations (Figs. 47 and 48) show an improved Ratchet Cheese Press Screw, which is said to entirely overcome these objections. The screw is thus constructed: A toothed or ratchet wheel is firmly attached to the screw, leaving about an inch space between the top of the flange and the lower side of the wheel. A lever, to which is | attached the pawl of the ratchet, is made to fit in this space, thus when attached completing the ratchet. But as this lever can be readily removed from or attached to the screw, by merely pressing back the pawl, one lever can be made to answer for all screws in a factory. It will thus be seen that this arrangement combines.all the advantages of the ordinary ratchet screw, with the simplicity, strength and cleanliness of the common plain screw. The pawl attached to the lever is made wide enough to turn the ratchet 26 402 PracTIcAL DAIRY HUSBANDRY. wheel, when placed either side up; thus it can be readily adjusted to either raise or lower the screw. The screw, when relieved of pressure, can be — Fiaure 48, rapidly raised or lowered, by means of a malleable iron handle, made expressly for this purpose (see Fig. 49). The flange of this screw is made very heavy and strong, and has an extra deep socket, in which the lower end Ficure 49. Figure 50. of the screw is carefully fitted, so that the flange cannot tip in the least, but will press the cheese true and even. Both the handle and lever of these . PRACTICAL Datry HUSBANDRY. 403 screws are galvanized, which is quite important, as the salt and acid in the curd and whey will rust them badly. If the common screws are used, the iron bars for running them should always be galvanized, for the same reasons. Another pattern of these screws (shown at Fig. 50) is simple in construc- tion, consisting of a screw of refined wrought iron, attached to and turning in a heavy cast base, also a heavy cast nut through which the screw works, for fastening into the beam of the press. The screws are turned by means of a wrought iron bar inserted into holes in the collar of the screw. They are usually of two sizes—one and three-fourths inches and one and a-half inches in diameter. The one and three-fourths inch screw is in extreme length twenty inches ; has thirteen inches length of screw thread ; four holes in collar for inserting a seven-eighths inch bar, and a base nine inches in diameter. The one and a-half inch screw is in entire length eighteen inches ; length of screw thread, eleven and a-half inches; four holes in collar for three-fourths inch bar, and eight inch diameter of base. The grade and pitch of screw are calculated for the most rapid motion compatible with strength, great power and ease of working. NN d U.S cc FIGURE 51. FRAZER'S GANG CHEESE PRESS. This press is constructed horizontally, and presses any given number of cheese, with a single ratchet screw set in moyable head-blocks, so as to repeat when run out its length. The cheeses are placed upon their edges in metallic hoops, made in sections, with heads or covers of the same material, not liable to shrink or swell, forming a complete box, the sections sliding together as the pressing is performed, finishing the cheese at one operation. The advantages claimed for it are: Ist. It saves the labor of one man, where a large number of cheese are made, 2d. It takes up less than one- half the room of the old presses. 3d. The hoops are so constructed that the air and whey escape as soon as pressure is applied. This is an advantage not appreciated heretofore. 4th. The hoops also make a perfectly smooth, rounding edge. 5th. The cheese are pressed in bandage at once—no turning in press, nor particle of trimming. This alone saves much labor. 6th It will press any number of cheese as perfectly as one. 7th. It presses perfectly 404 PracticAaAn DAirY HUSBANDRY. even, and cannot do otherwise, if the press and hoops are made true. 8th. The pressing is so gradual, on a large number of cheese, that there is no curd forced off with the whey, as is the case with the single cheese press. 9th. The pressing is uniform ; as one is pressed against the other, therefore er eng ATE ii ih i Hit i \ | LTT FIGURE 52, all must be pressed exactly alike. 10th. A weight is attached to the lever to continue pressing, or indicate when manipulation is necessary. 11th. When the screw is reversed sufficiently to relieve one cheese, they will. all come out, saving much labor running screws up and down, as in the ordinary press. 12th. The hoops are made in sections for bandaging and contracting, dispensing with all followers and bot- tom boards. Figs. 51 and 52 illus- trate these presses. CHEESE PRESS HOOPS. The hoops for pressing cheese were formerly, and are still, to a large extent, made from wood, but the last few seasons galvanized iron ~ hoops (see Fig. 53) have been intro- ——— duced to a great extent, and are het- FieurE 53. ter on many accounts. They do not shrink or swell, absorb no whey, and the cheese slips out more readily. RUBBER PRESS RINGS. A source of considerable trouble and annoyance to cheese-makers is the shrinking and swelling of the cheese followers; if they fit loosely, the curd PraAcTiIcCAL Dairy HuSBANDRY. 405 will press up, thereby making it necessary to trim it off, thus causing a waste of cheese. Figs. 54 and 55 illustrate an invention designed to over- come this difficulty. Fig. 54 shows a cheese hoop cut in two perpendicularly. A, represents the cheese hoop; B, the follower; C, the cheese; E and F, rubber washers or rings. One of these rubber rings (Fig. 55) is placed on the inside of the cheese hoop, resting on the press board below the curd or cheese. The other is placed above the cheese, directly under the follower. FieurRe 55. As soon as the pressure is applied, it causes the rubber rings to expand and fit tight to the hoops, preventing the curd from pressing either up around the follower or out underneath the bottom of tHe hoop. By using these rubber rings, the followers may fit the hoops very loosely. They are very valuable in using for the second pressing after the bandage has been put on ; the rings then prevent the bandage bursting at the edge, which has always been a great annoyance, as it allows the flies to get in, producing skippers in a place whence they can scarcely ever be gotten out. Yi fli FiguRE 56. HOOPS AND WOODEN PRESS RINGS. Hoops and wooden press rings are usually made of staves and hard wood (see Fig. 56) doubled together and banded with riveted or welded bandss Hoops of heavy sheet iron, galvanized, with a welded band at top and bottom, are now generally preferred. The illustration (Fig. 56) is a perpendicular section of a wood hoop and press rings, showing the position of the rings in pressing, also a ring separate. The hoop is shown resting upon the press board, in which are seen the channels for conducting off the whey. A is the 406 PrRAcTICAL DAIRY HUSBANDRY. follower, with its edge slightly beveled, corresponding with one side of the upper or triangular ring, 6. The lower ring, ¢, is in its section a right-angled triangle, and is seen in its place at the bottom of the hoop, though by some this ring is not considered necessary. D is the upper ring shown out of the hoop. These rings are made of hard and tough wood by machinery, which AN \ —= AMID UMINTTTT FIGURE 5%. Fieure 58. smoothly rives them into*a three-cornered shape and forms them into circles, so as to tightly fit the inner surface of the hoop, with ends butted together. The manner of using is: first place the hoop on the ‘press board, insert the lower ring, press it down till it is flat upon the board, put in the curd, insert A ASHrON—urice FIGURE 59, Figure 60. FIGuRE 61. the upper ring just below the top of the hoop, put on the follower, and it is yeady for the press, On removing the cheese from the hoop the rings slip out with it. After bandaging put in the cheese and the upper ring, forcing it down to the cheese, insert the follower and apply the pressure. By this means nothing but the whey can pass the rings, the corners of the cheese are left perfect, and the edge of the bandage is firmly impressed ; no press cloth is required, though some prefer a small round cloth for top and bottom. Pracricat Datry HuSBANDRY. 407 CAST-STEEL DAIRY KNIVES FOR CUTTING UP THE CURD are differently arranged and mounted. They are of two kinds, the perpen- dicular and the horizontal (Figs. 57 and 58). The perpendicular is designed to pass through the vat, cutting up the curd into columns. Then the horizontal, passing through, cuts the columns into cubes. These knives are manufactured of sixteen, eighteen and twenty inch lengths, and from four to thirty blades each—to cut perpendicularly. The blades are now tin plated. From four to fifteen blades, the blades are half an inch apart; the twenty-blade knives are three-eighths of an inch, and the thirty-blade knives quarter of an inch apart. The four to six blades inclusive have handles on top of head, as in illustration Fig. 59. Theseven to thirteen blades have handle on side of head as in Fig. 60. The twenty and thirty blades have handles on both side and top of head, as shown on the horizontal cutting knife in the illustration. The thirty-blade perpendicular knife is intended for use where cheese is made FIGURE 62. FIGURE 63, FIGuRE 64. in the “coarse curd process,” and is passed through the curd but once, cutting it into slices. The other perpendicular knives are passed through the curd both length and crosswise. The horizontal knives (Fig. 61) are eighteen and twenty inches long ; four, six and eight inches wide; with blades half an inch apart. This knife is not intended to take the place of the per- pendicular knife, but to be used in connection with it. After cutting the curd length and crosswise, this knife cuts the columns into cubes. For dairy use, four to seven blades, perpendicular, and four inch horizontal; for cheese factory, eleven and thirteen blades perpendicular, and eight inch horizontal. _ The rake agitator (Figure 62) is used for the purpose of agitating the curd while cooking, is very convenient and will save much labor. This is made of wood and tinned wire. The illustration (Fig. 63) gives another form of the agitator. Whey strainer and siphon (Figure 64), for the purpose of drawing 408 PRAcTICAL DAIRY HUSBANDRY. off the whey. The lower part of the strainer is made of perforated tin. The syphon has a faucet attached to one end, with a valve at the other, so con- structed that when filled with whey they will prevent it from escaping. It can then be carried to the vat in which the strainer is placed, the valve end of the syphon is inserted in the strainer, the faucet end hanging over the trough for conducting off the whey. The whey immediately commences to run through the syphon on opening the fancets. CURD-MILLS, DAIRY-DIPPERS, ETC. Curd Mills are now coming into general use in many sections of the coun- try. Figure 65 represents the McApam Mill; it is constructed from iron, with the exception of the frame and hopper, which is wood; it is geared up so as to run rapidly, and has a heavy balance-wheel to make it run easily. They are invaluable where the Cheddar system is adopted, and will be. found a valuable article, particularly in hot weather when the milk is often not in the very best condition. At such times it has the effect of improving the quality of the curd by finely divid- ing, cooling and exposing it to the air; equalizing its character and insuring more perfect salting. We give an illustration in Figure 66 of Ratrn’s American Curd Mill. Re- ferring to the illustration it will be seen that the mill is fitted for lying upon the top of the cheese-vat or sink, and may be moved at pleasure or permanently Figure 65. secured at one place. It consists of a wood frame, upon which is secured a metallic rack with curved ribs; in this rack lie the picking cylinder or cylinders which are of tinned iron; each cylinder having two rows of teeth set spirally, which teeth by the revolving of the cylinders, gradually enter between the curved ribs of the rack, carry- ing before them the picked curd into the receptacle below. The peculiarity of this machine is in the metallic cylinders, and the action of the teeth through the ribs of the curved rack, by means of which the curd is not only easily and rapidly picked up, but being gradually passed through the ribs, is not mashed, nor the butter separated from it. The cut represents a double cylinder or factory size, the cylinders being geared together. The dairy size has a single cylinder; they are worked by hand with a crank, also arranged for power, being furnished with a balance- wheel to carry a belt. Dairy dippers (Figure 67) showld be made from IXXXX tin, and hold from three to four quarts, the seams should be well filled with solder, and they should be made plain and smooth. Figure 68 is a flat-sided pail made for the purpose of dipping out the curd from the vat ; 1t should be made from f tf Os iil PRACTICAL DAIRY HUSBANDRY. 409 heavy tin, with bail, and a handle in the back. A curd-scoop (Figure 69) should accompany it, which is made from tin, somewhat in the shape of an ordinary dust-pan, but made heavier and more carefully soldered. The curd sink should be mounted on castors, so as to be readily moved in any direction ; these castors (Figure 70) should be made very heavy and substantial, with a FIGurRE 66. projecting lip to take the weight off from the screws that fasten it to the legs of the sink. The wheel shank is so secured in the socket, that while it allows the wheel to revolve freely, it cannot slip out of place. The castors are secured to the legs by wood screws; the bottom of the legs of the sink resting upon projecting lips made to receive them. Four constitute a set. FIGURE 67. FIGURE 68. Rubber mops (Figure 71), a most desirable article for cleaning a wet floor, will save their cost in brooms several times during a season. No cheese factory will be without then when once tried. . Dairy thermometers (Figure 72) should be made with a heavy brass back, and a small loose tin collar to slip over the bulb to protect it; the handiest size is the ten-inch. The most approved patterns are now plated with nickel. 410 PracticAL DAtrY HUSBANDRY. SCALES. Good scales are an important feature in cheese factory fixtures. We give in Figs. 73, 74, 75, 76 and 77 different forms of the Howe scales. These iy Vy Ve Wf FisurRe 69. FIGURE "0. Figure ‘71. scales are accurate and reliable. By introducing chilled iron balls between the platform, and by making all the bearings self-adjusting, they take nearly all the wear from the pivots, upon the sharpness of which the accuracy and durability of all scales very largely depend. Fig. 74 represents a platform scale on wheels. This, or the one shown in Fig. 73, is the kind wanted by every cheese factory for weighing the milk when it is taken in. About six hundred pound scales are the most desirable. Either of the scales shown in Figs. 75 and 76 are very convenient for weighing salt, &c., in cheese making, but the best to purchase in most cases is the Improved Union Scales (Fig. 77), as they not only answer for weighing small things, but have a convenient platform for weighing cheese or any heavy article. The Jonus Scales are very similar in construction to the above, and are good, reliable scales. We give in Fig. 78 a cut of the Jonus Stock Scales, which are found useful in weighing very heavy weights. THE RECTANGULAR CHEESE, Cheese has been made from time to time in a variety of ‘shapes. In England and America the cylindrical form has always been most popular. Other shapes, such as the “ pine-apple,” the “cannon ball,” the “ Limberger” or brick shape, and the “ French cakes,” have been, each and all, of limited demand. Some of | these shapes, such as the “ pine-apple,” have been made and are = still made in small quantities in this country, and as a fancy article they sell at comparatively high prices. The “cannon ball” was at one time made in certain districts of New York to supply the FIGURE "2. PRACTICAL DAIRY HUSBANDRY. 411 \ Navy. The “Edam” of Holland is round like a ball, and on account of its small size finds ready sale in Engiand, where it is in favor among the lower classes, the farm laborers, and those who desire a low priced cheese, and cannot afford to indulge in the better sorts. The Limberger is only suited to German tastes. It is rank in taste and smell, and comparatively few English- men or Americans have learned to like it. It is manufactured to some extent in this country to supply our German population, but is not exported. The FIGURE 73. Figure ‘4. Figure %5, French cakes have not been made in America. A good deal has been said. at one time and another about changing the cylindrical or common shape of our cheese to a square or oblong form. And the reasons urged for this change are that the present shapes entail a heavy expense in boxing, while they cannot be cut in small pieces to advantage. A wedge of cheese, it is contended, must always leave more waste, when itis divided up for the table, than the same weight in a square form, and as small cubical blocks are more pleasing to the eye than irregular pieces cut from a wedge, this alone is good reason why a square or cubical-shaped cheese should be made. But as the a _ ANN FIGURE ‘16. FicuRE ‘7%. material for making cylindrical boxes is growing scarce and expensive, a cheese of another form is required to meet this difficulty. Square boxes are not only more economical in cost of material and in the labor of making, but as they can be packed closer, there would be a gain: over round boxes in the matter of freight when sending to market. These are the arguments that have been urged by the advocates of this radical change in cheese manu- facture. On the other hand, serious objections have been suggested against 412 PractTicaAt DAIRY HUSBANDRY. the proposed change. In the first place a reputation has been established in the markets for cheese of a particular shape, and it is a question whether the prejudices of consumers for these shapes could be readily overcome. It was thought, too, by many, that by making cheese in a square form the corners and edges would be more liable to break in handling, and finally, that there. would be difficulty in securing the bandage, and thus the matter has rested until quite recently. The first practical experiments in the way of making square-shaped cheeses, we believe, are due to Mr. Hotprince of Otsego county, N. Y. He has been for several years developing his system of cheese manufacture, but his plans were not fully matured until last year, when his new style of cheese was put upon the markets. We have seen several letters written by dealers who have handled the “‘ Holdridge cheese,” in which its shape and quality are highly commended, and from which it appears that sales have been readily made at good figures. As the plan adopted by Mr. Horpripex is original, and may be somewhat new to the dairy public, I shall briefly allude to some of its leading features. In the first place the curds are pressed in a square box, arranged with fol- lower, &c., on the plan of the common hoop. The cubical block of curd is then removed from the frame and cut witha fine saw into blocks of the desired size. For these blocks =< Mr. Horpriper adopts an ob- FIGURE 18. long form, the ends being square. A strip of bandage cloth, just wide enough to wrap around these blocks, (a small piece having previously been adjusted on the ends), is wet in water. The dampness causes it to adhere to the cheese. The blocks of curd are then simply laid upon the cloth and rolled over until the sides are covered, when the ends are lapped down, and this completes the process of bandaging. The bandaged blocks are then laid in the hoop in the same order im which they were cut, the courses being separated by thin boards, and when in place form a cubical mass. Then the follower is adjusted and pressure applied in the same way as for ordinary cheese. This process fastens the bandage securely, and after being properly pressed the frame is taken off, the blocks separated and put upon the shelves. While curing, these blocks of cheese are turned from day to day, but only a quarter revolution at a time. Mr. Hotprivce claims that the escape of the whey by evaporation is greatly facilitated by the form of the cheese, inasmuch as the whey percolates towards the bottom, and the turning being only a quarter revolution, or at right angles, it constantly tends toward the outside, while in the ordinary form of cheese the turning from one side to the other has a tendency to keep the whey in the center of the cheese. In the block-shaped cheese, therefore, the PRACTICAL DAIRY HUSBANDRY. 413 whey is so far dissipated that decomposition is less liable to take place, and further, that the cheese can be preserved without the greasing process com- monly employed. He claims also that for the retail trade the block cheese is of great advantage, since the dealer can weigh the whole cheese and cut by measure the exact weight desired. And again, for family use they are superior, since by turning the bandage back from the end a thin slice may be cut off for the table, the bandage replaced and the cheese set on end, thereby excluding the freshly cut surface from the air, preventing drying and the attack of flies. . In the manufacture of small cheeses it will be observed the plan proposed must be a great saving in presses and hoops, while the ease and rapidity of adjusting the bandage is a matter of some consideration. I have examined the Hotpripex rectangular appliances for pressing with considerable care. The whole is very simple, easily operated, and not liable to get out of order. The plan, if successfully adopted, must save a large amount of labor at cheese factories, since one curb and one press is sufficient for a large quantity of curd. Then the cheese can be made of any desired weight without going to the extra expense of procuring hoops and presses and screws to meet the emergency. For making small sized cheeses, say from ten to thirty pounds, it would seem to be admirably adapted. Small sized cheeses are very much needed in the home trade, and are not supplied in sufficient quantity for the reason that manufacturers have not been willing to take the extra expense of labor and appliances for their production. Under the rectangular plan most of the objections to making a small sized cheese are obviated. We see no reason why the rectangular cheese cannot be made of equal quality with -cther shapes. Indeed, we have tested numerous samples made at different seasons of the year, and have found them excellent. The small expense in boxing this style of cheese alone commends it to favorable consideration. But of course the prejudice for round shapes among certain consumers may interfere for a time with the general introduction of rectangular cheese. Still from the success already obtained for this plan, and the favor with which the cheese has been received in the home and foreign markets, there is reason to believe that the oblong shapes are destined to work a revolution in the old styles of cheese. We hear of a number of factories this year, 1871, entering upon their manufacture, and by the end of the season enough cheeses will have been made to fully test the feeling of different markets in regard to the new shapes. We give a cut (Fig. 79) representing the curb and press, and the manner in which the cheese is placed for pressure. A represents cheese with bandage. 5B, composite mold. C, square curb or hoop. D and E, mortised slips for connecting the hoops. Mr. Hotprripesx, the inventor, gives the following statement as regards the comparative cost of making rectangular cheese and round cheese, together with the directions for pressing, ban- 414 PractricAL DAIRY HUSBANDRY. daging and boxing, which will be useful to those proposing to adopt this style of manufacture: Saving in Boxes, Down Weights and Handling.—Comparative cost of manufacture, boxing, &c., of one hundred pounds of cheese made into ten pound rectangular cheese, or made into fifty pound round cheese:—Ten ll 1 FI@ureE "9. rectangular cheese, five by five by ten inches, weigh one hundred pounds. Two round cheese, fifteen inches in diameter and eight inches high, weigh one hundred pounds. Bandage for round cheese, three-quarters wide, say one yard, costs six cents; to box two such cheese, forty-four cents. Total Practvicat Dairy HuUSBANDRY. 415 cost for one hundred pounds, fifty cents. Bandage for ten rectangular cheese, as above, three yards, three-quarters wide, cost eighteen cents; boxes for one hundred pounds, thirty cents. Total cost per one hundred pounds, forty-eight cents; a saving of two cents per one hundred pounds. Comparing ten pound rectangular with fifty pound round cheese :—These small cheeses are packed eighteen (one hundred and eighty pounds) in a case, The same amount of cheese in fifty pound round cheese would require three down weights or more—a loss of two weights, not less than one pound of cheese as compared with the small cheese—worth sixteen cents. A saving of about nine cents per one hundred pounds, which, added to the two cents saved as above, makes not less than eleven cents per one hundred pounds saved thus far in favor of rectangular small cheese. This saving greatly increases as the size of the round cheese compared with the rectangular diminishes. Compare twenty-five pounds rectangular with the same size round cheese: Round cheese of this weight are about thirteen inches in diameter and six inches high. Rectangular cheese, same weight, are seven by seven by four- teen inches. The bandage for round cheese, per one hundred pounds, costs seven cents; four boxes at sixteen cents, sixty-four cents. Total for one hundred pounds, seventy-one cents. Rectangular cheese :—Bandage, twelve cents ; boxes, twenty-five cents. Total per one hundred pounds, thirty-seven cents; saved, thirty-four cents. To this should be added seven down weights saved, (three and a-half pounds of cheese), to case of eight cheeses, per one hundred pounds, twenty-eight cents. Total saved per one hundred pounds, sixty-two cents. In comparing fifty pound round cheese with rectangular cheese eight by eight by sixteen inches, weighing same, the saving per one hundred pounds is thirty cents. The above figures do not include the saving in screws, hoops and frames, nor in labor required to take vare of them. Saving in Hoops, Screws, &ce.—To manufacture the milk from five hun- dred cows requires hoops, screws and appurtenances to take care of at least one thousand pounds of curd. To manufacture this into fifty pound round cheese would require twenty hoops, screws, frames, &c., and would cost not less than $15 per set; total, $300. To manufacture the same curd into rectangu- lar cheese, twenty-five pounds each, would, if pressed into eight cheeses, two hundred pounds in a curb, require but five curbs, which, with screws and frames, would not cost over $150. A net saving of fifty per cent. To make the same amount of curd into ten pound rectangular cheese would require, if pressed in curbs thirty by thirty inches, two cheese in thickness, three curbs and fixtures, and would not cost over $100. Saving in Boxes.—We box eight cheese, thirty-pound size, in one case —two hundred and forty pounds—and the box will cost not over sixty cents, and can be furnished for less, as they can be made of pieces of boards and refuse lumber. We box the ten-pound size, eighteen in a case—one hundred .and eighty pounds—and boxes cost each sixty cents. By comparing these 416 PRACTICAL DAIRY HUSBANDRY. figures with the cost of boxes for round cheese, per one hundred pounds, the Saving in expense is readily seen. We can use the same screws and frames as used with hoops. The common round hoops cost about $5 each, and press from twenty-five to fifty pounds of curd. Our curbs cost from $15 to $20 each, and press from two hundred to four hundred pounds, or more. Curbs without sections cost twenty per cent. less. The expense of these can be lessened by using one or more locked or hinged curbs, with boxes dove- tailed or screwed together for first pressing the curd. And when several locked curbs are used they do not all require sections. Much less room for presses is required and the drying room can be much smaller for these cheeses than for round ones, as they occupy less space on the table or shelves, and the shelves can be placed one above the other. The rooms can be better ventilated, as the cheese are bandaged all over and will not crack. By using our style of press or curb, cheese can be pressed as long as desired, as each day’s cheese can be put under one press. The Press Cloths—Two press cloths are used with each curb. A square one, a little larger than the curb, and a long one, of sufficient length to reach around inside of the curb, and wide enough to protect the sides of the curb. Place the square press cloth upon the press board and put the curb upon it. Put in the long press cloth around the inside of the curb, and let it lap’ about an inch upon the bottom towards the center of the curb. If this cloth be not wide enough to cover the top of the cheese, a small square cloth should be used. Put in curd enough to make the cake of required thickness. Put in the follower and press the curd till next morning, or till sufficiently formed to cut. Having removed the screw, lift up one side of the curb and pull the bottom press cloth back half way, then lift up the other side and remove the cloth. -Take out the pins and loosen and remove the curb and side and top press cloths, and the cake is ready to cut. Cut the cake by measure into desired sizes, ; 5 To Bandage the Cheese.—Cut the bandage into strips, one inch wider than the length of the cheese, and of sufficient length to reach around the cheese and lap about an inch. Also cut square pieces one inch larger than the end of the cheese. Place the pieces of bandage in a vessel of water, and put on the bandage wet. Place the end pieces on first, lapping over the ends one-half an inch all around. The side piece is put on as follows: Place one end of the bandage near the middle of the uppermost side of the cheese, spread it smoothly and turn the cheese from the person, and the bandage can be put on very smooth. Smooth over the corners and ends, and replace the cheese into the curb for second pressing. Where quantities of this cheese are made, we use a common table having on the under side a trough of water, and the bandage is cut into long strips of proper width and placed in the water in rolls on spools, and through slots in the table is drawn up as required, and cut off as each cheese is bandaged. This is a very simple and cheap arrangement, and will greatly assist in preparing and putting on the. PrActTicAL DAIRY HUSBANDRY. A417 bandage. The bandaged cheese having been piled upon the press board, the curb is locked around it. Between each layer of cheese place an inch board same size as the follower. Nothing but the bandage is placed between the cheeses in the same layer. Apply the screw and press as long as desired. When the cheeses are first put upon the shelves or tables, place them close together for a few days, to prevent drying too fast, and after that keep them about an inch apart—to be governed by the weather and how fast they are desired to dry. The cheese should be rubbed and turned a quarter revolu- tion daily, and kept nice and clean. Boxes.—We box these cheese as follows: Ten-pound cheese, eighteen cheeses ina case. Twenty to thirty-pound cheese, eight cheeses in a case. The boxes are made of one-half inch stuff for the sides, and inch stuff for the ends and middle partition. The end pieces are set in a little from the ends of the sides, and a small cleat nailed around the outside of the heads, as shown in the engraving, makes them very firm. The middle piece is same size and shape as the heads. A cleat is put around the boxes outside at the ends and middle to keep them from being packed too closely together. This cleat should be of one-half inch stuff, and about an inch wide.. (This cleat does not show in engraving.) The lumber should all be planed, it looks so much better; and if the cover is fastened on with screws, it will be an advantage, as shippers and others can inspect the cheese without injury to the box, and where the market is not too far off the empty boxes can be returned. A thin piece of veneer or board, of same size as side of cheese, should be put between each cheese in the box, as a scale board, and the boxes should always lie so that the cheese stand onend. It pays well to make a neat looking package. Butter dairymen understand this, and know that the price of their butter is seriously affected by the appearance of the package. We know from experience that good, neat looking boxes for our cheeses are a profit- able investment. THE CHEESE RACK AND SETTER, were considered indispensable in the curing rooms of the early factories, but the necessity now for their use is not so great. Indeed, with the medium- sized cheese now generally made, many prefer the simple table on which to place the cheese while curing, as it is easier cleaned and affords more room. The cheese rack consists of scantling (four by five inches) with the corners beveled or cut so as to be five-sided; these are framed the proper distance at the ends and set on legs of the desired hight, forming a skeleton table. Or, instead of legs, arms may be framed into the posts which support the floors of the curing room, and upon these arms the scantling are placed to form the rack. Then round covers of inch hemlock or pine, bound with stout elm rims, three or four inches wide, set upon the racks and hold the cheese. When the cheese is to be turned, a spare cover is placed on top, and the cheese and covers turned over; the cover now on top is removed, rubbed with a cloth, and is ready to be applied to the next cheese. The rims of the 27 418 PRACTICAL DAIRY HUSBANDRY, covers protect the edges of the cheese in the process of turning ; and a part of the cheese swinging down in the open space between the timbers, and the rims resting on the beveled sides, renders the operation not only easy, but insures safety to the cheese. A large cheese can be turned with as much ease on a properly constructed rack as the loosening of the cheese on the | table preparatory to being turned. Large cheeses are difficult to handle on a table, and are liable to have their edges broken or in other ways marred in turning. The illustration (Fig. 80) gives an idea of the manner of con- structing the rack. CONVENIENT APPLIANCES. In the construction and fitting up of factories, it is very important to haye every department as conveniently arranged as possible. Attention should be given to have every appliance for saving labor and facilitating all the various operations. Good factory hands are comparatively scarce, and com- mand large wages. By having conveniently arranged buildings and handy implements, the labor of one or two persons may be saved, and this is an FIeuRE 80. important item. In a recent visit to Chautauqua County, I found some things adopted at the Sinclairville Factory, by which the operations were very expeditiously conducted. The Sinclairville Factory is one of the largest in the State of New York, receiving the milk of fifteen hundred cows and upward. Where such a large quantity of milk is received at one place, it is evident more than ordinary attention must be given to have the various parts of the factory and its appliances so as to be convenient, for if otherwise there would be great liability of neglect from time to time, which would result in damaging the product THE MAIN BUILDING is one hundred and twenty feet by fifty feet, three stories high, and this structure is wholly employed as a dry house or cheese curing department. The two lines of posts running through the central part of the building, in the several stories, to support the frame, are also made of use in holding the arms on which the tables or shelves rest, one above the other, thereby giving the building capacity for storing a large number of cheeses. Some idea of PRAcTICAL DAIRY HUSBANDRY. 419 its capacity will be had from the fact that at one time nine thousand cheeses (fifteen-inch size) were stored upon the shelves. THE MANUFACTURING DEPARTMENT is in a wing extending in a line with the main building, one hundred and thirty feet long by thirty-two feet broad, and one story high. From the main building to the end of the wing the floor has one foot fall. The floor also descends from either side toward the center, where there is a narrow ditch for conducting off the whey and slops. The vats are upon one side and the presses upon the other side, opposite. The space from the vats to the side of the building occupied by the presses is eleven feet, which gives ample room for the sink, provided with large casters, to move up and down between the vats and presses as desired, while sufficient room is given on either side of the sink for the hands to work in, stirring the curds, &c., &c. THE SINK is three feet two inches wide by thirteen feet four inches in length. The bottom is made dishing, and is of matched pine, except in the center, where there is a narrow strip of perforated tin, through which the whey escapes to a movable trough, which is a little wider than the tin, and fits up close to the bottom of the sink, so that all the whey dripping from the curds is caught. At the upper end of the manufacturing department, and adjoining the dry-house, a space thirty feet long is devoted to A DRESSING ROOM. There are tables along the side of this department, where the cheese, when taken from the press, are received and dressed preparatory to going forward into the dry-house. At the lower end of the manufactory there is an open shed or covered drive-way, where the teams deliver milk. Upon one side stand the platform scales, three and a-half feet higher than the floor. of the drive-way. The usual weighing can and its accompanying tin milk conductor are not used at this factory. Instead, there is a truck running on rails along the heads of vats. This truck has a platform about the same hight from the floor as that upon which the scales rest. When the milk teams come in, the cans are moved directly from the wagon to the scales, and after being weighed go upon the truck, which is then moved along to the head of the vat and dumped. One edge of the platform on the truck is cut down lower than the others, and has a notch to receive the bottom of the can on this side, so as to facilitate dumping, and also to prevent the can from slipping while being dumped. The platform scales being about the same hight as the milk wagons, there is no difficulty in rolling the can upon the scales, and from the scales to the dumping truck. Each patron’s can is weighed and marked, so that the weight of milk is rapidly obtained. There is no bother with cranes, no weighing can to be kept clean, no milk con- : ductor to look after, while the operation of weighing and delivering the milk 420 PractTicaAt DAIRY HUSBANDRY. to the vats, Mr. Burnuan, the proprietor, says, can be done quite as rapidly and safely as by the usual method, and with no more labor. On the other hand, a very large amount of work in cleaning. weighing can and milk con- ductors is obviated during the season, while at the same time there is less liability of sour milk, &c., arising from neglect on the part of factory hands to keep these utensils in proper order. The arrangement seemed to be convenient, as it certainly was ingenious, and being so different from the usual plan of delivering milk, may prove suggestive to those persons who are about to build cheese factories. _ THE CURD FILLER. Another handy device in use at this factory is that for filling the hoops with curd. A tin form (see Fig. 81) just large enough te slip down inside the hoop is used. It is a little longer than the hoop, and is surmounted by a flaring top, and when in place, has the appearance of a common tin pan sitting upon the hoop (see Fig. 82). Figure 82. Figure 81. Now, when the hoop is to be filled with curd, the lower or smaller end of this tin form receives a circular piece of cotton cloth just large enough to cover the bottom and come up over the edges of the tin outside—say about an inch. The cloth having been dampened and spread over the tin, is pushed into the hoop. It covers the bottom of the hoop, and the edges, of course, are held between the hoop and the tin, about an inch high all around the hoop. The curd is now placed in the hoop, and when full the tin form drawn out, which leaves the bottom cloth with edges turned up between the curd and hoop, preventing the escape of the curd during pressure. A circular cap of cloth is put on the top when the follower is adjusted and the cheese goes to press. By this device the use of large pressing-cloths is avoided, while a nice surface is secured to the cheese, making a considerable saving, not only in expense for cloth, but in labor of washing, &e. PrRaActTICAL DAIRY HUSBANDRY. 491 THE BANDAGING MACHINE. This is another convenient arrangement by which a cheese can be very expeditiously bandaged. It consists simply of a circular-topped stool (see Figure 83) for placing the cheese upon as it comes from the press. The top of the stool is about the same diameter as that of the cheese to be bandaged. A strip of tin is bent into a circle, so that it may be made to inclose the cheese. The ends are not joined together (see Figure 84), so that it may be contracted or expanded. It is provided with handles. Now, when the cheese is to be bandaged, it is placed upon the stool, the circular tin contracted so as to readily receive the bandage, when it is allowed to expand, and is then forced down over the cheese and over the stool, or so far as is necessary to make a lap of bandage for the under side of the cheese. FIGURE 83. Figure 84. Then the tin is withdrawn, leaving the bandage nicely in place. The work is very rapidly effected, without trouble or tearing the bandage; and a closer and better fit may be made than where the bandage is drawn on by hand, as in the old way. THE MILK TESTER. In testing of milk, from time to time, the common lactometer, or set of glass tubes graduated, is used. But instead of marking the name of the patron back of each tube to designate it, as is usual at many factories, figures (see Figure 85) are used, which refer to corresponding names kept in a private book. Thus the tests may be conducted without arousing suspi- cion or causing unpleasant feeling among the patrons on account of subjecting the milk to a test. This plan seems to be altogether preferable to the use of names directly on the apparatus, since all unpleasant remarks concerning certain specimens of milk by those going through the factory are avoided, as the names corresponding with the numbers are known only to the factory manager, and can be kept secret by him. We give an illustration herewith 499 PracticaL DAIRY HUSBANDRY. of the glass tubes set in a frame, and each with its appropriate number on the board at the back part of the frame. THE ‘‘ YOUNG AMERICAN ” CHEESE. Small cheeses of the “‘ Young America ” style have been manufactured at this factory, and sales for such have averaged considerably more than for large cheese. ‘These cheeses are pressed in hoops seven inches in diameter, and the cheeses made from six to seven inches high. Sqyeral are pressed together under one screw—in some cases as many as sixteen. They are set together, the followers adjusted, and a thick, wide plank put upon the blocking, so that the whole may be pressed evenly and alike. In boxing these cheeses for market, twenty-one and a-half inch boxes are used, and seven cheeses put in a box. One cheese stands in the center of the box, and the others are arranged about it, and they thus fill the box, so that they may be safely sent to market, without moving about or marring. We were much pleased with several other features at this factory, but which we have no space now to describe. | i, == (5 | aint: iH i — _ f i iz FI@uRE 85. ON FACTORY BUILDINGS AND FIXTURES. The following from the pen of Dr. L. L. Wieurt, who has had large expe- rience in the management of factories, will appropriately close this branch of our work: : “The first thing to be considered in selecting a site for building, after having secured a sufficient number of cows, is a plentiful supply of cold, running water. The quantity should not be less than sufficient to fill a two- inch pipe, for the milk of every five hundred cows. The temperature of this water should not rise above sixty degrees in the warmest weather of summer. Instead of erecting the buildings over some low, marshy, swampy ground, where water, slop and whey will settle and stagnate and infect the superin- cumbent air, as is too often the case, by all means select some dry, hard, airy location, a little descending to the rear, and with a continuous descent from PractTicAL DAIRY HUSBANDRY. 493 the building, to insure the escape of all decomposing liquids to a safe distance. The size of the main building should be thirty-two feet wide, two stories high, of eight feet each in the clear, and the length will depend upon the amount of milk anticipated. A building seventy-five feet long will accommo- date the milk from five or six hundred cows. Let the piers be made very substantial, extending to a depth beyond the possibility of frost, and not be over about ten feet apart in either direction. The main timbers, being ten by twelve inches square, support three by ten inch joists, not set in gains but resting on the cross-sills. ‘The joists must be sound and set not over sixteen inches apart, being well bridged. The flooring of the manufactory, made of well-matched, sound yellow pine-plank, inclines three inches from the front, to a substantial box-drain made in the floor, four feet from the rear. The floor also inclines slightly from the rear to said drain. The drain drops from each end of the manufactory to the center, where it enters another box which conveys all slop, whey, etc., to a safe distance from the building. The entire outside is covered with well-seasoned, matched, sound pine-siding. The entire sides and ends of the manufacturing part, inside, are ceiled with pine. The ceiling is well plastered. The curing-rooms have floors laid with good, sound, seasoned spruce flooring. The sides are double-plastered, so as to make two fixed air spaces. The ceilings are also all well plastered. There need be no posts to support the floor. The second floor is supported by iron rods suspended from bridges in the attic. The entire building is well lighted by double-sash windows, which are supplied with good rotary outside blinds. Thorough ventilation of the curing-room is secured by the building being elevated so far above the ground as to admit of an abundance of air; and the insertion of large registers in each bent, under every counter in the first and second floors, and by good ventilators through the attic floor and roof. By careful attention to these registers, and keeping the blinds closed in hot and sunny days, the temperature can usually be kept at a sufficiently low degree, even in the warmest weather. An ice chamber in the attic, so arranged as to register the cold, moist air into the curing-rooms below, would likely at times be beneficial. The curing-rooms are supplied with counters twenty-four inches high and three feet wide; each table being made of two seventeen-inch wide pine plank, with a two inch space between them. Matched boards under cheese are objectionable, from the greater difficulty of cleansing and the danger of skippers infesting the cracks. It is better to have the counters two feet distant from each other for the convenience of the laborers, cheese-buyers and visitors. The manufacturing-room will be sepa- rated from the curing-room below by a tight double partition, with a large sliding door in the center, between the two lines of presses. The length of the manufacturing and pressing-room, in a building of the size above men- tioned, would be thirty-five or forty feet. The boiler-room, and wood or coal-room will be erected at the end and adjoining the manufactory, having easy entrance thereto. A building about thirteen feet square should be 424 PrAcTICAL Dairy Hvuspanpr is attached to the front of the manufactory, containing a drive-way and a receiving-platform. The platform will be closed toward the drive-way, except a slide window to receive the milk through, and be open toward the vats. The center of this building will correspond to the center of the vats, so that the receiving-can may stand equi-distant from each outside vat. The ground of the drive-way is four and one-half feet below the top of the weigh- ing-can. The receiving-platform is about one foot higher than the top of the milk-vats. This building is supplied with means to hoist the cans of milk, either by a crane-derrick, or, what is preferable, a hoisting wheel. Permit no faucets in the transporting cans, as they cause the milk to taint when not cleansed thoroughly, and are liable to be neglected. The wooden vats being about fifteen feet in length, it gives three feet between the receiving-platform and the end of the vats; two feet between the vats and the curd-sink; two feet between the curd-sink and the presses, and two feet between the presses and the rear of the building. The vats are separated two feet from each other, and three feet from the end of the building. The wooden vats almost invariably leak, and I think it would be better to have them lined with sheet- lead. The tin vats should be made of the largest sheets of tin, of the best quality, and be soldered together very ‘smoothly. The wooden vat should rest upon a frame-work extending the one-half length of the vat, and not coming to the edge or upper end within four inches. The wooden vats should not be incumbered with legs extending to the floor, to be in the way of the feet. The most convenient way of raising and lowering the foot of the vat is by means of a standard, spring and catch, attached to the floor and the lower end of the vat. The space between the last vat and the curing- room will accommodate two tiers of presses, and give sufficient room for storing salt, for rennet and annatto jars, for hanging siphons, conductors, pails and knives ; for washing-sink, hot and cold water barrels, ete. Supply each milk vat with a water pipe of at least three-quarters of an inch bore. The water, after having circulated around and cooled the milk, will be conducted to a water-wheel and furnish the power to move the milk agitator, of which AusTIN’s patent is recommended. If the factory is to receive the milk of five hundred cows or over, get a steam engine of not less than two horse- power, the boiler being not less than a six horse-power. It requires the expenditure of a large quantity of steam to warm the milk, and you want to be sure of it just when you need it; and the engine will enable you to pump water into the boiler, to grind your curds, to churn, if you wish, to saw your wood, or perform what other service soever you may desire. If you havea less number of cows than above indicated, a patent heater manufactured by Cuartes Mitrar & Son of Utica, will heat the milk gradually and very perfectly, and gives general satisfaction, If you do not grind your curds you will need two curd-sinks, so as to give greater facility for cooling the curds before putting to press. Your milk conductors will be large, stout, and open at the top to insure easy cleansing. Procure a good curd-mill to be used at Practican Dairy HUSBANDRY. 425 least in hot weather. You want one gang knife of thirty blades, with one- fourth inch spaces, and one horizontal curd knife. If you use a steam boiler use the steam dry, after the method patented by Mr. ScuERMERHORN. Alto- gether the best method of warming the curing-room is by steam from the boiler. This gives a more equable temperature, and a moister, purer atmos- phere. The next best mode of heating is by a furnace, well supplied with water for evaporation. Wood or coal stoves do not sufficiently equalize the temperature. Having an ice chamber in the attic, you can perform the double operation of cooling and moistening the rooms at any time. Curd- rakes, to keep the curd from packing, are nearly as indispensable as curd- knives. The patent horizontal press, pressing a number of cheeses at once, with one screw, will come into general use when the patentee has learned to obviate the difficulty of making an indentation or crease in each cheese, which harms their appearance, and supplies an excellent place for the generation of skippers in fly time. The followers must fit the hoops very nearly, or if not, the use of the rubber ring is necessitated. The use of this will hinder the curd from passing up between the hoop and the follower. In very hot weather, however, the acid in the whey soon decomposes the rubber and necessitates new purchases. No press cloths are needed. The rings and staples in the followers you buy are worthless, and should be replaced by your blacksmith, before attempting to use them. Turning covers are not wanted, even if the patentee will pay you for using them. Farrpanxs’ scales are the most reliable and give the best satisfaction. In weighing cheese for market, use a suitable sized counter-scale, which you can slip along readily on the counter, as you weigh each cheese, before being boxed. Give good up-weight in this manner, and there need be no trouble of having short weights returned upon you. Fine cap cloths give the smoothest rind. A convenient door will ‘be made in each end of the second story, and in the end of the curing-room below, through which the cheeses may pass to the wagons on shipping. The boxes may very readily be slid from the second story to the wagons on properly constructed skids.” CHEESE MANUFACTURE, e THE ENGLISH STANDARD AS TO THE FLAVOR OF CHEESE. Mixx varies in character from various causes, but chiefly in the butter and milk-sugar, the caseine showing but slight variations. Now the great art sought by the cheese dairymen is in extracting two of the above constituents of the milk—caseine and butter—and combining them with the water m such proportions as to make a palatable article to suit a certain arbitrary taste. I say arbitrary, because taste is educated, and different nations have different standards as to what is palatable. When I was in Switzerland I saw gentlemen, apparently of the highest respectability, eating cheese of a most intensely disagreeable odor. They ate this cheese with a relish, and pronounced it excellent, while, to my taste, it had all the peculiarities of badly tainted food, the very odor of which was nauseating. Some of the Germans also like a strong and rancid cheese. The English taste, both for butter and cheese, has changed materially during the last half century. What is now required in cheese is a mild, clean flavor, with a certain mellowness of texture, readily dissolving under the tongue, and leaving a nutty, new milk taste in the mouth. The English demand a cheese of solid .texture—that is, free from porosity—because a porous cheese usually indicates an imperfect separation of the whey, or undue fermentation. Such cheese often has a sweetish taste, which is owing to the excess of the sugar of milk in the whey, and they invariably turn with a bad flavor. ‘The market value of cheese does not depend entirely on the amount of butter which it contains. In an address before the American Dairymen’s Association a few years ago, I broached and discussed this point. It was new doctrine, which the dairy public, and especially dealers, were not then prepared to admit. i The experiments at factories, since that time, have proved the assump- tion, and shown that cheese made from milk partially skimmed was not even suspected by the dealer at home, and was pronounced first quality in the’ English market. The fact has also been established by Dr. VoELcKER, in the analyses of different samples of cheese; the common or ordinary Amer- Jean, he finds richer in butter than the best English Cheddar, which is the highest grade of cheese known to English taste. It may not be out of place, Practica Darry HUSBANDRY. 4907 in this connection, to give Dr. VortckeEr’s language. He says :—‘* One of the chief tests of the skill of the dairymaid is the production of a rich tasting and looking, fine flavored and mellow cheese, from milk not particularly rich in cream. That this can be done, is abundantly proved by the practice of good makers. One of the finest Cheddars I ever examined was made by Mr. JosrpH Harvie of Marksbury, Somersetshire, and analyzed by me when six months old. Like all good cheese, it of course contained a large amount of butter, though, as I found by experiment, not nearly so large an amount as its appearance, rich taste, and fine, mature condition seemed to imply. ‘Though only six months old, it had a much more mature appearance than a Cheddar cheese which was at least eleven months old when analyzed, and, thanks to Mr. Harprne’s skill and experience, had a far much fatter and more mellow appearance and richer taste, than a specimen which actually contained two and a-half per cent. more butter.” “In the opinion of good judges,” he goes on to remark “this Cheddar cheese, notwithstanding the larger amount of butter and smaller amount of water it contained, was worth a penny a pound Jess than the specimen made by Mr. Harprne.” MELLOW APPEARANCE. “The peculiar mellow appearance of good cheese, though due to some extent to the butter it contains, depends, in a higher degree, upon a gradual transformation, which caseine or curd undergoes in ripening. Now, if this ripening process is badly conducted, or the original character of the curd is such that it adapts itself but slowly to the transformation, the cheese, when sold, will be comparatively tough, and appear less rich in butter than it really is, while in a well made and properly kept cheese, this series of changes will be rapidly and thoroughly effected.” PROPER RIPENING. “« Proper ripening, then, imparts to cheese a rich appearance, and unites with the butter in giving it that most desirable property of melting in the mouth. On examining some cheeses deficient in this melting property, and accordingly pronounced by practical judges defective in butter, I neverthe- less found in them a very high percentage of that substance, clear proof that the mellow and rich taste is not owing entirely, or indeed is chiefly due, to the fatty matter which it contains.” I do not introduce this topic for the purpose of advising manufacturers to skim the milk for cheese-making, but rather as a suggestion that no effort should be spared in acquiring that skill in manufacturing which is able to bring about desirable results, and to show that, even with the best material, a cheese unskillfully made may be tough, poor and unpalatable. THE PROPORTION OF MOISTURE IN CHEESE. Now, it may not be uninteresting to know what are the component parts of what is considered the highest grade of cheese in the English market, such 428 Pracricat DAirY HUSBANDRY. as we are attempting to furnish. It at least gives us some general idea of the proportion of water, caseine and butter which has effected the highest results. a eae The analysis of Mr. Harprne’s cheese gives the following in the one hundred parts: WVialtienss iste isco aks stevelotey eithels eipinlolsl date sid ie’sya ei cyl adel elevevolle/etevcliaretoiei@etteneame = ue SULA IC) ae AED eid Goa COSA O DUE BIN ano MOU OO UOOUOUONO SS OsOoos: Ree OPEGIT GIES Sa regen aumce Geb cau sete eee e centres eee ee ee ceees Milk sugar, lactic acid and extractive matter................+.2eeee 00 96 Nib PUTTS Good oneO Ona DONO Ub dddsocuooUDUTdsodGoUOoT soe: - 3.85 AOA Eire eevee biey Estat d ec Be ReRER Ric ets aa IN SE eee 100.00 The 28.12 parts of caseine contain 21.50 parts of nitrogen, and of the 3.85 parts mineral matter, 1.15 was common salt. It will be seen, then, that good cheese, properly cured, has about thirty-four per cent. of water, and less than one per cent. of milk-sugar, lactic acid, &c. From the analyses which I have seen of different samples of the best English and American cheese, when ripe, it appears that the proportion of water should not be above thirty-four per cent. Any considerable increase above this almost invariably indicates bad flavor. There is no doubt, a due proportion of the water in cheese imparts to it a smooth and apparently rich texture, and it is to this point manufacturers should direct their attention. When too much water is taken out of the curd, we have a dry, stiff cheese, the transformation of the caseine or curd being imperfect, and the cheese appears less rich than it really is. Any system of cheese-making, then, by which we may be able to judge the most accurately as to the amount of water to be retained in the curds, will be the most successful, other things © being equal. SALTY TASTE. In regard to the saline taste sometimes complained of in old cheese, otherwise rich and good, Dr. VortcKeEr attributes it to ammoniacal salts, developed during the ripening process. He says :—“ During the ripening of the cheese, a portion of the caseine or. curd suffers decomposition, and is partially changed into ammonia; the latter, however, does not escape, but combines with several fatty acids, formed in the course of time from the butter. Peculiar ammoniacal salts are thus produced, and these, like most other salts of ammonia, have a pungent, saline taste. The longer cheese is kept within reasonable limits, the riper it gets, and.as it ripens, the propor- tion of ammoniacal salts, with this pungent, saline taste, increases. It can be readily shown that old cheese contains a good deal of ammonia, in the shape of ammoniacal salts. All that is necessary is to pound a piece with quick lime, when, on the addition of a little water, a strong “smell of spirits of hartshorn will be developed. In well kept, sound old cheese, the ammonia is not free, but exists in the form of salts, whose base is ammonia, in combi- nation with butyric, caprinic, caprylic and other acids, generated under PRACTICAL DAIRY HUSBANDRY. 429 favorable circumstances by the fats of which butter consists. Ripe cheese, even if very old, but sound, instead of containing free ammonia, always exhibits a decidedly acid reaction, when tested with blue litmus paper. Rotten cheese, on the other hand, is generally alkaline in its reaction, and contains free ammonia.” | KEEPING QUALITIES. I have alluded to some of the characteristics demanded in them, to suit the English taste. There is another requisite, which trade and our own interest imperatively demand: it is the production of cheese that is slow of decay—that will sustain its good qualities a long time; one that can be kept, either at home upon the factory shelves, or in the hands of purchasers, with- out fear of deterioration or loss. English shippers and dealers have always complained of the early decay of American cheese, and the fear of loss from this source has had great influence upon the market. When considerable stocks have been accumulated, the dealer has been over-anxious to get rid _ of them, and has pushed them, at low prices, upon the market, on the assumption that the loss from deterioration, by holding, would more than cover any prospective advance in price. Factories, too, have often pushed forward their goods on this account. It is true there has been great improve- ment, during the last few years, in the keeping qualities of our cheese, but there is room for more improvement, and no factory should make a pound of cheese that cannot be kept, without deterioration, at least several months. It would seem to be evident that the exceedingly fine aroma which obtains in the best samples of Stilton, Cheddar and Cheshire cheese, is secured, at least in part, by manufacturing perfectly pure milk, in good condition, at low temperature. THE CHIEF CHARACTERISTICS OF STILTON are a peculiar delicacy of flavor, a delicious mellowness, and a great aptness to acquire a species of artificial decay, without which, to the somewhat vitiated taste of the lovers of Stilton cheese, as now eaten, it is not consid- ered of prime account. To be in good order, according to the present standard, it must be decayed, blue and moist. Considerable quantities of Stilton, however, are sold in London free from mold, and good samples have a peculiarly delicate flavor and delicious mellowness, preserving these quali- ties for one or two years. Now the Stilton is set at a low temperature— about 78°—and after coagulation is perfected it is cut in blocks, and a short time afterwards it is lifted out carefully into a willow basket to drain, and then put into a small hoop and turned frequently, receiving no pressure except from its own weight. I do not propose to go into details of Stilton manufacture in this place since it is not adapted to our factory system: but I introduce the main feature to show in part the philosophy of cheese-making. Here, in this most delicious of all cheeses, in which there is an extra amount of cream, a . 430 PractTicaAt DAirY HUSBANDRY. very low temperature is employed, with scarcely any manipulation. The manipulations are not hastened, but the cheese is left, so to speak, to do its own work. The Stilton cheeses are thick but small, only weighing from six to eight pounds. Of course we could not make our large cheese in this way, as the whey would not readily separate and pass off. But it is a remarkable fact that these cheeses are capable of retaining a delicate flavor for a long time. In all the finest English cheeses coming under my observation the temperature for setting the milk ranged at about 78° to 82°, never above 84°. It is undoubtedly a fact that if coagulation takes place when the milk is too warm it becomes too adhesive, and the oily parts of the milk, being kept in solution, escape with the whey. THE AMERICAN AND CHEDDAR PROCESSES COMPARED. The American process of manufacturing cheese as now commonly prac- ticed, differs but little from the improved Cheddar process of England. The night’s and morning’s mess of milk mingled together are taken to make the cheese. One great feature in the Cheddar process is to understand pretty accurately the condition of the milk in regard to its approximate acidity at the time of commencing the operation of manufacturing. They prefer there- fore to have the milk in a condition to use sour whey at the time of adding the rennet. When a large number of persons are delivering milk as at our factories, it is impossible to judge so well how far the milk has progressed toward sensible acidity, as in a single dairy where the milk is under the eye of the manufacturer from first to last. In the Cheddar practice the milk is set at a temperature of about 79° to 82°, receiving sour whey with the rennet according to the condition of the milk. A quantity of rennet is added sufficient to coagulate the mass in from forty to sixty minutes. When firm enough to break, the curd is cut across in checks. After it has stood from fifteen to twenty minutes for the whey to form, and the curd to acquire a firm consistency, the Cheddar dairymen com- mence breaking with a shovel breaker, which is similar in construction to our factory agitator. The curd is handled very carefully until the whole is minutely broken, and they insist that this part of the process shall be done without any additional heat. After breaking, heat is applied, and the tem- perature gradually raised to 98° or 100°, according to circumstances of weather, etc., the mass meanwhile being carefully stirred. It is then left at rest and only occasionally stirred, until a scarcely perceptible change toward acidity is indicated in the whey; the whey is then immediately drawn and the curd heaped up in the vat to drain and develop the required acidity gradually. It remains in this condition for half an hour or more, the whey meanwhile flowing slowly from the heap, when it is taken out and placed in the sink or cooler. It is then split by the hand into thin flakes and spread out to cool. The curd at this stage has a distinctly acid smell, and is slightly sour to the taste. PrActicAat DAIRY HUSBANDRY. 431 It is left here to cool for fifteen minutes, when it is turned over and left for the same length of time, or until it has the peculiar mellow or flakey feel desired. It is then gathered up and put to press for ten minutes, when it is taken out, ground in the curd-mill and salted at the rate of two pounds of salt to one hundred and twelve pounds of curd. It then goes to press and is kept under pressure two or three days. The curd when it goes to press has a temperature of 60° to 65°, and when in the sink it is preferred not to go below this point. A proper temperature is retained in the curd during the various parts of the process, during cool weather by throwing over it a thick cloth. Much of our factory cheese has been injured by being put to press at too high a temperature. The thermometer should always be used to determine the condition of the curd when put to press; and there is no doubt but that the Cheddar dairymen have hit upon the proper temperature. Mr. Harpine, the great exponent of this system in England, told me he’ had made a great many experiments in this direction, and that a higher tem- perature than 75° when put to press was almost always attended with loss of flavor, undue fermentation, and, as a consequence, greater or less porosity. He claimed that the curd could not be properly broken at 90° or above, and that a better separation of the whey and condition of the curd was effected by breaking at 75° to 80°. What we are to learn by the Cheddar process, is not so much following out blindly all details, but seizing upon a few leading principles of the process and adapting them to our use. These principles may be briefly summed up as follows: Ist. Studying the condition of the milk. 2d. Setting at a tem- perature from 78° to 82°. 38d. Drawing the Whey early. 4th. Exposing the curd longer to the atmosphere and allowing it to perfect its acidity after the whey is drawn. 5th. Putting in press before salting at a temperature of 60° to 70°. 6th. Grinding in a curd-mill and then salting. These last two items are important, because you cannot regulate the salt accurately by guess, and can only get the right proportion by uniformity in the condition of the curd. The application of salt, too, at a higher PhveuIpeD ature than 75° is claimed to be prejudicial. I am firmly of the opinion, not only from my observations abroad, but from my own experiments, that the exposure of the curd in small particles to the air is beneficial, and helps to secure a good flavor and mellowness of texture. When curds are exposed to the atmosphere the external parts become rapidly oxydized, which is seen by their heightened color. FLOATING CURDS. One of the troubles which cheese-makers have to contend with is a float- ing curd. It means tainted milk, putrefaction, fermentation, a most disagree- able customer, and one which no manufacturer cares to meet. There are various ways of treating floating curds, but the main points to be observed are, drawing the whey early, developing an acid, exposure of the curd to the 432 PracticAL DAirY HUSBANDRY. atmosphere a long time, and grinding in a curd-mill. One experienced cheese-maker writes me as follows: “One morning in July last I noticed a peculiar odor in the milk which was delivered at the factory. I pronounced it tainted. The weather was warm and the milk from some of the dairies was quite near enough sour, being so far advanced as to require rather rapid handling, faster than would be profitable with milk in the proper condition. I exposed it to the air by stirring it and dipping it, until ready to add the coloring and rennet, which was done at a heat of 82°. “The curd did not seem to act right while cooking; it would not come down so as to present to the maker that feeling and appearance which indicate a good cheese. The curd came to the surface of the whey while it was cooking. The odor was so disagreeable that one of our hands could not bear to work over it. One individual who was present insisted that the curd was sour and the whey sweet. I could not see itso. I held it in the whey as long as I thought advisable, which I assure you was not any longer than was necessary to cook it fairly ; for I did not think the whey was improving it any. The heat must have been nearly to 100°, when I ran it into the curd sink, for J had been keeping up the heat hoping to cook it sufficiently. We stirred it a long while in the sink, opening the windows and doors of the work-room, in order to give it all the air possible. I salted it in the proportion of three pounds of salt to one thousand pounds of milk, and put it to press. After press- ing for perhaps an hour, turned and bandaged them, then pressed again, until the next morning, when they were placed upon the shelves in the drying-room. “‘ J saw by the next da that they were inclined to give me trouble. They commenced rising en masse, like a loaf of bread. They did not leak whey, but there seemed to be a sort of internal working, and when pressed upon with the hand would emit a hissing sort of noise. I determined to experi- ment. I cut one into slices and ground it up in the curd-mill. The odor that had been present in the vat had not all left. I warmed a pailful of whey of the day before to 100° and poured it upon the curd. I kept the whey upon the curd but a short time, just long enough to warm it, say five minutes. I then added as much salt as I thought the whey had taken out, then pressed, turned and bandaged as before. When placed upon the shelf the next day it felt firm and had every appearance of lying quiet. I treated the other three in the same manner and with a similar result. We kept those cheeses until about forty days’ old. They never raised in the least again. I called the attention of several buyers and professed judges of cheese to them, and they, without an exception, pronounced them ‘all right.’ They were firm, never showing a pore when tried; still, they were not over hard. The odor hadso much left them that our buyers were unable to detect it. Perhaps upon other occasions the same process may not prove as satisfactory as upon this. Be that as it may, I feel confident that I saved four cheeses, which promised to be a total loss.” PRACTICAL DAIRY HUSBANDRY. 433 He adds, “That when the cheeses were cut open for grinding, they were very porous, presenting the appearance of a loat’ of bread, which if possible, had been over-risen.” MR. IRONS’ PROCESS. Mr. Irons, a young Englishman, whom Mr. Harprne of England sent to me in the spring of 1868, and who has been managing some factories at the West since that time, says he has tried various modes of treating floating curds, and finds by the following process that he is able to make from such curds a cheese of good texture and taste. When the appearance of the whey shows numerous air bubbles floating in, or forming by the slightest agitation of the finger, and also a kind of greasy feeling of the curd, all of which are indications of an unusual fermen- tation, proceed with the process as at other times, only working a little slower. The temperature should not be raised above 100°. If you are in the habit of making coarse curds, then on this occasion they should be worked a little finer with the agitator. When the mass has been raised to the desired temperature the stirring should be continued for about half an hour. Then leave it to rest for a short time, or with only an occasional stirring. When you see the curds beginning to float upon the whey let them all come up, and then immediately draw the whey. The whey having been removed pack the curd in large heaps at the bottom of the vat, with a space down the middle for the whey to drain off, and which should be removed as fast as it gathers. When the curd has lain in this shape for about fifteen minutes, or until strong enough to bear turning, the heaps should be turned bottom side up, and, if possible, without breaking the curd. Now, let it lie, till the acid is properly developed, which will be indicated by the odor when opening one of the heaps in the center, and it will have a kind of flaky appearance, or as some have it, a kind of grain. Then break the heaps into three or four pieces, and spread over the bottom of the vat to cool gradually. When the pieces have laid thus for about fifteen or twenty minutes take them out of the vat, put them in the sink and break them into small pieces, and stir so as to cool. When the temperature has been reduced to about 70° to 75°, grind in a curd-mill and salt at the rate of two and a-half pounds salt to one thousand (1,000) pounds of milk. It would be better to put the mass to press for about ten minutes before grinding, but when there is a large mass of curd, and time is wanting, the course above may be adopted. Mr. Irons says he has under this treatment of floating curds, made them into good cheese, so good, indeed, that experienced cheese-dealers have not objected to their flavor, or even suspected that there had been any trouble with the curds more than ordinarily. The cheese, he adds, is of very solid texture, and no difficulty is had in curing, except the liability to check a little if care is not taken. Mr. Moon, manager of the North Fairfield Factory, gives the following 28 434 PracTIvcAL Dairy HUSBANDRY. as his method of treating tainted milk and floating curds :—First, thorough stirring and cooling of the milk at night. In the morning do not begin to heat the milk until ready to heat rapidly, and then heat as quickly as possible, stirring the milk the while. Add an extra amount of rennet that the coagu- lation may be quite firm, cut and manipulate with unusual caution; keep the whey drawn off as close as possible; heat gradually but continually until the temperature of about 98° is attained, then, when sufficiently cooked, dip to the sink and wait for the developement of the lactic acid, in more than the usual quantity; salt and allow to stand exposed to the air from one to three: hours, according as the milk was bad or very bad. “Frequently,” he says, ‘‘ the acid will be developed enough when dipped to the sink; in that case salt as soon as drained; stir the curd before and after salting, in order that it may not pack in the sink. Having been exposed to the air for the proper length of time, put to press; in the morning remove the hoop, and perforate the cheese in several places with a small wire, in order to allow any gas to escape that may have been generated in the cheese during the night. Put to press again, and if possible, allow to press twenty-four hours longer, remove to the dry-house and treat like other cheese.” Mr. AtexanperR McApam, of the Smith Creek Factory, N. Y., who has been very successful as a manufacturer of ‘fancy cheese,” and whose cheese is well-known in the markets on account of its superior quality, writes me in a recent letter as follows: CAUSE OF FLOATING CURDS. ““The immediate cause of floating curds is the presence in each particle or _cube of an extraordinary number of the spores of a species of fungus, which generate a gas in the middle of each cube of curd at the time when the curd is in the whey at a temperature of from 80° to 96°, when each cube of curd is expanded by this gas so much as to become lighter than its bulk of whey —there occurs a floating curd. ‘The reason why those spores are in so great abundance at times as to cause floating curds are two, viz.: First, diseased or fevered state of the cow before the milk is drawn from her. Second, improper handling of the milk after being drawn from the cow. In regard to the first reason, there are a great many cows slightly diseased or fevered, a few of the causes of which, are cows drinking stagnant, putrid or filthy water; the eating of vegetation growing on ground saturated with such water; cows inhaling the odor arising from rapidly decomposing matter; cows in heat, or having been driven rapidly from the pasture; or any state of the cow which causes the milk to be at a higher temperature than blood heat (98°) when drawn from her, which in a great many instances is the case, and it has been known to be as high as 105° when milked. Such milk, when it has been coagulated and heated, is almost certain to produce floating curds. “In the second place, when the milk has been improperly handled after PractTicAaL DAIRY HUSBANDRY. 435 being drawn from the cow. This is the case when any filth, cow manure, or other impurity drops into the milk during milking, or in its transit from the farm to the cheese factory, and which can never afterwards be wholly removed from it by passing it even through the finest strainer; or when the milk has come into contact with any utensils or strainers which have not been thoroughly cleansed; or when the milk has not been thoroughly ventilated before being shut up in almost air-tight vessels. These are some of the most frequent causes of floating curds. PREVENTION OF FLOATING CURDS. “To prevent floating curds, the milk intended to be manufactured into cheese ought to be milked from cows that have access at all times to pure running water, and have no access at all to stagnant, filthy water, as cows will often prefer such filthy water to clean water (for reasons unknown). Every one of the cows of a dairy ought to be in perfect health, as one dis- eased cow’s milk will taint the milk from the whole dairy. Dairy cows ought not to have access to weeds of any description, and ought to have plenty of shade trees in their pasture in warm weather, and when driven to and from their pastures they ought not to be urged faster than a slow walk, and before being milked they ought to be allowed to stand one hour in cool, airy stables at a distance from manure heaps or any decomposing matter. ‘“¢ After standing an hour the cows ought to be milked with the most scru- pulous cleanliness, and the milk strained. It must then be immediately venti- lated by exposure to the atmosphere to allow the animal odor to escape, and cooled. But cooling without ventilation is almost useless, or as some assert, worse than useless. The milk being cooled and ventilated, it can then be moved to the factory, and will arrive there in good condition. All the uten- sils with which the milk comes in contact ought to be thoroughly cleaned with warm water, soap and a brush, and afterwards scalded with bozling water or steam. All these particulars being attended to there will be no danger of floating curds. THE REMEDY FOR FLOATING CURDS. “When the milk which has to be manufactured into cheese emits the offensive odors which usually come from tainted milk, it is reasonably certain the curd after coagulation will either float or require the same treatment as if it did float. In sucha case enough of rennet must be added so as to cause coagulation in thirty minutes or less. Then, after the curd is sufficiently cut, the mass of curd and whey must be heated quickly to a temperature of 96°, and so allowed to remain until acid is slightly perceptible to the smell or taste, the whey must then be separated from the curd, and the curd allowed to take on considerable more acid. The exact pitch to which the acid should be raised at this time can only be learned by experience ; when this has been attained the curd should be then ground and salted according to the Cheddar process, which is becoming too common to need explanation. After the curd 436 PracricAL DArrY HUSBANDRY. is salted it should be thoroughly ventilated by repeated stirring and turning over before being put to press. The amount of salt to be used should be the same as when the curd is perfect. The reason that more rennet is required for floating curd is because such curd has to be made sooner than usual, and would take longer to cure if only the same amount of rennet wasused. And the reason it is heated quickly is to induce the acid to develop sooner. “A strictly fine-flavored or good-keeping cheese can not be made from floating curds, but still when properly handled a very fair, merchantable article can be obtained, the only fault being insipidity and lack of the fine nutty aroma so highly prized by the dealers in and consumers of all kinds of high-priced cheese. The reason that this aroma is lost in floating curds is because so much acid has to be introduced into the curd to kill the taint or bad smell. Now, this acid also destroys the finest of the aroma, which is the most volatile and easily destroyed in either butter or cheese.” TREATMENT OF FLOATING CURDS. In the treatment of floating curds, a mill for grinding the curds renders very important aid. By grinding, the particles of curd are more minutely broken than it is easy to do by hand, and the breaking liberates not only the gases, but, by a free exposure of the particles to the air, the offensive odor passes off, and fermentation is checked. In some cases, even after the cheeses have been removed from the press to the curing room, and then begun to huff and behave badly, by cutting them up and passing through a curd mill, warming with whey at a temperature of 98°, and then draining, salting and pressing, no further trouble has been given, the cheese turning out of fair quality. As more or less trouble is had every year. from tainted milk and floating curds, suggestions as to their management will be of important aid to the cheese manufacturer. MANUFACTURING FROM SMALL QUANTITIES OF MILK. Where only one vat is used, I should always prefer the portable vat, with heater attached. It is quite as convenient, and much less expensive, not only in the original outlay, but in the cost of running, than the steam boiler and vat separated, like those in use in many of the New York factories. In a small factory, where there is no probability of running more than two vats, and where part of the time only one is used, I should still prefer the “ porta- ble” or ‘self-heater,” as less expensive, while, as to the management of heat, some of these self-heating vats are as perfect as anything yet brought out. So faras the manufacture of cheese is concerned there is nothing better than to heat with hot water, if the arrangements are such as to be convenient, and the heat under control. The advantages of a steam boiler are, that the boiler is in a separate room by itself, and all litter, dirt, smoke, &c., are con- fined to that apartment, and do not get ‘‘mixed up” in the milk room, while the heat is applied simply by turning a faucet in the conducting pipe. Then, again, the heat can be turned off ina moment. On these accounts many old PractTicAL DAIRY HUSBANDRY. 437 factorymen prefer steam boilers to the “self-heaters.” The Rarpun, the Mixrar and the Burrett heaters are good, so far as their arrangements for heating and manufacturing are concerned. They take but very little fuel. SOUR WHEY. The use of sour whey in cheese-making must be regulated according to the condition of the milk. If the milk has made progress toward acidity, so that it will be properly developed at the close of the process of cheese- making, the sour whey is not needed. But in cool weather, when the milk has been brought down to a low temperature, an acid condition of the curds is not easily developed, at least during the ordinary time for conducting the process of cheese-making. Sour whey, under such circumstances, is often used with great advantage. In the spring of the year, when the cows are “‘ between hay and grass,” it is sometimes quite difficult for the cheese-maker to turn off a nice quality of cheese. The curds are often run up too sweet, and the consequence is a soft, spongy product, containing a superabundance of whey which has not been properly separated, and could not be expelled while the cheese was in press. This could have been remedied by a proper application of sour whey. At cheese factories there is not usually that necessity for using sour whey as at farm dairies, because the milk, from cartage and other causes, has gen- erally progressed further toward acidity, when cheese-making commences, than it would had the milk been kept and made up at the farm dairy. But, though the necessity for using sour whey may not be so great at the factory as at the farm, there are times when it can be employed in factory manufac- ture to very great advantage. At the farm dairy, when the night’s milk has been cooled down to 459, we should say that the sour whey could be used ; for, if all utensils have been kept scrupulously clean, the milk will be very sweet, and will not readily develop the desired change in proper time, or during the time usually employed in the process of manufacture into cheese, unless so treated. Sour whey cannot be used at random, but in the hands of skillful cheese-makers it produces the very best results. COOLING THE MORNING’S MESS OF MILK AT FARM DAIRIES. As to the question of removing the animal heat from the morning’s milk for farm dairies, when the night’s milk has been cooled, as described above, it is not usually considered important to do so. If the morning’s milk is to be carted to the factory, there is no question but it should be thoroughly cooled before putting in the cans, or as soon as may be after being drawn from the cow. And I have no doubt, for private dairies, the milk for cheese- making, both morning and evening mess, is improved by being divested of animal heat. In the private dairy, however, it must be observed, the quantity of milk to be handled is comparatively small. The morning’s milk 438 PRACTICAL DAIRY HUSBANDRY. is added by degrees, or only as fast as drawn from the cow, and is at least partly cooled by coming in contact with the night’s milk. And, again, the vat being open so as to allow free exposure to the air, while the process of cheese-making is commenced at once, all would seem to indicate that a special cooling of the morning’s milk might, perhaps, be dispensed with. If, however, convenient apparatus be had for cooling the morning’s milk as soon as drawn from the cow, so that it could be readily done, without loss of time or causing much trouble, I should do so, since I am of the opinion a more delicately flavored cheese would result from cooling and aerating both the night’s and morning’s mess of milk. But without apparatus or conven- iences, it would not, perhaps, be advisable to spend much time and trouble in attempting to cool the morning’s milk for farm dairies. COLORING CHEESE. An attempt has been made, from time to time, to induce factories to abandon the use of coloring matter in cheese. The fact that annatto (the only coloring matter that should ever be used for this purpose) adds nothing to the flavor or nutrition of cheese, would seem to favor the discontinuance of a practice which is troublesome, attended with expense, and sometimes injurious on account of the adulterations of annatto with red lead and other poisonous compounds. Pure annatto is a harmless vegetable substance, pre- pared from the seeds of a tree (Bixa orellana), and when used in the ordi- nary way for coloring cheese is in no way injurious. Its employment for this purpose comes down to us from the mother country. Ido not know when or by whom the practice was first inaugurated, but it is of ancient date, and its object must have been to deceive consumers, by giving them the idea that the cheese was made from a very rich quality of milk. And that impression now generally prevails among the uninitiated. So much has the imagination to do in controlling human action, that I have seen poor, skim-milk cheese highly colored, preferred and purchased instead of a rich, nice-flavored, pale cheese, ‘both standing on the counter, and offered at the same price. Color, therefore, has an important influence with some people, and it is useless for the dairyman to “run his head” against this prejudice, unless he chooses to have his pockets depleted by lower sales. It is true, in some of the English markets, like Manchester, for instance, pale cheese is in favor, and finds a better price than the colored article; but the London trade insists upon coler, and as it is willing to pay for it, Amer- ican dairymen must for the present submit. Some people think that, by abandoning the use of annatto, we can correct the English prejudice for colored cheese, and thereby benefit all parties. It would be an absurd and futile effort on our part, and would simply give the English dairymen addi- tional advantage in their own markets ; for you cannot force people to pur- chase what they do not want, however excellent your argument may be against their prejudices. PracTicAL DatrY HUSBANDRY. 439 METHOD OF PREPARING BASKET ANNATTO FOR USE. Some of the methods employed by old and experienced dairymen for preparing annatto for coloring cheese are as follows: First Recipe——Dissolve six pounds concentrated potash and one pound saltpeter in five gallons of warm water; then add thirty gallons cold water, put in as much choice annatto as the liquid will dissolve, heat gently to a boil ; put into a cask, and store in a cool place. Second Recipe.—Dissolve four pounds potash in one-half barrel of water ; put in as much pure annatto as the liquid will cut. The mixture need not be boiled. Third Recipe—Take four pounds of best annatto, two pounds concen- trated potash, five ounces saltpeter, one and a-half pounds sal-soda, and five gallons boiling water. Put the ingredients into a tub, and pour on the boiling water. The annatto should be inclosed in a cloth, and, as it dissolves, squeeze it through the cloth into the liquid. About two ounces of this mixture is sufficient for one hundred pounds of curd in summer. RECIPE FOR PREPARING ANNATTO USED AT BROCKETT’S BRIDGE FACTORY. To eight pounds crude annatto, add three pounds Baxsrrt’s concentrated potash ; place in a cask, pour on boiling water, and stir frequently until all is dissolved. Water is then added to make it sufficiently diluted, so that a pint of the liquid will color four thousand pounds of milk. In coloring cheese, the best way is to fix upon the desired shade by trial (marking the quantity of liquid used), and after that is known the same proportion will give color that is uniform. ‘\ ANNATTOINE. Preparations of liquid annatto have been made and sold from time to time, some of which, like the Nicnors & Eneuisu preparation, have acquired a high reputation. The foreign liquid annattoes, however, are expensive, and their high cost has operated very much against their use among the factories. Recently a new preparation of annatto has been brought out by G. Dr Cor- pova, under the name of annattoine, or dry extract of annatto. The coloring material, which lies wholly on the surface of the seeds, is separated and pre- pared by Corpova by an improvement on the La Bronp and VauQqueELIN theories. The latter asserts that boiling injures the color, and as this has been clearly proven, Corpova reduces the precipitation to powder instead of boiling to a paste. In the spring of 1870 I made tests with the annattoine in coloring both butter and cheese, and found that it gave a clear and beauti- ful shade, equal to any preparation that I had seen, but on dissolving or cutting the annattoine in the usual manner I found the liquor on standing was inclined to form a coagulum. Soon after this time Mr. D. H. Burret of Little Falls entered upon a series of experiments for the purpose of overcoming this diffi- culty. In this he has been entirely successful, and we now have a perfect color- 440 PractTicALt DAIRY HUSBANDRY. ing material, free from any injurious adulterations, and a preparation which has given satisfaction to both factories and shippers. Indeed, some of the latter have expressed the opinion that cheese colored with this preparation retains flavor better and for longer periods than cheese colored with the common basket annatto. The annattoine is largely coming into use among the facto- ries, and is superseding all other preparations. Prof. CatpwxEt1, who has made an analysis of the annattoine, certifies as to its purity or freedom from deleterious adulterations, and we are therefore enabled to obtain a reliable coloring material at moderate cost. Mr. Burre’s recipe for cutting the annattoine is as follows :—Put two pounds of annattoine in four gallons of clear, cold water, and let it stand in this state one day, stirring thoroughly, meantime, so as to perfectly dissolve the annattoine. Then put two pounds strongest potash, and one pound sal-soda (carbonate of soda) in three gallons of cold water. When this is perfectly dissolved and settled, pour off the clear liquor, and mix the two preparations together. Let this compound stand two or three days, until the annattoine is cut or dissolved perfectly by the potash, stirring occasionally meantime. Use about a teacupful for a thousand pounds of milk. Do not mix with the rennet, but put it in a little milk and then mix in the mass of milk in the vats by stirring it in thoroughly, just before the rennet is used. If in a day or two after the preparation is made the annattoine does not seem to be perfectly cut, so that specks can be seen, it is certain that the potash was not strong enough. Adding more of a stronger solution of the potash will remedy the trouble. When annattoine is used for coloring butter a portion of the prepared liquor is added to the cream at the commencement of churning. It gives a very rich color, and may be used in winter-made butter, often with advantage. CUTTING THE CURDS. The steel curd-knife now in general use was invented some dozen years ago or thereabouts, by a Herkimer county dairyman. The old-fashioned curd- knife was of wood, a single blade, and a rude affair. The curds were cut into large blocks, and all the subsequent breaking was done with the hands. This necessitated a good deal of labor, and unless the curds were very care- fully handled, there was a considerable loss of cheese. The first improvement in this class of implements originated also in Herkimer, and consisted of a triangular iron frame, strung with brass wire. It was made of different sizes to correspond with the cheese-tub, half its diameter in length, so that going round with the breaker in the operation, no section of the curds would be broken twice. This was a great improvement over the wooden knife and hand breaking; but after a while it was found objectionable, as the tender curds were torn and mashed by the frame of the breaker, and by the points where the wires crossed each other in forming the checks. The next improvement was a breaker of tin, formed into checks, so as to PRACTICAL DAIRY HUSBANDRY. 44] cut the curd into long square strips as the instrument was pushed down to the bottom of the vat. I made some experiments with the tin and wire breakers at an early day, and found there was a saving in product by using the tin. When the gang of steel knives was invented for cutting the curds into perpendicular columns, further experiments were made, and a decided advantage in product was found to result from the use of sharp, cutting blades over the tin cutter, which did not divide the curd as smoothly as the polished steel blades. These experiments, extended over a Gonmidler ale period and conducted with care, convinced me that the first breaking of the tender curds should be done with sharp cutting blades; since not one cheese- maker in a hundred will use sufficient care in breaking with the hands to avoid the loss that can be saved by the use of the steel knives, tosay nothing of the labor and time gained by the knives over hand breaking. If it be admitted that these sharp, polished steel blades are better for breaking the curds in their tender state than the hands, or indeed than any device that tears the mass into particles, that bruises them or presses out the oily portion, then the whole of the breaking should be done with knives. The use of horizontal knives is only of recent introduction among the factories of New York. The perpendicular blades referred to above left the curds in cubical columns, which were to be in some way broken up, and it was done either by the hands, by an agitator, or by other imperfect means. Some of the best English cheese-makers use what is called the shovel-breaker for working or breaking the curds after the first cutting. It is of heavy wire, something in general form like a shovel, and attached to a long handle. They claim that in using this the curd splits apart in grains naturally, and hence the shovel breaker, skillfully used, is the best implement for the pur- pose that has yet been invented. As, until quite recently, they knew nothing of the operations of the American tees and as their product from a given quantity of milk is less than that turned off by skillful American manufac- turers, it is evident they are not competent, at present, to pass upon the merits of this improved American implement. In the best English methods of cheese-making, as well as in the best American processes, it is deemed important that the breaking should be done when the curds are young and before additional heat is applied. All cheese- makers agree that any rough handling of curds at this early stage must be attended with loss. But if we can have an implement or implements that will pass through the curds perpendicularly and horizontally, separating the mass into parts of the desired size, and doing the work without any undue agitation or bruising of the mass, a great desideratum, it would seem, is reached. The perpendicular and horizontal curd-knives when used in con- nection with each other do this most effectually. The horizontal knives cut the long, perpendicular blocks of curd into small pieces of uniform size, leaving the mass completely broken up. I experimented with the horizontal knives long before they were brought 449 PracTicAL DArryY HUSBANDRY. out or used in the dairies of New York. The knives were made expressly for my experiments by Mr. Oysren of Little Falls, who had proposed at the time to take out a patent upon them. He did not do so, and the principle suggested itself to others, and is now adopted at factories. In a recent conversation with Mr. Davis, who owns and operates a fac- tory in Herkimer, N. Y., he stated that he found from experiments that a considerable gain was effected in the quantity of cheese by the use of the horizontal knives, and that by their use also the quality of his cheese was greatly improved. Mr. Davis is a manufacturer of experience, and his cheese has a high reputation for excellence, bringing a high price in the markets. Others make similar statements. From what has been said it will be seen that in factories of any consider- able size, the horizontal knives, in connection with the others, save during the season a large amount of labor, while the work is better performed than by operating on the old plan, as every portion of the mass is divided in pieces of uniform size. The object of cutting or breaking the curds is to favor the expulsion of whey ; hence, when the mass is broken up into pieces all of the same size, the progress and condition of the curds from time to time are more uniform in all their parts; and this is an important point which many cheese- makers overlook in their operations. The principle to be observed is to treat every portion of the curd alike, so far as possible, in all its manipula- tions, and then we get a product upon which fermentation during the curing process will go on evenly, and good flavor is more readily secured, than when the particles of the curd are unlike, or not in the same condition. USE OF HEAT IN CHEESE MAKING. The term “cooking the curd” in cheese making is a misnomer. It con- veys to the mind a wrong impression and leads many astray. To make cheese properly, neither the milk nor the curds should be “cooked.” The more you approximate to the cooking process the more you injure the cheese. Animal bodies are not cooked at a temperature of blood heat. As a rule in cheese making, no part of the process requires a temperature above blood heat. One hundred degrees is the maximum temperature that can be employed with safety. This is two degrees above blood heat, and is admis- sible only when heat is liable to pass off rapidly, and for the purpose of holding the mass at 98°. Heat is constantly passing off from the whey and curds, and the loss is more rapid when the temperature of the surrounding atmosphere is low. It is more rapid when a small quantity of milk is used than when a large quantity is collected together, hence we sometimes employ a temperature one or two degrees above blood heat in the process of solidifying the curds, in order to meet this loss of heat. It is a well recognized fact in cheese making that fine quality and delicate flavor cannot be secured when high heat is used in manipulating the curds. The best cheese are made at low temperatures, and when dairymen fancy the curd must be cooked to PrAcTIcCAL DArryY HUSBANDRY. 443 "preserve it, they have an erroneous idea of the true principles of cheese making. The manufacture of cheese is in part a chemical process. We have a material composed of various constituents, and the art is to separate these constituents, selecting those required to form cheese and expelling the others. Milk as it comes from the cow is properly prepared for food. It needs no further cooking to be assimilated, and what the cheese maker wants is to extract the caseine and butter, getting rid of the water and reducing the mass to a solid. The butter is not improved by cooking, neither is the caseine, and hence, as we find in practice, the best cheese is made when neither the milk nor the curds have been subjected to so high a heat as would cook them. After the curds are broken up we use heat for the purpose of expelling the whey. A change is constantly going on. The heat assists in developing an acid, which causes the curds to contract, expelling the whey. The process of separating the whey should be slow, and the whey should flow away gradually, otherwise there is a loss of oily particles. The butter is contained in the shells of caseine and is not acted upon by rennet. If the contraction of the caseine is rapid, the oily globules are forced out with the whey, instead of being retained and amalgamated with the mass, and you have a tough, leathery cheese. Milk which is exposed to the atmosphere and warmth begins to put on an acid condition as soon as drawn from the cow. In cheese making we want to carry this acid just far enough to expel the surplus whey, retaining the butter and a certain amount of moisture. If we stop short of the required point, too much whey wiil be retained and cannot be pressed out. When the cheese is put upon the shelf this pent up whey decomposes, becomes acid, and parts from the caseine, and we have a leaky cheese. If the cheese is kept in a warm place and the whey is soon expelled, the cheese, though defective in flavor, may pass as second rate; but if the whey cannot find an exit, it soon becomes sour and putrid, and the cheese, in consequence, is positively bad. On the other hand, when the acid is carried too far, the curds part with too much moisture and we have a hard, dry cheese. What is understood, then, by the term “ cooking the curd,” is the application of a gentle heat for the purpose of developing a certain degree of acidity, that the whey may properly part from the solids, a sufficient amount being retained to carry on the process of fermentation when the cheese goes into the curing-room. It is very difficult to carry this acid to the proper point while the whey is in the vat. It is preferable, therefore, to draw the whey as soon as acidity becomes perceptible to the taste or smell, and allow a further development in the curds after the whey is drawn. A good many cheese makers who get the idea that curds must be cooked like a piece of meat, often spoil their cheese by applying heat too rapidly and running the mass up at too high a temperature. They do not seem to under- stand the leading principle of this part of the process, which is a slow development of acid in the curds. Instead of heating gradually and watching 444 PRACTICAL DAIRY HUSBANDRY. for this development, they push the heat, thinking they can effect their object in cooking ; the consequence is, an inferior product, destitute of that quality and flavor that the market now demands. VIEWS OF MR. FISH ON HEAT IN CHEESE MAKING. In discussing the question of heat in cheese making, Mr. A. L. Fisn of Herkimer, N. Y., well known as a distinguished practical cheese manufac- turer, as well as one of the early writers on dairy farming, has recently presented the following as his matured views on the subject of heat, and they deserve attention. He says:—“In contemplating the agency of heat in making and curing cheese, we are led to consider that cheese has a physical constitution, like other bodies, subject to growth and decay, that require a list of substances, in their formation, which is assimilated by special agencies and brought to an equipoise ; in other words, brought into such a condition that opposing forces balance each other equally. Such a condition we denominate the constitution of animate and inanimate bodies. The condition or power to hold an equipoise or equilibrium of opposing forces, determines the liability to slow or more speedy decay and dissolution. I have hinted the capacity of heat to prevent and destroy consolidation; also, its indispensable agency in inducing relation and union of extraneous matter in forming solids. Its most judicious appliance in cheese making, where it is required to serve a double purpose, is the question to be discussed. First, what is a proper temperature to apply to the fluid mass (milk), in bringing it to condition most favorable for the aid and action of rennet in separating and dispelling such a portion of fluid parts as desirable, and no more, and why? My answer is, not excecding 98°, because that is the point nature has fixed to sustain the most healthy and active condition in the animal organism. Hence, a higher temperature weakens the action of the rennet in bringing the mass to a unity. Any excess of heat applied to a part unfits it for a union with other parts. Solids are formed by cohesive attraction, which draws particles of matter of a sameness together. Any agency or condition that makes these unlike, prevents a perfect union. In cheese, it is manifest in swelling after being pressed, or by a rough, sticky, or crackly surface, and a lack of close adhesiveness of the meat of the cheese, which indicate that the agencies used in forming its constitution have not been equipoised in the process of manu- facture. Such a condition involves the question, which of the agencies used is in fault ? INJUDICIOUS USE OF HEAT. ““Some will say weak rennet, premature acidity, putrefactive fermenta- tion from some unknown cause, &c.; but few seem to appreciate that an injudicious use of heat may be a fruitful cause, while a proper use might be a preventive. I trust all practical cheese makers will agree with us in the assertion that curd having been exposed to 140° heat, and mixed with other curd not exposed to over 100°, will not make a good cheese; if so, does it PrAcTICAL DAIRY HUSBANDRY. 445 not follow logically, that any portion of the milk or curd exposed to that degree of high heat, will not unite harmoniously with other portions exposed to much less heat? If such a varied condition is admitted to be wrong, the next question is, do we practice it, and if so, what is a remedy ? From my observations in the usual mode of managing heat in milk and curd, and curing-rooms, I am convinced that sufficient care is not taken to suppress the action of heat when less is needed; hence a large proportion of the imperfec- tions of our factory cheese is traceable to an injudicious management of heat. In explanation, I will address myself to the patrons of cheese factories first, because with them lies the first practical remedy, as they have the ability to suppress the action of heat upon the milk before it reaches the factorymen, by stirring and cooling it immediately after it is drawn from the cows, which should always be done to guard against the tendency of heat to induce acidity and putrescence. If the habit of thus cooling the milk to a low temperature was universal among dairymen, it would result in a profit that is now lost to all interested. The advantages would be more pounds and better quality of cheese from a given amount of milk, because the manufacturer would not be compelled to use means to hasten the separation of fluid portions of milk from the caseine too rapidly, which is always wasteful. BEST MODE OF APPLYING HEAT. “In considering the best mode of applying heat to the mass of milk or eurd, I shall not favor or discard any patent or fixture now used for that purpose, but will lay down as a practical rule (and would invite the attention of skilled mechanics to it) that an apparatus or fixture by which heat is imparted or conveyed to the mass, the mildest and most uniformly to every part, and having otherwise the most perfect control of heat, is to be preferred, because a uniform low temperature conveyed to every part and particle of the mass, is the principle relied on to preserve a perfect affinity or sameness of condition. To insure the most perfect cheese, the less antagonism induced in the process of manufacture the more perfect cheese will be attained. Con- veying heat by any means into a thin sheet or volume of water contained between the outer and inner vat I consider injudicious, because there is not water enough to soften the heat before it comes in contact with the inner vat containing the milk or curd. Iam not able to understand how a large vat of milk or curd can be heated by discharging steam or boiling water into a thin sheet of water between vats without some portions of it coming in contact with a surface heated to a point that will melt the buttery globules and otherwise unfit it to harmonize with other portions not so exposed. I have frequently examined the heated surface of inner vats, and found it so heated as to burn my flesh, and an oily substance floating on the whey, and clots of curd resting on the overheated surface melted together, and I did not wonder that cheese made with such practice got out of flavor and became unsalable. 446 PRACTICAL DAIRY HUSBANDRY. GUARD AGAINST OVERHEATING. “As a guard against thus overheating I would suggest a widening and enlargement of the heating medium between the vats, so that the heat con- veyed through it will be softened and equalized before coming in contact with the inner vat. It should be held in view by the vat builder, that the wider the space between the points of discharging heat, and the vat containing the milk or curd to be hot, the softer and mcre uniform will be the effect of heat, and the less liability to a deranged constitution in the cheese. When heat and rennet in their joint action are supposed to have dispelled a desired portion of the fluid of milk, it is essential to arrest uniformly their further progress through the whole mass to preserve an affinity of the parts to be pressed into cheese. This should not be done too suddenly before adding salt, as a sudden chill of the curd would cause it to reject the effect of salt to properly season the curd, which, while warm, has a tendency to expel animal odors if thoroughly stirred in cooling. After being salted warm, and packed, and covered to steep for ten minutes, then if well stirred, and cooled to 80° before putting it in press hoops, the action of the heat and rennet are so checked as to give the new agent (salt) control of opposing forces in the process of curing. The cooler the curing-room is kept, the less salt is required to preserve cheese from taint, and the less salt used the earlier the maturity of cheese. The proper construction of the curing-room is essential to a proper control of heat in process of curing. DANGER OF HIGH HEAT. “The danger of high heat is not past till cheese is ripened for market. A perfectly made cheese is often spoiled by too much and uneven heat in curing. A steady, even temperature should be kept, not exceeding 70°, with free ventilation at bottom and top of the room, so arranged that the outer air may be let in at pleasure at the bottom or near the floor below the cheese and pass out through draft tubes at the top of the room through the center, which should be made to be closed when a draft is not needed to carry off surplus heat or dampness in the room, or for changing the air. HEAT IN CURING-ROOMS. “Curing-rooms built tight with six inches space for air between inner and outer ceiling, with tubes six inches Square passing through to the open air at the outer end, made to close at pleasure at the inside to reject too much air, placed once in ten feet on all sides of the room near the floor, with draft tubes twelve inches square once in ten feet through the center of the top of the room, will afford a sufficient circulation of air at all times in the largest sized rooms; the air chamber at the side and over the top of the room protects it from sudden effects of external heat, The upper floor or ceiling should be, covered with sawdust or fine shavings, to prevent concentration of heat from above. No more windows should be used than are needed to give sufficient light, as they are seldom if ever needed for air. With such ventilation and dite Bp al cg PRACTICAL DAIRY HUSBANDRY. 447 construction of the curing-room, as described, I have found no difficulty in keeping any desired temperature down to 70°. If a succession of extreme heat is raising the temperature above a desired point, it may be checked by closing the ventilating tubes when the air without is warmer than desired, and placing ice in the room on a drainer over a tub or box to catch the water as the ice dissolves.”’ DR. WIGHT’S VIEWS. In a recent discussion before the National Dairymen’s Club, Dr. Wieur, of the Whitesboro Factory, said :—“If the milk tends to acidity, less heat and more rennet should be used; if the milk should be tainted the converse would be the treatment, viz., more heat and less rennet. I have observed that the slight difference of not more than two degrees in warming the curd will at times make one or two cents per pound difference in the price of the cheese when sold, all other conditions being apparently the same. I have also noticed that when green cheese is exposed to too low a temperature in the early stages of curing, it invariably injures the texture, flavor and general quality of the product during all the future stages of curing. In fact, I firmly believe that if the milk should constantly be kept at a proper temperature, and the curing-rooms be kept at a temperature neither too low nor too high— all of which is barely and simply a work of art entirely under our own control —TI firmly believe, I say, that these conditions being constantly and rigidly observed, we may readily save all that depreciation in the quality and price of cheese which now invariably takes place during the heat of summer ; losing to the dairyman seldom less than three, and frequently five and six cents per pound. With the temperature of our milk and our manufactories kept at a sufficiently low degree during the months of June, July and August, we may preserve the cheese made during these months for the fall trade, and thus realize an equal, if not a higher price for them than we now do for our best fall cheese. WARMING CURING-ROOMS BY STEAM. “T will close with a few suggestions about the best mode of preserving the most equable and proper temperatures in our curing-houses. Thorough ventilation being premised, I would warm the rooms by steam pipes and cool them by the admission of cold air from an ice-house, keeping the temperature as near 70° as may be, equable throughout the building, and a little moist rather than too dry. By strict attention to these few things much improve- ment may be made in the quality and profits of our products.” Mr. Atexanper McApan, the very successful manufacturer of the Smith Creek Factory, said, “In making cheese now (very early in spring) we are making from milk three messes of which are skimmed and one new. When skimmed the milk is placed in a warm place where the temperature is adapted for the cream rising. Set at eighty, and coagulated sufficient to cut in thirty minutes, it commences to thicken in fifteen minutes. He used extra rennet for skim-milk cheese. He heated it slowly to eighty-eight. Sometimes in 448 PRACTICAL DAIRY HUSBANDRY. cold weather the milk is very sweet and it may lie five or six hours in the whey. He meant to keep the temperature about eighty-eight. TEMPERATURE WHEN ONE MESS IS SKIMMED. ‘When the weather becomes warmer he will use the milk with one mess skimmed, and then the temperature would be at eighty-two and heat up to ninety-two and keep to this temperature. This milk would require thirty-five minutes to coagulate. He was accustomed to have coagulation occur sooner than some factories, as some let it run an hour or even an hour and ten minutes. By scalding as low as eighty-eight, the curd keeps soft and the acid is developed before the curd becomes solid. He used more rennet, less salt and less heat when making skim-milk cheese than without skimming the milk. The salt is applied upon the slightest appearance of the acid. Heused it at the rate of one and one-half pounds of salt to the thousand pounds of milk. The appearance of the cheese after coming from the press must be the guide to the temperature and according to the appearance of the cheese is determined the place upon the shelves. The curd should be put to press as soon as convenient after grinding, and before it gets too cool to face good. MANAGEMENT WHEN FAILING TO FACE. “Tf it failed to face, he used hot water and hot cloths under the follower and hot water upon the press board. If too much rennet was used the curd would be rather slimy and it would not unite as well, but if the rennet was sweet the taste would not be affected. He thought if too much rennet was used some of the excess would be held at least mechanically in the curd and would appear in the color. TEMPERATURE FOR WHOLE MILE. ‘He used with all new milk in spring manufacture a temperature of eighty- two, and heat to ninety-four, and in curing he would not use over sixty-five in the dry-house—such a handling would produce a fine-flavored cheese. The action of heat facilitates the action of the rennet. He would use more heat after applying the rennet. As a general thing he did not think two or three degrees in temperature would make a great difference in the price of the cheese when made. He thought time would modify the slight excess of temperature. He would heat whole milk up to ninety-six in the summer time.” ADVANTAGES OF A CELLAR UNDER CHEESE FACTORIES. Mr. McApam spoke of a cheese factory which had a good cellar under it. He said “In the summer time this cellar could be used with great advan- tage as a curing-room. And in the spring and fall the cellar could be used for a making-room, and the curing done above. HOW IS THE RIPENING OF CHEESE AFFECTED BY THE MODE OF MANU- FACTURE? “This subject is quite important, as it is often necessary to manufacture cheese that will ripen very quickly. When the market is declining, to have PRACTICAL DAIRY HUSBANDRY. 449 as many of them as possible fit for sale, and consequently bring a higher price, is the great desideratum. On the contrary, when the cheese-market is advancing it is often advisable to make cheese that will take a much longer time in curing, so that in holding for higher prices there will be less danger of deterioration in the quality of the cheese by their becoming off in flavor. Now, in the ripening or curing of cheese, I regard the action of the rennet as the element that does the whole business; and, therefore, in making cheese that are to cure quickly, we have only to place the rennet in the most favor- able circumstances for promoting its growth all through the process of manu- facture, and to cure slowly, the opposite. Now, what are the most favorable circumstances for promoting’ the growth of the spores of the rennet ? “First, is the presence of the greatest quantity of butter in the milk to be manufactured into cheese. Second, a larger amount of rennet added to such milk. Third, by using a lower temperature in cooking or scalding the curd. Fourth, the absence or a minimum amount of acid in the curd, when the salt is added; and, Fifth, a less quantity of salt added to the curd ; also by keeping the cheese in the curing-room at a higher temperature. Cheese made from tainted milk will wertrallhe cure more quickly than if the milk was good. An exactly opposite process will check the growth of the Spores of the rennet in the milk, curd and cheese, and cause the cheese to cure more slowly. Heat hastens the development of the acid more rapidly than the development of the rennet spores, and though heat hastens both developments, the acid is generated faster relatively. Chas cured quickly ought to go into immediate consumption, as if kept, especially in warm weather, they deteriorate in quality very rapidly. And I think that the com- plaints ae the English shippers about the defects in the color and flavor of American cheese, when held over winter, are mainly pxane to the fact that these cheese have been cured too quickly to hold long.” These views above, from some of our most successful cheese-makers, and very recently expressed (1871), are worthy of attention. SALTING THE CURDS. The leading object of using salt in the curds is to arrest putrefactive fer- mentation, and hold the cheese in a condition to make a suitable article of food. Different nations, it is true, differ in their tastes. Some of the people on the continent of Europe have so educated their taste as to prefer cheese that is more or less tainted, but the English race, as a rule, demand a clean, well- flavored article. As we are manufacturing mostly for English and American . markets, my remarks must refer pardoulky to the great bulk of goods made to suit, what may be denominated as the English taste. The Swiss, the Lim- berger, and other characters of cheese are now made to some extent in this country, but the quantity is so small when compared with the great mass of our product, that American dairymen do not generally understand what the peculiar flavor is which is esteemed in the cheeses referred to. .29 . 450 PRACTICAL DAIRY HUSBANDRY. Salt is a very important agent in modifying the taste of cheese, and on the manner in which it is used, will depend in a great measure the character and reputation of the dairy in market. In the application of salt there can be but little doubt, that fine, clean flavor can be best secured in the cheese by salting when the curds are comparatively cool. Some manufacturers have the impression that salt is more efficient, and is more evenly distributed when the curds are quite warm. I believe it is a well-established rule among meat packers, that meats are secured in the best condition when salt is applied after the meat has cooled off. At any rate in cheese manufacture a fine, delicate flavor is only obtained when salt is applied to the curds at a low temperature, This rule is strictly observed in the celebrated dairies of England, whether it be Cheshire or Cheddar. Among the best Cheshire dairies, the heat at no time during the process of manufacture is allowed to run above 78° or 80°, and in applying salt, as a rule 75° should be regarded as the maximum tem- perature of the curds. In addition to the liability of affecting injuriously the flavor of cheese, by applying salt while the curds are too warm, the salt has another effect. Its action is to harden the parts of the curd with which it comes in contact, sur- rounding them with a tough pellicle or coat of caseine, and thus preventing a free flow of whey. The whey should be thoroughly expelled before salting, for in no other way can the quantity of salt be regulated with certainty. If there is much whey in the curds at the time of salting, it will be no easy matter to guess at the quantity of salt that will pass off in the whey, and hence, when this kind of guess work is relied on by the manufacturers, the cheese will not be of uniform character. When too small a quantity of salt is used, the cheese ripens with great rapidity, and must be eaten when com- paratively young, for it will soon get out of flavor. On the other hand, too much salt delays the ripening process; the cheese is long in coming to maturity, and is likely to be hard and stiff. It will be seen, therefore, that the quantity of salt to be used should be pretty accurately determined, according to the character of cheese we design to make. If we want cheese to ripen in thirty days from the tub or vat, and go into market early and be consumed, the quantity of salt must be regulated for that object ; while cheese of long-keeping qualities, maturing slowly, and requiring a higher per centage of salt, must needs have the quantity also regulated with precision. When the curds are drained, and subjected to pressure for a short time in the hoop, and then broken up by passing through a curd mill, and then salted as in the Cheddar process, the proportion of salt can be regulated with great nicety. But in all cases, before salting, it is well to have the curds as dry as they can be conveniently made. Another office of salt is to check the acidity of the curds. When the acid has been fully developed, and the process carried far enough, the appli- cation checks its further progress, and thus, in the manipulation, is made to serve a very important purpose in the hands of a skillful manufacturer. I can PractTicAL DAIRY HUSBANDRY. 451 only announce some of the principles to be observed in the use of salt for cheese-making. What I particularly wish to impress is, that it cannot be employed at random, and that the making of fine cheese depends, in a good degree, upon the time, manner and quantity in which the manufacturer employs this agent for his work. The quantity of salt used by manufacturers varies according to the character of cheese to be made at different seasons of the year, from two and one-fourth to three pounds of salt to one hundred pounds of green cheese. In spring, when it is desired to have the cheese ripen quickly, as low a proportion as two to two and one-fourth pounds are used. In hot weather, two and a-half to two and seven-tenths pounds, for one hundred pounds green cheese are employed by the best manufacturers, and sometimes three pounds are used, and these proportions refer to curds that are not pressed before salting, and consequently are not thoroughly drained of whey. The rule among the best Cheddar dairymen of England is one pound of salt for fifty-six pounds of curd ; the salt applied after the curds have been pressed for ten minutes in the hoop, and then ground in a curd mill, the temperature of the curds being from 60° to 65°. The English Cheddars are longer in coming to maturity than the usual style of American manufacture. It will be seen, also, that in the English process, the curds are made dryer at the time of salting, than generally obtains in American manufacture, and that in consequence a less amount of salt is required, or is used, than at the American factories. THE KIND OF SALT TO BE USED. Much has been said and written about salt for dairy purposes; the subject is by no means exhausted; it at least demands discussion and agitation, so long as dairy products continue to be injured and spoiled by the use of an impure article. Many people imagine that all salt in the market is pure; that if its appearance to the eye is clean, it contains no ingredients deleterious to butter and cheese, and that all the difference between a common article and the higher grades consists in pulverizing and putting up in neater packages. One can meet scores of men who will insist there is no other difference than that we have named, and that they do not propose to throw away money on a high-priced article. They prefer to prepare their own salt, crushing the lumps, if necessary, and chuckling over the superior sagacity they have to those who are throwing away their money on a high-priced article. Some- how it generally turns out that these very wise and saving persons have a low grade product of butter and cheese, and in consequence make sales con- siderably below those obtained for a first-class article. I have sustained losses, both in butter and cheese, on account of using poor salt, and I have no confidence in the common barrel salt constantly to be met with in the market. Some of it may be good, and most of it may possibly do for the ordinary purposes for which it was intended, but the risk never should be taken of using it in butter and cheese. The dealers and 452 PRACTICAL DAIRY HUSBANDR MA experts in butter have for years cautioned the butter-makers to use nothing but the best Ashton or Liverpool salt. Chlorides of calcium and magnesium are the substances in salt which affect the taste and injure the quality of butter, however carefully otherwise it may be made. Solar salt, produced by evaporating the brines, and which is largely used by packers, though it may not contain any deleterious substance that would affect meats, is very likely to contain a sufficient per centage of the chlorides to injure the taste of butter. To the cultivated taste of an experienced butter buyer, the least trace of the chlorides existing in the salt used betrays its presence. The Ashton is a very good salt, but is expensive. All the salt sold under the name or brand of Ashton is not genuine. Cheese and butter- makers should purchase their salt only of reliable dealers—men who know where they obtain their goods, and can vouch for their quality. Somewhat recently the Onondaga Salt Works, at Syracuse, N, Y., have been manufacturing a superior dairy salt. Prof. Goxssman, a distinguished chemist, was employed for some years at the Works, to superintend the manufacture of salt, with a view of freeing it from deleterious substances, and it is by his process that the brand known as “ factory filled” or dairy salt is now manufactured. From numerous chemical analyses, it exhibits greater purity than the Ashton and other foreign brands, and its use among our best dairymen, for some years, has proved its perfect adaptation to the dairy. At the New York State Fair, in 1867, there was a large exhibition of butter from different parts of the State, and among the packages were a num- ber of-samples, half of which had been salted with Onondaga and half with Ashton salt. The Committee, composed of experts, pronounced, in twenty- five cases, the butter cured with factory filled salt, made at the New York Mills, Syracuse, to be the best, as compared with its alternate package, cured in the same dairy with Ashton. Prof. 8. W. Jonnson of the Sheffield Scien- tific School, Yale College, has stated that the purest salt made in this or any other country that he is acquainted with, came from Syracuse, where the ingenious processes of Dr. Goxssman were then employed, and that such factory filled salt must take rank second to none, as regards purity and free- dom from any deleterious ingredients, especially the chlorides of calcium and magnesium. Gov. Atvorp of Syracuse stated, at a meeting of the Amer- ican Dairymen’s Association, that the Onondaga Salt Company were pre- pared to guarantee their factory filled salt, and to pay for every pound of butter or cheese that was injured by the use of such salt; but the salt must come from the accredited agents of the Company, as certain dealers had been known to put up other salt in packages, using the factory filled brand. I have referred to these facts, because I know the genuine article to be good; and as it is furnished much cheaper than the foreign or imported salt, it is of interest for dairymen to know it. PRACTICAL DAIRY HUSBANDRY. 453 TO DISTINGUISH GOOD SALT. A satisfactory evidence of pure salt is its dryness, as the chlorides cause salt to absorb and retain moisture. In order that dairymen may be enabled to judge somewhat of the character of good dairy salt, from its appearance in addition to its dryness, I give the following from Prof. Cuaries H. Porter :—“ A chalky or very fine grained or pulverulent salt is not the best for dairy purposes, and would at once be rejected, I believe, by experienced dairymen. A good dairy salt, ought, I imagine, besides being of proper chemical composition, to be of moderately fine grain, crystalline and trans- parent, and, when seen in a mass, of a pure white color; it ought to be free from odor, and possess that sharp, pungent taste characteristic of pure salt.” STIRRING THE MILK DURING THE NIGHT. One of the mechanical devices brought to the notice of cheese-manu- facturers, during the past few years, is the milk agitator. They commenced to be used in 1867, but since that time their use has become quite general, and our best factories in New York consider them of great utility. They are without doubt one of the useful improvements for cheese factories in this age of fertile invention. There are two or three kinds, but all work nearly upon the same principle, or accomplish the same object, that is, stirring the milk in the vats during the night, and are operated by the waste water from the vats. Before these appliances came in use, it was necessary for cheese- makers to stir the night’s milk in the vats until it was reduced to a temper- ature of 60°. In hot weather the constant flow of water under the milk, or between the vats, was not sufficient to preserve it in good order, and this stirring had to be continued, from time to time, until a late hour of the night. It is evident if machinery can be introduced for this purpose, a great saving of labor is secured. There is another object gained by stirring the milk at intervals during the night: the cream is prevented from rising, which is of great importance where butter is not made at the factory, as it is very difficult to get the cream which has once risen back again into the milk for cheese-making with- out loss; and again, the particles of milk being moved so as to be exposed to the atmosphere, it keeps in better order. The apparatus is quite simple, and consists merely of a wooden float, attached to an arm, which is carried back and forward, at intervals, across the vat, and operated by a water wheel or water box, which is kept moving by the waste water from the vats. Doubtless much benefit is often gained by this movement of the milk, especially when not in perfect condition, as the particles are being constantly exposed to the atmosphere, and improved by allowing bad odors to pass off. During the summer of 1867 one of the best cheese manufacturers of Oneida wrote to me as follows :—‘ Believing, as I do, that the agitator deserves more extensive notice, and more general introduction into cheese 454 PRACTICAL DAIRY HUSBANDRY. factories than it has yet received, I desire to add my testimony respect- ing its merits and benefits. Some weeks since I consented to have the agitator introduced into the four vats of my factory, on trial; I am so far pleased with it, that I have come to the conclusion that it is a necessary appurtenance to my factory. It is not claimed for it, I believe, that a larger yield of cheese can be obtained by its use, though I am of opinion that a slight increase in quantity and quality will result, when the agitator is judiciously used; this will especially be the case in the cold part of the season: it certainly is a perfect preventive of the raising of any cream, and that this is an important advantage no one will deny. I find, also, that the milk in the vats, in the morning, has an incomparably sweeter, cleaner, fresher taste and smell than ever before; and this, notwithstanding the fact that my spring affords an abundance of excellent water, and the temperature of the milk in the morning, before the agitator was put in, had always been Austin’s AGITATOR, SHOWING WATER WHEEL AND MANNER OF APPLYING RAKES TO THE VATS. from 54° to 58°. The necessity of stirring milk until ten, eleven and even twelve o’clock at night, as is the case in very many factories, is entirely obviated. If there were no other advantage arising, resulting from its use, this alone should be sufficient argument in its favor. Factory hands work hard, and if the night’s labor can be dispensed with, it should be done. Of course, further experience and fuller acquaintance with its operations and effects may modify and radically change my views in relation to it. After the testimony of such experienced and successful cheese-makers as Col. Miter and others, who used it last year, I hardly look for such a result. At present I heartily commend its use, only suggesting that, in my judg- ment, the motion of the frame and rakes should be slow—not over two or three strokes per minute.” The experience of the past three years has con- firmed these views as to the utility of this appliance. : PRACTICAL DAIRY HUSBANDRY. . 455 ‘ USE OF ICE IN COOLING AND PRESERVING MILK. The use of ice in cooling and preserving milk for cheese manufacture is practiced to a large extent. It is applied in various ways; sometimes by adding it in messes to the milk in the vats, or by placing it in large tin cool- ers, which are then immersed in the milk, and in various other ways, to suit the convenience of those who have the care of the dairy. Recently coolers have been invented, to be used for cooling milk with ice at the farm ; but it may be well to caution those who employ ice for this purpose, that it should not be used in direct contact with the milk, or in any way in which the milk may come in contact with an ice-cold surface. . : An impression prevails with many that no injury can result to milk from the use of ice, no matter in what way it may be employed. Ice, if judiciously used in connection with the dairy, is convenient and useful in hot weather, and especially so when the supply of water is limited, or its temperature is so high that the milk cannot be cooled down properly by it alone. But because the direct application of an ice cold surface does not do the milk any apparent injury for the moment, it must not be inferred that it has no remote influence upon the product of butter and cheese which may be manufactured out of such milk. All animal bodies, though they may be kept fresh and sweet for a long time when laid upon ice in an ice box, yet when exposed to the air and warmth rapidly decompose and become stale. When milk has been cooled by coming in contact with ice and then manufactured into cheese, the injury does not immediately show itself; but it has been observed that the cheese ripens rapidly, decays early, and will not keep in flavor like that which is made of milk, none of the particles of which have come in contact with a sur- face of lower temperature than 50°. The butter makers of Orange county, N. Y., who have experimented largely with milk, are extremely cautious in the use of ice in connection with butter manufacture. It is sometimes necessary to use it during hot weather while churning, by breaking it up fine and applying it to the cream in the churn; but when ice has been employed in this way, the butter will not keep; though for present use the butter may be regarded as of prime quality. In 1868, during the month of July, we had extremely warm weather, and ice was used in the New York factories quite freely—often injudiciously. From an account of the cheese made that year, given by the English shipper, Mr. Wess, it appears there was not a single factory sending cheese abroad that had it arrive and retain a good, clean flavor. He says:—‘‘ The English dealer and the.English consumer alike began to get a surfeit of that strong flavored, loosely made, bad-keeping quality, which was the universal characteristic of the July make of cheese. This inferior quality,” he remarks, ‘‘ was doubtless largely owing to the intensely hot weather then prevailing. But whatever the cause, your very serious attention should be directed to the discovery of a remedy—for not a single dairy, as far as my personal experience and pretty fall inquiries extended, not one single dairy stood the test of that most trying 456 y Practica Dairy HuspanpRry. month. Even those dairies that for a series of years have been always and uniformly excellent, did not hold their own last July; but proved in the matter of flavor and keeping qualities to be no better than the great majority of your State factories.” Now how far the injudicious use of ice may have added to the trouble I am unable to say; but I have no doubt that some share at least may be justly laid to that source. I have personal knowledge of some factories where large quantities of ice are used to cool the milk by applying it directly to the milk in the vats, and the milk is apparently in good order, and yet great complaint is made of the cheese manufactured as soon “ off flavor,”-while it must be observed that the best flavored goods are not made at those factories which use the ice in this way; but where there is an abundance of pure, cold water—cold water and an agitator which stirs the milk during the night, worked by the waste water from the vats, give practically the best results. As this question of ice is somewhat new to the dairy public, and has not been very closely investigated by cheese manufacturers, it will be sufficient to call attention to the matter, with the suggestion to avoid as far as possible the use of ice, or an ice cold surface in direct contact with the milk. DRAWING OFF THE CURDS, Where large quantities of milk are delivered at one point to be manufac- tured into cheese, it is important to have every convenience, so that it may be handled easily and expeditiously. Without convenient appliances the cheese factory system would be a failure. It would be very difficult, and perhaps impossible, to make the fine character of cheese now demanded in the leading markets of the world by massing the milk in large quantities, and using old appliances in oneration before the factory system was inaugurated. It is to the perfection of cheese factory machinery and the mechanical devices for manipulating milk in proper time that the manufacturer, in a great measure, owes his success. It is true, intelligence and skill, with habits of close obser- vation, are necessary in cheese manufacture, and no amount of mechanical contrivance can be substituted for them. But as many of the Operations in cheese making admit of no delay, but require immediate and rapid action, the appliances must be suited to the work, or the most skillful operator will be liable to fail in securing the best results. What seems to be a most for- tunate thing for American cheese dairying is, that whenever any essential point or principle is discovered in manufacture, the inventors imme- diately step in with devices or contrivances for easily securing the object desired. I could mention several of these which are unknown among the best Cheddar cheese makers of England, and which doubtless would not yet have been invented here had we remained under the old system of farm dairies, THE SHUTE. Among the somewhat recent improvements in cheese factory arrangements is the Shute. This invention originated in Herkimer county, and is now PRACTICAL DAIRY HUSBANDRY. 457 being adopted by all the new or improved modled factories. The shute is now introduced among those factories in New York which produce cheese that sells for extreme or “top prices.” I do not presume to say that the shute is the only or chief cause of the high reputation which these factories enjoy, and yet I have no doubt it has contributed somewhat in effecting this reputation. Indeed, in some instances at least, the manufacturers are from factories where the shute is not employed, and only in taking charge of the shute factories have their reputations reached the enviable position they now enjoy. The shute is an arrangement in the vats, whereby all the curds in the vats may be thrown upon the sink in a moment. In this arrangement the floor of the manufacturing room at one end of the vats is sunk some four feet below the part upon which the vats stand. Here is placed the sink upon rails, and in some instances immediately back of it the presses. The ends of the vats come out nearly to the fall in the floor, and in the end of each vat there is a large circular opening secured with an iron door, water-tight, which is opened for the discharge of the curds. When a vat is to be emptied the sink is rolled along opposite the vat, the vat canted down, the tin conductor placed under the orifice or point of discharge in the vat, and the iron door removed. In this manner the vat is rapidly emptied of its contents, and the curds at once spread out upon the sink to cool. Old cheese makers will readily understand the advantage of this arrangement. When the acid is properly developed it should be immediately checked. With large masses of curd, and under the old arrangement, it was very difficult to time opera- tions to meet this condition. To dip the curd out with pails often required so much time that, do the best you could, the acid would often be carried too far before the work was accomplished. As the temperature of the atmosphere varies from day to day, and the condition of the milk is also different, it was exceedingly difficult to calculate the changes that would occur in a few minutes. It will be seen, then, how great the advantage is when the manu- facturer can empty his vat at once. Sometimes acidity goes on gradually for a time, and then all at once is developed much more rapidly than was antici- pated. With the shute you are master of the situation; you have the whole matter under control; you manipulate your forces to produce an exact result ; you march to the very threshold of danger, but do not step over the line; you have control of the shute, and at the word of command you feel that you can count upon accomplishing the object desired. The shute is, without doubt, of considerable assistance in securing the make of nice, marketable goods, and its adoption can be recommended on this account, in addition to the labor it saves over the old plan of dipping. PROCESS FOR MAKING EXTRA FINE CHEESE. We have now discussed at length some of the leading points in cheese manufacture, and I here give some of the most recent views and practice of manufacturers who have been successful in making a high-priced cheese, and 458 PRACTICAL DAIkY HUSBANDRY. in this connection the following paper of Mr. A. McApam, read at the Dairy- men’s Convention of 1871, so fully explains in regular order and in detail the method of cheese making at the Smith Creek factory, that it will be useful. I may remark in passing that the cheese made at the Smith Creek factory in 1869 and 1870 was regarded by dealers and shippers as a fancy article, and it sold at the Little Falls, N. Y., market uniformly at the highest price paid for best factories. Mr. McApam says:—‘“I will give a description of the process as I practice it, and state some of the reasons why I practice it. As you are probably all aware, the milk that is delivered at cheese factories is not always in the same state, sometimes being tainted or partially putrid, sometimes sour, or nearly so, and sometimes it is, what it always ought to be, perfect. I propose to describe the process, first, when the milk is right and good; second, when it is partially sour, and third, when tainted. The evening’s milk, when delivered at the factory, ought to be cooled so as to reach a temperature of 58° to 62° in the morning. When the morning’s milk is added, it is heated to 80°, then enough rennet is added to coagulate the mass in as nearly forty minutes’ time as possible. When the curd has attained sufficient consistency, it is cut four times—twice with the horizontal curd knife, and twice with the perpendicular one, with a short interval between each cutting. The curd is then gently manipulated and heated to 96°, care being taken to prevent the curd from packing on the bottom of the vat; the time required for heating being from an hour to an hour and a-half. The stirring is continued for ten or fifteen minutes after this heat has been attained, and the curd is then allowed to pack on the bottom of the vat, where it lies undisturbed until the separation of the whey from the curd becomes necessary. Up to this stage the process is almost identical with that prac- ticed in manufacturing cheese in eis usual manner. ‘In the manufacture of American cheese (I will so designate the method usually practiced, to distinguish it from the process, which I will term Ohed- dar),it is of the utmost importance to determine the precise time at which to separate the whey from the curd, and it is also an operation requiring the greatest amount of skill and experience, as well as the exercise of the nicest sense of taste and smell. But in the manufacture of Cheddar cheese it is not of the same vital importance, as the whey can be separated from the curd from half an hour to an hour and a-half before acidity is developed so as to be perceptible; and, on the other hand, the whey can be left on the curd till the acid is distinctly developed, without materially affecting the quality of the product. As the acid or souring generally makes its appearance about noon, in summer, the Cheddar system gives factory hands more time for dinner, and consequently they can masticate their food, instead of having to bolt it, as has to be done in many cases. When the whey is drawn off, and the vat tipped down on one end, the curd is then heaped on each side of the vat, leaving a space in the middle to allow the remainder of the whey to pass off. I may here state that when the “shute,” or flood gate, is not used, there Practical Darry HuSBANDRY. 459 - ought to be, in the Cheddar system, a faucet in the vat, to allow the whey to pass off as it drains from the curd. After the curd has laid in a heap on the bottom of the vat for fifteen or twenty minutes, and the original particles of eurd have become amalgamated into a solid mass, it is then cut into con- venient pieces with a knife, and turned over, and so left until the curd has become sour enough for grinding and salting, which is determined by the taste of the whey that drains from the curd. This whey should now have a sharp, sour milk taste, which can be understood by any intelligent cheese maker, after a few days’ experience. ‘The curd is then torn by hand into strips of two or three pounds weight, and allowed to cool for a short time, in order to allow the butter in it to become solid enough so as not to escape during the operation of grinding. The curd is then ground into pieces, averaging about the size of hickory nuts. Five hundred pounds of curd can be ground by hand, with McApam’s curd mill, in from five to fifteen minutes, according to the toughness of the curd and muscle of the operator. The salt is then immediately added and mixed thoroughly, at the rate of from one and a-half to two and a quarter pounds per one thousand pounds of milk, accord- ing to circumstances. The curd is then ready to be put into the hoops for pressing. «2d. Mode of procedure when the milk we have to handle is (from what- ever cause) sour, or partially so; and such cases are liable to happen in any factory, however well regulated. You are all aware that when milk is par- tially sour, it will coagulate in the same time as sweet milk with the addition of considerably less rennet. But to such milk I usually add more rennet, instead of less, so as to have the coagulation occur very quickly. As soon as the rennet has completed its office, 1 commence cutting and working the curd much more rapidly than usual. In such cases I use very little heat in scald- ing—seldom heating over 86° or 90°, according to the severity of the case. Indeed, in some instances, when the milk is very sour, I do not think that it is advisable to heat the curd at all after coagulation. I reason in this way: just as good cheese can be made without scalding at all, as with it; the reason that we scald the curd (if heating to a temperature of 98° can be called scalding), is to develop the acid sooner, and if, when the curd is inclined to develop acid. sooner than usual, we heat it to a temperature of 96° to 98°, we hasten the action of the acid, which is the very thing we are trying to avoid. In other words, when the acid in the curd is developing too fast of its own accord, we develop it still faster by means of heat, and thus aggra- vate the evil. After this curd is cut up, the whey must be removed from it as fast as it makes its appearance, and as soon as practicable the vat must be tipped down and the curd thrown to the upper end of the vat. The curd at this stage is very sloppy, as it contains considerable whey. One person should now cut it into small pieces with a knife, and another be employed in turning the pieces over and piling them up in heaps, so as to liberate the whey, which passes off in a continuous stream. When the curd has assumed 460 Practica DAtrY HUSBANDRY. a proper consistency it must be ground and salted; the quantity of salt used must be according to the amount of whey contained in the curd, which.-is generally, in such cases, considerably more than usual. In extreme cases, the whole process, from the adding of the rennet to the mixing in of the salt, can be performed in less than an hour. ‘To explain why more rennet is needed when the milk is partially sour, I will refer to the address delivered by Professor CaLpwetz last year, before this Convention, and’also to the able and highly useful paper read by L. B. ARNOLD, Esq., on ‘Rennet, its Nature and Use,’ before the same Conven- tion. These gentlemen demonstrated to us very clearly that the acting principle of rennet consists of minute globules, or spores, which feed upon nitrogenous substances, and when placed in such, at a favorable temperature, multiply very rapidly. Now a quantity of rennet, containing a vast number of these spores, placed in a vat of milk which is highly nitrogenous, at a tem- perature of 80°, which is favorable to their growth, will multiply in a short time to such an extent as to cause its coagulation. And their action by no means stops here. They have still a very important mission to perform, viz., that of curing or ripening the cheese. And if the presence of these spores in the cheese, cures or ripens it, an excess of them will ripen the cheese more quickly, and vice versa. Now we all know that a sour cheese, or a cheese which contains an excess of sour milk spores (Arthrococci), takes a much longer time to ripen than a sweet cheese, and vice versa. Therefore, to have a cheese cured in a given time, the spores of the Micrococci and of the Arthro- cocci, must be contained in it in relative quantities. So, when we have a vat of sour milk to handle, where the Arthrococci are in abundance, we must add more rennet to counterbalance their action on the nitrogenous ingredients of the milk, and thereby cause the cheese to ripen much quicker than if less rennet had been added. I have found by experiment, during the past sum- mer, that cheese made from sour milk in the above manner will cure as fast as other cheese, but they will require more annatto to make them of the same color, these sour milk spores appearing to have a destructive effect upon annatto. I have likewise noticed that such cheese will have more tendency to mold, but the flavor will not be objectionable. “3. When the milk is tainted, or has an excess of putrefactive spores. This tainted milk occurs, in some localities, in hot weather, no matter what care is taken in cleaning the utensils with which it comes, in contact, and I think that the milk is damaged in most cases before it is drawn from the cow. But of course it can be greatly aggravated by being brought into contact with unclean milk pails, strainers, cans, &c., which have not been properly cleansed, and therefore contain numbers of those putrefactive spores clinging to their seams and crevices, and which spring into new life and activity on being brought into contact with the warm milk. During the past season, from the middle of June to the middle of September, in a factory of over nine hundred cows, I did not have a vat of milk which was not tainted, most of it PRACTICAL DAIRY HUSBANDRY. 461 very badly, and over one-third of it so much that the curd floated. The cheese made from this milk sold for the highest price in the Little Falls mar- ket. In handling such milk I prefer to have the temperature of the evening’s mess about 68° or 70° in the morning before the morning’s milk is added, for two reasons. First, it has been shown that the putrefactive spores are in great abundance in such tainted milk; by leaving the evening’s milk through the night at a higher temperature, we promote the growth of the Arthro- cocci, or sour milk spores, and these check the growth of the Micrococci, and counterbalance their action to a certain degree. Second, when the milk is left through the night at a higher temperature, a great number of the putrefac- tive spores pass off in the form of gas, especially where the milk agitator is used. This we know by the foul odor it emits when warm, but when the milk is cooled to a low temperature, this gas is not so volatile, and does not escape so readily, as we can perceive by its emitting little or no smell. But the cooling of the milk does not kill the Micrococci; it only partially pre- vents their escape, and though at the same time cooling the milk, also retards their growth as well as their escape; it also retards the growth of the sour milk spores, and these are much more efficient agents for the prevention of putrefaction than cooling is. Therefore, I maintain that the less tainted or putrid milk is cooled, so as not to be absolutely sour in the morning, the better the product obtained will be, if the milk be properly handled. JI know that some cheese-makers prefer cooling such milk to as low a temperature as possible, and add sour whey with the rennet in the morning, and have very good success, but I prefer the former method, as by it the formation of the putrefactive spores is checked at a much earlier stage of the proceedings. With this difference of cooling the milk, my process is the same with tainted milk as with good milk, until the separation of the whey from the curd. When tainted we allow the whey to remain on the curd until acid is slightly perceptible, whether the curd floats or not. The whey is then drawn off and the curd handled as before. If the curd is badly tainted, while lymg ina mass at the bottom of the vat, it will swell up to twice its original size, like ‘dough under the action of the yeast, and when broken emits a very offensive odor. The exact degree of acidity to be allowed to develop at this point is the most important, as well as the most difficult thing to determine in the whole management of floating curds, as the odor and taste of both the curd and the whey that.drains from it very much resemble acid, and are in a great many instances mistaken for it. The acid ought to be developed just enough to kill the taint, and no more, and the result, notwithstanding the assertions of some to the contrary, will be a fine cheese. After the requisite amount of acid has been determined upon, and the curd ground and salted (using the same amount of salt as when not tainted), the curd must be cooled and ven- tilated as much as possible before being put to press. “I do not pretend to say that cheese can be made from tainted milk and floating curds, possessing quite as much of the fine, nutty aroma as from 462 PrAcTICAL DAtir¥Y HUSBANDRY. curds properly handled which are not tainted at all. But I do assert that I have seen cheese made from floating curds, in several factories during the past summer, that were perfectly close, rich and meaty, having no objectionable flavor, and which not one expert in ten would object to. “One other fact I wish to mention: It requires more milk when tainted, to make a pound of cheese, than when it is not. One reason for this is, that more acid must be present in such cases, and, of course, the more acid the less cheese. In the Smith Creek Factory, last summer, it took two pounds more milk to make a pound of cheese in July than it did in April. “‘T have endeavored to tell you how I practice grinding curds. I will now try to tell you why I practice it. In the first place, I think that it requires less milk to make a pound of cheese; in the second place, it does not tax the judgment of the cheese-maker so much, or require so much skill and atten- tion; and, in the third place, I think that cheese made by the Cheddar process will be closer, and at the same time appear more rich and buttery, and will cure faster. It takes less milk to make a pound of cheese because the whey is drawn from the curd before the acid is perceptible, while in the American system, the whey has to be left on the curd from ten to sixty minutes after acid is detected, in order to insure a good, solid cheese, and you all know that sour whey will eat or digest grease from any substance containing it, with which it comes in contact. The longer the curd is exposed to this acidity in the whey the slimier the whey becomes, on account of the grease it has taken from the curd, and, in fact, some cheese-makers determine when the curd is ready to dip into the sink by the sliminess or sudsing of the whey. The quantity of butter which passes off unseen in the American system is certainly more than is contained in the small quantity of white whey which comes from the cheese when pressing in the Cheddar system. “During the past season, notwithstanding the general complaint that the milk did not yield well, and the fact that over half of the cheese made at Smith Creek Factory was from tainted milk, we used only 9 9-10ths pounds of milk for one pound of cured cheese. And the reason why the Cheddar . cheese will appear more rich and buttery, with the same solidity, is that when the whey is drawn from the curd before the acid is detected, the action of the sour milk spores is retarded, and the rennet, at work in the mass of warm curd, is allowed full play. And, as the rennet cures the cheese, it will there- fore cure sooner, and, curing sooner, will be richer and more buttery at the same age.” . HERKIMER COUNTY ‘‘ FANCY FACTORY CHEESE.” As the manner of making a high-priced cheese is always of interest to manufacturers, I give some of the leading features at a few fancy factories where “ gilt-edged” cheese is made. The processes are those adopted in 1870. At the North Fairfield Factory, the temperature of milk in the morning is 56°. The night’s milk is cooled by passing a stream of water between the’ vats and underneath the milk vat. Rennet is added for coagulating when the Pracricat Dairy HuSBANDRY. 463 milk has been raised to a temperature of 84°. After coagulation is perfected the curds are cut first with the horizontal curd-knife, which leaves the mass in thin sheets. Then follow with the perpendicular knife, cutting lengthwise of the vat. Let the curds now stand ten minutes, or until the whey forms; when the curds are cut with the perpendicular knife across the vat. The breaking having been perfected, heat is begun to be gradually applied and is continued until the mass reaches a temperature of 98°, the time occu- pied being one and a-half hours or thereabouts. It is regarded of great importance to heat slowly, and care is taken that the increase in temperature in all parts of the heating process is regular and gradual. Sour whey is not usually employed, as it is preferred that the acid be developed in heating. The curds are taken out of the vat into. the sink at 90°—the acid having been developed—and they are left exposed in the sink to cool. If acid has by chance been carried too far in the vat, cold water is conducted between the vats, under the curds to cool them rapidly. It is preferred, however, to cool _ the curds by exposing them to the air, as they are spread out in the sink. When the curds have been cooled down to a temperature of from 75° to 80°, and also are thoroughly drained of whey; they are salted in summer at, the rate of 2 9-10ths pounds of salt to one hundred pounds of green cheese, and for September about a tenth of a pound less salt. If the milk in hot weather is not all right, or if tainted, particular attention is given to have the curds exposed a long time to the atmosphere. The temperature of the curing-room is kept at 70°, or as near that point as possible. In May the average quantity of milk for a pound of cured cheese was 9 37-100ths pounds; in June, 9 3-10ths pounds, and in July 9 7-10ths pounds. The cheese on hand at the time of my visit, were meaty, solid and of uniform fine flavor. The factory is convenient in its arrangements, but the building is very plain and cheap in appearance. _ The factory of the Norway Association receives the milk from four hun- dred cows, and careful attention is given among patrons to deliver clean, sweet milk. An agitator is kept moving in the night’s milk, and the temper- ature of the water is reduced with ice, so that the night’s milk will stand in the morning at a temperature of 60°. Mr. James, the manufacturer, sets the milk for coagulation at 84°, and during the process of scalding 98° is the highest temperature employed. The best factory filled salt is used in spring at the rate of two and a-half pounds to one hundred of curd; in summer the salt is three pounds, and in fall two and seven-tenths pounds. As at other factories where high-priced cheese is made, the heating process is very slow and gradual, requiring from one and a-quarter to one and a-half hours. Great attention is paid to the development of the acid, and Mr. JAMES attributes his success to the faculty of distinguishing the proper con- _ dition of the curds in this respect, and to their exposure to the atmosphere in ’ the sink until properly matured. Of course these peculiar conditions of the curds cannot be described in words, but must be learned by experience. 464 PRACTICAL DAIRY HUSBANDRY. Mr. Jamzs says he likes to develop the acid “ sharp” through June, July and August, but in fall not so much. As soon as it can be detected in the vats, the whey is immediately withdrawn, and as I have before remarked, the appliance of the shute is here of service in taking immediate advantage for regulating this condition of the curds. The cheese at this factory are pressed in fourteen and a-half inch hoops, weigh about sixty pounds each. They are slightly colored. At the time of my visit fifteen cheeses were being made daily. The highest receipts of milk during the season were ten thousand pounds, which made eighteen and a-half cheeses daily. THE ‘‘COARSE CURDS” PROCESS is followed at the Cold Creek Factory, and whatever difference of opinion there may be as to the merits of this process, it is just to say that the cheese shows it to be a success. I saw the Cold Creek brand in England in 1866, and heard dealers express their opinion that it was among the best of the American factories. Since that time, if measured by the test of prices at home, the process, at least in Mr. Hopson’s hands, must be considered a success. What is claimed in the coarse curds process, is the production of cheese, ‘solid yet mellow in texture, having a sweet, nutty or new milk flavor, or as the trade expresses it, “ clean flavored ;” and finally, a better retention of the butteraneous matter of the milk, than in the ordinary course of manufacture. The theory of the coarse curds is, that the less the cutting or agitation of the curds while in a soft state the more butter you retain, hence the curds are cut or broken no more than is absolutely necessary, while the stirring is of the gentlest kind, and just sufficient to keep the mass from clinging together. Mr. Hopson sets the milk for coagulation at 80°, using a sufficient quantity of rennet to thoroughly coagulate the mass fit for the knife in an hour. Then he commences cutting with a gang of steel blades, lengthwise of the vat, going through once. . The mass is now left at rest from ten to twenty minutes, until the whey begins to rise. Then a four-bladed knife (with blades three-fourths of an inch apart) is used for the cross-cutting. It is set at an angle of 45° with the bottom of the vat, and run through the mass crosswise of the vat. Then if there is likely to be no immediate change in the whey, the mass is left at rest for ten or fifteen minutes, and the knife used again across the vat, the operator standing on the side opposite to where he stood for the previous cutting. Inexperienced cheese-makers, or those who do not understand the philosophy of cheese-making, advise that all the cutting be done as quickly as possibie, and if an instrument could be made for the purpose, would prefer that all the cutting should be done instantaneously. This is evidently inju- dicious, as the whey forms slowly, and a complete division of curds at once in their tender condition cannot be effected without liberating the oily parti- cles, and thus causing waste. Such cutting is admissible only when acidity is progressing rapidly, and all parts of the process require to be hastened. PrRAcvTicaL DAIRY HUSBANDRY. 465 In the coarse curd process, the cutting having been performed as just described, it completes what is understood by “breaking ”—for no other division or breaking up of the particles is deemed necessary. Heat is now begun to be applied very slowly, and the mass is stirred in the gentlest manner possible, and no more than to prevent the curds from running or clinging together. Great attention is paid to careful handling in this part of the pro- _cess, in order that none of the buttery particles be pressed out, the theory being to let the curds do their own work as far as possible. The time of heating up is usually about an hour or an hour and a-quarter, the mass being raised to 100°. After heating, the curds are only stirred occasionally to pre- vent matting, and the mass remains in the vats till the acid is properly devel- oped. Mr. Hopson depends for the most part upon the sense of smell in determining the degree of acidity required, and with long practice and good judgment in this respect, he is able to time operations so as to manage his curds with great uniformity. The curds are now thrown into the sink to be exposed to the atmosphere, where they are stirred, and when properly cooled down and the acidity carried to the exact point desired, salt is applied. THE SALTING during the summer is at the rate of three and a-half pounds salt to one hundred pounds curd, and it is thoroughly and evenly incorporated with the curds. In spring and up to the 10th of May three and a-quarter pounds salt is the rate. No sour whey is used except that employed for soaking the rennets. The curds when ready to salt, appear to be in particles about the size of chestnuts. They have avery nice look and feel, being what cheese- makers term “ lively.” Although this is an old factory the buildings are in good repair, clean and sweet, with neat surroundings. The size of the dairy-house is thirty by one hundred feet, and the manufactory, which is a separate structure, thirty-six by thirty-six feet. Milk is delivered from five hundred and fifty cows. Ordi- narily the cheese is pressed in fifteen and a-half inch hoops, and will weigh sixty-five pounds each. The factory is supplied with an abundance of pure spring water of a temperature of about 52°. In summer a stream of water is kept flowing under the night’s milk in the vats, and the milk is stirred also during the night with Austrn’s agitator. On the 8th of September, 1869, Mr. Hopson had an order for one hun- dred large cheeses, eighty colored and twenty white. The order was com- pleted on the 12th of October. These cheeses weighed three hundred and thirty pounds each, and a handsomer lot could not well be got together. I tested a large number of cheeses in the curing-room, and found them uniformly very meaty, and of clean and delicate flavor. Something of their character may be indicated from the fact that twenty-two cents per pound was offered by a purchaser in our presence for the lot of large cheese, the highest market rates at Little Falls at that time being nineteen cents. 30 466 PRACTICAL DAIRY HUSBANDRY. About two miles east of Salisbury Center is another “ fancy factory,” the “‘ Herkimer County,” or “ Avery & Ives ”—giving the name of the proprie- tors. This is an old factory, and the manufacturer, Mr. E. B. FalRcuHIxp, has been here seven years. Mr. Farrcuixp is, without doubt, one of the best cheese manufacturers in the State. His cheese stands high among the “ fan- cies.” He follows the coarse curds process, though not precisely in the steps of Mr. Hopson. His cheese is very solid, meaty and fine-flavored. An old cheese-dealer and noted expert remarked to me, on the day of my visit, that probably nothing finer could be found in the State than the lot of cheese then on the shelves at the Avery & Ivzs factory. The factory takes the milk of six hundred cows, and the receipts on October 23d were five thousand pounds, and made into nine cheeses, which weighed sixty-five pounds each; in shape, Cheddars, being pressed in fourteen and a-half inch hoops. The establishment is in two buildings, the making department being thirty by thirty feet, and the dry house one hundred by thirty-six feet, two stories high. The milk is set at 80°, the highest heat in scalding 100°. The curds are cut coarse, somewhat similar to Mr. Horson’s at Cold Creek, and the time of heating and extreme care in handling the curds are also similar; but the salting is not so high, the rate in summer being three pounds, and in fall two and eight-tenths pounds salt to one hun- dred pounds curd. Mr. Farrcuitp thinks the fine texture of his cheese results in a great measure from having the milk in perfect condition at the commencement of operations and then employing heat slowly, manipulating the curds in the gentlest manner, and finally, accuracy in developing the degree of acidity. During cool weather in the fall, sour whey is added with the rennet to the milk, at the rate of two pails whey for four hundred gallons of milk. He thinks coarse curds make a more meaty cheese and produce a larger quan- tity of cheese from a given quantity of milk than fine curds. Acid is devel- oped in the vat with the whey rather than in the sink, and from long practice and close watching, he is able to detect the changes from time to time very accurately. The practice at other factories might be given, but these described will suffice, it is believed, for all practical purposes. MAKING CHEESE FROM A SMALL NUMBER OF COWS. If there happen to be three or four neighbors similarly situated, that is, each having but two or three cows, it will be a good plan for all to join together, delivering a certain quantity of milk daily at some central neigh- bor’s house, where the cheese is to be made. There will be no very great trouble in this, and by assisting each other, all may be supplied. As the labor in manufacture will be no more for ten pails of milk than for four, and as the cheese can then be made up at once, it will be advisable to associate together whenever practicable. Ten pails of milk will make say twenty-five gallons, and the twenty-five PRACTICAL DAIRY HUSBANDRY. 467 gallons will give a cheese of twenty pounds, and perhaps a trifle over. If the milk is worked in the manner I have described, the curds may be pressed in a hoop eleven inches in diameter and about the same hight. Small cheeses of this kind need not be bandaged. After coming from the hoop, they should be oiled over with a little fresh butter to prevent the rind from checking, and may be placed upon the shelf. They will need turning every day, giving the surface a smart rubbing with the hand, which will prevent the cheese flies from securing a safe deposit of their eggs. If the rind of the cheese gets dry, it will be well to oil again with fresh butter. If properly cared for the cheese will begin to be mellow in four or five weeks, and will be eatable, though age will improve it, and when six months old it should be of delicious flavor and quality if well made. DOUBLE CURDS. But if the quantity of milk is too small to make a curd for one pressing, then resort may be had to what is termed double curds. These are managed after the following manner: The milk is treated precisely as if there was sufficient for a cheese. After the curds have been drained and slightly salted and are ready for the hoop, they are set aside in a cool place in the cellar until next day. Then, after the next curds are ready, the previous day’s curds are treated with warm whey, so that they may be broken up, when they are drained and the two days’ curds are thoroughly mingled together and salted. ‘They are then put to press, and will unite together the same as if they had been a “ one day’s cheese.” T have seen some most excellent cheese made in this way, cheese as fine in flavor and quality as one could wish tosee. Sometimes curds are kept in this way three days, or more, until a sufficient quantity has accumulated to make a cheese of the desired size. In this way cheese can be made when only one cow is kept. GRAFTING THE CURDS. There is another way of managing the curds, called grafting. As soon as the curds are ready they are put to press. The next day the hoop is taken off and a thin scale taken from the top of the cheese with a sharp knife, and the fresh surface made rough with a fork. The top rind and the upper edges being pared off the parings are broken up and warmed by the addition of whey. They are then mingled with the new curds and placed in the hoop on top of the previous day’s cheese and put to press. The two days’ curds will adhere, and in this way small quantities of milk may be utilized in cheese- making. Grafted cheese should always be bandaged, for unless the whey is very thoroughly drained from the curds, the two sections or grafts sometimes will not adhere so firmly as the parts where they are not joined. Itisa good plan in grafting cheese, after paring off the rind as I have described, to cut across the cheese two or three times, taking out a small triangular strip. Some people after paring the rind and cutting across as above, make the 468 PRACTICAL DAIRY HUSBANDRY. upper surface also rough by scraping with the point of a knife or fork. This is done for the purpose of giving the new curds a stronger hold on those of the previous day. MAKING CHEESE WITHOUT PROPER APPARATUS AND FIXTURES. Sometimes the farmer who keeps only a few cows to supply his family with milk and butter, would like also to make a few cheeses for family use; he does not care to make cheese to sell, and therefore hardly feels able to purchase cheese apparatus and fit up a dairy-house after the most approved models ; this he thinks would cost more than to purchase his supply of cheese in the market. But it often happens that where this state of things exists, the money cannot be spared for buying cheese, and so this luxury is dis- pensed with at the family table. Let us see now, how cheaply we can arrange for a primitive dairy. If nothing better is at hand, a common wash-tub, clean and sweet, will answer the purpose for setting the milk and working the curds. A hoop must be had from the cooper. Let it be ten inches in diameter, top and bottom, by twelve inches high, and fitted with a follower. A PRIMITIVE PRESS. A very good press may be made in a few hours from a twelve-foot plank, and afew pieces of scantling. About a foot from either end of the plank THE OLD-FASHIONED LOG CHEESE PRESS. set up two short pieces of scantling four and a-half inches apart. Fasten them firmly to the plank with bolts or pins. The lever may be a joist, four by four, or four by six, and fourteen feet long. One end is secured by a pin passing through the uprights at one end of the plank, and it is to move freely up and down between the uprights at the other end. A weight hung at one end of the lever and you have a press that will do good service. The weights at the end of the long lever are a stone or two from the field. There may be another lever arranged for raising the long lever or press-beam, without removing the weights, which are stationary. We give an illustration of an old-fashioned log press. The hoop is placed near the stationary end of the press-beam, and blocks put upon the follower, the press-beam let down upon them, and in this way the cheese is pressed. A long, thin wooden knife will do for cutting the curds. A gallon of good milk (wine measure) will make nearly a pound of cheese. PRAcTICAL DAIRY HUSBANDRY. 469 THE PROCKSS. Your milk having been placed in the tub, and the number of gallons known, a portion may be taken out and heated in pans over a common stove. The pan holding the milk should be set in another pan holding water or over a kettle containing water, so as not to scorch or burn the milk in the pan. Heat the milk and pour into the tub, till the mass indicates a temperature of 85°. Then add a quantity of rennet (which has been previously prepared by steeping the dry skins or rennet in water), sufficient to coagulate the milk, say in forty or fifty minutes. Now put your finger into the curd, raise it slowly, and if it readily splits apart the mass is ready to cut into blocks with the curd knife. After cutting into checks two inches square, let it remain at rest ten to fifteen minutes for the whey to form. Then carefully break with the hands by lifting up the curds very gently, and when the mass has been gone over, let it rest for ten or fifteen minutes for the curd to subside. Now dip off a portion of the whey into the pans, and heat on the stove in the same manner that the milk was warmed. In the meantime continue breaking, by gently lifting the curd, until the particles of curd are about the size of small chestnuts or large beans. Then pour in the warm whey and continue heating and adding the warm whey until the mass indicates a tem- perature of 98°. Do not be in a hurry, but take things leisurely, continuing the breaking or stirring the curds while heat is being applied. It may now be left at rest for half an hour and then stirred, so that the particles may not pack or adhere together in the tub, and this treatment continued until the curd has a firm consistency. Take up a handful and press it together in the hand, and if on opening the hand it readily falls to pieces, it is about ready for draining. Throw a cloth strainer over the tub and dip off the whey down to the curd. Then put the strainer on a willow clothes basket and dip the curd into it to drain. It may now be broken up with the hands, and when pretty dry may be salted in the basket or returned to the tub for salting. Salt at the rate of four to four and a-half ounces of salt to ten pounds curd; mix it thoroughly and put to press. After remaining from two to four hours in press, turn and put to press again, leaving it under pressure till next morning, when it may be removed to the shelf. Very small cheeses need not be bandaged. They should be rubbed over with a little fresh butter, melted. and applied warm, or with oil made from the cream that rises from the whey. They should be turned and rubbed daily until well ripened. THE CHEESE FLY. Most dairymen understand pretty well the habits of the cheese fly ; many, however, do not understand how to provide against its depredations. Some people profess to be fond of a skippery cheese, and regard it as an index of what the English understand as a “cheese full of meat ”’—that is, rich in butter. And it must be confessed that the cheese fly has a great partiality for the best goods in the curing house. They do not so readily attack your 470 PrRAcTICAL DAIRY HUSBANDRY. “ white oak” and skim milk varieties, hence the notion that cheese infested with the fly is rich in butter is not far out of the way. The primary cause of skippery cheese, of course, is want of care. Cheese in hot weather should be closely examined every day; they require to be turned once a day to facilitate the curing process; the bandages and sides are to be rubbed at the time of turning, in order to brush off or destroy any nits of the fly which may happen to be deposited about the cheese. If there are cracks in the rind, or if the edges of the bandage do not fit snugly, they should at once be attended to, since it is at these points that the fly is most likely to make a safe deposit of its eggs. FILLING UP THE CRACKS. The cracks and checks in the cheese should be filled up with particles of cheese that have been crushed under a knife to make them mellow and plastic. When once filled, a strip of thin, tough paper, oiled and laid over the repaired surface will serve as a further protection of the parts. The cheese in the checks soon hardens and forms anew rind. Deep and bad looking checks may be repaired in this way, so as to form a smooth surface, scarcely to be dis- tinguished from the sound parts of the cheese. It is a great mistake to send cheese that have deep checks or broken rinds to market; for in addition to their liability to be attacked by the fly, they have the appearance of being imperfect, and are justly regarded with suspicion. CURING-ROOM NOT TO BE DARK. Some dairymen think that a darkened curing-room is best for cheese, and at the same time is the best protection against the fly; I think this is a mis- take; cheese cures with the best flavor when it is exposed to light, and besides, it can be examined more minutely from time to time and freed from any depredation of the skipper. August and September are generally the ‘worst months in the year to protect cheese against the attacks of the fly. Some years the trouble is greater than others, and various means have been resorted to for the purpose of avoiding the pest, such as rubbing the cheese over with a mixture of oil and cayenne pepper, &c. These things generally do not amount to much, and are not to be recommended ; the best protection is cleanliness, sharp eyes and a good care of the cheese. Whenever a lodge- ment of skippers has been made they must at once be removed; sometimes it will be necessary to cut into the cheese and remove the nest with a knife, but if the colony is young and small in numbers, a thick oiled paper, plastered over the affected part so as to exclude the air, will bring the pests to the surface, when they may be removed; the oiled paper should again be returned to its place and the skippers removed from time to time till all are destroyed. WASHING THE TABLES AND RANGES. If skippers begin to trouble the cheese, the best course to be adopted is to commence at once and wash the ranges, or tables on which the cheese are Practica Dairy HUSBANDRY. 471 } placed, with hot whey; this will remove all accumulation of grease or nits about the ranges, giving a clean surface, which does not attract the flies. If the cheese also is washed in the hot whey and rubbed with a dry cloth, the labor of expelling the trouble from the curing-rooms will be greatly facilitated. Keep the curing-room clean and sweet; see that the cheeses have a smooth rind, that the bandages are smoothly laid at the edges; turn and rub the cheese daily, and there need be no trouble from the cheese fly. PAINTED CHEESE. There are several kinds of foreign fancy cheeses that are peculiar in having their sides painted with a dark brown or red color. The double Gloucester or North Wilts, the small loaf and truckle shapes, and the Edams, are of this character. In the old process of curing the double Gloucester the cheese is rubbed with finely powdered salt, and this is thought to make the cheese more smooth and solid than when the salting process is performed in the curd. After the cheese has been in the curing-room and turned every day for a month or so, it is cleaned of all scurf and rubbed with a woolen cloth, dipped in a paint made of Indian red, or Spanish brown and small beer. After the paint is dry the cheese is rubbed once a week with a cloth. The Edam or Dutch cheese is colored on the outside, when ready for market, with what is called tournesal, the juice of a plant (Croton tinctortum) which grows wild in France. Rags are saturated in this juice and then exposed to the vapor arising from lime mixed with urine, which gives them a violet color. The cheeses are rubbed over with these tournesal rags, which gives them the peculiar glowing red with which they appear in market. A friend, who makes small fancy cheeses in imitation of English, and which sell for a high price, makes a paint for coloring the rinds of the cheese of the following :—Sharp, sour whey, salt, venetian red and burnt umber. The venetian red and umber are added to the whey, so as to make a mixture of the consistency of paint and of the shade desired, and when the cheeses are ready for market the rinds are painted over and allowed to dry. He says that this mixture holds its place and color on the cheese without flaking off, and is altogether better than the English mixture made of beer and Indian red. No bandage is used upon cheese treated with this coloring matter. USE OF SALTPETER,. The use of saltpeter in cheese manufacture has been long employed in some of the dairy districts of England. It is claimed by those who use salt- peter for this purpose that it helps preserve the flavor of cheese, improving also the keeping qualities of the goods. Iam unable to say how this may be, never having made any direct experiments in my own dairy as a test. Salt- peter is used extensively in curing meats, and most people understand some- thing of its effects when employed for this purpose. I do not understand that saltpeter has ever been used to any great extent in American cheese manu- facture, but I am informed by an old and distinguished cheese factory manager 472 PRACTICAL DAIRY HUSBANDRY. at Oneida that it has been used at his factory with the best results. The manner of preparing it for use is as follows:—Take from three to three and . a-half pounds saltpeter and reduce it to a powder. This will be sufficient for one barrel of salt, best factory filled. Now spread the salt on a clean floor and sprinkle over with the powder as evenly as possible, and mix thoroughly by shoveling it over. It may then be repacked in the barrel and it is fit for use. When the curds are to be salted use the usual quantity by weight of the compound as you would of salt, if that alone was to be employed. Ihave seen small quantities of saltpeter added to salt for preserving butter with good results, and it is possible that saltpeter used for preserving cheese in the way described may be of some advantage. BAD FLAVOR. It is very difficult to point out the cause of bad flavor in cheese without seeing the cheese and knowing all the details in manufacture, together with the condition of pastures, care of stock, water, &c. There are a great many things that affect flavor in cheese, and of all the months in the year June and July are the most trying to the cheese-maker. Much of the July cheese is often out of flavor, and manufacturers are often at a loss to account for it. Cheese that is well made will take on a taint and get out of flavor by being kept in a badly ventilated and ill-contrived curing-room. Cheese in curing needs air and a uniform temperature not higher than 75°. Some cheese- rooms are excessively warm and close in hot weather, and the fermenting or curing powers are carried on too rapidly. Scurfy cheese show that there has been fault in manufacture. If it pro- ceeds from whey oozing out, forming a kind of gummy, sticky substance on the sides, the curds have not been properly matured in the vat. The cheese when taken from the press to the table ought not to leak whey. Sometimes a mold or scurf forms on cheese from damp weather, when the cheese is not properly rubbed daily. The scurf should be removed and the cheese “ slicked up” before sending to market. POISON CHEESE. During a visit to St. Lawrence county a prominent cheese dealer of that county called my attention to a case of cheese poisoning which had come under his observation :—A lot of cheese had been purchased from a dairyman of that county by the dealer referred to, and having been shipped by him and placed upon the market, a complaint was instituted that the cheese proved to be poisonous. No deaths, it is true, came from eating the cheese, but the persons who ate of it were taken suddenly ill with pains and cramps and excessive vomiting, showing evident indications that they had been poisoned. It was an easy matter of course to trace the source of this illness to the cheese of a particular dairy, and immediately a thorough investigation was inaugurated to discover the origin of the trouble. On an examination of the dairy where the cheese was made nothing unusual was found in the manner PRAcTICAL Dairn¥Y HUSBANDRY. 473 _of manufacture, or in the appliances used in cheese making. The cheese had been made in the ordinary tin vat, and all the processes of manufacture were similar to those in common practice in the country. Due regard had been exercised as to cleanliness; no known poisons had been employed about the premises, and it had become evident to the parties investigating that the poison, if any, in the cheese, must have come from the salt, the annatto, or in some way of which the cheese maker or his family were not cognizant, or indeed to be blamed. Samples of the cheese were also forwarded to Prof. Jackson of Boston for analysis; and having been submitted to a rigid examination by this emi- nent chemist, the opinion was further confirmed that the dairyman was blameless in the matter. Dr. Jackson states in regard to the analysis of this cheese as follows :—“ Each and all of the samples were entirely free from any tone poisons. ‘There are no metal or mineral poisons of the kind present, nor any alkaloids or deleterious vegetable principles. But there is a small pro- portion of offensive putrefying animal matter which has been separated here that does not belong to good cheese. It is impossible to give this impurity any correct name, and it is only an opinion of mine that it comes from the rennet used. It is not poisonous, although it occasions vomiting in dogs and cats, and small portions of it may be taken into the human sucentue with- out effect.” The facts elicited in this analysis of Dr. Jackson correspond in some respects with those discovered a few years since by Dr. VoEtcxEr, and from which it would appear that cheese, as well as other kinds of animal food, under certain conditions of decay, generates a peculiar organic poison; but what the composition of this virulent poison is the chemists are as yet unable to determine. Dr..VoELcKER stated to me that instances had come under his observation where this poison in cheese had become dissipated as the cheese passed into a further state of fermentation and decomposition, and that the cheese could then be safely eaten, producing no injurious or unpleasant effects. In his report upon this subject to the Royal Agr ‘cultural Society, a case is mentioned somewhat similar to that referred to in St. Lawrence county, and as it details more fully the nature of this peculiar poison than the statement of Dr. Jackson, it will be of interest perhaps to present it in this connection. Without going into a history of the particular dairy or the various cases of poisoning, it will be sufficient to say that quite a number of people were taken ill after partaking of the cheese, and that samples of the cheese causing the illness were forwarded to Dr. Vortcker for examination. This cheese, he says, presented nothing in appearance which could be regarded as an indi- cation of its spoiled condition or unwholesome quality. The taste was sharp, peculiar and quite different from the rich and pungent taste of well-ripened old cheese; but it was not sufficiently characteristic of its unquestionably poisonous properties. He says :—‘ Having analyzed at different times cheese 474. PrAcTICAL DAIRY HUSBANDRY. which produced bad effects when taken in any quantity, I cautioned my assistants not to take too much of it, and invited them to taste the cheese sent. Certain chemicals, which are sometimes put into cheese, can to a cer- tain extent be recognized by the peculiar taste which they impart. I tasted it myself, and although I took a piece only the size of a hazel nut, I felt its effects four hours after having tasted it. Both my assistants, who had taken no more at the most than a quarter of an ounce each, five hours afterward were violently attacked with vomiting and pain in the bowels; one of them was ill all night, and scarcely able to follow his usual work next day. Both complained of a nasty mercurial taste, which seemed to remain with them for many hours after partaking of the cheese. “¢ On a former occasion I found sulphate of zinc or white vitriol in a cheese which caused sickness, and in another instance I detected in cheese sulphate of copper. My attention, therefore, naturally was directed to search for metallic poisons; but though carefully operating on large quantities, I failed to detect even traces of zinc, copper, mercury, antimony, arsenic, or any of the metallic poisons which might possibly have imparted injurious properties to the cheese. Having failed to detect any mineral poison I next directed my attention to the examination of the organic constituents: the quantitative general analysis gave the following results: BVVILC Te ayers cceter te Stare, sr simiocavs yaseie'a revere ieitege ie teleraic le byeietatoret ter eesietienel Rereeeae 37.88 Oxyoanic constituents, seek Aik dando ate Helepeas baton eke ae 58.04 VENTA H As Meseta toes tapas hacgnsc sa) e ys ay Sie eran sisusiioierokey SiS cnopousiertveks chesskey saree 4.08 BP tailor. ese erstauis sah yak, Thee aed aah oleae Oi OR TEE 100.00 (Containing call tr). saute ioe’ «seed de dapek omega’ Fea ee Ree 1.33 “The proportion of water in this cheese was rather large, considering that it must have been cut for some time, and have lost water by evaporation. On further examining it I found it remarkably sour, and had no difficulty in detecting an unusually large quantity of fatty acids, which if not poisonous themselves are the vehicle conveying the peculiar organic poison which appears to be generated sometimes in cheese undergoing a peculiar kind of fermentation. “Probably the poison generated in this modified decay of cheese is iden- tical with the so-called sausage poison, which is sometimes found in German sausages, especially those made of coagulated blood. A similar poison appears to be generated sometimes in pickled salmon, smoked sprats, pork, tainted veal, bacon and hams. Bacon and hams when not properly cured, and fat meat, kept in a damp, badly-ventilated cellar, are very apt to become more or less injurious to health, and even butter after it has turned rancid ; and similar organic matters are liberated in it, which exist in this cheese in a free state, acts as a poison in most cases. Singularly enough, some people are not affected by these subtle organic poisons. | “The poison of cheese was known in Germany as long ago as 1820, and probably even earlier. A great deal has been written on the subject, but we PrRAcTICAL DAIRY HUSBANDRY. 475 are yet as far as ever from knowing the composition of this virulent poison.” Dr. VoELcKER further states that cases of poisoning by cheese, in which no mineral poison can be detected, occur much more frequently than is gene- rally supposed. And it appears that cheese kept in damp, badly-ventilated places, or where too much whey is left, or indeed, all the circumstances which tend to produce a too acid curd, and to generate fatty acids are apt to pro- duce this peculiar poison. Dr. VoELCKER regrets that we have no means of detecting this invidious poison, which, in a great many cases, has produced fatal results; and he remarks that, what is indeed strange, poisonous cheese of this character when kept until it becomes quite decayed loses its poisonous properties and becomes harmless. Poisonous cheese always exhibits a strong acid reaction when tested with litmus paper. A slight acid reaction marks all fresh cheese, but while the outside of good old cheese is ammoniacal, the outside of cheese in which this poison occurs is acid. SCHWEITZER KASE. The large element of foreign population now among us, and more espe- cially that from the German States, has introduced a demand for certain arti- cles which a few years ago were almost unknown in many parts of the country. It is but natural that foreign tastes should thus creep in upon us by degrees, and become more or less adopted by our native population. The Schweitzer Kase and Limberger cheese, a few years ago were imported, and perhaps are to some extent at the present time, but their manufacture now having been established in this country, there is no necessity for such importation. Such cheese can be made here of equal quality with the imported article, and can be afforded also at less cost. I have frequently had occasion to compare our Schweitzer Kase, or Swiss cheese with the foreign article, and in the presence of good judges, who pronounced the American quite equal in quality and peculiar flavor to the foreign manufacture. Swiss cheese when eaten before it has acquired that strong, rank flavor which is deemed essential, or at least seems to suit the taste of a majority of foreigners, is very palatable, and many Americans who have been accustomed to eat of it, grow fond of it, and prefer it to our best grades of Cheddars. A few years since I visited a factory in Oneida Co., erected for the pur- pose of making Swiss cheese, and where a very superior article was produced. The manager here was a Swiss cheese-maker, and the arrangements and machinery of the establishment were after the most approved Swiss pattern. In the proper curing of Swiss cheese a room in which a low, even tempera- turé can be secured is requisite, hence a cellar basement of stone is deemed important for a good curing-room. The factory referred to was erected for manufacturing milk from about two hundred cows. The building is about 476 PRACTICAL DAIRY HUSBANDRY. eighty-four feet long by thirty-four feet broad, and is placed upon a side-hill so as to have a stone basement or cellar, some eight feet high and extending under the entire upper structure, which is of wood. The cheeses are pressed in two sizes—the one thirty-two inches, and the other twenty-eight inches in diameter, but both are uniformly but five and a-half inches thick. The larger-sized cheese will weigh when cured some- where near a hundred pounds, and the curing process will require at least three months. The milk is made up fresh fr om the cow, that is, the morning’s and even- ing’s mess separately. As soon as the morning’s milk is received it is turned into a large copper kettle, hanging upon a crane which swings over the fire in a broad, old-fashioned fire-place. When the temperature of the milk indi- cates 81° the rennet is added. After the milk has coagulated a circular wire- breaker attached to a long handle is introduced, the curd broken up, and the whole mass stirred with the breaker. The kettle is now swung over the fire and the stirring kept up until the mass indicates a temperature of 120° to 125°, when it is moved back on the crane from the fire into the room, and the stirring continued for half an hour longer, or until the curd is sufficiently cooked. This is indicated by its firm and elastic condition, similar to curd properly “cooked” in ordinary cheese-making. A cloth strainer is now introduced under the curd, the ends of the cloth brought together, when the mass is lifted out of the kettle, leaving the whey ‘behind. It is then immediately put to press and remains in press about two hours, when it is taken out of press and plunged in cold water. Here it remains for two hours or more, or until thoroughly cooled, when it is returned again to the press, where it remains four or five hours. In pressing, light, adjustable hoops, made of thin strips of elm wood, are used. They are arranged with cords upon the ends, so that the size of the hoop may be contracted or expanded at pleasure. On removing the cheese from the press to the curing-room, these ae are kept upon the cheese, and serve in heu of bandages. No salt is used in the curd at the time of making as is usual in other styles of cheese, but the salt is applied in the curing-room; here dry salt in small quantities is daily sprinkled over the cheese during the space of three months, and after that they are treated with salt every other day. Every two or three days during the curing process the cheeses are washed with brine, which serves to remove any mold that may be inclined to form or adhere to the rinds. These are briefly the main features in the process. The cheese, while curing, appears to be more elastic, and will not readily break and fall to pieces as that made in the ordinary way. When well made they are mellow and rich, and of a sweet, delicate flavor if eaten before they acquire age. They are quite porous, which is esteemed a mark of good quality. After getting age they are apt to take on a peculiar rank flavor, which nevertheless is regarded as delicious by those who have acquired a taste for it. PRACTICAL DAIRY HUSBANDRY. 477 Good Swiss cheese usually brings an advanced price over the best grades of factory cheese as usually manufactured, which, I suppose, is on account of the small quantity made, and the supply being kept within the demand. PINE-APPLE CHEESE. So far as the manipulation of milk, and the treatment of curds are con- cerned, the making of pine-apple cheese does not differ materially from that of cheese commonly made at factories. The diamond-like impressions on the rind, by which it is made to resemble somewhat, the scales on the pine-apple fruit, are produced by the meshes of the net in which the cheese is sustained to cure. The main features in the manufacture consist of the molds and nets which give the desired shape and appearance to this style of cheese. _ The molds are capable of holding from six to ten pounds of curd. The mold is formed of four scantling, four or five inches square, by scooping out ‘one corner of each in the right shape, and placing them together. The tim- bers are long enough to allow a neck six or seven inches long, and three or more in diameter, to be grooved from the same corners, and when they are put together the curd is put into the mold through this neck, the neck also being filled with curd pressed in. The separate pieces of timber are bolted firmly together two and two, thus leaving it in two parts. These two parts are held firmly together by a hoop of strap iron tightened by wedges. When the cheese is to be taken out, the wedges are loosened, the hoop slipped off and the mold taken apart. The pressure is applied by any press, provided with a follower that will fit the neck, into which it is forced, and the whey escapes at the joining of the molds, which open a little by the pressure. The cheese-cloth is used the same as in the common hoop, though it should be pressed hard for a while to obliterate the impressions of the folds in the cloth. The follower should be a little concave at the bottom and force the curd down to a level with the curd in the mold. The whey should be entirely removed, and the cheese rendered as compact as possible. To effect this a follower sharpened in the form of a bodkin at the lower end, long enough to reach near the bottom of the mold, should be forced into the cheese immediately after the curd has been somewhat compacted by the follower, and the orifice filled up with new curd, if there is not enough already in the mold to fill it. After it has remained in press a sufficient length of time it is removed, and a net is placed upon it similar to a cabbage net, knit with meshes half to three-fourths of an inch square, when they are suspended by the tightening cord to hooks driven into the wall or other place for the purpose. When thoroughly dried they should be smeared with sweet whey butter. After hanging long enough to get their shape confirmed, the net is removed and they are set upon the large end upon trenchers until perfectly cured. During the whole process of curing they are to be rubbed as often as necessary to give them a fair skin and keep away insects. 478 Practica DAIrY HUSBANDRY. The molds are sometimes made of blocks of oak timber, about twenty inches long and ten inches square. They are sawed lengthwise through the middle, and each half is carved or worked out in the shape of a pine-apple, one-half in each part. Then a groove is cut about two and a-half inches in diameter, for passing the curd into the mold. Some manufacturers, after taking the cheese from the press, trim them, and then put on the nets, hanging the cheese for a short time in water of 120°. This is to soften the rind, that they may the better receive the impres- sion of the net, which is done by taking them from the water while enveloped in the nets, placing them in a frame and straining the nets tightly over them by means of screws. They are then hung up as before described, to harden, and finally, are set on shelves having suitable hollows or coneavities for the cheese to rest upon. The nets are made from flax twine, and will last seve- ral years. The labor and trouble of making pine-apple cheese is so much, that a large price must be obtained in order to make its manufacture a paying business. STILTON CHEESE. Cheese of this character at present is of no commercial importance to American dairymen. Still it is possible small quantities may in time be made for home consumption. Stilton is made from the morning’s mess of milk, to which has been added the cream of the night’s milk, in proportion of a quart of cream for every ten quarts of milk. The milk and cream having been nicely mingled together, is set for coagulation in a small tub in which there has .been previously arranged a linen strainer. The mass is set in the ordi- nary way with rennet, and when coagulation is perfected the curd is cut across in large checks, and without further breaking, is lifted gently into a willow basket for the whey to escape. No heat, except the natural heat as it comes from the cow, is used during the process. After the whey has sepa- rated from the curd in the basket, as described above, the curd is carefully placed in a hoop, and is then turned every three hours, say four or five times during the day. No pressure is applied except its own weight, and it remains in the hoop without cloth or bandage, being turned from day to day, as before described, until sufficiently consolidated to hold together, when it is taken out, and a bandage pinned about it, and then it goes upon the shelf to cure. The hoop is seven inches in diameter and eight inches high ; it is pierced with holes, and it has two little followers fitting above and below the cheese, each pierced with holes for the escape of the whey. Two “setters” or covers with rims are also provided and pierced with holes, so that in turn- ing the cheese all that is needed is to change ends without taking the cheese from the hoop. No salt is used in the curds—its application being from the outside after the cheese is taken from the hoop. The cheese is kept at a tem- perature of about 70° for some time, and then is placed in a warm room for the development of the blue mold, which is considered of prime importance. PRACTICAL DAIRY HUSBANDRY. 479 IMPROVING HARD, DRY CHEESE. When a cheese which has been much salted and kept very dry, is washed several times in soft water, and then laid in a cloth moistened with wine or Vinegar, it gradually loses its saltness, and from being hard and dry, becomes soft and mellow, provided it be rich cheese. This simple method of improv- ing cheese is worth knowing. It is generally practiced in Switzerland, where cheeses are kept stored for many years, and if they were not very salt and dry they would soon be the prey of worms and mites. A dry Stilton cheese may thus be much improved. COTTAGE, OR DUTCH CHEESE. ; Cottage cheese is in some sections called Dutch cheese orcurds. It isthe curd of sour milk drained from the whey, pressed into balls or molded in small fancy shapes, and eaten when fresh, or soon after it is made. Some people are very fond of Dutch cheese or curds, and the process of manufac- ture is so simple and so well known, that we Suppose every “ good house- wife” is well posted in regard to its making. The milk is allowed to sour and become loppered or thick, when it is gently heated, which facilitates the separation of the whey. The curds are then gathered up, salted, or otherwise, to suit the taste, and pressed in small molds, or formed with the hand into suitable shape, when it is ready for the table and may be used immediately. In cool weather, when milk does not readily thicken, the sour milk may be put in a suitable vessel set in hot water over the range. The milk is then stirred for a few minutes, when the whey will begin to separate, and it is removed, and another batch may be treated in the same manner. In summer some use large cans, having a spiggot near the bottom; the sour milk is placed in these cans, and allowed to stand in the sun to thicken. The heat of the sun will be sufficient to separate the whey, which may then be drawn off through the spiggot. The curds are then removed to a sink having a slatted bottom, over which a strainer cloth is placed. The curds thrown upon this strainer cloth are soon drained of the whey, when it is ready to be pressed into balls with the hand, or molded into forms. Sometimes this kind of cheese is potted and left to decompose, and when it has acquired a strong, villainous smell, it is regarded as most delicious by those who have acquired a taste for eating it in this state. In some markets, cottage or Dutch cheese finds a ready sale, and quite a profit is made by cer- tain butter-makers, in turning their sour milk into this product. POPULAR WEIGHTS, BOXING FOR MARKET, ETC., ETC. I have referred, in another place, to the Cheddar shapes as the most popu- lar for export. Cheese weighing from forty to sixty-five pounds are on the whole the sizes most commonly made at the factories. For home consump- tion the growing feeling is for smaller cheeses than those above-named. A cheese of thirty pounds weight is a very desirable size for our home trade. 480 PRACTICAL DAIRY HUSBANDRY. It is true the cost of manufacture may be greater, and the shrinkage is more, still the consumer can afford to pay a better price for small-sized cheeses, because of their convenience and less waste from decay and drying, incident to large cheese, which must remain a longer time on hand before being consumed. ' In boxing cheese, whether for export or the home trade, the greatest care should be taken to have the packages well made, and with an extra band on the lower edge. Cheese should never be sent to market until they have properly ripened, and then they should be placed in boxes that fit—boxes that — slip down easily over the cheese, but not so large as to allow “shaking,” or a movement from one side to the other in the box, nor in so small a package as to prevent their being readily removed from the package without breaking it. Good, substantial scale-boards should be placed on both sides of the cheese, and no other material is so well adapted to the purpose where cheese is to be exported, or is to remain some time in the package during its transit to market. For short distances heavy straw paper may be used, but care should be taken not to pack with newspaper, as the moisture from the cheese will reduce it to a pulp, giving the cheese a veey bad appearance on removal from the box. When the cheese is in place the sides of the package should come up just even with the top surface of the cheese. If it is below this surface the cheese will be liable to be broken and marred about the edges. If the rim of the box be a little higher than the cheese, it should be trimmed down after the cheese is in the box with a sharp drawing-knife, and then covers that fit closely should be adjusted. Sometimes the boxes are very imperfectly made, with loose-fitting covers that are liable to fall off in rolling the cheese from the scales, or in moving from place to place. In such cases the covers are sometimes tacked in place with nails, but when nails are used, care should be taken that they do not reach through the wood and into the cheese. The boxes should be neatly branded with the name of the factory, or if from farm dairies with the name of the dairyman, and for this purpose stencil plates are most convenient, while the lettering makes a neater appearance than when the names are burned on with branding-irons. : BUTTER MANUFACTURE, THE question of butter-making has now become one of great importance. In my tour through Great Britain I took some pains to examine this subject, and compare butter-making abroad with our new system as inaugurated in Orange County, N. Y. The system has proved a great success, is being rapidly introduced in new districts, and has attracted attention not only in this country, but in Europe. There is no people, perhaps, on the face of the earth more fastidious about their food than the better classes in London. Possessed of immense wealth, they pay liberally for extra qualities of food, particularly the products of the dairy. Good butter they wll have at any cost. Their finest grades come from the continent—Normandy, Holstein and the Channel Islands. It is worth from one hundred and twenty to one hundred and forty shillings per hundred weight, or say about thirty cents gold per pound, wholesale, while Canadian, the only butter imported from America, sells for fifty-four to ninety shillings per hundred weight, and Irish extra, from one hundred and eight to one hundred and twelve shillings per hundred weight. Their best butter formerly came from Ireland, but the complaint now is, that Irish butter is too salt, and lacks the delicate flavor and aroma of that which comes from the continent. Irish butter is usually packed in stout oak firkins, securely headed. Normandy and Holstein butter is in small pack- ages, flaring at the top, resembling the Orange County tub. It is excellent in flavor and texture, very slightly salted, and of a rich golden color. In England I saw butter made for the Queen’s table, at the Royal Dairy, near Windsor Castle. The milk is set in porcelain pans, resting on marble tables. The walls, the ceiling and the floor of the milk room are of china, and the arrangements for ventilation are the best that can be devised. Fountains of water are constantly playing on all sides of the room, which helps to maintain an even temperature. The churn is of tin and the butter is worked with two thin wooden paddles. The whole establishment, from the milk-room to the stables, is the most perfect specimen of neatness that can be imagined. I need not say that the butter is excellent. 31 482 PracticaAL Dairy HuSBANDRY. Cream of average richness, according to the analysis of Dr. VoELcKER, contains in one hundred parts: AIG Been AA ee am lee NRna oS oncEmIa SAM MOUs SEG Sc0 6 7: 64.80 Butter (pure fitty, matters), .\. oci-- crc erarcictaya tale elet oda elelu l= etait ait 25.40 (Sherine acrtl mile SRN Gnas ccodncugnonar woe dsosoncOU DO SONOs tcc 7.61 WG MEN) (CBN ha caso cc co oou ono oc eocd oben odcanocsccorocs 2.19 100.00 He says, that on an average one quart of good cream yields from thirteen to fifteen ounces commercial butter. Occasionally cream is very rich; thus Mr. HorsEFAtu states that a quart of cream in his dairy yielded one pound of butter when the cows were out to grass, and no less than twenty-two to twenty-four ounces when the cows were fed in the barn with rape cake and other substances rich in oil. The first portions of cream which rise are always thin, but rich in fat, a fact that is explained by the circumstance that during milking and the subse- quent agitation to which milk is exposed, a portion of the milk globules get broken; in consequence of which their light fatty contents, liberated from the denser caseine shells, rise to the surface with greater facility, and then occupy less room than the unbroken milk globules, which, on account of their specific gravity, are more sluggish inrising. Generally speaking, cream yields more butter when its bulk in proportion to that of the milk from which it is taken is small, and vice versa. The leading principles to be observed in butter-making, are cleanliness and _ temperature. Experience has shown that a temperature of about 60° and not higher than 65°, is most conducive to the rising of the cream glob- ules, and the more uniformly the temperature can be kept at 60° through winter and summer, the more readily the cream will be thrown up, while the milk will be kept sweet, provided the dairy is dry and properly ventilated. On no account should the temperature fall below 55°. In cooling milk for butter-making this point isimportant. It must not be imagined that the lower the temperature is allowed to sink, the more cream will rise, for we must bear in mind that with the reduction of the temperature, the specific gravity of the liquid is greater, and the rising of the cream or milk globules checked accordingly. Every precaution as to habits of cleanliness and the keeping from the milk and cream any article, plant, or impurity, which can by any possibility communicate a taint should be rigidly adopted. The pails and strainer should be washed (scalded with boiling water) and well rinsed in cold water, and then suffered to dry inthe open air. Every article connected with the dairy should be treated in a similar manner, as there is nothing so prejudicial to new milk as being mixed with ever so small a quantity of that which has become sour, and nothing so difficult to eradicate as the traces left in any vessel of that which has become stale and decomposed. PrAcTICAL DAIRY HUSBANDRY. 483 SPOILING IN THE CHURN. Perfectly good cream is often spoiled in the churn, when the dairymaid has been negligent in properly cleansing it. When the wood once absorbs this milk taint it is very difficult to eradicate it by subsequent cleansing. MANNER OF CHURNING. During the process of churning a certain uniformity of temperature must be observed, or the butter will be soft and spongy instead of being firm and compact. The agitation also of the cream should be regular—neither too quick nor too slow. If the agitation is too quick the butter will make and unmake itself before the churner is aware of it, as too rapid motion induces fermentation, which, when it has reached a certain point is entirely destruc- tive of anything like the possibility of making even moderately good or well tasted butter. If, on the other hand, the motion be too slow, the agitators in the churn fail to produce the desired separation of the component parts of the cream; and the consequence is, that after a good deal of time spent in lazy action, the churner is just as far from his butter as he was at the beginning of his labors. The best temperature for the cream in churning is from 55° to 60°. EXPERIMENTS IN TEMPERATURE. Some years ago a series of carefully conducted experiments were made in Scotland to determine the temperature at which butter can be best and easiest obtained from the cream. The following table exhibits the mean temperature of the cream used in each experiment: US eG SHIMENG, GUEETOSOOG! Alta ed seconds boon boven sede vidoe muse berods 57° 2d . a Ser RUAN eee a st Slueears ahicta mi apy etectnel eters a cpenels 60° 3d oh a typ ota ROLES FNS | OGTR DTA Oe 62° anes : ee ag uatt rial duh okt tau EGGS 5th eo rt BON peed atte toner cetay sree aie! Src nus ate ered ay Aa eh 70° The butter produced in the first experiment was of the very best quality, rich, firm and well tasted. That produced in the second experiment was not perceptibly inferior to the first. That produced in the third experiment was more soft and spongy, and that produced in the fourth and fifth experiments, decidedly inferior in every respect to any of the former specimens. From these experiments it appears that cream should not be kept at a high temperature in the process of churning, and the experimenters conclude that the best temperature to commence the operation of churning is about 55°, and at no time in the operation ought it to exceed 65°; while on the con- trary, if at any time the cream should be under 50°, the labor will be much increased without any proportionate advantage being obtained. CHARACTER OF GOOD BUTTER. Mr. Stevens well remarks that when butter is properly churned both as to time and temperature, it becomes firm with very little working, and is tenacious, but its most desirable state is that of waxy, when it is easily 484 PRACTICAL DAIRY HUSBANDRY. molded into any shape, and may be drawn out a considerable length without breaking. It is only in this state that butter possesses that rich, nutty flavor and smell which impart so high a degree of pleasure in eating it, and which enhance its value manifold. It is not always necessary to taste butter in judging of it; the smooth, unctuous feel in rubbing a little between the - finger and thumb, expresses at once its richness of quality; the nutty smell indicates a similar taste, and the bright, glistening cream-colored surface shows its high state of cleanliness. FREEING FROM BUTTERMILK, ETC. When butter forms the churning should cease, and the mass be taken out and cleansed from any buttermilk which may still be incorporated with it. The best test that this has been satisfactorily performed is the fresh water running from the butter as pure and bright as when poured over it. It should be recollected that the less butter is handled the better. Warm hands, however clean, are apt to impart a taint; and the difficulty of keeping them so per- fectly clean as is absolutely necessary, appears to be almost insurmountable. The ladle and butter-worker, therefore, should be used in all the necessary manipulations. THE MODERN METHOD OF MANAGING MILK for butter-making is to have a spring house for setting the milk; churning the cream rather than the whole milk. It is true there are those who contend that a fine quality of butter can be made by churning the “ whole milk;” but such butter is apt to have more of the caseine or cheesy particles of the milk in its: composition, than when the cream alone is churned; and this caseine will injure its keeping qualities. It has been contended, too, that when the whole milk is churned more butter is obtained than by setting the milk and churning the cream. If the butter contains a considerable portion of the caseine of the milk, this would readily explain the reason for the extra quantity claimed. But, however this may be, those who make “ fancy butter,” and have had long experience in the art, prefer to make their butter by churning the cream, and it is the course I should recommend. MILK-ROOM FOR FARM DAIRIES. For farm dairies the Crozrer milk cellar would seem to be a very good model, as the building can be erected at moderate expense. A committee of the American Institute Farmers’ club, consisting of Mr. J. B. Lyman and Col. F. D. Curtis, visited this establishment, and their report upon it is as follows :—“ The walls are thirty-six by eighteen feet, and it is divided into ice-house, milk-room and butter-kitchen. Two tubes or conductors go down from the upper part of the ice-house. They are made of boards eight inches wide and an inch thick, with many holes bored inthem. The holes allow the cold air to enter from the ice, and it pours in a stream from the mouth of the tube into the milk-room. The temperature of the air as it comes out at Practica DAIRY HUSBANDRY. 485 the mouth of the tubes is about 35°. As the milk-room has thick walls and the windows are high this flood of air at 35° is able to lower the mercury to 62°, and even lower, in July. Sometimes he closes one tube to keep the room from growing too cold. The draught is the strongest in the hottest weather. In spring and fall there is little current, and in winter, when_ the fire in the stove is constantly burning, the draught would be the other way. But then the mouths of the ice-tubes are closed. By this arrangement the desired temperature is secured the season through, and there is no difference between the June butter and the January butter. He makes June butter the year round. He gets ten cents per pound over the highest market price. Making, say, two hundred pounds a week, his gain is $20 a week by having the best arrangement for butter-making. Thus his milk-house pays for itself every nine months, to say nothing of the greatly increased facilities for doing work afforded by a pump, churn and stove so convenient. He consumes about a ton of anthracite in the four coldest months, and a slight allowance is to be made for wood used in summer to heat water for washing and scalding.” THE BEST TEMPERATURE FOR SETTING MILK to get the cream is about 60° to 62°. The range of temperature should run no higher than 65°. The butter-makers of Orange Co., N. Y., are of the opinion that the best quality of butter is made from cream that has been obtained at a temperature a little below 60°. Cream can be obtained in a short time, and in large quantity by raising the milk to a temperature near boiling and then setting aside to cool; but such cream has more of the caseine or cheesy particles of the milk mingled with it than milk set without the application of artificial heat, and the butter will be injured in its keeping qualities. COLOR AND TEXTURE. In butter-making it is important to have the butter come of a good color and of a texture that is hard and has a waxy consistency, and that will retain that peculiar aroma which imparts so much pleasure in eating it. THE MODERN MILK PAN. When it is not convenient to have a spring-house, the best arrangement with which I am acquainted for setting the milk is the Jennings pan. It is of tin and sets upon a shallow wooden vat, which is to be filled with water from the well or pen stock, as the case may be, and thus the milk is rapidly divested of its animal heat, and a pretty even temperature maintained while the cream is rising. These pans are of different sizes to accommodate differ- ent sized dairies, and each one is intended to accommodate the entire mess of milk from the herd at one milking. Four pans are all that are needed for a dairy, or at least with that number of pans the milk may be kept until thirty- six hours old before skimming. After the pans have been once filled the milk that has stood the longest is skimmed and drawn off, and is then ready 486 PracTicAL Dairy HUSBANDRY. for the next milking. The age of the milk in the different pans from day to day will be more readily seen by the following diagram: MILK 12 HOURS Miz 24 HOURS Mix 36 HOURS OLD. OLD. OLD. Where a stream of cold water can be kept constantly flowing under the pans, expensive milk-cellars can be dispensed with, and very good results obtained in properly constructed rooms that are kept well ventilated. In the JENNINGS pan the milk is set from three to four inches deep and there is an arrangement of pipes for drawing off either the milk or water with conve- nience. These pans are provided with gauze net-work covers to be used as occasion requires for keeping out dust or flies. The general form of these pans is represented in the subjoined illustration (Figure 1). The Jewerr pan is of very similar construction to the one just named, except that the water underneath the milk is conducted in channels instead of being spread out in a thin sheet as in the JENNINGS invention. Mr. Jewerr describes his apparatus as follows :—The illustration (see SSSeSeeeeSSSSeSsSsSsSsSsSsSsSaSaSsSsSSSSSSSSSSSSSaaaaaaaaseqy i Figure 1. figure 2) represents a full set of pans, arranged with fixtures necessary for using them, for butter factories, or dairies large or small, by making them of any size required ; for factories, as wide as can be conveniently skimmed from the center, and long enough to obtain the required surface, it being perfectly practical to make them large enough for one hundred and fifty cows; for more cows additional sets may be added. The way to use them is, put one milking of the entire dairy into one pan, adjusting the faucet on the supply pipe so as to use just water enough to extract the animal heat from the milk, and keep it at the desired temperature while the cream is rising—from 60° to 62°; at the time the fourth is wanted for use the first will be ready to skim; then stop the water from running into the pan, and open the faucet near the bottom of the pan, that a sufficient quantity of water may run out, while the milk is skimmed and run off to enable the milk-maid to clean the pan. The bottom of the pans being protected from the warm atmosphere in PRACTICAL DAIRY HUSBANDRY. 487 the room by the tables on which they set, the inside bottom being covered with milk, the means of cooling is hidden, yet it is done by keeping the milk cool ina warm, dry room without cooling or dampening the room, which is to be desired by butter-makers, thus reversing the process of carrying the milk to a cool place, where the benefits to be derived are so intermingled with dele- terious influences that it is a good illustration of the saying, you must take the bitter with the sweet. This way of handling the milk in my pans, besides reducing the labor more than one-half, enhances the net proceeds of the dairy, both in quantity and quality of the butter, fully twenty per cent. Witha book of instructions any good tin-smith can make and set them up. As given in the engraving, one of the series of pans, A A, is represented as broken away to show the internal arrangement. These pans are provided FicureE 2. with a space, B, between their top and bottom walls. Within this space are a number of compartments, communicating with each other at alternate ends, in such a manner as to form one continuous channel, zigzag in its course, having an inlet at a, through which warm or cold water, as needed, is received ; such water, after flowing through the tortuous channel formed by the partitions, being discharged at the outlet, d. At 6 is shown the opening through which the overflow of water is discharged ; the object being to keep the channel in the bottom of the pan quite filled while the water is flowing through it. At ¢ is shown a faucet through which all the water in the channel can be drawn off. These pans can be made to serve the double purpose of milk-coolers or 488 PractTican DAairyY HUSBANDRY. cream-raisers, the milk being kept at any temperature desired by raising or lowering the temperature of the water flowing through the passages in the bottom of the pan. When the cream has raised and has been skimmed, the milk is then run off through the pipe, d, which communicates with the main discharge-pipe, F, which may be placed under the floor or not, as circum- stances will permit; or, if desired, the milk can be conveyed in movable horizontal pipes from the pans into an adjoining room on the same floor. The pipe seen attached to the side of the room and above the rows of pans is the source of supply from which water is conducted to the base of the pans. For cooling, the water is received from a spring or reservoir ; but for warm- ing, from boilers or other appropriate apparatus. THE CREAM THAT FIRST RISES is the best; and to make choice butter, the cream should always be taken from the milk before it becomes old and sour. The greater the decomposition of the milk the more will the cream be affected, and as a consequence, the more difficult will it be to obtain from it a nice quality of butter. KEEPING QUALITIES. Butter, to be good, must have some keeping qualities, for it cannot be consumed from day to day as it is made. Well made butter, if properly eared for, should retain its flavor and sweetness for months; buat we cannot expect to obtain such butter from cream that has been badly managed. STRAINING THE CREAM. Cream should have a uniform consistency, when it goes to the churn. If portions of it are thick and mingled with hard, dry particles or “ cream- skins,” the butter will contain “ white caps,” or be flecked throughout, giving it not only a bad appearance, but injuring its quality. When cream is set in shallow pans in the old way, the butter is very liable to be thus affected. The cream strainer here is of very great advantage, as it reduces the cream to a like consistency in all its parts, breaking down the “ skins ” and preparing the cream, so that in churning, the butter will come evenly. Baxerr’s Excel- sior Cream Strainer, illustrations of which we give in figures 3 and 4, is the best that we have seen for the purpose, and gives valuable aid in the butter dairy. Cream that has been raised in a temperature of 60° to 62°, should be churned at about the same temperature. Butter-makers do not like to have the cream churned at'a temperature above 64°, as it injures the butter. If the temperature fall below 55°, the labor of churning, as has been remarked, will be prolonged. I do not believe in great haste in churning, or the shortest time that cream can be turned into butter. CHURNING TOO QUICK. One often hears of churns in which it is claimed the butter will come in “three minutes.” It is possible that good butter may be got from the cream in that time, but I have yet to be convinced that it can bedone. That cream PracticaL DAtrY HUSBANDRY. : 489 ~ can be churned into butter in three minutes I am aware, and although the butter may be tolerable for present use, I have never been able to get a good keepable article when the churning was done in so short a space of time. The butter globules are inclosed or surrounded by thin pellicles of caseine. In churning, these are broken and separated from the oily particles. If the churning is done rapidly the separation is imperfect, and hence we get an article of butter in which there is too large a proportion of the shells of caseine. It is the caseine and nitrogenized constituent of milk that is liable to decomposition and which injures the flavor of butter. COMPOSITION OF BUTTER—INFLUENCE OF CASEINE SHELLS. The philosophy or manner in which caseine injures the flavor of butter has been well explained by Vortcker. He says:—“ Butter consists mainly of a mixture of several fats, among which palmitin, a solid crystalizable sub- stance, is the most important. Palmitin, with a little stearine, constitutes about sixty-eight per cent. of pure butter. Mixed with these solid fats are FIGURE 3. Fiqure 4. about two per cent. of odoriferous oils. The peculiar flavor and odor of butter are owing to the presence of this small proportion of these peculiar oils, viz., butyrine, caproin and caprylin. In butter, as it comes upon our table, we find _ besides these fatty matters about sixteen or eighteen per cent. of water; one to two per cent. of salt; and variable small quantities of fragments of caseine shells. The more perfectly the latter are removed by kneading under water, the better butter keeps; for caseine on exposure to the air in a moist state, especially in warm weather, becomes rapidly changed into a ferment, which, acting on the last-named volatile fatty matters of butter, resolves them into glycerine and butyric acid, Cs Hs O45 caproic acid, Cy Hy, O,; and caprylic acid Cg Hy, O,. The occurrence of these volatile uncombined fatty acids in rancid butter, not only spoils flavor, but renders it more or less unwholesome.” If all the shells of caseine could be separated from the butter, it could be 490 PractTicaAL DAIRY HUSBANDRY. preserved readily without salt. Pure fat or oil is very easily kept sweet. In some countries butter is melted and the impurities taken out by “trying” it like lard. Of course butter treated in this way loses its aroma and texture, but I mention the fact for the purpose of showing the principle to be observed in obtaining butter of good keeping quality. In churning, I do not care to have butter come sooner than from half to three-quarters of an hour. The butter-makers of Orange Co., say that the churning process should occupy from forty-five minutes to one hour. Their opinions are worthy of considera- tion, because they make an article that is unrivaled in the market, and from long and varied experience they ought to be able to settle this point definitely. No one should attempt to make butter without . USING A GOOD THERMOMETER, especially in preparing the cream for churning. Old and experienced butter- makers may guess at temperature pretty accurately, but the temperature of the surrounding atmosphere varies so much from day to day, that no one can be sure of being right, without an accurate instrument for determining the degree of heat required in the cream to produce the best results. MANAGEMENT FOR MAKING PHILADELPHIA BUTTER. In the management for the noted “ Philadelphia butter,” the spring-house is of stone, about eighteen feet wide and twenty-four feet long. Its founda- tion is deeply set in a hill-side, its floor being about four feet below the sur- face of the ground on the lower side. The floor of the spring-house is of oak, laid on sand or gravel. The water is allowed to spread over this floor to the depth of three or four inches, and the overflow passes to a tank outside the building. Raised platforms or walks are arranged on the floor of the spring- house for the purpose of moving about the room in handling the milk, ete. The walls of the room are about ten feet high, arranged at the top with win- dows, covered with wire gauze so as to give ventilation. Deep pans, of small diameter, and well painted on the outside are used. They are provided with bails, so as to be convenient in handling. The milk is strained into these vessels to the depth of about three inches, and they are set directly upon the oak floor, the water surrounding them to the depth of the milk, maintaining a temperature of about 58°. The milk sets here about twenty-four hours, when the cream is removed and placed in deep vessels holding from ten to twelve gallons. As the tem- perature of the room does not at any time rise above 58° or 59°, the cream is kept at this temperature until it goesto the churn. In some establishments there is a place in the spring-house, where the depth of water is eight or ten inches, for the especial purpose of placing the pails of cream, and where they are kept until the cream acquires a slightly acid taste, when it is ready for churning. The essential feature in the management of milk, is to keep the milk and cream near a temperature of 60°. And when a uniform tempera- ture of this kind is preserved, the largest quantity of the best quality of PRACTICAL DAIRY HUSBANDRY. 491 butter will be secured. The churning is usually performed twice a week, though in some dairies which manufacture the “ Philadelphia butter,” the cream is churned but once a week. In removing the cream from the milk the Orange Co. plan is to use a funnel-shaped cup, with a long handle, dipping off the cream until the blue milk makes its appearance. In the Pennsylvania plan the skimming is done with a concave tin scoop, perforated with small holes. The churning is usually done by horse-power at the large establish- ments, and the temperature of the cream when the churns are set in motion, is about 62°, and just before the butter comes, cold milk or a pail of cold water is thrown into the churn. The churn is of barrel shape, revolving on a journal at each head. The churning occupies nearly an hour, and after the buttermilk is drawn off cold water is added and a few turns given to the churn, and the water is then drawn off. This is repeated until the water as it is drawn off is nearly free from milkiness. The butteris worked with butter-workers, a dampened cloth meanwhile being pressed upon it to absorb the moisture and free it of traces of butter-milk. The cloth is frequently dipped in cold spring-water and wrung dry during the process of wiping the butter. It is next salted at the rate of an ounce of salt to three pounds of butter, thoroughly and evenly incorpo- rated by means of the butter-worker. It is then removed to a table where it is weighed out and put up into pound prints. After this it goes into large tin trays, and is set in the water to harden, remaining until next morning, when it is wrapped in damp cloths and placed upon shelves, one above another, in the tin-lined cedar-tubs, with ice in the compartments, and then goes immediately to market. Matting is drawn over the tub and it is surrounded again with oil cloth so as to keep out the hot air and dust, and the butter arrives in mar- ket in prime condition, commanding not unfrequently from seventy-five cents to one dollar per pound. PHILADELPHIA BUTTER PAIL. The following cuts (Figures 5, 6 and 7), illustrate the butter pail and manner of packing for market. Figure 5 shows the general form of the tub, iy Divi = 8 ce enone ala a Sais \ ema ated Figure 5. FIGURE 6. the top or cover opening in halves. Figure 6 is a cross section sists the shelf with the butter prints arranged in place with sections of ice at the ends. Figure 7 is a perpendicular section, showing the ice chamber and ice at the sides, and the shelves of butter one above the other in the center. Ice is Practicat Dairy HuUSBANDRY. 492 p = i PRACTICAL DAIRY HUSBANDRY. 493 ‘sometimes broken up and added to reduce the temperature, but the Orange Co. dairymen think a too free use of ice is apt to injure the keeping qualities of the butter. THE AMERICAN SYSTEM OF BUTTER-MAKING rests mainly upon six great principles :—1st. Securing rich, clean, healthy milk; milk obtained, if possible, on rich, old pastures, free from weeds. 2d. Setting the milk in an untainted, well-ventilated atmosphere, and keeping it at an even temperature while the cream is rising. 8d. Proper management in churning. 4th. Washing out or otherwise thoroughly expelling the butter- milk, and working so as not to injure the grain. 5th. Thorough and even incorporation of pure salt, and packing in oaken tubs, tight, clean and well made. 6th. Cleanliness in all the operations is of important necessity, while judgment and experience in churning the cream and making the butter must, of course, be had. ( WATER PIPE 201N, BEL OW/SURFACE & SPRING OOF? | = = SS eee ee “A (Rn ar “a ._ ewe VAT LEX3FZ BFP THE POOL re SRL 1 | 201M | 2X10OF = | 20I1N AECELVING. WINDOW a 3 & ef +) | 2X10F ?, | Feel gs] |S BR | a i 3 WIDE PASSAGE3 2 _—— > Z S| = me <| |® B FO ey RN ie aes PRESE Sq uee : ZOIN ij $ 2X10F 2 5] 138 : £01N, %, a. “(i EE nPaseee cet ve é Ss ES ee x A AOILER ENGINE ROOM FicguURE 9. GROUND PLAN.—BUTTER FACTORY. What really distinguishes the American system is the manner of setting the milk so as to secure an even temperature, and applying to butter-making the principles of association, so that the highest skill in manufacturing may be obtained ; in other words, the inauguration of butter factories. In previous pages of this volume cuts illustrating the ground plans of the early butter factories have been given. We introduce here the subjoined cuts (Figures 8 and 9) showing elevation and ground plan of G. B. WEEKs’ new butter factory. Referring to the ground plan (Figure 9), it will be seen that in the arrangement the factory is quite as well adapted to cheese-making alone as to butter and skim-cheese manufacture. The advantage of such an arrangement is, that the factory may be turned at once to the making of whole-milk cheese or to butter and skim-cheese, as one or the other system 494 PraActTicAL DAIRY HUSBANDRY. may happen to be most profitable. The ground plan explains itself and needs no description. The upper story of the factory is for a cheese-curing room, and may be divided off for other purposes as well, if desired. The factory is regarded by many as one of the most convenient in its arrangement of any of the modern built establishments. THE WATER POOLS. In the butter factories the milk-room is constructed so that good ventila- tion is secured. It is provided with vats or tanks for holding water. These should be sunk in the earth in order to secure a lower or more even tempera- ture of water as well as for convenience in handling the milk. The pools are about six feet wide, and from twelve to twenty-four feet long, arranged for a depth of eighteen inches of water. There should be a constant flow of water in and out of the vats or pools, so as to secure a uniform temperature of the milk after it has been divested of its animal heat. The milk is set in pails, eight inches in diameter by twenty inches in length (see Figure 10), each holding fifteen quarts of milk. As fast as the milk is delivered, the pails are filled to the depth of from six- teen to seventeen inches, and plunged in the water, care being taken that the water comes up even with or a little above the milk in the pails. The temperature of the water should be from 48° to 56°. Bart a eal sy EE months. 5 a wn es| 29) 28 ase/e 9s) 58/88) -8 Ba) & STATIONS. re] OR 5 B |e oe|scs| 8S] =s | BS Fy ° OO| =o oo far ee a Ax a Pp Es Ss role! Plakeibas| Ssyes| aa 2 ee PE) GS € jes SSk/ Se| se = bles |s < ta) ta) 5 Soo a 5 o|< Z g = i= q =] =} =e S 2) S| Sitesi Ss |e if | |e |e eee B| Fl) # | Be] 28) 8/88) 2] 8 |e le [oe ie ie Orleans County.Crafts- | LOMbA Wis Gabcednae ee 99 | —28 | 40.3 | 59.1 | 20.7% | 45.5 | 38.1 | 44.09} CO. | 66. | 61.3] 52.6 | 15.66 11863-66 Chittenden Co., Bur- f lington, Vt.......... 87 | —29 | 43. 625 | 24.5 | 47.5] 40. | 40.78 | 62. | 6S. | 66. | 54.2) 15.77 1863-64 Rutland County, Bran- On Vitves sie eeae ee 96 | —22 | 45.8 | 65.5 | 25. 52. | 43. | 40.42] 65. | 72. | 68.2 | 57.6] 17.72 |1863-66 Hampden Co., Spring- Vie) Ko FO SI ee ane 193 | —21/ 46.5 | 65.5 | 24.5 | 50.2 | 44.5 | 36.25 | 65.5 | 73. | 63.2 | 60.5 | 11.492 |1864-66 Berkshire County, Wil- liams College, Mass.| 96 | —18 | 44.5 | 62. 25.5 | 49. | 43.5 | 35.56 | 64.5 | 69. | 62. | 58. | 16.73 11866 FNM oes, Saran 96 | —18 | 50.5 | 70. 31.2 | 57.5 | 46.5 | 88.81 | 68.5 | 72.1 | 70. | 61.4 | 20.04 |1866 Orange Co., New- WF Poh oss 40 99 | —15! 50.3 | 70.2 | 31. 54.5 | 49.5 | 38.82) 69. | 77. | 6%. | 68. | 17.20 11866 Oneida Co., South Trenton, ..:....- 91 | —22 | 44. 65. 25. 44.5 | 43.4 | 55.25 | 64.5 | 72.5 | 59.2 | 64. | 24.'77 |1866 Oneida Co., Ghia: | WO) Sonate acl 96 | —20 | 48. 68. 24. | 50.5 | 44.5 | 43.67 | 69. | 69. | 6%. | 61. | 17.15 |1858-63 Jefferson Co., The- RESA eed sagas Z 93 | —27 | 44.5 | 64. 23.5 | 48.2 | 42.5 | 40.71 | 63. | 71. | 68. | 55. 9.00 |1863-64 Madison Co , Onei- a GW odtins oorneeeuc \ “4 98 | —26 | 46.2 | 65.5 | 25. 50.5 | 46. | 62.55} 64. | 70.5] 65. | 62. | 32.29 |1863-66 Oneida Co., Utica, | 2 66.5 64. | 68.5 | 66.7 | 58.4 Oswego Co., Os-| * WES Osetentese ests 90 | —15 | 45.75 | 64. 2%. 44, | 45.5 | 44.00 | 62.2 | 69.6 | 66.5 | 58. | 18.02 /1863-66 Monroe Co., Roch- Este eres ei eeae ‘ 95 | —10 | 47.3 | 46.2 | 27.5 | 51. | 45. | 35.88 | 66.5) 73. | 67.5158. | 12.57 |1863-66 Erie Co., Buffalo,. 97 | — 9 | 48. 66.5. | 28. 48." | 45.5 | 44.11 | 66. | 73.5 | 68. | 60.5 | 15.42 |1858-66 Chatauqua County ; Jamestown,..... J 97 | —17 | 46. 67. 25.75 | 49. | 41.5 | 50.84 | 66.5 | 72. | 70. | 59. | 18.80 |1864 Ashtabula County, Austinburg,. ... 92 | —14 | 47.75 | 66. 28.75 | 52. | 44. | 43.39 | 63.5 | 71.5 | 71. | 58. | 18.77 |1863-64 Columbiana ‘Co., K. Fairfield,..... 93 | — 8} 48.2 | 66. 25.5 | 54. | 46.5 | 59.44 | 67. | 73. | 64. | 60. | 28.64 |1866 Geauga Co., Welsh- ; WENGE spanoaon oder 94 | —12] 48.8 | 68.5 | 30. 52.5 | 43. | 51.88 | 69. | 73.2] 71. | 61. | 18.01 |1858-64 Cuyahoga County, Cleveland,...... g 95 | —11 | 49.5 | 68.5 | 30. 52. | 46.5 | 40.84 | 70.5 | 74. | 67. | 62. | 18.96 |1857-66 Huron Co., Nor- Si AiEulitae coelnabied "| 91 | —13 | 48.5 | 67.5 | 25.5 | 53.5! 46.5 | 39.81 | 67. | 73. | 70. | 60. | 1888 /1866 Wayne Co., Woos- GOS ay cate erties 98 | —10 | 48.8 | ‘71. 27.0 | 54.5 | 44.5 70. | 76. | 73.5 | 63. 1864 Erie Co, Kelley’s : ISlnid wees ere 93 | —13 | 49. 69.8 | 29.8 | 52. | 48.5 | 81.07] 68.5 | 75. | 72. | 63.5 | 13.69 |1863-66 Lake County Mad- Ages 1S ON athe: ase J 95 | —10 | 49.2 | 72. 5 | 52.5] 43. | 46.54 | 68.8 | 71.7 | 68.4 | 64.6 | 15.53 |18574 De Kalb Co , Sand- } A WMO ahlowig aeaares —26 | 45.2 | 67.%5 | 23. 52.5 | 41. | 35.75 | 69. | '%5. | 68. | 59.5 | 17.40 !1864-66 La Salle Co., Otta- j WE coosammos suse 104 | —25 | 47.5 | 68.75 | 25.75 | 51.5 | 42.5 | 88.91 | 69. | 74.75] 69.5 | 62. | 13.88 |1857-66 Winnebago Co ,| = Winnebago,..... 2.) 98 | —28/ 44. | 68. | 26. | 52. | 41. | 25.17] 69. | 74. | 68.5] 60. | 17.77 |1858-66 McHenry Co., Ma-| a rengo, ....... : i 99 | —17 | 45.5 | 66.2 | 22.2 | 51. | 44.5 | 43.92] 66.5 | 75. | 65. | 59. | 24.94 /1866 Kane Co., Aurora, 96 | —20 | 46.5 | 67.5 | 23.5 /53. | 44. | 381.86! 67, | 76. 168. | 57. | 16.55 /1866 Monroe County, Mon- roe, Mich... 2....5. 0. — 4) 48.75 | 67.2 | 28.5 | 56.5 | 42.5 | 39.52 | 67.5 | 73.2 | 68.5 | 59.2 | 18.81 |1863-66 Ingham Co. Agricultu- ! ral College, Mich....} 99 | —22| 45.8 | 66. 25.2 | 50. | 42.5 | 28.12 | 66.5 | 73.5 | 66.5 | 57. | 10.71 |1864-66 Cincinnati, Ohio,...... 99 | —12 | 55. 74, 37. 58. | 49. | 41.81) 73. | 78.3 | 74.3 | 67.3 | 15.82 11857-66 Louisville, Ky....... 96 | —10 | 54.5 | %. 34.5 | 58.2 | 49. | 52.81 | 72.2 | 78.5 | 73. | 66.5 | 23.17 |1864-66 Montgomery County, Clarksville, Tenn. ..|102 0 | 56.%5 | 73 40.5 | 54.5 | 51.5 | 48.49 | 72.5 | 77.5 | 78.5 | 68.5 | 15.49 |1864-66 APPENDIX. 521 of our country to 98° or 100°, the real troubles and difficulties of a cheese-maker begin to be experienced ; and tainted milk, that worst of all forms of milk, is met with, I believe, only when the thermometer marks a mean temperature for the day of over 70°. The preceding table, prepared with care, and compiled with a great deal of labor, shows the highest temperature, the lowest degree, mean annual temperature, mean temperature of summer, mean temperature of winter (counting four months, JunegJuly, August and September, as summer, and four months, December, January, February and March, as winter), the mean temperature of two spring months, the mean of two fall months, the meansannual rain fall, the mean temperature of each of the four months, June, July, August and September, and the mean rain of all these four warmest months, at some thirty-four different stations, beginning in the Northeast part of Vermont and Western Massachusetts, extending through New York, Northern Ohio, Southern Mich- igan and in the Northern part of Illinois, one station in Cincinnati, in Southern Ohio, Louisville, Ky., and Clarksville, Tennessee. COMPARATIVE STATEMENT OF MILK IN GALLONS, CARRIED ON THE ERIE RAILWAY, FOR THE YEARS 1861, 1862, 1863, 1864 anp 1865. 1861. 1862 1863. 1864. 1865. MEUM ATR pareinieiaisinterst ate aistelciete set sie ee ones eats cree ele 386,907 9,085 398,295 393,995 422,327 MO DEUAT Yrs cece tticancine os conse Gomes neu geks 368,537 312,297 384,917 413,277 410,68’ VT CH cect tecinctas/taislete sees cisions Canton eeeenwewe ees 447,227 448,525 469,755 521,430 H April 486,192 501,000: 550,722 582,657 630,865 May 580,167 613,992 ‘ 715,500 (35,087 809,195 June. é 623,127 644,877 786,852 815,975 935,972 Aik eas aaneoseueerin : 655,457 689,915 782,845 808,065 941,667 PATUSFUS EIN. sist sicle shel aveleicicieiele'e -| . 604,895 652,975 796,092 780,577 871,382 September....... ........5. te : 521,265 556,650 671,995 0,587 733,71 OCEODER to eerinn tatccicate ocacweteiecesee es 6 499,247 509,107 604,672 611.342 640,753 UNG Ve rial CTE cco ciciniche eins cteiclelainle sieieictoiacigds ise 894,522 407,192 492,992 516,920 528,470 DE COMMDET ee ese ton nostic ece soe needed sntbnnee 400,222 394,920 423,805 456,825 490,256 MEG aMMepemcreicisrstetein vets peso Hacie natecweg eeanineiiets 5,967,770 6,180,537 7,078,455 7,296,740 7,956,189 RECAPITULATION. PSH total eallOnstincaiaseacaneessctescn aces cece ceeds ee oneee acnaooecdoundos-daccanae 5,967,770 Meera (GO. > Miissineeaisgtes aeeicteen ondds secisndas dues ivwsctes cavesiteeeeetioe mancgee 180,537 1863, LO rae rein ctea tae ec taistcts walter cine ee ees irr, 2 ee me tM CERIN CLC) gest en gr 7,078,455 1864, GOl yt seit soak cate alelaluleia;siv{els|«)sin\ alajelelnieivis’aleisisle/elele/snieeieteiinic clecc eee encne 5296, 740 865, (GIG) NW easacbnonddkconeodboced” oone wefaiatejelsfalsi-leleieleisielvoriinen eccrine 7,956,189 DAIRY PRODUCT OF THE STATE OF OHIO AND THAT OF HERKIMER COUNTY, N. Y. The statement is made on the authority of the Ohio Farmer that for the past ten years there has been a gradual decline in the dairy products of that State. The statistics given show that in 1860 there was a larger amount of cheese and butter made in the State than in 1868.. These statistics are as follows: OHIO DAIRY PRODUCT. Pounds Butter./Po’nds Cheese. Pounds Butter.|Po’nds Cheese. TRH acncateeseceee aera 38,440,498 24,816,424 82,450, TRISTE sa aah Spot ei 35,442,858 20,637,253 BP 34 GOR 22198098 1862 aM HN FRE US 8 34,065,629 20,752,097 34,833,445 19,985,486 ey ererelateyaim eheicteleiet Serenictelae 121,275 130, 7: 005 H NBGLG hee PHS fe oe 31'141'876 18,097°095 BE aes pisepee SS eee HERKIMER COUNTY, N. Y., DAIRY PRODUCT. Pounds Butter |Po’nds Cheese. Pounds Butter.|Po’nds Cheese. —_ 492,673 16,767,999 aay ert ai FA, 4 313,755 16,808'352 TBE cant pat dae BAL eae meaty 232/961 18,172,913 PUTER Haas Racsagty aa 204,634 15,570,487 SS ————————————— ——S ee ‘00T-S G] «= B46 6 ‘00T-8 8] 9886 | “*** 99 AL | SL66 |; 777” 00T-9 1] 496 | 77" "10 Al eee cee eee. "40 Gb OT eeeeee eeee 79 GOT} Gugs'6 | °"" eee eee ee S Es 40 S47 eereee eee eee lowe Sal *yU909 T ecco e aieltieliniie! ite vel a 6 ‘OG OT| ©«—-8G | 29106 | 8 99 *L | PL'6 a ae ee TO : o: So: ; ele iege jo tenor due gs 3: ee ie 4 8: Sto aloe q ae ao | @ =) g E3 Ao | 8 Ha it 3S so aa 3 ba oy mo 8 3 e 58 yee #2) 58 5 Ww 3 Ay Ay Ay Ay €9 CT 89 cl 0OT GG wee oT a= oT tee, SI “""") CT 9 06 “""") 66 ® GT G8 0¢ on eo “""") OF Y CT 89 fsotfouL OT Tg 6 Y CT &¢ | 8l Y cL rl : 7) 3 f?) 3 o 3 Fi P) 8 “ mn NY . o re Average price per pound 606 L8T 086 98T TL6'98 SPS LOS SE2'608 SIS'8ss C89'L68 G69‘ SES 88S‘ TFT CL6 CL OLE'EIT FIS‘O6T 06s'eez 688 SST Pounds of cured cheese. | REC'L LS Pounds of green cheese. OSLLES'T |0e9 |OTL OSS'LFS'T 1862 1088 arate ‘cabot AE Joop TOS'G4S | ATS'TIO'S |0S8 |006 vee | gyeteagg [oo |e FOS'908 | SFI‘'Ger's loge |s809 6S, STs | °°°7="=" 1008 1906 80° SIS eeeeereee eee 96¢ “sos"* | e6g'corT |007 lO PLS'GOT eeeeeees eee LPS CET OST ei ae. Gc eee “seo | Qeeete's ITLO 1208 "| OFL'S6L'T |80F |06F : : stl: ig : : ‘S) E 5 4 ° os 4 Ee oe loe ‘=| | Balas 8 8 Seale 5 pee celles E Be shee o Ay < Ee Op SUS MALy |" + eABpeUBD testes eee oye “op vubneyneyO|** > ‘apptAarepourg OC oxvrTy ‘AoloT)* ++ °° ++ +s.raqaeg "0 BSNvEH|sproy KX 10}s9O, “op “oinqsyungy |? “+ *s.500.4sury “op ‘KOU, trsessees ss adog “op ‘emmy |” EOC GE I OO) Be BONvIH TOP MBO] "°° °°" *** SABE CCT Ye ti [Inquin..y, “Booopy) "°° 8, Meg ss" "O9 OUIUE -OT ‘UOZPOUTIUTT]* ** SAVIO “WL “op ‘uosuot,E |?" Sqyiug "op ‘aspriquing,*** “sedoyurpg "*"O9 VonRdy) ‘STITIN S.lopMog]* + sqqop arg. “AYUNOD LULU] + GING SUTA\ J, ‘AUIVG WO NOLLVQOM ‘AMOLOVA JO FAV N 522 “S98T HOH SLUMOdAM AMOLOVA OIHO F£O LOVULsaAVv APPENDIX. 523 CHEESE STATISTICS. The following tables in relation to the product of cheese made at different factories of New York and the price at which it soll—going over a series of years from 1863 to 1871— will be found useful. They are taken from the official reports of the factories sent to the Secretary of the American Dairymen’s Association, and printed in the annual transactions of that Society from year to year: CONDENSED REPORTS. The following Table gives the average number of cows, amount of cured cheese, average price, and average pounds of mill to one of cured cheese for the several factories from which full reports have been received for the year 1864: Am/’nt of |Av’e price] Ay’e lbs. Average |a» = * e’d cheese|per B., in| milk for NAME OF FACTORY. LOCATION AND COUNTY. |numberof made in |cents andlone cured cows. | pounds. |fractions.| cheese. McLean.......seeeecececeeceeee ....-|MeLean, Tompkins..... 937 802,084 ee 9.60 Adams Cheese@.....--seeeeseeeeers Adams, Jefferson......-- “00 142.518 23.09 9.95 Blodgett Mills......--...+s+++.-++ Cortlandville, Cortiand. 290 71,800 21.00 10.12 Gilbert Mills............+- Sotatsede Gilbert Mills, Oswego. 850 110,465 18.96 10.10 Oneida Cheese........-.seeeeeeeee Oneida, Madison...... 119,346 13.32 9.87 Hart .........- Siri sroiciaielsletats! steisfovbisi Oneida Luke, Madison 270 422 21.42 10.30 Oneida Cheese.....--...-+++-+++++ Oneida, Madison......-. 2 Sane 174,848 21.05 9.94 Roberts? . 1. see e eee ee eee sense eee eee Floyd, Oneida......----- 26 Hii) ll Sosdace 2 22.17 | ones W OOGWOTth’S ......--2 eee eee eee Yorkshire, Cattaraugus ae 420 124,284 23.00 9.51 _ Higginsville.........-+2+eeeeeeeee| Higginsville, Oneida.... io 245 65,776 21.81 9.75 PeCKSPOLt ....-. eee eee e eee ee eee es Eaton, Madison......- Bo 850 284,543 20.50 9.91 Frankfort .......-.eeeeceeeeeeeeees Frankfort, Herkimer. . BS 475 191,702 21.23 9.42 Herkimer County Union........ Little Falls, Herkimer... bo 460 151,980 22.43 9.88 Mannsville.. o0..0 61. c.cceececeeee |Mannsville, Jefferson. a 600 162,000 23.06 10.01 Parker's .....+- Rh Ee S Boone Wardwell, Jefferson.. 300 72,010 21.50 9.85 Center Brook Otego, Otsego......-- C 945 25.00 9.23 Cc. H. Curtiss’ ..-) Waterville, Oncida.......-.-.5-- 250 61,140 22.54 10.18 Decatur.......---eeeeeere ences ---.-|Decatur, OtsegO.-...-+++--++---- 600 207,634 veces 9.50 Wallkill Creamery Association. Middletown, Orange........- mis 400 VEHAUD | oe adeac Bas Philadel] phid.........--.+-+2+ee++- Barber’s Corners, Jefferson.... a 90,401 21.68 10.26 WeEEK’S .. 0. sceeccceccecceeres .| Verona, Oneida............2s2e0+ 530 173,691 21.31 9.59 Duaniels’........- Diet cicjerctaisictetaters ..|MeDonough, Chenango........- 500 149,131 19.50 9.75 Holmesville........--+++-++- Holmesyville, dO seeeeeeee 400 114,246 20.62 9.90 Miller’s........-.- pedbodo> Constableville, Lewis......-.... 580 182,111 22.07 9.54 Collins.......- Collins, Erie.........sseseeeeeee- Sal 249,608 20.73 9.85 Hawleyton... Hawleyton, Broome............ 265 68,660 PIESOK one neces Coal Creek.... Coal Creek, Herkimer........... 475 176,000 18.80 10.00 Stevens....... 5 Lowville, Lewis..........-.++++- 750 207,121 21.60 10.16 Charleston...... Charleston, Montgomery....... 330 98,101 22.25 9.84 Nelson........... ..|Nelson, Madison............+00++ 575, 199,884 19.69 9.78 West Schuyler... ..|West Schuyler, Herkimer...... 550 196,916 21.90 9.71 Springfield Center ..|Springfield Center, Otsego..... 300 137,866 21.29 9:97 Mile Strip....... 5 ..|Fenner, Madison.......-++++++-- 360 122,105 21.14 9.85 West Exeter.... ..| West Exeter, Otsego... 500 172,894 21.75 10.07 Brookfield....... ..|Brooktield, Madison... abe 200 4,996 24.25 8.31 Orwelliteenaccda .-|Orwell, OSWEZO...-.-eeeseseecees 250 72,59’ 21.70 10.00 North Litchtield .|\North Litchfield, Herkimer.... 875 127,275 21.70 9.90 Deansville....... aaa6 ..|Deansville, Oneida.........-++.- 275 83,09. 21.33 10.38 Deerfield and Mar ..|Marey, Oneida....... SBosDooQOoCo 1,082 295,115 20.07 10.26 Stanley’s ..'Adams, Jefferson......... Sei atarad 400 134,05 18.80 9.90 SOribaer cc cccceds ..|Seriba, Oswego.......+.- camemee 400 100,744 20. 9.35 East Berkshire. ..../Franklin, Vermont............-- § 101,539 24.00 10.00 Ingraham & Hustis’.....------+-- Adams, Jefferson.......-. o6u0606 600 142,518 23.09 9.95 Whitestown Bpacddepdecotogne Whitestown, Oneida...........- 204,025 22.70 10.0 MITIN J. cece cs ecw ec ce eects ecccoeens Turin, Lewis.........- oooadconeas 730 fi 19.68 9.58 Sears’... ...|Cuyler, Cortland.......... eee Se 770 PAVESer |) apooe 9.93 Loraine. ...|Loraine, Jefferson .......-.-+--- 400 106,000 21.25 9.72 Brown’s. ..../{Columbus, Chenango..........- 875 114,429 22.00 9.64 Canton.. ..|Canton, St. Lawrence........... 68,032 aoe 9.76 FL. Nj Carrier’s.....-.-ccccercccees| | teeces | entterescccssocccs 400 ADE G25: i): ace e 9.59 W estcott’s .....-secceee eee eeeeees Watertown, Jefferson..........- 318 91,639 23.37 9.52 524 APPENDIX. The following table gives the average number of cows price, and average pounds of milk from which full reports have been recei , amount of cured cheese, average to one of cured cheese for the several factories ved for the year 1865: Average Sane of oye Dolce ae Ue 3 i c’d cheese|per %., in| mi or NAME OF FACTORY. LOCATION AND CouNTY. SSS made in |cents indlone eured q pounds. |tractions.| cheese. Whitesboro, Oneida 600 206.567 17.25 10.05 Trenton, do 8 275,270 16.12 9.75 Holland Patent, do 432 168,592 a 9.42 |Paris, ; do 600 169,714 15.90 9.53 Durhamville, do 250 74,146 16.00 10.43 erona, do 500 174,110 15.8 9.99 Stittville, to) 650 06, 16.27 9.68 Little Falls, Herkimer 580 226,017 16.50 9.91 Starkville, (a) 580 168,037 “AG 9.90 WiesteSchuy ler ees iene etn aiEl West Schuyler, do 1,000 401,884 16.06 9.61 Herkimer...... ..-|Herkimer, do 490 190,538 16.05 9.99 Oneida..... sec -/Oneida Castle, Madison 525 191,681 16.09 9.79 Lamunion' & C., No -.|/Stockbridge, OO *5a5Robe 350 118,171 16. 9.74 Hunt’s........ S065 - |Hubbardsville, do. 400 135,552 15.43 9.91 Houseville. Houseville, Lewis 257,029 15.60 9.50 High Market High Market, dork 460 148,981 15.58 9.21 Miller’s....... Constableville, do ............ 750 261,364 16.01 9.35 Hall’s......... Barnes’ Corners, do ............ 125,752 14.55 9.63 Mees ae Martinsburgh, do ............ 150 58,680 15.41 9.29 Barker’s..... Richville, St. Lawrence.....__. 640 181,465 14.50 9.43 Southville..... Southville, GOR Os re 1 5,060 15.17 9.45 Wings eee oe Canton, GON sas Oe 354 106,227 15.25 9.44 Volney Center........ -.| Volney Center, Oswego.......... 200 46,886 15.00 9.87 Prattville ............... ..|Prattville, — Os Menonoesqanne 400 116,154 14.70 10.00 Gilbert’s Mill............. --|Gilbert’s Mills, do ............ 340 131,042 15.25 9.84 East Sandy Creek.......... -/H. Sandy Creek, do ............ Al 292,494 14.64 10.44 Rankeers, a costed. eee en ee Wardwell, Jefferson............ 400 140,183 15.25 9.87 Meffingwellis...o250..55 0, Henderson, Oko Goneededs Sau 135 66,847 aia 9.99 BonhOy & | Conse... eee Loraine, do ear 800 220,865 16.25 10.03 Ualiones ba ee ee Cee Watertown, GOs sheen ea 170 2,453 Pe 9.73 Ingraham & ©o.’s.....1..00255, 00. Adams, do . een 875 262,800 15.60 10.10 Cayiduittars jest ice eh tece enews Fonda, Montgomery. 845 323,436 15.61 9.81 Charleston Four Corners........|Charlest’n 4Cor.,do . 183,584 15.50 10.00 Springfield Center........ -.../Spring. Center, Otsego 442 141,136 15.12 10.54 SHUGHES ye eae een ..| West Exeter, do 500 182,951 15.75 10.02 .../Otego, do 100 30.696 17.45 weer McLean, Tompkins. 1,300 556,211 ry bhi 10.10 Freeville, donee 237,886 Bess 9.78 Sinclairville, Chautauqu 793 186.980 17.60 9.88 Arkwright, dot 50 187,909 15.93 9.78 Mina &Sherman,do .. 1,350 490,000 Scie cic Throopsville, Cayuga.. 450 125,000 teats ante New Hudson, Allegany. . 300 77,198 15.00 9.69 IBA BiTeSS ae CR SOnes sera Mie Truxton, Cortland....... 600 222,453 16.07 9.82 Holmesyille..... cnteieineieceoe :...../Holmesville, Chenango. 650 219,034 15.25 9.84 Brows eee ese Bene eae Columbus, does 500 179,206 6.00 9.66 Maine Veins SoSe te EMRE ha: Maine, Broome............... 200 39.560 15.50 , 9.75 Michigan Creamery............ -.|Middletown, Orange........ 2, 16.00 aad NA/eN VFR i Se ape Nee Middletown. Ow ese ees 87,686 ants roe Worcester Co. Association...... Warren, Massachusetts......... 450 131,379 15.33 10.17 East Berkshire................... East Berkshire, Vermont....... 800 33,00 L a 00 -50 ASOURSE eerie neekn a lsielefelolamieteisie Richmond, IGID Sachodes 29,600 Pian Bartlett’s........ see elites cece Fowler’s Mills, Ohio............. 671 255,390 15.60 9.80 Buker’s Dairy...... teeceeeeeeees./Mairfield, Michigaun.............. 46 29,440 16.50 Fel 27,756 9,452,567 15.76 9.81 The following Table gives the number of cows average pounds of milk to one of cur several Factories, from which full Reports have been r. , amount of cured cheese, average ed cheese, and price, average weight, for the eceived, for the year 1866: NAME OF FACTORY. Locrion AND County. Ce Whitesboro, Oneida......... be North Gage, do ........... HKloyd, GO) Roa cies Ava, GO cyarotetereorereee Paris, Ona Nati Verona, dope see Frankfcrt, do -|Hubbardsville, do Brookfield, do -|Florida, Montgomery Stockbridge, Madison......... Amount | Aver. Whole |Shri’k-| of cured price number of Cows.|Per ct. made, in |ets. and r + | Aver. age. cheese |# i.,in wt. pounds. |fract’ns : 59,277 58 67 5% 82,100 17.41 : 96 716 al| beeen 183,479 | 47.91 11 | 17.95 72 T1784 | 17.95 61 Aver. lbs. milk forone cured cheese = my Bo sesso S00 SREaKSewowae APPENDIX. 525 Table for 1866.— Continued. Amount | Aver. anes Whole |Shri’k-| of cured | price Asan, || sage NAME OF FACTORY. LOCATION AND COUNTY. |number| age. cheese |prlb.in w't. |foro ot Cows.|Per ct.| made, in |cts. and b isan pounds. |fract’ns GiGene Charleston Four Corners.../Charl’tn 4 Cor., Montgomery.. 525 163,886 17.25 nes 10.00 Smith Creek ................. Palatine, do 5H 675 22,390 17.25 79 9.95 Gilbert’s Mills............... Gilbert’s Mills, Oswego........ 430 151,621 16.70 Soe 9.73 Ingell & Smith’s............. .| Volney, Gow reser. 375 126,939 16.70 Bad 9.72 | ES017771) CRS eee Hecae Mexico, COP NRE Rs hee 516 ous 134,181 14.83 102 9.96 MB MTU ILS: 2. icicle och cc cccic eels Pulaski, Ou an 270 AOA 67,406 16.00 = 9.62 RRR Sete cine’ si isisicinn as ce alcinle Gonstableville, Hepis booaboCsoo 650 6.45 229,852 18.01 9.51 Elem Saale oc. secccee-sccecss Glensdale, do .......... 700 AGE 273,490 7.10 91 9.59 Sulphur Springs............. Dowville iw fo dos seeeee 770 214,282 15.48 106 9.84 ES DIMarket cc. s ties cece oes High Market, ae aenine 450 é 136,157 17.21 os8 9.35 EOS ccigeccccsecieaacceonts Canton, St. Lawrence.......... 675 167,878 | ..... 83 9.56 PUIG SS cisia aie ccisiensitccscecere Adams, Jefferson............... 800 248,376 16.76 aCe 9.98 Bonfoy, B. & A.............. Lorraine, dO _............045 530 181,686 7.32 nae 9.69 Collins RoDeer: Cuisecsesenerane |Collins Center, Hrie............ 662 246,739 | 15.86 Bee 9.88 BAPSH COMING. cieecces cscs ccs do OP ae 625 216,479 16.52 G2 9.43 Brant Center ats Brant wim NidOneenee. 300 105,466 16.75 TON aiiesictocta Canadawa.... Arkwright Chautauqua 687 186,608 15.43 57 9.65 Sinclairville.. Sinclairville, Co) 1,049 238,060 16.67 55 9.39 Beattie’s ......... .|Truxton, Cortland 468 150,720 17.59 83 9.85 Throopsville GC. M. A .|Auburn, Cayuga........ 400 139,455 16.41 SD, irene Simpson’s........ ee .|New Hudson, Allegany 400 136,030 16.13 pete 9.29 De Witt C. M. A. .|De Witt, Onondaga... 300 103,453 |... Bp 10.07 Hawleyton....... \..|Hawleyton, Broome. 200 60.000 18.89 O64 9.28 Bpringyille ss: eos. seeks Springville, Pennsylvania. - Sees Bees 18.00 (fT ie is te paecwater niethaeiatt ovaisteromne Bridgewater, do Pads 200 62,000 7.50 70 9.06 BPE LOEE I A ocaciedavss cceaee do Onesies 148 44,016 17.61 on 9.55 \VALNGNy Ssedapsenscoocoscopensco Hinesburg, Vermont.......... 500 4% 128,196 16.60 62 9.82 Fairfield..... ABC COR Manno teed Fairfield, Michigan ............ 260 101,335 16.42 9.58 WVIGIGITS anc co cicccisucieis cuciscicce Evansville, Wisconsin......... 339 103,650 | ..... 9.60 WOUAUBEOWM sc ccjcciccicieisie ce cele cine Compton, Quebec, Canada.... 250 28 60,000 | ..... 9.25 18,779 4.64 6,356,412 17.02 7646 9.68 The following Table gives the number of cows, amount of cured cheese, average price, average pounds of milk to one of cured cheese, and average weight, for the several Factories from which full Reports have been received, for the year 1867: Whole NAME OF FACTORY. LOCATION AND COUNTY. |number of SOW Verona Landing C. M. A....|Higginsville, Oneida. 200 ks’ Verona, do 740 Manheim, Herkimer 450 Constableville, Lei 1,050 ..|Colliersville, do . 400 --|Root, Montgomery...... 89 475 ..|Oneida Lake, Madison..,.... 500 4 Hamlet, Chautauqua........ 646 Port Byron C.M.A.......... Port Byron, Cayuga......... 15 Gowanda eee Sseseecsccecs ese Gowanda, Erie............... 550 Collins Center............. --.(Collins C’tr do ............00. 681 Gilbert’s Mills................ Gilbert’s Mills, Oswego...... 450 Mion). s..eeese ADOGHODDOOHOOISE Mexico, GOS Sabon 1,200 Prattville ............0.cceeee do Glan WM 55866 260 Granby Center...... sohasosne Granby Center, do ..... 220 IGN AacobHaecaoceeOS sseeeee-|Colosse, G@® © sdoe6 500 B. W. OSWEZO... sc ceccceesnees Oswego, do wae 220 Rhodes’....... wucececeesteones Scriba, Gis Anes 138 Wimiones: ...t.sss posanebocdece do (GUY Thane 825 Mermillion: (2.542 ,..0000. ...»| Vermillion, (000 Ao awG 490 velney Center Volney, dole 2 350 Smith’ Fulton, Loy Apis. c=. 500 ions -|Sandy Creek, GOWentee ce: 229 Schroeppel, do 350 do do 475 -|New Haven, do 175 Bowen's Corners... -|Granby, do 489 Pairfield..........0.05 -|Fairfield, Michigan...... 540 12,778 Amou’t of| Ave. price e’d cheese] per f.,in made, in |cents and pounds. fractions. Aver- weight 2501510 14.40 ie) 70 117,696 13.94 80 8,60 13.02 90 147,967 13.50 be Hiss) | eSocac 70 271,410 15.12 66 158,984 13.08 79 1609 13.16 : 66,592 12.50 . 37,750 12.50 37,000 88,400 104,898 12.20 120,463 +26 148.543 15.00 . 70,030 92 07, 13.00 an 126,500 -00 33,646 .50 155,452 12.75 an 215,498 14.00 8,779,045 13.12 73 Aver. lbs. milk for one h.ec’d cheese. 9.54 fot hot Tt BRsSSsaskeeeozearses ao A) 526 APPENDIX. The following Table gives the number of cows, amount of cured cheese, average price, average pounds of milk to one of cured cheese, and average weight, for the several Factories from which full Reports have been received, for the year 1868: : Whole | Amount | Average | Aver- gates jhe NAME OF FACTORY. LOCATION AND COUNTY. |number Of| of cheese | price per o one one Cows. made. {100 pounds|weight pet BARS. cca dals ade senostatectoes Holland Patent, Oneida..... 526 169,249 15.80 wa 9.92 Waleox’s 222as-sceneeae hae Paris, dower: 140 42,126 15.13 oie 10.26 Verona Landing.............. |Higginsville, Oe ceacs 300 118,770 15.33 Re 10.17 Weeks? i.e. hones oranuee Verona, Oe soe 560 183,616 16.09 60 9.80 West Canada Creek.......... NorbhiGare,| gay do} cs... 300 124,075 16.50 ar 9.75 Cook, Ives & Co.’s.... ....... Salisbury, Herkimer......... 550 183,319 16.00 69 10.15 Newyiile Association........ Newville, CO ee acs: 690 193,110 16.64 10.00 North Cazenovia............. Chittenango Falls, Madison. D) 73,450 15.00 taese MODAN OM ste. ses eae Leonardsville, doe 450 149.750 wile ae aen 9.50 Brown & Co.’S....cseeeseeceee Georgetown, Gla oe 550 179,473 15.40 Ole oe ee ee ee See U HOUD Yasar desemetenceeeee do do 5 140 42,284 15.35 se | eee Beech & ©0.’S.......c.cceecees do do 200 58,185 15.62 BS Mp firs woncee Mack’s.......... He Sane do doves 1i5 52.530 15.86 Lent) ea) paras B. Fletcher’s..... 5 do do 102,184 15-63) il Ses | ieee titan Sulphur Springs. .|Lowville, _Lewis.. 500 429,111 15.66 56 9.91 Milleris:ccsees cectee ce. ...|Constableville, do .. 1,000 300,64 15.87 9.88 Leyden Cheese Association|Leyden, Ope 02 170,246 15.32 9.75 Evans Mills......2........000. [Evans Mills, Jefferson 1,100 335,850 15.21 60 9.88 COOpEr’s. 7b chee he dade ae Oo do 270 54,078 15.33 68 9.65 Jefferson County Factories. |(Aggregate)............ £3,692 6,245,806 15.33 60 10.00 Mexico Union.......2.....0.- Mexico, Oswego..... 0 164,256 15.02 18 10.06 PLAeVAlle\ ticle ect oaeielserarsoe pias do (6) Sopoor apa be 450 82,324 14.60 15 10.28 COlGERE EVEL. Ea cone dee ce Colosse, AO eee eres 400 |. 47573 15.00 15 10.12 TERS hin aie: do Mikel ha cuad TASES) Opes eee sees 130 12,675 14.00 «s 10.32 Sriiph se Ed Mas a. duo Volney, Gt acres 415 153,57 14.60 as 9.31 SiMIPH Be Reese Beeek use san New Haven,do ............ 130 26,120 15.50 a 9.14 OGLE Mera s Ree sts de tie Root, Montgomery .......... 530 139,351 15.53 74 9.90 Delp Aye Ow, tae Delphi, Onondaga............ 450 148,765 15.25 “e 10.17 Hast Fabius......0..002.00000. ENDIUB; sO) par oane ates 450 142,623 15.30 9.58 IBCALEIO’B: ei eccks bakkie ectsanes Truxton, Cortland........... 600 169,233 15.75 10.27 Orangeville...........sceccees Orangeville, Wyoming...... do7 109,487 15.29 se 9.63 Lancaster..........cccceeseeee Lancaster, Hrie.............. 7. | a eee: Paes os 9.80 Simpson’s............0cce sees New Hudson, Allegany..... 3 160,881 15.16 . 9.50 Meadow Valley...... Ellicottville, Cattaraugus... 1i5 55,827 15.06 9.75 H. & 8. Smith’s West Exeter, Otsego........ 315 115,624 15.65 10.19 Sinclearville. Sinclearville, Chautauqua.. 813 203,567 15.27 9.67 Canadawa.... Arkwright, do as 968 253,348 15.01 55 9.62 Clear Sprin Fredonia, do 410 74,078 15.60 70 10.38 Gerry....... erry, do 33 400 SEOIB sli, sees saree 60 9.90 Walleyeencne 5 Maven Hinesville, Vermont........ 400 TREO Eee 9.90 Carler)ats cy deseaen sores ..|Painesville, Ohio...... oe 200 41,039 15.00 9.80 MAN ak pemnaenenedan Ueaecteeoe Evansville, Wisconsin 78,745 16.25 aie [igang oa Elk Mountain ...............- Asheville, North Carolina.. 230 30,000 25.00 Ke: Seal anaes Blue Grass.........seeeecsess Childsburg, Kentucky....... 250 72,500 16.70 a 10.10 ONEATI ON eet he Nee Norwich, Ontario, Canada.. 300 72,670 14.10 He 9.87 | 42,643 | 11,505,640 15.65 65 9.88 The following Table gives the number of cows, amount of cured cheese, average price, average pounds of milk to one of cured cheese, and average weight, for the several Factories from which full Reports have been received, for the year 1869 : Whole | Amount | Average | Aver- ae ape NAME OF FACTORY. LOCATION AND COUNTY. {number of| of cheese} price per| age one pound Ows. made. |100 pounds|weight cheeoe Whitesboro...... -|Whitesboro, Oneida......... 800 260.307 16.69 9.93 Willow Grove. Trenton, dn. cone 1, 389,876 7 68 9.99 Wilcox... Sauquoit, do 200 51,226 15.25 10.09 Lee Cente Lee Center, do 400 139,675 16.38 By 9.47 Waterville. Waterville, do 780 215,693 16.17 oe 9.46 West Branch West Branch, do vides” | bail’ auguea seeaR Le Neco eee Ap 9.44 Wriard’s\e-scncccens Holland P’t’nt, do 215 16.34 9.77 Vernon....... senees -.|Vernon, do . 650 16.52 9.68 Verona Landing...... --|Higginsville, do . ni 400 } 16.00 9.75 Wile Sev dca couacogenieg6 W000 Verona, do. oe 590 199,506 16.71 62 9.85 Newville Association........ Little Falls, Herkimer...... 856 811,906 17.45 ee 9.82 Herkimer County Union.... do don ash esce 350 111,848 16.55 . 10.11 Danube Cold Spring......... do COWanereeee 200 77,439 16.56 ne 9.66 UTICA perce cele -leleeieieiele cieivielsisia Frankfort, (VO Ggnood 800 311,413 16.77 67 9.90 Cazenoviaseisevcscsstaccsecce. Cazenovia, Madison......... 581 189,531 15.%5 65 9.69 Bridgeport......sssccecssceces Bridgeport, do ......... 300 97,418 15. 2% 9.85 EEXCeISIOL“ .....cccccscesceccece Brookfield, (Kis Vnapacoaas 400 PAGO Be tines cccia es 68 9.55 (OnE es eaddcbusesscouE oponsanaoe Deer River, Lewis........... 350 129,618 16.25 54 9.54 UMTblitig cadesauadonacioonncaoob0bE Turin, (ay asadnoaoaae 550 15. 60 9.53 Sulphur Spring........ --|Lowville, Go seieseet 571 158,537 16.13 62 9.64 Hvans Mills...... .-|Evans Mills, Jefferson.......| 1,140 350,191 15.84 64 9.45 Hamlin’s........ . ..|Rutland, Gl) 8 Sc5080 350 102,176 16.22 65. 9.90 | Alexandria Bay............../Alexandria Bay,do ..ee.ee 320 202 15.72 60 9.71 APPENDIX. 527 Table for 1869.— Continued. Whole | Amount | Average | Aver- ue Ae NAME OF FACTORY. LOCATION AND COUNTY. |number of| of cheese| price per| age |one pound Cows. made. |100 pounds)weight) cheese. South Champion............. South Champion, Jefferson. 400 142,129 15.73 a 9.65 MIL CRN ere oljepiciccctn sinc csina/sis.« Mexico, Oswego.......... 950 257,946 15.86 ne 9.76 Gilbert’s Mills.......-+ee0--.: Gilbert’s Mills, do ........... 500 33,746 15.43 87 9.17 Bowen’s Corners......-..+++ Bowen’s Cor’s, do ........... 300 110,581 15.10 62 9.40 EVO UTMUIeA Rec ee terse eskclcis Hermon, St. Lawrence...... 700 218,349 15.81 50 9.14 PRG O eee cn snebisie saree cine ee Root, Montgomery.......... 63' 184,478 15.88 aS 9.80 PE EWUDIC Sos cect ce ssieccesictelnce's Truxton, Cortland........... 390 LORAIN) Mpa eanoe 52 9.07 Scott........ Be OCOBBOOnOIEOSON Scott, GO. Bresson 150 48,112 15.30 50 9.45 Gowanda........... .|Gowanda, Cattaraugus 600 196,716 15.67 : 9.35 First Collins.... do do 730 306,239 16.28 6 9.00 Farmersville. Farmersville, do 345 127,107 15.53 6 9.33 Clear Spring. Fredonia, Chautauqua 325 119,533 15.41 es 9.68 North Collins North Collins, Erie... 450 150,451 16.15 50 9.22 Hast Log..... Pike, Wyoming. 200 MAS) 7) ee 99 OAS Sugartown... Sugartown, do ee BG 855 113,650 15.10 e1 9.43 Sharon Center. .|Sharon Center, Schoharie... 250 47,221 15.7 60 soce vel @\Sne dqqsnes baonOObenRCOCCnoO West Edmeston, Otsego.... 900 304,567 16.62 oc 9.73 INOEEAUB OM Gace siesisis cies s viscieisie Middle Granville, Wash’n.. 250 96,224 15.92 a 9.75 HOE PAM assets cciacienreisisclcies cle Fort Ann, dom PRU bes onacbao wi}i skaonbeo c 60K Franklin Creamery .......... Franklin, Delaware.......... Seed ti Wi dacacade al keebeacidbidc : A5a6 ECA Aae “ee 2aece BeCaAnOOne Hinesburg, Vermont........ 700 a Gy rss teal (rears : 9.48 GER RSs Aharon Home cape aes IRerry) OWION cece ceetee cael 400 137,161 15.42 s 9.90 MMCIAWANEG. 22.6 Fe 0-rdecccacccees Delaware, lowa..... sgnonshoo 100 20,000 17.00 : gon6 Rosendale .......-+-esssseeee Rosendale, Wisconsin....... 280 60,500 15.50 ‘ 9.96 22,167 6,928,193 16.02 65 9.64 The following table gives the number of cows, amount of cured cheese, average price, average pounds of milk to one of cured cheese, and average weight for the several factories from which full reports have been received for the year 1870: Whole Amount | Average Av’gze verse NAME OF FACTORY. LOCATION AND COUNTY. |numberof/of cheese] price per A Bia cows made 00 Ibs. |Weight/for one bb. : F 2 cheese. Willow Grove ...|Trenton, 900 363,302 14.25 67 10.10 Weeks..... aistaaistateta .| Verona, 700 221,061 14.28 60 10.00 Rome Association .|Rome, 750 252,689 14.06 72 10.78 Lee Center Lee Center, 650 198,448 14.00 68 9.94 Stittville .|Stittville, 800 267,271 14.24 ae 10.30 Wilcox.. De -|Sauquoit, G\0". Grbnoeconade 150 204 13.15 54 10.50 Hampton Association.......; Hampton, dO ............ 450 147,099 13.65 Ne 10.04 55 ean Anecosee adoee spades Glen, Montgomery.......... 425 181,600 13.50 65 10.21 Smith Creek............006 (2) |\RortiPlaing Wy do} visisccereeee 1,000 315,384 14.75 20 9.90 OUI aanaccuicecaetacts ciisicds co sies Root, GO} VSee cect 15 185,462 13.83 ag 10.42 South Jordan.........ss+.... Brookfield. Madison........ 495 36,553 13.80 66 9.66 New Woodstock............. New Woodstock, do ........ 840 244,611 12.80 a6 9.95 WIEN adooerecseoouced Goobered Stockbridge. GIo Wa obe 600 171,787 13.87 ne 9.78 North Fairfleld.............. North Fairfield, Herkimer.. 500 68,217 14.83 60 9.68 Sulphur Spring.............. Lowvyille, Lewis............. 450 157,102 13.62 36 10.16 Leyden Association......... Leyden, GO) “Gecoscesdo009 370 4,609 13. Be 9.92 McLean COWL pastorate McLean, Tompkins.......... 525 12 wale vig 9.62 South Berlin................. South Berlin, Rensselaer... 270 70,777 13.45 ao 10.12 Pierrepont............. deoceas Pierrepont, St. Lawrence... 420 178) 13.65 : 9.42 SUMP SOM Teele silele calvie ce niele New Hudson, Allegany..... 700 196,072 15.00 oe 9.99 East Ashford.............++- East Ashford, Cattaraugus. 550 129,961 13.75 70 9.46 Gowanda........ BI ceicithe lemeiee Gowanda, do cid 430 fr 13.82 OG 9.49 Burnham’s (8). peice — Chatauqua... 1,734 529,705 18.23 Ab 9.89 Riverside .....ceseseeeceseeees Rochester, Minnesota....... 180 88,727 . 9.70 Cold Spring............ssss005 Whitewater, Wisconsin..... 150 | 41,111 ; 9.53 15,044 4.622,786 13.90 66 9.95 528 APPENDIX. THE CHEESE TRADE—1869, 1870 anp 1871. The following tables are copied from the columns of the Utica Herald :—We give below full tables of the cheese trade for the years 1869 and 1870 and up to August, 1871, showing the receipts of boxes of cheese in New York city and the exports, the highest quotation in Liverpool and New York, and the highest price of gold for each week of the two years. The totals of 1870 show a healthy growth, both in production and foreign trade, over 1869. The average highest quotation of gold from the first week of May to the close of the year 1869 was 1813¢; and for the same portion of 1870,117. The average highest quotation of cheese in the city for the same period of 1869 was 18144¢., and of 1870, 151c.: Price in | Price in | Price of 1869. Receipts. | Exports. ly iy rpool.|N’w York.| Guide 9,54 73s. 20 cts. 1853¢ anuar ’ January 8.065 | 73s. 20 136 6,086 74s. 21 136 | pe ie | Bo | rebruar , Ss. 36 Hepeuary 042 «| tds. 22 13596 1,300 4s. 2 13334 March 74s. 580 74s. 22 Bi 21 743. 22 131 ee April 22 8. 131 i 2'480 | 76s. 2 133 3,041 793. 23 133 5,317 76s. 1 133 May 5,317 80s. 23 135 2/370 838. 93 138 4/236 838. 23 139 7076 82s. 23 141 8.700 82s. 23 140 Tene 14,179 80s. 22 13856 18,564 798. 21 139 32,250 783. 19 136% 685 138. 18 137 July 34,249 67s. 16 137 2,008 64s. 15% 13536 45,153 2s. 6d. 15 13514 44,141 61s. Jewels) 13634 A rae ie, 6d ie! 138 ugust 82 b2s. 6d. O 59,357 62s. 16 134” 803 62s. i 16 132 28 47753 62s. 16% 134 September 4 39,294 61s. 6d 16% 1364 11 29,197 61s. 6d 16 13514 18 19,500 6ls. 6d 16 137 25 656 63s. 164 136 October 2 27,600 64s. 16% 180 9 47,980 65s. 1634 130 401 67s. 18 130 5,997 67s. 6d 19 131 6,237 69s. 6d 19 129 11,781 | 698. 184 127 1,716 69s. 18 27 1387 68s. 6d. 18 126% 8.446 68s. 18 124 9.274 68s. 173g 123 2.687 68s. 17% 123 18,890 68s. 18 120% 4.606 68s. 18 12034 4,020 683. | 18 120% 926.411! : APPENDIX. 529 . - . . | . 1810. Receipts. | Exports. |;hrice in | Brigg, in | Price, ot January 3,450 2.726 70s. 17% cts 122 4,040 1,703 ese 18 1213¢ 3,362 7,813 71s. 18 120% 5,540 4103 72s. 18 121 February 3,789 6,604 72s. 18 120% 43000 2,600 | Ts. 18 119% 4,992 2,740 73s. 18 1183f sarc im) fe ae | ee) Re are. 5 ye 733. 17 1137 1,500 11,017 71s. We 1p 5,266 7,478 70s. 6d. 16 112 6,726 6,956 S. 15% 11% April 5,815 14,705 70s. 6d. 15% 111% 8,791 8,627 T1s. 6d. 16 34 6,956 6,318 71s. 6d. 17 13% 4576 7,096 73s. 6d. 17 113% 9,543 10,293 74s. 1v 115 May 4.554 9,639 74s. 17 115 8,868 oF 74s. 17 115 18,270 11,°38 V4s, 164% 1144 18,722 12,636 72s. 16 144% June 16,324 15,750 68s. 6d. 1444 1144 19,088 22,842 68s. 1444 118% 14,025 36,861 67s. 148 113 40,247 40,084 66s. 44% 11 July 47,500 66s. 144 112 25,274 45,378 64s. 14144 pbb 72,830 51,401 68s. 1414 116% 58,546 59,056 63s. 144 119% 491 50,751 63s. 4% 121% August 66,291 58,090 63s. 14% 12134 58,352 60,587 62s. 6d. 14 117% Ns 31,546 41,886 62s. 14 146Y 27 3 82,069 39, 61s. 6d 14 1165 MODUCHU DCL derse satis a ciniecciciels clercis ateieisieturs clove svetetelewicierae eiohaiows 60,106 37,819 61s. 6d. 14 114 10 69,324 62,007 bls. 6d. 14 114 0,268 42,082 61s. uy 114 2: 67,239 4 453 61s. 144% 113 October 61,607 31,431 64s. 1444 114 38,006 24,491 65s. 15 113% 43,792 19,880 66s. 15 113% 28,279 12,022 67s. 6d. 15 113 2 60,619 28,033 69s. 154 my November 53,330 18,844 69s. 6d. 1534 1103g 1 63,251 19,931 69s. 6d. 154 11y 40,695 19,245 71s. 6d. 16 11236 26. 28,338 20,539 “1s. 6d. 16 1113 December 50 64,361 34,627 72s. 6d. 16 111% 1 ates 59,489 23,059 72s. 6d. 16% 110% 316 22,133 72s. 6d. 16% 110% 13,174 18,935 (33 16% 11056 3 11,686 6,663 73s, 16144 110% INN. Gieaid nea cts otctatete tciclaveisvalela i sietowisisisjeiecntarelereaisiaastela sis wreleierare/ns 1,592,403 1,184,687 1871. Receipts. | Exports. Tivicn Gale ee P. Gold January Bderetereteyeiafefelccorciciorefarate(orareveislelsiciaic nce cigie wistcleisieisiemeincrs 9,574 7,150 73s. 16 cts. 110% TU a aap oodbepuS SooccCobhobonaEdoCoGooraeDAdS 4,870 6,685 733. 16 11056 Paar raaetaioratarecietevetatotedate eialciels olnictere leieleiarerareie nears 6,468 6,685 73s. 16 110% Melero oancnsoauagsonbONannooncooasooDooGuAsetocde 2,080 9722 733. 16 10% IEG DTI AASV A mare cyatereeyarcioitercislsiteecntetaiove ciaiere eit et entoloisiowisticnieean 5,414 9,459 72s. 16 114% i 4,552 1380 6! «(28 16 Me 18 3,967 11,174 (2s. 16 11136 20 2,993 653 72s. 164% 111% March 4... 5,330 8,344 71s. 164% 11 ' 369 3. } April May June “July 530 APPENDIX. MILK. We take the following from the Farmers’ and Mechanics’ Manual:—“ The milk of nearly all animals contain the same ingredients. The best known varieties consist nearly of | Woman Cow Ass Goat Ewe Casein e ctict Weemeacsec hat cect eee ee eee ne ae 1.5 4.5 1.8 ay 45 IBUUEGY «on cautsd Clee A dee clapa< in oe or che eas B.6 «| ong so Bells yrell ont. O25 ly nea see aan es Milky Sugar: 0) Beese ees sassy ae ie ert a EY, 6.5 4.8 6.1 5.3 5.0 Saline )Matter: 0a. 5: chco) fae ee te ae 1 0.5 0.6 0.3 0.6 0.7 EERE acne tea RMR OP Ali, Saainiarts Ic Cote tute 9 ad 87.9 87.0 91.7 86.7 85.6 | 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 “ One gallon of pure water weighs nearly 814 pounds avoirdupois, hence a pint weighs about a pound. One quart of milk, wine measure, Weighs 35 ounces. One quart of mill, beer measure, weighs 41 ounces.” LIST OF CHEESE AND BUTTER FACTORIES, AS REPORTED TO AMERICAN DAIRYMEN’S ASSOCIATION, IN 1871. NEW YORK.—946 HACTORIES. ONEIDA COUNTY.—94 FACTORIES. Name of Factory. Location. No. of Cows. Name of Factory. Location. No. of Cos. imo raae Oh WE ES oss anesaueosdlsi0) 0 Ssaqonecnsapbocdodd 650 Northwestern C.M. A..... Northwestern ......... — Wxcelsior........ ... cts KOT) nomonnonequLseoneaon (00) (CORSE Soca abodsesdecoocoende Owes en aerscsiaas — “SiGe ni ONE jgnnoeacpocepee o Clee Goqesosusseosodenda => HKONROEK) Secgsdesdc aes GO Hi tbe seees — ROR Bloge Songoeoseaendodenne WO@r obsnagousnoododboo 300 Verona Landing.. Be Po eneoinsvillencc.cesssae 400 TD. D. Carpenter’s ... adooqnoondoosenace 600 Doxtater’s.................. OO ondebscndae 250 TOVOREE Se Ae Ubon a pogp cane boom Ohms annanobcucocsepode — U.S. Davis’................. Florence..............5 500 SUTTIROS So soo scauons oocdodee! Os) bes bonenasonepnosood em OOLGnS pring anesse nee eee CLOW Abrton unncnctcoene 400 Bernie VUES Spesonone SqoHI ROSE WINNIE Coad obesebne SUOM IMIGERIVeren ne ceeee eee seace do odanclote teen 6 250 T. D. Roberts’...... aux GlO)o- ) SdigoHooobods 300 Vernon...... GAdedeBoemadesod WETNOD:someecuceeaaeae 720 HE Lewis’....0...0.06 ...Deerfield............008 SOON Clams eee eas ceeeeeee Co} UCSB Em AB pise Herrics 500 TACT Shere ciuisieise «vie SHORISKA yee ecw ec ence 700 M.Snell............. eeepc (LON ararn ate ict esrahye teeta 300 Mitchell’s............ ..»-R@MSEN .........-.-0005 2U0 Bronson & Co............... Vernon Center ........ 300 Thomas’......... : CIO Se pondonseenacos 400 West Canada Creek........North Gage............ 500 Starr Hill ....... ROMEO? Bee tctore amie eases NOOR) PAC BIIVeSaeeceeceeaece rid aes MOT ee EE aaeaion 150 IWVIGEKS vest omen ecccsec noes AVGHO TE scousnesssceeans GOOR SRO SBlWerst eye soe neenes LOH AW icveteey cate setts 700 IBULTEIS oiecenesecieeee- se a) GO! cosgopseradsceudd HAD)! TSIEN Gh oon nonaobousacooce Marcy Hill............. Veron Central............. (CG) ee ORR ORAe SenGEcaS BW | AMVs dacsobacdooado selene UM bbs bots aapeniel a Srnec trie c — Willow Grove......... eel CMCOMe sma eeeetie elles UMON0 Sloe ypeOls) Sécen ese docascado cs GhOR Gaagodquedeatadeono —= W. W. Wheeler’s SSD CKO WEaunE Sauanecas cdson eal” i Mmhaliditesesooapracsoascoseuc Frankiin Iron Works. 500 we Cy OWENS. o.ccee oe ee NGO Sustaretetciais eractenatene OOO! pe Camps Sucmemacecccctee enone Westmoreland ........ 400 ZONVICL Sects se sistelesle ste eres LO wb reisaciaartedte aretalate ——=__ OIE MEN Rin -scacsoudsdanbodes : (ICP wieecacnst 350 Whitaker’s........ RY LON gusseted teers 250 Hampton TOM AVIS ENe toda (lO aetemac asc 500 Wight’s ........... ....Whitesboro............ ION Wwiewes! NENW rica oenacdpansancs Waterville............. 700 Thee aoe Desc OOORHae Ee Sbittwillehencneeoseecnes OOM OULRGIS? Aecose athe renee Oly patie Saeaee 250 PICCTHE GLa NEAT CY yes uceuices WLLL wniccs cuaeeencseace 400 Shearman’s................. New Hartford......... 500 South Corners........ see MAL OMIM ey) ences a este ne 400 Hamptons. ie). 6ciice. 2c: SUN DES Vit Senerenenea 500 ATIVE 80 Pain 5 aeINOg SeIOeO ME CL OM Mrerctciiviae ete tclete Ba0))) Sehiyler7s ae ee ee West Vienna... .West Vienna.......... — Foster’s............... é Blossvale...... eBICSSVaAley. ites seas 406 J.H. Brook’s......... Glenmore. Annsvillew eee 500) (Chiuckeryons sess scene Bagg’s....... Holland Patent. Sab peo Booetigseheurtoce J. G. Cotes’ to 3 feael HAE Righospocdoae J.F. Pierce’s ue i Session’s.... A. North Bridgewater Tucker’s. Deansville.. Jeansville. S. Thomas’.. PU Siete Westernville . BE. A. Palmer’ Williams’ do Union Grove Waldo’s... do 2 . 300 Harvey’s.. Kirkland .,. Kirkland...... . 3800 Reed & Co Wallace’s..... West Branch. . 400 Knoxboro... Countryman’s do -— Rathbun’s...... 5 PEA DYEA ee seen eeee eougenel > cid Daan ansad - 200 New London C. MMOWEl oop eecirccanccencovers +e: LuOWelle. 5) - 600 Ray’s Wood s Lee Center 500 Spinnings’.... Saxton’s d 300 G. M. Wood’s. Charton’s. do . 400 Huriburt’s. Cupron’s... do -—— Jones’....... WAYNE COUNTY.—13 FACTORIES. AVY ULWONL I ialslcinie « o\0\s vie eictes'e Walworth.... SOOM aVVAL OITA Sie teeiseestctetetereitelate = SNO@WATIK..ncieecsee ens ee Butler Center South Butle 240 Lincoln.... seeeeeeees West Walworth....... = VAIL AMSON Soo oc2i. 2. see sees Williamson. —— Marion. Bete ee LAT LOMeeeeecesnicece te —— Palmyra........... -.-Palmyra..... Lee & Sheffield............. RUGS Chetecettidelsicseete stile 400 POLES ss c2falsroisicte\aysioie ie e'e +... Savannah . sya NNO A ins enaronnoooadpcudon’ BVO Siete eset 500 South Butler....... boapeues South Butle IMF So anoocdsvec Kaodspucene » LOCI eaqcummaoGatoCdaDat ——= RUPE A OM esiecniciaie slo veiercicrenic Macedon.... 300 CHENANGO COUNTY.—2# FACTORIES. PEUttle 2. cc ceses Hao ..Columbus.......... .... 230 Lewis Andrews.............south Otselic......+... —— Hiram Brown’s............. (61) aaacosbdacaso 400 Holmesville........ oseeee-. Holmesville ........+- 650 BPA RU SARC Sees canci accents. New Berlin Center.. 800 Daniels’................ .....McDonough.... .. Seca, (Ui) Holmes & Co.’s..... Bcoeeore Columbus.............. Lincklaen..... SpuoocosusoLce Lincklaen.............. 500 George Buel’s .............. King Settlement...... 600 Wheeler’s..........ceceeee.. (iho oe oe asounbaono — SIAN Gacocconeaceosoone Sherburne............. 700 Harrington................. dO osenesnees Sanh = Smyrna....... posenodeansecce Smyrna.......... 1] —= Norwich C. M: Go.....! svar One er Sood daACoOCODS 500 Billings’. pocBadDusonn ccou_ Ge) aadeceoued a —) SUIT ID ee Seeslalatetetefaiaeicte ctelatesieis(era c go Soreandeedeto- == Pivinio this asacae ete Plymouth... h ===) | THEACHI See crtc tek cemememscccs: § GO) 11s cpramecenielesetie — Buckley & Co. ie eects SIOXLOKG os ec ees -— Sage’s......... Di eveteteren tae “‘gouth Noy Berlin..... —— Harrisville................ ..Sherburne...... 5000000 350! Rich ’a ener dane a SH ee White & Son’s........... as do asevecsecsess —— Brown, Sage & Co....cesece ae Bocas fhe! 532 APPENDIX. CORTLAND COUNTY.— 26 FACTORIES. Name of Factory. Location. No. of Cows, Name of Factory. Location. No. of Cows. Cuyler Village.............- Cuyler............ ---... 600 Blodgett ae Blodgett Mills.. . 150 Gold Sorin eee ee wieseisine (Kone te Sng epemeiaor nonos 300 Raymond’s. -Preble... 600 Sine lilpseeeneeneiiecicsisciestete Glo)" abadsoonsoooconoce ZOO! ERG eee mite see do 425 Keeler’s........- ab 2 raraheisies (GK | S5n500so0g05a000a0r 200 Homer C. M. Co.. -Homer 600 Che 18 01M eo seoesocoscscscoo GIO ssdsdsussconousocs AD) Tnttle’s ie) se. cnccem -Freetown. 400 New Boston ...............- CLO eset ciceiacveeers ~2i600) so Cincinnatus: ie) sce oe eeee Cincinnatus .. 400 SCALES ie ieeeee re cncisiesteiteiete DeRuyter.........,..-- 1,000 South Cortland,............ South Cortland. eae CCTM Vereen ce eels see cect Truxton..... --- 400 Meechain’s.................. Marathon....... . 3800 Beattie’s.......-........+.-- (IO _Genascase foo. SU Son aie sBaA sn onosodookoacs ‘Naylor 400 Blodgett’s Mills............ Conta ilies 300 Keeney Settlement........ Keeney Easel 700 HastiHomer saan East Homer . 450 Whitmarsh............. deo some Wiehtman’s))s2ece) secece se Marathon....... oe eae LEIS ER vi neena ssh suo cones Apuleets Socsescooort — Potter & Barber’s.......... G28 ino Gao codececuoonsS Sied00) VELartOrd:pecieeienescee ser caice Harford sa: tas eee see es M. Pierce’s ..South Richland B00.” SRaird ale ws) cos eiaeeea eee D Gilbert Mills .-Gilbert Mills 430 McMullen’s. fs Dick{se ee ..Pennellville — Mead’s. Volney Center 310 Bauder’s Whittemore’s 500 Smith’s.. so Vorueys apa . Seriba . Ingell & Smith’s .. Volney 315 = Daggett’s.... Hast Sandy Cre s Raat Suny Creek Donnelly’s ............ Robbins & Co.’s.. do 609 Southwest Oswego. Suydam’s.......:. q 400 Vermillion........ ALUM UNL Sos cee cee ne eee ence MD ACORELC 210 «=Smith’si) 5: FEV SAR lap ele cote mee nee ae nh .. 300 Hubbard’s CoHlagSpringe ys ee eee .. 300 Jennings’. Jones’........ : Ais tath Richland AYeRoDe 4)0 Wast Scriba . AVVO S oer docte ee A Casadilamen(® Ko ah iain eR ie 300 Sweet’s...... Bint sea ee Orwell SUD ARIEIDO SLO SHORE 150 Gregg’s...... Winona adevenesosee Pe OOLOSSC tesneie ects clsietas 400 Wirst National...... NUMTOn seen oe SRMExI COM sen meres temens 500 Central Square......... Se WICYBING Se oh cceceseeet nese Bratvillemnsesencsseecs 530 West’ Manual... o.c.....0.6 Banaska’s......... ogdnlelNO she cos mmononeatcage == Granby Center... ccc MEOTtON/S)s.cesnccnceeccse sees Orwellqye ee eneenan G00! GRO MES eee ee aeons Sweetisseneniee oolelakoferalh ord soannoucsedsad = EOL OM ore atetraisioce ne ase erat atc SMith’ sores eee gale bys yhayscacbancoohesdaus — Union Deiat oleate ela vaetaiontate Hastings C. M. Co.. : GEE uw caneuanegosodss =, AAI DONT Sugbbouo sss eSO ANS. Amboy Corners Oswego Center....... ‘Oswego Center ........ AD [Siisthiorsadodegoncadsunpné Ae --Fulton..... iste = Bowen’s Corners..... :.Bowen’s Corners...... OO Tees eto Palermo....... — Wallcoxisitatijycceetterede. Oswego Falls.......... a (CIONDFSID I Ss Cos sbnoan AdodHoo. Constantia. — West Monroe C. M. A...... West Monroe.......... (Sons Rieribae ao sedchoboabecnn. Richland...... = Titus & Wilson............. Hannibal......... aogier emVVAY IN CULL) Steere eee ate Sahsood Orville....... _— Gardner’ sensetsaseteccnceee South Hannibal....... ee SSESTETIYS tole cos hats clea tata ees + - MOlINON yen cece cennies _— MADISON COUNTY.—65 FACTORIES. INOLLONIS swe dceeeesee Eaton Ttteasie nee — Chapman’ Secinispcise cule ee Lake. 300 Morse’s....... GO) eg daoogadssandcHo: 600) “Harts oe. ss. ‘ 250 Ingram’s........... West HEaton............ 500 Morrell’s........ 2 ae 150 IRecikSponteeeenee aeons Bouckville............. AQ: (Gola see oe nian -Munnsville 350 Erieville....... A sseBeRAHAS ELE WALL Re erceeieeielsacinete KOUe wine kl aene esestucceeeniets 58 800 SEN MOUOUURE Saga hacantoaeuseeD MepanOnencnecceacete te 400° “DeRUyber ince eaten 600 Smith Valley patent aie ee Rice 600 Kirkville................ oe 500 De DUUES) eae Seca nEae ‘Oneida Castle......--.- MOD sleteher sie oss. se snaemmence 750 Cazenovia........ TECAZETOVAD Soo Sein ce ricciieis GOO) WTS Ya lo cicctenle weletuntaoete 450 C. Bridge..... Gov) BoBENSSAGS A5c aoe ACAI 8. yeu eee ee —— Blodgett’s.... WOT Pease cose 200 moe jecostods Sereno tieds. 800 Rerkins sees GO, eesccdvcsiceeeum—a | BRANES <.prclc acnitaneesae tans 200 Canaseraga Merde (isis “Canaseraga Gaasendsesed 450 ete Si Colac Morrisville.... 400 ATP NICKISE ee Coen eterno ClOCIEVINTEt ys. ceanemne 500 Morrisville................65 do 600 North Cazenovia Chittenango Falls..... 300 Nelson’s................e00: Nelson.,.... 600 Chittenango ..... do epee eis a UILIBONUNss cece eter: -eeeenee Brookfield.. 200 Lebanon wv ....5.. Leonardsville........ - 500 Wxcelsior..... Seanbocee 450 ERP ES Ha Sot toa bietsierienieiinisieiccis sie do PANES EU a aicteeaeceieceete i tsee Denmark.............-+ 70) Shepherd’s.................. do Markham’s.................- Collinsville ............ 400 AWAITS Weiss eisai oieleie sie cicrsicla.s do ILiOelE WB epbonoesaosakedose Pee AVON’ S Halls ta enee cece PMD EAS Soe ites no sais eisiesciaie, oie ers GOl eneneeece Leyden C. A ................ Leyden... 2.255...cmse “550 WATDCNLCL’S shieeccccss wes Houseville..... ROSE Bocce iis cetitoete a teircteans Port Leyden........... — LG ig aeeacene Aacenee see ee Martinsburgh.. WiDiime y soe. roses cieccicutte Copenhagen ........... 400 PMICOMISS He Arcee coas ces. do Pee ele Bent So osac: oanicteciiedele siaerelate (cK nnn yaerescscone 230 New Bremen.......... BCOODE Crogan sce ee cactus —_— MONTGOMERY COUNTY.—36 FACTORIES. Charleston Four Corners..Charleston Four Cor.. 825 Root..........cceceeececenees PRO O Ue a aeistelsisccsisiaie nie nosed 600 Smith Creek................ MOrose tine eee essence TM OU0~ GYVLETASOU cat ae cesce seccenantee do — UMTS Sek ese -eclecteccicie ae do 500 doyel=—— GIG tasaeboacanonoososeoosned Glen ass UO Ole Riser e cee eine cal ineleuisic do ayes — Diefendorf’s................ Amsterdam — Empire........... SeORBCodsG Burtonville... DOO) NV GRE CTS eon eee teielareeisisiele GON Hea an — Florida...... SopnaeodoeGosG 50 do 30 eet PDORN Score cceciciermiete sesame (olOy a" Nip Ngnaaucoogcno => PVRS VINE Ses ctewesccesces Hallsville.... erm OUOl BHLOLIGa segeccned ecrsineset Minaville............... — PROV SPOS Sectsc cm cece sicemee Hreysbush..... sees — Switzer Hill... c....... eee Fonda........... henven seis —_— PVCSSVANE os. cicsc cece eecees Sprout Brook... .. Ghitylenisiancsde ceitescicaeee — Cold Spring................. Stone Araba... sete p OUO tm NOL AWK neues sur lotta — Waterville. ..........000c00. Aime sera esis c 750 Cold Spring Flat Creek... ....... «......Mlat Creek ..... HacepOUO! MU MTOMMs sls ices ae ceeoeieicen cee 500 Brookman & Co.’s..........Kort Plain...... See OUD HAIN pS te sce tence mencnie aD == Ford’s Bush................ Minden......... MeeeOLON AG ADESVIllemsenetennnicniceisees MEU Geer viseiameteeisies — Cayadutta...............ceee Fonda..... ssgagasessocer 800 Mother Creek............... St. Johnsyille.......... 400 Bates, Snell & Co........... St. Johnsville.. ....... SOO! ESIC Dass tosoaisitun csloeicerse, EOS WO licen eatcisaeeteiecteere 600 Snell, Smith & Co.......... do ectctereete — Mapletown.................. $d eeeeseeeees — Humphrey’s................-Charleston............. el OUD Soe e sc acivasinshiseuioe .... Canajoharie........... —— ORLEANS COUNTY.—1 FACTORY. Cooley Sag pemesor ope? wt}: banca soncosences — STEUBEN COUNTY.—8 FACTORIES Spalding’s....... Soudan Sa06e0 Howard's: se ..csesce- = 3 ay AS ORME 5 onaodorocecosanoes -Greenwood............ 250 Bennett’s ............ oacabe COMME accent Ma BONUS Masse orn cri ocoerc North Cameron 5 Kanona............... Aiea noma. sla iae : 300 Spalding (F010) See OrSBOADOCaE AVOCA........- _— Vititaye penusdacoundned seeeacn Campbell............... — Sitterly’s................. ae! 27215 TES HDR USGS OOHES aHuoe -—— ONONDAGA COUNTY.— 32 FACTORIES. LL. H. Webster’s...........-FADIUS..........cceeeeee 500 Belle Isle................000- Belle Isle...... AgesauaeD Delphi......... eeesless ceases Delphi.......... ---- 450 Sherwood’s................. Brewerton.. Salisbury’s.........sseeseees Apulia, 2. ce cents -.-- 600 DeWitt C.M.A............ DeWitt Alexander’s ............200 Lysander Rab Oty ya ecseee ton Habius..... WAS eawaan sense seciten MIME MTIES > secon eeiteinee nts aa OOK) (sean een Ohae anor scnans Euclid RETO DDEI/ Sinw vicisisisetiaic visteiere sloe Collamer.......... nodded.) hela) INAV OO mAdanasdjocmocdoces Nayarino.... PETISCOCK?S cccjunie ve,crsicbieieelooee Jamesville Birkville ss Ae Kirkville (SINGH Bed Godce neon asceancd Baldwinsville.. sone G@oodrieh3s. oss stbessecesees Otisco SO AsLOUC iene eehie enrollee cicieletale Spafford.......... 5 Little Utica... 0..2......... Little Utica MEO OUAUIS i faeaguaisietieetlec ies etets CicerOsseesceses mando Betts’ Corners.............. Betts’ Corners Van Bramer’s............. (Kaya Watanoasacad nee Cole Settlement............ Fabius Sternberg’s ...............-+ ‘Cicero Center IBIO CK. fcc eaten aas do OD ea ViV TICS is |cres slateleicinverayeinie ie 1X10 o ie sonporpoedanaet re Southard’s aes ace Pompey Center. Tat (ef eines con en aba HMlpridgers fie. iaeaseae Palmer ©) Me Aes ase Orankee cs ee eee Abbott & Bodgersit ietebilelaieie ADU etateiaieieideteajarte meeene Plainyille............ AD ASS Ho Plainville Marvin’s............ eyo Rifts NOUN Sie tesaseeidete ....<: Huclid.. CLINTON COUNTY.—3 FACTORIES. SEG HHS i otecle nis Reece ctsteaiate tate Plattsburg............. — Smith Dale..... Bo obrachcuicy Ba Ase asasa se Seaquarcae —— Rouse’s Point........ eee Rouse’s Point......... — COLUMBIA COUNTY.—2 FACTORIES. PEA AT SOM) «:ciaip ciele e|u sisieie’sis’stsl (e/a PERV SOW clerejetsie.e cirinisie eis .— Chatham ...... apieieleakieieraye -Chatham Center..... _— MONROE COUNTY.—4 FACTORIES. Genesee Valley............ 300 Mendon................ .....Mendon.. MRE Bie isiesieretseisielcisicter ic oopcooels -.— Perinton.......... ...- Fairport. ONTARIO COUNTY.—3 FACTORIES. Cold Spring..... seeceuseeee. WeSt Farmington..... 450 Hast Bloomfield............Hast Bloomfield...... _— Flint Creek.................Flint Creek............ — FULTON COUNTY.—8 FACTORIES. Stuart’s ...................., Oppenheim Centar — Cold Creek......... Fulton....... nituieie ate AAcoose do ... — Brockett’s Bridge.. Cross Roads....... acc ane Johnstown............. 330 Perth Center...... Stoller’s........... Rowaldersiviele Ome ie ais coyietese sesese —— Slate Hill........... MN ephratah 534 APPENDIX. ST. LAWRENCE COUNTY.—16 FACTORIES. Name of AE Location. No.of Cows. Name of Factory. Location. No of Cows. Olin & Smead’s............ Canton iiunscees aclactestee 675 Beech Grove........... ewe RUSSEL, «cies webct atenets 500 Southville.................. Southville... --- 200 West Canton.... .......... Cantona -eeeeeaee — Richville.... Richville..... sees, O40 “South (‘Cantoni.c..geceneen Crary’s Mills...... fare ieee MOMS? obits sich wadhiewis vetoes do eA «.» ——- Dekalb........... Merten el tes Dekalb veCeske at Rees 700 Potsdam Potsdam ........ pee OUU) eG OU WELT CMI arise taeieseee ae Gouverneur ......... .- 500 EV AINESDOLO!. cnn cies ccetee sleleee Gouverneur ........... GOD MER URG IS Ee Sree ites cea ctor Shingle Creek......... — Sprague Corners........... Shingle Creek......... 600 . West Fowler............... do — Russell Village............. RUUSSel]: 25252522 22c ete DUD. MER OT Ma wT Ae a) renter eeeiaeals vermont sects eeeeeeeees —— WYOMING COUNTY.—29 FACTORIES George Hoye’s............. Nth CA Any eteee sae scee ee Re MR OZICLS S825 sceseeceec cena Johnsonburg.......... — Javas Vallape ws sence cco esis Juva Village........... 450 Sheldon C.M.A............. Sheldon........... teeee INOnth JAVA. cces see ese ceee North Java POs 8) El re iasaaiiie Acc Wyoming 222i aie eeseeee — Stryker & Co.’s............- do == 4Chupmran’s. 2) cette eee cusees Perrys isda eee — SUPINE Seen = erecta lol ile MEE odesosaadacoscagsoes 400 Hermitage........:......... Se cebtiorenss == aera (CF Bac gasnaaatona DONA SSI OE Ee eee eee — Orangeville................- Orangeville............ ~ 600 Inpl Soe as opodseuEneconbdeodes IBS oanaaoaaAGOCe OfOIIAO — Wilder & Co.’s.............- OG, et ree cose — Benningtons. 422s. see ee Bennington............ 400 Strykersville............... Strykersville .......... — East Bennington........... Hast Bennington...... oto Hast Coy... ....2.ceceeerree Pik PM CARE eee rianaean ena ete Arcade 500 Lillibridge Wiel sie ce ciccctuecteceen ob OVO Mme «+» —— Enmpire............... (COMRInN Kes anadodoeancosUAcIAdced Castile..... --- 400 Outka........ Gardlanits yeeckines rece neni IACCIGR eae os aiche ss -— Cowlesville. Chapmun’s.2..2 i462 eee Paris Center.... -—— Java Lake Stephens? s)7.0%)-ta\ ste s'ewiee valo “Dale seek... SOSAGASC ICO BO — NIAGARA COUNTY.—4 FACTORIES. Sanborn C. M. Company...Sanborn................ 300 Middleport.. Johngson’s Creek do ...Johnson’s Creek...... —— J.C. Francis’ BROOME COUNTY.—5 FACTORIES. WVERIN Oi ticis x's wla.a citys sta 'etcinlele ale Matietecnsccssmemeactit 250 Squires Center........... .-Kirkwood.......... Oe Hawleyton ......dawleyton.. .-. —— Page Brook Valley.........North Fenton..... Dae DOU MO A WiOS ee. ence cece eeciecice Kallawogiic.s.venes cscs —— WASHINGTON COUNTY.—8 FACTORIES. INOTERSB ert diescece cine arise North Granville....... —— South Granville............ South Granville...... _— North Bend.. .............. Middle Granville...... 250 Middle Granville........... Middle Granville...... 500 Goramiy ll Gree eee aan cesias wie Granville esac: ssc ce ce 450) sGreenwithie sea sremacie Greenwich. ..........0. 135 Oct yAmar neeeineseccicann comes Mort) Amine sacs —— Huawley’s.............eeeeee -Ford Edward....... oo JEFYERSON COUNTY.—72 FACTORIES. > PAUCL DTN Sateteteretetarcielstetatedsiera aistaleiels INGEN 5 An adcamcendasces — BHeath’s ....:........ccceee ..Adams Center....... ._— Wiexander’s\ ii s.lesssecceeen Henderson............. ——— Raa So eo a nlete pinieteulaie te Rutland). seeemere 325 PAMEW. ELD a castiwsiaets soe anion SATLWELD cece tccccs ete 9a) Harper's Werry.:<). cmss cs Rutland Center ...... — PASM CT Si) sab elsiaiciala versa iacie cinine Watertown............ — Henderson....... Or AnD 3 Henderson ........... —— Bapcockis serena. seen Champion: =] 520. cnnceee ———| - VOW Ar ssn setae) Sieceeeemne Stone Mills............ 300 BAL DEB cece eee Philadelphia........... — Lorraine Central........... Lorraine........... -.-- 300 Bonfoy & Bettinger....... Mannsville............- —— Limerick...........c.cccccee Dexter ..... Pep aarminads allt Belleville.................4- Belleville.............. — Leffingwell’s...............- Henderson........ see, Bent. fo cace eee CAS Antwerp). s-c.scceeeere —— Mannsville................. Mannsville..... Shonen rte BSBA SMubhe reas sousecaceen Black River............ — Maple Grove................ LOrraine soo. seiicmelie .-— Brownville............ EPIBLOWNVILVES. .ssceceee es 400 Muscallonge................ Dexter ......... Adacuce _—— BLO Wis onciiccivosecenet tee Watertown............. a MUNZY' Sia.) Sioeodee care eee Smithville...........,. —— Benjamin & Co.’s.... ..... Camp’s Mills.......... —— IPillarsPomtit soe senses Dexter vaneeones eeeee Carter Street........ BAavcherore Stone Mills............ — Philadelphia............... Philadelphia......... ~_— Cascade Rutland erase eee =—— -Pitkin’s..2.. eect) .hc20es MLOLraIne ae eeeee -» 250 Champion Village.......... ChampiGniepcusscseenee — Rodman........... Bits Cabve state Rodman............ eed CWODPELIS Saeco cece owes Evans’ Mills...,........ — Rodman Branch........... Burrville..........., oo ColdiSprinpae saeee eee eesee Watertown............ ROP OES a eiiae paige cane cates Ellisburgh .......... Gecuaadt) Cold Spring.. Belleville seaseneeeet st ROBES 2 a2 wate eae la asccehien Lorraine...... .— Cold Spring .- Roberts’ Corners...... — Rutland ‘Valley............ Watertown meets — Campbell’s........... Sse South Rutland........ 150), Sherman’ s/aceeeneeeecee . Watertown.... — Dy VEL e cecum cee cee -Watertown.......-.... — Springer’s...........csscses. Redwood............. — MA VAS Mee ca aataeceeeteen ees Smithville............. —— Smithville.................. Smithville............ _—_ LDH Gnoea renee es ..--Rutland ... 200 South Champion........... South Champion....,. 450 East Rodman......... ....Hast Rodman —— Springside................+- Dexter: a seeeeaee ._—_ WEVA oor scosuscenae -. Carthage. 2... 7.2... 2... —— Sterlingbush.....-.......... Antwerp....... ceeeee Sesacaa Ellisville .......... Ellisburgh ............. aa UM Eee orca codcconsones: Lorraine............ SS=5 Eyans Mills........ Evans Mills............ 1,000 Timmerman’s........... ‘Orleans Four Corners, —— HxCelSiOn ee. son ueeen sects perch) (River... -.ess- ———— | Whiner eneeeeae see SiS) ce Adams Center...... Gi omens HX COISIONZ waive Sade cael soee South Champion...... — Westcott............. Jelscieme WALETEOWM fe socsee ae . aD Marr aeesiisiccash cone cne ---Pierrepont Manor.... 225 Whitesville...............- .Hast Rodman........, — Foreman’s ............000008 Woodville sae eee ee — Wicks........ adecagnonLeness Antwerp......... oin/a ciel Griswold & Reed........... Lorraine...... -» —— Wilson.......... Boonabsasco. Watertown........... = Gardner’s....... .... Watertown Wari hibe erie sect mementos -Depauville............. —— Grinnell & Co -..-Pierrepont Manor.... 300 Woodville..................- Woodville ............. —— 18 Se Kee TN Seis Ge be smae se nBeEe Me] 6s (Millsasae: eee eee) VOLE Reem e nee tinereneaets .... Worthville............. 500 GENESEE COUNTY.—l1 FACTORIES. Darien Center. Darien Center... Batavia Union.. Batavia C.M. A Oalkfield...... Oakfield Byron... West Bethany. West Bethany. Richvill East Bethany. Hast Bethany.... Linden... Foster’s .........-...- vecee ee BAtAaVid ....+5-0-- Stafford.. SCHENECTADY COUNTY.—2 FACTORIES. Mariaville........... Ben eaee Mariaville.............. —— Rotterdam.........ceecseers a tiny Sida Neher — APPENDIX. 535 SARATOGA COUNTY.—4 FACTORIES. Name of Fuctory. Location. No. of Cows. Ge WALY, <\ciniojn'sin cic/ain cieicle'sis eielee Galway ......... Charlton ...........08 sone ‘doo Charlton .. ORANGE COUNTY.—43 FACTORIKS. Name of Factory. Location. No. of Cows. Ballston. ...+..++-Ballston Center = PAUTYN PST C ajnre aieta’s -iaicicieieisleis'eloisieis South Galway.... 250 Gircleville................ Bog) | BDSEHS «+» 400 WOU DMT Ecce ess ncn sec cc st Laeseee ens 225 Rockville... Middletown ......... »- 200 DNEATIENAIUG peg daecooenosodKGo llalihe =e soddutiboes . 250 Walkill Association....... == £—— —- see eee BY6) D. Mullock’s....... Be terete Middletown ........... 200 Orange Co. M.A... ....... Michigan....... necancoa Msi) do (iOlr Wasongendeca COMANIGEsSsogasadecansccd - od Gonrer&iColticccsss-cess-e -Hamptonburgh ....... 600 Bates & Co..........-0-2000- CON Mie eroncce nts 250 Gouge & Youngs’.......... IM OSG Es aog.qetsessoende 400 HUG Evy OLS ejc2 scisine.cssicis © OM atten Giloenetee 175 Carpenter Howell......... Amity ....... Se cislmeicistelety 415 LOM a a WSR Cle mn amsicacisteniactes 350 Sanford & Smith........... OR ea iesince 300 H. Milburn...... Sonosccaced LOGY Wy yontintooateebeoc 250 T. Durland.............- are GON Suis ertesarenpree - 150 Brown, Bailey & Co....... -Hdenville.... ...... w+» 400 Foster Clark’s.......-..-... Wickham’s Pond..... 350 W. H. Clark & Co..........Minisink ............... 300 Barton Spring.............. IMONT OE Mieenacem secs 100 Parlor ...................--..-Blooming Grove...... — VOGUE cdo godtooueccdobe BP AOIMESHO Tr erteletielelalsiertarstete -. 200 LIGICWGHE Geog debobsaasnboano[G Walden JV aS COlcraclicisicinicee Brown, Lane & Co..... ... VA A EOE GAP aLeeeoncooonban 5 J. B. Halsey & Co...... Sc Th eu eA Soadades scoscauaed :.Chester. Bankers Brother’s......... eo 105 DEW IS dkecaenoosouocacnacs P. Holbert’s ................ Middletown Mapes & Co...........00000 do James Hulse............... do Wm. Mead & Co....... .... do. Christee & Co............... Unionville............. 300 O. F. Green...... possobsndos Greenville ............. 300 isle URGE SeSnncdebceenace Gia Guadodsatccos 125 Iino enawley Sseeabeaocoedocue™ Otisville..............- 6 BYS J. A. Wood....... Dr Rcecieteteis Slate Hill........... 200 Howell & Co........ «2... Monroe..... sejcstes) 400) SligarmelOuheeeeec sees Sugar Loaf... - 550 Union Cond’sed Milk Co..New Milford........... GREENE COUNTY.—4 FACTORIES. MONWMENIS 5 onc cine cisieeivie.s coocd IGM Fificcos5bocasose00a0 Seay ODMIGIUS oii ocictalsicisiaisie cia aL O00) pe ran Gall siearcereatncecioceen Dodge’s Corners...... -_— Forsythe’s.......... ..Whitesville........... . 200 Belvidere................... Belvidere ........ ..... —— S. Sherman & Co.. oodNille oc obodoadspoeoddeodds IPS TWEE aoarinasopado0bocuGdes ae QO) enaddasoonness — 2406) 000) b Sola NON ce or pogoedadae 100m (Gran geryiaseeescs seeiteceinses Grameen escsaaeceeenee —— GUIRGIS Reese ek seen OKO) eae canoabedsedce — Little Genesee............. Little Genesee........ — D. T. Burdick’s.... Alfred saa ease Pa TAO0 oe CAEENIV ALG ive tasn teat srecs/ele eve Almond tear eee 400 Greene’s...........+ : CO vndondadonoade sewan — Sees? — IN@SHYS cee vtinemcrcetitere cir Frankfort ce —— Columbia.Center.........0. ‘Columbia Center. — TSGIGPS oaaonagnoacagnouoagn Cedarwiake ee. cncmsce——— di RUSSOIUS seeks enisneneee Graefenberg...... 300 Stuart’s........ SoungouriGeGdS Cedarville...... eeeeece — CAYUGA COUNTY.—8 FACTORIES. Throopsville C. M. A......Auburn ................ ASO) WG Ay fescicis sinincs'e'sieroicinietateiclowelecls Seeman sonagass55° teeeeece —— IMOraVilale secs oc celelerimiclan ico IMVOTAVAD Soc = vce eireete 200 Lancoln’s:: 2... cwaseeoe eke Conquest Center.....: 400 Sennett ........ Benda sc tay SCNMELE ce. ce cwe peice cen 400 Porc Byron C. M. Co.’s....Port Byron s..ceeseee 200 Carpenter’s ..........0.e00.Ne@W Hope............- — Meridian......... secbjeciiee Meridian........c0vses === OTSEGO COUNTY.—46 FACTORIES. Wykoff’s.......... nandiacs206 Bente le ely -».. 500 Russell Bower’s....... 300 IBSTISTAPSE 5h sco n cle oye ote rols[ooseine siete wcleeeyee— PROP IIINSo 5 SS ou rerertopersioniae pee TD Lamb) Secscsses se eens Unadilla! Forks Badede >» 350 Hind’s...... saocets” ae Center Brook.............+- OUSesOr oR eee wt e00) ) EROXIe’s=. coc e. ioe eee Stocker & Fox’s............ Hast Springfield....... GHO) “SHVOxie7sio sence oar pes” Casler & Andrews.......... Springtielad Center.. 450 R.L. Warren’s...... 4 marr Rat Wwile oot estes anodes LU bWwick,...\. <1. secs wale ,» 200 West Burlington.... > 300 Pitt Cushman’s.... ....... Wdmeston Center..... 200 Parker’s............. 3 400 Col. Gardner’s.............- Burlington Flats..... we OO ROPE Sr eee edt eee ap sare BUG Ed. Gardner’s...... SIREN do icra 150 L. N. Brown’s...... seem eidete West Edmeston....... 600 Benj. Smith’s......,....... -- Spooner’ s Corners.. 400 Ed. Loomis’ Richfield.... ... Breese, La!) Brock WAy’Si ones ses siecheeaite Ling Wil eaassgadeecans 400 L.O. Vebber’ Exeter Enon +e+. 600 Smith & Wilber............ West Exeter........... 400 H.&S. Smith’s West Exeter.......... 300 Hiliy (Creek oncl ye cts sacecece Wy (Creektiwcsiceoee 200 J. H. Pratt’s (Kees ene .-. 400 ISAC js sac gaconanecnosbodene Burlington Green..... 350 Lyman Johnson ee ee Plats...... 500 Parley Phillips ....Unadilla Forks........ 200) ‘Colman'’s 5a. 2c-)-tenericliae steal vn COL nee 200 Wm. L. Brown’s. oe Goeoeee ree 200 Newel N. Talbot’s.......... ae Brice 105 Clark?s\. oe... eons ..Schuyler’s Lake....... 200 Hartwick Union........... Cooperstown.......... — Edmeston Center ..Edmeston Center..... "50 Chamberlain’s..c..........- Richfield Springs..... — Warren Chasers: West Edmeston....... 250 Cherry Valley... .....Cherry Valley......... Joseph King’s. Burlington Green..... 200. “Duttle?s; Sessoe naeeee eee South Edmeston...... 250 George Clark’s.. wilyde\ Parkssuesse niece 300 Rider’s.... -eseeee.5Chuyler’s Lake...... 100 Nearing & Co.’s............ Butternuts............. —=—— Baker’... .c0ccccectwiewate be do uaithaiete CHAUTAUQUA COUNTY.—12 FACTORIES lamleten ei icciceees cnceeeece amletiencicsckeessetee Hamlet...... sadn scons oy Laat) J. E. Robertson’s.......... Bustiy Sayeteccteleee ae ea (3) evn eee eee aera 1250 Clear Spring phosocoaanedooes HYre@dOniads 222-seseee cee 700 do Sherman. ocsceee ee . 457 Benen Shsiorsic. see Sinclairville............ 1,049 Canadawa........... Netyaiainien Arkwright ............. 680 J. S. Hulbert’s.............. Forrestville............ 400 Gerry......s0.0sscss. eevee oie y CLE a ee eee ee eee eee 500 Villanova....... Bstiiseintere dae VAL Ovianeesseeeneeees 400 Cassadaga.............0.- ..-Cassadaga.............. 400 SCHOHARIE COUNTY.—9 FACTORIES. Sharon Center Sharon Center 250 Argusville...... ae De eietehetos -Argusville............ - 600 Seward Valley -.Seward. 200) Carlisle rans scraeleeeereen Carlisle........ eis Hindsville........ .......-Hindsyille . - 200 Barneyville............ .....Barneyville... Gardnersville............... Gardnersville -— Esperance......... veeeeeess MSPerance ....... Cobleskill ........ coosbos05ed Cobleskill ............08 — RENSSELAER COUNTY.—1 FACTORY. Matteson’s...........+e.+...-90Uth Berlin TOMPKINS COUNTY.—9 FACTORIES. Dryden Union.............. BER ENT is ay rors ssta etait arteeroite 600 Freeville Union..... aotouec Freeville........-sce0e- Groton. -ccacsueeeee eer Groton Hollow... .... 500 Slaterville ................. Slaterville . Fillis Hollow..............-- JN TACE SERS ade seaonodes ap = WPerunicaie deren cenuuisaeee Peruville...... Arnold’s....... ooggendeseooce Ithaca atefeiaayc ston cee eyeei a =a Ridgway Creamery........Caroline Depot........ —— APPENDIX. 537 CATTARAUGUS COUNTY.—55 FACTORIES. Name of Factory. Location, No. of Cows. Name of Factory. Location. No. of Cows. PWVGLERIS <<<. < 08. ccc nodson coLU MN ANOMVEcigdoteccnroesos> = Barmersyilles fas che vaeteein .Farmersyille 400 Perrysburgh......e.e.eesens Perrysburgh.........0 550 Cook & Brothers........... do — PICIEMOPIS| jcresesivn noes sincam Versailles.............. UO SING VET aremiptelely wie's eheteleisiatesracta do === CESIAU ED Virielciecjcinietelsioisic/eimeiviccis SIDE CE Yaa eee ccenieeee — J.K. Button’s.............. do —— ARO DIRMOCNECT sss eceiuwcncnccs Leon Center........... USC vfalelere sical siclaye acaivin ote ie LIS SEV Ae AGeneatecebwes .— ESPERO PA ielo so cicisteinies wc cleiera/oe Randol phy cesvese-nsses De EOL VANTEC Kareem scieclaltertisioicinis Pontvillens.e eee eee — First Collins................ Cowandaeeeserescteiase HD) OER eE aAassasdodoscosococcd COS abboonooncborasen — Stebbin’s....... sis uit Satentstne Cattaraugus ... ....... Sen ARMIN SCALE ioithioe cinie'stecitseiine ciate Hinsdale ....... se eeee SWVC DL Yiaiu la cin icicle © ote oleate Marengo, do .. 300 Spring Grove............... Richmond, _, do B00 Greenwood ............. eee Woodstock, ae -. 800 Gurden Prairie..... 56 eepeces — Marsh & Jackson........... Union, 500 Mead’s........ cisiois vis. o/slain e(sis = 6 ELC DEOMI teteiate teeta etaaiane - 800 PS GICS ween te eee ac sekaee das Kingston, DeKalb Co: 200 Milk Condensing Co....... Blgin: iwcpevinexeoenenee _-— Sugar Grove SOATITOLa tee oeeeeeentee 300 Rocktont. 2.25: eat. ot = aoe JROCKUONe reenter 400 Punton.......... Saree UL ING OtMner aleetersieeiatalelereiet= 250 Stuart Bros............ ..Hebron, McHenry Co. 500 Kennicott......... Ao KO Beitscoarnors Hane 200 Oneida........ +22 ROCKiONd Sassen eee _— Cameron.......... Bho. (ioe cis .Ggaoricbenandca 200 Belvidere... ... Belvidere, Boone Co.. —— Perry. -tiswecces see Wie, GO wate enemte teat 150 eeialerepeeese . 2 Fale, Ogle Cons neuen 500 AVEO? Sonececo po sso0neus GOP eereku comes cece 150 Wanzer’s.. was IANO O0i te elatelbeielatte aioe = Gould & Hammond’s...... Ram OVier: eae cencecuente 425 do 56 ioe EDI CIIN oi) prota arama —— Tuttle’s......... Soatopsodsse POG ctceteecenanccence 350 Cameron........... cate oss Northfield........... .. —= KENTUCKY.—5 FACTORIES. Chilesburgyeierctiscies mctecte te Chilesburg, Fay’te Co. 300 WVersuilles... ............... Versailles, W’df’d Co. 200 lark ae achesten, Clark Co. 300 Madison County C. M. A..Richmond.........:.... — elby City ........... — MINNESOTA.Y4 FACTORIES. PANN GENS OMe nje/aiciefolels'tele/-isivieisiers Mower City.....:...... AS Gaye Siete Vt tticrtticie ee sielersiela Rochester.............. —— RVC LUSH eter cicciciccetincloniceeion WEIS Te Re cerce mene cnnae =|). ‘OWALONDY. sees cence ndessiane Owatonnil......eeeeeees —— WISCONSIN.—34 FACTORIES. C. H. Wilder’s..............- Evansville, Rock Co.. 400 Johnson’s........... ducbco ..Kenosha........... Looe: == Springvale INTE esse aeondeoronbe — ong’s...........-.cceeeeees ; Gk SSaRG bboy osoG nc — Hldredge..... Afton....... 200 Pierce & Simmons......... do satis eeeaeeee — Elkhorn...... Elkhorn...... -- 200 Truesdell’s.................. do Sno ssastsccoci _— Rosendale... Rosendale ............. G00" “Wihite’ sine o.2 ee focrccemee (i (oMage a sesh osu — TEPAZEMIS | eeeisy-teehe ese podoncabe Madoga yy. 2.2. e-s-. see 459 Fort Atkinson...... ...Fort Atkinson......... — Sparta...... Spartaycns veces eos 200 Spring Mills.......... PNiGomers :/2::52c2 5 vee — Wavil’s...... Lake Mills, Jeff. Co... — Bullock’s........... Rockton.,.........+..-. == Barrett's). .22....2..0. odode Burnett Stution....... — Cold §pring..... oe ...Whitewater............ — Coolidge...... Windsor, Dane Co.... —- Coburn’s........... 205 do ce eteeeeeee = Waterville Waterville, Wauk. Co. —— Drake’s............- ..-Lake Mills............. — BOyMLONES at eee ee eee Waupun — Gilbert & Co.’s.. ..Hazel Green......... oo LO WATGISh tin hsesioneeeeeae do Tappay Sess.seeee 7 MOLSON peeeeeeeanee —— Johnson’s.... do Wilbur & Co.’s so Wilm Otep sneeencene he Downey's...... do Strong & Co. re eon . Oakfleld.............. == Carpenter’s.... Kenosha Cochran’s ....2...2... ..Trenton, cee Co... .—o LOGS er eeeeciecisie were do Reigart & Ross..........:.. Beloit:2 0 Sea oo APPENDIX. MASSACHUSETTS.—-26 FACTORIES. 539 Name of Factory. Location. No. of Cows. Name of Factory. Location. No. of Cows. Worcester Co..............- WiSPeM ee hertctsperee sence OOD!) NiewaTien Os). 5 s/c micaiaeuenere henox..... coondcernearn —— iGhivlon Cube emacaser PELE OUWIG Kn anectea nie see Cheshine yr ee ee PCH ERHING Toeeeimaele vrs — New Braintree New Braintree......... 542 Petersham Cheese Co..... Petersham............. —— Barre Central Cheese Co..Barre Center .......... Cheshire GO ae South Adams.......... — Barre Cheese Co........... SALTO SSeS ye ecue ences 375 Westboro’ GO Mrer a sree Westboro peiodassmee —— Southwest......... Siw eyIACLOM telsterstemertcratstace sates tals 125 Lewis Milk Condensing...West Brookfield...... == Hardwick Center. RETO Wichkiise dccecdseen 500 Coy’s Hill Cheese Co....... Wiarrenssjectr een 300 PBOUSC'S doce cc ccsces Hatlachiorts a csepadoecane —— South Williamstown...... South Williamstown... —— Williamstown... Williamstown......... — Walker’s TECMWICH ie. .dcgcoucossorncena- HB Greylock; se wageeooueeees South Adams.......... — VEARMONT—32 FACLORIES. East Berkshire............. East Berkshire....... - 400 Missisquoi......... .-North Sheldon.. — Enosburgh Factory Co....Enosburgh............. 600 Gleason’s..... Shrewsbury.. = North Enosbur ol wig emma North Enosburgh..... 400 Mason’s..... Richmond.. 80 Hast Franklin .............. Hast Franklin......... 600 Valley............. i 650 Middletown... ..... 0... .6ce. Middletown............ 600 Hast Poultney.... 300 HOS 6 Pea Ween dence ee West Rupert........... 625 Wallingford...... — West Pawlet..............04 West Pawlet........... 475 Williams’....... — 7S UU RAD rice caricar i apie yamine Middletown Rutland......... => West Tinmouth......... ... West ''inmouth West Orwell... 450 INIOVHOMES Gasedaonebodes i oe Bee RIS el aU es Bast Orwell... 350 Valentine’s..... Sr Nereiereaisisatene Tinmouth Hosford’s..... 350 Otser Creek................. Center Rutland Milton........... == SUING eee cieceaoddoosees Rutland Milton Falls.... == SINGICIO AS coonogoansonemoceee West Rutland Hernisourchieeceeenceee F errisbur: eh.. = AVG ORES = sameacasoscnonn Pawlet Jaco New Haven...........0.c00- New Haven...... = CRITI HS coaqadodoonononedcdoans Kon { pHoquanssdoaaaaooes Shoreham..... lets chaser slersiggerels -Shoreham....... Bodoade <== bd MICHIGAN.—22 FACTORIES. St. Clair ...........- pusdod casio Olenbe At cossaodcssosens 450 Spring Brook INGA Cleo gonpesdooncocsounen [RABE lsogcaoacadoneboe 700 Gilt Hdge OUPOMAS eer oc eee cisecnsee NOVA sence —— Tonia: EV OAC Se hteisicla sicistereiere/e io ciclo Ohi sito tees sosonbadaaosoe — Reading BAe Saunders’........... Soneneee .— Fowler & Co.'s. PED Serre secrete cic cl netysisiets +s. —— Adrian C. M. oy VINTEC ee oes see bier <6 cess —— Ames’... Maple Grove...........s0005 Farmington............ 600 Sawin’s ( CEUTHIO) N Anohoagseoesecatcasdd Canton)... oncsrecnes -- 400 Utica.. SCAR Sere citeins sens marche tetcieyets ino bbira Sho oanaadansaoe «-. — Welton’s.. Clayton..... bogoS6occObeeaos UClaytOnseececssee cece — Hillsdale.... VIRGINIA—1 FACTORY. Holston ....................-saltville, Smith Co.... —— NORTH CAROLINA.-1 FACTORY. Elk Mountain ........ aadone Asheville, Bune’e Co. 230 THNNESSHE.— Stratton’s...................Crossville, Cumb’d Co. — 1 FACTORY. KANSAS.—1 FACTORY. PASC TA CH Seis alcjalsieicla's's\eleioie cis se ATOM CLG ate lapiciaisle isis — CONNECTICUT.-1 FACTORY. Hagle Cheese Co............ North Colebrooke...., —— PHNNSYLVANIA.-14 FACTORIES Springville.... . Springville, Susq. Co.. 158 Bridgewater.. Bridgewater, do .. 200 Gage.......... 6 (0) 80 Worth’s....... Marshallton, Ch’tr Co. —— Damascus Creamery. a Sede Damascus, Wayne Co. — Woodcock First Premium. Woodcock, Crawf’d Co —— Woodcock Boro’ Cream’y. Woodcock Eee do — Venango......... Jocaooncat Venango, Crawf’d Co. Keystonesei eiiisiscces duenene N. Richmond, do “ Cambridgely.casuseseeeeeee Rockdale, do 6 Ellis & Smith’s............. Waterford, Erie Co.. New Milford Creamery....New Milford, Susq. Co Spring Elie eeeece eee Spring Hill, Brad. Co. HMarlS.caectewee oeenee *UOeOUE Carthage............ mee IOWA.—7 FACTORIES. SMITE B ice sacnnectmec tem ree VEASOM Olbysccscssseense — Taye threat Wa ecan amcumee aces (CKO E aieSceatomas 7a — Wyoming................... Wyoming, Jones Co.. —— Clear Lake......csccscsc.s¢sClear Lake........0.02. — Strawberry Point...........Fayette Co Kijidders:ta cee eee Pierce’s.......... sane agandee Belmond.. Epworth, Dubuque Co Cee eer ecewne aii i es or So | 540 APPENDIX. INDIANA.—-2 FACTORIES. Name of ae: Location. No. of Cows. Name of Factory. Location. No. of Cows. Mires eMUCEDTNeS!atpiejntutsiele Mad dlesexss secu eet aoe Bowood, ae —— IRC ODIC’ Be. ote cicienistele sole sine Bo cuenare\) do -— Smith & Cochrane’s....... Compton, Pr. Quebec. 250 H. Nissouri......... anpanes Ingersoll do -_— INDEX, PAGE. ANECOTS O10 Fae arigad GuSgansBor done eccoae Osco Muisisdieivenee 108 Absorbing liquid manu re with sawdust.. Sues Acid, Development of in cheese making. Seeerodae 443 Acidity in cream, Influence of in churning........ 501 Acids, Advantages of over rennet.......... aoosene 309 — —— for coagulating milk over rennet......... 309 — Amount of required............... ShodcdeSpacauc 328 — for coagulating milk.. elefaratoletavarael=\caistelortal 38 Agitator, Curd........... Be esmedea iors wistane os aleperarciaieteisle a 407 — forstirring milk................... er elen seer ciecias 453, PAULIN ADEVE TAM oer ele ciersiace ciate clan cveisiaievajsieiaivielalsyesersieievesaiaisie . 167 == shri TAKE oAeAaadenosdddds sed ssandacoas gnaangea Sane 822 PAN GerneYy, DUES cc tc csc cece - seoonhooddaddoeue nee .. 16 Alderneys as butter COWS..........55 s.e5 BEA SAQSS 115 SOT OES OMS eeee eee ielicielcteieichein ciniarsisielataieelellainteleieyatalatsls 114 Allgauer ane Holland cows compared with other DRGEG Senses pace jens oceans Pisalseieaeisiciete 16-177 PALIT Geld (CIEE SOs oa vie rales peieie isiiriaicisiefe alae ale clsivieiniala ofa . dll — —abroad, Appearance and comparative MCCiESOLS Stet ee ndeestiod ootabapccoosases . at — — Composition Of............ ....6-. Fe Mercieelseie soul: — and Cheddar processes compared.............. 430 WLC UIT VAD Elec cc cle fee csi aieisiersietciels Re evaicicte aeee let ean Ammoniacal salts in cCheese@........+...2e005 aoodogna Analysis of beets and turnips...............05 98 — — leguminousand other plants—Boussingault 85 — — milk and whey in cheese making........0.0« 36 — — poison cheese, Voelcker.............+.-+0000- 4T4 — — skim milk and whey in skim cheese making 337 > ice Walley Wodbbaneacta ae sOb eco Oeuens aso aonGoeogad 319 — —— at three periods of manufacture . 820 Annutto, Cheese spoiled by bad 327 = JDEGA) OHO oirer se coaagoaede wdodddaeseoecabo 438 — Dry extract of or annattoine lu. vutter . 499 — Method of preparing............... . 439 — Nicholls’ 279 — — English for butter COP Rtn leo eacrctaefat ssuielavayatas stake . 499 — Preparing at the Brockett Bridge Factory.... 439 Annattoine 43 — Caldwell’s analy: — Receipt for cutting. Apparatus, Wactory, Cost of........... gBG8SS nonaASD . 37 Appliances, Factory, Convenient..........+..cs06.. 418 ASHES emaeriect naiecists caisson cis creme lenis ere cine deere Scooece (an — for eradicating mosses... adbedoobasss Associated dairies.......... APAOB SSH BBE eeelvahes Boosto il ST MCLALL VIN een teen coca nelncces Salvaiieleisere eine spans Ooe — — Rise and progress Grae eo Bhdoganercao 7B) Austin’s agitator, Description of............. seceee 404 Average product of cows............ GER aRRS Sonodeasa .7al VTS INES ee srentoceiscec nice ceinism cinneouisecten ae aoa5 -. 113 — and Alderney, Crossing Hoaonessaedao sdecovoads » 115 — Crossing common stock with............ Casco .. 114 Bad flavored cheese; its (OMT saceecmmbonmetamete +» 472 Bandages, boxes, Robi Gonna ae Rae asia acess 200 Bandaging machine...... Aleta axsiecckalate 421 Barley, Composition Of............ccecccceeces da soe aki Barn, Absorbing the liquid manures in...... Sdtcan Bln A convenient dairy EMsisieaieeioe ABD AaAAAS Anatiganetaa) ar — Anexcellent dairy..... peudade secede seeearnnedds . 33 — Another style of................ nanddestdesnclossses = — Basement for roots.......cccccccceceus s0eaorbae ys — Clark’s dairy..... SubHonEdoaaHSsAsedbssaosanwaL Bii-si9 — Drive floors and bays................5 Ss¢ead0cec5 BF — Drive-way near the peak........ Se craiealoeieei falco +. Oo — Fodder thrown downwards ........ Derciecinee Bon BB! — horse stable and carriage house......... Snonso> 38! —() MANURE SINKiteccsenecscesces = 5 ele(a eiaiais iain inistard deci. OS CONAN STINT Eats celstoas vena cninemceine etaia lolx cipal OF — Meadow Brook Dairy, Des Cri pb” Gini eaeead Ae ESV ULOU Oia eels icles sistenic cc cicinevescieee — — — Ground plan.. — Modern dairy....... — Stubles for dairy......... — Truesdale’s, fae manure cellar, — ventilators. He acer: RAE S PAGE. Barn with four rows of stables.........secovsssecees 39 — without manure cellur.......... cece cece ee Badoaty Go) Barns) Dairyes saci eee heen eens oo!) gil — for cutting and steaming fodder............... . 36 — Thr eshing. Ronen oppua diancoodacaUnnbpr one Sdodion ett — 'Iruesdale’s, Feeding the cows................:5 38 => Preparing CANIS) OR MRE ORR oa eat. 37 Beef and cheese, Relative cost of producing...... 12 Beets, American improved imperial sugar........ 96 = Cost of WAUS AT ie cies eho niescl meant aioleisteielroeatsticn eee 98 — Distance between rowS.....--.s.sssscseseece cess 97 — Harvesting...... Sousa cco ondd sam nbonormosoeds mon sat LAN tS ATV NO Wise -jcidses Seema eee ae ens wetleniese 97 — Preparation of soil One Nae Ann canon ataaee 96 — Singling and hoeing.. pho oo ACH aoRobusacunE 3 Or =a HIME OL SOWING scons saseee eee OE ee 97 SMITE SEAS Ss arieteee ats deel eiscee Meta ee eee 13 Boiler and engine, Another new....... aie Od a0 tereses OOD Se a OLbICAL: ertec mats warccanaceleteinieete eos eee 385 — ~—Jones & Faulkner's -.-.:01ss0ss0scseccceveecee 382 — steam generator, SCE Senet Sndocosdacune Ganon west Bone MATUMC. sees eeescereeseseeenseteeeeeeseeersa ens 90 — Howto Giesnive AGanadntas oO06 doddoongduagnooSLGodc Boxing cheese for market......s..c0., Bobeine Branch factories. .......ecescescccceces Breaking the curds............ Breeding from healthy animals — Excessive use of the male.. — stock, Bad habits inherited 9 119 — Painting of the mother’s blood, Examples of. 109 — What is to be considered.. 110 Buckwheat, Composition Of.............0..00eee0ee 04 Bulls from good milking families, Importance of vhoroughbs ed.. as 120 Butter, Eaters of, no "such 10 — and cheese, Bqualizing the supply of.......... il — — — What constitutes good................ woes 46 = ORME NAE)-Shecenn dareeonssobcoolbe Spoonotion Sivek ert 40g — Character of good............ «. BaAdoaebaGoo sande “eh ——m COLOMANGy CExXbULeOLecawcceemeeticlnidceindeneneies 485 — colored with carrots............. ERO ORAaCoD veces 499 — Coloring............ Eat baenac éhodoauBas oa evaten ane 499 — Composition OLR aadobuca busoooco -489-500 — factory, Plan of Rockville.........- siseieleramemeteln 252 — factories, Expense and profits........ Sewanee . 240 =, — System of or joel Pons sbaaatcaeten de dat aan 246 — — The Orange Co........... WER Sioa valle aeeee 236 — — Water Baote eae! : pocbonocaodaoaoogenAeen 494. — firkins, Oak....... .. acdonneocasadaee - 512 a= WIN GOLO Mace ee Ee Manistee: oodcon 495 — Freeing from buttermill:. . SHG Sec Hactieeaton 484 — grasses of Orange COM Pree siete leeteleis deaenene 242 He EP AAL SINS voice eae ainsnisleonmmcat eieeaeane Rireletereieie ctaeia 511 — Howto keep the salt for. coc pauondpagedaa 511 oa WOH Aan enA HO dnb sho odon joMpolOSouUBSApGAS 509 — Influence of washing...... onoanand nocoondon Yh) —= in hard water districts... ecto ot eke e eke cee ce . 236 — its keeping qualities,.... sdcodantoadand 483 — Losing the aroma of........... spocea9 Bh oaeeisbore . 495 — made in New York in 1864...............0.000... 5 lk) — making—American system... Canboonuccncaan, 44s) — — at Orange Co. factories..... BOOK AIND Saat COME CRIME Vettemsremcicia soe onlaieealetniate 481 — — Leading principles for....... Yea er 48, — — milk room for farm BEE Sos buonunret s:$ —t—— I A] OSODIIYs Osetia cilsislate t ajatalelat cleetcters ebrd ocrctecan 500 — -— Scotch method..... . 498 — — Yaintsin........ 603 — manufacture... . 481 — — Modern method of ma ag 484 — marketing, The Captain’s . 246 — Over-working and spoiling the gr. 508 — package and eieaies 511 - - = mers Maceo Ao pa 542 INDEX. Butter packages—Preparing for useé........1..+.... Packing of....... 34 pail and firkins.... — Philadelphia, d Er aVVCSLCOLt Ss Oake eee ee Peet ae eee — manufactured, table for.............. Philadelphia, Making of Price of in London............... 0 )a)n\aiele » ole miele Production of in U.S. and 'erritories Salt ESiaChlOneeseee eae ne ee ee ene Tal Lista ata ent it {fT == pC OMPOBRILLONIOL ./ saat se see NO) ee arn Te 500 Calves, Importance of freely handling........... TaN ELOW SLO! SID ae ck seher ee RU RR tana Cena ie — Raising of — process, Principles of Chee sengAnderi canny rep pala e pam eininen aren taeinids HTT TTT a English, improvement in keeping, cheese TOOM Rei enn nee pbodadas Racin see sees — — inquality.... Experiments at Frocester Couriteencs whee: — Voelcker’s Exports from New York from 1862 to 1866...... = el Se Tee eae ee taeon se ree astenias orate Extra rich, Analysis of...... — fine, Process for making factory owned and managed by one perso — Sinclairville, Rules and regulations for. pete in New York and capitalinvested in — factories, Advantages ofa cellar under. — — Another form of organizing..... .......... CW OYiGricte ness mee aie hii tl fepacecodes — — inaugurated by Jesse William — — Notice to patrons, form for.... — — Number built in 16 years — — Regulations for.... — factories—Rules for organizing, - = UGE Mes Sr oonecicolin sen bee Aete — Fancy factory............... — Flavor of, English standard. SAIN Gan GUGEEooon pees sos — from tainted milk... Gloucestershire..... bad from imperfect Sabine et at ene ee d bandages, boxes, &¢............... ences tigaspse Cannony bales ea een dodbcpce se alejefatalay wines oleyaia 410 certificate of sale...... ictstetaletetelotelclalsiere seeaes eislaterate 365 Cheshire of excellent quality......... ASBOEAC OOO dairying asa specialty—Its history............. Defects in American, bad flavor, &C........... 3 districts of England.............. Bwclais Mepemereieete OLESSin esrOOM yee eet Remin Nie haieae aa as 419 ECE ORS ILONEE Di pe se ee sna ees eeu 33) Beige PAGE. Cheese, Grafted ....... ae cecccnccscscceccccssececens.. 467 — Hard, dry—How to iMprovel. vspeeeeeees 479 — hoop followers A 425 — — and utensils, English 293 Ss HOODSiacon cede eee 404 — how affected by fungus 190 — Keeping qualities 429 — made from whey 351 — — by centrifugal machine, Anal 349 — makers, Salary of first-class..... asee 193 = making, acids for......::.2...25) Seas 358, 359 — — American and Cheddar processes compared. 430 — — at Avery & Ives’ factory ...... isie'sin de sone OD — — Coarse curds process... le . 464 — — Cutting the curds.,..._ nueeles -. 440 = <= Hushisiviews/on heat. a5 saan vecceses 444 — — froma small quantity of milk, Process..... 469 Ta 37 number of /cowsee eee 466 os Machinery..22.57. eee BadoMNSeDce se. 302 sie Norway. factory: :):45) Sees ieee 463 — — paying for by the pound............ Se atte 365 =) = Eracticalmistakesiny..1-1) 5 ease 312 — — Process where milk is sour................ ++. 459 — — Temperature forskimmed milk.......... ees =. wholetimiikeeem 2 cleinyels ole aia imieinie (i ineetEete 448 —'— under difficulties: .:.2./..: BARS Sue men Se 5 vee. 468 = = use of sour wiheys see EPS aes eic see. 437 = = eatane eee Sivistelsipinieleiteta =) manufacture: :) +5125 2h 2c Seen = —‘cost.in)familiesiA9) 2 Ser scne tester — — English reduction of labor Aleister — — of, from small quantities of milk........... SS skimmed Se aee con easinceeeentene 4 = market at' Chippenham), .:/.2 3/052. 25.50. enn b = i=) Pheminplishe ete ee saienuneeeenad a. 282 — Mellow appearance of...... sis \eleletel sei maereaiete serene A — Not ripening at too low temperature........... 330 ape OL SUMETSeL. eee: ta. eeicigiace ce ccoswecnecnes 260 — partially skimmed, Analysis of................. 341 — per centage, Manufacture table for............ 22 — = consumed as food .......0..., oe «a5 oom aig entails — Practical faults in making ........, Spapdesecne suns — press, A primitive........... th ciate nebula etniotalaiate — — English = J=—*BCLOW Ssh eee — presses, Factory — — Herkimer Co. don in 1866 and 1867. Size of spoiled by bad rennet.......... Hees ainielsiengeteitareneye — — high temperature......... ale pita use aiceeetoee 330 == NOtLUrning eens SPAR e224) scp eienictaperatte spoiling by breaking curd Btabisties Sssnrsoseee eee — Oneida....... deidas6 tac seeeees ceeeeecceeeceenees JOG — With automatic heater..........cccececccceces 385 MIO TERT TATE Ta ee PAGE. Churning, Causes affecting........ AcianoOnaGeeAcADOOe 504 — Dogund sheep power for........... shone EDINGTON OL. - cnvescctiacivesesceceeresens «22 501 — Experiments in temperature....... Ar QOOUONONEOG fies) ne ELOW, GOL DEG GONE... 2c. .Secchec leds ssedeen ngcosoo0 483 SMSO NET LON 5 coe cicinvevciaiaiviesiacelcicie eieteislerajaresiaiefe asodoncog Ms) > — the cream or the milk..... aepaeeisticle Sufloca ngonono Ls) — — milk, Dutch process......... ABOnGO doaoen weceee 498 too quick eiu niece) eat lekcto ratale'e/a orattinayalatatatortalale Stare ae. 488 Churns, EW eybligie nusesuenbe sa) Cosanedauebe afstalate «. 495 Cleaning dairy utemsils..........eeseeeeeeee see B02 UME CRUINS Ge ce Sajalcercie cele ve arearlemioe oeige ele 5 vee OOD BNEERVIC TR PASTE wists ae laic uri ticle eaivjarenselere sie visteaiarcinie seialete 42 — seed and permanent pasture, Field experi- MAGS MESON sels eticteiersisrais Aap rboaoeococorsoocncnNd 3 BY GIOVERS OVALE LOL MAIC. scosiee cw acicictcantolsicias . 102 == _-AVTAVSTR OFF sso 553 55055059 5 s2s0acoasansn6ondo" - 102 Coagulating milk, Experiméntsin............. wee OO Coarse curds process, Salting............ scoononde 3) Coloring butter . 499 — cheese....... . 438 — — forthe London market................ - 279 Common stock, Crossing with thorough-breds. 109 Composition of cheese...............eeee eee 297 Concentrated food, Injury from feeding. Condensed milk.... — — Elgin factory — — English Company o Ub - - ixpor ts from New York............... Beamdoe 2Ale4 SIG sananererencnes Raetesite Seas Ba Lcidcacresiemireate 195 — — in Switzerland..................e00e odd . 195 am —— WITH LS PD Pee ats cto nssocatacn s\clars ote verehata Simtrolavete era tatas . 197 — — trade, Origin and development of.. S195) regent NW OUIKIMGS, Of - cia cas. ccuveeeses ve wittaces eden 5 2OL J milks, Consistency of reree ne eoneteoe BOARBUOCOS DOU Condensing factory, Provost’s....... puobeopauboKKoR call Set CN INKee EROCESSNOLs Pardee on Strawberry Culture...... ...-. 75| Ventilation in American Dwellings..... i 50 Parkman’s Book of Roses.....-...--..-- 3 00| Warder’s Hedges and Evergreens....... 1 50 Parsons omithewWOse) sy. e- ee ee eee ae 1 50) Waring’s Earth Closets.....----.....--- 50 Pear Culture for Profit [P. T. Quinn].... 1 00} Do. Elements of Agriculture...-........ 1 00 Meatanduts, Uses ies