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ASSOCIATION LIB;

UNIVRKSITY OF CACflPOKNIA

:PARTMENT OF CIVIL ENUi.^:^

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WOOD : A MANUAL OF THE NATURAL HISTORY AND

INDUSTRIAL APPLICATIONS OF THE

TIMBERS OF COMMERCE.

UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA
UFARTMENT OF^^l(j^(^^*
PCKKO-KY. CALI?"O.*I<!A

A MANUAL OF THE NATURAL HISTORY AND
INDUSTRIAL APPLICATIONS OF THE

CIVIL

D. of C.

ASSOCIATION UBBARY

BY

G. S. BOULGER, F.L.S.; F.G.S., F.R.H.S., A.S.I.

PROFESSOR OF BOTANY AND LECTURER ON FORESTRY IN THE CITY OF LONDON COLLEGE

AND FORMERLY IN THE ROYAL AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE J AUTHOR OF

"FAMILIAR TREES," "THE USES OF PLANTS," ETC.

WITH 82 ILLUSTRATIONS.

LONDON
EDWARD ARNOLD

1902

[All rights reserved.}

B7

Engineering
Library

BY KIND PERMISSION,

TO

THE MASTER AND WARDENS OF
THE WORSHIPFUL COMPANY OF CARPENTERS

AND THE MASTER AND WARDENS OF
THE WORSHIPFUL COMPANY OF TURNERS.

PREFACE.

IN an attempt, such as this, to cover a wide ground within a
book of small compass perfect accuracy cannot be hoped for,
completeness is impossible and originality is neither expected nor
desirable. Rather, however, than burden the body of the book
with constant acknowledgments of indebtedness, I have thought
it better to add a bibliographical appendix, indicating those works
from which I have borrowed most freely. For Figs. 1, 7, 16,
17 and 29 I am indebted to the courtesy of Mr. Francis
Darwin and the Syndicate of the Cambridge University Press ;
for Figs. 10, 18, 21—23 and 27 to that of Professor Marshall
Ward and Messrs. Kegan Paul, Trench, Triibner & Co. ; for Figs.
12, 13, 15, 26 and 30 to that of Professor Somerville and Mr.
David Douglas ; and for Figs. 4, 28, 32, 37 and 45 — 66, which
are photographed from nature, to Mr. D. F. Mackenzie of Morton
Hall, Midlothian; whilst Figs. 2, 3, 6, 8, 9, 11, 14, 24, 25 and
38 — 44 have been drawn for me by Miss Emily Carter.

The plates at the end of the book are photographs from
sections of common British-grown timbers magnified 3J times.
They were prepared by Arthur Deane, Esq., Assistant Curator
of the Warrington Museum, and are used by his kind permission
and that of the English Arboricultural Society.

I have thought it well to indicate the pronunciation of the
Latin names by putting an accent over the syllables on which
the stress falls ; and it may be desirable to point out here
that the chief symbols employed in Part II. are explained on

PP'139-140- 109272

vi ' PREFACE.

How incomplete my work is may be gauged by the statement
that, while there are undoubtedly several thousand woods used
in various parts of the world, only about 750 are here enumerated;
but these include most of those which are practically known in
general commerce, and to have dealt with more would have
necessitated a volume fully twice as large.

G. S. B.

CONTENTS.

/.-OF WOOD IN GENERAL.

CHAPTER I.

PAGE

THE ORIGIN, STRUCTURE, AND DEVELOPMENT OF WOOD, AND ITS USE

TO THE TREE, - 1

CHAPTER II.
THE RECOGNITION AND CLASSIFICATION OF WOODS,

40

CHAPTER III.

DEFECTS OF WOOD, -

66

CHAPTER IV.

SELECTION, SEASONING, STORAGE AND DURABILITY OF WOODS, - 78

CHAPTER V.

THE USES OF WOODS,

viii CONTENTS.

CHAPTER VI.

PAOK

OUR SUPPLIES OF WOOD, - - 109

CHAPTER VII.
TESTING WOOD, - 129

PART IL— WOODS OF COMMERCE.
THEIR SOURCES, CHARACTERS, AND USES, 141

APPENDICES.

I. EXPLANATION OF SOME TERMS USED WITH REFERENCE TO

CONVERTED TIMBER, ETC., - 348

II. THE MICROSCOPIC EXAMINATION OF WTOODS, - 349

III. SELECT BIBLIOGRAPHY, 351

IV. PLATES OF SECTIONS OF COMMON BRITISH-GROWN TIMBERS, - 353
INDEX, 353

PART I.— OF WOOD IN GENERAL.

CHAPTER I.

THE ORIGIN, STRUCTURE, AND DEVELOPMENT OF WOOD
AND ITS USE TO THE TREE.

FEW, if any, of the products of nature are of such manifold utility
as wood. Though coal has in many lands largely replaced it as
fuel, and as a source of tar, though stone, brick, and iron or steel
have often been substituted for it as house-building materials,
and the metals last mentioned for the construction of ships, new
uses are constantly arising for it, such as railway sleepers,
pavements, and paper-making, so as to more than make up for
the saving effected by these substitutes. In England and the
United States, for example, the consumption of wood per head
of the population, during the last half century, has more than
doubled.

Most people are aware that for these manifold uses a great
number of different woods are employed in the various countries
of the world — woods that differ in colour, grain, hardness, weight,
flexibility, and other properties almost as widely as the trees by
which they are produced vary in foliage, flower, or fruit. It is,
however, not so generally recognized that the suitability of wood
of any kind for some particular purpose depends mainly upon its
internal structure. This structure is determined not by man's

A

2 OF WOOD IN GENERAL.

employment of the material, but by the vital requirements of the
tree when growing.

Our present concern is with wood as a material in the arts, and
not with any merely botanical interest it may have, or with its
cultivation as a crop by the forester. In dealing with the means
of recognizing different kinds of wood we shall, therefore, not
depend in any way upon characters derived from bark, leaves,
flowers, or fruit — the characters, that is, of standing, or of un-
converted timber; but only on those of the wood itself as it
appears in the timber market. At the same time, if we are to be
able to identify woods and determine their suitability for various
economic applications, it is absolutely essential that we should
know something of their origin, structure, development, and use
to the plants that produced them.

Wood does not occur in any plants of a lower grade than ferns ;
and in the higher plants in which it does occur it is chiefly, but
not exclusively in the stem. In the shell of the cocoa-nut or the
stone of a peach it probably serves the purpose of checking pre-
mature germination of the enclosed seed by excluding damp. In
stems, however, the main physiological function of wood is the
mechanical one of giving strength to resist the increasing weight
of the structure as it grows erect and branches. Submerged
aquatic plants, buoyed up, as they are, by the water, do not form
wood in their stems, nor, as a rule, do annuals, nor, at first, the
succulent, flexible shoots of longer-lived plants. In ferns, even
when growing into lofty trees, and in allied plants, the wood,
though dense, consists largely of scattered longitudinal strands
and often of cells of no great vertical length. Though there are
also generally woody layers just below the surface of the stem,
giving it considerable strength as a whole, this structure renders
tree-ferns useless as timber.

For all practical purposes, therefore, wood is produced only by
the highest sub-kingdom of the plant world, the seed-bearing or
flowering plants, the Spermatophyta or Phanerogdmia of botanists.
This great group of plants is sub-divided, mainly by characters
derived from parts other than their stems, into two divisions, the

PLANTS WHICH PRODUCE WOOD. 3

Gymnospdrmce, or plants the seeds of which are naked, i.e. not
enclosed in a fruit, and the Angiosp&rmce, or fruit-bearing plants.
The Gymnosperras are all perennial trees and shrubs; but of
three " Natural Orders " into which they are divided, two, the
Cycaddcece and Gnetdcece, belong almost exclusively to the Southern
Hemisphere and are valueless as timber. The third Natural
Order is the Contferce, so named from the general arrangement of
its seeds on a series of overlapping scales arranged in a cone, but
having also other general characters, one of the most conspicuous
of which is the production of numerous, narrow, rigid, undivided
leaves, whence they get the familiar name of needle-leaved trees.
The members of this Order, which includes the Pines, Firs,
Larches, Cedars, etc., have much-branched stems, and wood,
which, though in many points, such as its arrangement in annual
rings of growth, it resembles that of some other, more highly-
organized plants, has, as we shall see, many peculiarities. It is,
in general, of rapid growth, soft and of even texture, and very
commonly abounds in resinous substances. They are, therefore,
often spoken of as "soft woods" or as "resinous woods" and being,
from these characteristics, both easily worked and of considerable
durability, are more extensively used than any other class of
woods. The Maidenhair-tree of China and Japan (Ginkgo biloba)
is exceptional among conifers in having broad leaves : neither this
tree nor the Yew can be said to bear cones, though their seeds are
naked : the Yew is destitute of resin ; and the epithet " soft-
wooded " applies to Willow, Poplar, Horse-chestnut, etc., as truly
as to conifers.

The second and higher division of seed-bearing plants, the
Angiospermae, is divided into two Classes, which, whilst agreeing
in having their seeds enclosed in fruits, differ in many characters,
and in none more than in the structure of their stems. They are
known botanically, from the number of seed-leaves or cotyledons
of their embryos, as Monocotyledons and Dicotyledons. The Mono-
cotyledons, with one such seed-leaf, comprise lilies, orchids,
bananas, palms, sedges, grasses, etc. Few of these, such as
Palms and Bamboos, reach the dimensions of trees, and those

4 OF WOOD IN GENERAL.

which do so have generally unbranched stems which do not as
a rule increase in diameter after the very earliest stages of their
growth, the wood in them being confined to isolated strands
crowded together towards their outer surfaces. Though such
stems may occasionally, like those of tree-ferns, be utilized "in
the round," and veneers, cut from the outer part of the stem of
the Cocoa-nut Palm (Cdcos nudfera), and known, from the appear-
ance of the dark-coloured woody strands in the lighter ground-
tissue, as "Porcupine- wood," are used for inlaying, Monocotyle-
dons may well be ignored as economic sources of wood.

Dicotyledons, so named from having two seed-leaves to the
embryo, comprise an immense and varied assemblage of plants,

FIG. 1. — Transverse section of an Oak, 25 years old. After Le Maout and
Decaisne, from The Elements of Botany, by permission of Mr. Francis Darwin
and the Syndicate of the Cambridge University Press.

a very large proportion of which are merely herbaceous, never
forming wood. In those perennial members of the Class, how-
ever, which acquire the dimensions of trees or shrubs, the stem
generally branches freely, has a separable "bark," and increases
in girth with age ; the wood, though, as we shall see, it differs
in several important but not very obvious characters, agreeing
with that of conifers in being arranged in rings produced in
successive seasons (Fig. 1). These rings, as they appear in a
cross-section of a tree, or conically tapering sheaths surrounding
the tree, as they in fact are, form on the outside of the wood of
previous seasons and beneath the bark ; and this type of stem,
characteristic of gymnosperms and dicotyledons, is in consequence
correctly termed exogenous, from the Greek ex, outside of, and

USE OF WOOD TO THE TREE. 5

gennao, to produce. The term enddgenous, still sometimes applied
to the structure of the stem of monocotyledons, is less accurate.
Dicotyledons are commonly slower of growth than conifers, and
their wood, especially that near the centre of the stem, is often
much harder. They bear as a rule also broad, net-veined leaves ;
and are known familiarly, therefore, as "hardwoods" or as
" broad-leaved trees." Such are the Oak, Beech, Ash, Elm, Teak,
Willow, Alder, etc.

It is then only with the two classes of exogenous stems, those
of gymnosperms or needle-leaved trees, and those of dicotyledons
or broad-leaved trees, that we are concerned.

Though, as we have already said, conifers and broad-leaved
trees present important differences in the structure and conse-
quent character of their wood, their manner of growth is so
nearly identical in its initial stages and broad outlines that
we may well treat them at first collectively. It is, perhaps,
the many branches and the numerous small leaves exposed by
means of those branches to a maximum of air and light in
these two groups of plants (as contrasted with the general
absence of branching, and the small number and large size of
the leaves in ferns and palms) that has determined the produc-
tion of the progressively-enlarging, solid stem that characterizes
them. It must be remembered, however, that the stem of a
tree fulfils several very distinct physiological purposes. Besides
bearing up the weight of leaves and flowers so as best to obtain
the air and light they require, it is the means of communication
between the root and the leaves. Through it the water and its
dissolved gases and saline substances, taken in by the root from
the soil, are conveyed to the leaves, which have been termed the
"laboratory of the plant," to be built up in them, with the
carbonaceous food-material taken in from the atmosphere, into
those complex "organic" compounds of which the whole struc-
ture of the plant is composed. Furthermore, the stem serves
as a reservoir in which some of these organic compounds, the
" plastic material " of the plant, are stored up for use in future
growth.

6 OF WOOD IN GENERAL.

Every stem and every branch — and a branch is but a secondary
stem, differing only in position — as long as it remains capable of
elongation, is terminated, in the groups of trees with which we
are concerned, by a bud. A bud is a growing-point protected by
overlapping rudimentary leaves.

In the immediate neighbourhood of this growing-point the
stem in this its initial stage is entirely made up of structures
which almost completely resemble one another. Whether we
cut such a growing-point across or lengthwise it presents under
the microscope the appearance of a delicate mesh-work of thin
membrane filled in with a viscid semi-fluid substance. These
meshes, from their resemblance to honeycomb, were in 1667
named cells by Robert Hooke. The delicate membranes which
form them, the cell-walls as they are termed, are composed of a
definite chemical compound known as cellulose. It contains the
three elements, carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, in definite pro-
portions, which the chemist represents as C0H1005, that is, in
a hundred parts by weight 44 are carbon, 6 are hydrogen, and
50 are oxygen. Cellulose, like starch and sugar, belongs to a
group of compounds of carbon with hydrogen and oxygen in the
proportions in which those two elements occur in water, which
are known as carbo-hydrates. It has, in fact, the same percentage
composition as starch, though differing from it in many properties.
It is insoluble in water, flexible, slightly elastic, permeable, but
only slightly absorbent, and does not readily undergo fermenta-
tion. When treated with acid it passes into the condition of
starch, as is evidenced by its then turning blue with iodine, and
under certain conditions in the living plant it would seem capable
of being formed from, or of passing into, sugar. Cotton-wool
consists almost entirely of pure, unaltered cellulose. The viscid,
semi-fluid substance contained in the cells is of far more complex
chemical composition. It contains not only carbon, hydrogen,
and oxygen, but also, though in far smaller proportion, nitrogen,
with traces of sulphur, and, perhaps always also, phosphorus and
other elements. It is probably a mixture in varying proportions
of some of those substances which, from their resemblance to

FORMATION OF WOOD. 7

albumen or white of egg, are known as albuminoid, and, from the
readiness with which they undergo chemical change or decompo-
sition, as proteids. Being the substance out of which all plant-
structures originate, the sole constituent of the first germs of all
living beings, it is known as protoplasm, from the Greek protos,
first, plasma, formed matter.

Any collection of similar cells or modifications of cells having a
common origin and obeying a common law of growth is known as
a tissue. These young cells at the apex of a stem, of nearly
uniform size, and that extremely minute, with their delicate, as
yet unaltered, cell-walls filled with protoplasm, form an embryonic
tissue, one, that is, which will undergo change. Its uniform
character causes it to be termed undifferentiated, while the various
kinds of tissue to which by different changes it gives rise are
known in contradistinction as permanent tissues. One change to
which any cell is liable so long as it contains protoplasm is
division into two, a partition wall of cellulose forming across it.
The formation of this solid wall from material in solution in the
protoplasm, and a correlative power, which, as we shall see, the
living plant possesses, of dissolving a cell-wall, illustrate that
interchangeability of sugar and cellulose of which we have
spoken. A tissue the cells of which undergo division is termed
merismatic or meristem, from the Greek merisma, division ; so that
the embryonic tissue at the apex of a stem is known as apical
meristem.

Although its cells are all embryonic, they nevertheless at a
very early stage commonly present such a degree of differentia-
tion as to make it possible to distinguish three well-defined
rudimentary tissue-systems (Fig. 2). First, there is a single
layer of cells on the outside of the growing-point, with thickened
outer walls and undergoing division only in planes perpendicular
to the surface. If we trace this layer backwards down the
surface of the shoot below its apex we shall find it continuous
with similar cells which have lost their protoplasm and have even
thicker outer walls. As this outer layer of permanent tissue is
called the epidermis, from the Greek epi, upon, derma, skin, the

OF WOOD IN GENERAL.

embryonic layer in which it originates is termed the dermdtogen
(derma, skin, and genndo, to produce). In the middle of the
growing-point is a solid column-like mass of cells which are all

FIG. 2. —Growing-point of stem, showing apical meristem. P, plerome ;
R, periblem ; E, dermatogen ; /, rudiment of leaf. (After Leunis and
Frank.)

somewhat elongated in the direction of the elongation of the
stem. This is known as the plerome and the central axis of
tissues to which it gives rise as the stele (Greek for a column)

FIG. 3. — Terminal bud, showing growing-point of stem, overlapped by
rudimentary leaves with buds in their axils, the whole covered by der-
matogen. In the centre is the stele to which descend the midribs of the
leaves. (After Prantl.)

(Fig. 3). Between the outer dermatogen and the inner plerome
there is a layer, or a series of layers, of cells which undergo
division both in planes perpendicular to and in planes parallel to

^ or T
THE STELK UNIVER* 9

\ -> °F H\bX
the surface of the stem. These are known as . $i&. ptfiblem. On

tracing them backwards down the shoot we find them continuous
with tissues which immediately beneath the epidermis are
commonly green, and which often have their cells much
thickened in the corners in herbaceous plants or shoots, whilst
still further back, on older parts of woody shoots, the green layer
is often buried under one or more layers of brown cork. These
tissues which thus originate in the periblem are known collec-
tively as the cortex.

It is with tissues originating from the central plerome or stele
that we are mainly concerned. If we cut a young shoot across, a
little below its entirely embryonic apex, we shall see that, whilst
there is a central whitish mass, which on being magnified exhibits
a comparatively wide-meshed structure, there are round this a
ring of patches of a greyer, closer tissue. These grey patches
may be observed to be roundish or slightly wedge-shaped in
outline, their longer diameter lying in one of the radii of the
stem, and they are wider across their outer parts. They appear
grey on account of the smaller diameter of their cells. Longi-
tudinal sections show these patches to be cross-sections of long
strands or bundles of cells, narrower and more elongated than
those around them. The central mass of tissue is the pith or
medulla, and these strands are known as procambium or desmogen.

The pith is relatively large in the stems of herbaceous plants or
in young shoots (Fig. 4), but does not increase in bulk as the tree
grows older. Its cells are at first full of fluid, and their walls
often remain thin. Those of its outer portion, near the pro-
cambium strands, are smaller, and all its cells are often two or
three times as long in the direction of the elongation of the stem
as they are broad. Thus in shape they are short, polygonal,
closely-packed prisms. In many cases, as in the Elder, the cells
of the pith die, losing their fluid contents, shrivelling, and so
completing disorganizing the entire tissue that the stem becomes
hollow, or a mere line of dry powder in the centre of the inner-
most ring of wood marks this structural centre of the stem. In
other cases, as in the Oak, the cells of the pith have their walls

10

OF WOOD IN GENERAL.

thickened, and turn from white to brown; but even then its
relatively minute width makes it difficult to detect in a stem
several years of age.

FIG. 4.— Transverse section of the stem of Traveller's Joy (Clematis Vitdlba),
showing relatively large central pith and large vessels.

The procambium strands extend from the rudiments of leaves near
its apex right through the stem into the root. They get their
name from a Latin word, cambio, to grow, being in a merely
transitory or embryonic condition. In Monocotyledons the whole
of their tissue passes into the condition of wood and bast ; so that
the bundle, as the strand in its permanent form is termed, being
incapable of any further growth in diameter, is said to be dosed.
It is because it gives rise to a bundle (Greek, desmos, a bond) that
the procambium is termed desmogen. In those trees, however, with
which we are concerned, viz. Gymnosperms and Dicotyledons,
whilst the inner portion of each strand becomes wood or xylern
(Greek, xylon, wood) and the outer part bast or phloem (Greek,
phloios, bark), a band between these two parts remains embryonic.
This layer is called the cambium, or more precisely, for a reason

BUNDLES AND PITH-RAYS.

11

we shall see presently, the fascicular cambium, the cambium, that
is, within the bundle. Such a bundle, possessing such a cambium-
layer, is termed an open one.

Between the bundles, connecting the pith in the centre with
the cortex on the outside of the ring of bundles, are parts of the
original or ground-tissue of the stem, which are known as primary
medullary rays or pith-rays (Fig. 5). In Dicotyledons they are
often broad and conspicuous ; but in Gymnosperms they are so

FIG. 5. — Three stages in the early development of an exogenous stem.
m, pith ; r, cortex ; h, primary xylem ; //, secondary xylem ; 6, primary
phloem ; B, secondary phloem ; c, cambium ; ms, pith-ray.

narrow as not to be visible to the naked eye. From the cambium-
layer in one bundle to those in the bundles on either side of it
the formation of cambium extends, across the primary pith-rays,
so that instead of mere strips of cambium running longitudinally
down the stem between the xylem and phloem of each bundle,
there is now a cylindrical sheath of cambium extending from the
embryonic tissue of its terminal bud downwards over the whole
stem. In transverse section this sheath appears as a ring, and is
accordingly sometimes called the cambium-ring. Those parts of
it that extend between the bundles are termed inter-fascicular
cambium, in contradistinction to the precisely similar tissue within

12 OF WOOD IN GENERAL.

the bundles. This cambium-sheath is familiar to us all as the
layer of delicate thin-walled cells, full of sticky protoplasm, through
which we easily tear when we peel a stick. Having what has been
termed the quality of perpetual youth, it remains recognizable in
a stem many years of age, and with the pith furnishes us with a
convenient rough classification of all the structures of such a stem.
As we have seen, the pith, not having grown since its earliest
condition, remains as a mere central line in such a stem. From
this pith to the cambium-sheath is wood or xylem : outside the
cambium is the rind, or, as it is commonly but somewhat mis-
leadingly termed, bark, made up of the outer and often corky
cortex and the inner, largely fibrous, phloem or bast.

FIG. G. — Diagrams of exogenous stem with six bundles, during the first
year, at the beginning and at the close of the second year's growth, the last
showing the wedge-shaped masses of primary xylem projecting into the
central pith, and the formation of the first ring of secondary wood during the
second year by the activity of the cambium ring.

In the first year the xylem and phloem are formed directly by
the modification of the inner and outer cells respectively of the
procambium-strancl ; but subsequently all wood, bast, and pith-
rays originate in the cambium. Accordingly the xylem and
phloem of the first year are termed primary, and that formed
from the cambium secondary (Fig. 6).

v
VASCULAR BUNDLES. 13

The pith of trees seems mainly a structure of temporary utility
to the plant, and the function of the cortex is chiefly protective ;
but as the main function of the stem is to convey liquid nourish-
ment from the root to the leaves, and to carry back, also in a
diffusible form, the material elaborated in the leaves to growing
parts, it is one of the most noticeable characters of the bundles

Fir;. 7.— Transverse section of the stem of the Jerusalem Artichoke (Heli-
dnthus tuberosus). From The Elements of Botany, by Mr. Francis Darwin, by
his permission and that of the Syndicate of the Cambridge University Press.
c, cortex ; /, bast fibres ; c.c, companion-cells ; i.cb, interfascicular cambium ;
d.v, pitted vessel ; p.x, spiral vessel of protoxylern ; e, endodermis ; s.t, sieve-
tube ; cb, cambium ; m.r.p, pith-ray ; x.f. wood fibre ; p.p, pith.

that they are largely composed of vessels, elongated tube-like
structures formed by the absorption of the transverse, or top and
bottom, walls of rows of long cells placed end to end. For this
reason they are often spoken of as vascular bundles. They also
contain, however, cells which have not been thus fused into
vessels, such cellular tissue, when its constituent cells are not

14

OF WOOD IN GENERAL.

more than three or four times as long as they are broad, being
technically known as parenchyma,

As we have already seen, in addition to its function of conduct-
ing liquids, which necessitates these vessels or other conducting
tissue, as it is termed physiologically, the stem has to perform the
mechanical function of bearing up a considerable weight — itself,
its branches, leaves, etc. To enable it to do this, both xylem and
phloem are commonly accompanied by elongated elements, of
which the chief characteristic is that their walls are much

E Cx

FIG. 8. — Longitudinal section of a fibre-vascular bundle in HeHanthus.
(After Sachs.)

P, pith ; S, spiral vessels of protoxylem ; F, wood-fibres ; T, trachea; ;
C, cambium ; Sv, sieve-tubes ; B, bast-fibres ; E, endodermis ; Cx, cortex.

thickened and hard. The elements of this mechanical tissue are
known as fibres, arid from containing them the bundles are often
termed fibre-vascular bundles (Figs. 7 and 8).

The walls of cells, fibres, and vessels in the xylem acquire
mechanical strength or resistance by undergoing a change known
as lignification. This consists in their impregnation with a sub-
stance known as lignin. Lignin consists of the same three
elements as cellulose, viz. carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, but in
different proportions, its percentage composition being 49 per
cent, of carbon, 6 of hydrogen, and 44 of oxygen. Its chemical

PHLOEM AND XYLEM. 15

constitution is, however, as yet unknown. It is harder and more
elastic than cellulose, readily permeable by water, but not absor-
bent, not, that is, retaining the water. It is more soluble in
acids, such as chromic acid, than is cellulose, and is recognized by
turning brown when treated with Schulze's solution, a mixture of
zinc-chloride, potassium-iodide, and iodine which turns unaltered
cellulose blue.

The elements of the phloem, with which we are less concerned
than we are with the xylem, though often variously thickened,
are not lignified. They consist of bast-parenchyma, sieve-tubes,
companion-cells, and bast-fibres, besides the medullary rays which
traverse xylem and phloem alike. Bast parenchyma consists of
slightly elongated cells in vertical rows of four or six, of which
the terminal cells taper. This arises from each row having been
formed by several transverse divisions of a single procambium or
cambium cell. They generally contain protoplasm and sometimes
grains of starch or crystals. Sieve-tubes are the vessels of the bast,
long tubes with transverse partition-walls and retaining their
protoplasm but communicating through these transverse walls by
the sieve-plates from which they take their name. The sieve-plate
is a thin portion of the wall perforated by numerous pits close
together. The sieve-tubes are the chief channel by which proto-
plasmic matter manufactured in the leaves is conveyed through
the stem. Companion-cells occur only in angiosperms. In longi-
tudinal section they appear as narrower cells alongside the sieve-
tubes filled with granular protoplasm and with unperforated
transverse walls adjoining those of the sieve-tubes. In a trans-
verse section they appear like small corners cut off the larger
sieve-tubes, and they have their name from the fact that each of
them originates in this way, a longitudinal wall dividing the
original cell into two unequal parts, of which the larger contributes
to a sieve-tube, the smaller remains a cell. Bast-parenchyma,
sieve-tubes, and companion-cells are known collectively as soft bast
in contradistinction to bast-fibres or hard bast. Bast-fibres are
extremely elongated structures, tapering at each end, containing
only water or air, and with their walls so thickened as sometimes

16

OF WOOD IN GENERAL.

to almost obliterate the cavity or lumen, as it is termed. Their
walls are generally at least partially lignified and give a reddish
colour with Schulze's solution, and the thickening is absent from
some spots on their walls. These unthickened spots are known
as pits. Pits, which are important as occurring also on some of
the elements that make up wood, are of two main classes, simple
and bordered. A simple pit is a spot at which a cell-wall is left
unthickened, generally on both sides, each successive thickening-
layer leaving the same space uncovered. It appears accordingly
as a bright spot on the wall ; or, if in section, as a canal, the
length of which depends upon the thickness of the wall. A

Ai

Ill

A2

FIG. 9. — Pits. A, Simple pit; A\, in tangential longitudinal section ; A'2,
in surface view. B, Bordered pit ; .81, in tangential longitudinal section ;
JJ'2, the same, with the middle lamella thrust to one side ; B3, in surface
view ; B4, in semi-profile.

bordered pit is so-called because the bright spot appears surrounded
by, or crossed by, a second circle or ellipse. The structure will
be best understood from the diagrams (Fig. 9). In the thicken-
ing of the cell-wall the area of the outer circle is at first un-
thickened, but successive layers of thickening overlap this
unthickened area more and more so as to make a short canal
broad at the end near the original cell-wall and narrow at the end
towards the centre of the cell. Subsequently a slight thickening
termed the .torus forms in the centre of the unthickened area.
Pressure of liquid on one side of the pit-membrane often forces it
against the "border," in which case the torus does not completely
occupy the opening in the border or inner circle. The whole
mechanism has been compared to a laboratory filter, the border
being the funnel that acts as a support, the unthickened mem-

PITS. 11

brane, which is permeable, corresponding to a filter-paper and the
torus to the small platinum cone sometimes placed in the middle
of the filter to protect it from direct pressure of liquid. The
bordered pits on xylem vessels in Oak have been compared to
screw-heads, discs traversed by an elongated mark like the groove
for a screw-driver, and the structure has been explained by the
following imaginary model.1 " Imagine a pair of watch-glasses
each pierced by a narrow slit, and imagine them united face to face
with a delicate circular piece of paper between them, and then fixed
into a hole cut in a thick piece of card. The outline of the screw-
head is the outline of the united watch-glasses where they are let
into the card : the groove in the screw-head is the oblique cleft
which leads into the space between the glasses." In some cases,
under pressure from the cell-contents on the other side of it, the
unthickened membrane in a pit bulges into the cavity of the
adjoining vessel. Such projections, which are known as tyloses,
may undergo cell-division and may even form a mass of tissue
blocking up the entire lumen of the vessel. This is the case in
some of the vessels of Oak and still more strikingly in the Locust
or Acacia (Robinia Pseudacdcia), in which the wood consequently
appears non-porous, but, their cell-walls being thin, the tyloses
appear in transverse section as light yellow spots on the dark
heartwood. In Letterwood (Brdsimum AubUtii), on the other
hand, the tracheae are filled up with tyloses, the cells of which
have their walls very much thickened so that they appear dark.

We come next to the tissues which are of the greatest im-
portance in our present study — those of the xylem or wood,
developed on the inner side of the procambium strand and
subsequently on the inner side of the cambium sheath. The
development of xylem in a procambium strand begins with the
conversion of one or a few cells, or vertical rows of cells, of
the inner part of the strand into spirally, or occasionally
annularly, thickened tracheids or trachea, known as the protoxylem
or first-formed wood. This conversion consists in the loss of
their protoplasmic contents, the lignification of their walls, the

1 Francis Darwin, Etemtnte of Botany, pp. 77-8.
B

OF WOOD IN GENERAL.

deposit of a spiral thickening band internally, or of a series of
rings, and, in the case of tracheae, the absorption of the trans-

9

©

©

p.v.

FIG. 10. — Elements of Oak wood, highly magnified. /, fibre ; to.p, part of
row of wood-parenchyma cells; tr, tracheid ; p.v, trachea (part of); sp, part
of a spiral vessel. From The Oak, by permission of Prof. Marshall Ward and
Messrs. Kegan Paul, Trench, Trtibner & Co.

verse walls of the vertical rows of cells. Whilst tracheids are
elongated cells, losing their contents, generally becoming lignified
and having thickened walls, so as to be adapted for the conveyance

XYLEM. 19

of air or water, trachece or true vessels differ from them only in
being formed by the fusion of vertical rows of cells. In a
transverse section the protoxylem is recognizable by the relatively
small diameter of its tracheae or tracheids; and, where there
is a distinct pith, they may be seen projecting into the outer
part of the pith in a discontinuous ring known as the medullary
sheath. In longitudinal section the loose rings or spirals of their
thickening are usually conspicuous, since, being the first vascular
elements to form, they are considerably stretched by the growth
in length of the adjoining fundamental tissue. The spiral or
annular thickening permits, by an uncoiling in the former or
a separation of the rings in the latter, a considerable amount
of such stretching (Fig. 10).

The differences between the wood of coniferous trees and that
of broad-leaved trees show themselves in the protoxylem and
the rest of the primary wood, though they are even more
important in the secondary xylem, i.e. that formed after the
cambium-ring is complete. We will, therefore, now deal with
them separately, taking the simpler type, that of the conifers,
first (Fig. 11).

The xylem of conifers, both primary and secondary, consists
mainly of tracheids. It contains, that is, no true vessels or
trachea?. In addition to the protoxylem the primary wood,
i.e. that which is formed direct from the inner cells of the
procambium strand, contains other wider tracheids with bordered
pits between the turns of their spiral thickening.

A cross section of a Pine or Spruce shows distinct annual rings
each made up of an inner, softer, light-coloured portion, the
spring wood, and an outer, firmer, darker-coloured portion, the
summer wood. The outer zone of the wood, that next to the bark,
comprising from 30 to 50 of the most recently formed of these
annual rings and from one to three or more inches across, is
of lighter colours and is known as the sap-wood. Many of its
cells are still in a sufficiently active state of vitality to store
up starch, at least in winter, though growth is confined to the
outermost layer of all, the cambium. The inner rings are darker

20 OF WOOD IN GENERAL.

and constitute what is known as the heart-wood, the cells of which
are physiologically dead and serve only a mechanical function,
that of supporting the weight of the tree and resisting the lateral
strain of the wind. The darker colour of this heart-wood is due
to infiltration of chemical substances into the cell walls, but not,
in pine, as is sometimes supposed, to any greater thickening,
lignification, or filling up of the cells than there is in the sap-

cs

l\™

f/iL

//

/////]

rs J: '

i/\

''/: \nt \ \ Vlr

//Mil

\ \ i

5 W

FIG. 11.— Coniferous wood, about natural size. 7'£, tangential section ;
JiS, radial section; CS, cross section; SI'H', spring wood; SH', summer
wood. (After Roth.)

wood. The proportion of sap-wood to heart-wood is always
considerable, but it varies in width even in different parts of the
same tree, the same year's growth being sometimes sap-wood in
one part and heart-wood in another. The width of the annual
rings varies from half-an-inch or more near the centre of very
quick-grown trees to one-eighth or one-sixth of an inch (3-4 mm.),
common widths for the twenty innermost rings in deal, one-
twelfth of an inch, a general average width, one-thirtieth

CONIFEROUS WOOD. 21

(0'7 mm.), an average for the twenty outermost rings, and even
a minimum of one two-hundredth of an inch (0'2 mm.).1 Many
local causes, especially exposure to wind, produce excentricity
of growth, few trees presenting a truly circular cross-section or
a truly central pith, though this is more common among pines
than among other trees. Branches almost always present an
excentrically oval section, the pith nearer to the upper surface.
The summer- wood in each ring being darker, heavier, and denser,
its relative proportion to the spring-wood largely determines the
weight and strength of the wood, so that colour becomes a
valuable aid in distinguishing heavy, strong pine wood from that
which is light and soft. Whilst on a cross-cut or transverse
section the annual growths appear as rings, on a longitudinal
radial section they are represented by narrow parallel stripes
alternately light and dark, and on a longitudinal but tangential
section by much broader alternating and less parallel stripes
with some V-shaped lines (Fig. 12).

Under the microscope a transverse section of coniferous
secondary wood presents regular straight radial rows of appar-
ently four-sided meshes or openings, the transverse sections of
tracheids. These are as broad in a radial as in a tangential
direction in the spring wood, but much narrower radially in the
summer wood of each ring. The cell-walls also are thicker in
the summer wood. The radial walls have bordered pits, and in
some cases such pits also occur on the tangential walls. Scattered
through the summer wood are numerous irregular grayish dots,
which on being magnified are seen to be the cross sections of

1 Poplars grown in moist ground may reach a diameter of 14 inches in
8 years. Laslett records (Timber and Timber-trees, ed. 2, pp. 44-5)
exceptionally fine English Oak and Elm, and an average drawn from several
specimens of Canadian Oak and Elm which gave the following number of
rings at 6, 12, 18, and 24 inches diameter :

6 in. 12 in. 18 in. 24 in.

English Oak, 13 19 24 30

Canadian Oak, 49 105 160 216

English Elm, 10 16 25 36

Canadian Elm, 80 156 252

22

OF WOOD IN GENERAL.

relatively large spaces, the resin-passages, each surrounded by a
layer of thin-walled cells, the resin-epithelium (Fig. 13). These

FIG. 12. — 1. Piece of wood of Spruce (Picea excttsa) with the bark removed,
natural size. 2. A portion from the nearest upper outside angle of 1,
showing wood near the outside of an annual ring, magnified 100 times.
From Hartig's Timbers and how to know them, by permission of Dr. Somer-
ville and Mr. David Douglas.

resin-passages are not cells or vessels, but intercellular spaces, into
which the resin oozes from the surrounding epithelium (Fig. 14).
They generally occur singly, though sometimes in groups, and
are most readily detected on a very smooth surface, or are often
more easily seen on radial or tangential sections. On these they
appear as fine lines or scratches running longitudinally. The
whole mass of xylem is traversed radially by pith-rays, most of
which appear in the transverse section of the stem as only one
cell in width and made up of cells elongated radially. In a

CONIFEROUS WOOD.

longitudinal and radial section (Fig. 15) it appears that the
tracheids are from ^V to T *ncn l°ng> 50-100 times as long, that

FIG. 13.— Transverse section of Spruce (Picea exctUo.), magnified 100 times,
showing narrow rings, thin walls and three resin-ducts. From Hartig's
Timbers and how to know them, by permission of Dr. Somerville and Mr. David
Douglas.

FIG. 14.— Resin-duct in coniferous wood, in transverse section, highly
magnified, showing the epithelial cells surrounding the duct.

is, as they are wide ; that they have their bordered pits in a
single row down their radial walls ; and that they are closed at
their ends by a tapering to one side like the cutting edge of a

24

OF WOOD IN GENERAL.

carpenter's chisel. The pith -rays in longitudinal sections are
seen to extend only a short way longitudinally, each appearing
on radial sections as a band of 8 to 10 rows of cells elongated at
right angles to the elongation of the tracheids like bricks in a
wall 8-10 bricks high, with bordered pits on the cells of the

FIG. 15. — Radial section of Silver Fir (Abies pectindta), showing a medullary
ray, with simply pitted, parenchymatous cells, crossing wide tracheids of
spring wood, and narrower ones of autumn wood, with bordered pits. Mag-
nified 100 times. From Hartig's Timbers and how to know them, by permission
of Dr. Somerville and Mr. David Douglas.

upper and lower rows, in Pines and Spruces, and simple pits on
the others. On tangential sections the rays appear as vertical
series of 8-10 pores tapering above and below. In Pines there
are some larger pith-rays containing horizontal resin-passages.

The development of this comparatively simple type of wood
from the cambium can be readily traced. The cambium is a
cylindrical sheet of very thin-walled cells, each of which is
rectangularly prismatic, broader in a tangential direction and
tapering above and below to a radially-directed chisel-edge.

DEVELOPMENT OF CONIFEROUS WOOD.

These cells contain protoplasm. After they have grown some-
what in a radial direction, partition walls form across them in
the longitudinal tangential direction, so that each cell gives rise
to two radially placed towards one another, and, this process
being then repeated in one or both of the resultant cells, a radial

ABA

d

> ,

J c

IV

FIG. 16. — Diagram illustrating merismatic tissue. I, a merismatic cell
ABCD; II, a cross-wall ab has appeared; III, AabB has grown and again
equals ABCD in size, whilst aCD6 has also grown ; IV, Aa&B has been divided
by a cross-wall cd ; V, AcdB has again grown : it equals ABCD in size and is
ready again to divide. Meanwhile cabd and aCD6 have increased in size
considerably. From The. Elements of Botany, by Mr. Francis Darwin, by his
permission and that of the Syndicate of the Cambridge University Press.

row is formed (Fig. 16). After several such divisions the inner-
most and earliest-formed of these cells ceases to divide, and uses
up its protoplasmic contents in lignifying and thickening its
walls, except at certain spots which become pits. It has, in fact,
become a water-and-air-conducting tracheid. A cambium cell in
the same radial row as a pith-ray undergoes transverse division
into 8-10 superposed cells which elongate radially and retain
protoplasmic contents, thus continuing the pith-ray (Fig. 17).
In spring, when there is little heat, light, or activity of root and
leaf to supply material, and when the bark, split by winter, may
exert but little pressure, tracheids are produced with relatively
thin walls and wider radial extension, constituting the spring
wood; but in summer heat, light, and physiological activity,

26 OF WOOD IN GENERAL.

thicker walls are produced, whilst increased pressure of new
bark allows less radial extension. As winter comes on, the
active growth and division of the cambium cells cease, and its
recommencement to form large thin walled tracheids in the
following spring, after being dormant for several months, pro-
duces the sharp contrast between compressed summer tracheids
and larger spring ones that marks a new annual ring.

FIG. 17. — Transverse section of Scots Fir (Pinus sylvestris). After Stras-
burger. From The Elements of Botany, by permission of Mr. Francis Darwin
and the Syndicate of the Cambridge University Press.

phi, phloem ; s.p, sieve-plate ; m.r, pith-ray ; c, cambium ; ?', initial cell of
cambium ; x, xylem ; 1, 2, 3, successive stages in the development of bordered
pits.

The simple uniformity of structure in coniferous wood con-
tributes largely to its great technical value.

Space does not permit any detailed discussion of the physio-
logical uses of the different parts of such a stem as that of a
conifer to the growing tree. The following recapitulation must
suffice. The vitality of the pith of trees is generally confined to
the very earliest stages of their existence, and the spirally-
thickened elements of the protoxylem also only serve as
conducting tissue when all the xylem is young. Heart-wood
has ceased to have any active functions, serving merely for
strength. Whilst cortical tissue serves to protect from external
action, damp, etc., and to check transpiration, the sieve-tubes of
the phloem appear to be the chief carriers of the food-materials
elaborated by the leaves to the growing parts of the stem ; and
the formation of new phloem and xylem is the one function of
the cambium. In the sap-wood of conifers consisting, as it does,
so largely of tracheids, it is these tracheids, communicating as
they do by the bordered pits on their radial walls, that convey

FUNCTIONS OF CONIFEROUS WOOD.

27

water and air from the roots to the leaves, though they also
store up starch in autumn and winter. The pith-rays being

Fio. 1 8. —Transverse section of part of young stem of Oak, highly magnified.
db, pith ; c, cortex ; i, epidermis ; h, periderm ; g, collenchyma ; r, spiral
vessels forming protoxylem ; pv, pitted vessels (tracheae); am, secondary
pith-rays ; p, wood-parenchyma ; n, m, cambium ; k, bast-fibres. After
Hartig, from The Oak, by permission of Professor Marshall Ward, and Messrs.
Kegan Paul, Trench, Trtibner & Co.

elongated radially, retaining their protoplasm, forming starch,
and communicating through their pitted walls with phloem and
even cortex as well as xylem, undoubtedly play an important

^^^BRAR^^v
f V OF THE ^

| UNIVERSITY )

28

OF WOOD IN GENERAL.

part in the transfer of formative material from one part of the
stem to another.

FIG. 19. — Transverse section of Oak, photographed direct from nature.

When we examine the stem of a broad-leaved tree, such as an
oak, we find, with the same general exogenous arrangement of

M

FIG. 20. — Part of transverse section through a branch of Cork Oak (Qv.Ki-cux
Suiter), 4 years old. After Le Maout and Decaisne, from The Elements of
Botany, by permission of Mr. Francis Darwin and the Syndicate of the
Cambridge University Press.

M, pith ; PC, phloem and cortex; S, cork; ], primary pith-ray, running
from pith to cortex ; 2, 3, and 4, secondary pith-rays formed in successive
years.

pith, bark, heart-wood, sap-wood, and annual rings, considerably
greater complexity in the variety and grouping of the elements
of which the tissues are built up (Fig. 18). The pith presents

PITH OF BROAD-LEAVED TREES. 29

considerable variety among broad-leaved trees, so as to be used
to some extent in discriminating woods seen in complete cross-
sections. Thus in its proportion to the area of the wood in
cross-section it may vary from equality, i.e. being as wide as the

FIG. 21.— Tangential longitudinal section of Oak, magnified 50 diameters,
showing transverse sections of pith-rays. After Miilli-r, from The 0<tk, by
permission of Prof. Marshall Ward, and Messrs. Ki-^an I'aul, Trench,

Trtlbnor & Co.

xylem, as in three-year old shoots of Elder, to ^|^, as in shoots
of the Cork-Elm of the same age. In outline it may be pent-
angular or hexagonal, as in Oak, Spanish Chestnut, Black Poplar,
or White Willow ; triangular, as in Birch, Beech, and con-
spicuously in Aider; ovoid, as Linden, Plane, Holly, Ash, and

30

OF WOOD IN GENERAL.

Maples ; or nearly circular. In the last-mentioned case the pro-
jections of the primary xylem into the pith may give the pith a

wavy or crenate outer margin, as in Hawthorn, Rowan, Laburnum,
Horse Chestnut, or Elder • or this margin may appear even, as in
Elm, Hazel, and Dogwood (Cornus). In the Walnut the pith has

PITH OF BROAD-LEAVED TREES. 31

an interrupted or chambered structure : in the Elder it soon dies
and disintegrates, leaving the stem hollow; whilst in young
stems of Elm the inner portion of it has thin walls and loses

its protoplasm, whilst the outer part becomes thick-walled but
retains its cell-contents.

The pith-rays of broad-leaved trees are in general far more

32

OF WOOD IN GENERAL.

conspicuous than those of conifers. In Oak the large primary
pith-rays extending from pith to cortex are often twenty or more
cells in width, appearing as long, clearly denned, grayish lines in
a transverse section of the stem (Fig. 19). The secondary pith-
rays are much narrower as well as shorter (Fig. 20). In a tan-
gential section (Figs. 21 and 22) the primary rays may be several
hundred cell-rows, i.e. upwards of an inch, in height, and, however
wide at the middle, taper to one cell at each end. On a radial

FIG. 24. — Two annual rings of wood and the bark of the Oak, the upper
surface in transverse section, part of the inner ring (unshaded) in tangential,
and the front view of both rings in radial section. The medullary rays are
shown black in transverse, shaded in radial section. (After Hough.)

section they appear as broad, shiny bands, the " mirrors " or
"silver grain," so that they are conspicuous on any section, in
whatever plane it may be. In Oak they constitute 16-25 per
cent, of the wood (Figs. 23 and 24).

The protoxylem of broad-leaved trees differs from that of
conifers mainly in that its spirally-thickened elements are trachea
or true vessels, owing to the absorption of the transverse walls of
a vertical row of tracheids. But it is in the elements of the
secondary xylem that we find the greatest complexity and
variety. This may contain from three to five of the following
six kinds of elements : tracheids, vessels, woody fibres, fibrous
cells with thick or with thin walls, and wood-parenchyma. The
tracheae or true vessels vary considerably in transverse diameter,
some of them being the widest pores seen in a transverse section

WOOD OF BROAD-LEAVED TREES. 33

of wood and being sometimes specially conspicuous in the spring-
wood. Some of them, in young wood, have net-like thickening,
but most of them have bordered pits, as have also the tracheids.
The chief differences in fact between these two kinds of elements
are the smaller diameter and lesser length of the tracheids. As
they are each formed from a single cambium cell, these tracheids
have no transverse divisions ; whereas in the vessels there are
much-perforated or partially absorbed partitions inclined towards
the pith-rays, indicating the origin of the vessels from the fusion
of a chain of cells. Woody fibres may be as long as, or longer than,
the tracheaB, and are often more pointed, but their distinctive
characteristic is their much-thickened, lignified walls, marked
with few simple pits, often oblique and narrow. This thickening
of their walls sometimes almost obliterates the cell-cavity or
lumen, and, together with their early loss of all contents but
water and air, serves to indicate their main function to be that of
mechanical support. Fibrous cells only differ from fibres in
retaining their protoplasmic contents. Their walls sometimes
remain thin. Both thick-walled fibrous cells and woody fibres
sometimes become chambered by the formation of delicate trans-
verse walls. Wood parenchyma consists of vertical groups of short
cells, the upper and lower cell of each group tapering to a point,
each group originating, in fact, from the transverse division of
one cambium-cell. They retain their protoplasm and become
filled with starch in autumn. Their walls are not much
thickened, but are lignified and pitted, having bordered pits
where in contact with tracheaB or tracheids, but simple pits
elsewhere. Wood-parenchyma is commonly grouped in narrow
circles round the vessels, appearing in longitudinal sections as
cloudy margins to them. It may expand from such circles
laterally into wings forming a spindle-shaped patch with the
vessel in the centre, and these wings may widen until they meet
others, so forming straggling oblique lines, long wavy streaks, or
concentric circles ("false rings"). These transverse lines of tissue
may be very narrow, as in Ebonies, or broad and conspicuous.
Wood-parenchyma much resembles the pith-rays, especially in

C

OF WOOD IN GENERAL.

tangential longitudinal sections ; but its walls are not elongated
radially.

As has been said, the wood of broad-leaved trees may contain
from three to five of these different elements. Vessels are always
present, but in some cases tracheids are a,bsent. The wood of
Plane, Ash, and Citrus (Orange, Lemon, etc.), for example, con-
sists of vessels, woody fibre, thin-walled fibrous cells and wood-

Pr.

Pr.

WP

FIG. 25. — A piece of dicotyledonous wood, magnified about 100 times. A
transverse section is shown above, with a pith-ray (Pr.) crossing the zone of
autumn wood (a) which forms the outer boundary of an annual ring. In
front is a radial longitudinal section showing wood-parenchyma ( \VP), some
large tracheae (T), and much wood-fibre, crossed by another pith-ray. The
tangential section is in shadow.

parenchyma only. That of Holly, Hawthorn, and Pyrus (Apple,
Pear, Rowan, etc.) is made up of vessels, tracheids, and wood-
parenchyma : that of Maples, Elder, Ivy, Euonymus, etc., contains
also thick-walled fibrous cells. The wood of Berberis (Barberry)
consists exclusively of vessels, tracheids, and thin and thick-
walled fibrous cells ; and that of Oaks, Hornbeams, Plum, and
Buckthorn of vessels, tracheids, woody fibre, and wood-paren-
chyma (Figs. 25 and 26). The most common type of structure,
however, occurring in Willows, Poplars, Alder, Birch, Walnut,

WOOD OF BROAD-LEAVED TREES. 35

Linden, Magndlia, Ailant/ms, Robinia, etc., contains vessels,
tracheids, woody fibre, thin-walled fibrous cells, and wood-
parenchyma.

The distinctive features of woods, however, depend rather
upon the proportions in which these elements are present and
upon their arrangement than upon the absen.ce of any of the six
kinds of elements. There is, as a rule, among the woods of
broad-leaved trees no such regularity of radial arrangement of

FIG. 26.— Transverse section of Beech (F&gnx sylrdtica). Magnified 100
times, a, narrow pith-ray ; 6, broad pith-ray ; c, boundary of an annual
ring. The large pores are transverse sections of vessels (tracheae). The thick-
walled elements with narrow lumina are wood-fibres ; those with thinner
walls and wider lumina, wood-parenchyma or tracheids. From Hartig"s
Timbers and how to know them, by permission of Dr. Somerville and Mr. David
Douglas.

elements as characterizes the simple wood of conifers. In the
cambium region, it is true, owing to the repeated regular tangen-
tial divisions, the cells not only appear rectangular in a transverse
section, but are also in regular radial rows ; but in the xylem
itself this regularity is disturbed by the different diameters
attained by the various elements as they become fully formed.
In Oak, for example, the annual rings are marked in a cross-
section by the large and conspicuous pores, or sections of the

OF WOOD IN GENERAL.

vessels, which occupy the greater part of the spring wood of each
ring (Fig. 27). On a radial section the layers appear as parallel

stripes, and on a tangential one as broader and less parallel
stripes; but, whilst in coniferous woods the dark bands were
denser summer wood, in this case the darker parts are produced
by the vessels in the spring wood, the more uniform fibres of the

RINGS AND FALSE RINGS. 37

summer wood appearing lighter. Vessels, tracheids, and fibres
formed in spring have larger diameters and thinner walls than
those formed in autumn, which fact produces much of the
distinctness of the annual rings. In timbers with well marked
rings the distinctness of these rings may either be due, as in
Oak, Ash, Teak, etc., to the contrast between wood with nume-
rous large vessels and that with fewer or smaller ones : or, as in
Birch, Maple, Horse-chestnut, etc., to the fibres being smaller
across and thicker-walled in one part of each ring, whilst the
vessels may be evenly dispersed through the whole wood. Woods
differ widely as to the circularity of their rings. In not a few
cases they are distinctly wavy ; and, whilst in Beech and Horn-
beam the crests of the waves— as seen in a cross-section — bend
inwards at the primary pith-rays, in the Barberry they bend
outwards. In evergreens, to which type belong the bulk of
tropical broad-leaved timbers, where there is not the check to
physiological activity produced by the "fall of the leaf," we do
not, as a rule, find such well-marked annual rings. Sometimes,
however, the annual rings are replaced by less completely con-
centric zones, often stretching as wavy, pale, bar-like markings
from one primary pith-ray to another, and sometimes running
into one another. These "false rings," as they have been
termed, which are seen in the wood of Figs, She-oaks (Casuarina\
Padouk (CalophyUurri), etc., will be found on microscopic examina-
tion to be mainly produced by zones of wood parenchyma.

The grouping of the vessels also affords some useful distinctive
characters. Thus in Box and in Quince they usually occur singly ;
in Hazel and Holly in groups of from 5 to 1 2 ; in Hornbeam in
long sinuous radial lines between the pith-rays; in Elms in
concentric bands like false rings ; and in Oaks, Chestnut and
Buckthorn, from 20 to 50 together, in flame-like groups
(Fig. 28).

The elements of the wood are generally parallel in direction
to the axis of the stem or limb in which they occur — i.e. the
wood is straight-grained ; but they may be spirally twisted round
the stem, or oblique, in which latter case if successive layers lie

38 OF WOOD IN GENERAL.

in opposite directions the wood is cross-grained. A slightly wavy
longitudinal course in the elements of the wood produces the
condition known as curly grain, frequent in Maple ; whilst slight
projections or depressions repeated on the outer surface of
successive annual layers produce the birds-eye and landscape
varieties in the same wood. The presence of undeveloped buds
or knots, as in "burrs," produced on many trees by the attacks

FIG. 28. — Transverse section of Buckthorn (Khdmnus cathdrticus), showing
flame-like groups of vessels.

of mites (Phytdptus), causes similar ornamental wavings of the
grain

One main cause of the elements not being vertical is their
growth in length and in diameter after leaving the cambium
stage. Such growth in length causes the tips of the fibres to
crowd in between those above and below, and become interlaced
and oblique in direction. This adds to the toughness of the
wood and makes it less easy to split, and may produce a visible
twisting of stems or branches.

PITH-RAYS AND PITH-FLECKS. 39

Up to a certain age the segments or chambers (original cells)
of the vessels, the tracheids and the fibres, gradually increase
each year both in length and diameter.

The pith-rays — as seen in cross-section — afford a very useful
distinctive character, varying much, as they do, in number and
in width. In Willow, Horse-chestnut and Ebony, as in Conifers,
they are either only one cell in width, or are at least so incon-
spicuous as to require a lens for their observation, whilst in Oak
and in the so-called She-oaks (Casuariua) they are conspicuous to
the naked eye. They vary in width from -005 millimetre to a
millimetre ; and in number from 20 or less in a breadth of 5
millimetres, as in Laburnum and Eobinia, to 64 in the same space,
as in Oak, or even 1 40 in the case of Rhododendron maximum.

Another character of some value in discrimination is the
occurrence of pith-fleck^ or medullary spots, dark rust-like patches,
which occur in Alder, Birch, Hazel, Hawthorn and some species
of Willow, Poplar and Pyrus. They are supposed by some
authorities to originate in passages bored by the larvae of a
species of Tipula (wire-worm) which live in the cambium, these
passages becoming filled up immediately with cellular tissue ;
but their origin requires further investigation. We will postpone
the consideration of such characters of woods as weight, hard-
ness, colour and odour — characters that depend little, if at all,
upon structure — to a subsequent chapter. It may be noted here
that, while it is the lignified elements of woods, especially their
tracheids and fibres, that give them their chief technological
value, it is the stored up nitrogenous and other more complex,
and therefore more chemically unstable, substances that are the
most combustible, i.e. the most readily oxidized, and also the
most readily decomposed by the attacks of fungi. It is these
substances, therefore, that have to be eliminated, or at least
taken into account, in the processes of seasoning or preserving
timber, and it is their presence which renders sapwood generally
less durable than the physiologically inert heartwood.

CHAPTER II.
THE RECOGNITION AND CLASSIFICATION OF WOODS.

NOT only carpenters and other workers in wood, but engineers,
surveyors and timber-merchants at present recognize the timbers
with which they are familiar as to kind, and even largely as to
quality, by methods obviously and confessedly empirical, mere
"rule of thumb." From this it results that, though woods may
be accurately discriminated generically, as oak, ash, birch or
pine, the species are seldom correctly distinguished, and, as a
consequence, the best wood for any particular purpose is very
often not obtained.

In these empirical identifications such nrore obvious but
variable, and therefore less trustworthy, characters as weight,
hardness, colour and odour are often more used than most of
the structural characters described in the previous chapter. In
attempting a more thoroughgoing discrimination we cannot
ignore these more obvious characters ; but it is important to
recognize their variability and consequently merely secondary
importance. Details as to the testing of weight and hardness
will form the subject-matter of a subsequent chapter : we are
here only concerned with rough approximations.

Weight of wood. — The weight of wood depends mainly
upon two things, its compactness and its moisture. Compactness
signifies the amount of woody or other solid matter in a given
bulk, and this will generally be greater in slow-growing than in

WEIGHTS OF WOODS. 41

quick-growing species, greater in heartwood than in sapwood.
Moisture is so far more variable in amount in the same wood,
according to the extent to which it has been naturally or
artificially seasoned, that no comparison of the weights of different
woods can be of any value unless the samples have been kiln-
dried, and even by this method it is difficult to secure a uniform
elimination of moisture. Many tables have been published giving
the density or specific gravity of various woods, their weight,
that is, as compared to that of water, to three or even four
places of decimals. A more useful form of statement, however,
is perhaps the weight of a standard cube, either that of a cubic
foot in pounds or that of a cubic decimetre in grams.1 Thus,
while water weighs 62 '321 Ibs. per cubic foot, timbers range from
13 to 85 Ibs. per cubic foot.

They may be grouped from this point of view in the following
six grades :

Approximate weight

of 1 cubic foot Specific

in pounds. gravity.

1. Very Light, - - - not exceeding 24 '26 — *4

Spruce, Willow and most Poplar.

2. Light, 24—30 '4— -5

Northern Pine, Hemlock Spruce, Linden. Chestnut.

3. Medium, - ... - - - 30—36 '5 — '6

Pitch-pine, Douglas Spruce, Sycamore.

4. Heavy, 36—42 '6— '7

Most Birch, Beech and Walnut.

5. Very heavy, 42-48 '7— '8

Hornbeam, Hickory and good Ash and Elm.

6. Heaviest, - Above 48 Above -8

Some Oak, most Teak, Mahogauy, Jarrah, Mora and Greenheart.

Whilst such kiln-dried weights as those employed here range
from a specific gravity of -26 in Ficus aurea, or 13 Ibs. to the
cubic foot in Eryihrina suberosa, to 1-3 in Black Iron- wood
(Conddlia ferrea), or 85 Ibs. to the cubic foot, as in Anjan
(Hardurickia bindta), none of the native woods of temperate

1To facilitate the conversion of one measure into the other it may be
noted that 1 cubic foot = nearly 28^ (28'315) cubic decimetres, and 1 pound
avoirdupois = 453£ (453 '592) grams.

42 OF WOOD IN GENERAL.

latitudes are, when dry, as heavy as water.1 Most of the woods
in grade 6 of the above table grow within the tropics.

Hardness of WOOd. — Though in testing woods for engineering
purposes various resistances, such as stiffness or elasticity and
compressibility, have to be ascertained, hardness, or resistance to
indentation, is often estimated roughly. It may be expressed
with precision by the number of kilograms required to sink a
punch one centimetre square to the depth of 1*27 millimetres
(^5- of an inch) perpendicularly to the fibres of the wood, or by
the number of pounds per square inch to produce such an indent-
ation. Here too we may, perhaps, group all woods roughly into
six grades :

1 . Hardest, such as the Iron-wood of India, Mfaua firrea, which
turns the edge of almost any tool, and Lignum-vitae (Gudiacum\
which requires 793 kilograms to produce the standard indentation.

2. Very hard, requiring more than 3200 Ibs. per square inch,
such as Hickory and good Oak and Elm.

3. Hard, requiring from 2400 lbs.-3200 Ibs., such as Ash,
Walnut, Beech, Holly and Sycamore.

4. Medium, requiring from 1600 lbs.-2400 Ibs., such as Douglas
Spruce.

5. Soft, requiring less than 1600 Ibs., such as the majority of
coniferous woods, Pine, Spruce, Cedar, Poplar, Linden and
Chestnut.

6. Very soft, such as the so called Cotton-tree of India (Bombax
malabdricum), which is so soft that a pin can be readily driven
into it with the fingers.

Hardness and density or weight to a great extent vary together.
They also increase from the base of a stem up to its first branch,
and decrease from that point upward.

Colour of wood. — The colour of the heartwood affords in
many cases a useful aid in identification, while mere differences of
tint are often indicative of quality or soundness. The black
duramen of the Persimmon (Diospyros virginidna), of other species

1 This is true when the contained air is not eliminated. For more pre-
cise estimates see Chapter VII.

HARDNESS AND COLOURS OF WOODS. 43

ofDiospf/ros known as Ebonies, and of Laburnum (Cytisus Laburnum),
the dark brown of the Walnuts, the purplish-red of Logwood
(Hcematdxylon campechidnum), the lemon-yellow sapwood and
bluish red heartwood of the Barberry (Bdrberis vulgaris), the
narrow yellow alburnum and greenish duramen in Lignum vitae
(Gudiacum qfficindle), or the mottling of dark and light browns in
the Olive (Olea europwa), are obvious distinctions.

The Northern Pine (Pinus sylvtstris) presents numerous varia-
tions in the colour of its wood, as well as in its mode of branching,
dependent probably in part upon the conditions under which it is
grown, and the superiority of " red deal " to the more resinous
honey-yellow varieties is well-known in trade. Northern hill-
grown wood is commonly redder than that of the south grown in
plains, the finest being that of the Eiga pines, with a close
pyramid of ascending branches, including the timber from
Smolensk, Vitebsk, Tchernigov, and Volhynia.

The Locust or False Acacia of the United States (Robmia
Pseudacdcia) includes at least four varieties of wood. The most
durable, most beautiful, and most valuable is the red : the
commonest the green, a greenish-yellow wood (apparently the
only kind imported), is next in value ; the black is only recorded
in the Western States ; and the white is the least valuable.

In West Virginia three varieties of the Tulip-tree (Liriodendron
tulipffera) are distinguished as "White," "Blue," or "Yellow
Poplar," of which only the last named is commonly -shipped to
this country. Grown only for ornament in Europe, in America
this tree is largely used for rafters, wainscots, roof-shingles,
boxes, furniture, and turnery, and increasing quantities now
arrive at Liverpool from New York under the names of American
or Yellow Poplar, American White wood or Canary White wood.
These names and that of "Tulip-wood" are nearly all objectionable,
as previously applied to very different woods, or as suggesting a
connection between the tree, a member of the Magnolia family,
and the Poplars. The yellow variety of its wood comes from
moist low-lying ground, and is valued for staining or polishing, by
cabinet-makers, shop fitters, and coach-builders.

44 OF WOOD IN GENERAL.

Exposure to air or light darkens the colour of most wood, as is
well seen in freshly felled, as compared to seasoned, Mahogany.
Moisture carries this darkening deeper into the wood, whilst the
black of Oak and the dark brown of Yew after prolonged immer-
sion in bogs are well known. The translucency of all sound
timber when in thin slices gives it a characteristic lustre, whilst
incipient decay renders it dull and opaque. Any local departure
from the natural colour peculiar to the species is an indication of
incipient decay. The deterioration that sets in directly growing
timber passes maturity generally shows itself first by a white
colour at the centre of the butt end of the log. This is not a
serious defect ; but the yellowish-red tinge subsequently assumed
indicates a loss of toughness and tenacity, and suggests that the
log is not well fitted for constructive work. So too spots of
discoloration scattered through a log, especially at its butt end,
are liable to prove centres from which serious decay, caused or
accompanied by 'parasitic fungal moulds, may spread. This
remark does not apply, however, to the so-called pith-flecks or
medullary spots, which are often numerous in woods when perfectly
sound. The reddish-brown tinge known zsfoxiness is a clear sign
of advanced decay, unfitting wood for any purposes requiring
strength ; but Oak is very often much prized by cabinet makers
when in this condition, merely on account of its colour.

Odours and resonance of woods.— The odours of woods,
such as the resinous smells of Deal or Teak, the fragrance of Cedars,
Toon, or Sandal-woods, the characteristic perfume of Camphor-
trees and the unpleasant smells of the Stinkwood (Ocotea bulldta)
of South Africa and the Til (OreoddphnS fcetens) of Madeira, may
sometimes be of use in discrimination, as, to an educated ear,
may the notes given out by different woods when struck by a
hammer. In the manufacture of musical instruments the wood
must be of uniform structure, even -grained, free from knots, well
seasoned, and unbent, so that each fibre may vibrate freely. The
notes emitted will vary in pitch directly with the elasticity, and
indirectly with the weight of the wood.

Silver Fir (Abies pectindta), imported as " Swiss Pine," is em-

COLOURS, ODOURS AND RESONANCE. 45

ployed for the sounding boards of pianos and the belly of violins,
whilst Maple, a dense wood, is used for the back and ribs of the
latter instrument.

Classification of woods. — Obviously these " rule of thumb "
characteristics are generally made use of in practice, not sepa-
rately, but together. This will also be the case in the classification
which we are about to propose, which refers mainly to the
appearance of transverse sections, including both heart wood and
sap wood.

For ready identification and comparison of timbers, considering
even the great variety that are used in the arts in various parts
of the world, it is obviously necessary to have some system of
classification. Botanists group trees, as they do other flowering
plants, in accordance with the characters of their flowers, fruit,
and leaves, a method which is undoubtedly the best for the
purpose of indicating the genetic affinities of the various species.
As we have seen, for instance, timber-yielding trees fall naturally
into two main groups, conifers and dicotyledonous angiosperms, of
which the first is generally distinguished by needle-like leaves
and seeds borne exposed on the inner surfaces of scales arranged
in a cone, whilst the second group has generally broad leaves and
the seeds inclosed in a fruit. For the practical study of timber,
however, we require a scheme of grouping based upon the wood
itself; and, having often to deal with converted timber, it is well to
be as independent as we can of characters derived from bark, or
even from pith. Speaking of this problem in his excellent work,
Timber and some of its Diseases, Professor H. Marshall Ward
writes : " It may be doubted whether all the difficulties are likely
to be surmounted. ... In any case, while allowing that it is as
yet impossible so to arrange a collection of pieces of timber, that
all the kinds can be recognized at a glance, it must be admitted
that the attempt to do so at least aids one in determining many
kinds."

In describing the many valuable timbers of India, Mr. J. S.
Gamble makes use of eight classes of characters : (i) the size of
the trees; (ii) whether they are evergreen or deciduous; (iii)

46 OF WOOD IN GENERAL.

the bark ; (iv) the wood, its colour, hardness, and grain ; (v) the
annual rings; (vi) the pores or vessels; (vii) the pith rays ; and
(viii) other miscellaneous characters, such as concentric markings
or false rings. Of these, the first three are not available to the
student of converted timber. The annual rings by their width
indicate the rate of growth, a character of great importance
as to quality, if not of great distinctive value. More than 12
rings to the inch, giving, as it does, 6 feet of girth in 134 years,
may be termed slow growth ; from 1 2 to 6 rings to the inch,
which would mean 6 feet of girth in from 134 to 67 years,
moderate ; and less than 6 rings to the inch, or 6 feet of girth in
67 years, fast growth.

The absence of pores or vessels is characteristic of coniferous
woods. As to their size, Mr. Gamble classifies them in 7 groups :
extremely small, as in Box ; very small, as in Acer pictum ; small,
as in Haldu (Adina cordifolia) ; moderate-sized, as in Mahwa
(Bdssia latifdlia) ; large, as in Siris (Albizzia Le'bbek) ; very large,
as in Erythrina suberdsa ; and extremely large, as in many
climbers (Fig. 4, for instance).

So too the pith-rays, as distinctive characters, are grouped
under seven types : extremely fine, as in Eiidnymus Idcems; very
fine, as in Ebony (Diospyros Melanoxylon) ; fine, as in Siris
(Albizzia Lebbek) ; moderately broad, as in Dillenia pentagyna :
broad, as in Plane (Pldtanus orientdlis), in which case they measure
i mm. ; very broad, as in some Oaks, in which they reach
1 mm. ; and extremely broad, as in Samara robusta. The number
and distance apart of the pith-rays are also characters of conse-
quence. When further apart than twice the diameter of the
pores they may be termed distant.

There are some of these microscopic characters that are
eminently distinctive of large groups, such as the Natural Orders
into which botanists group plants. The Cupuliferce, for instance,
that great group to which the Oaks, Beeches, Chestnuts and
Hornbeams belong, have their pores in wavy radial lines or
queues : in the Ebendcece, or Ebony tribe, and the Sapotdcece, a
closely-allied tropical Order, including the Bullet- woods (Mimusops),

DISTINCTIVE CHARACTERS. 47

the pores are in short, wavy lines, and there are wavy false rings ;
but whilst the Ebendcece have white, grey or black wood, that of
the Sapotdcece is reddish. So too the tropical Order Anondcecr,
or Custard-Apple family, which includes the Lancewood of the
West Indies, has regular ladder-like transverse bars on its woods
that are very characteristic.

Several of the characters used in the classification of woods,
such as weight per cubic foot, hardness and amount of ash left on
combustion, not only vary together, but also differ according to
the age of the tree and the distance of the sample from the root.
Weight, for instance, increases from the butt to the lowest branch,
and decreases from the latter point upward.

Among minor characters sometimes of use in discriminating
woods may be mentioned the colour of a solution obtained by
boiling the wood in water or in alcohol, its reaction when treated
with a solution of iron sulphate or perchloride, and the colour of
the ash produced in burning. Jarrah, for instance, yields a black
cindery mass, whilst the only less valuable paving wood Karri
gives a white ash.

Unfortunately trees of the same Order, or even of the same
genus, by no means always have similar woods. Mr. Gamble, for
instance, cites the important genus Dalbtrgia, three Indian species
of which — the Blackwood (D. latifllia), Sissoo (D. Sissoo), and D.
lanceoldria — have hard, dark-coloured, heavy woods ; whilst other
species have only white and often soft sapwood, not forming any
duramen. When, however, we compare heartvvoods microscopi-
cally they do as a rule resemble one another in allied species.

In many cases a knowledge of the locality from which a timber
comes may aid us in identifying it. Thus, save by this means, it
is apparently impossible to distinguish the woods of Cupressus
Laivs&nidjia from Oregon, C. Thydides from the Eastern States,
Thuya gigdntea, the Canoe Cedar or Red Cedar of the West, and
T. occidentdlis, the Arbor-vitse of the North-east, all of them being
known to American timber-merchants as White Cedar.

The following table is by no means exhaustive, few Asiatic or
Australian woods being, as yet, classified in it. It has seldom

48

OF WOOD IN GENERAL.

been possible to carry the discrimination further than genera.
Though obvious naked-eye characters have been largely employed,
use is also made of those seen only in microscopic sections. For
this purpose it is only necessary to take a single shaving, across
the grain, with a well sharpened plane, put it at once into methyl
blue or some other dye, and then mount it as an ordinary micro-
scopic slide. The first character to be observed is the presence
or absence of "pores," or the transverse sections of large trachea.
If they are absent, which practically means that the wood is
coniferous, we next look for conspicuous resin-canals, and for the

Fio. 29. — Transverse section of Linden, a ring-porous wood, showing three
annual rings. After Van Tieghein, from The Elements of Botany, by permis-
sion of Mr. Francis Darwin and the Syndicate of the Cambridge University
Press.

presence of heart-wood defined by a distinct colour. The out-
lines of the annual rings, the hardness, colour, weight, taste and
smell of the wood then afford further means of identification ;
whilst such microscopic characters as the presence of tracheids
in the pith-rays, or of spiral thickening in the tracheids are only
requisite as a last resource. Where, on the other hand, the
presence of " pores " indicates that the wood is that of a broad-
leaved tree, we first note whether there are, or are not, distinct
annual rings, or whether " false rings " of wood-parenchyma are
present ; then whether the " pores " are so collected in the
inner or spring portion of each ring that we should class the
timber in question as "ring-porous" (Fig. 29), or whether

CLASSIFICATION OF CONIFEROUS WOODS. 49

they are so scattered that we may call it "diffuse-porous."
The grouping of the pores, the prominence of the pith-rays,
the weight, hardness and colour here again furnish subsidiary
characters.

I. CONIFEROUS OR NON-POROUS WOODS.

No visible or conspicuous pores on a transverse section, even
when magnified, the wood containing no tracheae or true vessels,
except immediately round the pith. Resin-canals often present
in the autumn wood. Annual rings generally sharply marked
by denser, dark-coloured autumn bands. Pith-rays very fine
and numerous, invisible to the naked eye.

A. Without conspicuous resin-canals.

1. No distinct heartwood : rings well rounded.

a. Yellowish-white, soft : no tracheids in the pith-rays.

Abies. The True or Silver Firs, e.g. A. pedindta of
Central Europe, A. Webbidna of the Himalayas, A.
balsdmea, the Balsam Fir of the North-Eastern United
States, and A. grdndis, A. concolor, A. amdbilis, A.
ndbilis, and A. magnified of the Western States.

b. Reddish, soft, brittle : pith-rays with tracheids. Tsuga.

The Hemlock Spruces, including T. canadensis of North-
east, and T. Mertensidna of North-west America.

2. Heart- wood present and contrasting in colour.

a. Heavy, hard, non-resinous, dull. Heart-wood brownish

or orange-red : sapwood lemon-colour. Rings excentric,
wavy and sinuous. Taxus. The Yews, including T.
bdccata of Europe and Northern Asia, and T. breviftlia
of North-west America.

b. Light, soft — medium hard, usually aromatic. Heartwood

rose, yellowish or brownish red : sapwood yellowish
white. Rings wavy and sinuous. Pith-rays very fine.
The "Red Cedars," Juniperm.
Heartwood rose to brown red. /. virginidna.
D

50 OF WOOD IN GENERAL.

Heartwood yellowish-brown. J. communis and J. OxycMrus.

c. Very light, very soft, odourless. Heartwood light-red,

turning brownish : sapwood narrow, amber-coloured.
Rings regular. Pith-rays very distinct, especially on
the radial section. Resin-canals in a single row, or
absent. "Redwoods," Sequoia.

d. Medium heavy and hard, often camphor-scented. Heart-

wood rich brown, often mottled with darker brown
or yellow : sapwood narrow, white. Rings wavy.
" Cypress Pines," etc. Cdllitris.

e. Light, moderately hard, or soft, fragrant. Heartwood

yellowish or reddish-brown. Rings well rounded.
Resin-ducts few and narrow. Cfclrus.

3. Heartwood present, but differing only in shade from the sap-
wood, of a dull yellowish or greyish brown.

a. Odourless and tasteless. Taxodium.

b. Light, soft, with slight resinous odour, tasteless. Rings

finely and coarsely wavy. Pith-rays very fine but
distinctly coloured. "White Cedars," including Thuya
occidentalis and T. gigdntea, Cupressus thyoides and C.
Lawsonidna.

c. Light, soft, with resinous smell and peppery taste. Incense

Cedar, Liboddrus.

Near here belong apparently the Huon Pine and allied species,
Dacrf/dium, etc.

B. Resin-canals present, at least in autumn wood.

1. Heartwood not distinctly coloured, white: resin-canals few,

very narrow : rings imperfectly rounded ; tracheids in pith-
rays. Spruces, Picea.

2. Heartwood distinct.

a. Resin-canals not numerous, nor evenly distributed.

(i) Canals solitary or here and there in pairs ; tracheids
without spirals. Heartwood reddish-brown, sapwood
yellowish. Knots irregularly distributed. Larches
or Tamarack, Ldrix.

CLASSIFICATION OF CONIFEROUS WOODS. 51

(ii) Canals in groups or lines of 8 — 30 : tracheids with
spirals, otherwise resembling Larch. Douglas Spruce,
Pseudofaiiga.
b. Resin-canals numerous, evenly distributed. Knots in

regular whorls. Finns.

(i) Wood tolerably hard and firm : transition from spring
to autumn wood abrupt : resin-canals more numerous

Fio 30.— Radial section of Scots Fir (Plnut sylvtstrig). Magnified 100
times, a, narrow tracheids of autumn wood with small bordered pits on
their radial walls ; b, broad spring tracheids ; ct/, resin-duct lined with
epithelium ; (, parenchyma of pith-ray with large simple pits ; /, tracheids of
pith-ray with small bordered pits and dentate projections. From Hal-tig's
Timbers and how to know them, by permission of Dr. Somerville and Mr. David
Douglas.

in autumn wood : heartwood reddish : tracheids of
pith-ray with dentate projections, when seen in
radial section (Fig. 30). Hard Pines.

* 1 or 2 simple pits on radial wall of each tracheid of
pith-ray. " Norway pine " of U.S.A., Pinus resindsa.

** 3 to 6 such pits.

52 OF WOOD IN GENERAL.

f Wide rings. Loblolly arid Short-leaf Pines of

U.S.A., P, tu'da and P. echindta; Northern,

Black Austrian, and Cluster Pines of Europe,

P. sylvfatris, Laricio, and Pinaster.

ft Narrower rings. Longleaf Pine of U.S.A., P.

palustris ; Dwarf Pine of Europe, P. montdna.
(ii) Wood soft and light: transition from spring to
autumn wood gradual ; autumn wood narrower and
with fewer resin-canals : tracheids of pith-ray without
dentate projections. Soft Pines.
* Rings rather narrow, circular : resin-ducts very large

and numerous : wood yellowish. P. Cdmbra.
** Rings broad : wood redder. Weymouth and Sugar
Pines, P. Strdbus and P. Lambertidna of U.S.A. ; and
probably the Aleppo Pine, P.

II. LEAF-WOODS, HARD- WOODS, OR POROUS WOODS.

Pores visible on transverse section, either to the naked eye or
when magnified, often characteristically grouped, especially in
spring-wood. Pith-rays either all fine or some broad.

A. Without distinct annual rings, though sometimes with
false-rings or partial zones of wood-parenchyma. Mostly
tropical.

1 . With false rings.

a. Some pith-rays broad. Indian Oaks, Qu6rcuslamelUsa, etc.

b. All pith-rays narrow.

(i) False rings very distinct.

* No distinct heartwood : wood moderately hard and
dense, greyish. Banyan, Ficus bengaUnsis, Myro-
balans, TermimUia beUrica, and various Asiatic
Acacias and other Legumindscn.

** Dark heavy heartwood. e.g. the very hard, tough
purplish-brown Jhand, Prosdpis spicigera.

CLASSIFICATION OF HARD- WOODS. 53

(ii) False rings obscure : wood dense, heavy, red, brown,
purple or black. Including the chief hardest woods
of India and other tropical countries, such as the
Ebonies, Diospyros, Ironwood, Mfaua ftrrea, Pynkado,
Xylia dolabri/ormis, Anjan, Hardwickia bindta. Rose-
woods, DalUrgw, Pterocdrpus, etc., Babul, Acacia
ardbica and other species, such, perhaps, as the
Australian Myall, A. homalophylla, Saj, Termindlia
tomentosa, Bandara, Lagerstrwmia parvifdlia, Lignum
vitae, Gudiacum, etc. Olive (Olea europtea), a close,
compact, yellow wood, characteristically mottled
with brown, with uniformly scattered vessels, may,
perhaps, be classed here.
2. Without false rings.

a. Soft, with no distinct heart. Silk-cotton, Bombax, Mango,

Mang-ifera, etc.

b. Harder, denser, usually with distinct heart. Siris,

Albizzia Lebbek, Eng, Dipterocdrpus tuberculdtus, etc.

B. With distinct annual rings.

1. Ring-porous : vessels in spring wood large or numerous, those

in summer wood small or few and scattered.
a. Vessels in the spring wood larger.

(i) Vessels in tree-like or dendritic groups, or in circles,

often scattered in the inner part of the rings.
* Slightly dendritic or concentric : pores in summer
wood minute, regularly distributed, singly or in
groups, or in short peripheral, but never radial
lines.
I Pith-rays minute, scarcely distinct.

§ Wood heavy and hard : vessels in summer wood

not in clusters, or 2-4 together,
(a) Heartwood not yellow in radial section; con-
tinuous zone of pores in spring wood. Ash,
Frdadnus.

54

OF WOOD IN GENERAL.

Vessels in summer wood in peripheral lines.
White and Green Ash, F. americdna and
F. viridis.

Vessels in summer wood not united in peri-
pheral lines. English, Black and Red Ash, F.
excelsior (Fig. S\\ F. sambuci/olia, F. pubescens.
(b) Heartwood yellow, very heavy and very

hard. Osage Orange, Madura.
§§ Wood light and soft : vessels in summer wood in
groups of 10 — 30. Catdlpa.

FIG. 31. — Transverse section of Common Ash (Fruxinus excelsior), photo-
graphed from nature.

|| Pith-rays very fine, but distinct: heartwood red-
dish brown : sapwood yellowish white : vessels
in summer wood single or in short lines : odour.
Sassafras.
Jtt Pith-rays fine, but distinct.

§ Very heavy and hard : heartwood dark yellowish
brown : sapwood yellow : vessels 1 — 10 to-
gether, filled, so appearing as yellow dots.
Black Locust, RoUnia.
§§ Heavy : moderately hard or hard.

(a) Vessels in summer wood very minute, usually
in small clusters of 1 — 8, open : heartwood
yellow to light orange-brown, reddening on

CLASSIFICATION OF HARD-WOODS.

55

exposure to light : sapwood yellowish white :

odourless. Mulberry. Mdrus.
(b) Vessels in summer wood small or minute,

usually solitary : heartwood cherry-red.

Coffee Tree, Grymnoclddus.

llll Pith-rays fine, but very conspicuous to the naked
eye : heartwood rose-red to brownish : sapwood
pale lemon or greenish white ; vessels open.
Honey-Locust, Gleditschia.

fit

•HI

FIG. 32.— Trans verse section of Xettle-tree. (Celtis auslrdlis).

Pith-rays rather coarse, lustrous : heartwood
brownish or greyish orange : sapwood broad,
yellowish : broad zone of very large open pores
in spring wood : vessels in autumn wood 1 — 5
together in segments of circles. Aildnthus.
** Strikingly dendritic : pores in summer wood minute
or small, appearing as finely feathered hatchings on
tangential sections.

56 OF WOOD IN GENERAL.

t Vessels 1-8 together : pith-rays fine, but distinct.
| Heartwood yellowish or greenish brown to black,

hard : sapwood narrow, yellowish. Laburnum.
|| Heartwood greenish or yellowish white, hard,

heavy : sapwood riot differing. Hackberry,

Celtis (Fig. 32).

FIG. 33. — Transverse section of Common Elm (Ulmus camptelris).

ft Vessels 1 — several dozen together, in wavy peri-
pheral lines in autumn wood : heartwood brown,
hard, heavy : sapwood yellowish -white. Elm,
Ulmus.

| Pores of spring wood forming a broad band of
several rows. English, Scotch and Red or Slip-
pery Elm, Ulmus campfatris, montdna (Figs. 33
and 34), and fulva.

1 1 Pores of spring wood in a single row, or nearly so.
White, Rock, Winged and Cedar Elms of U.S. A.,
Ulmus americdna, racemosa, aldta and erassifdlia.

FIG. 34.— Transverse section of Wych Elm (Ulmus montdna).

FIG. 35 — Transverse section of Common Vine (Vitis vinifera).

58 OF WOOD IN GENERAL.

*** Vessels in radial lines or queues, wavy or branched

the branches often uniting,
f All the pith-rays very broad.

| Wood beset with large pores : heart wood reddish -
brown. Vine, Vitis (Fig. 35).

H- t
+ +

Wood sulphur yellow, hard : zone of vessels
narrow. Barbery, Berberis.

FIG. 36.— Transverse section of Cork Oak (Qutrcus Suber).

ft Pith-rays so narrow as to be hardly perceptible :

heartwood oak brown : zone of vessels very

broad and vessels large, but less crowded than in

Oak. Chestnut, Castdnea.

Iff Some of the pith-rays very broad and easily

visible to the naked eye. Oaks, Qutrcus.
I Pores in summer wood very fine, numerous and
crowded : heartwood light brown. White
Oaks, Q. alba, Mcolor, palustris, obtusiloba, etc.,
in U.S.A. and Rdbur in Europe.

CLASSIFICATION OF HARD- WOODS.

59

Pores in summer wood fewer but larger : heart-
wood dark brown. Red and Black Oaks of
U.S.A., Q. rubra, tinctdria.
Pores few, gradually but slightly diminishing
across the entire ring : wood very dense and
heavy. Live Oaks, Q. wrens of U.S. A., Ilex and
Suber (Fig. 36) of Europe.

FIG. 37. — Transverse section of Judas-tree (Cercis Siliqudstrum).

tttt Pith-rays moderately broad and distinct: vessels
in spring wood very large, those in summer wood
much smaller, 1 — 8 together : heart wood brown-
ish yellow : sap wood white. Judas tree, Cfrcis
(Fig. 37).

**** yesseis in summer wood mostly but little smaller
than those of the spring wood, scattered, solitary,
or few together. Mostly hard, heavy woods,
t Fine peripheral lines of wood-parenchyma : pith-

60 OF WOOD IN GENERAL.

rays fine : zone of vessels interrupted : summer
wood reddish nut-brown. Hickories, Hicoria.
ft Similar, but with blackish heartwood. Persimmon,

Diospyros nrginuma.

Iff Vessels distinct and large, sometimes filled with
white phosphate of lime : pith-rays fine, dis-
tinct, light-coloured : wood brownish-red. Teak,
Teddna.

ff ft Vessels equally distributed: pith-rays fine, dis-
tinct: wood a warm red brown, often beautifully
figured. Mahogany, Swietenia Mahdgoni.
ttttf Vessels very large, open or partly filled with a
brown resin : pith-rays distinct : heart-wood cin-
namon-brown, very soft, fragrant. Honduras
Cedar, Cedrela odordta.

b. Vessels in the spring wood not larger, but generally
more numerous and crowded than in the autumn
wood,
(i) Pith-rays distinct.

* Heartwood reddish-brown, zone of vessels in spring
wood lighter coloured : vessels 1 — 4 together: hard,
heavy. Plum, Primus domestica.

** Heartwood yellowish-brown, with greenish streaks,
fragrant: vessels I — 8 together: hard. Mahaleb
Cherry, Prunus Mdhaleb.

*** Heartwood yellowish-brown, with an unpleasant
odour at first : sapwood yellowish-white : vessels
1 — 8 together : moderately hard. Bird Cherry,
Prunus Pddus.

**** Heartwood blackish-brown, with pith-flecks : sap-
wood reddish : vessels 1 — 5 together : hard. Black-
thorn, Prunus spindsa.

***** Heartwood yellowish-brown : sapwood reddish-
white: vessels minute, 1 — 13 together: hard, heavy.
Cherry, Prunus Cdrasus.
****** Sapwood yellowish-white : heartwood slightly

CLASSIFICATION OF HARD- WOODS. 61

browner: vessels 1 — 8 together: hard: pith very
large. Elder, Sambucus.
(ii) Pith-rays not at all, or scarcely visible.

* Heartwood orange-red : sapwood yellow : vessels

about 50 together in branching flame-like groups :
hard, heavy. Buckthorn, Rhdmnus cathdrticus
(Fig. 28). '

** Similarly coloured; but vessels 1 — 7 together, not in
flames, but equally distributed and minute : soft.
Berry-bearing Alder, Rhdmnus Frdngula.
*** Heartwood greyish green, autumn wood in darker
zones : sapwood narrow, yellowish-white : soft.
Stag's horn Sumach, Rhus typhina.
**** Heartwood greenish to golden : sapwood narrow,
white : vessels 1 — 7 together : harder. Venetian
Sumach, or Wig-tree, Rhus Cdtinus.
***** Heartwood light brown, touched with red or
violet : sapwood narrow yellowish -white : hard,
heavy. Lilac, Syringa vulgdris.

2. Diffuse-porous : vessels numerous, usually minute, but neither
larger nor more numerous in the spring wood : rings some-
times rendered distinct by closer texture of the elements of
the autumn wood.

a. Vessels large, open, but few.

(i) Wood soft and light : heart wood light reddish-brown.

Butternut or White Walnut, Juglans cin^rea.
(ii) Wood hard and heavy : heartwood chocolate-brown :

pith-rays fine : fine peripheral lines of parenchyma

vessels 1 — 4 together : with darker wavy zones.

Common Walnut, Juglans regia.
(iii) Similar, but darker. Black Walnut, Juglans nigra.

The Indian Sal (Shdrea robusta) belongs here.

b. Vessels minute.

(i) Broad pith-rays present.

* Pith-rays numerous, mostly broad, crowded : rings

bending outwards at the rays : reddish- white or

62 OF WOOD IN GENERAL.

light brown : hard, moderately heavy. Plane,
Buttonwood or Sycamore, Pldtanus occidentdlis.
** Only some of the pith-rays broad.

| Broad rays numerous : rings bending inwards at
the rays : reddish-white or light brown : hard.
Beech, Fdgus.

I 1 Broad rays few, light-coloured : rings very sinu-

ous, bending inwards at the rays : yellowish-
white : hard, heavy, tough. Hornbeam, White
or Blue Beech, Carpinus.

III Broad rays few : rings almost circular : reddish-

white, soft. Hazel, Corylus.

j j j J Broad rays few: rings bending inwards at the
rays : white, becoming brownish-red, with brown
pith-flecks, soft. Alder, Alnus.
(ii) No broad pith-rays.

* Pith-rays narrow but quite distinct to the naked

eye.
f Wood hard.

§ Pith -rays with a decided satiny lustre. Maples,

Acer.
I Rings perfectly circular.

U Wood white, hard and heavy : pith-rays
straight : Sycamore or Plane. A.
Pseudopldtanus.
UH Similar ; but with winding pith-rays.

A. opulifdlmm.
+ 1 Kings slightly wavy.

U Wood reddish, very hard, sometimes with
curled, bird's-eye or blister figures.

(a) Sometimes with pith-flecks. Field Maple, A. cam-

p^stre and Moose-wood, A. pennsylvdnicum.

(b) Without pith-flecks. Rock or Sugar Maple, A. bar-

bdtum.

11 H Wood reddish, but lighter, hard, with
very fine but conspicuous pith-rays.

CLASSIFICATION OF HARD-WOODS. 63

(a) With distinct, dark-coloured heartwood. Red

Maple, A. rubrum.

(b) Without distinctly coloured heartwood. Norway

or Plane Maple, A. platanoides.

nHH Wood light-coloured, reddish or yel-
low, lighter and softer.

(a) Red-tinged, sometimes curled. Silver or Soft

Maple, A. saccharinum.

(b) Yellowish, with very broad rings : vessels minute,

numerous. Box-elder, A. Negundo.
§§ Pith-rays very fine, but distinct, not markedly
satiny : rings circular : wood white or green-
ish : vessels minute. Holly, Ilex.
ft Wood soft or very soft.

§ Pores crowded, occupying nearly all the space

between the pith-rays.

\ Yellowish-white, often darker or greenish in the
heartwood. American White-wood, Yellow-
wood or Yellow Poplar, Liriodtndron tulipifera,
and Cucumber tree, Magndlia acumindta and
allied species.

1 1 Sap wood greyish- white : heartwood light to dark
reddish-brown, heavy, but soft. Sweet Gum,
Bilsted or Red Gum of U.S.A., Liquiddmbar
styraciflua.

§§ Pores not crowded, occupying not more than
one-third . of the space between the pith-
rays : brownish or reddish-white to light
brown ; only slightly silky ; pith-rays less
distinct and less lustrous than in the
Maples : light. Linden, Lime or Basswood,
Tilia.
** Pith-rays not distinct to the naked eye.

f Wood hard : distribution of vessels uniform, or

sometimes in wormlike lines.
§ Vessels 1—3 together.

64 OF WOOD IN GENERAL.

} Wood flesh-coloured, with pith -flecks. Haw-
thorn, Crat&gus Oxyacdntha.
H Yellowish-white. Spindle-tree, Euunymus

europcBUS.

I tt Greenish. Bladdernut. Staphylea pinndta.
§§ Vessels 1 — 4 together.
I Without pith-flecks.

11 Heartwood flesh-coloured. Dogwood, Cdrnus

sanguined.
1W Brownish-red, no distinct heartwood. Pear,

Pyrus communis.
HUH With a dark red-brown heartwood. Apple,

Pyrus Mdlus.
\l With pith-flecks.

U Sapwood reddish-white : heartwood reddish-
brown : pith-flecks few, near centre.
White Beam, Pyrus Aria.
1HI Brownish-yellow: pith-flecks numerous.

Wild Service-tree, Pyrus tormindlis.
§§§ Vessels 1 — 5 together: pith-flecks numerous:
reddish. Rowan or Mountain Ash, Pyrus
Aucupdria.

§§§§ Vessels 1—8 together, minute : sapwood whitish :
heartwood reddish, with satiny lustre. Birch,
Betula.

§§§§§ Light yellow, very compact and fine-grained,
almost homy : rings scarcely visible : heavy.
Box, Buxus.
ft W^ood soft.

§ Creamy white, yellowish or reddish, light : vessels
1 — 7 together, indistinct : rings wide. Horse-
chestnut or Buckeye, dEsculus.
§§ Sapwood white or reddish : heartwood light red
to dark brown, sometimes lustrous, light : rings
sometimes angular : vessels in worm-like
groups. Willow, Sdlix.

CLASSIFICATION OF HARD-WOODS. 65

§§§ Sapwood white : heartwood light brown, lus-
trous : rings angular : vessels 1 — 5 together.
Black Poplars or Cotton woods, Pdpulus nigra,
moniltfera, balsamifera.
§§§§ Rings circular : vessels 1 — 7 together.

| Without pith-flecks : heartwood yellow-brown.

White Poplar, Pdpulus alba.
1 1 With white pith-flecks : white, with no distinct
heartwood. Aspen, Pdpulus trdmula.

CHAPTER III.
DEFECTS OF WOOD.

IN every stage of their growth trees are liable to mischances,
from defects of soil or climate, from accident, or from the attacks
of fungi, of insects, or of other animals. Some of these mis-
chances have permanent and important effects upon their wood.
Although, in healthy surroundings and in the absence of external
injury, there is no very definite limit to the longevity of any
species of tree, after it has reached maturity a certain deteriora-
tion generally shows itself at the centre of the trunk, which will
subsequently manifest itself as decay. After felling, shrinkage
in the process of drying and the attacks of species of fungi,
mostly differing from those that injure growing trees, develop
further defects in timber of the very gravest practical import
to the consumer.

The attacks of insects or of fungi upon the leaves of trees,
though they may prove fatal to seedlings, have generally in later
stages of growth merely the effect of injuring the nutrition of
the plant. They may thus diminish the amount of wood formed
in the season, and may, therefore, be of first-rate importance to
the forester or timber-grower, but do not in general concern the
timber-user.

Cup-shake. — When, however, the caterpillars of some moths,
such as Tdrtrix mriddna, entirely destroy the young leaves of the
Oak in June, though the tree may put out new leaves in July

CUP-SHAKE. 67

and August, it will only do so at the expense of wood-forming
reserve-materials, and there may possibly result so complete a
check to the nutrition of the tree that the wood of one year may
fail to cohere to that of the preceding season, a cup-shake or ring-
shake being produced (Fig. 38).

Such a separation between successive annual rings — a defect
seriously interfering with the conversion of timber into planks —
is, however, undoubtedly produced for the most part by various
other causes, and may be briefly here described. It occurs in

FIG. 38. — Cup and heart shake.

various species, such as Hazel, Oak, Poplar, Pitch Pine, and Lignum
Vitse, and seems to some extent local. The oaks of Sicily, for
instance, a variety of our British species, Qutrcus Bdbur, and those
of the Forest of Dean (Q, Bdbur, var. sessilifldra) are peculiarly
subject to this defect, which in the latter case has been doubtfully
ascribed either to the rocky character of the soil or to the swaying
to and fro of the tall trees by strong winds. This action of wind
bending the rings of wood alternately in opposite directions, in a
manner obviously calculated to tear them apart, may well explain
the occurrence of this form of shake in Poplars. Cup-shake has
also been attributed to frost, the rings of sapwood and heartwood
in a living tree containing varying proportions of water and the
outer layers being most likely to freeze first. The explosive

68

OF WOOD IN GENERAL.

rending of trees by frost, the noise of which disturbs the stillness
of night in the forests of North America may in this way be
sometimes concentric in its action. This may explain the
prevalence of this defect in the swamp-loving Pitch Pine (Pinus
austrdlis) of Virginia. Frost cannot, however, be the cause of the
frequency of cup-shake in the tropical Lignum Vitae ; but in this
case the sun may have produced an effect similar to that which
sometimes occurs when part of the cambium ring at the base of a
stem is injured by a forest fire. Lastly, in some Pines this defect

FIG. 39.— Star-shake.

is the result of the attacks of certain fungi (Tramdtes), the
" spawn " or " mycelium " of which spreads as a felted mass
of colourless mould especially in the cambium. Cup-shake
occurs most frequently at the base of the stem : when of long
standing, it is often accompanied by traces of rot, and in many
cases it is also associated with star-shake.

Star-Shake. — Star-shake consists in clefts radiating from the
pith along the planes of the pith-rays and widening outwards
(Fig. 39).

It occurs in many species and in trees of all ages. The clefts
may only extend a small distance and be so slightly open when

STAR- AND HEART-SHAKE.

69

the tree is newly felled as to be scarcely perceptible. In such
a case they generally widen during seasoning, from the more
rapid drying of the outer layers, their sides becoming darker in
colour than the rest of the wood. In other instances the clefts
may have extended to the circumference of the stem, in which
case they may have been so overgrown by new wood as to form
a longitudinal rib down the exterior of the bark, a sure sign of
the defect to the experienced timber surveyor. Such extreme
cases at least seem to be always the result of frost or sun, the
latter being specially frequent in the case of smooth thin-barked
species, such as Beech and Hornbeam, in which lines of the cortex
are killed by sun-burn.

FIG. 40.— Heart-shake.

Heart-shake. — More common than either cup-shake or star-
shake is heart-shake, one or two clefts crossing the central rings of
the stem and widening towards the centre (Fig. 40).

This may occur in almost every kind of timber, whether coni-
ferous or broad-leaved, and seems to be quite independent of
soil or situation. Among species least affected by it Mr. Laslett 1
mentions the so-called African Oak or Teak (Oldfieldia africdna),
Sabicu, Spanish Mahogany, Common Elm, Dantzic Fir or Redwood
(Pinus sylvestris), Canadian Red Pine (Pinus resinosa), and, some-
what less free from it, Canadian Yellow Pine (Pinus Strobus) •
1 Timber and Timber-trees, ed. ii. p. 54.

70 OF WOOD IN GENERAL.

whilst as exceptionally liable to the defect he mentions the true
Indian Teak (Tectona grdndis), the Australian Tewart (Eucalyptus
gomphocdphala), the Riga and Swedish varieties of Pinus sylvestris,
and P. austrdlis, the Pitch Pine of the southern United States.
Greenheart (Neddndra Rudi<n) commonly develops two crossing
heart-shakes for two or three feet up the butt end of the log.
One of the worst forms of this defect is when, owing to spiral
growth, the shake shifts its direction as we trace it up the stem.
It may in this way sometimes be nearly at right angles at one
end of the tree to its direction at the other, — thus rendering the
conversion of a log into plank well nigh impossible.

It is this hindrance to the conversion of timber into plank that
constitutes the main practical importance of all forms of shake,
as they do not at first involve any decay, and consequently do
not much interfere with the employment of the logs in bulk.
Heart-shake, however, is probably in itself an indication of that
incipient decay that comes when timber has passed its maturity
and the older layers shrink more than the outer.

Rind-gall. — Somewhat allied to cup-shake is the local defect
known as rind-gall. This originates from the destruction of part
of the bark of a growing tree, whether by another tree falling
against it, the scorching of a forest-fire, the knawing of an
animal, or even the cutting of initials by some misguided youth.
If the cut has penetrated to, exposed, and destroyed the cambium,
there may, in spite of the gradual overgrowth of layers of new
wood from the margins of the injury, be a local want of cohesion
between the exposed wood and that subsequently formed over it.
This defect may entirely escape detection from the outside of an
unconverted log.

Decay. — Bright-looking wood is generally of better quality
than that which is dull ; while any departure from the usual
colour of the timber of the species is commonly, as we have
already stated, an indication of at least incipient local decay.
Discoloured patches, such as occur on the exterior of the butt
ends of some masts of the Kauri (or Cowdie) Pine of New
Zealand (Agathis austrdlis), will generally be found to be relatively

RIND-GALL AND DECAY. 71

brittle. They are usually white at first and are then of small
extent or consequence ; but when they are yellowish-red, the
mischief has gone further; and a decided red or foxy colour
indicates a wide-spread decay so serious as to disqualify the
timber for purposes of construction. Oak, however, in an
advanced state of foxiness and decay is in request for cabinet-
work. Such decay is a gradual oxidation, or combustion of the
wood, similar to that which it undergoes when exposed to
alternations of dry and damp air. In old Beeches, and other trees,
it appears to begin in the pith and spread outwards, such wood
being known in France as bois rouge ; but it very frequently
originates in a broken branch, a rind-gall, or a star-shake reaching
the surface, so that air, damp and fungi find access to the wood
of the tree. It is this decay spreading from the pith that
gradually hollows out old trees ; but this hollowing occurs much
earlier in pollards where water and rotting leaves may accumulate
in the fork of the crown, or in trees in which broken limbs or
other injuries have been neglected. The breaking of a small
branch may set up decay, and yet such a druxy knot, as it is
termed, may gradually be covered up with sound wood, so that
only a slight swelling may indicate the defect at the surface of
the stem. Any such excrescence should be removed directly
a tree is felled ; as, though the healing over, by excluding
further damp, may have checked the mischief, there is no telling
from the outside how deep it may have extended, and such a
patch of decayed wood, if left to itself, is certain on being laid
bare in the process of conversion to absorb more atmospheric
moisture and so enlarge itself.

Fungal attack.— All such decay is immensely hastened, and
undoubtedly in many cases originated, by the action of fungi.
Some of these plants confine their attacks to living trees, others
to timber after it is felled ; and of the first-mentioned class some
are true parasites, attacking the roots of living and otherwise
healthy trees, whilst others are wound-parasites, the minute spores
or reproductive germs finding their way into the tree through
some wound not produced by the fungus. Holes bored by insects,

72 OF WOOD IN GENERAL.

excoriations of the bark by animals of any kind, and branches
broken by wind or badly pruned, afford wounds suitable for the
attacks of these last. When the disease caused by a wound-
parasite manifests itself first in the cortical and cambium tissues
it is termed a canker. Some fungi are confined to single species
of trees, others attack conifers only, others hard woods only,
whilst some seem capable of attacking trees of all kinds alike.
The fungi most destructive to timber belong to the more highly
organized subdivisions of the class, the Peziza, which produces the
canker in the Larch, being, for instance, one of the Ascomyc6tes,
whilst many others known as " wet rot," " dry rot," etc., are
members of the order Hymenomycttes, that to which the mushrooms
belong.

One of the most generally destructive of these last is the toad-
stool Agdricus (Armilldria) malleus, clusters of the yellow fructi-
fications of which are often seen near the base of unhealthy Beech,
Spruce, Oak, or other trees in autumn. The upper surface of its
tawny cap is shaggy with hair : the gills on the under surface run
down on to the stalk, round which there is a well marked torn
ring ; and the spores, when ripe, are white. Underground, instead
of the delicate white " spawn " or mycelium, resembling cobweb,
which is common among fungi, this species produces stout,
purplish-black strands, which may extend, at a depth of six or
eight inches below the surface, to a distance of several feet.
These strands are known as rhizomorphs, from their root-like
appearance. They have growing points capable of penetrating
the cortex of living tree roots, and, when they have done so,
extend into the cambium and send off branches into the pith-rays
and the wood. When this parasite attacks a resinous tree, such
as Spruce, a quantity of the resin flows from the pierced root, and
the fungal threads travel partly along the resin-passages. In these
cases the fungal threads commonly exude a fermentative secretion,
by means of which they soften and dissolve the walls of cells or
vessels: on penetrating cells containing protoplasm, starch, etc.,
they readily absorb such substances ; but they also destroy
cellulose and lignin itself, at first producing various discolorations

FUNGAL ATTACK. 73

of the wood, and ultimately reducing it to the condition of
" touchwood " or "punk." "It will readily be understood that
all these progressive changes are accompanied by a decrease in the
specific gravity of the timber, for the fungus decomposes the
substance much in the same way as it is decomposed by putre-
faction or combustion, i.e. it causes the burning off of the carbon,
hydrogen, and nitrogen, in the presence of oxygen, to carbon-
dioxide, water, and ammonia, retaining part in its own substance
for the time being, and living at its expense.1

Another true parasite, Tramties radicipfrda, only attacks coni-
fers. Its spores, which can be readily conveyed in the fur of mice
or other burrowing animals, germinate in the moisture around the
roots : the fine threads of " spawn " penetrate the cortex and
spread through and destroy the cambium, extending in thin,
flat, fan-like, white, silky bands, and, here and there, bursting
through the cortex in white oval cushions, on which the sub-
terranean fructifications are produced. Each of these is a
yellowish white felt-like mass, with its outer surface covered with
crowded minute tubes or " pores " in which the spores are pro-
duced. The wood attacked by this fungus first becomes rosy or
purple, then turns yellowish, and then exhibits minute black dots,
which surround themselves with extending soft white patches.

The many pores in the fructification of Trametes indicate its
kinship with the genus Polypwus, many species of which are well-
known as "shelf-funguses," projecting like brackets from the
stems of trees, and having their pores on their under-surfaces.
Most of these are wound-parasites. One of the commonest, the
yellow cheese-like Polyporus sulphur ens, occurs on Oak, Poplar,
AVillow, Larch, and other standing timber, its spawn-threads
spreading from any exposed portion of cambium into the
pith-rays and between the annual rings, forming thick
layers of yellowish-white felt, and penetrating the vessels of the
wood, which thereupon becomes a deep brown colour and decays.

The ravages of such wound-parasites are often the result of

1 Timber and some of its Diseases, by Prof. H. Marshall Ward, F.R.S.,
to which work I am particularly indebted in the present chapter.

74 OF WOOD IN GENERAL.

neglect, broken branches being left untrimmed as a lodgement
for the spores of the fungus. We have known an Elm-tree to be
divided in this waj^ by a broad zone of touchwood, originating
from the attack of a Polyporus on a snag, so that, though sound
timber both above and below, the tree snapt readily in half in a
slight gust of wind.

Another species of Polyporus, P. vapordrius, though it acts as a
wound-parasite on coniferous trees, frequently develops and does
its chief mischief in stacked timber. It is then commonly
confused with the true dry rot, of which we shall speak
presently. Its spores (which are, as in most fungi, extremely
minute and produced in myriads) fall into cracks of wood,
whether the result of injuries to timber when standing,
or " shakes " developed after the tree is felled and barked. As
their spawn-threads develop in the timber and gradually decom-
pose and absorb its substance, the wood shows deep red or brown
streaks, warps and cracks up, and becomes thoroughly rotten,
and is penetrated by thick snowy-white ribbons of the felted
fungus. In stacked timber this rot frequently develops mainly
in the lower, less ventilated, layers of a stack.

Some of the diseases that show themselves conspicuously in the
cortex and are known as cankers may be set up by frost, by sun,
or by insect attack ; but in Oak, Beech, Maple, Hornbeam, Alder,
Lime, and Larch, canker is the result of wound-parasite fungi.
The spores of most, if not all, of these fungi are incapable of
penetrating sound cortex ; but how many are the chances that
bring about small ruptures of this layer ! In the case of that
most destructive of cankers, the Larch disease, it has been shown
that the fungus which produces it, Peziza Willkomnm, is far less
common and less deadly in the drier colder air of Alpine heights
where the Larch is indigenous ; but that late frosts attacking the
more advanced and sappy trees in the moist air of the lowlands
kill many a shoot and form wounds by which the spores can enter.
The moister and warmer air at the same time is more favour-
able to the growth of the fungus. Its spawn-threads ramify in
all directions through the wood, turning it brown and drying it

CANKER AND DRY-ROT. 75

up ; while resin flows out at the wound in the bark, which en-
larges yearly as the tissues surround it with successively wider-
gaping lips of cork in the futile effort of the tree's vitality to heal
it over. Round the margins of the wound appear the little
orange cup-shaped fructifications of the Peziza scattering their
spores so as to infect other trees ; whilst the ultimate effect is
that each tree is ringed by the destruction of its cortex and then
generally succumbs.

Many of the fungi which attack standing timber are so ruinous
in their action that the wood of the affected trees will never
reach the hands of the timber-merchant; but the wood worker is
more seriously interested in those diseases which attack converted
timber. Of these the most important is "dry rot" (Merulius
Idcrymans). The spores of this fungus germinate on damp wood,
provided some alkali is present, such as the ammonia fumes in
stables. Then, under the influence of warm, still air (i.e. the
absence of ventilation) its spawn-threads spread not only in all
directions through the wood, forming greyish-white cords and
flat cake-like masses of felt on its surface, but even over surfaces
of damp soil or brickwork, and thus to other previously unin-
fected timbers. Feeding upon the elements of the wood, getting
its nitrogen from cells which retain their protoplasm, such as
those of the pith-rays, but its carbonaceous and mineral sub-
stances from the walls of the tracheids and other fibrous elements,
the fungus destroys the substance of the timber, lessening its
weight, and causing it to warp and crack; until, at length, it-
crumbles up when dry into a fine brown powder, or, readily
absorbing any moisture in its neighbourhood, becomes a soft,
cheese like mass. At an earlier stage the affected timber appears
dark-coloured and dull ; and, long before its total disorganization,
it will have lost most of its strength. Imperfectly seasoned
timber is most susceptible to dry rot : the fungus can be spread
either by its spawn or by spores, and these latter can be carried
even by the clothes or saws of workmen, and are, of course, only
too likely to reach sound wood if diseased timber is left about
near it ; but on the other hand dry timber kept dry is proof

76 OF WOOD IN GENERAL.

against dry rot, and exposure to really dry air is fatal to the
fungus. If only the ends of properly seasoned beams which are
inserted in brick walls are previously creosoted, it will prove a
most effective protection.

Burrs. — Another class of malformations of considerable interest
to the timber-merchant are the gnarled and warty excrescences
known as burrs or knaiters. These are sometimes due to some
mechanical injury to the cortex, at other times apparently to the
sudden exposure of a previously shaded stem to the light, as by
the felling of a neighbouring tree. They consist of a number of
adventitious buds, capable of growing in thickness and putting on
wood, but insufficiently nourished to grow in length. In course
of years they may grow several feet across, their wood being very
irregular, and, owing to its slowness of formation, very dense.
The cross-sections of these bud-axes, as in the " bird's-eye " variety
of the Hard Maple (Acer barbdtum), the Elm, the Yew, the Walnut,
and other species, furnish beautiful veneers.

Injurious animals. — Brief mention must be made here of
three classes of enemies to both living and converted timbers, viz.
the ship-worms or Teredos, the termites (erroneously known as
"white ants"), and various insect-larvae known generally as
"worms." Teredo navdlis, the ship-worm, and its allies, are
bivalve mollusks, which bore into most kinds of timber when
immersed in sea-water, some very dense species, and especially
those with pungent resinous secretions, being proof against them.
On the other hand, creosoting is by no means always sufficient to
keep off their attacks. Shipworms occur in all seas : they gene-
rally bore with the grain, lining their burrows with a layer of
calcareous matter, and carefully avoiding one another's burrows.
They will sometimes completely riddle timber within four or five
years. In Australia they are known as "cobra."

The termites belong to the Neuroptera, an entirely distinct
Order of the insect class from that to which the true ants belong.
They occur in a great variety of species throughout the Tropics
but especially in South America, living in societies of prodigious
numbers, and, no doubt, fulfilling a useful function in the economy

INJURIOUS ANIMALS. 77

of nature, by disintegrating, removing, and destroying wood that
is already decayed, just as the ship-worms rid the seas of much
derelict timber. The termites will, however, attack most species
of wood after conversion, sometimes eating their way upward
from the foundations of a house to its rafters until all its timbers
are reduced to a mere shell, or completely destroying wooden
articles of furniture. The pungent resinous secretions which repel
the teredo seem also generally effective as a protection against
termites.

The large and voracious larvae of some moths are most destruc-
tive to growing trees, and sometimes attack converted timbers.
Very generally their eggs are laid in the bark, and the grubs
generally bore downward through the sapwood. The Goat-moth
(Cossus lignipe'rda), for instance, specially attacks aged and already
unsound Willows, Ash, and Elm; but will attack converted as
well as living wood. The Wood-leopard (Zeuzera cesculi) specially
attacks living fruit-trees and Horse-chestnuts, and its Australian
congener, the Wattle Goat-moth (Z. eucalypti) frequent the various
species of Acacia. Such insects are most destructive ; but their
large galleries are only too obvious in converting timber. Of the
wood-boring beetles, on the other hand, many only attack
unhealthy trees : others, such as Scdlytus destructor, the Elm-bark
beetle, tunnel in and under the bark, especially of fallen logs,
only occasionally penetrating a small depth into the outer wood.
Others are far more destructive, in many cases mainly attacking
sound converted timber. The widespread Death-watch beetles,
for instance, (Anobium domesticum, A. tessellation, and allied forms,)
the chief cause in England of the familiar " worm-holes " in Oak,
frequently entirely destroy the timbering of roofs, and still more
commonly riddle our smaller articles of furniture. In the Tropics
and warmer Temperate regions their place is largely taken by the
numerous family Bostrychidce, some of which attain far larger
dimensions.

CHAPTER IV.

SELECTION, SEASONING, STORAGE, AND DURABILITY
OF WOODS.

Selection of wood. — The wood-worker must, of course,
determine first what kind of wood is best suited for his purpose,
and then take steps to secure that the wood he obtains is a
sufficiently good sample of its kind.

It cannot unfortunately be at all assumed that the botanical
determination of the species will prove a guarantee of the quality
of a timber. Experience shows that Pinus sylvdstris or Qudrcus
Eobur from different parts of Europe, or even from different
situations in one country or Teduna grdndis from different districts
of India may be a very different thing from the same species of
Pine, Oak, or Teak from elsewhere. Botanical identification,
therefore, though a most important preliminary, will not obviate
other tests. For many purposes, such as mere temporary hoard-
ings, crates, packing-boxes, or the carcases of low-priced furniture,
cheapness may be a consideration paramount to all others.

Speaking generally, warm countries, sunny exposures, and dry,
elevated land produce heavier, harder, and stronger timber.

It is important that timber should be selected for felling when
mature, when the quantity of sap-wood is small and the heart-
wood nearly uniform, hard, compact, and durable. After this
stage, wood may become brittle, inelastic, discoloured, and perish-
able, while before maturity, when the sap-wood is in excess, it

SELECTION OF WOOD. 79

will seldom be durable. Oak, for instance, for building, should
not be less than 50 nor more than 200 years old, and Teak not
less than 80 years of age.

Autumn or winter-felled wood, owing to the lower temperature,
splits less in drying, and for this reason, and on account of the
season being less favourable to fungus-growth, is more durable
than that felled in the spring or summer.

Shakes, knots, especially if disposed in a ring round a stick,
upsets, i.e. fibres crippled by compression, or cross-grain are all
defects which reduce the strength of timber. Both butt and top
should be close, solid, and sound, any sponginess near the pith,
discoloration at the top, rind-gall, worm-holes, or splits produced
in seasoning being indications of weakness. Bright-coloured and
smooth-working wood is generally better than any that is dull or
works with a rough surface ; and heavier wood is in all respects
stronger than lighter wood of the same species.

Where lightness and stiffness are desirable, coniferous wood is
generally preferable; and, where a steady load has to be supported,
the denser coniferous woods equal those of broad-leaved trees,
which are costlier and heavier. Where, however, moving or
jarring loads have to be sustained, the tougher hard woods should
be used.

Conversion of timber. — Split wood is straighter in grain
and more easily seasoned than sawn timber; and, when sawn,
timber will prove stronger and more durable, will season better
and will warp less if sawed as nearly as possible along the radii
of the annual rings, or, as it is termed, "quarter" or "rift"
sawed. This method is more expensive than tangent sawing;
but a little consideration will show how it secures — in flooring
boards, for instance — a more even exposure of the grain (i.e. the
hard bands of summer wood) on the surface. It must be borne
in mind that in a squared beam with the pith in its centre, whilst
we have some complete annual cones of wood appearing as rings
at the butt end and tapering to a point or to smaller rings at the
top, we shall also have other imperfect cones represented by rings
at the top but presenting tangent or " bastard " faces on the sides

80

OF WOOD IN GENERAL.

of the beam and not represented at the butt. These different
" structural aggregates " differ materially in strength, the central
cone with its numerous knots being the weakest part, whilst the
strongest is the hollow cylinder formed of cones that occur as

FIG. 41. — A beam, showing structural aggregates. 1, central or pith cone ;
2, cylinder of rings continuous throughout ; 3 and 4, partial cylinders,
making "bastard faces" on the sides. (Modified from Roth.)

rings both at butt and top (Fig. 41). Quarter-sawing secures the
most advantageous uniformity in the proportion of each of these
aggregates in every plank.

In ordinary tangent-sawed timber it is, as pointed out by Mr.
Laslett, important to notice that there is an outside and an inside
to every board, and that it is desirable in construction to leave the

FIG. 42. — Plank well laid, with inside, or inner rings, downward. (After
Laslett.)

outside exposed, as shown in Fig. 42, since otherwise (Fig. 43) the
inner rings of wood soon shell out.

Seasoning. — All wood when first felled contains a large
quantity of moisture, and this, together with the readily decom-
posable organic or protoplasmic matter also present, furnishes
(especially at temperatures between 60° arid 100° F.) the most

UNIVERSITY
CONVERSION AND SEASONING.

favourable conditions for the growth of those fungi which are the
main causes of decay. If completely submerged, or buried, or
when once dried and kept so, timber may last indefinitely. The
piles in the Swiss lake-dwellings must be many centuries old :
wood of Juniperus Oxyddrus buried in the island of Madeira has
remained undecayed and fragrant for four hundred years; and
Spruces three to four feet in diameter have been observed in the
moist forests of north-west America growing on the prostrate but
still sound trunks of Thuya gigdntea.

By girdling standing timber the process of seasoning is to a
great extent anticipated. Thus, in order to float the timber,

FIG. 43. — Plank badly laid, with the inside, or inner rings, upward. (After
Laslett.)

which in its green state is at least as heavy as water, it is the
general practice in Burmah to cut a complete ring through the
bark and sapwood of the Teak three years before it is intended to
fell it. This stoppage of all ascending sap kills the tree in a few
weeks : the heat of the climate helps the seasoning process ; and,
as usually about a year elapses between the felling of the timber
and its delivery in England, it is then fit for immediate use. It
has, however, been objected to this process that it causes or
intensifies heart-shake, and, by drying the wood too rapidly,
renders it brittle and inelastic.

Seasoning of some kind is, in all other cases, rendered impera-
tive by the changes in volume, irregular shrinkage, or warping,
that all green woods undergo under the influence of changes in
atmospheric temperature and moisture, especially in their cross
sections. So important is it to avoid this warping in furniture,
wheelwright's work, etc., that it is a common practice to block

F

82 OF WOOD IN GENERAL.

out work roughly and let it season a little longer before
finishing.

The strength of many woods is nearly doubled by seasoning,
hence it is very thriftless to use it in a green state ; as it is then
not only weaker, but is liable to continual change of bulk and
form. The longitudinal fibres of the wood being, as it were,
bound together by the radiating pith-rays, as the wood shrinks it
finds relief by splitting radially from the centre along the pith-
rays. When a log is sawn into four quarters, by passing the saw
twice through the centre at right angles, the outer annual rings
shrink the most, so that the two flat surfaces of each quarter of
the log cease to be strictly at right angles to one another. In
tangent-sawn timber, however, the same shrinkage causes the
centre plank to contract in thickness at its edge, whilst planks
cut from the outside will shrink in breadth, their edges curving
away from the centre of the tree.

It seems to be generally agreed that natural or air seasoning
gives the best results. Firewood should be dried rapidly ; but in
other cases slow drying in cool air — a process difficult to effect in
the tropics — is most desirable in order to reduce the amount of
cracking. The timber should be squared as soon as cut, and even
halved or quartered, for the rate of drying depends largely on the
shape and size of the piece, an inch board drying more than four
times as fast as a 4-irich plank, and more than twenty times as fast
as a 10-inch timber. The wood is then piled in the seasoning
yard so as to be protected as far as possible from the sun and
rain, but with air circulating freely on all sides of each log. Bad
ventilation is sure to cause rot ; but at the same time exposure to
high wind is likely to cause unequal drying, and is, therefore, to
be avoided. One of the most fertile causes of decay is the leaving
of logs to sink into soft ground where they are felled, often in the
immediate neighbourhood of rotting stumps or dead twigs, the
most fertile source of infection by fungus-spores than can be
imagined. Timber should therefore be stacked, or at least
skidded a foot off the ground, as soon as possible and protected
by a roof. Experience is against the stacking of timber vertically

AIR AND HOT-AIR SEASONING.

83

or at an angle, as this only produces unequal drying ; but planks
may be stacked flat or on edge. Laslett gives the following
table of the times required for seasoning Oak and Fir in a shed :

Months. Months.
Pieces 24 ins. and upwards square, Oak about 26, Fir, 13

Under 24 ins. to 20 ins.

„ 20 „ 16 „

.. 16 „ 12 „

„ 12 „ 8 „

8 , 4 ,

22

18

14

10

6

11
9
7
5
3

For planks half or two thirds of these times would be requisite,
according to their thickness. Too prolonged seasoning will cause
an undue widening and deepening of the shakes that open at the
surface during drying.

Kiln-drying or hot-air seasoning is a more rapid, but more
expensive process, suited only to boards or other small material.
It is a common practice to first steam the timber, which reduces

FIG. 44.—" Honeycombed" board, splitting along the pith-rays. (After Roth.)

its hygroscopicity and, therefore, its warping. This, however, is
said to reduce the strength, if not also the durability of the wood.
If not steamed, the ends of boards should be clamped before kiln-
drying to prevent splitting and warping. Neither hygroscopicity
nor shrinkage of wood can be altogether overcome by drying at
temperatures below 200° F. ; but as a rule only the first shrinking
is likely to cause splitting, so that any timber which has had
from three to six months air-drying may be safely kiln-dried.
Too rapid kiln drying, however, is apt to produce " case harden-
ing " in Oak and other hard woods, the drying and shrinking,
that is, of an outside shell followed by "honeycombing," or
splitting of the interior along the pith-rays (Fig. 44). Previous

84 OF WOOD IN GENERAL.

air-drying or steaming will obviate this. Various temperatures
are employed in kiln-drying ; but it is stated that at 100° to
120° F., Oak, Ash, and other hardwoods can be seasoned in dry
kilns without any of the loss of strength often alleged to result
from artificial heat. Poplar planks are dried in kilns in America
at 158° F. to 180° F. ; but Oak, Ash, Maple, Birch, Sycamore, etc.,
are first air-seasoned for three to six months, and are then exposed
to these temperatures for six to ten days for 1-inch stuff. Pine,
Spruce, Cypress, and Cedar of the same dimensions are dried for
four days immediately after being felled and sawn up. Such
temperatures are more than sufficient to kill and prevent fungus
growth, and the fact that well-ventilated seasoned wood is seldom
attacked shows that the amount of moisture then left in the wood
is insufficient to support fungus growth. Walnut gun stocks are
desiccated in the rough by a current of air at 90° or 100° F., pass-
ing over them at such a rate as to change the whole volume of air
every three minutes, and it is found possible in this way to save a
year of seasoning. Temperatures of 250°-300° F. are almost
certainly detrimental to the wood. Such desiccated timber must
not be exposed to damp before being used or it will re-absorb
moisture, and coloured woods are said to lose colour and lustre
under this treatment.

Seasoning by passing the smoke-laden products of combustion
from the furnace through the timber pile has been found success-
ful, and has an important preservative effect. A modification of
this, known as M'Neile's process, consists in exposing the wood to
a moderate heat in a moist atmosphere charged with the products
of the combustion of fuel.

Boiling timber in water has much the same effect as steaming,
but is costly, and probably weakening in its effects.

Seasoning by immersion in water is a slow method that answers
well for wood to be used in water or in damp situations. It
reduces warping, but renders the wood brittle and less elastic.
It is important that the submergence be total, as otherwise there
is great danger of fungus attack along the water-line. Two or
three weeks' water-seasoning is often a good preparation for air-

VARIOUS METHODS OF SEASONING. 85

seasoning, and it must be remembered that foreign timbers have
often had some weeks or months of such treatment while being
transported by water to the port of shipment. It is important
that wood seasoned in this way be thoroughly dried before use,
otherwise dry rot will set in. In Mauritius, Ebony, which is
perfectly sound when freshly cut, is immersed immediately for 6
to 18 months, and then, on being taken out, is secured at both
ends of the logs with iron rings and wedges. Soaking timber or
burying it under corn were methods of seasoning practised by the
ancient Romans, who also steeped wood in oil of cedar to protect
it against worms.

Salt water makes wood harder, heavier, and more durable ; and
the rules of Lloyd's add a year to the term of classification of a
ship if she is "salted" during construction, having her timbers,
that is, packed with salt. Salt water cannot, however, be applied
to any timber intended for use in ordinary buildings, as it gives
the wood a permanent tendency to attract moisture from the air.

Boiling in oil is an effective and strengthening, but costly,
method of seasoning, employed in making wooden teeth for
mortice gears. The wood is roughed out in blocks little more
than the size of the finished work, and the oil kept at a tempera-
ture not exceeding 250° F.

In Australia the abundance of hardwood, its great weight, and
the high price of labour, has led to a general total neglect of
seasoning, which has had a very deleterious effect upon the reputa-
tion of Australian timbers in the markets of the world. Though
admittedly too costly for general use, the modification of the
oil process adopted by Mr. J. H. Maiden, curator of the Tech-
nological Museum of New South Wales, for museum specimens
of timber is interesting. The logs are stood on end and the
upper end is soaked with boiled linseed oil, and a day or two
later covered with a cream of white lead. Iron bands are then
put round each end of the logs and hammered to their outline,
the ends of the bands being turned out at right angles and bored
for a screw bolt, by means of which the bands can be tightened
up every few days.

86 OF WOOD IN GENERAL.

Carbonizing, or charring the outer surface of wood, destroys all
fungus-germs at the surface ; and, charcoal resisting the solvents
of fungi, this process renders the wood little liable to subsequent
infection. Thus it is stated that the stakes found in the bed of
the Thames, near Weybridge, and supposed to have been used to
oppose the invading Eomans, and the piles upon which the city
of Venice was built, had alike been charred. M. de Lapparent,
who introduced this process into the French dockyards forty
years ago, held that the durability of carbonized timber is secured
by the absence of fermentation in the juices of the interior of the
wood. The results are satisfactory, but care must be taken not
to cause surface splitting. M. de Lapparent's process is carried
out by means of a jet of gas.

Another important series of methods of seasoning are those
which may be termed impregnation-methods, which all depend upon
the principle that the sap may be replaced by some substance that
is antiseptic or poisonous to fungus-germs. The most primitive
of these is merely to paint the substance, such as tar, as thickly
as possible over dry wood and leave it to soak in, and this
undoubtedly has a great preservative effect, even on sapwood or
wood very imperfectly dried ; but the chief drawback to this, and
the chief difficulty in several other impregnation processes, is the
very small distance that the liquid soaks, so that slight cracks
expose unprotected wood to fungus attack. Whilst it is compara-
tively easy to inject sapwood in a longitudinal direction, it is far
more difficult to inject heartwood ; and it is vastly easier to force
liquids through wood tangentially than radially.

An improvement on any painting process is to submerge the
timber in a bath of the preservative, which may be tar, sulphate
of iron or of copper, chloride of zinc or creosote ; and in these
processes the replacement of the air and sap in the wood by the
liquid will generally be hastened by heat. Penetration is, how-
ever, slight, and long submergence renders the timber brittle.

Of the materials employed for impregnating timber, the most
effective is corrosive sublimate (mercuric chloride), the use of
which is known, from its inventor, Kyan, as kyanizing. It forms

IMPREGNATION-METHODS. 87

insoluble compounds in the wood, and is, therefore, permanent ;
but its costliness and dangerously poisonous character are against
it. Zinc chloride, introduced by Sir William Burnett, is cheap
and effective against both insects and fungi, but less so than
creosote. Copper sulphate, sometimes used for sleepers in France,
is cheap ; but is deposited in crystals in the wood, rendering it
brittle, and, owing to its solubility, is as easily washed out as
it is injected. Creosote, originally suggested by Bethell, and now
very largely employed in various ways, is cheap, lasting in its
effects, and useful in rendering the wood damp-proof. The more
expensive carbolic acid and ferric tannate have also been used.

To force the antiseptic solution into the wood, M. Boucherie,
who first employed copper sulphate, proposed placing it in an
elevated reservoir connected by a pipe with the lower end of a
log ; but this requires the log to have its bark on, and is thus a
wasteful process.

A more complicated and costly, but very successful, process
consists in the use of air-tight chambers, in which the converted
timber is placed. The air is then partially exhausted, so as to
draw out some of that in the vessels of the wood, and the anti-
septic solution is then forced in by pumps, preferably with steam
or heat, the whole process occupying less than an hour. About
75 Ibs. of creosote, however, are required for the impregnation of
an ordinary railway sleeper, and various attempts to reduce this
quantity by the use of some liquid solvent have failed. Herr F.
Seidenschnur proposes that the timber be first steamed under
pressure, the air then exhausted by reduced pressure, and then
an emulsion of 15 per cent, of creosote, in a resin soap to which
water is added, forced in under a pressure of seven atmospheres.
The latest process, known as the Nodon-Bretonneau method, is
electrical. The timber is placed on a lead plate, connected with
the positive pole of a dynamo, in a tank filled with a solution of
10 per cent, of borax, 5 per cent, of resin, and 75 per cent, of
carbonate of soda, a second lead plate, connected with the
negative pole, being on top. The circuit is completed through
the wood ; and, within from 5 to 8 hours, the sap rises to the

88 OF WOOD IN GENERAL.

surface of the bath, the aseptic borax and resin solution replacing
it in the pores of the wood. Artificial drying, or a fortnight's
natural seasoning in summer weather, will then complete the
process.

Such impregnation-methods double or treble the life of railway
sleepers. On the other hand, it should be remembered that paint
prevents not only the entrance of moisture, but also its exit ; so
that if applied to imperfectly seasoned wood it merely protects
the dry rot which finds a sufficiency of moisture in the wood.
Even perfectly seasoned wood, if not protected by tar or paint,
requires good ventilation if it is to last. Warm, moist, stagnant
air or draught, and partial contact with moist earth or water are
the most unfavourable conditions for the durability of timber.
A process has recently been introduced for rendering wood "non-
flammable" by extracting the resin and volatile matter under
hydraulic action and then injecting chemicals. This process is
applicable to wood up to 6 inches in thickness and to hard woods
as well as soft woods, and dries them effectually at the same time,
so that there is no subsequent change of form ; but it adds about
25 per cent, to the cost of soft woods and more to that of hard
woods. It has been largely used in the United States navy.

Storage. — For the storage of seasoned timber much the same
precautions are requisite as for that which is undergoing air-
seasoning, viz. thorough ventilation, absence of contact with
moist earth, and preferably some protection from rain and sun.
If logs are stacked with their butt-ends outward and slightly
lower than their tops, if every log or scantling be so separated by
small packing billets that it can be removed without disturbing
the remainder, and if each tier of timber is set back a few inches
so as to obviate the use of a ladder, it will render the stock not
only safe but accessible.

CHAPTER V.
THE USES OF WOODS.

So multifarious are the uses to which wood is applied that it is
well nigh hopeless to attempt to classify or enumerate them.
Still less is it possible here to mention all the different kinds
of wood locally employed for each purpose, or to describe the
methods in which they are treated. We must be content with a
rough catalogue mainly confined to species widely used or known
in general commerce, with occasional mention of less known
kinds of timber for which we believe there may be a demand in
the near future.

The term "timber," from the Old English "timbrian," to
build, is strictly applicable only to felled and seasoned wood fit
for building, as distinguished from " fancy " or furniture-woods,
dye-woods, etc. Undressed trunks without branches are termed
" round timber "; or, if of young trees, "spars"; hewn logs are
called "square timber"; or when quartered, "billets"; when
split, "staves" or "lathwood"; or when sawn, "deals,"
"battens," "planks," "boards," and "scantling."

Some very strong timbers, such as Teak, Sal, and Padouk, are
specially designated as " Ordnance woods."

Shipbuilding. — There is, perhaps, no purpose for which
timber has been, and requires to be, more carefully tested and
selected than for shipbuilding. From this point of view we have
a full account of most timbers so employed in the late Mr. Thomas

90 OF WOOD IN GENERAL.

Laslett's Timber and Timber-trees, originally published in 1875, ol
which a new edition by Professor Marshall Ward appeared in
1894. The requirements of the dockyard are, however, very
varied, durability being generally necessary ; but great strength,
even if accompanied by weight, and freedom from decay on
contact with metal, being important for armoured vessels ;
resistance to ship-worms or termites for those not metal-
sheathed ; lightness for boats ; freedom from splintering for
planks ; extreme toughness for blocks ; evenness of growth
and great resistance to strain for masts ; flexibility for oars.
For general purposes, among the heavier woods, Teak (Tectuna
grdndis) is taken as a standard, and is far more used than the
Oaks, whether European or American, of former days, valuable
as these are, however, especially for exposed and compass
timbers. The Indian Jarul (Lagerstrcemia Flos-regince) and Thin-
gan (Hopea odordta), the Greenheart of Demerara (Neddndra
Rodicei), the Angelique (Dicorynia guianensis), African Oak or
Teak (Oldfieldia africdna) from West Africa, Stinkwood (Ocotea
bulldta) and Sneezewood (Pterdxylon utile) from the south of the
same continent, the Rata or Ironwood of New Zealand (Metro-
sideros robusta and M. lucida), and probably the Billian (Eusidero-
xylon Zwdgeri) of Borneo, are but little inferior.

Lloyd's Register, classifying ship-building timbers in 17 lines,
places Teak alone in the first; in the second, English Oak (Qvdrcus
Rdbur), African Oak (Oldfieldia africdna), Live Oak (Quercus virens),
Adriatic, Italian, Spanish, Portuguese, and French Oak (Q. Cdrris,
JEsculus, pyrendica, Ilex, Suber, and Robur), Morung Saul (Shdrea
robusta), Greenheart (Neddndra Rodiad), Morra (Mora excelsa),
Iron-bark (Eucalyptus siderophloia, and probably E. leucdxylon, and
E. siderdxylori), and White Ironbark (apparently E. cr6bra, amyg-
dallna, and paniculdta) ; in the third, Cuba Sabicu (LysiUma Sdbicu),
Pencil Cedar (Junlperus Bermudidna, or perhaps Dysdxylon Mutlleri,
and D. Fraseridnum), Angelly (Artocdrpus hirsuta), Vanatica (Pithe-
coUbium sp ?), Jarrah (Eucalyptus margindta), Karri (E. diver sicolor),
Blue Gum (E. GUbulus), Red Gum (E. rostrdta), Box (E. hemipliUia ?),
Thingam (Hopea odordta), Puhutukawa (Metrosideros tomentdsa),

SHIPBUILDING TIMBERS. 91

Molave (Vitex geniculdta and V. altfssima), Dungon (Sterculia
cymbifdrmis), Yacal (SJujrea reticuldtd), Mangachapuy (Shdrea
Mangdchapoi), Betis (Paytna Betis), Ipil (Afzelia bijuga), Guijo
(Shdrea robiista), Narra (Pterocdrpus pdllidus and P. santalinus),
Batitinan (?), and Paloraaria de Playa (Calophyllum Inophyllum 1) •
in the fourth, those of the first and second line wfyen second-hand ;
in the fifth, Stringy Bark (Eucalyptus obliqua, etc.), Eed Cedar
(apparently Cedrela Todna), Banaba, which is the Jarul of India,
and Philippine Islands Cedar (probably chiefly Cedrela Todna) ; in
the sixth, Danish and other Continental White Oak, Mahogany
(Swietenia Mahdgani), Spanish Chestnut (Castdnea saliva), Flooded
Gum (Eucalyptus saligna), Spotted Gum (E. maculdta), Grey Gum
(E. vimindlis), Turpentine (E. Stuartidna, chiefly), Black Butt (E.
piluldris), Tulip- wood (Harpullia pendula ?), Tallow-wood (Eucalyp-
tus microcwys), and Mulberry (?) ; in the seventh, North American
White Oak (Quercus alba) ; in the eighth, Pitch Pine (Pinus rigidd),
Oregon Pine (Pseudotsuga Dougldsii) Huon Pine (Dacrydium Frank-
linii), Kauri Pine (Agathis austrdlis), Larch (Ldrix europcea), Hack-
matack or Tamarac (L. americdna), and Juniper (?) ; in the ninth,
Dantzic, Memel, and Riga Pine (Pinus syhestiis\ and American
Red Pine (P. resinosa) ; in the tenth, English Ash (Frdxinus
excelsior) ; in the eleventh, foreign Ash (F. sambucifolia, ajriericdna,
etc.), and Rock Maple (Acer barbdtum) ; in the twelfth, American
Rock Elm ( Ulmus americdna and racemosd), and Hickory (Hicdria
ovdta, dlba, gldbra, minima, Pecan, etc.); in the thirteenth, European
and American Grey Elm ( Ulmus campestris and others) ; in the
fourteenth, Black Birch (Betula lento) and Black Walnut (Juglans
ntgra) ; in the fifteenth, Spruce Fir (Plcea excelsa), Swedish or
Norway Red Pine, and Scotch Fir (Pinus sylvestris) ; in the six-
teenth, Beech (Fdgus sylvdtica) ; and in the seventeenth, Yellow
Pine (Pinus titrobus).

The Turpentine-tree (Syncdrpia laurifMia), White Box (Tristdnia
conferta), Box (Eucalyptus hemiphloia) and Spotted Gum (E. macu-
Idta) of New South Wales are also generally useful. The Securipa
and Guarabu of Brazil, the latter of which may be Termindlia
acumindta or Peltogynti macrottbium, though little known, are

92 OF WOOD IN GENERAL.

employed locally ; but the Stringy-bark of Tasmania (Eucalyptus
obliqua) and the Blue Gums (E. GUbulus in Tasmania and E.
botryoides in Victoria) have been proved suitable both for beams
and planks. Other dense timbers are employed mainly for beams
and keelsons, such as the Mora of Demerara (Dimorphdndra Mora,
or Mora excelsa), Tewart (Eucalyptus gomphocSphala) of West
Australia, Iron-bark (E. siderophldia) of Queensland and New
South Wales, and Sabicu (LysUdma Sdbicu) of Cuba. Chow,
or Menkabang Penang (Casuarina equisetifdlia) from Borneo,
the " Cedre" of the Seychelles, though a heavy wood, is
mainly employed for masts, as are also the Poon, Tatamaka,
or Alexandrian Laurel of India (Calophyllum Inophyllum),
which is known as "Phung-nyet" in the Andaman Islands,
as "Domba" in Sinhalese and as Penago, Panagah, Pingow,
or Borneo Mahogany in Borneo, the Peroba branca(&i^a gonocdrpa)
of Brazil; and, still more, such soft woods as Riga Fir (Pinus
sylvestris), Yellow Pine (P. Str6bus\ Oregon or Douglas Fir
(Pseudotsuga Dougldsii), the unequalled Kauri Pine of New Zealand
(Agathis austrdlis), and the Huon Pine of Tasmania (Dacrydium
Franklinii). For this purpose a certain elasticity is requisite,
resistance, that is, to wind. Other coniferous woods are of more
general use, such as Dantzic Fir (Pinus sylvdstris), the Totara
(Podocdrpus Tdtara) and Tanakaha (P. asplenifolius) of New Zea-
land, the Moreton Bay Pine (Araucdria Cunninghdmi), mostly for
spars, Red Pine (Pinus resindsa) and Pitch Pine (P. pahistris),
which serve equally for spars and for planking. Other species,
mainly on account of their dimensions, are chiefly employed in
boat-building, such as the Black or Cypress Pine (Cdllitris robusta),
the Oyster Bay Pine (C. rhomboidea) and the Bermuda "Cedar"
(Juniperus bermudidna) among conifers ; and European and Ameri-
can Elm, Jarrah (Eucalyptus margindta) and Red Gum (E. rostrdta),
Pynkado or Pyengadu (Xylia dolabrifdrmis), which is the Iron-
wood of Pegu and the Acle of the Philippines, Anan (Fagrwa
frdgrans), Gumbar (Gmelina arbdrea), Sundri (Heritiera Uttordlis),
and the Brazilian Camara (Geissospermum VelUsii) among hard
woods. Some timbers are most valuable for compass timbers,

SUBMERGED AND STRENGTH TIMBERS. 93

such as the Angelim vermelho (probably Andira fraxinifdlia) of
Brazil and the Puriri (Vitex littordlis) and Pohutukawa (Metro-
sidtros tomentdsa) of New Zealand ; whilst others are used almost
exclusively for decks and planking, such as the Turpentine Tree
or Stanthorpe Box (Eucalyptus Studrtiana) and White Beech
(Gmeltna Leichhardtii) of Eastern Australia, the Canella preta
(Neddndra dtra) of Brazil, and the Lauan (Dipterocdrpus tMrifer)
of the Philippines. Exceptionally hard and tough woods, such as
Lignum Vitae (Gualacum officindle) and the Ironwood of Tasmania
(Notdtea ligustrind) are required for blocks; whilst tough but
flexible kinds, such as the Ash of Europe or America and the
Silver Wattle (Acacia dealbdta), are employed for oars. For the
internal fittings of ships almost any species can obviously be
used which is employed in ordinary civil architecture or joinery.

Submerged Structures. — Passing next to timbers used for
piles or other submerged structures, such as locks and water-
wheels, Elm, Larch, Chestnut (Castdnea), Live Oak (Qudrcus
vlrens\ Sal (Shdrea robusta), Totara (Podocdrpus Tdtara), and
Rassak (Vdtica Rdssak) of Borneo, may be specially mentioned.
Greenheart, Jarrah, Pynkado, Chow, Kapor (Dryobdlanops
aromdtica), another Bornean timber, Alder, and Beech are also
used for these purposes. For the strouds of water-wheels and
for paddle -boards Willow is employed.

Strength timbers. — For such engineering purposes as require
considerable strength, and resistance to definitely calculable
strain, for bridges, piers, or baulks of timber, Teak, Jarul, Sal,
Sissoo (Dalbtrgia Stssoo) and Anan (Fagrcm frdgrans) among
Indian timbers, the Locust of Trinidad (Hymencea Courbaril),
Oak, and the superior kinds of Pine may be mentioned.

Sleepers. — Kail way-sleepers absorb enormous quantities of
timber, which requires to be durable when in contact with the
earth and with metal. Home grown Douglas Fir seems to rival
Larch for this purpose in Britain. Deodar (Cedrus Deoddm\ Sal,
Black wood (Dalbfrgia latifdlia), Poon (Calophyllum Inophyllum),
Nagesar or Ironwood (M6sua ftrrea), and Chilauni (Schima
ii) among Indian timbers ; the Box of New South Wales

94 OF WOOD IN GENERAL.

(Eucalyptus hemiphloia) ; Puriri (Vitex littordlis), Hina,n(El(eocdrpus
dentdtus) and Totara (Podocdrpus Tdtard) in New Zealand ; and,
when creosoted, the Upright or Real Yellow-wood, G-eel Hout, or
Umceya (Podocdrpus latifdlius or P. ThunMrgii) in Cape Colony,
are employed for this purpose ; and one of the most important
industries of the future in the colony last-mentioned is the culti-
vation of the European Cluster Pine (Pinus Pinaster) for the
same use.

Mining timber. — Less care is exercised in the selection of
pit props for mines. Larch and pine, both home-grown and of
Baltic origin, are largely used in English mines and Pinus Pinaster
is imported from Bordeaux to the Welsh collieries and Cornish
tin-mines.

Telegraph poles.— For telegraph poles much the same
characters are requisite as for masts, in addition to durability
underground. Besides Larch and European Pine and Douglas
Fir, the Black or Cypress Pine of New South Wales (Cdllitris
robusta), being proof against termites, is in request for this
purpose, and, in the United States, Chestnut (Castdnea vulgdris,
var. americ/md) is used.

Building. — Less durability is essential is scaffold -poles and
ladders, for which Spruce (Picea excdlsa) is largely used. For
joists, rafters, and flooring, no wood is so much used with us as
Dantzic Fir (Pinus sylvestris), though the somewhat shaky and
cheaper Swedish Fir of the same species is also largely used,
whilst that of Norway is imported in the form of ready-made
flooring and match-boarding. In the west of England Baltic
Pine is largely replaced by American White Pine (Pinus Str6bus).
The Pitch-Pine of the United States (Pinus palustris) is now
largely employed in match-boarding and other internal work in
English buildings, and Larch is much used for flooring, as also
are both Baltic and American Black Spruce (Picea exdlsa, and
P. nigra}. Since the importation of these coniferous timbers
from the Baltic and from America, which dates mainly from the
beginning of the eighteenth century, Oak, till then the chief
building-timber in North-west Europe, has been but little used,

BUILDING AND PAVING TIMBERS, ETC. 95

though, of course, old oak beams, floors, and panellings are still
abundant. From its not splintering, Willow is still occasionally
used for flooring. In the United States, whilst White Oak
(Qu4rcus dlba) is very largely employed for the main timbers of
houses, the Pines, especially the soft White Pine (Pinus Strdbus),
the Long-leaf Pine (P. palustris), the Loblolly Pine (P. t(fala) and
the so-called Norway Pine (P. resindsa), with other species in the
west, are (under a confusing jumble of popular names) the
timbers most used. In Northern India, the Bhotan Pine (Pinus
exctlsa) and Himalayan Cypress (Cuprtssus toruldsa) are important
coniferous timbers, and there are several valuable species of Oak,
viz. Quercus semecarpifdlia, Q. dilatdta, Q. pachyphylla, Q. lamdldsa.
Q. fenestrdta, Q. spicdta and Q. Griffithii. Among the other hard-
woods important in building are Champa (Michllia Chdmpaca),
Redwood (Adendnthtra pavonina) Sal, Ironwood (Mhua f erred),
the Myrobalans, Babela, and Harra (Termindlia belerica and T.
Che'bula), Shoondul (Afztlia bijuga), Illupi (Bdssia longifdlid) and
Ironwood or Pyengadu (Xylia dolabrifdrmis). In Australia, the
Peppermint (Eucalyptus amygdalina) and the White Stringy Bark
(E. capiUlld); in New Zealand, the Totara (Podocdrpus T6tara)
and Tanakaha (Phylloclddus trichomanoides) ; the Yellow-wood
(Podocdrpus elongatus and P. latifdlius) in South Africa ; Mora and
Angelique in Guiana ; Canella preta (Nectdndra dtra and N. mdllis)
in Brazil ; and Cagiieyran (Copaifera hymenceifdlia) in Cuba, are all
timbers valuable to the builder.

Wood-paving. — The consumption of wood for paving in our
large towns, already enormous, is rapidly increasing, although the
comparative advantages of soft wood, in England mainly Pine,
with its greater cheapness, and hard woods, with their greater
durability and the chance of their becoming slippery, are not yet
decided. The chief hard woods as yet used in England are Jarrah
(Eucalyptus 'margindta) and Karri (E. diversfcolor) from South-
western Australia. Black-butt (E. pihddris) and Crow's Ash
(Flindtrsia austrdlis), from Eastern Australia, were laid experi-
mentally in Wellington Street, Strand, in 1895. Little can be
said in favour of the Red Gum of the Eastern United States

96 OF WOOD IN GENERAL.

(Liquiddmbar styracifl.ua), a large quantity of which was ordered
for use in Westminster in 1901. "Cedar," often spoken of in this
connexion in Western American cities, is probably mostly the
wood of Thuya gigdntea (T. plicdta) and Cuprfasus lawsonidna.

Shingles and fencing. — Wooden shingle roofs, for which Oak
used to be employed, are of much less importance in England
than in the United States, where White Cedar (Thuya gigdntea
and T. occidentdlis, Cupre'ssus lawsonidna and C. Thyoides and
Liboctdrus decurrens) is largely used for this purpose, which requires
a straight-grained wood, easy to split. In all countries enormous
quantities of split and sawn timber are consumed for fencing pur-
poses ; more especially Oak and Larch with us; "Cedar" in the
United States; the so-called "Birch," really a Beech (Fdgus
Soldndri), in New Zealand ; and Beefwood or Swamp or Forest
Oak (Casuarina equisetifdlia) and allied species, together with
various species of Eucalyptus, in Australia, of which, perhaps,
E. amygdalina, E. rostrdta, and E. vimindlis are the chief.

Carpentry. — The work of the carpenter and joiner links that
of the builder to that of the cabinetmaker. In Europe, in addition
to much Baltic and American Pine, chiefly Pinus si/lve'stris. P.

J tJ

Strdbus, and P. palustris, he uses much Spruce (Picea excelsa),
Bordeaux Pine (Pinus Pinaster), and Swiss Pine (Abies pectindta),
besides Oak, Ash, and Chestnut. So also in the United States
and Canada, the Hemlock Spruce (Tsuga canadensis), White and
Black Spruces (Picea alba and P. nigra) ; and in the West Indies,
Fiddlewood (various species of Citharexylum) may be specially
mentioned as carpenters' woods. In South Africa the Cedar-
Boom (Widdringtdnia juniper dides), though not very durable, is a
useful wood, as the allied species, W. Wliltd, from the kloofs of
the Shire Highlands, may probably prove ; and in Eastern
Australia the Moreton Bay Pine (Araucdria Cunninghdmi) may be
mentioned in this group. The carpenter requires cheap wood,
easily worked, and of moderate strength.

Carriage-building. — We may class here the various woods
employed in the many branches of the wheelwright's, waggon
and carriage-builder's trade. Hornbeam (Carpinus Betulus) and

FENCING AND CARPENTERS' WOODS. 97

Australian Blackwood (Actinia melandxylori) are peculiarly fitted
for the hubs ; Ash and Eucalyptus crebra and E. goniocalyx for
spokes ; Hickory (various species of Hicdiia) for axle-trees and
shafts; Poplar, American White-wood (Liriodendron tulipifera),
Birch and Maple (Acer barbdtum) for panels; the dense Pyen-
gadu (Xylia dolabrifdrmis) and Padouk (Pterocdrpus indicus) of
Burma, for gun-carriages or the frames of railway-waggons, and the
Bastard Peppermint of New South Wales (Tristdnia suaveolens) for
somewhat similar purposes, in which tough hard wood is needed.
About 1750, Satin wood, upon which Cipriani and Angelica
Kauffmann executed their paintings, became fashionable for
coach-panels ; whilst for the humbler purposes of wheelbarrows
Willow is useful from its freedom from splintering.

Furniture. — An immense variety of woods has been employed
in the making of furniture, susceptibility to polish, beauty of
colour or grain, and durability being their chief requisites, together
with freedom from shrinkage, whilst they are variously employed
either planed, carved, turned, or bent. Thus some wood known
as " Cedar " seems to have been largely used in ancient Assyria
and Egypt, forming the beams of the temple of Apollo at Utica,
said by Pliny to have been sound 1 200 years after their erection,
employed alike in Solomon's temple, in Greek sculpture, and in
carpentry, as for the chest in which Cypselus of Corinth is said to
have been concealed about 550 B.C. As Vitruvius speaks of that
of Crete, Africa, and Syria as the best, it is probable that then, as
now, the wood of several species was confused under one name,
probably the Lebanon Cedar (Cedrus libani), that of Mount Atlas
(C. atldntica) and the 'Arar (Tetradinis articuldta) of Morocco.
This last sweet-scented wood, known also as Atlas Cypress, was
the much- vaunted " Citrus " or " Citron " Wood of the Romans
and probably the "Thyme Wood" of the Apocalypse. The roof of
the cathedral at Cordova, originally a mosque, is built of it, it being
there known as "Alerce." The true Cypress (Cuprhsus semper-
vtrens) was, no doubt, largely used, not only, as is related, for
Alexander the Great's Babylonian fleet or Semiramis' bridge over
the Euphrates, but owing to its durability and resistance to moth,

G

98 OF WOOD IN GENERAL.

for clothes-chests. An Italian chest of this wood of the 14th
century is preserved at South Kensington, and John of Gaunt
bequeaths one in his will in 1397. The Certosina work, or inlay-
ing of this wood arid walnut with ivory, so-called from the choir
fittings of the Certosa between Milan and Pavia, an art practised
at Florence in the 15th century, was perhaps brought by the
Venetians from Persia, from which country it also reached
Bombay. Sissoo (DalMrgia Sissoo}, possibly the Chittim of Holy
Scripture, and other species of Rosewood, Ebony, Teak, and Wal-
nut, may have reached Assyria, Syria, and even more western
lands from India ; but the Corsican Ebony used by the Romans
for veneers was probably the Laburnum, the "Faux Ebenier" of
the French. Lotos-wood, said to have been used in Greek
sculpture, may have been that of the Nettle-tree (Celtis austrdlix),
still much used in Southern Europe. We read of the Romans
using Box and Beech for chairs and for veneers ; Beech for chests ;
Olive, both wild and cultivated for veneers ; Fig, Willow, Plane,
Elm, Mulberry, Cherry, and Cork-Oak, as ground for veneers ;
Maple, especially Bird's-eye Maple (probably Acer campestre), for
tables ; and Syrian Terebinth (Pistdcia Terebtnthiis), and Poplar for
various other purposes. Though Norway Pine was imported by
Henry III., in the 13th century, for panelling at Windsor, through-
out the Middle Ages, Oak was the main furniture wood as it was
the chief building material. As in the timber frame houses of the
Chester rows, the 14th century roof of Westminster Hall, or the
marvellously carved one of the Palais de Justice at Rouen in the
16th : so in the great bed of Ware and other English and Flemish
furniture during the Tudor period, Oak alone is employed. It
was used as a bed wood for veneering by Boule under Louis XIV.,
and was painted white and gilt in the time of Louis XVI.
Italian Walnut (Juglans rc'gia) was much used in Italy for carving
and gilding from the 15th century; and it was at Venice and
Florence that the use of the soft white woods of Willow, Linden,
and Sycamore for carved and gilt frames for mirrors originated
in the IGth. The use of Ebony, especially for inlaying Walnut
wardrobes became more general after the Dutch settlement in

FURNITURE WOODS. 99

Ceylon in 1695: Grinling Gibbons, who was partly of Dutch
descent, employed Linden and other white woods for his in-
estimable carving ; and the work of Thomas Chippendale in the
18th century gave Mahogany the popularity in England that
Satinwood enjoyed at that time in France. Heppelwhite and
Sheraton employed Mahogany not only for chairs, but for small
articles such as tea-caddies, whilst in the inlaid work of the
period it was used, not only with other dark woods, such as
Rosewood, Laburnum, and Purple-heart (Copaifera pubiflora), but
also with Holly, Maple, and Pear. At the present day Mahogany
is used for dining-room furniture and veneers, though much Oak,
some of which is the Canadian Red Oak (Quercus r libra), is used
for the same purpose, whilst large quantities of Walnut (Juglans
nigra), Ash (Frdxinus ameiicdna), Bass-wood (Tilia americdna).
Maple (Acer barbdtum), and Birch (Betula lento) are imported from
North America for library and bed room furniture, stained or
painted Deals being employed for yet cheaper goods. Fifty
years ago American Walnut was only used in England for in-
ferior purposes, such as framing for veneers ; but now it has much
advanced in popularity with cabinet-makers and shopfitters with
a doubling of its former price. Another American wood of
increasing importance is the American Whitewood, or Canary
Whitewood (Liriodendron tulipf/era), used for the seats of American
Windsor chairs, and, from its suitability for staining or polishing,
rapidly becoming a favourite with wood-workers. Beech and
Yew are the staple woods of our Buckinghamshire chair factories,
Ash being used in bent wood-work; whilst bamboo work and
cane-seats are somewhat outside our present scope.

Among furniture woods in use in other countries we can only
enumerate a few :
In India : —

Ebony (Diospyros spp.),

Rosewoods or Blackwoods (Dalbergia Idtifolia, etc.),

Sissoo (Dalbergia Sissoo),

Redwood (Ademinthera pavonina),

Padouk (Pterocdrpus indicus and P. dalberyidides),

100 OF WOOD IN GENERAL.

Bija Sal or Bastard Teak (Pterocdrpvs Marsupium],

Margosa or Neem (Mclia spp.),

Siris (AlUzzia spp.),

Chittagong wood (ChicJcrdssia tabuldris),

Chat wan (Alstdnia scholdris), a soft wood, named from its
use for blackboards in Indian schools,

Gumbar (Gmelina arbdrea),

Toon, Moulmein Cedar or Indian Mahogany (Cedrela
Toona) ; and Jack or Ceylon Mahogany (Artocdrpus
integrifdlia).
In Mauritius and other islands in the Indian Ocean : —

Tatamaka or Rosewood, under which name are confused

Thexpesia populnea and Calophf/llum Inoplif/llum.
In South Africa : —

Sneeze wood, Neishout, or Umtati (Pteroxylon Mile),

Stinkwood (OcoUa bulldta),

Cape Ebony (Eudea pseudebenus, etc.),

Cape Ash, Essen Boom, or Umgwenyuizinja (Eckebdrgia
cctpensis],

Saffron-wood, or Umbomoana (Elceoddndron mkeum),

Assegai- wrood, or Umguna (Curtisia, faginea),

Salic-wood, or Unkaza (BuddUia salvic&fdlia), and

Red Cedar, or Rood Els (Cunonia capdnsis).
In Yoruba Land, West Africa : —

Iroko (CMordphora excttsa), resembling Satin wood.
In Borneo : —

Mirabow (Afzelia palembdidca).
In Australia : —

Blackwood (Acacia melandxylon, etc.),

Jarrah (Eucalyptus margindta),

Shingle Oak (Casuarina strtcta),

Queenwood (Daviesia arbor ea),
< Rosewood (Dyzoxylon Fraseridnum),

Beefwood (Grevillea stridta),

Mulberry (Hedycdrya angustifolia),

Silky Oak (Stenocdrpus saltgnw),

FURNITURE AND VENEER WOODS. 101

Moreton Bay Pine (Araucaria Cunninghdmi), and

Pencil Cedar (Podocdrpus data).
In Tasmania : —

Honeysuckle (Bdnksia margindta) and

Huon Pine (Dacrydium Franklinii).
In New Zealand :—

Honeysuckle or Rewa-rewa (Knightia excelsa),

Kauri Pine (Agathis austrdlis),

Rimu (Dacrydium cupressinum),

Miro (Podocdrpus ferruginea), and

Totara (P. tdtara).
And in Tropical America :—

Mahogany or Bay wood (Swietenia Malwgani),

Sabicu (LysiUma Sabicu),

Santa Maria, or Galba (Calophyllum Cdlaba),

Green Ebony (Bnja Ebenus),

Zebra Wood (Cdnnarus guianensis, etc.),

Sapodilla (Achras Sap6ta), and

Braziletto (Ccesalpinia brasUidnsis, etc.).

Veneers. — Very choice ornamental woods are employed
mainly as veneers. Such are, in addition to many of those just
enumerated : Amboyna wood, the product, it is believed, of some
species of Pterocdrpus ; the burrs of Yew, largely used for tea-
caddies, etc., in the 18th century; those of Walnut; and the
beautiful Lacewood or Honeysuckle wood of North America
(Pldtanus occvlentdlis).

Turnery. — The turner requires a tough wood, which will
often be also hard and susceptible of good polish. No wood is
more generally useful to him than the Ash, as it does not splinter.
Curiously enough, cankered Ash-wood, popularly known as " bee-
sucken Ash," being apparently twisted in its grain, is extremely
hard and tough, and, therefore, suitable for mallets. Beech is
used for wedges, planes, and tool-handles ; Hornbeam for the
bearers of the cylinders of printing-machines; Pear for T-squares;
and Elm, and in former times Maple, for bowls; whilst the record
of the demand for Walnut for the manufacture of gunstocks reads

102 OF WOOD IN GENERAL.

like a romance. In 1806 France required 12,000 Walnut trees
per annum; while in England, before the battle of Waterloo,
£600 was paid for a single tree. For cheaper gunstocks American
Walnut is now used, whilst the American species of Ash, Beech
(Fdgus ferruginea), and Hornbeam (Carpinus carolinidna, known as
" blue Beech "), are employed in the United States for purposes
similar to those to which their European equivalents are put.
The Hickories (Hicdria), more especially for handles, the Persim-
mon (Diospf/ros virginidna) for shuttles, plane stocks, etc., and the
Cherry (Primus serottna) are also important to the American
turner. In Japan, Kizi (PauUwnla imperidlis) is the main basis
for lacquer-ware : the so called Cherry (Exocdrpus cupressiformis)
and the fragrant Musk- wood (Oledria argophf/lla) of Australia, and
the Violet-wood (Copalfera bradedta) of Brazil may be specially
mentioned ; whilst in South Africa the various species of Olea
known as Ironwood, the Silk-bark or Zybast (Celdstrus acumindtus),
BufFelsbal (Gardenia Thunbergii), Ladle- wood (Hartdgia capdnsis\
and Umzumbit (MilUtia Kdfra) ; and in India the Babul (Acacia
ardbica), Ironwood (Mesua fdrrea), Ebonies (Diospyros spp.), cala-
mander (D. qucesita), Anjan (Hardwlckia bindta), Tamarind (Tama-
rmdus indica), Dhaura (Anogeissus latifdlia), Bullet-wood (Mimusops
littordlis), Satin-wood (Chloruxylon Swietenw), and Sandal-wood
(Sdntalum album), are noteworthy.

Walking-Sticks.— A great variety of woods are used in the
manufacture of walking-sticks. Not to mention Jersey Cabbages
and the leaf-stalks of the Date-palm and a great variety of Canes,
imported specially from Singapore, these include English grown
Oak, Ash, Blackthorn, Holly and Hazel, Whitethorn, Aspen,
Birch, Crab-apple, Furze, Maple, Hornbeam, and Eowan. Medlar
(Mespilus germdnica) and Chestnut (Castdnea saliva) are imported
from France ; Cork Oak (Quercus Suber) from Spain ; Carob
(Ceratonia Siliqua) from Algeria; Guelder-rose (Vilurnum Opulus),
under the names of " Teazle " or " Balkan-rose," from the Balkans;
Olive and Orange from Southern Europe, while "Black Orange"
is a trade name for the common Broom (Cytisus scopdrius) ', Box,
from Persia; Ebony, from Ceylon; and, from the West Indies,

TURNERY AND ENGRAVING, ETC. 103

Cocus or "Flowered Ebony" (Brya Ebenus), Partridge-wood
(Andira inermis), Pimento (Pimento, officindlis), and Letter- wood or
Leopard-wood (Brosimum Aubletii).

Engraving.— For wood-engraving, the Box (B&xus semper-
iirens) of Turkey is unequalled, and the use of metallic blocks
has diminished the urgency of the search for a substitute for, as
wasteful consumption threatened exhaustion of the supply of, this
species. The Cape Box (Biixus Macowdnii\ introduced in 1885,
is now considerably used : Ebony is nearly equal in texture to
Box, but its colour militates against its use ; Hawthorn is
probably next best to Box of any known wood, but cannot
readily be obtained of sufficient size : Pear (Pyrus communis),
used for calico-printer's blocks, the Chinese T'eng li mu (Pyrus
betulcefolia), and Pai'cha (Euonymus europwus, var. Hamiltonidnus),
the American Box or Dogwood (Cornus fldrida) and other species
are suitable for coarse work ; but Jamaica Box (Tecorna penta-
phf/lla) is on the whole the most likely successor to Box.

Musical instruments. — While any well-seasoned ornamental

wood, such as Kosewood, Mahogany, or Walnut, is used for the

cases of pianofortes, those parts of musical instruments in which

resonance is produced must consist of wood of uniform texture,

free from all knots or other defects or contrasts of grain.

Ancient Etruscan flutes seem to have been made of Box ; whilst

at the present day the Green Ebony (Brya Ebenus) of the West

Indies is considered well fitted for this purpose. Evelyn writes

that Cypress is a sonorous wood, and is employed in making

harps, organ-pipes, and other musical instruments ; but the

Silver Fir (Abies pectindta), known in the trade as "Swiss Pine,"

is now accounted the most resonant of all woods, and is used

for the bellies of the violin and the sounding-boards of pianos,

Sycamore (Acer pseudopldtanus) or Hard Maple (A. barfcttitm)

being employed for the back and sides of the former instrument.

Miscellaneous Uses. — Even tobacco pipes consume large

quantities of certain woods, such as the Bruyere, commonly

known as Briar (Erica arborea), from Southern Europe, the Myall

(Acacia homalophf/lla) from Australia, and the Cherry (Pninun

104 OF WOOD IN GENERAL.

dvium, Mdhaleb. etc.), used for long pipe-stems and grown mainly
in Austria. The light white woods of the Horse-chestnuts or
Buckeyes (^Esculus) are used for artificial limbs, just as, judging
by the writings of the comic dramatists, Linden-wood was
employed in making corsets for male dandies in ancient Greece.
Millions of cubic feet of Bermuda Cedar and of the Red or Pencil
Cedar of Virginia (Juntperus bermudidna and /. iwginidna) are
cut annually for the manufacture of pencils alone. The quantities
of Alder (Alnus glutindsa) Beech, Willow (Sdlix dlba more
especially), Spruce or White Deal (Picea excelsa), Birch (Betula
dlba) and even Horse-chestnut (JSsculus hippocdstanum) in Europe,
and of Tupelo (Nyssa sylvdtica) and Canoe Birch (Betula papy-
ri/era) in North America, consumed for sabots must be immense,
to say nothing of the quantities of these and other woods used
for shoe-lasts, shoe-pegs, boot-trees, hat-blocks etc. Soft white
woods, such as Willow, Alder, Linden, Poplar or " Cottonwood "
that of the Tulip-tree (LirwMndrori) and the Cucumber-tree
(Magnolia acumindta), confounded together as "Canary White-
wood," and the Spruces (Picea) and Soft Pines (Pinus Strdbus,
etc.), are those chiefly in demand by the toy-manufacturer.

Cooperage.— The requirements of the cooper are more varied
than might be supposed, different woods being needed for staves,
for hoops, or for head-pieces, and for dry, liquid, or volatile goods.
Oak is largely used for staves, especially French Oak (Qucrcus
Eobur), and American White Oak (Q. dlba), but in Australia the
Black Wattle (Acacia mollissima) takes its place. Willow and
Hickory are used for hoops and Ash for a great variety of pur-
poses, but for dry goods the cooper employs cheap soft white
woods such as those used for the manufacture of packing-cases.

Packing-cases. — Packing-cases made of inferior Silver Fir
(Abies pectindta) are sent all over the world from Switzerland and
the Tyrol : its cheapness causes Norway Spruce (Picea excelsa) to
be almost as universally employed ; and on the continent of
Europe the Black Austrian, Bordeaux Cluster, and Italian Stone
Pines (Pinus austriaca, Pinaster, and Pinea) are also largely used
for this purpose. Their not splitting when nailed renders the

MISCELLANEOUS USES OF WOOD. 105

Poplars admirable for this purpose, and the White, Aspen, and
Lombardy Poplars (Populus cantecens, trtmida, and fastigidta) are
accordingly largely used in France, as are P6pulus monilifera and
other " Cotton woods," as they are there called, in the United
States. Ptcea Smithidna, the Himalayan Spruce, is in common
use in India ; but for tea-chests, though Chir (Pinus longifolia),
Chatwan (Alstdnia sdwldris), Chaplash (Artocdrpus Chapldsha),
Toon (Cedrela To6na\ Shembal (Bombax, malabdricum), and Maples,
such as Acer Campbellii in the north-east, and A. pictum in the
north-west are employed, there is an inadequate supply of suit-
able native wood, which is being met by the importation of Birch
from Russia.

Crates, paper pulp, etc. — Ash, Alder, and Birch are
largely used in the making of crates; and few persons pro-
bably, outside the trade, notice the variety of woods, in addition
to Willow, which go to the making of our baskets. Enor-
mous quantities of the Pine timber of Sweden (Pinus
sylvfatris) are consumed in the form of lucifer matches ;
and, while wood-shavings and wood-wool, as it is called, much
used in packing, are little more than bye-products in the conver-
sion of timber for other purposes, the manufacture of wood-pulp
for paper, an .industry belonging almost entirely to the last twenty
years, has grown to such dimensions as to seriously affect the
question of our timber supplies. The Poplars, Alders, Buckeyes,
and Spruces are the most suitable woods for this manufacture ;
but the coarser kinds of printing paper, packing paper, and paste-
board are made from Pine, even the branches and chips, formerly
wasted, being utilized. The refuse of Juniperus viryinidna from the
pencil factories yields a paper useful for underlaying carpets or
wrapping articles liable to be injured by moth. Two methods
are followed, the mechanical, yielding a granular product called
paper-pulp, and the chemical, yielding a more fibrous felt known
as cellulose. Coniferous cellulose, prepared in Germany and the
United States, is used for an infinity of purposes such as tubes,
vases, wax-cloth, etc. As an illustration of the growth of the
wood-pulp industry it may be stated that in 1891 the product of

106 OF WOOD IN GENERAL.

Norway was valued at 8,600,000 kroner (about £430,000), and
that of Sweden at 10,400,000 kroner (£520,000), whilst in 1900
they were 27,400,000 and 33/200,000 kronor respectively.

Fuel. — The heat-producing value of wood as fuel varies greatly,
owing to the differing capacity that woods have for retaining
moisture. Thus, while green wood may contain 50 per cent, of
moisture, ordinary stack-wood may contain only 25 per cent., and
kiln-dry wood only 2 per cent. With 25 Ibs. of water, 100 Ibs. of
fire wood will contain about 1 Ib. of incombustible ash and 74 Ibs.
of the dry substance of wood. This last consists of 37 Ibs. of carbon,
32 Ibs. of oxygen and 4*4 Ibs. of hydrogen; and in burning the whole
of the oxygen combines with 4 Ibs. of hydrogen to form water, so
that only the 37 Ibs. of carbon and 0-4 Ib. of hydrogen, i.e. about half
the weight of the dry substance of the wood, are available for heat-
production. Every pound of water combined in the wood requires
about 600 units of heat to evaporate it, the unit being the
amount of heat necessary to raise 1 Ib. of water 1° C. ; so that
100 Ibs. of stack-wood (25 per cent, moisture) only furnishes
about 255,000 units, whilst if kiln-dry (2 per cent.) it would
yield 350,000. The advantage of seasoning for firewood is, there-
fore, obvious. The resinous woods of the conifers produce most
flame and are most useful accordingly in starting a fire ; but the
denser hard woods produce from 25 to 30 per cent, more heat.

Charcoal.— When wood is heated to 200° F. without access of
air, it remains unaltered, at 220° it becomes brown, and at 270°
to 300° it suffers decomposition, torrefied wood or red charcoal
being formed. At 350° it is resolved into volatile products and
true or black charcoal. If the temperature is raised gradually, so
that 600° F. is not reached for several hours, the process is called
dry distillation. The first product of distillation is almost entirely
water ; but at 500° pyroligneous (crude acetic) acid, or wood-
vinegar, wood-spirit and uncondensable gases pass off, charcoal
and some tar remaining. In the primitive method of the charcoal-
burner, or imiler, in which billets of wood are stacked horizontally
or inclined round a central chimney opening, most of the volatile
products are lost ; but for charcoal this process is still largely

FUEL AND CHARCOAL.

107

employed on the Continent. If the fire is steady and regular, the
slower the process the better the yield. For gunpowder-charcoal,
however, and acetic acid, iron or brick ovens are mostly employed.
The best gunpowder-charcoal is produced from light woods, such
as Willow, Buckthorn, or "Dogwood" (Rhimmis Frdngida'), and
Alder. Charcoal is darker, heavier, a better conductor of heat
and electricity, less easily ignited, and gives out greater heat in
burning, the higher the temperature at which it has been made.
The proportion of charcoal yielded is greater (24 to 30 per cent.)
with a slow process, that of the volatile products with a rapid
one. From experiments with Hornbeam, Alder, Birch, Rowan,
Beech, Aspen, Oak, Buckthorn, Silver Fir, and Larch, we find the
yield of charcoal to range from 20 per cent, with slow, to 34*6 per
cent, with quick distillation; the total distillate from 43 to 53
percent.; the pyroligneous acid from 47 -5 in the hardwoods to
38 in the conifers; and the tar from 2-9 in Beech to 9 -7 in
conifers. In practice only about 18 to 20 per cent, by weight of
charcoal is obtained, or about half the volume of the wood.
Pyroligneous acid is in England largely manufactured from spent
dye-woods, such as fustic, logwood, etc., the charcoal obtained
being largely used for packing the meat refrigerators in ships.
The products of distillation, under the most favourable circum-
stances, are stated as :

Charcoal.

Tar.

Crude
PyroliKneous
Acid.

Pure
Acetic
Acid.

Birch, -

22-4

8'6

45-0

4-47

Beech, -

24-6

9-5

44-0

4-29

Oak, -

26'2

9-1

43-0

3-88

Juniper,

22-7

10-7

45-8

2-34

Silver Fir,

21-2

13-7

41-2

2-16

Scots Fir, -

21 •-)

11-8

42-4

2-14

Purer acetic acid is obtained by re-distillation, and, when mixed
with certain essences, constitutes aromatic vinegar. Among the

108 OF WOOD IN GENERAL.

acetates prepared on a large scale from pyroligneous acid are
those of lime, the brown containing from 60 to 70, and the grey
from 80 to 85 per cent, of acetate. In the preparation of these
naphtha is recovered ; and from this, by neutralizing with lime
and re-distilling, wood spirit or methyl alcohol. Wood-tar, used
for creosoting wood and in the manufacture of roofing-felts, is a
thick, dark, viscous material, containing from 5 to 20 per cent, of
acetic acid, from 30 to 65 per cent, of pitch, and from 20 to 45
per cent, of tar-oils. From these last, creosote, a colourless,
highly refracting oil, with a specific gravity of 1'04, boiling at
406° F., and paraffin, used for candle-making, are obtained, by
neutralizing with carbonate of soda and further distillation.

Dyeing and tanning. — Finally, somewhat apart from these
other uses to which woods are applied, is the employment of
certain species for dyeing and tanning. Of the former the most
important are Logwood (Hcematdxylon campechidnum L.), which
dyes red or black, and of which we import over 50,000 tons
annually from Central America ; Fustic, a yellow dye, obtained
from the wood of the large West Indian trees, Chlorophora
tindoria Gaud. ( = Madura tindoria D. Don) and its varieties,
xanthdxylon and dffinu ; Sappan or Yellow-wood, from Ccesalpinia
Sdppan L. ; the red dyes known as Brazil, Braziletto, Nicaragua,
or Lima wood, from Ccesalpinia crfeta L., Irasilie'nsis L., echindta
Lam., C. bijuga, and C. tindoria • Camwood, Bdphia nitida Afz.,
from West Africa ; and Red Sanders or Sandal-wood, Pterocdrpus
santalinus L. fil., and Adendnthera pavonina L., from India.

Barks are more used for tanning than are woods ; but the
Quebrachos, the produce of several South American species, have
been a good deal employed of late years.

CHAPTER VI.
OUR SUPPLIES OF WOOD.

IN spite of the substitution of iron or other substances for wood
in shipbuilding and other industries, with the increasing numbers
of civilized man the consumption of wood increases at such a rate
as to demand serious attention.

The clearing of forest land for the purposes of agriculture has
been most recklessly carried out, especially during the last century
in the United States and in Canada, much of the wood being
wasted. Where, too, the timber has been cut for use, this has
in general been done so completely without any provision for the
regeneration of the forest-lands as to lead to their extinction.
The floods and famines of China, the waste of the agricultural
soil in Ceylon, the barrenness of Mesopotamia, Syria, Asia
Minor, and Cyprus, the drying up of the springs and deterioration
of the climate in South Africa, Mauritius, Turkey, and Spain
have been attributed mainly to wholesale destruction of forest.
The felling of the woods on the Atlantic coast of Denmark has
exposed the country to sharp sea winds and drifting sand, forming
lagoons and bogs and causing a marked deterioration of the
climate : the disafforesting of the Appennines during the last
two centuries has much increased the violence of the mountain-
torrents ; and even in Russia, which has not only the largest area
of forest of any European state, but the largest percentage of her
whole area under forest, a decrease in the waters of the Volga
has been attributed to the same cause.

110 OF WOOD IN GENERAL.

Whilst all woodland has disappeared from some lands, special
species are threatened with extinction in others. The pine
forests of Tunis have disappeared during the last hundred years :
some districts of Australia already experience a scarcity of fire-
wood and of mine-props : until Government regulations put a stop
to the felling of saplings to act as rollers in transporting the
larger logs, the valuable Greenheart of Demerara was in imminent
danger of extinction ; and the enormous drain upon the supply
of White Pine (Finns Strubus) is a grave danger in North
America.

Great Britain. — In Great Britain the abundance of coal
renders us independent of wood as fuel, and our geographical
position so facilitates the importation of timber that we have to
a great extent neglected our woodlands as a source of profit,
while our mild insular climate has enabled us to overlook the
hygienic importance of forests. There is accordingly little more
than 2J million acres of woods and forests in the United King-
dom, or only 3*8 per cent, of the entire area, a lower percentage
than that of any other European state, while this country stands
pre-eminent as the greatest importer of timber, exceeding 300
million cubic feet, or, including paper-pulp, gums, bark, and
other forest produce, an annual value exceeding 35 millions
sterling. No complete statistics are available as to our con-
sumption of home-grown timber. Special local demand is to
some extent met by local supply, as, for instance, in the case of
the bobbin-wood in the cotton-mill districts, pit-props in the
Scottish mining area, and the Beech of the Chilterns, from 12,000
to 15,000 loads of which are used annually in the Buckingham-
shire chair-making industry, by which some 50,000 families are
supported. Of our imports, nearly five millions sterling is the
value of the timber received from Canada.

Sir J. F. L. Kolleston, M.P., in his presidential address to the
Surveyors' Institution in November, 1901, said :

"Before leaving the subject of land and its future, I should like to say
that of all its products the only one, the value of which appears to be in
the ascending scale, is timber. In the midland counties I have been

BRITISH WOOD SUPPLY. Ill

furnished with accounts of timber sales at which single Oak trees have
realized up to £100, while other woods are commanding good prices, and
poles and thinnings are readily sold. There is a reason for this. The
great onslaught that has been made on the virgin forests of the world,
from the time of the PhuMiicians onwards, without artificial reafforestation,
must at length be appreciably felt.

The increase of population and the advance of civilization must also
point to an increased use of timber of all kinds for works of construction,
for articles of use and ornamentation, and for fuel. A rise in the value of
home-grown timber seems possible ; in any case a ready sale may be
anticipated.

With the decliue in the value of cereals it can hardly be doubted that a
considerable portion of the land of this country (some of which is derelict,
and some let at a very low rental) might be planted to advantage."

The forest areas of the other countries of Europe are estimated
as follows :

Russia, 469,500,000 acres, z.e. 34 percent.

Sweden, 43,000,000 acres, i.e. 24 per cent.

Austria-Hungary, 42,624,000 acres, i.e. 29 per cent.

France, 20,642,000 acres, i.e.. 19 per cent.

Spain, 20,465,000 acres, i.e. 16'3 per cent.

Germany, 20,047,000 acres, i.e. 25'6 per cent.

Norway, 17,290,000 acres, i.e. 25 per cent.

Italy, - 9,031,000 acres, i.e. 18 per cent,

Turkey, 5,958, 000 acres, i.e. 14 percent,

Switzerland, ,905,000 acres, i.e. 18 '8 per cent.

Greece, ,886,000 acres, i.e. ITS per cent.

Wurtemberg, .494,000 acres, i.e. 31 per cent.

Baden, ,338,000 acres, i.e. 33 per cent.

Portugal, - - - ,107,000 acres, i.e. 5 percent.

Belgium, ,073,000 acres, i.e. 12 per cent.

Holland, 486,000 acres, i.e. 6 per cent,

Denmark, - - - 364,000 acres, i.e. 4 '6 per cent.

With civilization comes an increasing demand for timber for
fencing, building, mine-props, railway-sleepers, and telegraph-
poles, not to mention that for more valuable woods for furniture,
etc., and the multitudinous other minor uses of timber. Thus
American statisticians have estimated 3 million cords l of wood as
used annually in brick burning, a million cords of Birch for tool-
1 A cord-2£ loads, 2§ tons, or 125 cubic feet.

112 OF WOOD IN GENERAL.

handles and boot-lasts, 100,000 cords of Soft Maple for shoe-pegs,
and over 3000 cords of Pine for lucifer matches in the United
States alone.

Russia. — In the well-managed forests of Germany the average
yearly growth, and, therefore, the amount legitimately felled
annually, is estimated at 2 '3 cubic feet for every 100 cubic feet of
standing timber, or 50 cubic feet per acre. But in spite of the
enormous annual yield which this computation gives to the forests
of Russia (viz. 23,475 million cubic feet), when we find nearly
half that amount (10,000 million) now used within the country for
fuel alone, and 30 million for house -building, it will be realized
how little reliance can be placed in Russia as a permanent source
of supply for Europe. Before reckoning for her increasing
population we may recall the saying that Russia is burnt down
every seven years. Of the total timber output from Russian
government forests in 1880 of 2,900,000 cubic fathoms, Spruce
(Picea excdlsa) constituted 37'5 per cent., Pine (mainly Pinus
sylvestris), 27'8, soft woods (Birch, Linden, Aspen, etc.), 19-5, and
hard woods (Oak, Beech, etc.), 8*8 per cent. Besides paper-pulp
from the Aspen, and a certain amount of Walnut, Russia exports
Box from Odessa, and a large amount of Deal from the White
Sea and Baltic ports. The supplies of timber at Archangel and
the other White Sea ports is yearly drawn from a greater dis-
tance inland.

Scandinavia. — Sweden sends more than half of her exported
timber to Great Britain. It consists largely of Pine, both as pit-
props and in a manufactured form, as window and door-frames ;
Spruce or " White Deal," used for scaffolds, ladders, etc. ; matches,
of Pine and Aspen ; and paper-pulp of Aspen, Spruce, arid Pine.
The exports of Norway are similar, a certain amount of Birch and
Maple (Acer platanoides) also coming from this country to England.
Both Norway and Sweden are apparently reducing their forest
areas by cutting more than the annual increment.

France. — Though a well-wooded country, with carefully
managed forests in almost every department, exporting Oak and
sending Bordeaux Pine (Pinus Pinaster} as mine-props to our

WOOD SUPPLY OF FRANCE, GERMANY, ETC. 113

Welsh collieries, France imports common building woods as well
as the more costly kinds used for furniture, etc., her imports
exceeding her exports to the value of over five million sterling
per annum.

German Empire, etc. — Spain imports, but does not export

timber. Prussia has 23 per cent, of its area under forest, over 6

million acres, or 30 per cent, of the whole, being under government

administration. The yield is about 47 cubic feet per acre per

annum, i.e. safely within the calculated annual increment of 50

cubic feet, the total expenditure about 1J millions sterling, and

the net surplus over a million, or about 3s. 6d. an acre for all

ground in use. The chief species are Kiefer (Pinus sylvdstris),

exported as Dantzic or Riga Fir or Prussian Deal, and Fichte or

Roth Tanne (Picea excelsa), forming between them three fourths

of the whole crop. Eiche (Quc'rcus Eobvr) is exported to England

as Baltic or East Country Oak, and the Silver Fir, Edeltanne or

Weissfichte (Abies pectmdfa) abounds in the Vosges and occurs in

Schleswig-Holstein and Silesia. More than a quarter of the area

of Bavaria is under wood, and, though there is a large local

demand for fuel, the careful foresight of the administration is

evidenced by the fact that in 1885 a government forester was

sent to study the timber-trees of the United States, who frankly

explained his mission by saying, " In fifty years you will have to

import your timber, and as you will probably have a preference

for American kinds, we shall begin to grow them now, so as to be

ready to send them to you at the proper time." Timber is the

chief export of the country.

Saxony has over a million acres of forest, one-third of which
belongs to the State, the annual cut, estimated at a million cubic
feet, being much less than it might be. The Saxon forests
include Oak, Beech, Ash, Birch, and Alder, as well as Pine,
Spruce, Silver Fir, and Larch.

Wurtemberg has nearly 1 J million acres, or over 30 per cent,
of its whole area, under forest, comprising the Pine-wood districts
of the Black Forest and the hardwoods of the Swabian Alps.
Pine, Spruce, Silver Fir, and Oak are floated down the Rhine to

H

114 OF WOOD IN GENERAL.

the Dutch shipbuilding yards, whilst Beech furnishes the chief
fuel of the country, and is used for ships' keels, carriage-building,
and chair-making, and Aspen is in demand for matches and
paper-pulp.

Hesse-Darmstadt, the Fir-trees from which are in special
demand in Holland, has no less than 595,000 acres, or nearly
three-quarters of its area, under forest ; whilst Baden has also
over a million acres, or one-third of its area, so occupied.

Austria-Hungary. — The forests of the Austrian Empire
occupy over 42J million acres, those of Austria being 30 per
cent., those of Hungary, 26-6 per cent, of the entire areas of the
two countries. Spruce, Silver Fir, and Larch are the prevalent
species, and the bulk of the timber is consumed, for building
purposes or fuel, at home. Hungary has also some large forests
of excellent Oak. Switzerland. — From the 1,900,000 acres of
the forests of Switzerland it is estimated that over 89 million
cubic feet of timber are cut annually, but, in addition to con-
siderable clearing, the demands of a growing population for
building purposes, and the use of much wood as fuel, there has
been considerable waste, as, for instance, in cutting young trees
for fencing, so that the total cut has been estimated as in
excess of the yield, and the export has accordingly declined.
Spruce, Silver Fir, and Pine are the predominant species.

Italy. — Italy exports a certain amount of Oak of various
qualities, but of ill-ascertained origin. The best, the Tuscan,
Neapolitan, and Sicilian, would seem to be Quercus fidbur, Q.
jEsculus, and Q. pyrend'ica. Modena, Roman, and Sardinian Oak
and Adriatic Oak (Q. Cerris) are inferior. The country, is, how-
ever, deficient in timber, from the point of view both of climate
and of demand. While with our moist climate we can manage
with a far smaller proportion of forest, the countries bordering
on the Mediterranean all suffer from the removal of their forests.
Centuries ago the Karst region of Southern Austria was covered
with magnificent Oak forests and furnished piles and shipbuilding
timber to Venice in her palmy days. It was said that a squirrel
could travel for miles along the Istrian coast from tree to tree.

WOOD SUPPLY OF GERMANY, ITALY AND ASIA. 115

Reckless felling by the Venetians led to the washing away of the
surface soil, until the country for twenty miles north of Trieste
was reduced to bare rock. Forty years ago the Austrian Govern-
ment began a costly system of reafforestation.

Asia. — Turning from Europe to Asia, we find undoubtedly a
large supply of Larch (Ldrix sibtrica), Pine, Spruce (Picea
cephdlonica), Birch, and other species in Siberia ; but, unless the
Amoor can, to some extent, play the part of the St. Lawrence,
the difficulty of transport will be insuperable. Neither China,
the interior of which probably suffers much from the effects of
disafforesting, nor Japan, hold out any prospect of any large
export either of common or of choice woods, whilst, except
perhaps in the remote future to western North America, cost of
freight would put the former class of timber out of the question.

In Japan, where forest conservancy dates from the third century
A.D., half the area of the country, or about 47,000,000 acres, are
stated to be forest, yielding more than 1 20 species of valuable
timbers, of which the Nikko Silver Fir (A'bies homolepis S. and Z.)
and Saghalien Fir (A. sachalinensis Masters) are the cheapest,
and Hi-no-ki (Cuprtssus obtusa Koch) and Ke-ya-ki (Zelkdwa
acumindta Planchon) are the most expensive.

India. — Taking British India as 480 million acres, 40 million,
or one-twelfth of the whole area, are forest. In spite, however,
of the enormous local consumption for fuel and the increasing
demand for railway-sleepers, India produces such a variety of
valuable ornamental and dense Hardwoods that conservation is
likely to enable her long to continue her exportation. In 1899-
1900 she exported Teak to the value of over £600,000, but her
supply of cheap softwood for tea-chests, etc., is hardly equal to the
demand. At the same time many of her ornamental furniture
woods might well be more largely used in Europe.

Such woods as Pynkadoo or Miraboo (Afzelia palembdnica),
Kranji (Didlium indicum), and Tampinnis (Slottia siderdxylon), in
the Malay Peninsula, the Lauan (Dipterocdrpus thurifer) and Acle
(Xylia dolabriformis) of the Philippines, and the Rassak (Fdtica
Bdssak), Billian (Eusidervxylon Zwdgeri), and Compass (Kcempdssia

116 OF WOOD IN GENERAL.

mdlaccfnsis) of Borneo, may well prove worthy of European
attention, especially for density and durability, when they become
better known, and the supply of them may be said to be as yet
untapped.

Among 200 species thought worthy of trial in the arsenal at
Manila, the essentially Malayan flora of the Philippines includes :

Acle (Xf/lia dolabrifrfrmis),

Banaba (Lagerstrwmia Flos-Ifegince),

Betis (Paynia Bttw),

Bolongnita (Diospf/ros pHostinihwu),

Cedar (Cedrdla Toona),

Dougon (Sterci'dia cymbiformis),

Guijo (Shorea robitxta),

Ipel (Afzelia bijuga),

Lauan (Diptcrocdrpus thtirifer),

Mangachapoi (Shored, Mangdchapoi),

Molave (Vitex genicuhUus and V. alt-lssima),

Narra (Ptevocdrpus pdllidus and P. santalfnvs)

Padouk (Pterocdrpvs hidicux),

Palo Maria (CalopUyllum Inophi/lluiri), and

Yacal (Shorea reticuldta).

Australasia. — Australian timbers have, as we have already
said, suffered in European repute by not being seasoned ; and, as,
in spite of a vast area of scrub, the area of timber-producing
forest is comparatively small, wholesale clearing for the purposes
of agriculture, the use of wood for fuel, and the great demand for
building, fencing, railways, and telegraphs, have sensibly affected
the supply. Conservation has begun ; but mine-props and even
firewood are locally scarce, Queensland exports Red Cedar
(Cedrela Torino), and Moreton Bay Kauri and Cypress Pines
(Araucdria Cunninghdmii, Agathis robitstfi, and Cdllilris robusfa).
New South Wales sends Cedar (Cedreln Tcn'ma) and Pine (Araucdria
Cunninf/hdmii) to China and New Caledonia, and the area under
the former species is now considerably reduced. Nearly half the
area of the colony of Victoria (40,000 out of 88,198 square miles)

WOOD SUPPLY OF ASIA AND AUSTRALIA. 117

was estimated as forest in 1878, most of it being in the hands of
Government, and more than half of it consisting of Eucalyptus.
Many Victorian timbers are extremely dense and hard, such as
Red Gum, Blue Gum, White Gum or Peppermint, Messmate and
Iron-bark (Eucalyptus rostrdki, globulus, amygdalina, obllqua, and
leucoxylon), etc. ; and accordingly, though some of them may well
maintain a more than local value for sleepers, wood-paving, etc.,
timber at present appears among the imports rather than among
the exports of the colony. The forest-area of South Australia,
where Eucalyptus also forms the staple of the timber supply, is not
large. It is West Australia, however, and especially its south-
western parts, from which we at present import the bulk of our
Australian timber-supply. Besides Sandalwood (Sdntalum cyg-
iwrum or Fusdnus spicdtus) to the value of nearly ,£30,000 annually,
sent mainly to China, West Australia is exporting timber to the
value of half-a-million sterling, the chief species being Jarrah
(Eucalf/ptus mcrrgindta), which is officially stated to be the pre-
dominant species over 14,000 square miles, Karri (E. diversicolor)
occupying 2,300 square miles, Tewart (E. gomphocephala) occupy-
ing some 500 square miles.

The timber areas in West Australia are stated as :

Jarrah (with Blackbutt aud Red Gum), 8,000,000 acres.
Karri, - - - 1,000,000 „

Tewart, 200,000 ,,

Wandoo, - - 7,000,000 „

York Gum, Yate, Raspberry -jam, and

Sandal wood, - . 4,000,000 „

This area is estimated to contain 62 million loads of mature
timber worth £3 per load, a total value, deducting J for waste
in sawing, of £124,000,000.

Nearly one-half of the island of Tasmania (8,000,000 acres) is
timbered, seven-eights of the woodland being under Government,
but the timber area is diminishing. The beautifully mottled,
durable Huon Pine (Dacrf/dium Franklinii) has become scarce and
high-priced. The bulk of the timber exported consists of
Stringybark (Euadyptus obliqua), sent in planks to Victoria, South

118 OF WOOD IN GENERAL.

Australia, and New Zealand ; but the most valuable timber of
the colony is the Blue Gum (E. glubulus), which is abundant in
the south of the island.

The forest-area of New Zealand, estimated at over 20,000,000
acres in 1830, was only 12,000,000 acres in 1874, when clearing
was proceeding at the rate of 4 per cent, per annum ; but con-
servation was then inaugurated and the many valuable species of
timber thereby saved from extermination.

Of these the- most valuable is the Kauri Pine (Agathis austrdlis),
which is confined to the North Island. This fine durable timber
is the soft wood of the country, and is extensively converted for
export to Australia, the freight militating against it in com-
petition with Baltic timber for the English market, though it is
employed to some extent for the decks of yachts.

Africa. — Little can be said as to the timber resources of the
African continent. Neither Atlas Cedar (Ccdrus atldntica), re-
sembling the Deodar, nor Atlas Cypress (Tdmdinis articuldta),
the Citron- wood of the ancients, are at all known commercially,
and the same must be said of Morocco Ironwood (Argdnia
Sidewxylon). Algeria, however, has nearly 5 million acres of
forest, three-fifths of which are under State control, and its Ever-
green Oaks (Quercus Ilex, Saber, bdllota, etc.), its Kabyle Ash, said
to be equal to English, and Maritime Pine (P-inus Pinaster) should
prove of value. From our West African colonies we import
small quantities of African Oak or Teak (OldJUldia africdna), a
dense wood, shipped from Sierra Leone, and African Rosewood
(Pterocdrpus erindceus) • but little is known of the timber-trees
of tropical Africa ; while the south of the continent is one of the
districts of the world which suffers most in climate from the
want of timber, partly from reckless destruction.

Little is known as yet as to the botanical nature or abundance
of the undoubtedly valuable timbers of Rhodesia. It is estimated
that there are about 2000 square miles of forest in Matabeleland,
while Mashonaland is not so well timbered. Annual irrass fires

O

kill innumerable young trees : the natives are answerable for the
destruction of many thousands ; and the felling of large timber

WOOD SUPPLY OF AUSTKALASIA AND AFRICA. 119

is attended with much unnecessary destruction of smaller trees.
The Gwaai forest, which extends along the river of that name,
fifty miles from Buluwayo, consists of Ikusi, or Native Teak,
several kinds of Acacia, and Asenga Mopani. Large areas in
Mashonaland also are covered with Ikusi, a handsome dark
brown wood streaked with yellow, which is worked for building
purposes. The Asenga Mopani, stated to grow 50-75 feet high
with a straight stem, is a furniture wood. The Shangani river
passes through a forest of Baobab, the largest tree of the country;
whilst the Mahobohobo, valuable as a mine-timber because it is
termite-proof, abounds in the Selukwe and Belingwe districts.
Katope, resembling Pine; Mbawa and Malombwa, resembling
Mahogany ; and Muwowa, used for native canoes, and stated
to reach an immense height, are also valuable species.

Cape Box (Buxus Macowdnii) is far inferior to Turkey Box ; but
many of the cabinet-woods of Cape Colony, such as Stinkwood
(Ocotea bulldta) and Sneeze wood (Pteroxylon iHile), deserve more
than local repute. The remnants of the indigenous forests of
"Pencil Cedar" (Widdringt6nia juniperdides) will repay strict
conservation, whilst one of the most important industries of the
future will be the growth of the Maritime Pine (Pinus Pinaster)
for railway-sleepers. Natal has 165,000 acres of forest; but
depends largely for firewood upon the rapid-growing Eucalyptus
and Casuarina which have been introduced from Australia.
Some of the indigenous timbers, such as Essenboom, or Cape
Ash (Eckebergia capensis), Assegai-wood (Curtisia faginea) and
Umzimbit or White Iron wood (Todddlia lanceoldta) may prove
worthy of attention, especially by cart-builders. Like the as yet
undetermined Pink Ivory, a singularly beautiful wood, they
unfortunately grow mostly in kloofs or other somewhat in-
accessible situations.

In 1898 Cape Colony imported over 3J million cubic feet of rough
timber, of which over 2,600,000 cubic feet came from Sweden,
and 2 million cubic feet of planed timber, of which over 930,000
cubic feet came from Norway, and 691,000 from Sweden. In
the same year Natal imported 1,687,000 cubic feet of rough

120 OK WOOD IN GENERAL.

timber, of which 1,292,000 were from Sweden, and 1,150,000
cubic feet in planks, 918,000 cubic feet of which were from the
same country.

Three-quarters of the area of the island of Madagascar is stated
to be forest, mainly as yet untouched. Its woods are as yet
little known botanically. They include one or more Ebonies, a
"Violet-wood" (perhaps an Acacia) and a " Rosewood," besides
a valuable hard redwood suitable for joinery, known as "Lalona."
South America.— Timber does not form an article of export
from the southern or western portion of South America ; but
Brazil resembles Australia in the extent and variety of its forests.
At the Chicago Exhibition of 1893 no less than 440 different
Brazilian timbers were exhibited ; but unfortunately many of
these have not yet been botanically identified. It is stated that
some of the species vary much in durability according to the
situation in which they are grown ; that some of them are too
hard and too heavy for many ordinary purposes ; and that the
absence of railway facilities for transporting the timber to the
coast has much reduced the exports. These, however, exceed
£100,000 annually, comprising Mahogany, Logwood, Rosewood,
and Brazilwood. Kosewood is Dalbergia ntyra, shipped from llio,
whilst other species of the genus are known as Violet-wood and
King-wood. Brazilwood, hard and heavy, but largely used as a
dye, is Ccesalpinia echindta.

French Guiana produces many valuable timbers, including
Angelique (Dicorf/nia paraensis), Cuamara or Tonka-bean (Couma-
rouna odordta), Courbaril or Locust (Hymenti'O, Coiirbaril), Balata
(Mtmusops fidlata), Lancewood (Duguetia quitarensis), and Crab-
wood (Cdrapa guianensis), several of which species grow also in
Dutch and British Guiana. In all three colonies the forests
cover almost the whole area. British Guiana, where forest
conservation has been introduced, produces hundreds of species
of timber, suitable for almost every purpose, growing, however,
in a mixed virgin forest, though at present the exports amount
only to about 170,000 cubic feet, valued at £11,000 a year. The
most important species are Greenheart (Nectdndra liodid'i), Mora

WOOD SUPPLY OF AMERICA. 121

(Dimwphdndra Mora), Crabwood (Cdrapa guianensis), Bullet
(Mimusops globosa), and Locust. Trinidad grows Mora, Crab-
wood, Bullet, Locust, Lignum-Vitae (Gua-iacum offidndU), Galba,
(Calophf/llum Cdlaba), the dye-wood Fustic (Cklor6phora tinctoria),
and other valuable species ; but its export is insignificant.
Ecuador, Colombia, and Venezuela have extensive forest resources,
but export little or no timber. Honduras, however, exports
Mora, Mahogany, Fustic, and Zebra-wood (Guettdrda speciosa),
whilst British Honduras now only exports Cedar (Cedrela odordta),
Mahogany, and Logwood. The annual export of Mahogany is
6J million cubic feet, costing £8 to <£10 per thousand feet; and
that of Logwood 24,000 tons at £2 to £3 a ton.

West Indies. — Though exporting little timber save Maho-
gany, and even employing Pine imported from the United States
in its sea-ports, Cuba possesses extensive and valuable forests,
yielding Cedar, Logwood, Fustic, Lignum- Vitae, Ocuje (Calo-
phf/llum Cdlaba), Roble Blanco or Jamaica Box (Tecuma pentaplif/lla)
an Ebony (Diospf/ros tetrasperma), Cocus-wood or Granadillo (Brf/a
Ebenus), and the valuable Sabicu (Lysiluma Sdbicu).

In 1873 Jamaica was estimated to contain 800,000 acres of
timber, of which 20,000 were in the hands of Government ; but
clearing was then proceeding at the rate of 30,000 acres a year.
Dye-woods, such as Logwood, Fustic, etc., now form over 8 per
cent, of the exports of the island, which exceed H million
sterling ; but the forests contain many valuable cabinet-woods,
the Mahogany being harder and richer in grain than that of
Honduras.

While Barbadoes and some others of the Windward Islands are
wholly dependent, even for fuel, upon imported timber, Grenada,
Tobago, St. Lucia, and Dominica produce Cedar, Galba (Calo-
phf/llum Cdlaba), Angelin (Andira incnnis), Bullet-wood (Mimusops
globosa), and Bois Riviere or Water wood (Chimdrrhis cymusu), and
have a small export.

North America. — In the United States and Canada during
the last twenty years timely, if somewhat alarmist, warnings have
been put forward against the reckless waste of the timber

122 OF WOOD IN GENERAL.

resources of the continent. Mr. B. E. Fernow, Chief of the
Forestry Division of the United States Department of Agriculture,
in 1886 expressed the opinion that the reason why the prophecies
of a dearth of timber made for more than a century by alarmists
in Europe have not been realized is that their clamour has induced
more careful husbanding of forest-resources. He then estimated
the forest area of the United States, exclusive of Alaska, as less
than 500 million acres, much of this being only brushwood or
thinly stocked with trees. The amount of wood then used he
quotes as 20,000 million cubic feet, made up as follows :

Lumber-market and manufacture, 2,500 million.
Railroad construction, 360 ,,

Charcoal, 250 ,,

Fences, 500

Fuel, - 17,500

"There is also to be added," he writes, "an item requiring
yearly a considerable amount of wood for a use to which no other
civilized nation puts its forests. I refer to the 10,000,000 acres
or so of woodland burnt over every year, intentionally or unin-
tentionally, by which a large amount of timber is killed or made
useless ; and, what is worse . . . the capacity of the soil for tree
growth is diminished." Reckoning 50 cubic feet as the yearly
accretion per acre, the 20,000 million cubic feet consumption here
indicated would require an area of not less than 400 million acres
to be kept well stocked.

Some day, no doubt, the development of the coal-fields of the
United States will considerably lessen the consumption under the
largest of the above-mentioned items, and there is certainly room
for economizing in other directions. It is computed, for instance,
that, in the Californian Redwood (Sequoia sempervirens) forests, to
produce a railroad-tie worth 35 cents, timber to the value of 1 -87
dollars is wasted. In 1894 there were in the United States
156,497 miles of railroad ; there were in 1899 189,294 miles.
Reckoning 2640 as the average number of sleepers per mile
would make the number used by 1884 413,152,080. The young
sound trees employed will not commonly make more than two

WOOD SUPPLY OF NORTH AMERICA. 123

sleepers each, i.e. not more than 100 sleepers could be cut from
an acre of such timber-land as prevails in the States, so that the
lines existing in 1884 had required all available timber from
4,131,520 acres. The average "life" of a sleeper is seven years,
so that 59,021,700 ties, or the product of 590,217 acres, would
be requisite to keep the existing lines in repair. The average
length of new line built every year was then about 5000 miles,
requiring 13,200,000 ties, or the timber of 132,000 acres. If we
allow twenty-five years as the time necessary for trees to attain a
size suitable for making ties, then it would require the annual
growth of 14,755,425 acres to keep good the existing lines, and
3,300,000 to supply the annual demand for new lines, to say
nothing of keeping the latter in repair. Not less than 18,000,000
acres of woodland need, therefore, to be kept in reserve for the
sole maintenance of the permanent way of the railroads of the
United States. The annual fuel consumption is reckoned as the
produce of 6 J million acres annually, and the entire consumption
as 25 million acres. Not only have too many Redwood trees
been used for fuel, but of late ordinary building has absorbed a
great many, panels of Redwood having become very popular in
San Francisco as a substitute for plastered walls, whilst there has
also been considerable exportation to China, Hawaii, and the
Philippines. Some lumbermen predict that within a few years
the Redwood tree will be as scarce as the buffalo, and that a
shortage has already begun is evident from the fact that the price
of Redwood has risen rapidly from 25 to 45 dollars per 1000
square feet. Another serious factor in the question of
timber supply in the United States is the extravagant manner in
which the turpentine industry is conducted. Instead of any care
being taken not to destroy the timber (as is done in the south of
France) it has been said that there is no business connected with
the products of the soil which yields so little return in proportion
to the destruction of the material involved. The turpentine is
chiefly obtained in Georgia from the Long-leafed and Loblolly
Pines (Pinm palustris and Tceda), and the forests of this State
were once unsurpassed, and, if properly husbanded, might have

124 OF WOOD IN GENERAL.

continued indefinitely to yield a handsome return. The turpen-
tine farmers, however, aim only at obtaining the maximum
amount of crde-resin with the smallest expenditure of labour,
caring nothing for the fate of the trees they attack.

If, however, 500 million acres of true timber-forest were main-
tained in the United States, an annual cut of 20,000 million
cubic feet, or 40 cubic feet per acre, would not at first sight
appear excessive. It is, however, important to bear in mind
that the White Pine (Pinus Strobu*) requires 90 years to reach
the dimensions attained by the Northern Pine of Europe (Pinus
sylvfatris) in 70, whilst the Long-leafed Pine (P. palustris) re-
quires 200 years for the same growth.

The White Pine has for half a century been the most impor-
tant timber of the United States, furnishing, as it does, the best
quality of soft Pine. Of the home consumption of this wood
some idea may be formed from the fact that the city of Chicago
alone received in one year over 2000 million feet, principally of
this species, or an amount equal to the entire produce of Canada
during that year. Speaking of this species, in 1882 Professor
C. S. Sargent of Harvard wrote, "It has been wantonly and
stupidly cut, as if its resources were endless : what has not
been sacrificed to the axe has been allowed to perish by fire.
The Pine of New England and New York has already dis-
appeared. Pennsylvania is nearly stripped of her Pine, which
only a few years ago appeared inexhaustible." ... "In
Michigan there remained of standing White Pine timber, suitable
for market, but 35,000 million feet, board measure," whilst in
1880 there had been cut in the State over 4000 million feet,
" requiring only eight years at this rate to exhaust the supply."
In Wisconsin there were standing 41,000 million feet, with a cut
of over 2000 million for that year, "leaving a supply that would
last but fourteen years." In Minnesota there were remaining
8170 million fe*et, and 541 million were cut in 1880, leaving a
supply for fifteen years ; so that the supply in the three States
would be exhausted in twelve years. There was in fact little
more than 80,000 million feet in the United States, whilst con-

WOOD SUPPLY OF NORTH AMERICA. 125

sumption was at the rate of 10,000 million per annum and the
demand constantly and rapidly increasing. Already by 1885
the United States were importing timber from Canada to the
value of nearly two million sterling, or about 75 million cubic
feet, more than the entire cut of the province of Ontario. That
the extreme forecasts of the alarmists have not been wholly
realized throughout the United States may be owing to the fact
that it has been cheaper for the more densely populated north-
eastern States to supplement their own dwindling resources from
Canada rather than from the southern States. Thus Mississippi,
with 18,200 million feet board measure of Long-leaf Pine stand-
ing in 1880 and with an annual cut of 102 million feet, can
supply timber at the same rate for 150 years, a period sufficient,
with proper conservation, to enable the supply to renew itself.

Throughout Newfoundland and the Dominion of Canada reck-
less waste has prevailed in the past. Forest fires and the absence
of replanting has reduced the forest area of Newfoundland to
about -}j of the whole area of the country, or some 464,000 acres,
bearing White Pine, Spruce (Pfcea alba and ni'gra), Tamarack or
Red Larch (Li'irix microcdrpd), said to be better than that of the
mainland, Yellow Birch (Betula excelsa), and Poplar. Prince
Edward's Island produces the same species, together with Rock
Maple (Acer barbdtum), Hemlock Spruce (Tsuga canadensis), and
the valuable Cedar (Juniperus virginidna), which has been largely
sacrificed for railway purposes ; but fires and clearings have
largely diminished the supply, the annual cut being more than 17
times the increment Nova Scotia had 9 million acres of timber
land in 1875, but the annual cut was for years 25 per cent, more
than the increment. Hackmatack or Larch (Ldrix americdna),
White Pine and Hemlock Spruce, are the chief species. New
Brunswick had but 6 million ares of timber land in 1874, mainly
covered with hardwoods. Sleepers of Cedar (Cuprdssus thytides)
and Hemlock bark-extract for tanning are important articles of
export, besides deals, consisting mostly of Black Spruce (Pfcea
nigra). In the province of Quebec the lumber industry is still by
far the most important trade; but, whereas in 1874 there were 74

126 OF WOOD IN GENERAL.

million acres, there are now only 62 million, 32 million of which
are under license to cut timber. The species are mostly the same
as those of New Brunswick, including White Pine and a scarce
but valuable Oak (Que'rcus alba). The wood-pulp industry has
grown from an annual value of £160,000 sterling in 1890 to
nearly ten times that amount ; and a service of rangers has been
organized to prevent forest-fires. In Ontario lumbering has
ceased to be the sole industry that it once was ; but almost the
whole amount felled is exported, and the demand of the adjoining
States of the Union keeps the annual consumption far in excess
of the increment. Though two-thirds of British Columbia, or
about 110 million acres, were under timber in 1874, and almost
all was under Government control, destructive fires and Avholesale
clearing have very much lessened the supply. There is, however,
a very extensive timber reserve on the coast, consisting of Douglas
Fir (Pseudotsaga Dougldsii), Spruce, Red Cedar (Juniperusvirginidna),
Yellow Cedar (Cuprcssus nootlcattnsis), and Hemlock (Tsi/ga Merten-
sidwi,), the available supply of which is from 40,000 to 100,000
million feet. British Columbia has now a wooded area
estimated at 285,000 square miles, extending along the coast,
river-valleys, and foot-hills as far north as Alaska, and producing
many useful species besides the Douglas Spruce. There are,
however, sixty saw-mills in operation, with an annual capacity
of 550 million feet.

In the early days of its occupation by the French, the forests of
Eastern Canada, which then stretched unbroken from the
Atlantic to the head of the St. Lawrence basin, a distance of
over 2000 miles, engaged the attention of the Government,
who drew from them large numbers of masts and spars for their
navy and issued stringent regulations for the preservation of the
Oak. On the conquest of the country by Great Britain, which
then had almost the entire trade with the Baltic, Canadian lum-
ber was neglected ; but the continental blockade during the war
with Napoleon directed the attention of our timber importers to
the resources of Canada, and an import of 2600 loads in 1800
grew to one of 125,300 loads in 1810, and over 300,000 loads in

WOOD SUPPLY OF CANADA. 127

1820, whilst for the last fifty years it has exceeded a million loads
annually. Whilst during the first half of the last century Canada
only exported wood to the United Kingdom and the West
Indies, for the last twenty years she has experienced a steadily
increasing demand from the United States, which now take about
half her annual export, or some 13 million dollars worth annually.
For many years past the Pine logs floated down to Ottawa have
numbered nearly four million a year ; and now the demand for
paper-pulp has given the Spruce, owing to the far greater area of
its distribution, a value in the aggregate much greater than that
of the Pines.

In addition to the southern forest belt, now so largely cleared
or depleted in the eastern half, there is the great northern forest
which stretches from the Straits of Belle-Isle round by the
southern end of James Bay to Alaska, a distance of about 4000
miles, with a breadth of some 700 miles. "This vast forest,"
says Dr. Robert Bell of the Canadian Geological Survey, "has
everywhere the same characteristics. The tree, as a rule, are
not large, and they consist essentially of the following nine
species : Black and White Spruce, Banksian Pine, Larch, Balsam
Fir, Aspen, Balsam Poplar, Canoe Birch, Bird-Cherry, White
Cedar, White and Red Pine : Black Ash and Rowan occur spar-
ingly in the southern part of this belt."

With nearly 38 per cent, of the whole area of the Dominion
under forest, Canadians have in the past given little heed to
conservation, believing in the power of natural reproduction to
balance the forces of destruction, a belief which, when not sub-
stantiated by careful statistical investigation, is a dangerous fool's
paradise.

Conclusions. — A most valuable practical test of the increased
consumption and the growing scarcity of timber is the advance in
prices. It has been estimated that in Germany from about 1550
to 1750 wood quadrupled in price, from 1750 to 1830 the progres-
sive increase of price was at the same rate, but from 1830 to 1880
the rate was much higher, reaching in some cases 300 per cent,
within the half century. What was worth 100 francs in 1840

128 OF WOOD IN GENERAL.

was worth 150 francs in 1850, 260 francs in 1860, 360 francs in
1865 and 400 francs by 1877. In the United States prices rose
100 per cent, between 1874 and 1882; and an equal rise took
place in Russia; whilst in Sweden and Norway between 1847
and 1882 (35 years) a rise of from 150 to 200 per cent, according
to species occurred.

The obvious conclusions to be drawn from this necessarily in-
complete survey of the world's resources and consumption of timber
are that, in spite of substitutes, the use of wood increases with
advancing population and civilization ; that there is still in many
lands much waste, much over felling and but little conservation or
forethought ; that no country can safely declare its supply inex-
haustible ; and that, though an absolute dearth of timber may be
far distant, some valuable species are in danger of extermination,
and we may expect a considerable enhancement of the price of the
commoner kinds as the supply has to be drawn from more and
more remote sources.

It is undoubtedly, from the magnitude of the interests at stake,
a question which demands the attention of the economists, land-
owners and legislature of every country. If, as Bernard Palissy
wrote in the sixteenth century, " after all the trees have been cut
down it will be necessary for all the arts to cease " ; and if even
Colbert could prophesy that "France will perish for want of
wood," the danger, in our own time and in many lands besides
France, is far more serious.

CHAPTER VII.
TESTING WOOD.

THE very general substitution of iron or steel for wood in per-
manent structures renders the exact investigation of the strength
of timber less important now than formerly. Nevertheless, in
merely temporary structures, such as scaffoldings or centerings,
its power of withstanding different strains is of very serious
concern. Practically, although not scientifically, every joist,
rafter, window- sash or door-frame, the chair we sit on, the floor
we walk on, the wood of the cart or boat we ride in, are all
tested as to their strength, their elasticity, their hardness and
their toughness. In the workshop it is recognized that the fitness
of a wood for a given purpose invariably depends upon a combina-
tion of several qualities. A spoke, for instance, must not only be
strong, it must be stiff to keep its shape, tough and hard;
and accordingly it must be made from wood split with the
grain, and not from sawn or cut material. The experienced
wood-worker judges the suitability of any particular piece
of wood for his purpose by rule-of-thumb. This rule-of-
thumb guess is largely based on the general rule that, in timber,
weight, hardness, and power of resistance to most strains, vary
together. To this rule, however, there are many important
exceptions, where testing would prove what no rule-of-thumb
is likely to perceive ; and it was in reference to this that Tredgold

I

130 OF WOOD IN GENERAL.

remarked that actual testing may take the place of a life-time of
practical experience in carpentry.

In the scientific testing of timber each property is examined
separately. A beam resists bending, and is accordingly termed
stiff; wicker bends readily, or is flexible', while the rod or beam
that straightens itself again on the removal of a load that has
been applied to it is termed elastic. Eesistance to a pull in the
direction of the grain is known as tensile strength ; whilst a force
applied in an opposite but parallel direction is a crushing force.
The pressure of a hammer-head across the grain of the handle
tends to shear the fibres, and a nail entering a board tests its
cleavability or tendency to split.

The results of the many tests that have been published are
often widely discordant. This arises from various causes, e.g.
incorrect identification of the species, nature of the locality where
the tree was grown, the age of the tree when felled, the part of
the tree from which the test specimen was taken, the extent to
which it was seasoned, the size of the piece tested, and the method
of stating the experimental results. The use of popular names,
such as Ironbark or Blue Gum, each applicable to half-a dozen
different species, is an obvious source of error. As we have
already seen, the same species grown under different conditions of
heat, moisture, etc., varies widely in rate of growth, and accord-
ingly in strength also. Timber is at its best when the
tree is at its maturity, an age which depends upon the species,
the climate and the soil. Before that age not only does the less
durable sapwood predominate, but the heartwood has not yet
reached its full strength ; whilst after maturity the heartwood is
the first to show symptoms of weakness. As we have already
seen, the centre, with its many knots, is generally the weakest
part of the heartwood, and a scantling will have greater transverse
strength, or resistance to bending stress, and tensile strength in
proportion to the number of rings that occur both at its butt and
its top. Seasoning, as we have seen, may double the strength of
timber. Early experiments on the strength of timber were
generally made with very small pieces owing to the difficulty of

TESTING WOOD. 131

holding and bringing strains to bear upon large scantlings.
Pieces less than a quarter of an inch square were often used.
Such pieces might give an unduly unfavourable result from the
cutting across of individual fibres ; or, on the other hand, being
freer from knots or other defects, more readily seasoned through-
out and more homogeneous, they are rather picked than average
samples, and may give an unduly favourable result.

Density. — We can only give here a bare outline of the prin-
ciples, methods, and results of testing. Much, as we have seen,
depends upon density ; and, admitting that, owing to air or
moisture in the wood, the results are not as satisfactory as could
be wished, we have two simple methods, described by Professor
Unwin, for determining this character, viz. (i) by measuring and
weighing planed rectangular blocks, and (ii) by weighing the
block and the water it displaces. In the former method, if
b = the breadth, t = the thickness, and h = the height of the block in

inches, its volume will = *wj~ cubic feet ; and if W = its weight

in pounds, the heaviness of the wood per cubic foot will
1728W „

= -M~lbs-

In the second method, if W = the weight of the block in
pounds, W' = the weight in pounds of the water it displaces,
and G = the weight of a cubic foot of water, i.e. 62'4 Ibs. at the

normal temperature, then -^- = the volume of the block in

cubic feet, and the heaviness of the wood per cubic foot will

, GW
**^'

Mr. Stephen P. Sharpies, who made the examinations of North
American timbers incorporated by Prof. Sargent in the Ninth
Census of the United States, vol. ix. (1880), making at least two
determinations for each species, calculated the specific gravity by
measurement with micrometer calipers and weighing. The
specimens tested were 100 millimetres long and about 35 milli-
metres square, and were dried at 100° C. until they ceased to lose

132 OF WOOD IN GENERAL.

in weight. Of the 429 species experimented upon the specific
gravity ranged from O2616 in the Small-fruited Fig (Ficus aurea)
to 1-3020 in Black Ironwood (Conddlia f fared).

Bauschinger found, by experiments made at Munich in 1883
and 1887, that the density and strength of timber is greatly
affected by the amount of moisture it contains. To determine
the percentage of moisture Prof. Unwin gives this method. Drill
a hole through the test block and weigh the shavings at once.
Dry them in an oven at a temperature of from 200° to 212° F. for
8 or 10 hours, and, when they cease to lose weight, re-weigh
them. If then W = their first or wet weight, and D = their second
or dry weight, W - D = the weight of moisture they contain, and

lOO(W-D)

-^yr — = the percentage of moisture.

Bauschinger decided on 1 5 per cent, of moisture as the standard
dryness of air-dried wood.

Ash percentage and fuel value.— From the specific gravity
Mr. Sharpies deducted the percentage of ash (determined by
burning small dried blocks at a low temperature .in a muffle
furnace), in order to obtain the relative approximate fuel value.
This calculation is based on the assumption that the real value of
the combustible or volatile substance of all woods is the same.
Though resinous woods give off more than 1 2 per cent, more heat
on burning than do non-resinous woods, at least this amount is
lost in the case of the former in the form of uncorisumed carbon
in the smoke. The amount of heat obtained is, in fact, very
nearly in direct proportion to the specific gravity, i.e. the heavier
the wood the greater the amount of heat obtained. Taking as
the unit of fuel value an imaginary wood with no ash and a
specific gravity of 1, the relative fuel value of 430 woods examined
varied from 0-248 in Yucca to 1-194 in Black Ironwood (Conddlia
f fared). Taking as a unit of heat the amount necessary to raise
1 cubic decimetre or 1 kilogram of water 1° C., 4000 units will be
produced by burning a kilogram of dry wood, i.e. the relative fuel
value of any wood multiplied by 4000 will give approximately
the amount of heat obtained by burning a cubic decimetre of it.

DENSITY, FUEL VALUE AND STRENGTH. 133

Strength. — All measurements of the strengths of timbers are
determinations of their powers of resisting certain stresses, or
forces tending to produce strains, or changes of shape. It must
always be remembered that, unlike metals or many artificial
products, wood is not, and cannot be, considered as uniform in
structure and composition : it is not homogeneous or isotropic.
Stresses applied to it, and the resultant strains must, therefore,
be considered separately. Those stresses which are exerted in a
direction normal, or at right angles, to a cross-section or imaginary
surface of division are termed pushes or pulls, and being contin-
uous, or in parallel though opposite directions, may be considered
as identical, or rather as differing only in mathematical sign
( + or - ). Those which are exerted at a tangent to such a cross-
section are termed shearing stresses. The intensity of a stress is
its amount per unit of surface, and, may, therefore, be expressed
in pounds or tons per square inch, or in kilograms per square
millimetre, or per square centimetre.1

In 1676 Robert Hooke enunciated the law that (using modern
terminology) within the limits of elasticity, or recovery from
strain when the stress is removed, strain is proportional to stress.
In accordance with Hooke's law, Thomas Young postulated the
modulus of longitudinal extensibility that bears his name. This
is generally called the modulus of elasticity, but incorrectly, since
there are others. It is constant for any material, being repre-
sented by the letter E, and is, in fact, the ratio of the intensity
of push or pull to longitudinal strain. Thus, if 1 = length and
81 = change of length under a stress p, then 81 : 1 : : p : E, or

Obviously, a stress applied to a transverse section of wood will
have to break the fibres across, while one applied to a longitudinal
section tends to separate the fibres from each other. Thus the

1 To facilitate the conversion of results thus variously stated, it may be
mentioned that 1 ton, or 2240 Ibs. per sq. inch = 1 '511 kilos, per sq. mm.,
or 151 '1 kilos, per sq. centim.; whilst 1 kilo, per sq. centim. — 14*22 Ibs. per
sq. inch.

134 OF WOOD IN GENERAL.

strength of wood along the grain depends upon the strength of
the fibres ; that across the grain, upon their cohesion. This latter
or lateral strength is, in broad-leaved trees, from J to J of the
longitudinal strength ; but in coniferous woods it is only from

o-Q- tO J--Q.

One of the simplest and most instructive tests of timber is that
of transverse strength or breaking weight. Laslett, in his Wool-
wich experiments, took pieces 84 inches long, 2 inches wide, and
2 inches thick, placed upon supports 72 inches apart, and then
poured water gradually into a scale suspended from the middle,
noting the deflection with 390 Ibs. weight and at the breaking
point. The transverse strength (p) is calculated from the

formula p = ^—^, where w' = the breaking- weight in pounds.

/ = the length between supports, b = the breadth, and ^ = the
thickness of the sample, or with the dimensions employed,
w'x72 =13ilc>
§ x 2 x 4

Mr. Gamble uses the formula , ,.,, where L = the length

between supports in feet, 5 = the breadth of the bar in inches,
and 6? = its thickness in inches. Bauschinger employed for
bending tests beams 20 inches square arid 9 feet long, with
98 *4 inches between their supports; and Professor Lanza of the
Massachusetts Institute of Technology employed beams varying
from 4 to 20 feet in length, from 2 to 6 inches in width, and
from 2 to 12 inches in thickness. Then, W being the load at
the centre in tons, / the length in inches of the beam between
supports, b its breadth, and h its thickness, also in inches, /, the
greatest direct stress on the fibres, or coefficient of bending
strength, is obtained in tons per square inch from the formula

Wl
f = f rirjj. If ^ = the deflection at the centre in bending in inches,

the coefficient of elasticity (E) in tons per square inch is obtained

W/3
from the formula E = \ -^n-z. Sir John Anderson has reduced the

STRENGTH OF WOOD. 135

results of many experimenters to a simple comparative table of
mean breaking weight for beams 1 foot long and 1 inch square in
timbers employed in England, which, with some slight modifica-
tions, is as follows : —

Ash (Frdxinus exclesior), - - 690 Ihs.

Beech (Fdgus sylvdtica), - " 625 ,,

Elm ( Ulmus camp&stris), - 405 ,,

Larch (Ldrix europda), - 440 ,,

Memel Fir (Pinus sylvdstris), • 561 ,,

Riga Fir „ „ 457 „

Scots Fir „ ,, • 381 ,,

Christiania Fir ,, ,, . . 574 jf

American Red Pine, 501 ,,

„ White Spruce, - - 570 „

Oak, English (Quercus Rdbur), ~ . '_ - 591 ,,

,, Dantzic, - - 513 ,,

,, Adriatic, - - 460 „

,, Canadian, ... . . 580 ,,

„ or Teak, African (Oldfieldia africdna), • 855 „

Mahogany (Swiet6nia Mahdgoni), - - - - 531 ,,

Teak (Tectdna grdndis), - 814 ,,

The ultimate strength of a material is that stress which is
required to produce rupture, and this may be either tensile stress
or that exerted longitudinally or parallel to the axis of a beam,
crushing stress, or resistance to compression in the direction of
the fibres, or shearing stress, i.e. tangential.

Professor Unwin figures details of various instruments employed
for testing timbers, more especially for tensile strength, including
Bauschinger's roller and mirror extensometer, and several shackles
for holding the test-specimens. The principle of most modern
instruments for these purposes is the same, the weight being
applied gradually, either by small weights or by hydraulic action,
to a system of levers, the force exerted being shown by a
delicately adjusted steelyard. Thus the comparatively simple
instrument of American design, introduced at Woolwich in 1854
by Sir John Anderson, and figured in his work,1 consists of a
combination of two levers which together give a purchase of
1 The Strength of Materials and Structures, London, 1872, p. 16.

136 OF WOOD IN GENERAL.

200 to 1, that is to say, 1 Ib applied to the end of the long arm
of the upper lever will exert a stress of 200 Ibs. on the specimen
attached by shackles to the lower one.

The dimensions of the specimens tested by different experi-
menters, whether for breaking weights, tensile strength, or other
measurements, have unfortunately varied greatly. In contra-
distinction to the long beams just mentioned as used by Bau-
schinger and Lanza, Captain Fowke, in testing the New South
Wales timbers at the Paris Exhibition of 1855 for breaking
weight, etc., used samples 2 inches square and 12 inches between
supports. Mr. Laslett used samples of the same sectional area
but 72 inches between supports; whilst Mr. F. A. Campbell,
experimenting on Australian timbers in 1879, employed a sectional
area of only ~ of an inch.

The term strength, when used absolutely, generally means the
breaking weight under a bending test, and in English books is

expressed in pounds. It is found by the formula --, , where

b = breadth in inches, d = depth in inches, I = length in feet, and
E = the constant or modulus. This constant, in England, means
the number of pounds' weight applied in the middle of a bar one
inch square and twelve inches between supports required to
break the bar.

When a beam is supported at each end in such experiments as
these, the distance to which the middle of the beam is forced
down below its original position by the load, is termed its
deflection. In solid rectangular beams the deflection varies
directly as the load and the cube of the length, and inversely
as the breadth and the cube of the depth. The resistance to
deflection is known as stiffness or rigidity. If then we require
two beams of the same breadth, but of different lengths, to be
equal in stiffness, then their respective depths must be in
proportion to their lengths. Thus, if the beams are 24 and 12
feet long respectively, and the latter is 12 inches deep, the former
will have, in order to be equally stiff or rigid, to be 24 inches
deep. Strength, on the other hand, in solid rectangular beams,

STRENGTH OF WOOD. 137

varies inversely as the length, directly as the breadth, and
directly as the square of the depth, so that, in the example given
above, the longer beam will only require to be 17 inches deep in
order to be as strong as the shorter. If the beams are equal in
breadth, but of different length, and are required to be equal
in stiffness, their breadths must be as the cubes of the lengths.
In two beams 24 and 12 feet long, for example, the breadths
must be in the ratio of 243 to 123, i.e. 13,824 to 1728, or as 8 is
to 1. In other words, the long beam would have to be eight
times as broad as the shorter one to be equally rigid, whereas it
only requires to be twice as broad to be equally strong. So, too,
in cylinders, the strength varies as the cube, the stiffness as the
fourth power of the diameter.

The constants or values of deflection were deduced by Barlow

/3 x W
from the formula D = , „ ~, where / = length in feet, W = the

greatest weight in pounds which the beam can bear without losing
its elasticity or acquiring a permanent set, b = breadth in inches,
d = depth in inches, and 8 = deflection in inches. From this
it obviously follows that

~

It is found in practical engineering that the deflection of timber
beams (8) should not exceed ^l^th °f their length.

Bauschinger employed, for testing tensile strength, rods 1 8 inches
long and 1 or 2J inches square for 5 \ inches at each end, reducing to
\ or If inch in the middle. He does not, however, consider these,
or his experiments on bending (in which the individual variation
of the large beams employed, as to knots, etc., produces wide
differences in the results) so instructive as to the relative values
of timbers as are crushing experiments. For such experiments he
used blocks 6 inches high and 3| inches square, protected at the
ends with metal plates.

Results will be affected by so many circumstances that it is
most important that the history of logs experimented with should
be known. The nature of the locality in which^ilie— timber is

THE

UNIVFDQITV

138

OF WOOD IN GENERAL.

grown, the age of the tree, the part of the tree from which the
timber is taken, and the extent to which it has been seasoned,
will all modify the results. Thus Bauschinger showed that
strength varies according to the proportion of summer to spring
wood, and that the centre of a tree is therefore weaker; whilst
the following table of the range of variation in 26 trees of Pinus
paliistris, quoted by Professor Unwin from a Report of the U.S.
Department of Agriculture, shows how butt, middle, and top
logs differ in strength, largely no doubt for the reason, which we
explained in a previous chapter, that the annual increments of
wood forming cones do not extend uniformly from end to end of
a log. [See pp. 79-80 and Fig. 41.]

Heaviness
in Ibs.

cubic foot.

Coefficient
of
Elasticity
from
Bending
Test.

Tensile Crushing
Strength. < Strength.

Coefficient
of
Bending
Strength.

Shearing
Strength.

_s

Butt,

28-64-8

500-1380

All in to
3-84-14-4

as per square

2-13-4-40

inch.
2-12-7-25

•21--58

Middle,

36-53-5

510-1369

2-82-13-4

2-25-4-15

3-40-7-65

•24- -55

Top,

32-56-5

375-1200

1-85-10-8

2-04-4-06 1-90-7-00

•22- -52

As to seasoning, since timber loses from \ to i or, when per-
fectly dried, J of its weight in the process, and strength and the
co-efficient of elasticity vary directly with density, its effect is
obvious.

Unfortunately the systems employed for stating the results of
experiments vary almost as much as the dimensions of the
specimens tested, so that it is a matter of considerable calculation
to compare the records of different experimenters. Mr. Sharpies,
for instance, defines the co-efficient of elasticity, or rather of
longitudinal extensibility, as the weight in kilograms sufficient to
elongate a stick one centimetre square to double its original
length, were that possible, and states results ranging from 25,699
in Ficus aurea to 165,810 in the Western Tamarack (Ldrix
occidentdlis). To translate his results into the tons per square

ABBREVIATIONS EMPLOYED. 139

inch usual in England it is necessary to divide them by 151-1.
(See footnote on p. 133 )

So too while Professor Thurston defines the modulus of rupture
as "the quantity which represents the stress upon a unit of area
of cross-section ... at the instant of breaking under the trans
verse stress," and Mr. Sharpies expresses this breaking-weight, as it
is generally termed, in kilograms per square centimetre, English
writers here also use tons or pounds per square inch. So
too Mr. Sharpies gives the resistance to longitudinal presssure, or
ultimate weight which a stick will support, in the number of
kilograms required to crush a stick one centimetre square by
such pressure, while Mr. Laslett terms this, vertical strength, and
states it in the number of pounds of vertical force required to
crush 1 square inch of base. Mr. Sharpies also gives the resistance
to indentation or number of kilograms required to sink a punch one
centimetre square to the depth of T27 millimetres perpendicularly
to the fibres.

It is well nigh impossible to reduce all the results of different
experimenters. They will, therefore, be here stated mainly
in the form and with the terminology of their respective
authors.

The following symbols will be employed :

S.G. = Specific gravity, compared to water as 1000.

W = Weight of a cubic foot in pounds.

E = Co-efficient of elasticity, stated in tons or pounds per square
inch, or in kilograms per square centimetre.

e' = Elasticity compared to Oak as 1 '00.

p — Transverse strength in pounds per square inch.

p' = Transverse strength compared to Oak as 1 '00.

/= Co-efficient of bending strength in tons per square inch.

ft = Tensile strength or tenacity along the fibre, in tons per
square inch.

c = Direct cohesion, in pounds per square inch.

c = Cohesion compared with Oak as 1 -00.

fc = Crushing strength along the fibre, in tons per square
inch.

140 OF WOOD IN GENERAL.

v = Crushing strain as compared to Oak as 1 -00.

fs = Shearing resistance along the fibre, in tons per square
inch.

R = Modulus of rupture for transverse strain, stated either
in kilograms per square centimetre, or in pounds per square
inch.

PART II.

WOODS OF COMMERCE, THEIR SOURCES,
CHARACTERS, AND USES.

Acacia, in England, Robinia Pseudacdcia L. See Locust.

Acacia (Eucryphia Modrei F. v. M. : Order Eosdcece). New
South Wales and Victoria. Known also as " Plum, Acacia
Plum," or " White Sally." Warm, light brown, moderately hard,
of considerable dimensions, easily worked. Used for the bodies
of buggies.

Acajou, a general name in the French timber-trade for
Swietenia Mahdgoni. See Mahogany. In French Guiana it is
applied also to Cedrda guiantnsis A. Juss. : (Order Melidcece).
S.G. 577. Reaching large dimensions, soft, not very flexible,
very homogeneous and free from flaws, working well, without
splitting, durable, owing to a bitter principle obnoxious to
insects, and termite-proof. Fairly common and in much request
as a furniture-wood. Used in Europe for cigar-boxes.

Acle (Xylia dolabrifirmis Benth. : Order Legumindsce). India, the
Malay Peninsula, and the Philippines. "Ironwood" of Pegu
and Arracan. Hindi " Jambu," Burm. " Pyengadu," Philipp.
" Acle." Formerly named Mimdsa Add and Inga xylocdrpa.
Height 70—80 ft., yielding timber 1— 2J ft. square; S.G. 934—
1225, W 63, «' 2-19, p 17,200, p 1-58, c 8960—10,360, c'
1*275, v 1'527,/c 5*2. Heartwood dark brown or reddish-brown,

14'2 WOODS OF COMMERCE.

often beautifully mottled with a waved and twisting grain,
heavier than water, hard, tough, strong, rigid, its pores filled with
a thick, oily resin, which renders it clammy until completely
seasoned, difficult to cut, causing sneezing in working, taking a
good polish, shrinking -| in. per foot in seasoning, "more inde-
structible than iron," being both termite and teredo-proof, but
having sometimes extensive heart-shakes which unfit it for con-
structive purposes. The Burmese wood contains more resin than
that from the Deccan. It is used for piles and beams of bridges ;
in Bengal and Burma for telegraph-posts ; in Southern India for
posts, railway-sleepers (for which purpose it ranks next to Teak),
carts, etc. ; in Burma for agricultural implements ; and for house
and boat-building in the Philippines, and is probably the best
hardwood in India for paving.

African (Oldfieldia africdna Benth. and Hook. : Order
Euphorbidcece). Western Tropical Africa. Known also as
" African Oak, African Teak," though not connected Avith Oak
or Teak. Height upwards of 30 or 40 feet, girth 7—8 feet, S.G.
934—1086, c 7052, fc 4-9, c' -931, v 1-341,;? 15,000, E 855 Ibs.
Dark red, very hard, strong, rigid, fine close and straight in
grain, free from shakes, shrinking and warping little, very
durable ; but difficult to work, and shipped from Sierra Leone in
logs so badly hewn as to yield little more than 50 per cent, of
well-squared timber. Used in ship-building for keelsons, beams,
etc., and classed in the second line in Lloyd's Register.

Ah-pill (Eryihroplild'um Laboucherii F. v. M. : Order Legumindsce).
Northern Queensland and North Australia. Probably the
"Leguminous Ironbark" of Leichhardt, and also named
Labouchtria, chlorostdchys F. v. M. A medium-sized tree. Wood
red, close-grained, very durable, and the hardest in Australia.
Used by natives for spear-heads.

Ailantus (Aildnthus glanduUsa Desf. : Order Simarubece).
Molucca "Ailanto," French " Ailante," Germ. "Gotterbaum,"
Itcil. "Albero di paradiso," Russ. " Pajasan," Span. " Barniz
falso de Japan." Height 50—60 feet; diam. 1—2 ft.

Sapwood broad, yellowish. Heartwood not dissimilar, greyish-

ACLE— ALDER. 143

orange Rings wide and distinct. Springwood very broad with
numerous large vessels towards its inner margin and few small
ones, scattered, or in segments of circles, four or more together,
towards its outer part. Medullary rays distinctly visible to the
naked eye, with a satiny lustre. Pith-mass very large. The
wood contains vessels, tracheids, wood-fibres, fibre-cells, and
parenchyma. It is moderately heavy, tolerably hard, somewhat
difficult to split, and of a beautiful satin-like lustre. It is dur-
able, and is appreciated by cabinet-makers ; but the tree is
mainly grown for shade. A native of Japan and Northern China,
it is grown for ornament in England and the Eastern United
States. It is used for charcoal in Europe.

Akagashi (Qu^rcus acuta Thunb. : Order Cupulfferce). South
Japan. The dark red-brown, very hard and heavy wood of an
Evergreen Oak, which with that of some allied species, such as
the grey-white Shiragashi (Q. vibrayeana Tr. and Tav.) is used
in boat and waggon building.

Akashide (Carplnus laxifldra Bl. ; Order Cupuliferce). Japan.
Height 40 ft. ; diam. 1 ft. It is used for furniture, waggon-
building, agricultural implements and firewood.

Alder, Common or Black (Alnus glutindsa Medic. : Order
Betuldcece). French "aune," Ital. "alno" or "ontano," Span.
"alano" or "aliso," Germ, "schwarz Erie" or "Else," Russ.
"olse." S.G. fresh 901, dry 551. W 50—62 when green,
50 — 34 when dry. Strength, compared to Oak, 80 ; stiffness, 63.
Height 20 — 40, very rarely 70 — 80 feet ; diam. 1 — 2 feet. No
heart-wood. Wood white when alive, red when cut, becoming
pinkish-brown. Rings rather broad, not very distinct, waving
inwards where they cross the few, lighter-coloured, medullary
rays. Brown pith-flecks are frequent. Pith mass triangular with
rounded angles, from which the medullary rays radiate in
curves. The wood contains vessels, tracheids, wood-fibres, fibre-
cells, and parenchyma ; but the vessels are small, few, and uni-
formly distributed. It is soft, easily split, rather light, with a
smooth, fine grain, and lustrous. It does not warp or splinter.
When kept wholly submerged it is very durable, but not at all so

144 WOODS OF COMMERCE.

otherwise. To preserve the finer pieces from insect attack they
are sometimes, in Scotland, immersed for some months in peat-
water, to which some lime is added, which gives the wood some
resemblance to Mahogany. It has then been used for tables.
Alder was formerly used for piles, water-pipes, sluices, etc , but
Elm, being far more durable when alternately wet and dry, is
much better for such purposes. The piles of Ravenna, according
to Vitruvius, and those of the Rialto at Venice, and those of

Fio. 45.— Transverse section of Alder (Alnus glutin6sa) highly magnified.

Amsterdam, according to Evelyn, were largely of Alder, and
Pliny speaks of it as " eternal " when so used. Alder is employed
for packing-cases, the staves of herring-barrels, shovels, clogs and
sabots, bobbins, barrows, kneading-troughs, etc. The roots and
knots, being often handsomely veined, are used in small articles
of turnery and cabinet-making. Alder is practically the best
wood for gunpowder-charcoal. It is imported from the Baltic
ports of North Germany, where there are extensive pure forests

ALDER— AMARELLO PAO. 145

of this species, sometimes mixed with Birch ; and it is mainly
bought by the Lancashire clog-makers. (Fig. 45.)

Alder, American or Hoary (Alnus incana Willd : Order
Betuldcece). Germ. "Weisserle." A similar but inferior wood,
with more lustre, fewer pith-flecks, very few, wide, but indistinct
medullary rays, has a wide range in North America.

Alder, Red, Alnus nibra Bong., a native of the Pacific slope,
is sometimes employed for charcoal.

Alder, White, the name in the western United States for
Alnus rhombifdlia Nutt. ; but applied in Cape Colony to PlatyUphus
trifolidlus Don, a yellowish -white, hard, tough, durable wood, from
a tree 20 — 40 ft. high and 2 — 4 ft. in diam., much used in the Colony
for furniture and boat-keels. It takes a good polish and in the
lower part of the tree has generally a fine twisted grain. W 38.
Boer name, "White Els."

Alerce (Tetraclinis articulate). See 'Arar.

Almond, Indian (Termindlia Catdppa L. : Order Combretdcece).
India, Queensland, Fiji, etc. " Tavola " of Fiji. A large deciduous
tree. Wood reddish-brown, waved, rather close-grained, taking
good polish, durable. Sap wood light-coloured. W 32 — 41.

Almond, Wild (Brabtjum stellatifdlium L. : Order Protedcece).
South Africa. Known also as "Ked Stinkwood," "Caffre" or
" Wild Chestnut." Usually small but reaching 60 ft. in height
and 1J — 6 ft. in diam. Durable, Used for waggons and
furniture.

Amboyna-WOOd (Ptwocdrpus indicus Willd: Order Legumindsce).
Moluccas, especially Ceram and Amboyna, Arru and New Guinea.
Malay name, "Kaya Boka," known also as "Lingoa wood." The
tree throws out burrs which are sawn off in slabs 2 — 8 in. thick
and up to 9 ft. in diam. Light reddish-brown to orange, fragrant,
somewhat resembling Yew, very hard, beautifully mottled and
curled, taking a good polish and very durable ; but of uncertain
botanical origin. Sold in Singapore by weight. Used in inlaying
and for snuff-boxes, etc. S.G. 634, W 39.

Amaranthe. See Purple-heart.

Amarello Pao. See Fustic.

K

146 WOODS OF COMMERCE.

Ameixera. See Sanders, Yellow.

Amla ka (Phylldntfius Emblica Gaertn : Order Euphorbidcece).
India, China, and Japan. Eed, hard, elastic, durable, especially
under water ; but seldom straight. Its fruit is known as Emblic
Myrobalans.

Allan (Fagrcta frdgrans Eoxb. : Order LoganidcecB). Burma
and Indian Archipelago. Eed-brown, hard, close-grained, beauti-
fully mottled, very durable, teredo -proof. Used for bridges and
boat-building. W 52-5, S.G. 840.

Andiroba. See Crabwood.

Angelim vermelho (AndirafraxinifdUa Benth. 1 : Order Legu-
minosce). Brazil. Of crooked growth, reddish-brown, moderately
heavy. Used for ship-timbers.

Angelin (Andira intrmis Kunth : Order Legumindsce). West
Indies. " Cabbage " or " Bastard Cabbage Tree." Cuba " Yaba."
Height 20— 30 ft. S.G. 688. W 56-8-60-4. E 563 639. E 300 Ibs.
/ 2-01— 5-44. /c 1-98— 2-99. fs -32— -45. Brown, veined, hard,
very durable underground or under water. Used for mill-rollers
and in house and ship-building. Some " Partridge-wood " may be
the timber of this species.

Angelique (Dicorynia paraensis Benth. : Order Legumindsce).
Brazil and Guiana. Height 20 — 54 ft., yielding timber 12 — 22 in.
square. S.G. 746 — 916. E 215 kilos. Eeddish -brown, moderately
hard, tough, strong, elastic, straight and even-grained, easily
worked, durable in sea-water, insect-proof, sometimes with an
ornamental waviness of grain, with but little sapwood ; but
with slight shakes and an unpleasant odour, and said to rust
nails. Used in French dockyards, as a substitute for Teak, for
backing armour plates, etc., far more durable than Oak.

Angelly (Artocdrpus hirsuta Lam. : Order Artocarpdcew).
India, chiefly in the south-west, Ceylon, Burma. Known also as
"Jungle Jack" and " Aini." Height 50—60 ft. ; diam. 2J— 3 ft.
S.G. 590. W 36 — 51. Very tough, bears exposure to water well,
and, if kept oiled, is very durable. Used for planks in house-
building, canoes, fishing-boats, etc. Classed in the third line in
Lloyd's Eegister.

AMEIXERA— APPLE. 147

Anjan (Hardwidda bindta Roxb. : Order Legumindsce). Central
and Southern India. Telugu "Epe," Tamil "Acha maram."
Height 50 — 60 or 120 ft., straight. Dark red, often purplish,
close-grained, " perhaps the hardest and heaviest wood in India,"
very durable, not warping, but liable to split, very strong. W
84 — 85. Used for bridges, sleepers, beams, rafters, house posts,
and ornamental work.

Apple (Pyrus Mdlus L.: Order Eosdcece). German " Apfelbaum,"
French " pommier," Span. " manzana," Russ. " jablon."

Height seldom over 30 ft., or diam. over 2J ft. Dark brown,
generally strongly tinted with red. Sapwood, dull white. Rings
distinct, broad, often over J in. across ; with no pith-flecks ;
medullary rays not visible to the naked eye; vessels small,
uniformly distributed, 1 — 4 together. Heavy, very hard, close-
grained, brittle, taking a high polish, but warping badly on dry-
ing. Used for mallets, tool-handles, and other turnery, and
traditionally preferred in Cornwall for " poling " tin ore.

Apple, Black or Brush (Siderdxylon austrdle, Berith. and Hook,
fil. : Order Sapotdcece). New South AVales arid Queensland.
Also known as "Native" or "Wild Plum." Height 80— 100
ft., diam. 1—3 ft., W 55 — 58. Pale yellow, close-grained,
prettily veined, but requires careful seasoning. Used for staves,
laths, and building, but suitable for cabinet work.
Apple, Emu. See Plum, Sour.

Apple, Oregon Crab (Pf/rus rivuldris Dougl. : Order Eosdcece).
Alaska— California. Height 15—25—40 ft., diam. 1— lj ft.
S.G. 832, W 51-8. Light reddish-brown, heavy, very hard,
close-grained, taking a fine polish. Used in mill work, and for
handles.

Apple-tree (Angdphora lanceoldtaC&v. : Order Myrtdcece). New
South Wales and Queensland. Also known as " Mountain Apple
Tree, Orange, Red" or "Rusty Gum." Abmig. " Toolookar."
Height 70—80 ft., diam. 2—3 ft., S.G. 893. Hard, used for
rough work and fuel.

Apple-tree, Broad-leaved (Angtiphora subvelutina F. v. M.).
New South Wales and Queensland. Aborig. " Illarega."

148 WOODS OF COMMERCE.

Reddish, tough, polishes well, durable, but requires careful
seasoning. W 52 — 53. Used by wheelwrights and for fencing.

Apple-tree, Narrow-leaved (Angdplwra intermedia DC.).
Eastern Australia. Formerly Metrosiddros flwiMnda Sm. Height
40 — 100 ft., diam. 1 — 3 ft. Hard, tough, bears damp well, but
is subject to gum-veins. Much used by wheelwrights.

'Arar (Tetradinis articuldta Masters : Order Cupressinece) .
Morocco and Algeria, The "alerce" of the roof of Cordova
Cathedral, and probably the " citron-wood " of the Romans and
the "thyine wood" of the Apocalypse (xviii, 12). Also named
Thuja articuldta Vahl. and Cdllitris quadrimlvis Vent. Height 30
ft., fragrant.

Arbor-vitse. See Cedar, White.

Argan (Argdnia Sideroxylon Rom. and Schult. : Order
Sapotdcecs). Morocco. " Morocco Ironwood." Height seldom
more than 20 — 30 ft., diam. 8 ft. or more. Heavier than water,
very hard.

Arjun (Termindlia Arjiina Bedd. : Order Combretdcece). India,
Burmah, Ceylon. Apparently known also as " Kahua " or
"Kowah." Height 50—80 ft. ; diam. 2—8 ft. Dark brown, or
brown-red, very heavy, strong, but sometimes rotten at the
heart, splits freely when exposed to the sun, durable, but liable
to termite attack. Recommended for beams, rafters, and masts.

Asada. See Hornbeam, Hop.

Ash (Fraxinm excelsior L. : Order Oledcece). Germ. "Esche."
Dutch "aesche," Dan. and Swed. "ask," French "frene,"
Ital "frassino," Span. " fresno," Russ. "jasan." S.G. fresh
852, dry 750—692, W 43—53, E 750 tons, e' 1-28, p 11,600,
p' 1-05, ft 4—7, c 3780, c' '499, fc 2—4, v' -912, fs -5, R 15,120
Ibs. Stress required to indent ~y in. transversely to the fibre,
2300 Ibs. per square inch. (Fig. 31.)

Height 30—50, or even 80 ft. ; diam. If— 2 ft.

The sapwood, very broad, about 40 rings, yellowish or
greyish- white ; the heart, light brown, or greyish-white, not
very different from the sapwood, or, in colour, from light
Oak. Rings very distinct, with a broad zone of spring-wood

APPLE— ASH. 149

with numerous larger vessels, sharply marked off from the
autumn wood, in which the few small vessels stand singly or
from 2 — 4 together. Pith-rays, scarcely recognizable.. Pith-
mass, ovoid, very large. The wood contains vessels, wood-fibres,
fibre-cells, and parenchyma. It is of moderate weight and hard-
ness, very even and close in grain, lustrous and susceptible,
of a good polish, the toughest of European woods, and very
pliable. It warps but little ; and, if felled in winter and properly
seasoned, is extremely durable, though few woods are more
perishable if these precautions are neglected.

" Very great advantage will be found in reducing the Ash logs soon
after they are felled into plank or board for seasoning, since, if left for only
a short time in the round state, deep shakes open from the surface, which
involve a very heavy loss when brought on later for conversion " (Laslett).

The compression or contortion of its fibre produces a lateral
grain or figure in Ash known as " rarn's-horn," or, from
its resemblance to the figured Maple used for the backs of violins,
as " fiddle-back." This is best shown in billets imported from
Austria and Hungary. Though the Ash grows in almost any
soil, it produces the best light coloured wood when grown quickly
in rich loam and a moist climate, as in the valleys of Britain and
Central Europe. The slower-grown wood of poorer soils, moun-
tains, and northern Europe is apt to become " black-hearted," as
also does that of pollard trees. This is sometimes attributed to
incipient decay, and is held to lessen the strength of the wood,
but produces the figured veneers imported from the Pyrenees, as
" Pyrenean Ash." Wounds or cankers also occur in the heart-
wood, which are believed, in the north-east of England, to be
caused by bees ; but this " Bee-sucken Ash," as it is termed, is
extremely hard and tough, so as to be suitable for mallets, etc.

The utility of the Ash has long been recognized, and few
woods have a greater variety of uses, so that the poet Spenser
terms it " The ash, for nothing ill." Greeks, Romans, and Teu-
tons alike, used its tough saplings for lances, the Romans pre-
ferring the wood obtained from Gaul, and the Teutons also
employing it for bows, arrows, shields, and boat-building.

150 WOODS OF COMMERCE.

Roman agricultural writers recommended it for implements, and
from its varied uses in this respect it has been called "the
husbandman's tree." It is frequently coppiced, this young, or
u Maiden Ash," and the " stooled " shoots, or second growth from
the original roots, which are very tough, being fit for walking-
sticks or whip-handles when four or five years' growth, for lance-
poles or hop-poles a year or two later, for spade-handles at nine
years, and when 3 inches in diameter as valuable as the timber of
the largest tree. These growths are frequently termed " Ground
Ash." In the Potteries it is largely used for crate-making, for
which purpose it is cut every five or six years, though for other
purposes only every seven or eight, Since, when steamed or
heated, it can be easily bent, without injury, into any curve, it is
invaluable for hoops. Larger wood is largely used by the wheel-
wright, for both spokes and felloes, and by the carriage-builder,
and for oars. As it does not splinter it is also useful for
chopping blocks and shop-boards. For furniture it is chiefly used
where softer, as in Central Russia. Its flexibility unfits it for use
in architectural work. When seasoned, the sapwood is as valuable
as the heart. The roots and knotty parts of the stem were for-
merly valued by cabinetmakers, being known, according to
Evelyn, as " Green Ebony." There being no bitter principle in
the heartwood, Ash is very liable to the attacks of the larvae of
the furniture beetle, though painting renders it more durable.

Ash is valuable as fuel, and its residue is rich in potash.

The tree is a native of Europe and Northern Africa.

Ash (Elceocdrpus obovdtus Don : Order Tilidcece). North-
eastern Australia. " Chereen " of natives in New South Wales,
"Woolal" in Queensland. Height 80— 90 feet, diam. 2— 2J ft.
White, hard, tough, easily worked. Used for oars.

Ash (Flimtirsia). See Flindosa.

Ash, American, Quebec, or White (Frdxinus americdna L. :
Order Oleacece.) S.G. 654, W 30-40, Co-efficient of elasticity
101,668, R 861 kilos, Resistance to longitudinal pressure 463,
Resistance to indentation 171.

Height 70—100 ft, diam. 1—3 ft. Imported in partly

ASH. 151

squared logs, 18 — 35 ft. long, and 10 — 18 in. square, in planks and
partly manufactured, as oars, etc.

Wood generally much whiter, and with narrower rings than
Common Ash (F. excelsior) ; the sapwood, when well seasoned,
nearly white ; the heart, light reddish, contrasting with the sap-
wood more than in Common Ash, but less than in other American
kinds, in the best quality, lightest and most uniform ; in second
quality, slightly stained alternately red and yellow ; and in the
third quality, mottled red. It is of much slower growth than
Common Ash, the rings being only about half the width of those
in that species, very distinct, with a narrower zone of spring-
wood and fewer larger vessels. Though it may be termed rather
heavy, it is less so than the European species, moderately hard,
but very tough and elastic, except in the oldest timber, clean and
straight in grain, very easy to work, and standing well after
seasoning.

In America it is used for all purposes to which Common Ash is
applied in England. The small wood of young trees or stools,
which is mostly sapwood and white, is the best material for oars.
Larger logs, when white, are much sought after for bedroom and
other furniture, and for coach-panels ; but the more coloured logs
are universally considered by the trade inferior in strength and
durability, though, being more easily worked, they are used by
cabinet-makers for drawers and carcass work, for which European
Ash is never employed.

It occurs generally throughout Canada and the Eastern United
States, chiefly on river-banks.

Ash, Black, Hoop, or Ground (Frdxinus nigra Marshall = F.
sambucifdlia Lam. : Order Oledcece). Germ, "schwarze Esche,"
French "frene noire," Span. " fresno negro." S.G. 632, W
39-37—30, Co-efficient of elasticity 87,185, R 806 kilos,
Resistance to longitudinal pressure 423, Resistance to indenta-
tion 194.

Height 80 ft. or more, diam. 2— 2J ft.

Slow-grown, trees 22 in. in diameter having 234 annual rings.
Sapwood thin, light brown, or nearly white, sharply contrasting

152 WOODS OF COMMERCE.

with the dark brown heart. Numerous thin medullary rays.
Spring-wood with crowded ducts forming a narrow sharply-
defined zone. Moderately heavy, rather soft, not strong, but
tough, elastic, coarsegrained, separating easily between the rings,
not durable, except under water.

Less valuable than White Ash, but much used in America for
furniture and interior finishing, and for fencing and hoops. The
Indians use it for making chair-bottoms and " splint " baskets,
working it " into sticks as wide along the rings as the splints are
to be, and perhaps two inches thick. These are then bent
sharply in the plane of the radius of the rings when they separate
into thin strips nearly or quite as many as the rings of growth"
(Romeyn Hough). Large wart-like swellings, or " burls," on the
trunk, with much contorted grain crossed by innumerable radia-
ting " pins," or abortive branches, form, when cut tangentially,
very valuable veneers.

Swampy situations from Newfoundland and Winnipeg south-
ward, the most northern American Ash.

Ash, Black (Litscea dealbdta Nees : Order Laurinece), New South
Wales and Queensland. Height, 100—150 ft., diam. 2—3 ft.
Yellowish, streaked with brown longitudinally, fragrant, close-
grained, tough. Used for indoor work. The name is also
applied to the smaller white wood of Cupdnia semiglduca F. v.
Muell., the " Tyal-dyal " of New South Wales, which is not used.

Ash, Blue (Frdxinus quadranguldta Michx : Order Oledcece).

Dry woods in the central United States, Michigan to Tennessee,
best in the basin of the lower Wabash river. Height, 70 feet,
diam., 2 ft. Heavy, hard, and more durable, especially when
alternately wet and dry, than any other Ash. Valuable for
tool-handles, used also in carriage-making, flooring, and other
purposes, as is White Ash.

Ash, Blue (Elceoddndron austrdle Vent. : Order Celastrdcece),
north-east Australia. Known also as " White Cedar " or
"Couraivo." Height, 20—30 ft.; diam. 4—12 in. W 49'5.
Pinkish, close-grained, prettily marked, but liable to shakes.
Valuable for oars, staves, or shingles.

ASH. 153

Ash, Blueberry (Elwocdrpus cydneus Ait. and E. holopdtalus F.
v. Muell. : Order Tilidcece), the former in Tasmania and through-
out Eastern Australia, the latter in Victoria and New South
Wales. The former is known also as "White Boree" or
"Native Olive." the latter as " Maddagowrie " or "Prickly Fig."

E. cydneus grows 40 — 50 ft. high, with a diameter of 12 — 15
in., has a dark heart and white sapwood and is very tough, and
is useful for tool-handles. E. holope'talus reaches 60 — 80 ft. with
a diam. 1 — 2 ft., and W 37'5, is white, close-grained and suitable
for cabinet work.

Ash, Brush (Acroriychia Baueri Schott. : Order Rutdcece).
New South Wales and Queensland. Height 40 — 70 ft., diam.
1 — 2 ft. Very hard, close-grained, and strong. Excellent for
tool-handles and might be used for cabinet work.

Ash, Gape (Ekebe'rgia cape'nsis Sparnn. : Order Meliacece).
Natal and Cape Colony. Boer "Essen-boom," Zulu " Umgwen-
yuizinja." Height 20 — 30 ft. ; diam. 2 — 3 ft, close-grained,
tough. Used for furniture, the sides of waggons, etc.

Ash, Crow's. See Flindosa.

Ash, Elderberry (Pdnax sambucifolius Sieber : Order
Aralidcece). Northern and Eastern Australia. A small tree.
Wood very tough, prettily marked, and used locally for axe-
handles.

Ash, Green (Frdxinus lanceoldta Borkh. = F. viridis Michx. =

F. Pennsylvdnica, var. lanceoldta Sargent : Order Oledcece). Vermont
and Saskatchewan to Texas, Arizona, and Florida, most common
and best in the Mississippi valley. Height 50 — 60 ft. ; diam.
1J— 2 ft. S.G. 718. W 44-35. Brown, with obscure pith-rays
and several rows of open ducts in each ring. Heavy, hard, and
strong. Somewhat inferior to White Ash ; but often employed
for the same purposes.

Ash, Grey. See Ash, Red.

Ash, Moreton Bay (Eucalyptus tesseldris F. v. Muell. : Order
Myrtdcece). Central and North-eastern Australia. "Ilumba,"
" Corang," and " Carbeen " of natives. Height 30—60 ft. ; diam.
1 — 2 ft. Dark brown, tough, not hard nor durable. Used for

154 WOODS OF COMMERCE.

building purposes, being of better quality in the warmer parts of
its range.

Ash, Mountain (Pyrus Aucupdria L. Order Rosdcece). See
Rowan.

Ash, Mountain (Alpliitdnia excdsa Reisseek : Order Rhamndceca).
North-eastern Australia. Also known as "Red Ash," "Leather-
jacket," " Humbug," " Murr-rung." Height 45—50 ft. ; diam.
1 — 2 ft. W 53. Heart dark-brown ; sapwood pinkish, darkening
with age, hard, close-grained, very tough, polishing well, durable,
but warps in drying. Valuable for staves and, perhaps, for gun-
stocks.

The name is also applied in the Illawarra district of New
South Wales to Elceocdrpus longifolia C. Moore and E. Kirtoni
Bailey, close and fine-grained, light-brown woods, easily worked
and employed by wheelwrights and for oars ; and in other parts
of Australia to Eucalyptus Stuartidna F. v. M., the Apple-scented
Gum, to E. Sieberidna F. v. M., the Cabbage Gum, to E. piluldris
Sm., the Blackbutt, to E. pauciflora Sieb., to E. hcvmdstoma Sm., the
Scribbly Gum, in East Gippsland to E. goniocdlyx F. v. M. (See
Box, Bastard), and in Victoria to E. amygdalina Labill., and
especially the tall variety rcgnans. This last-named species is a
native of Southern Australia and Tasmania, and is probably the
tallest tree on the globe, often reaching 100 — 150 ft., with diam.
from 3 — 8 ft., but in some cases 400, 410 or even 420 or 471 ft.
It is, therefore, appropriately called " Giant Gum," the name
" Peppermint tree " belonging apparently to smaller specimens.
The Gippsland aboriginal name " Wangara " is the equivalent of
" Stringybark," applied to many other species. S.G. air-dried
1045_1076, dry 908—703. W 47-54. R 778—1152 Ibs. Light
yellowish brown, with a neat striped figuring, straight in grain,
easily worked, sometimes proving durable under water, not
twisting in drying, suitable for fencing, shingles, ships' planks,
keelsons, carpentry, or railway-carriage building.

Ash, Black Mountain (Eucalyptus lencdxylon F. v. M.). See
Iron-bark.

Ash, Oregon (Frdxinus Oregdna Nutt. Order Oledcece). North-

ASH. 155

western United States. Height 30 — 40 or 60 ft.; diam. 1— 1J ft.
Resembling White Ash, rather heavy, sometimes brittle, not
strong. Used for furniture, waggon and carriage-frames and
cooperage.

Ash, Prickly (Zanthdxylum Clava-Herculis L. : Order Eutdcece).
West Indies. The prickly young stems are imported under the
name of " Briar " for walking-sticks. In Jamaica it is known as
"Prickly Yellow-wood." W 60'66. E 499. / 2-7. fc I'll.
fs -418.

Ash, Red, Grey, or Brown-barked (Frdxinus Pennsylvania
Marshall = F. pubescens Lam. = F. tomentdsa Michx. : Order Oledcece).
New Brunswick and South Ontario to Louisiana and Florida,
along streams, chiefly in the north. French "Frene rouge," Germ,
" Rothesche," Span. " Fresno Colorado." Height 50 ft.; diam. 2 it.
S.G. 625. W 38—96. E 8122 Ibs. R 869 kilos.

Sapwood light brown or nearly white, sharply denned ; some-
times streaked with yellow ; heart rich or light reddish brown,
moderately heavy, hard, rather strong, coarse-grained, brittle ;
pith-rays numerous, thin. Used locall}T for agricultural imple-
ments, fence-rails, interior finishing or furniture, as a substitue for
Black Ash.

In Australia the name " Red Ash " is applied to Alphitcmia
excelsa [See Ash, Mountain,] and to Or ties excelsa [See Oak,
Silky.]

Ash, Rock, of Cape Colony. See Els, Klip.

Ash, Water or Swamp (Frdxinus Carolinidna Miller = F.
platycdrpa Michaux. : Order Oledcece). Swamps : Virginia — Loui-
siana.

Other less important species, used locally, are Frdxinus anomala
Watson. S.G. 660. W 41—11. Light brown with thick sap-
wood (30 — 40 rings), thin medullary rays, many large scattered
ducts and several rows of small ducts. Heavy, hard, close-
grained. Colorado, Utah, Nevada.

F. Berlandieridna D.C. Used for tool-handles in Mexico.

F. velutlna Torrey ( = F. pistacicefolia Torrey). Used, for axe-
handles and waggons, in New Mexico, Texas, and Arizona.

156 WOODS OF COMMERCE.

Aspen (Pdpulus trtmula L. : Order Salidnece). German " Aspe,"
" Espe," " Zitterpappel," French " peuplier tremble," Span.
" alamo tremblon," Russ. " osyka."

Dingy white, looking reddish brown in transverse section, with
no heartwood. Kings circular, broad, distinct ; medullary rays
not visible to the naked eye ; vessels small, uniformly distributed,
dendritic, 2 — 7 together ; generally with white pith-flecks near
the centre. Soft, light, elastic, easily split, warping and cracking
but little. Used as blindwood, for cooper's ware, milk-pails,
herring casks, butchers' trays, clogs, pack-saddles and paper-
pulp ; and, in France, for sabots and for flooring. Imported in
small quantities from the southern Baltic ports, mainly for
turnery.

Aspen, American or Quaking Asp (Pdpulus tremuloldes
Michaux : Order Salidnece}. Throughout North America, coming
up after fires and replacing destroyed fir-forests. Germ.
" Amerikanishe Zitter-Espe," French " tremble d'Amerique,"
Span. "Alamo tremblon." S.G. 403. W 25—13. Coefficient of
elasticity 81441. R 677 kilos. Resistance to longitudinal pressure
330 kilos. Resistance to indentation 80 kilos. Height seldom
60 ft. or 2 ft. in diam. Light brown with very thick, very white
sapwood. Resembling Aspen in texture, close-grained, cottony in
fibre, light, soft, not strong, soon decaying in contact with damp.
Used in turnery, and occasionally for flooring, chiefly in the
Western United States ; but chiefly for paper-pulp, for which
purpose, though very white, in strength it is inferior to
Spruce.

Aspen, Large-tooth (Pdpulus grandidentdta Michaux). [See
Poplar, Large-toothed.]

Assegai- wood (Curtisia faginea Ait. : Order Corndcece). Zulu
" Umguna," " Umnoiso." Cape Colony and Natal. Height
40 — 80 ft. ; diam. 3 — 4 ft. Bright red, becoming dull on
exposure, close-grained, very strong, tough, elastic and durable
even in damp situations. Used for furniture, shafts of assegais,
tool-handles, spokes and felloes, and is one of the best woods for
waggon-building.

ASPEN-BALATA. 157

Avocado Pear (Pfrsea gratimma Gaertn. : Order Lauracece).
Cuba " Aguacate." West Indies. S.G. 661. Grown chiefly for
its fruit.

Axe-breaker (Notelcea longifdlia Vent. : Order Jasmindcece).
"Mock Olive." Aborig. " Coobagum." New South Wales.
Height 48 — 50 ft. ; diam. 1 — 1 \ ft. Hard, close-grained, and
firm.

Babela (Termindlia belerica Roxb.). See Myrobalan wood.

Babul (Acacia ardbica Willd. : Order Legumindsce). Hindi
"Babul." Bengali "Babla." Punjabi "Kikar." Height 50— 60 ft. ;
diam. 2 — 2J ft. W 45. Heartwood, pinkish to brown, mottled,
hard, and, if well seasoned, very durable. Used extensively in
Northern India for wheels, sugar and oil presses, rice-pounders,
agricultural implements, and tool-handles ; and in Sind for boat-
building, rafters, occasionally for railway-sleepers, and for fuel.

Bagasse, the name of two similar but distinct timbers of
French Guiana : (i) Bagdssa guiane'nsis Aubl. (Order Artocarpdcece),
a large, straight-growing tree. S.G. 1130—730. R 215 kilos.
Very durable and excellent for flooring ; and (ii) Idea altissima
Aubl. (Order Burserdcece), known also as "Cedre blanc,"
"Kurana" or " Carana," also of large size. S.G. 1036—842. R
226 kilos. Soft, but of excellent quality. Used for canoes and
for cabinetmaking.

Bakula (Mimusops EUngi L. : Order Sapotdcece). Sinhalese
" Munamal." Tamil " Makulai." India, Ceylon, Moluccas.
S.G. 736. W 46—61. Red, hard, strong, fairly durable. Used
in house-building in Southern India and Ceylon, and for furniture
in the latter country.

Balata, Bully, Bullet-tree, or Buruch (Mimusops globdsa
Gaertner, Sapdta MulUri Miquel : Order Sapotdcece). Apparently
identical with Mimusops Bdlata Crueg. Surinam " Balata rouge,"
"Horse-flesh wood." S.G. 1232—1032. W 80-97. E 1097. / 8-58.
fc 4-77. /* -494. R 353 kilos. Height 100 ft. ; diam. 2—5 ft. In
logs 20 — 50 ft. long, squared up to 36 in. or 42 in. Dark red-
brown, fine, straight and close-grained, very heavy, hard, strong,
easily worked, taking a fine polish, very durable ; but subject to

158 WOODS OF COMMERCE.

serious heart-shake, unfitting it for use in large scantlings. Much
used in house-building for beams, floors, and mill-work, being
said to have more than three times the resistance of Oak, and
nearly twice that of the best Teak. This tree yields the elastic
substance Balata. British Guiana.

The name is also applied to the wood of the allied Sapodilla
(Achras Sapota L.), (q.v.).

Ballow, as yet undetermined. W 61. Kesembling Oak, hard,
strong, durable, easily worked. Extensively used for railway-
sleepers, piles, beams, and planks. British North Borneo.

Banaba. See Jarul.

Bancoulier. See Walnut, Belgaum.

Bandara (Lagerstrdmia parviftdra Roxb. var. majuscula C.B.
Clarke : Order Lythrdcece). India. A large tree. Diam. 2 ft.,
W 40. Red or light brown, compact, moderately hard, tough,
elastic, seasons well and is easily worked, and durable in water.
It is used for beams, rafters, and boat-building, and is recom-
mended for sleepers.

Banksia (Bdnksia littordlis R. Br. : Order Protedcece). West
Australia. Height 20 — 40 ft. ; diam. 1 ft. Rich brown, beauti-
fully grained. Coming into use for furniture.

Barranduna (Trochocdrpa laurina R. Br. : Order Epacnddcece).
New South Wales and Queensland. "Beech, Brush Cherry," or
" Myrtle." Height 20—30 ft. ; diam. 6—12 in. W. 48. Warm
brown, prettily grained, hard, close-grained, tough, requiring
careful seasoning. Useful for turnery.

Barberry (Bdrberis vulgdris L. : Order Berberiddcece). Germ.
"Sauerdorn." Too small to be of use. Sapwood lemon-yellow;
heart bluish-red. Pith-rays widening outwards, all broad: pore-
circle very narrow, with very large vessels in radial lines.
Europe.

Barwood (Bdphia nitida Afz. : Order Leguminosce) See
Camwood.

Basswood (Tilia americdna L. : Order Tilidcece). "American
Linden" or "Lime," "Bee tree." Germ. "Amerikanische Linde,"
French "Tilleul d'Amerique," Span, "Tilio Americano." Eastern

BALATA— BEECH. 159

United States and Canada. Height 80—100 ft. ; diam. 3—4
ft. S.G. 452. W 28-2. R 589 kilos. Ash percentage -55. Relative
fuel value '45. Co-efficiency of elasticity 84010 kilos. Resist-
ance to longitudinal pressure 348 kilos. Resistance to identation
63 kilos. White to light brown, light, soft, tough, close-grained,
easily worked, but not strong, shrinking considerably in drying ;
but durable. Extensively used for cheap furniture, toys, carriage-
panels, chair-seats, carpentry, turnery, cooperage, and to some
extent for paper-pulp and charcoal. It is sometimes worked up
by a spirally-cutting saw, sawing round the log, so as to make a
thin board as long as the log and as much as 100 ft. broad.

Basswood, White (Tilia heterophylla Vent.). Middle and
Southern States. Not distinguished commercially from the pre-
ceding.

Bay-wood. See Mahogany.

Bead-tree (Melia compdsita Willd. = M. Azedardch L. : Order
Melidcece). " Persian Lilac," " Pride of India." In Australia
" White Cedar " or " Cape Lilac." Hind. " Nim." French " Lilas
des Indes," "Sykornore," "Laurier grec." Port. " Margosa."
Tamil " Vem-pu," Syria, India, China, Australia, Height
40—50 ft. ; diam. 1—2 ft. W 30—38. Sapwood yellowish-white;
heart yellowish to reddish-brown, handsomely marked, especially
vertically, soft and rather loose-textured, easily worked, but
taking a good polish and becoming hard and durable, but warping
and splitting. It is used in India for furniture, being known in.
the south as " Bastard Cedar."

Beat! (Cassia sidmea Lamk. : Order Legumindsce). Sinhalese
" Wa " Southern India, Ceylon, Burma. Heart nearly black,
often beautifully mottled longitudinally, very hard. Used in
Burma for mallets and walking-sticks, and in Ceylon for fuel for
railway-engines. Exported to Bombay and thence to England as
"Bombay black wood" or "Rosewood."

Beech, Common (Fdgus sylvdtica L. : Order Cupuliferce). Germ.
"Gemeiner" or "Roth Buche," Dutch "rood beuke," Danish
" bog," Swedish " bok," Russian and Polish " buk," ltd. "faggio,"
Portug. "faya," Span. " haya," French "hetre." S.G. 700—720,

160

WOODS OF COMMERCE.

average 705. W 43—53. E 603 tons. // 4—6. fc 3—4. / 4-7.
fs '4. Breaking weight (tensile) 4853 Ibs. per sq. in. Crushing
strain on sq. in. 9363—7733 Ibs. Lighter than Oak, with less
tensile but almost equal crushing strength. Height 70 — 100 ft. ;
diara. 3 — 4J ft. Wood varying in colour from red to yellow or
white, the red being the better, grown on richer soil. Rings

Fio. 46. — Transvei-se section of Beech (Fagus sylvatica L.) highly magnified.

distinct, bulging between the medullary rays. Vessels small, much
more numerous in the spring wood, 1 — 5 together, so that autumn
wood appears darker. Medullary rays large, very distinct, with
a satiny lustre, occupying nearly a tenth of the transverse section.
Pith-mass triangular, small. The wood contains vessels, tracheids,
wood-fibres and parenchyma. It is hard, heavy, as strong as Oak
and tougher, but 25 per cent, less stiff, close and even in texture,
with a fine silky grain, easily cleaved along the rays, very durable
under water, and, when well seasoned, not liable to split.
(Figs. 26 and 46, 47.) It must, however, be kept either wet or
dry. Beech is largely used for chair-making in Buckinghamshire

UEKCH.

161

and in Vienna, in the latter district being often stained. Burning
rapidly with a bright flame, it is the chief fuel on the Continent
of Europe. It also yields one of the best gunpowder-charcoals.
It is in great request among turners for tool-handles, wooden
screws, wheel cogs (for which it ranks next to Hornbeam), shoe-
lasts, printers' rollers, wood type, knife-handles and bobbins, and
makes excellent wedges. In France and Germany it is considered
the best of all woods, except Walnut, for sabots and wooden
soles, for which purpose it is " smoked " over branches and chips

FIG. 47. — Tangential section of Beech (Fagus sylvatica L.), highly magnified.

of beech, so as to become charged with pyroligneous acid, when it
is extremely impermeable. It is imported from Holland and
Germany to our eastern ports.

The name is applied in Australia to Trochocdrpa laurina
R. Br. [See Barranduna], Flindtrsia austrdlis R. Br. [See
Flindosa], F. Odeydna F. v. M. [See Jack, Long], Tristdnia
laurina R. Br. [See Box, Bastard], Schizomdria ovdta D. Don [See
Coach-wood], Moirfloca elliptica R. Br. [See Wallang-unda],

162 WOODS OF COMMERCE.

Cryptocdrya glaudscens R. Br. [see Beech, She], and to Gmelina
Leichhdrdtii F. v. M. (Order Ferbendcece). This last is also termed
"White Beech," and by the aborigines " Binburra " and
" Cullonen." It is a native of Queensland and New South Wales,
80—150 ft. in height; 2—4 ft. in diam. W 36. Light-coloured,
with a fine, bright, silvery grain, strong, not warping, if
moderately seasoned, durable, not easily attacked by termites,
and easily worked. It is one of the most valuable of Australian
timbers, being useful for turnery or for floats of mill-wheels, but
specially valued for the flooring of verandahs and the decks of
coasting vessels.

Beech, American (Fdgus ferruginea Ait. : Order Cupuliferce).
Germ. " Amerikanische Buche," French " Hetre d'Amerique,"
Span. " Haya Americana." Eastern North America. Height up
to 100 ft. ; diam. up to 4 ft. S.G-. 688. W 42-9. Ash percent-
age -51. Relative fuel value -685. E 120996 kilos. R 1148 kilos.
Resistance to longitudinal pressure 478, to indentation 196 kilos.
White to light brown ; heart reddish : pith-rays large and con-
spicuous. Heavy, hard, stiff, strong, tough, rather coarse in
texture, warping in drying, but taking a very smooth and beauti-
ful polish, liable to insect attack, and not tolerant of contact with
the ground, but otherwise durable. Used for plane-stocks, shoe-
lasts, chairs, tool-handles, furniture, ships' timbers, and fuel. It is
exported to England, but is considered inferior to English Beech.
Beech, Black. See Beech, She.
Beech, Blue. See Hornbeam.
Beech, Evergreen (Fdgus Cunninghdmii Hook ; Order

Cupuliferce). " Myrtle." " Negro-head Beech." Tasmania and

Victoria. Height 100 — 200 ft. ; diam. sometimes 8 ft. or more.

S.G. 972— 593. W 37— 5369. R 548— 692 Ibs. E 842. /4-06.
/c2-58. fs '557. Brownish, satiny, with beautiful feathery cross

veins, especially in the warty protuberances on the trunk, hard,

and susceptible of an excellent polish. Used for cogs, doors,

furniture, and carpentry.

Beech, Indian (Pongdmia yldbra Vent. : Order Legumindsce).

Bengal. " Kurunja," Burm. " Karung," Tamil "Poonga," Fiji

BEECH— BEEFWOOD. 163

" Vesivesi." India, Tropical Australia, and the Pacific.
Height 40—50 ft. ; diam. 1—2 ft. W 40—42. White, turning
yellow on exposure, moderately hard, close-grained, tough,
prettily marked, but much attacked by insects, and not durable,
though improved by seasoning in water. No distinct annual
rings, but marked wavy " false rings "; vessels few, scattered; pith-
rays distinct. In India used mainly for fuel.

Beech, She (Cryptocdrya glauctscens K. Br. : Order Lauiinew).
" Black Beech, Sassafras, White Laurel." North - Eastern
Australia. Height 70 — 80 ft. ; diam. 1 \ — 2ft. Soft, ornamental,
not durable. Used in cooperage. The name has also been
applied to C. olovdta R. Br. [See Sycamore, White.]

Beech, White, in Canada is Fdgus sylvdtica L. [See Beech,
Common]. In Australia the name is applied to Elceocdrpus
Kirtoni F. v. M. [See Ash, Mountain], Gmelina LeichMrdtii
F. v. M. [See Beech, Common], and to Phylldnthus Ferdindndi
Mull. Arg. (Order Euphorbidcece). This tree, also called " Pencil
Cedar," " Lignum-vitae," and by the aborigines " Chow-way " and
" Tow-war," a native of the north-east, reaches a height of
70 — 80 ft. and a diameter of 1 — 1J ft. Its wood is grey, close-
grained, and easy to work, but warps. It is used in building and
for staves.

Beech, Water. See Hornbeam.

Beef- wood in Trinidad is Rhdpala montdna (Order Protedcece), a
valuable timber ; but in Australia the name is hopelessly vague,
being applied to members of four genera of Protedcw, viz. :
Bdnksia, Grevlllea, Hdkea and Stenocdrpus, and to several species
of the widely differing genus Casuarina. For Bdnksia see Honey-
suckle ; for Hdkea, Pinbush ; for Stenocdrpus, Oak, Silky ; for
Casuarina equisetifdlia, Oak, Swamp ; for C. suberdsa, She-oak,
Erect ; and for C. toruUsa, Oak, Forest.

Grevlllea stridta R. Br. (Order Protedcece), also known as
" Silvery Honeysuckle," and by the aborigines as " Turraic,"
reaches a height of 40 — 50 ft., with a diam. of 1J ft. Its
timber is red and prettily marked, though named from its
resemblance to raw beef, hard, close-grained, and susceptible

164

WOODS OF COMMERCE.

of a good polish. It is used for fencing, cabinet work, and
furniture.

Bendy-tree. See Umbrella-tree.

Betis (Paydna Bttis Villar : Order Sapotdcece). Philippines.
Used in ship-building, and classed in the third line of Lloyd's
Kegister.

Big - tree ( Sequoia gigdntea Decaisne : Order Coniferce ).
" Mammoth tree of California." " Wellingtonia." French
" Sequoia gigantesque," Germ. " Riesen Sequoia," Ital. " Gigante

FIG. 48. — Transverse section of Wellingtonia" or Mammoth Tree (Sequoia
gigantea Decaisne), highly magnified.

della California." Western slopes of Sierra Nevada, California,
5000—8000 ft. above sea-level. Height 250—400 ft.; diam.
sometimes exceeding 35 ft. The specimen, 62 ft. in girth, of
which a section is exhibited in the Natural History Museum,
South Kensington, has 1335 annual rings. Wood red-brown,
light, soft, brittle, weak, cross-grained, durable in contact with
soil. Formerly used locally for lumber, fencing, shingles, etc., but

BEEFWOOD— BIRCH.

165

now only of historical interest. Introduced into England as an
ornamental tree by William Lobb in 1853 (Figs. 48 and 49).

Bija. See Teak, Bastard.

Billian or Borneo Iron Wood (Eusideroxylon Zwdgeri
T. and B. : Order Laurdcece). British North Borneo. A very
large tree. W 67. Resembling Oak when newly cut, but with
age or exposure becoming black as Ebony. Very heavy and hard,
strong and durable, bearing exposure, resisting termites and the

FIG. 49.— Tangential section of Wellingtonia or Mammoth Tree (Sequoia
ffigantea Decaisne), highly magnified.

ship-worm. The best wood in the Bornean and Chinese area for
piles, beams, or planks.

Billy Web. See Ebony, American.

Bilsted (Liquiddmbar styraciflua L.). See Gum, Sweet.

Birch, Common, European, White or Silver (Betula
alba L. : Order Betuldcece). French " Bouleau commun," Germ.
"Gemeine Birke," Dutch "Berk," Danish "Birk," Swedish
"Bjork," Russian "Bereza," Part. " Bettula," Span. "Abedul."

166 WOODS OF COMMERCE.

Northern Europe and Asia. Height 40 — 50 ft. ; diam. 1 J ft.
S.G. fresh 919, dried 664. W 45—49. Yellowish or reddish-
white to light brown, the vessels so minute as to be almost
imperceptible to the naked eye, a smooth transverse section appear-
ing as though sprinkled with flour. Kings and pith-rays
distinctly marked : pith-flecks numerous near the centre : wood
consisting of tracheae, tracheids, fibres, fibre-cells, and parenchyma.
Moderately hard and heavy, even-grained, difficult to split, but
easily worked, neither strong nor durable, and liable to the
attacks of worms. Burrs are occasionally produced on the stem,
with solid marbled wood, valued by turners, and made into cups
and bowls in Lapland. In many countries on the Continent,
Birch, as the cheapest native hardwood, is largely used for furni-
ture and turnery : in France it is largely used for felloes of
wheels, cooperage, and sabots ; and in the Scottish Highlands for
an infinity of purposes, including spoons and plates, as in Russia.
It is a valuable fuel in Northern Europe, comparing with Beech as
a heat-producer as 13 to 15. It also produces excellent crayon
charcoal, and its coppice-wood is largely used for brooms, hoops,
and crate-making; for tanning leather; for a yellow-brown, or, with
alum, a brownish-red, dye ; and, when burnt, for distilling Scotch
whisky and smoking herrings and hams. Birch timber is
imported, mostly with the bark on, from Prussia and the south of
Sweden, to Grimsby, Hull, and Ireland ; but that from Sweden is
often crooked; and the sap wood, especially if felled in the spring, left
on the ground, kept too long on the voyage, or stored without
ventilation, will become "doated" or foxed, undergoing, that is,
a fungoid fermentation. A new industry has been recently
started in Russia in the manufacture of Birch planks for export to
India for tea-chests. The logs are sawn spirally, as we have
already mentioned in the case of Basswood, and two thicknesses
are then glued back to back with their grains crossing so as to
correct warping. We are not here concerned with the manifold uses
of Birch bark — especially in Russia, Sweden, and Scotland — for
boxes, baskets, boots, boats, cordage, dyeing, tanning, and even
bread-making. The two forms known as Bttula verrucdsa Ehrh.,

BIRCH. 167

the " Raubbirke " of Germany, and B. pubescens Ehrh., the
" Haarbirke," are here treated as one species. In Jamaica the
name Birch is applied to Bursera gummifera, a tree in no way
similar.

Birch, American, a trade name for the imported timber,
which is the product of more than one species, though chiefly of
Betula Unta, the Cherry Birch, and, to a much less extent, B. lutea,
the Yellow Birch.

Birch, Black (Bttula lenta L.). See Birch, Cherry.

Birch, Black or White, of New Zealand (Fdgus Soldndri
Hook. fil. : Order Cupidiferce). Maori "Tawhai." Really a
Beech, but known in Nelson as " White," and in Wellington as
" Black Birch." Height 100 ft. ; diam. 4—5 ft. Hard and very
durable, and suited for fencing or fresh-water piles, but liable to
attack by the ship- worm.

Birch, Canoe (Bttula papyri/era Marshall : Order Betuldcece).
11 White " or " Paper Birch." Germ. " Nachen Birke." Canada
and the Northern United States. Height 60 ft. or more ; diam.
3 ft. or more. Sapwodd white, heart reddish-brown, with a fine
glossy grain. Rather heavy, hard, tough, and strong, not durable
where exposed to alternations of moisture and heat. Used for
bobbins, shoe-lasts and pegs, turnery, and extensively for paper-
pulp and fuel. A curl in the grain where the branches are given
off is sought after by Boston cabinet-makers for veneers.

Birch, Cherry (Bttula lenta L. : Order Betuldcece}. " Black,
Sweet," or "Mahogany Birch," "Mountain Mahogany." French
" Bouleau doux," Germ. " Kirsche-Birke," Span. " Abedul dulce."
Canada and Eastern United States. Height 60 — 80 ft. ; diam.
3—4 ft. S.G. 762. W 47-47. Ash percentage -26. Relative fuel
value -759. Co-efficient of elasticity 141398. R 1216 kilos. Resist-
ance to longitudinal pressure 619, to indentation 226 kilos. Sap-
wood yellowish-white ; heart reddish brown or rose-coloured,
heavy, hard, very strong, close-grained, taking a beautiful satiny
polish, not attacked by worms, and fairly durable, but becoming
duller after conversion. Largely used, especially in the Northern
States, for furniture, sometimes stained to imitate Mahogany or

168 WOODS OF COMMERCE.

Cherry, and also for turnery, in ship-building, and for fuel. It is
exported to England in sawn planks and in slightly waney logs
6 — 20 ft. long and 1 — 2 J ft. square, the best coming from Quebec.
It is here chiefly used for bedroom furniture, and fetches from
lid. to 2s. 7d. per foot.

Birch, Grey. See Birch, Yellow and Birch, Old-Field.

Birch, Mahogany. See Birch, Cherry.

Birch, Old-Field (Betula populifolia Marshall: Order Betuldcece).
"White, Grey," or "Poplar-leaved Birch." From the St.
Lawrence to the Delaware. Height 25 — 30 ft. ; diam. 1 foot.
S.G. 576. W35-9. R 778 kilos. Sapwood brownish-white ; heart
light-brown, light, soft, fine-grained, taking a fine satiny polish,
not strong, nor durable. Used for bobbins, shoe-pegs, paper-pulp,
and fuel.

Birch, Paper. See Birch, Canoe.

Birch, Indian Paper (Betula Bhojpdtra Wall.). Sanskrit
"Bhurjama," Telugu " Bharjapatri," Japan "Onoore." Northern
India. Yellow to reddish-white, hard. Used for furniture and
exported.

Birch, Red or River (Betula nigra L.). Eastern United
States. French "Merisier rouge." Smaller, lighter, and less
valuable than the other American species, nearly white. Used
like poplar, but not exported.

Birch, Sweet. See Birch, Cherry.

Birch, White. See Birch, Common, Canoe, Black, and
Old-Field.

Birch, Yellow (Bttula lutea Michaux fil.). "Grey " or "Tall
Birch." Germ. "Gelbe Birke," French " Bouleau jaune," Span.
" Abedul amarillo." Eastern Canada and United States.
Height 60— 80 ft. ; diam. 2—3 ft. S.G. 655. W 40-8. K 1248
kilos. Sapwood nearly white ; heart light reddish-brown, heavy,
very hard, close-grained, tough, very strong, taking a beautiful
satiny polish. Burrs occur, which are used for mallets. The
saplings are split for hoops and the older wood for very small
woodware, such as button-moulds, for chair-seats, wheel-hubs, and,
in Canada, for frames of sledges. It is also largely used for fuel.

BIRCH— BLACKWOOD. 169

Biwa. See Loquat.

Blackbutt (Eucalyptus piluldris Sm. : Order Myrtdcece).
"Flintwood, White-top," or sometimes " Mountain Ash, Willow,"
or "Stringy-bark." Aborig. "Toi, Tcheergun, Benaroon."
South-eastern Australia. Height 50 — 150 ft. ; diam. 2 — 4 ft.
S.G.990. W 59-36— 62. E 1152. /5-79. /c3'75. fi -36. Warm-
brown or light yellowish, close and straight-grained, moderately
heavy, very strong, but occasionally liable to gum-veins and
shakes, working fairly well, but warping and requiring careful
seasoning. Suitable for sleepers, paving, telegraph-poles, planks,
or house-carpentry. It fetches Is. 3d. a cubic ft. in London.
The name is applied in New South Wales to E. hcejndsioma [See
Gum, Spotted] ; in Tasmania to E. Sieberidna [See Gum,
Cabbage] ; occasionally to E. pipertta [See Peppermint] ; and
in South-west Australia to E. patens Benth., which reaches a
height of 100 ft., with a diam. of 6 ft., is tough and durable, and
is used for wheelwrights' work.

Blackthorn (Prunus spindsa L. : Order Bosdceat). " Sloe."
Hard, tough. Sapwood reddish ; heart blackish-brown, often
with pith-flecks, pith-rays distinct, vessels small, numerous,
equally distributed. Used for walking-sticks.

Blackwood, in Australasia (Acacia melandxylon R. B.: Order
Legumindsce). In Tasmania " Lightwood," in New South Wales
"Hickory, Silver Wattle," or "Black Sally," Abvrig. " Moot-
chong," "Mooeyang." Tasmania, and South-east Australia, and
naturalised in India. Height 60 — 100 ft. ; diam. 1 J— 3 ft. S.G.
854—529. W 36— 63-5. E 1064. /5-45. fc 3'24. fs -687. Dark
brown, the older growth beautifully figured, with about an inch
of nearly white sapwood, hard, close and very even in grain,
easily worked and taking an excellent polish, but warping
unless very carefully seasoned. One of the most valuable of
Australian timbers, an excellent substitute for American walnut.
Largely used for oil-casks, in staves three inches thick, for
furniture, gun-stocks, tool-handles, crutches, the sounding-boards
of pianos, picture-frames, etc., the figured wood being cut into
veneers.

170 WOODS OF COMMERCE.

Blackwood, in Cape Colony (Pwycna lucida L. : Order
Ebendcece). Boer " Zwartbast," Zulu " Umcaza." Height 40— 50
ft. ; diam. 1- — 2 ft. Yellowish with brown stripes, hard, tough,
taking a good polish. Used in waggon-building, but adapted for
furniture or turnery. E. nitida Thunb., from Natal, is a smaller
but similar wood, known by the same vernacular names.

Blackwood, Indian (Dalbcrgia latifolia Roxb. : Order Legu-
mindsce). " Malabar Blackwood," " Eose-wood." Beng. " Sit
Sal," Tarn. " Iti." India. A large tree reaching 5 feet diam.
S.G. 1064—818. W 66-5. K 522—602 Ibs. Sapwood whitish ;
heart greenish-black, often mottled with lighter purplish streaks,
heavy, hard, tough, close but cross grained, and, therefore,
difficult to work, taking a fine polish. Used for sleepers, agricul-
tural implements, gun-carriages, cart-wheels, tool-handles, carving,
and especially furniture, for which purpose it is exported, via
Bombay, and has fetched £13 10s. per ton in London. With it
is confused the wood of its variety D. latifdlia, var. sissoides,
known in Tamil as " Biti," a smaller tree common in the extreme
south of India, very strong and tough, but with much heart-
shake and so much oil as to be unfit to receive paint ; and that of
D. cultrdta in Burma. [See Yen-dike.].

Bloodwood (Eucalyptus cwymbdsa Sm. : Order Myrtdcece).
Aborig. "Boona." Southern Queensland and New South Wales.
Height 30—100 ft.; diam. 1—4 ft. S.G. 983—853. W 72-6.
E 1023. /7'57. fc 4-48. fs "615. Dark red-brown, moderately
heavy, easily dressed, straight and close in grain, but full of gum-
veins and not, therefore, a favourite with sawyers, becoming hard
on drying, very strong and durable, little attacked by termites.
Used chiefly for posts and rails, but also for piles and sleepers.
The name is also applied to the allied E. termindlis F. v. M. of the
interior, the "Arang-mill" of the aborigines, a very red wood,
forming the chief large timber of the area, but not otherwise
valuable ; and also to E. paniculdta Sm. [See Ironbark, White
and Ironwood xxi.].

Bloodwood, Brush, or Scrub (Battglma lucida Endl. : Order
Euphorbidcece). " Eoger Gough." New South Wales, Queensland,

BLACKWOOD— BOIS MULATRE. 171

Norfolk Island, New Caledonia. Height 70—80 ft. ; diam. 2— 2J
ft. W 44 — 45. Buff or light reddish, fine and close-grained, but
rather soft and not used. [See also Rose wood (Synoum glandu-
ttsum)].

Bloodwood, Mountain, Smooth-barked, or Yellow (Euca-
lyptus exlmia Schauer : Order Myrtdwce), "Rusty Gum." Blue
Mountains. Height 80 ft. Light-coloured, soft, not durable,
except under water. Useful for work under water and as fuel.

Boco or Coco Wood (Bocda prouace'nsis Aubl. : Order
Legumindsw}. Guiana. Demerara "Etaballi." S.G. 1234— 1208.
R 402 kilos. Tall, yielding logs 29 ft. long and 18 in. in diam.
Sapwood very hard and compact, clear yellow ; heart dark-brown
black, working well. Suitable for walking-sticks, carving and
cabinet-work.

Bois Chaire (Tecdma leucdxylon Mart. : Order Bignmidcece).
Brazil, Guiana, Trinidad. Brazil " Quirapaiba," Cayenne "Ebene
verte." A large tree yielding logs 14 ft. long, squaring 14 — 16 in.
S.G. 1220—1211. R 480 kilos. Hard, even-grained, durable,
dark-green, or, when polished and varnished, a dark brownish-
black. Used in chair-making, whence its name ; in building and
for the sounding-boards of pianos.

Bois d'arc. See Osage-Orange.

Bois de feroles. See Satine'.

Bois de natte (Labourdonnaisia calophylloides Boj., L. glaiica,
Mimusops Imbricaria Willd., etc. : Order Sapotdcece). Mauritius
and neighbouring islands. Extensively used for ship-building,
cabinet-work, and furniture.

Bois graine bleu (Sympldcos martinitinsis Jacq. : Order
Styrdcece}. " Kakarat." Dominica, Martinique, etc. A small
tree. Used for planks in internal work.

Bois Lezard (Vitex diwricdta Swartz : Order Ferbendcece).
Brazil and West Indies. Strong and durable.

Bois Mulatre (Pentactithm fikimentdsa Benth. : Order Legum-
irujsce). " Palo Mulato." Trinidad. Height 30—40 ft. ; diam.
1 — 2 ft. Dark, even-grained, and said to be durable under
ground.

172 WOODS OF COMMERCE.

Bois Riviere. See Water-wood.
Bois Violet. See Purple-heart.

Bolongnita (Diospyros pilosdnthera Bl. : Order Ebendcece).
Philippines.

Bottle-brush, Red (Cdllist&mon lanceoldtus DC. : Order
Myrtdcece). " Water Gum/' Aborig. " Marum." Eastern
Australia. Height 30—40 ft. ; diam. 1— 1J ft. Hard, heavy.
Used for mallets, in ship-building and wheelwrights' work.

Bottle-brush, White (C. salignus DC.). "River or Broad-
leaved Tea-tree,'' " Stone-wood," "River Oak," Aborig. "Unoyie,
Humbah." Eastern Australia. Height 40 — 50ft. ; diam. H — 2
ft. S.G-. 983. W57— 61. Drab to dark red, sometimes prettily-
grained, very hard, close-grained, fairly easy to work, and said to
be very durable underground.

Bow-wood. See Osage-Orange.

Box (Buxus sempervirens L. : Order Euplwrbidcece). French
"Bois commun," "Bois beni," Germ. "Buchsbaum." Northern
and Western Asia, North Africa, and Central and Southern
Europe. Height 8—30 ft.; diam. small. S.G. 950—980.
W 80 '5 — 68*75. Light yellow, very homogeneous, almost horn-
like, neither rings, pith-rays, nor vessels being distinct, hard,
heavy, firm, free from heart-shake, difficult to split, but works up
smoothly, with a slight silky lustre and is durable, when
thoroughly seasoned. "Boxwood is very apt to split in drying;
and to prevent this, the French turners put the wood designed
for their finest work into a dark cellar as soon as it is cut, where
they keep it from three to five years. . . . They strike off the
sapwood with a hatchet, and place the hardwood again in the
cellar till it is wanted for the lathe. For the most delicate
articles, the wood is soaked for twenty-four hours in fresh
very clear water, and then boiled for some time. When taken
out of the boiling water, it is wiped perfectly dry and buried,
till wanted for use, in sand or bran." Compared for closeness
of grain to Ebony by Theophrastus, used by the Romans for
veneers and flutes, Virgil mentions the Box as used by the
turner :

BOIS RIVIERE— BOX. 173

" Smooth -grained and proper for the turner's trade,
Which curious hands may carve, and steel with ease invade."

(Dryden's translation.)

Invaluable for mathematical instruments, the chief use of Box
since the 15th century has been for wood- engraving, for which
purpose it is chiefly imported from Abasia in Circassia and from
Odessa in billets 3 — 8 ft. long and 3 — 12 in. across. In spite of
the advance of other methods of engraving, Box is so unequalled
for this purpose that careful search is being made for any wood
likely to approach it in suitability. (See p. 103 supra). The largest
number of box-trees in Europe are in the mixed forests of Ligny
and of St. Claude on the Jura. At the latter place the wood,
which is not of large dimensions, is turned into small boxes,
beads, spoons, forks, etc.

In Australia the name Box is applied to a great number of
Eucalypti, such as E. hemiphldia [See Canary Wood], E. largi-
fldrens [See Gum, Slaty], E. leucdxylon [See Ironbark], E. odordta
[See Peppermint], E. stelluldta, E. Stuartidna, and E. vimindlis
[See Gum, Manna]. In America the name is applied to Cornus
fldrida L., the American Dogwood, an abundant wood fitted only
for coarse engraving ; in the Bahamas to Vitex umbrdsa Sw.

Box, Bastard is also a name of wide application in Australia,
sometimes referring to Eucalyptus largiftdrens [See Gum, Slaty],
E. langifdlia [See Woolly Butt], E. microthtca [See Box, Dwarf],
E.polydnthema [See Box, Red], E.punddta [See Leather-jacket],
or E. teretic6rnis [See Gum, Slaty] ; but chiefly to Tristdnia con-
ftrta, T. laurina, and Eucalyptus goniocdlyx.

Tristdnia con/trta R. Br. (Order Myrtdcew), otherwise "Brisbane,
Brush, Red," or "White Box," or "Brisbane Mahogany." Aborig.
" Tubbil-pulla." North-eastern Australia. Height 80—120 ft. ;
diam. 1 — 3 ft. W 59 — 64. Sometimes prettily grained, strong
and durable, but warping very much unless carefully seasoned,
dressing well and not attacked by termites. Used in ship-
building, bridges, etc.

T. laurina R. Br., of Eastern Australia, known also as " Water
Gum, Beech," and "Swamp Mahogany," is a smaller tree. Height

174 WOODS OF COMMERCE.

50 — 60 ft. ; diam. 1 — 2 ft. Dark-coloured, hard, tough, close-
grained, difficult to season. Used for tool-handles and cogs.

Eucalyptus goniocdlyx F. v. M. : (Order Myrtdcece), of Tasmania
and South-eastern Australia. "G-rey Box, Mountain Ash,
Spotted, Grey, White," or "Blue Gum." Height up to 300 ft.;
diam. to 6 or 10 ft. S.G. 1152—798. W 72—74. E 799 Ibs.
Pale yellow to light brown, very hard, tough, usually free from
gum-veins, straight-grained, difficult to split, not warping, very
durable, especially underground. Used for joists, beams, rafters,
sleepers, spokes, staves, boat-building, and fuel.

Box, Black (Eucalyptus largiftorens). See Gum, Slaty.
„ „ (E. oUiqua). See Stringybark.
„ „ (E. microtheca). See Box, Dwarf.

Box, Brisbane or Brush (Tristdnia conferta). See Box,
Bastard.

Box, Brown. See Box, Red.

Box, Cape (Bums Macowani Oliv. : Order Euphorbidcece).
Eastern Cape Colony. Height 40 — 80 ft. • diam. up to 4 ft.
Yellow, hard, close and even-grained, resembling European
(Turkish) Box, but not equally valuable for engraving. Used for
turnery. The name is also applied to Gonioma Kamdssi E. Mey.
[See Kamassi.]

Box, China (Murraya exdtica L. : Order Rutdcece). Queensland.
Small, resembling Box, but apt to crack, requiring careful season-
ing. W 61—63. Used for tool-handles.

BOX, Cooburn (Eucalyptus largifldrens). See Gum, Slaty,

Box, Dwarf, Flooded, or Narrow-leaved (E. microtheca
F. v. M. : Order Myrtdcece). Also known as "Bastard" or "Black
Box." Australia, in most of the colonies. Reddish, hard, heavy,
elastic, sometimes figured like walnut, but darker, heavier, closer-
grained, and too hard for ordinary cabinet-work. Used in
building.

Box, Grey (Eucalyptus goniocdlyx). See Box, Bastard.

„ (E. hemiphloia). See Canarywood.
„ ,, (E. largifldrens). See Gum, Slaty.
„ „ (E. polydnthema). See Box, Red.

BOX. 175

Box, Grey (E. saligna). See Gum, Blue.

„ Ironbark (E. obliqua). See Stringy bark.

„ Jamaica (Tecdma pentaphylla Juss. : Order Bignonidcece).
Brazil, Venezuela, West Indies, etc. "White Cedar," "Cog-
wood," "Roble bianco." S.G. 876—834. Used for piles, house
and boat-building, and suggested for engraving.
Box, Knysna. See Kamassi.

„ Native. See Boxthorn.

„ Poplar (Eucalyptus populifdlia Hook. : Order Myrtdcece).
" Red " or " White Box, Nankeen," or " White Gum." Abarig.
" Egolla," North-east Australia. Height 50—60 ft. ; diam. 2 ft.
Grey or light-brown, hard, heavy, close-grained, tough, strong,
hard to work, often unsound, handsome when polished, durable.
Used for sleepers, posts, building, etc.

Box, Red (Tristdnia conferta). See Box, Bastard.

„ „ (Eucalyptus populifdlia). See Box, Poplar.

,, „ (Eucalyptus polydnthema Schau. : Order Myrtdcece).
South-eastern Australia. Also known as " Bastard, Brown " or
" Grey Box, Lignum-vitae," or " Poplar-leaved Gum." Aborig.
"Den." Height sometimes 250 ft. S.G. 1010— 1248. R 749—
803 Ibs. Brownish-red, very hard, fine-grained, very tough, often
hollow, but very durable. Used for pit-props, cogs, naves, felloes
and fuel.

Box, Scrub (Tristdnia conferta). See Box, Bastard.
Box, White (Eucalyptus hemiphUia). See Canarywood.

„ „ (E. odordta) See Peppermint.

„ „ (E. populifdlia). See Box, Poplar.

„ „ (Tristdnia conferta). See Box, Bastard.

,, Yellow (Eucalyptus mellioddra A. Cunn. : Order Myrtdcece).
Eastern Australia. Also known as " Yellow-Jacket, Honey-
scented " or " Red Gum." Aborig. « Dargan." Height 40—80 ft. ;
diam. H— 3J ft. S.G. 876— 1125. W 60— 70. R 725— 695 Ibs.
Light yellow or pale brown, very hard, heavy, close-grained,
tough, durable, with a wavy figure, but with some gum-veins and
cup-shake. Used for spokes, naves, cogs, treenails, posts, and, to
some extent, engraving. The name Yellow Box is also applied to

176 WOODS OF COMMERCE.

Eucalyptus JiemiphUia [See Canarywood], and to E. largifldrens
[See Gum, Slaty].

Box-Elder. See Maple, Ash-leaved.

Boxthorn (Bursdria spindsa Cav. : Order Pittospordcece) .
Australia and Tasmania. " Native Box " or " Olive." Height
20 — 30 ft. ; diam. less than a foot. White, close-grained, and
taking a fine polish. Used in turnery.

BrazilettO or Brazil-WOOd (Casalpinia brasilie'nsis Sw. : Order
Legumindsce), now almost extinct, C. crlsta L., C. bijiiga Sw., and
C. tinddria H.B.K. Tropical America. Hard, heavy woods,
taking a polish, and employed in cabinet work, but mainly as a
red dye. They contain a red colouring-matter known as Braziline,
soluble in water, and giving, with lime, baryta and tin chloride, a
red precipitate, whilst Logwood gives a blue one. [See also
Nicaragua wood, Peach wood, Pernambuco wood and
Sappan wood.]

Break-axe. See Ironwood xxii.

Briar. See Ash, Prickly.

Briar -root (Erica arbdrea L. : Order Ericdcece). French
"Bruyere." Southern Europe. Dark brown, dense, mottled.
Small wood, used exclusively for tobacco pipes, imported from
France.

Broom (Cytisus scopdrius Link. : Order Legumindsce). Western
Europe. Cultivated in Algeria, its stems being imported under
the trade name of " Black Orange " as walking-sticks.

Buckeye, Ohio (Msculus gldbm Willd.) and Sweet Buckeye
jE.fldva Ait. : Order Sapinddcece). Eastern United States. Small
trees with creamy-white, light, soft, fine, and even-grained wood,
not strong, but often tough, easily worked. Used locally for
building, but more for turnery, artificial limbs, and especially
paper-pulp.

Buckthorn (Rhdmnus cathdrticus L. : Order Rhamndcece).
Europe, Siberia, North Africa. Germ. " Kreuzdorn." A shrub
with narrow, greenish-yellow sapwood and orange-red heart, with
a narrow but distinct zone of pores in the spring wood, and
remarkable flamboyant groups of vessels in the autumn wood

BOX— CAJEPUT. 177

(Fig. 28); pith-rays indistinguishable. The wood is hard and
heavy, and suitable for turnery, but small. The other British
species, It. Frdngula, the Alder or Berry-bearing Buckthorn, yields
the wood known as Dogwood.

Buffelsbal (Gardenia ThunUrgii L. : Order Rubidcece). Cape
Colony. Hard and heavy. Used for clubs, tool-handles, axles,
etc.

Bullet-wood, Andaman (Mimusops littordlis Kurz. : Order
Sapotdcece). Tenasserim and Andaman Islands. A large tree,
yielding a very hard, red-brown, close-grained, durable wood,
which is, however, apt to split. Used for bridges and house-posts,
and recommended for sleepers. [See also Balata and Sapodilla.]

Bully, Naseberry (Sapdta Siderfaylon Gr. : Order Sapotdcece).
Jamaica. W 74. E 1080. /9'16. fc 4-31. fs -50. One of the
most valuable woods of the Colony.

Bunya-bunya (Araucdria Bidwllli Hook : Order Coniferce).
Queensland. Height 100—150 ft.; diam. 2J— 4 ft. Light-
coloured, straight-grained, beautifully veined, very strong, easily
worked, susceptible of polish, not warping, durable. Suitable for
cheap furniture, but seldom felled, as its seeds are eaten by the
aborigines.

Butternut (Juglans cine'rea L. : Order Juglanddcece). Eastern
North America. " White Walnut." " Oil nut." French " Noyer
cendre," Germ. " Graue Walnuss." Height 50—60 ft.; diam.
2 — 3 ft. Reddish-brown, light, soft, not strong, free from the
attacks of worms, not easily split. Used for sleepers, for internal
work in building, coach-panels, boats and canoes, wooden dishes,
shovels, and cabinet-work. Seldom imported into England.

Button-wood. See Plane.

Cabbage-bark. See Angelin.

Cagueyran (Copaifera hymenceifdlia Moric. : Order Legumindsce).
Cuba. A large tree, the wood of which is used in building.

Cajeput (MelaUuca leucaddndron L. : Order Myrtdcece). Malaysia
and tropical Australia. " Milkwood, White " or " Swamp Tea-
tree." Aborig. " Atchoourgo." Malay. " Kayu puti." New Caledonia
"Niaouli." Height 40— 50 ft.; diam. 1—2 ft. Hard, heavy,

178 WOODS OF COMMERCE.

with a ripple-like mottling, close-grained, very durable under-
ground. Used for posts and in ship-building, turns well, and is
suitable for carriage-work.

Calabash (Crescdntia Cujett L. : Order Bignonidcece). Cuba
"Guira." West Indies. S.G. 580. W 54-69. E -230. E2431bs.
/ 2-62. fc 1-69. fs '358. Light brown, soft, elastic. Pith
irregular, rather large ; rings and pith-rays indistinct ; vessels
equally but sporadically distributed, small. Used for lasts,
saddle-bows, etc.

Calamander-WOOd (Diospyros qumtta Thwaites, I), oocdrpa
Thw. and D. hirsuta Linn. fil. : Order Ebendcece). Tamil " Cala-
mander maram," Sink. " Kalu-mediriya." W 57. One of the
most valuable ornamental woods of Ceylon, but now scarce, red-
hazel-brown or chocolate brown, with handsome black stripes,
intermediate between Rosewood and Zebra-wood, hard, close-
grained. Used for turning and veneers.

Camara (Geissosptrmum VelUsii Allem. : Order Apocyndcece).
Brazil. S.G. 746. Light-coloured, moderately heavy, strong, but
small. Used in boat-building.

Camphor (Cinnam6mum Cdmphom Nees : Order Laurdcece).
China, Japan, etc. Height 30—60 ft. ; diam. 2—3 ft. Light-
coloured, fragrant, soft. Used for entomological and ornamental
cabinets.

Camphor, Borneo (Drydbdlanops aromdtica Gaert: Order
Dipterocarpdcece). Malay " Kayu Kapor Barus." Borneo and
Sumatra. A large tree yielding timber 25 — 45 ft. long and 1 — 2
ft. square. S.G. 895—1053. E 3770,000. p 16000. e' 3-36.
p' 1-4=7. c6790. c' -896. v' 1-561. Light red, resembling Honduras
Mahogany, not fragrant, plain, close-, straight-grained, moderately
hard and tough, durable, but liable to star-shake. Used for
planks, beams, piles, etc.

Camphor, Nepal (Cinnamdmum glanduliferum Meissn. : Order
Laurinece). India. Also known as " Nepal " or " Assam
Sassafras," and apparently identical with " Martaban Camphor-
wood " and "Burmese Sassafras." A large tree yielding timber
20 — 30 ft. long and 1J ft. in diam., floating when seasoned,

CAJEPUT-CANNON-BALL TREE. 179

tough, strong, durable, with the odour of Sassafras. Used for
house-carpentry, cabinet-work, tool-handles, etc.

Camphor-wood (Australian). See Cypress-Pine.

Camwood (Bdphia nitida Afz. : Order Legumindsce). West
Africa. "Barwood." Height 8—10 ft. Eed. Imported from
Sierra Leone in logs 4 ft. long and 1 ft. in diam., or powdered.
Used by native women for painting their bodies, and in England,
with iron-sulphate, as a dye for red handkerchiefs.

Canary -wood (Eucalyptus hemiphloia F. v. M. : Order Myr-
tdcece). South-east Australia. Known also as "Box, Grey,
White" or "Yellow Box," "White Gum." Aborig. " Narul-
gun." Height 50 — 60 ft. or more ; diam. 2 — 4 ft. or more. S.G.
1230—773. W 48-27. Yellow-white or light buff, heavy, very
hard, strong, tough, cross-grained, not readily split, durable, but
often hollow and subject to dry-rot and termite-attack. Used for
sleepers, piles, planks, pit-props, fencing, handles, cogs, naves,
felloes, screws, tree-nails, etc.

Canary- wood (Morinda citrifdlia L. : Order Rubidcece),
( = Naudea unduldta Roxb., Sarcocdphalus corddtus Miq.). "Indian
Mulberry," " Leichhardt's Tree." Hind. " Al," Tarn. "Nonna
maram," Fiji "Kura." India and the Eastern Tropics to
Queensland. Height 50—70 ft. ; diam. 2— 2| ft. W 30—41.
Yellow, soft, cross-grained, sometimes with a beautiful wavy
figure, easily worked and taking a good polish. Suitable for
turning or cabinet-work ; but little used, save as a dye. (See
also Tulip-tree.)

Canella or Canelle, a name applied to various Brazilian
woods belonging to the Laurdcece, including Dicypellium caryo-
phylldtum [See Rosewood, Cayenne], Aydhidrm candla Meissn..
Nectdndm atra, and N. mdllis. The latter is brown, light, easily
worked, but not durable. S.G. 744. It is procurable of a
considerable size, and is used for decks, house-building, and
carpentry.

Cannon-ball tree (Xylocdrpus Grandtum Keen. = Cdrapa moluc-
cdnsis Lam. : Order Melidcece). Ceylon, Burma, Fiji Islands, etc.
"Sea Cocoa-nut." Burm. "Pen-lay," Fiji " Dabi." Height

180 WOODS OF COMMERCE.

20 ft.; diam. 4 ft. W 47. Whitish, turning red, hard. Used for
house-building, handles, spokes, furniture, etc. In South
America the same name is applied to Couroupita guiandnsis,
belonging to the Brazil nut group (Lecythiddcece).

Carapa or Carapo. See Crab-wood.

Carob (Ceratdnia Siliqna L. : Order Legumindsce). French
" Caroubier." Chiefly known for its fruit, the " Locust bean" or
" St. John's-bread " ; but imported from Algeria as walking-sticks.

Cashew-nut (Anacdrdium occidentals L. : Order Anacardidcece).
A native of South America, cultivated for its fruit throughout
the Tropics. French "Acajou a fruits, a pommes " or "de
Guadeloupe," Germ. " Acajoubaum," Hind. " Kaju," Tarn.
" Mundiri." Red to brown, moderately hard. Used in boat-
building, for packing-cases and for charcoal, especially for iron-
smelting.

Catalpa (Catdlpa specidsa Warder : Order Bignonidcece). South
Central United States. Height 80 ft. ; diam. 4 ft. Brown, light,
soft, not strong, brittle, coarse-grained, durable, especially in
contact with the soil. Used for posts and fencing ; but suited for
internal fittings, and being now much planted.

Cedar, a name extended from the Lebanon Cedar (Cedrus
Libani Loud. : Order Coniferce), to other species of the genus, to
various Junipers and other coniferous woods, and to many other
woods of broad-leaved trees, especially the Meliaceous genus
Cedrdla, most of which resemble the true Cedar in being brown,
even-grained woods of moderate hardness and often fragrant.
The true Cedar is a native of the Lebanon, Taurus, and neigh-
bouring ranges of South-west Asia, and was introduced into
England as an ornamental tree after the middle of the 17th
century, that at Enfield being perhaps the oldest existing English
tree. French "Cedre du Liban," Germ. "Libanon Ceder," Jtal.
" Cedro del Libano." Height 50—80 ft. ; diam. 3—4 ft. or more.
Reddish-brown, light, straight and open-grained, very porous,
soft and spongy in the centre, easily worked, but rather brittle,
liable to extensive heart- and cup-shakes, not strong. Mountain-
grown Cedar is harder, stronger, less liable to warp and more

CANNON-BALL TREE-CEDAR. 181

durable. The wood has a pleasant odour, which is obnoxious to
insects. It is, therefore, suitable for cabinets, internal work,
carving, etc., for which purposes it seems to have been mainly
employed by the ancients, with whom it had so great a repute
for durability. In the Cilician Taurus it is used for the best
household furniture and for church-fittings. The "Cedar" of
the English timber trade is the West Indian Cedrela odordta,

FIG. 50. — Transverse section of Cedar of Lebanon (Cedrus Libani).

shipped from Cuba, Trinidad, Honduras, and Tabasco, and
fetching 3d. to 4Jd. per foot. [See Cedar, West Indian.]

Cedar, Atlas (Cddrus atldntica Manetti). Mount Atlas.
Height 80—100 ft. ; diam. up to 5 ft. The outer part of the
heartwood beautifully veined, resembling in quality and value
that of the Deodar of India. Used in North Africa for sleepers,
paving, cabinet-making, and carpentry.

Cedar, Barbadoes (Juniperus barbaddnsis L. : Order Cupres-
slnece). "Juniper Cedar." Barbadoes, Jamaica, etc. Closely

182 WOODS OF COMMERCE.

allied to, if not identical with, the Red Cedar of the United
States (Juniperus virginidna L.).

Cedar, Bastard, in India. See Bead-tree and Mahogany,
East Indian.

Cedar, Bastard, in Jamaica (Guaznma tomentnsa H.B. : Order
Sterculidcece). French "Orme d'Amerique," Telugu "Rudraksha
chettu." West Indies. Introduced into Ceylon and Southern
India more than a century ago and now common. Light, split-
ting easily. Used in Jamaica for staves for sugar hogsheads.

Cedar, Bastard Pencil (Dysdxylon rufum Benth.: Order
Melidcece). Queensland and Northern New South Wales.
Height 40 — 50 ft.; diam. 1^ — 2 ft. Red, nicely grained, easily
worked. Used for cabinet-work.

Cedar, Bermuda (Juniperus bermudidna L. : Order Cupressinece).
Bermudas. Closely allied to the Red Cedar, Juniperus virginidna.
of which it is supposed to be a geographical variety. Height
50 — 60 ft. ; diam. 2 — 3 ft. Used for boat-building and formerly
exported for pencils, for which purpose the Red Cedar has
superseded it.

Cedar, Black (Nectdndra pisi Miq. : Order Laurdcece). French
Guiana. Of large dimensions. S.G-. 818—531. R 130—159
kilos. Dark-brown, moderately heavy, firm, easily worked,
teredo-proof. Useful for building and for ships' planking, but
corroding iron.

Cedar, Borneo. See Serayah.

Cedar, Canoe (Thuya gigdntea Nutt. : Order Cupressinew).
11 Yellow Cedar." " Red Cedar " (of the Western States). One of
the " White Cedars " of the American trade. " Lobb's Arbor-
vitse." French "Thuia geant de Californie," Germ. "Riesens-
Lebensbaum," Hal. "Albero de la vita di Lobb." Western
North America, from Alaska to California. Height 130 — 200
ft. ; diam. 9 ft. or more. Heartwood light greyish-brown, light,
soft, brittle, not strong, free from knots, easily split or worked,
not warping, and very durable in contact with soil. An important
lumber tree, the only wood used by the Red Indians of the
North-west for canoes. Used by white settlers for fencing,

CEDAR. 183

shingles, cooperage, doors, window-sills, indoor fittings, and the
coarser kinds of furniture.

Cedar, Cuba. See Cedar, West Indian.

Cedar, Deodar (Cedrus Deoddra Loud. : Order Coniferce).
Afghanistan to the Western Himalayas. "Indian Cedar."
French "Cedre de THimalaya," Hind. "Devaderu." Height
150 — 250 ft. ; diam. 5 — 7 ft. at base, tapering to one-third at 80
ft. up. Heartwood light yellowish-brown, compact, even-grained,
moderately hard, not readily splitting or warping, fragrant, and
exceedingly durable : annual rings uniform, with well-marked
autumn zones : resin-canals absent. The pillars in the Shah
Hamaden Mosque at Srinagar of this wood are probably over 400
years old, and some of the bridges in the same city, though their
piers are alternately wet and dry, are said to have lasted even
longer. This species was introduced into England as an
ornamental tree in 1831. It is the chief timber of North-west
India, where it is used for sleepers, for all purposes of construction
and even for furniture.

Cedar, Florida. See Cedar, Red.

Cedar, Guiana (Idea altissima Aubl. : Order Burserdcece),
"Kurana" or " Carana-gum." French "Cedre blanc, Cedre
bagasse." A large and very valuable wood of French and British
Guiana, easily worked, fragrant, durable. Height up to 100 ft.
S.G. 1036—842. R 226 kilos. Used for canoes, book-cases,
internal house-fittings, etc.

Cedar, Honduras. See Cedar, West Indian.

Cedar, Incense (Liboctdrus decurrens Torr. : Order Cupressinece).
"Bastard, White or Post Cedar." French "Cedre blanc de
Californie," Germ. " Californische Flussceder." Pacific slope of
the United States. Height 100 ft. or more; diam. 6 ft. or more.
Light greyish-brown, light, soft, fine- and close-grained, but brittle
and not strong, very durable in contact with soil. Extensively
used for posts, fencing, shingles, laths, internal work and
furniture.

Cedar, Indian. See Cedar, Deodar.

Cedar, Japanese. See Sugi.

184 WOODS OF COMMERCE.

Cedar, Mexican. See Cedar, West Indian.

Cedar, Moulmein (Cedrdla Todna Roxb. : Order Melidcece).
India, Java, Australia. "Bastard Cedar," " Bastard" or " Indian
Mahogany," or " Chittagong wood " of India, " Cedar " or " Red
Cedar" of Australia. Hind. "Toon," "Toona." Burm.
" Thitkado." French " Cedre de Singapore." Height 70—180 ft.;
diam. 2—10 ft. S.G-. 508—576, W 28—36. Timber generally
from 14 to 40 ft. long, and from 11 to 26 in. square. Pale brick-
red, resembling mahogany, often beautifully curled near the root
or branches, very fragrant, clean arid straight, but open in grain,
moderately hard, easily worked, does not warp, but splits some-
what in seasoning, and is liable to heart- and star-shakes, durable,
termite-proof. A very valuable wood, formerly hollowed out for
canoes in North-east India and largely used for tea-chests, but not
now sufficiently abundant. Much employed for furniture, door-
panels and carving, and yielding beautiful veneers. The best of
the woods known as Chittagong woods.

Cedar, New Zealand (Libocedms Bidwillii Hook. fil. or
L. Doniana Endl. : Order Cupressinece). Maori " Pahautea,"
" Kawaka." Soft, close-grained woods, resembling the Incense
Cedar of the Western United States. Suitable for planks and
spars.

Cedar, Oregon (Cuprdssus Lawsonidna Murr. = Chamcecf/paris
Lawsonidna Sargent : Order Cupressinece). " Port Orford Cedar,
Lawson's Cypress, Ginger Pine." South Oregon and North
California. Height up to 200 ft.; diam. up to 12 ft., but gener-
ally 120—150 ft. high. S.G. 460. Light yellowish-brown, light,
but heavier than other " white Cedars," hard, strong, very close-
grained, abounding in fragrant resin, easily worked, susceptible of
a beautiful polish, very durable in contact with the soil. One of
the most valuable timber-trees of North America, largely cut
for lumber and used for ship and boat building, fencing,
flooring.

Cedar, Pencil, a name applied in Northern New South Wales
and Queensland to Dysdxylon Fraseridnum and D. Muelleri,
Phylldnthus Ferdindndi [See Beech, White], and Podocdrpus eldta ;

CEDAR. 185

and in Cape Colony to the Coniferous Widdringtdnia, juniperoides.
In English commerce the name refers to Junlperus virginidna [See
Cedar, Red]. Dysdxylon Fraseridnum Benth. (Order Melidcece),
known also as " Eosewood " or " Bog-onion," 50 — 70 ft. in height
and 3 — 4 ft. in diameter, yields a reddish, prettily-figured,
fragrant, easily-worked wood, valued for furniture, turning,
engraving and ship-building, being, in fact, a substitute for
Mahogany. D. Muelleri Benth., known, from the smell of the
wood when freshly cut, as " Turnip-wood," the " Kidgi-kidgi " of
the aborigines, a taller tree, yields a rich red wood, equally
valuable. Podocdrpus eldta K. Br> (Order Taxdcece), known also as
" Pine, White " or " She Pine," or " Native Deal," is a fine tree,
50—130 ft. high and 2—5 ft. in diam. W 45-7. Though seldom
cylindrical, it is free from knots, sometimes beautifully figured,
soft, fine, close and silky ingrain, easily worked, durable, termite-
and teredo-proof, and valued for joinery and cabinet-work.
Widdringtdnia juniperoides, growing above the winter range of
snow on the Cederberg in the Clanwilliam district of Cape Colony,
sometimes reaches 12 ft. in diam. It is known as " Ceder Boom "
to the Dutch, and the demand for it exceeds the supply. The
allied W. Whitei Rendle, of elevated kloofs in the Shire Highlands,
Nyassaland, is a fine tree, 150 ft. high, reaching 6 ft. diam., and
yielding an ornamental, fragrant, light, yellow-brown wood,
susceptible of a good polish, and suitable for building, pencils and
other purposes. Though suitable for re-afforesting tropical high-
lands, this species is not at present abundant.

Cedar, Red, in Cape Colony (Cundnia captnsis L. : Order
Cunonidcece). Dutch "Rood Els." Height 15—25 or even 60 ft.;
diam. 1| — 2 ft. Close-grained, tough, resembling Linden-wood,
taking a good polish. Much used in cabinet-work and turnery
and by wheelwrights.

Cedar, Pink or Red, of Sikkim tea-planters, used for tea-
chests and furniture, is Acrocdrpus fraxinifdlius Wight (Order
Legumin6sce\ the " Mandania " of the natives.

Cedar, Red, in Australia (Cedrela Toona). See Cedar,
Moulmein.

186 WOODS OF COMMERCE.

Cedar, Red, in North America (Juniperus Firginidna L. :
Order Cupresslnece). "Florida Cedar, Savin, Pencil Cedar."
French " Cedre de Virginie," Germ. " Virginischer Sadebaum,"
"Virginische Wachholder," "Bleistift-holz." Throughout the
coasts of the United States, but large only in the South. Height
40—50 or even 100 ft. ; diam. 1—4 ft. S.G. 330. Sapwood
broad, yellowish ; heart rose-red to brown-red, fragrant ; annual
rings sinuous ; pith-rays very fine ; resin-ducts absent ; light,
soft, brittle, compact, fine-grained, strong, easily split, durable,
especially in contact with the soil or water, and obnoxious to
insects. One of the most valuable coniferous woods of America.
Formerly much used by the Spaniards in Florida for ship-
building, and in England, up to fifty years ago, for cabinets,
work-boxes, etc., it is occasionally employed in the United
States for railway-sleepers and fencing, in the Southern States
for coffins, and in Philadelphia for cooperage. It is, however,
generally too dear for any use but veneers and pencil-making, for
which latter purpose several million cubic feet are cut annually.
A useful paper for protection against moth is made from the
refuse of the pencil factories.

Cedar, Rock (Juniperus sabinoides Sarg.), a native of Mexico
and Texas. Height 20—40 ft. ; diam. 1 ft. S.G. 690. W 43.
Sapwood thin, nearly white ; heart brown, often streaked with
red, slightly fragrant, light, hard, close-grained, not strong, very
durable in contact with soil. Used for sleepers, telegraph-poles,
fencing, and fuel.

Cedar, Tasmanian (Aihrotdxis selaginoides Don. : Order
Taxodiece). Height about 45 ft. Light, yellow, straight, even-
grained.

Cedar, West Indian (Cedrela odordta L. : Order Melidcew).
"Cuba, Honduras" or "Mexican Cedar." The "Cedar" of
English commerce. A tall tree capable of yielding timber 18 — 40
ft. long and 1—2 ft. square. S.G. 372—664. W 31—47. p 7600.
p' -7. e 1-0. /3-02. /cl-98. fs '362. c 2870. c' -379. v' -586.
Sapwood narrow, reddish-white ; heart cinnamon-brown ; annual
rings broad and distinct ; pith-rays numerous and distinct ; vessels

CEDAR— CHAPLASH. 187

very large, open, scattered, but more numerous, larger and
partly filled with brown resin in spring wood. Fragrant, often
beautifully marked and resembling the allied Mahogany; but
very much softer, light, easily split, bitter in taste. Used
mainly for cigar-boxes, but also for furniture.

Cedar, White, in the United States, a name applied to the
similar coniferous woods of Libocedrus decurrens [See Cedar,
Incense], Cupressus Lawsonidna [See Cedar, Oregon], Thuya
gigdntea [See Cedar, Canoe], Cupressus Thyoides, and Thuya
occidentdlis. In Australia it is used of Elceodendron austrdle and
Mtlia compdsita.

Cupressus Thyoides L. French " Cedre blanc," Germ. " Weisse
Ceder, Ceder-Cypresse." Swamps on the east coast of the
United States. Height 70—80 ft.; diam. 2—3 ft. Light
greyish-brown, very light, soft, not strong, slightly fragrant,
close-grained, easily worked, very durable in contact with soil,
not warping. Used for sleepers, posts, shingles, cooperage, and
boat-building.

Thuya occidentdlis L., known also as " Arbor- vitae." French
"Arbre de vie," Germ. " Lebensbaum." Eastern North Ameri-
can. Height 30—40 or 60 ft.; diam. 2—4 ft. S.G-. 320. Light,
soft, brittle, very fragrant, rather coarse-grained; but otherwise
resembling the preceding in characters and uses.

Elceodendron austrdle. See Ash, Blue.

Melia compdsita. See Bead-tree.

Cedar, Yellow. See Yellow-wood.

Champak (Michelia Chdmpaca L. : Order Magnolidcece). Beng.
" Champa " or " Champaka." India, Ceylon, Moluccas. Height
30 ft.; diam. up to 4J ft. S.G. 671. W 42. K 350 Ibs. Light
olive-brown, soft, but seasons well, taking a good polish, durable.
Used for furniture, house- and boat-building. The allied
M. excdlsa Blume is the "Bara-Champ" of the Eastern
Himalaya, the principal building and furniture wood of Darjiling,
whilst M. nilaglrica Zenk., the "Pila Champa" of Southern
India and Ceylon, is also used.

Chaplash (Artocdrpus Chapldsha Roxb. : Order Mordcece).

188 WOODS OF COMMERCE.

India. "Lesser" or "Thorny Jack." Hind. " Chaplasha."
Height 100 ft. S.G. 556. W 34*75. Yellow-brown, moderately
hard, even-grained, durable, especially under water. Used for
canoes, tea-chests, furniture, etc.

Chatwan (Alstdnia scholdris E.Br. : Order Apocyndcece).
India, Ceylon, Moluccas. Telugu " Eda-kula." Malaij " Kayu
Gabas." A large tree, yielding white, close- but rather coarse-
grained, soft, perishable, bitter wood. Used for writing-boards
in schools, whence its name, for boxes, tea-chests, coffins, turnery,
etc., and as a tonic.

Cheesewood (Pittospdrum unduldtum Vent. : Order Pitto-
spdrece). Eastern Australia. " Native Laurel," " Mock Orange."
Aborig. " Wallundun-deyren." Height 30—50 or 90 ft. ; diam.
1 — 2J ft. W 61-25. White or whitey-brown, very close-grained,
hard. Suitable for turning, rollers for mangles, and engraving,
though inferior to Box. The name is also applied to P. bicolor
Hook., the " Whitewood " of Tasmania, where it was used by
the aborigines for clubs. This is a smaller tree with yellower
wood. S.G. 874. Used for axe-handles, billiard-cues, etc.

Cherry (Prunus Amum L. and P. C&rasus L., and probably
P. Pddus L. : Order Eosdcece). Europe, Northern and Western
Asia. Sapwood reddish or yellowish white ; heart light
yellowish-brown, hard, heavy, firm, but not durable ; annual
rings distinct ; pith-rays distinct, fine ; vessels fine and equally
distributed. The wood is valued by turners and for inlaying.
After soaking for several days in lime-water it becomes a beautiful
brownish-red, and can be used as a substitute for Mahogany.
More important, however, is the " Perfumed Cherry," P. Mahaleb
L., the perfumed brown or green-streaked wood of which is
grown and manufactured in Austria into pipe-stems and
walking-sticks.

Cherry, Brush (Eugenia myrtifdlia). See Myrtle, Native.

Cherry, Brush (Trochocdrpa laurlna E.Br., See Barranduna
Cherry, Native (Exocdrpus cupressiffomis) R.Br. : Order
Santaldcece). Australia. Height 10—20 or 40 ft. ; diam. 6—20
inches. S.G. 756 — 845. Close-grained, handsome, hard,

CHAPLASH— CHESTNUT. 189

durable. Used for tool-handles, spokes, gun-stocks, cornice-
poles, etc. The allied E. latifdlia is sometimes called "Broad-
leaved Cherry." See Sandal- wood, Scrub.

Cherry, Wild Black (Primus serotina Ehrh. : Order Eosdcece).
Eastern United States. Height 90 — 120 ft. ; diam. 2 — 3 ft.
Sapwood yellowish-white; heart pale reddish to brown, often
with discoloured flaws, compact, fine- and close-grained, hard,
heavy, strong, shrinking in drying, but taking a good polish,
durable. Valued for cabinet-work and interior decoration ; but
scarce.

Chestnut (Castdnea wlgdris Lamk. : Order Cupuliferce).
"Spanish Chestnut." French " Chataignier," Germ. " Edel-
kastanie." A large tree, sometimes reaching an enormous
girth, native to the continent of Europe and represented by a
closely related variety, americana, in the Eastern United States.
Sapwood yellowish-white or light brown; heart darker brown,
resembling Oak, but distinguished by the absence of broad
pith-rays ; pores large, forming a broad circle in the spring-wood
and bifurcating lines beyond ; moderately hard, but much softer
than Oak, light, coarse-grained, not strong, warping in drying,
but durable when dry or wet. S.G. 450. E 85621. R 696 kilos.
\V 28 — 41. Used for fence-posts and rails, staves, vine-props,
hop-poles, cabinet-work, and charcoal. The ancient roofs in
England alleged to be of Chestnut are really of Oak.

Chestnut, Moreton Bay (Castanospe'rmum austrdU A. Cunn. :
Order Legumindsce). "Bean tree." North-east Australia, intro-
duced into India. Height 80—90 or 130 ft. ; diam. 2 — 3 or 6 ft.
W 39*5. Prettily grained, streaked with dark brown, somewhat
resembling walnut, soft, fine-grained, shrinking much in drying
and so requiring thorough seasoning, taking a good polish, but
not durable. Used for furniture and staves.

Chestnut, Wild, of South Africa (Calodendr&n captnse Thunb. :
Order Butdcece). Dutch "Kastanie." Height 20—30 or 70ft.;
diam. 2 — 3 or 5 ft., the dimensions in Cape Colony exceeding
those in Natal. White, soft, very light, but soft. Used for
yokes, hoops of waggons, etc.

190 WOODS OF COMMERCE.

Chilauni (Schima PFallichiiChois. : Order Camellidcece). Bengal.
Red, coarse grained, durable. Much used for bridges and sleepers.

China-berry, an American name for Melia compdsita. See
Bead-tree.

Chinquapin, in the Eastern United States (Castdnea pumila
Michx.), in the Western States (Castandpsis clirysophyllti A. DC.),
small trees allied to the Chestnut, with similar but slightly
heavier wood.

Chittagong-WOOd, a name applied to several woods imported
to Madras, from north-east Bengal, the best of which is Cedrdla
To6na [See Cedar, Moulmein]. Chickrdssia tabuldris A. Juss.
(Order Melidcece), otherwise known as " Cedar, Bastard Cedar "
or " Deodar." Bengal " Chikrassi." Sinh. " Kulankik." Tamil
" Kal-otthi," is also so-called. Height 80 ft. ; diam. 2—3 ft.
W 24. Yellowish-brown to reddish-brown, with a splendid
satiny lustre, fragrant, hard, seasoning and working well, but
warping and creaking in very hot dry weather. Used for
furniture and carving.

Coach- wood (CeratopStalum apttalum D. Don. : Order Saxi-
fragdcece). "Light-wood" or "Leather-jacket." New South
Wales. Height 50—70 or 100 ft. ; diam. 1J— 2 or 3 ft. W 42.
Soft, light, close-grained, exceedingly tough, with the fragrance of
coumarin. Used for coach-building, tool-handles, cabinet-work,
etc., and suggested for sounding-boards and stethoscopes. The
name is also applied to Schizomdria ovdta D. Don., an allied
reddish wood of inferior character, known also as " Cork-wood,
Beech" or " White Cherry."

Cocus. See Ebony, Green.

Coffee-tree (Gymnodddus canaddnsis Lam. : Order Legumindsce).
French " Chicot, Gros fevier." Germ. " Amerikanischer Schusser-
baum." Span. "Arbol de cafe" falso." Eastern United States.
Height 100 ft.; diam. 3 ft. S.G. 693. W 43-2. E 104822. R 771
kilos. Sapwood yellow or greenish-white ; heart brown blotched
with red, heavy, cross-grained, hard, strong, very stiff, taking a
high polish, handsome, and durable. Used for fencing, building,
and cabinet-work.

CHILAUNI— CRAB-WOOD. 191

Cogwood (Ceandthus Chlordxylon Nees : Order Ehamndcece).
Jamaica. Hard, heavy, very elastic and durable under water.
Used for cogs in sugar-mills.

Compass (Kcempdssia malaccdnsis Maingay). Borneo. W 58.
Ked, heavy, tough, strong, coarse-grained, but liable to termite-
attack and not durable.

Cooper's wood (AlphiMnia extilsa). See Ash, Mountain.

Cork-wood tree of Missouri (Leitrrfria Floriddna Chapm. :
Order Leitneridcece). S.G. 210. The lightest known wood.

Cork-wood tree of the Antilles (Hibiscus tilidceus L. : Order
Malvaceae). Grown throughout the Tropics. Nut-brown, very
light. Used for floats for fishing-nets.

Cork- wood in Australia (i) (Duboisia myopwoides R.Br. : Order
Solandcew). Also known as "Elm." New South Wales and
Queensland. Height 15—30 ft. ; diam. 1—2 ft. W 30—3075.
White or yellowish, very soft, close-grained, and firm. Used for
carving. Named from its bark resembling that of Cork Oak.
The name is applied (ii) to Schizomfria ovdta [See Coachwood],
and (Hi) to Weinmdnnia rubifdlia F. v. M. [See Marrara].

Cork-tree, Indian (MillingMnia harUnsis L. fil. : Order Big-
nonidcece). Yellow-white, soft, taking an excellent polish. Used
for furniture.

Cotton-tree (Bombax Ceiba L. : Order Bombdcece). Identical
with B. malabdricum DC. Southern India, Burma, Northern
Australia. "Malabar Silk-cotton," "Red-Cotton tree." French
" Fromage de Hollande." Hind. " Shembal." Height 60 ft. or
more ; diam. 5 ft. W 20 — 32. Light, soft, coarse-grained, not
durable. Used for planks, packing-cases, tea-chests, coffins,
canoes, and fishing-floats.

Cotton wood. See Poplar and Dogwood, in Tasmania.

Courbaril. See Locust.

Cowdie-pine. See Kauri.

Crab-wood (Cdrapa guian^nsis Aubl. : Order Melidcece).
Guiana, Trinidad, etc. "Caraba, Carapo, Andiroba." Height
60 ft. and upward; diam. 1—2 ft. S.G. 894—349. W 46-25. fc
3-29. fs -433. R 80 kilos. Reddish-brown, moderately heavy and

192 WOODS OF COMMERCE.

hard, straight-grained, resembling inferior Mahogany, but affected
by shakes and splitting in seasoning, taking a good polish, little
attacked by insects. Used for furniture, internal fittings, masts,
spars, staves, and shingles. Cdrapa prdcera DC., the "Toulou-
couna " of Senegambia, is a very similar wood.

Crow's Ash. See Flindosa.

Cuamara. See Tonka-bean.

Cucumber-tree (Magndlia acumindta L. : Order Magnolidcece).
"Mountain Magnolia." Eastern United States. Height up to
100 ft.; diam. 4 ft. S.G. 409. W 29-23. E671 kilos. Sapwood
white ; heart yellowish-brown, soft, light, close-grained, moderately
compact and durable, taking a satiny polish. Closely resembling
and probably often confounded with Tulip-wood (Liriocttndron
tulipifera), this wood is used for turnery, wainscot, packing-cases,
and cheap furniture. [See also Papaw.]

Cudgerie. See Flindosa.

Cypre, Bois de (Cdrdia Gerascdnthus Jacq. : Order Borraginece).
Tropical America. "Spanish Elm," "Dominica Kosewood,"
" Bois de Rhodes." Dark, open-grained, soft. W 47'69. E 553.
/ 2-73. fc 2-16. fs -428. Used in cabinet-work.

Cypress (Cuprous sempervirens L. : Order Cupressinece). Medi-
terranean region, Asia Minor, and Persia. Height up to 100 ft.;
diam. sometimes 7 ft. S.G. 620. Reddish, fragrant, moderately
hard, very fine- and close-grained, and virtual^ indestructible.
Used by the ancient Egyptians for mummy-cases ; for the coffins
of the Popes ; in Assyria and in Crete for shipbuilding ; for the
gates of Constantinople destroyed by the Turks in 1453, eleven
hundred years after their construction ; and for the doors of St.
Peter's, which were quite sound when replaced, about the same
time and after a similar duration, by brass. Used, according to
Evelyn, for harps and organ-pipes, and also for vine-props ; but
now seldom employed.

Cypress, Bald, Black, Deciduous, Red, Swamp or White
(Taxddium distichum Richard : Order TaxodUce). Swamps of the
Southern United States. Height 80 — 100 or more ft.; diam. 6 — 8
or 13 ft., but tapering. Wood lighter and less *esinous on low

CRAB. WOOD-CYPRESS-PINE. 193

ground, and then termed "White Cypress," reddening on
exposure, soft, straight- and fine-grained, not strong, but very
durable in contact with the soil. Formerly used in Louisiana for
canoes, water-pipes, and house frames, and now for sleepers,
fencing, and, on a large scale, for shingles.

Cypress, Himalayan or Indian (Cuprfssus toruldsa D. Don.),
a light-brown, fragrant, moderately hard wood, used for building,
etc.

Cypress, Japanese. See Hi-no-ki.

Cypress-Pine, the general name for the species of Frentla
(Order Cupresslnece), in Northern and Eastern Australia, especially
the varieties of F. robusta A. Cunn. (--=Cdllitris robusta R. Br.),
" Black, Common, Dark, Lachlan, Murrumbidgee " or " White
Pine, Camphor-wood." Aborig. " Marung." Height 60—70 ft.
diam. 1J — 2 ft. Light to dark brown, often with pinkish
longitudinal streaks and beautifully figured, with a camphor-like
fragrance, straight-grained, but very full of knots, easily worked,
shrinking and warping but little, and taking a good polish,
largely teredo- and termite -proof. Much used for piles, building,
and furniture. Frentla robusta, var. microcdrpa A. Cunn., the
" Coorung coorung " of the aborigines, is a similar and valuable
wood, but dark-coloured and somewhat brittle, used for telegraph-
poles. F. robusta, var. verrucdsa A. Cunn., sometimes known also
as "Rock Pine," " Desert Cypress " or "Sandarac Pine," is also
dark. S.G. 691. W 43—44-5. It is used for telegraph-poles and
cabinet-making, its carnphoraceous smell being said to be
obnoxious to insects. Frentla Endlicheri Parlat., known as
" Black, Red, Scrub " or " Murray Pine," a rich brown, beauti-
fully mottled with darker brown, presenting a superb figuring,
fragrant, fine-grained, susceptible of a high polish and durable, is
a valuable wood, used for internal work and for piles, sleepers,
etc. Frentla rhomboldea Endl., known also as "Light" or
" Illawarra Mountain Pine," or, in Tasmania, as " Oyster Bay
Pine," is close-grained, strong, easily worked, takes a good polish
and is durable, but smaller than the varieties just mentioned.
W 39*25. It is used for similar purposes.

194 WOODS OF COMMERCE.

Cypress-Pine, Mountain (Frentla Parlatdrei F. v. M.), also
known as " Stringybark Pine." Height 40 — 60 ft. ; diam. 1—2
ft. Light straw-colour, fragrant, close-grained, soft, easily
worked. Much used for joinery.

Date, Kafir, or Plum (Harpephyllum Cdffrum Bernh.). Cape
Colony. W 45-7. / 5-86. fc 2'94. Dull red mahogany-like, easily
worked, and suitable for carpentry and cabinet-work.

Deal, a term properly describing soft (coniferous) wood sawn
in thicknesses of 2 — 4 in., but often used with prefixes as to
colour or country of origin. Thus Dantzic, Red or Yellow Deals
are derived from the Northern Pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) [See
Pine, Northern], White Deals from the Spruce (Plcea excelsa),
Canadian and New Brunswick Spruce Deals, mostly from Picea
nigra, narrow-ringed trees yielding "Black," wide-ringed ones
"White Spruce."
Deodar. See Cedar, Deodar.

Dhaura (Anogelssus latifolia Wall. : Order Combretdcece).
India. Height up to 200 ft. ; diam. 3 ft. or more. Sapwood
wide, grey or yellowish ; heart purplish, hard, very strong and
tough, but splitting in seasoning and only durable when kept dry.
Used for axles, axe-handles, agricultural implements, furniture, etc.
Dilo. See Poon.
Dogo. See Mangrove.

Dogwood, in England (i) (Cornus sanguined L. : Order Cor-
ndcece). Europe and Northern and Western Asia. Known also
as " Cornel," "Prickwood." A mere shrub. Hard, horny, flesh-
coloured, with minute evenly-distributed vessels, 1 — 4 together,
without pith-flecks and with indistinguishable pith-rays. Used
formerly for skewers and arrows, and to some extent for gun-
powder charcoal, (ii) (PJidmnus Frdngula L. : Order Rhamndcece).
Europe, North Africa, and Siberia. Known also as "Berry-
bearing Alder," and to gunpowder-makers as " Black Dogwood."
A shrub 5 — 10 ft. high. Sapwood narrow light yellow ; heart
brilliant yellowish-red ; vessels minute, not in flamboyant groups
as in the allied Buckthorn (Pi. cathdrticus) ; soft. Largely used in
the manufacture of gunpowder charcoal.

CYPRESS-PINE—EAGLE-WOOD. 195

Dogwood, in the West Indies (Pisddia Erythrina L. : Order
Legumindsce). W 56'89. / 374. fc 2-03. fs '387. Used in
building.

Dogwood, in Tasmania (Bedfdrdia salicina DC. : Order Com-
pdsitce), the "Cottonwood" of New South Wales. Height
12—30 ft. S.G. 896. Pale brown, often beautifully mottled,
hard, close-grained, fetid when cut, brittle and difficult to season.

Dogwood, in Australia (i) (Emmenospdrmum alphitonioides
F. v. M. : Order Ehamndcea). Height 130—170 ft.; diam. 2— 2J
ft. Straight-grained and durable. Useful for tool-handles, oars,
staves, boat and house-building. (ii) (Jacksdnia scopdria R. Br. :
Order Legumindsce). Height 10 — 15 ft. ; diam. 3 — 12 in.
W 55 '25 — 56 -5. Dark-yellow or brown, hard and polishing well,
fetid when burning. Too small for much use. (iii) (Myopfoum
montdnum^. Br. : Order Myoporinece), known also as "Waterbush"
or " Native Daphne." Height 30—40 ft.; diam. 1 ft. W. 47.
Soft, light, tough, straight-grained. Used in building. (iv)
(Myop6rum platycdrpum R. Br.), known also as "Sandal" or
" Bastard Sandal-wood," or " Sugar-tree." Small, light walnut
colour, fragrant when cut, often with a bird's-eye mottling,
especially in burrs, fine-grained, taking a fine polish. Suitable
for veneers, (v) (Syndum glanduldsum). See Rosewood.

Dongon (StercMia cymbifdrmis Blanco). Philippine Islands.

Douglas Fir. See Pine, Oregon.

Dudhi (Wrightia tinctdria R. Br. : Order Apocyndcew). India.
Hind. " Kala Kudu." Tamil " Nila Pila." A small tree, 12—15
in. in diam. Wood white, close-grained and hard, resembling
ivory. Used for turning.

Durmast. See Oak, Durmast.

Eagle- wood (Aquildria Agdllocha Roxb. in Sylhet, and A.
malacclnsis Lam. of Further India: Order Aquilaridcece). "Lign-
aloes, Aloes-wood, Agilawood, Black Agallocha." French " Bois
d'Aigle." £em."Adlerholz." &msM"Agaru." ^ra&."Aqulugin."
Latin " Agallochum." Large trees with whitish wood, containing
an abundance of resin and an essential oil, much valued as a
perfume and possibly the " aloes " of Psalm xlv. The wood

196 WOODS OF COMMERCE.

retains its fragrance for years and is burnt in Indian temples and
also used for inlaying and as a setting for jewels, selling at £30
per cwt. in Sumatra.

Ebony, a name for a very dense, hard, and generally black
wood, mentioned by Herodotus and perhaps by Ezekiel, and
originally applying to Diospyros Ebenum Konig (Order Ebendcece).
£^w "Ebenus." French " Ebene." Germ. " Ebenholz." Arabic
" Abnoos." A large tree, a native of Southern India and Ceylon.
S.G. 1187. W 70 or more; the heart 75—80. ^756—1180.
Sapwood dingy grey with black patches, flexible arid very liable
to insect attack ; heart deep black, very heavy, hard, and fine-
grained, the rings and pith-rays being scarcely recognizable,
capable of a very high polish, but affected by weather, and,
therefore, used largely as veneer, selling in England at from
£5 to £10 per ton.

Ebony, Acapulco, Cuernavaca or Mexican (Diospyros

Ebendster Retz.). A native of India, cultivated in Mauritius, the
Philippines and tropical America, the " Bastard Ebony " of
Ceylon.

Ebony, American, Green, Jamaica or West Indian (Brya
Ebenus DC. : Order Legumindsce). "Cocus" or " Kokra" of Jamaica,
" Granadillo " of Cuba, "Billy Web " or "Chichipate" of Honduras.
A small tree. S.G. 1206. W 6145. E 1178 tons. /9-10. /e4-5.
fs '529. R 480 Ibs. Heavy, black, durable. Used for inlaying
flutes, flageolets, etc.

Ebony, Bombay, Ceylon and Siam (Diospf/ros Ebenum
Konig, Ebendster Retz., melandxylon Roxb. and other species).
D. melandxylon Roxb., also known as "Coromandel" or
" Godavery Ebony." Hind. " Tendu." A large tree. S.G. 978—
1200. W 61-1 2. R 294 Ibs. Sapwood pink; heart black, with
beautiful purple streaks, irregular, heavy, very hard, strong.
Used for building, shafts, carving, etc.

Ebony, Camagoon (Diospyros pilosdnthem Bl.), the " Bolong-
nita " of the Philippine Islands.

Ebony, Cape or Orange River (Eudea Pseud&benus E. Mey :
Order Ebendcece). South-west Africa. Jet-black, hard.

EAGLE-WOOD—EBONY. 197

Ebony, Cuba (Diospyros tetraspdrma Jacq.). "Ebano Real."
S.G. 1300. R 305 Ibs. Black, hard, brittle. Used in cabinet-
work.

Ebony, False, the "Corsican Ebony" of ancient Rome
(Cytisus Laburnum L. : Order Legumindsce). French " Faux
ebenier." Sapwood broad, yellowish ; heart dark-brown with a
greenish tinge ; rings and pith-rays distinct, hard, capable of high

FIG. 51. — Transverse section of Laburnum (Cytisus Laburnum) " False Ebony."

polish, but not durable. Used in turnery and by the ancients as
veneer.

Ebony, Gaboon, Lagos or Old Calabar (Diospyros Dendo
Welw.). Tropical West Africa. Black.

Ebony, German, the wood of Pear or Yew, stained black.

Ebony, Green (Diospyros chlordxylon Roxb.). Telugu " Nella
ulimera." Southern India. A large tree yielding a hard, useful
wood. In Brazil the name is applied to Tecoma leucfaylon Mart.
(Order Bignonidcece), known also as " Quirapaiba," a heavy, hard,
dark-green, close-grained cabinet-wood yielding logs 14 ft. long

198 WOODS OF COMMERCE.

and 14—16 in. square. S.G. 1220—1211. R 481 kilos. In the
West Indies the name is applied to Brya Ebenus. [See Ebony,
American.]

Ebony, Madagascar, Macassar or Zanzibar (Diospyros
mespilifdrmis Hochst., haplostylis Boiv. and microrhdmbus Hiern,
and also Acacia glaucophylla Stead, and Dalbergia melanoxylon
Guill. and Perr. : Order Leyumindsai), all natives of tropical East
Africa, with black heartwood.

Ebony, Manila (Dwspyros phUippdnsis Giirke and D. Ebendster
Retz.).

Ebony, Mauritius (Diospyros tesseldria Poir.).

Ebony, Mountain (Bauhinia Hookeri F. v. M. and B. Carrdnii
F. v. M. : Order Leguminosce). Also known as " Queensland
Ebony." Eastern Australia. The former 30— 40 ft. high ; 1—1 -J
ft. in diam., dark-red, heavy : the latter light-brown to dark-
brown. Suitable for veneers.

Ebony, Red (Diospyros rubra Gartn.). Mauritius.

Ebony, St. Helena (Dombeya melanoxylon Roxb. : Order
Byttneridcece). Height 10— 15 ft. S.G. 1145. W 71-5. Almost
exterminated by goats.

Ebony, White (Diospyros Malacapdi A. DC.). Philippines.

Elder (Sambucus nigra L. : Order Capri/olidcece). Europe,
West Asia and North Africa. A small tree. Pith very large ;
pith-rays numerous and distinct ; vessels more numerous in spring-
wood ; wood yellowish, hard, firm, difficult to dry, warping.
Used in turnery.

Elder, Box. See Maple, Ash-leaved.

Elm, a name referring originally and mainly to species of the
genus Ulmus (Order Ulmdcece), broad-leaved trees with very large
vessels in their spring-wood, and the vessels in the autumn-wood
in wavy peripheral lines. French " Orme." Germ. "Ulm" or
" Riister." Ital " Ulmo."

Elm, American, Water or White (Ulmus Americana L.).
French "Orme parasol." Alluvial ground in Eastern North
America. Height 100 ft. or more; diam. 6 — 7 ft. S.G. 650.
W 40-5. R 852 kilos. Sapwood yellowish-white; heart light-

EBONY— ELM. 199

brown, heavy, strong, tough, compact, but not durable ; pores in
spring-wood conspicuously large and almost entirely in a single
row. Valuable for tool-handles, agricultural implements, wheel-
hubs, cooperage, etc., and for fuel.

Elm, Canadian, Cliff, Cork, Hickory, Rock or White
( U. racemosa Thomas). French " Orme a grappe." Germ. " Trauben
Ulme, Felsen Ulme." Canada and Eastern United States.
Height 80—150 ft. ; diam. 2—3 ft. S.G. 726—765. W 45-26—47.

Fio. 52. — Transverse section of Common Elm (Ulmus campestris).

R 1066 kilos, c 9182. c' 1-213. v' 1-191. e' 1'39. / 1-14. Sapwood
greenish, not durable ; pores in spring-wood small, those in
summer-wood in fine rather distant lines ; heavy, hard, compact,
very strong, tough and elastic. Logs 20—40 ft. long and 11 — 16
in. square, liable to split in drying, and, therefore, preferably kept
immersed; very durable under water. A valuable, but very
slow-growing timber, making on an average only one inch of
diameter in fourteen years. Largely used for the same purposes

200 WOODS OF COMMERCE.

as the above-mentioned species, and for house and boat-building,
and exported in large quantities to Liverpool and London for
coach-building, wheels, piles, boat-building, etc., fetching £5 10s.
per load.

Elm, Cork, Common or English (U. campdstris Sm.).
Germ. " Korkulme, Rote Riister." Height 80—90 ft. ; diam.
2—3 ft. S.G. 542—909. W 34—56-7. E 445 tons per
sq. in. e' '56. p 14,400—13,489. p' -49. / 3-5. ft 6'25.
c 5,460. c' '721. fc 4-6. v' '757. fs '62. Sapwood narrow,
yellowish- white, as durable as the heart ; heart dark-brown or
brownish-red, heavy, hard, firm, elastic, very tough, very difficult
to split, extremely durable if kept either dry or wet. The Rialto
at Venice is said to be built on 12,000 elm piles. The wavy
lines of pores in the summer-wood consist of single rows of pores
and are interrupted : pith-rays hardly distinguishable : grain
twisted. Though free from shakes, Elm timber is very liable to
druxy knot, and, though not splitting, is liable to warp. On the
Continent Elm is valued for gun-carriages and gun-stocks. In
England it was used formerly for water-pipes and is now
employed for coffins, butcher's-blocks, pulley-blocks, naves of
wheels, pumps, ships' keels, coach-building, turnery, etc., though
for most purposes inferior to Oak. (Fig. 51.)

Elm, Dutch or Sand, a large-leafed form, allied to the last-
mentioned, grown only for ornament, its wood being subject to
star-shake.

Elm, Indian (U. integrifdlia Roxb.). Hind. " Papri." Telugu
11 Nalli." Burm. " Thalai." India, Ceylon, Burma. A large tree.
Wood light yellowish-grey to red, moderately hard and strong.
Used for door frames, cart-building, and carving.

Elm, Moose, Red or Slippery (U. fulva Michx.). French
"Orme gras." Southern Canada and North-eastern United
States. Height 60—70 ft. ; diam. 2 ft. S.G. 695. W 43-35. R
869 kilos. Brownish-red, heavy, hard, strong, compact, tough,
more durable than other Elms ; pores in spring wood forming a
broad band of several rows, those in the summer wood in broken,
slightly waved, narrow lines. It is more easily split than other

ELM-ENG. 201

Elms, and is, therefore, much used for fence-rails, whilst its
toughness and flexibility when steamed fit it for the ribs of boats.

Elm, Scotch, Wych, or Mountain (U. montdna Sm.). Also
known as " Chair-elm " and formerly as " Wych-hazel." Germ.
" Bergriister." Height 80—120 ft.; diam. up to 16 ft. In
Britain most abundant north of the Trent. Wood lighter-
coloured, softer, straighter-grained, and, therefore, more easily
split than English Elm. Pores in the summer wood in complete
bands. Used for the backs of Windsor chairs, shafts, and other
purposes to which Ash is applied, and for boat-building.

Elm, Spanish. See Cypre, Bois de.

Elm, Spreading (U. effusa Willd.). Germ. "Flatterriister."
Sapwood broad, yellowish ; heart light-brown ; vessels in spring
wood in a single line, those in the summer wood in broad con-
tinuous wavy bands ; less strong than the other species ; but
valued on the Continent on account of its markings for turnery,
cabinet-work, gun-stocks, etc.

Elm, Winged, or Cork- winged (U. aldta Michx.). Aborig.
" Wahoo." South-east United States. Small, heavier and more
compact than U. americdna, fine-grained ; pores in spring wood
small, in a single row, those in summer wood in broad, slightly
wavy bands.

In Australia the name " Elm " is applied to Duboisia
myoporoides [See Cork-wood] and to AphanatM phillippinJnsis
Planch. (Order Urticece), known also as " Tulip-wood,"
and by the aborigines as " Mail," a tree introduced in the
north-east, 80 — 90 ft. high and 1 — 1J ft. in diam., yielding a
light-coloured, close-grained wood, used for internal work in
building.

Els, Klip or Rock Ash (Rhus Thunbdrgii Hook. : Order
Anacardidcece). Cape Colony. Hard, heavy, close-grained, and
tough. Suitable for musical instruments or carving.

Els, Rood. See Cedar, Red.

Eng (Dipterocdrpus tuberculdtus Koxb. : Order Dipterocarpdcece).
Burma. Barm. " Eng." A large tree, 60 ft. in height and 3 ft. in
diam. W 55. Keddish, hard. Used for house-posts, canoes,

202 WOODS OF COMMERCE.

and planking. Other species, such as D. grandifldm Wall, and D.
aldtus Roxb. [See Gurjun], are confused under the same name.

Engyin (Shdrea siamensis Miq. : Order Dipterocarpdcece). Burma
and Siam. Perhaps the same name as the preceding. A large
tree, resembling the allied Sal. W 54 — 55. Heart very hard,
very heavy and cross-grained : pith-rays finer than in Sal. Used
in house building, and for bows, etc.

Epel of Borneo maybe " Ypil" of the Philippines, " Yepi,
Apa" or "Epe" in Telugu, Afzelia bijuga A. Gray [See
Shoondul], Baukinia diphylla Buch. or Hardwickia bindta
Roxb. [See Anjan].

Essen boom. See Ash, Cape.

Featherwood (Polyusmi Cunninghdmii J. J. Benn. : Order
Saxifragdcece}. North-eastern Australia. " Hickory, Wineberry."
Aborig. " Yaralla." Height 40—60 ft. ; diam. 1—3 ft. W 49'3.
Yellow, close-grained, tough. Used for ladders, hand-spikes, etc.

Fiddle- wood (Cilharexylum melanocdrdium Sw., cinereum L.,
surrectum Griseb., and quadranguldre Jacq. : Order Ferbendcece).
West Indies. French " Bois fidele, Bois de cotelet." Used for
posts, shingles, etc.

Fig, the general name for the genus Ficus, few species of which
yield timber of any value. That of Ficus indica L. (Order
Artocarpdcece) is used in Ceylon for common furniture ; but it, and
that of other species, being soft and spongy, is readily charged
with oil and emery for knifeboards or polishing purposes.

Fig, Leichhardt's Clustered (Ficus glomerdta Willd.). India,
Burma, Northern Australia. Aborig. " Parpa." Hind. " Kith
Giilar." Height 40— 60 ft.; diam. 1—3 ft. W 25— 36. Greyish
or straw-colour, coarse but straight-grained, light, soft, porous,
moderately strong, not durable, except under water. Used for
well-frames in India, and for furniture in Ceylon, and suggested
for packing-cases.

Fig, Illawarra, Port Jackson or Rusty (F. rubiginosa Desf.).
Aborig. "Dthaaman." Eastern Australia. Height 60 — 80ft.;
diam. 4 — 5 ft. W 28*5. Light, soft, brittle, spongy. Some-
times used for packing-cases.

ENG-FIR. 203

Fig, Large leaved or Moreton Bay (F. macwphylla Desf.).
North-eastern Australia. Height 50—100 ft., diam. 3—6 ft.
W 34. Pale-brown, with a beautiful wavy figure on a darker
brown, but difficult to season, soft and not durable, so only
occasionally used for packing-cases.

Fig, Prickly. See Ash, Blueberry.

Fir, a name very loosely used both in commerce and in botany,
mostly for coniferous trees.1 Thus Dantzic, Eliasberg, Memel,
Norway, Red, Kiga, Saldowitz, Scots, Stettin, Swedish and
Yellow Fir are all Pinus sylvtstris [See Pine, Northern],
named mainly from the port of shipment, Douglas or Oregon Fir
is Pseudotsuga Daugldsii [See Pine, Oregon], and White Fir is
Picea excelsa [See Spruce, Norway]. The name is preferably
restricted to the genus Abies, conifers distinguished by their flat
leaves with two lateral resin-canals, and by their erect cones which
fall to pieces when the seed is ripe. Their wood is generally
without resin-ducts, coarse-grained, soft and perishable.

Fir, Balsam or American Silver (Abies balsdmea Miller).
Wet ground in Eastern North America. Known also as " Balm-
of-Gilead Fir." French " Sapin baumier." Germ. " Balsam-
Tanne." Height 30—60 or 80 ft. ; diam. 2 ft. S.G. 382. W
23-8. R 515 kilos. Yellowish, very light, soft, coarse-grained,
not strong or durable. Sometimes used for staves for fish-
barrels. The most valuable product of this species is Canada
balsam, a resin collected in Quebec. The names " Balsam Fir "
and " Black Balsam " are sometimes applied to A. cdncolor [See
Fir, White].

Fir, Red (A. ndbilis Lindl.). Western United States. " Larch-
fir." "Noble Fir." Germ. " Edel Weisstanne. Height 100—
200 ft. or more ; diam. 4 — 5 ft. or 9 ft. Light-brown, streaked
with red, light, hard, strong, durable when seasoned. Used for
internal work. The name is also applied to A. magnified Murray,
Germ. " Prachtige Weisstanne," a loftier species of the same
region, with inferior timber, used for rough work or fuel.

1 Among Anglo-Indians species of Casuarina are known as "Fir." [See
Oak, Swamp].

204 WOODS OF COMMERCE.

Fir, Scots. See Pine, Northern.

Fir, Silver (A. pectindta DC.). Mountains of Central and
Southern Europe. "Swiss Pine." French " Sapin des Vosges,
Sapin de Lorraine." Germ. "Tanne, Edeltanne, Weisstanne,
Silbertanne." Height 100— 180 ft.; diam. 6— 8ft. Yellowish or
pinkish-white without distinct heart, and with few or no resin-
canals, with regular circular, well-defined rings, owing to the
darker autumn wood, light, soft, porous, silky in lustre, strong,
elastic, easily worked, not durable, taking glue well. Used by
the ancient Romans for masts and ship-building (Virgil, Georgics
ii., 68, Pliny. Nat. Hist, xvi.), and still so employed. One of the
most sonorous of woods, and, therefore, imported into London as
" Swiss Pine " for the sounding-boards of pianos and bellies of
violins. Much used in toy-making, for carving, and for packing-
cases, which are largely exported from Switzerland and the Tyrol.
Used also, where it grows, for fence-posts, internal work, sluices,
joists, planks, general carpentry, paper-pulp, and charcoal; but
inferior to Spruce.

Fir, Colorado Silver (A. cdncolor Lindl. and Gordon).
Western United States. "White Fir, Balsam Fir, Black
Balsam." Germ. " Californische " or " Gleichfarbige Weisstanne."
Height 1 00 — 250 ft. ; diam. 4 ft. or more. Very light, soft, coarse-
grained, neither strong nor durable. Used locally for butter-
tubs, etc.

Fir, Great or Tall Silver (A. grdndis Lindl.). North-western
United States and British Columbia. " White Fir of Oregon."
Germ. "G-rosse Kustentanne." Height 250—300 ft. ; diam. 3—5
ft. or more. Light, soft, easily worked, not strong. Used for
indoor carpentry, packing-cases, cooperage, etc., and forming, with
Oregon Pine, the chief lumber exported from the Pacific ports.

Fir, Indian Silver (A. WebUdna Lindl.). Himalayas.
Height 120—150 ft.; diam. 3—5 ft. Whitish, scentless, non-
resinous, open-grained, soft, easily worked, but not durable, if
exposed. Used locally for shingles and building.

Fir, Western or Lovely Silver (A. amdbilis Forbes). North-
western United States and British Columbia. "White Fir."

FIR— GRANADILLO. 205

Height 150—200 ft.; diam. 3—4 ft. Light, hard, but not
strong.

Fire-tree (Stenocdrpus sinudtus Endl. : Order Protedcece).
North-eastern Australia. " Tulip-tree." Aborig. "Yiel-yiel."
Height 60 — 70 ft. ; diam. 2 ft. Nicely marked, close-grained,
hard, susceptible of a good polish, durable. Used for staves and
veneers.

Flindosa (FlindSrsia austrdlis R. Br. : Order Melidcece). North-
eastern Australia. " Crow's " or " Mountain Ash," or " Beech.
Aborig. "Cudgerie." Height 80—100 ft. ; diam. 2—4 ft. S.G.
936. W 44-8—77-8. E 960 tons. / 7O3. fc 4-54. fs "62. Resem-
bling Oak, with slight or no figure, very hard, close and strong,
difficult to saw, but shrinking little in drying, very durable, not
discoloured by iron. Used for staves and as a substitute for
Beech, and suitable for railway construction.

Flintamentosa or Wyagerie, the product of a larger tree,
reaching 150 ft. in height and 6 ft. in diam. in Northern New
South Wales ; may be the same or some other species of
Flincttrsw. It is used in house-building.

Fuchsia (Fuchsia excwticdta L. fil. : Order Onagrdcece). New
Zealand. Maori "Kohutuhutu." Height 10—30 ft.; diam.
sometimes 3 ft. Durable.

Fustic (Ghlorophora tinctdria Gaud., var. Xanthdxylon : Order
Mai'dcece). Tropical America. French "Bois d'orange." Span.
" Fustete, Palo narango." Port. " Espinheiro branco, Amoreira de
espinho." R 305 Ibs. A large tree, yielding timber 20 ft. long
and a foot or more wide. Yellow, light, durable. Used for
spokes ; but chiefly as a dye under the name of " Old Fustic,"
" Young " or " Zante Fustic " being the wood of Rhus C6tinus.
[See Sumach, Venetian.]

Galaba or Galba. See Santa Maria.

Gangaw. See Iron wood, xviii.

Granadillo (Amyris balsamifera L. : Order Burserdcece). West
Indies. Known also as " Rosewood," " Mountain Torch wood,"
"Lignum Rhodium," or "Funera." W 74—60. E 986—565
tons. / 6-7—4-7. fc 4—5-7. fs -35— -43. Red, handsomely figured,

206 WOODS OF COMMERCE.

aromatic, resinous, hard. Used for building and furniture, and
exported. In Cuba the name is applied to Brya Ebenus. [See
Ebony, Green.]

Grape, Sea-Side (Coccoldba uvifera Jacq. : Order Polygondcew).
Jamaica. W 65'34. E 637 tons. / 4-13. fc 2-52. fs '428.

Greenheart (Nectdndra Rodicei Schomb. : Order Laurdcece).
North-eastern South America and the West Indies. Aborig.
"Bibiru," " Sipiri." A large tree, yielding timber 24 — 70 ft.
long and 1—2 ft. square. S.G. 1079—1210. W 58—76-5. E
1286 tons, e' -97. p' 1-65. / 8-97. c 8820. c' 1-165. fc 5-17. v 2-0.
fs '435. Dark-greenish or chestnut, often nearly black in the
centre, fine, even, and straight-grained, the rings indistinguishable,
very heavy, hard, tough, strong, elastic, and durable, the heart-
wood being teredo-proof, though the similar sapwood is not so.
This very valuable timber is liable to heart-shake. It is largely
used for piles, bridge-building and the keelsons, beams and planks
in ships, being classed in the second line in Lloyd's Register.

Grignon (Biicida angustifulia DC. : Order Combretdcece).
Guiana. Known in Surinam as " Wane." S.G. 714. Very
large, straight-growing, pale red, rather less hard than Oak, even
and straight in grain. Used for masts and for furniture.

Grignon fou (Qudlea cceridea Aubl. : Order Vochysidceoe).
Guiana. Known also as u Couaie." S.G. 800. Large, reddish,
soft, straight-grained, very common, but of inferior quality to the
preceding. Used for masts.

Gru-gru (Astrocdryum sp. and Acrocdmia sclerocdrpa Mart. :
Order Palmdcece). Trinidad. Height 20—30 ft. ; diam. 1 ft.
The outer part of the stem of these palms is hard, heavy, sus-
ceptible of a fine polish and durable. Used for walking sticks.

Guarabu (Termindlia acumindta Allem. : Order Combretdcece,
or Peltogynt macroUUum Allem., or P. confertiflvm Benth. : Order
Leguminusce). Brazil. " Pao roxo." A large tree, yielding-
straight, dark-purple, fine-grained wood, with numerous pores
filled with a hard white substance. Used in shipbuilding.

Guijo. See Sal.

Gum, a name referring mainly to the many and valuable

GRANADILLO— GUM. 207

Australian and Tasmanian species of the Myrtaceous genus
Eucalyptus, the identification and synonymy of many of which is
much involved.

Gum, Apple-scented (Eucalyptus Stuartidna F. v. M.).
Eastern Australasia. Frequently called " Turpentine " or
" Peppermint tree " ; in Tasmania " Red Gum " ; in Victoria also
" Mountain Ash " or " Apple-tree " ; in New South Wales
"Woolly Butt"; in Queensland "Box" or "Tea-tree." Intro-
duced in the Punjaub. Height 40—90 ft. ; diam. 2—4 ft. S.G.
834 — 1010. Light red-brown, wavy, hard, difficult to split, with
gum-veins, weak, but said to be durable underground, polishing
well. Used for ships' planks, sleepers, fence-posts, and rough
furniture.

Gum, Bastard. See Gum, Cider.

Gum, Black, in North America (Nyssa multiflfra Wan-
genh. = N. sylvdtica Marsh : Order Corncicece). Known also as
"Sour," "Yellow," or "Tupelo gum," or " Pepperidge."
Span. "Tupelo." Chiefly in the Southern United States.
Height up to 120 ft.; diam. 4 ft. S.G. 635. W 39-6. R 830 kilos.
Sapwood light yellow ; heart light brown, rather heavy, very
strong and tough, cross-grained, hard to split, warping, not
durable. Used for waggon-hubs, rollers, handles, sabots, turnery.
N. unifltira Wangenh. ( = N. tomentdsa Michx.), sometimes known
as " Cotton Gum," is similar.

Gum, Black, in South-east Australia (Eucalyptus stelluUta
Sieb.), known also as " White, Green," or " Lead Gum," " Sally,"
and "Box," from 12—50 ft. high and 1J— 3 ft. in diam., but
used only as fuel.

Gum, Blue (E. saligna Sm.). In New South Wales known
also as "Flooded, Grey, White" or "Silky Gum," or "Grey
Box." Height 40—120 ft.; diam. 2—7 ft. S.G. 1023. W 63-89.
Warm red-brown, wavy, very heavy, close- and cross-grained,
difficult to season, strong and durable, but liable to shakes.
Excellent for sleepers, fencing, ships' planks, spars, and building.
Gum, Bastard Blue and Scribbly Blue are names of E.
leucdxylon. See Ironbark.

208 WOODS OF COMMERCE.

Gum, Tasmanian or Victorian Blue (E. gUlulus Labill.).
South-eastern Australasia. Introduced into India, South Africa,
California and Southern Europe for sanitary purposes. Height
200— 350ft.; diam. 6— 25ft. S.G. 698— 1108. W 52 5— 71-87.
e 1-75. p' -88. c 6048. c' '798. if -915. Pale straw-colour, hard,
heavy, moderately strong, tough, with curled and twisted grain,
planing well, durable ; pith-rays very numerous, fine ; pores
moderate-sized, round, grouped or in lines. Used for fence-rails,
telegraph-poles, bridge-building, piles, and implements ; exten-
sively for carriage-buildings, and formerl}*1 for sleepers, for which
E. rostrdta is now preferred ; and classed in the third line of
Lloyd's Register for shipbuilding.

Gum, Brown. See Mahogany, Swamp.

Gum, Cabbage (E. Sieberidna F. v. M.). Known also as
"Gum-top Stringybark, Ironbark " and "Blackbutt" in Tas-
mania, and as " Mountain Ash " in New South Wales. Height
40—150 ft. ; diam. 1—5 ft. S.G. 896. W. 55'9. Buff, moderately
heavy, rather coarse and cross-grained, very tough, easily worked,
elastic, full of gum-veins, seasoning badly, generally soft, whence
its name, and doubtfully durable. Used for posts, rails and fuel.

Gum, Cider (E. Gunnii Hook. fil.). Tasmania and South-
eastern Australia, being known in the latter district as "Sugar,
White, Swamp, Yellow " or " Bastard Gum." Height 30 or
exceptionally 250 ft. S.G. 802—1021. Light reddish-brown,
hard, tough, with a few gum-veins, often crooked. Chiefly
valuable for charcoal and for its sap.

Gum, Creek (E. rostrdta). See Gum, Red.

Gum, Drooping (E. mmindlis) [See Gum, Manna] or (E.
pauciflora) [See Gum, Mountain White].

Gum, Flooded, a name applied to E. Gunnii [See Gum,
Cider], E. pauciflora [See Gum, Mountain White], E. rostrdta
[See Gum, Red], E. saligna [See Gum, Blue], E. tereticdrnis
[See Gum, Mountain].

Gum, Giant (E. amygdalina). See Ash, Mountain.

Gum, Gimlet (E. salubris F. v. M.). West Australia.
Known also as " Fluted Gum." Height 120 or 150 ft. Tough,

GUMS. 209

but easily worked. Used for shafts, implements, rough en-
graving and furniture.

Gum, Green (E. stelluldta). See Gum, Black.

Gum, Grey, a name applied to E. crdbra [See Ironbark,
Grey], E. goniocdlyx [See Box, Bastard], E. largifldrens [See
Gum, Slaty], E. punctdta [See Leather} acket], E. resinifera
[See Mahogany], E. saligna [See Gum, Blue], E. tereticdrnis
[See Gum, Mountain] and E. mmindlis [See Gum, Manna].

Gum, Lead (E. stelluldta, Sieb.). See Gum, Black.

Gum, Manna (E. vimindlis Labill.). South-eastern Australasia.
Known as " White " or " Swamp Gum " in Tasmania, as " Grey,
Blue, Ribbony, Drooping" or "Weeping Gum," or as "Woolly
Butt" in New South Wales, and as "Box" or "Peppermint
Gum" in Victoria. Height up to 320 ft.; diam. up to 17 ft.
S.G. 685—1003. W. 67-5. Buff to dull brick-colour or warm
brown, moderately heavy, straight coarse-grained, full of gum-
veins, weak, easily worked, requiring careful seasoning, only
durable underground. Used for palings, shingles and rough
building material. The name is also applied to E. amygdalina.
[See Ash, Mountain.]

Gum, Mountain (E. tereticdrnis Sm.), Eastern Australia.
Known also as "Red, Flooded, Grey, Blue" or "Slaty Gum"
and "Bastard Box." Aborig. "Mungurra." Height 40— 150 ft. ;
diam. 1 1 — 4 or 6 ft. S.G. 843. W. 52-5. Red-brown, resembling
Cedar, with cross, curly grain, lustrous, heavy, very hard, tough,
with some gum-veins, easy to dress, but difficult to season, very
durable. Largely used for fencing, naves, felloes, sleepers,
telegraph-poles, fuel, etc.

Gum, Mountain White (E. paucifldm Sieb.). South-eastern
Australasia. Known in Tasmania as " Weeping Gum," and in
Australia as "White, Swamp, Drooping" or "Flooded Gum,"
" Peppermint " or " Mountain Ash." Height 100 ft.; diam. 2—4
ft. White or buff, soft, straight but short-grained, full of gum-
veins. Used for fencing, and excellent for fuel.

Gum Nankeen (E. populifdlia Hook.). North-east Australia.
Also known as " White Gum, White, Red, Poplar," or " Bembil

O

210 WOODS OF COMMERCE.

Box." Height 50—60 ft.; diam. 2 ft. Grey or light brown,
hard, heavy, close-grained, very tough, strong, hard to work, but
susceptible of a fine polish, liable to gum-veins and often unsound,
durable. Used for sleepers, posts, and building.

Gum, Peppermint. See Gum, Manna.

Gum, Red, a name applied in Australia to Angdphora lanceoldta
[See Apple-tree], Eucalyptus amygdalina [See Ash, Mountain],
E. Gunnii [See Gum, Cider], E. melliodura [See Box, Yellow],
E. punctilio, [See Leatherjacket], E. resinl/em [See Mahogany],
E. tereticdrnis [See Gum, Mountain], and especially to E. rostrdta
and E. calophf/lla. E. rostrdta Schlecht. Eastern Australia,
Known also as " Creek, River, Forest, Flooded, Blue, White
Gum," or " Yellow-jacket." Aborig. " Yarrah," not to be con-
founded with Jarrah, though little inferior to it. Height 30 — 80
or 100 ft.; diam. 1—6 or 8 ft. S.G. 790—1045. W 53-5—62-5.
Dark red, with a pretty curly figure, moderately heavy,
exceedingly hard when dry, and therefore most difficult to work,
liable to twists and shakes in seasoning, but can take a fine
polish, very durable, termite- and teredo-proof. Highly valued for
ships' beams, sleepers, piles, bridges, posts, building, fencing, and
charcoal ; but, owing to its hardness, only slightly for furniture.
This is the chief wood used for paving in Melbourne, costing
about £9 per 1000 blocks, or 14s. per 100 feet super. E. calophf/lla
R Br. of South-west Australia, reaching a height of 150 ft.,
yields a tough but not durable wood, used for wheels, handles,
and building.

Gum, Red, in Tasmania (E. Stuartidna). See Gum, Apple
scented.

Gum, Red, in the United States, a trade name for Liquiddmbar
styradflua. See Gum, Sweet.

Gum, Rusty. See Apple tree

Gum, Scribbly (Eucalyptus hwmdstoma Sm.). Queensland and
New South Wales. Known also as " Spotted, White" or "Blue
Gum," "Black-butt," "Mountain Ash," etc, Height, 60—120
ft.; diam. 2—3 ft. S.G. 1101. W. 68-75. Grey or reddish,
wavy or stripy, often crooked, close, smooth, short-grained,

GUMS. 211

brittle, easily-worked, not durable. Used for fuel and rough
carpentry.

Gum, Slaty (E. largiflfrens F. v. M.). Eastern Australia.
Known also as " Cooburn, Black, Yellow, Bastard, or Grey Box,"
or as " Ironbark." Height 100—120 ft.; diam. 2—3 ft. Red,
hard, tough, durable, especially underground. Used for fencing,
sleepers, building, cogs, etc. The name is also applied to E.
tereticfonis. [See Gum, Mountain.]

Gum, Sour. See Gum, Black.

Gum, Spotted, a name applied to Eucalyptus capitelldta [See
Stringybark, White], E. gmiocdlyx [See Box, Bastard],
E. hcemdstoma [See Gum, Scribbly], and E. maculdta Hook.
This last mentioned species, native to Eastern Australia, reaches
100—150 ft. in height, and 3—8 ft. in diam. S.G. 1035—1170.
Dark yellow to walnut-brown, sometimes with a wavy figure,
heavy, close but very coarse in grain, with large gum-veins, strong,
tough, durable. In great demand for paving, girders, bridge and
ship building, shafts, naves, shingles, etc. It fetches 2s. a cubic
foot in London.

Gum, Sugar (E. corynocdlyx F. v. M.). South Australia.
Height 120 ft.; diam. 5 — 6 ft. Yellowish-white, very heavy,
hard, strong and durable, termite-proof, not warping. Used for
sleepers, piles, planks, fencing, wheels. The name is also applied
to E. Grunnii. [See Gum, Cider.]

Gum, Swamp. See Gum, Cider, Manna, and Mountain
White.

Gum, Sweet (Liquiddmbar stymciflua L.) : Order Hamameldcece).
Eastern United States. " Bilsted " or " Red Gum," " Californian
Red Gum " (though shipped from New Orleans). " Satin Walnut."
French " Copalm," Germ. " Storaxbaum," Span. "Liquid-ambar."
Height 100 ft. or more; diam. 4—5 ft. S.G. 591. W 36-8. R 651
kilos. Sapwood cream-white ; heart irregular, reddish-brown, with
dark false rings, rather heavy, close-grained, soft, tough, taking
a satiny polish, warping and twisting badly in drying, unless first
steamed. Used for furniture, veneers, turnery, shingles, and clap-
boards, and, though little suited for the purpose, for paving.

212 WOODS OF COMMERCE.

Gum, Water (Tristdnia neriifolia R. Br. : Order Myrtdcece).
New South Wales. Height 80—100 ft.; diam. 1J— 2 ft. W 66-5.
Very close-grained and elastic, apt to split in drying. Used for
handles, mallets, cogs.

Gum, Broad-leaved Water (T. suaveolens Sm.). Eastern
Australia. Known also as "Swamp Mahogany" and "Bastard
Peppermint." Height 50— 60 ft.; diam. 1—1 J ft. Eed, resem-
bling Spanish Mahogany, close-grained, strong, elastic, tough,
durable, but apt to split in drying, termite-proof. Extensively
used for piles, sleepers, posts, handles, cogs, coach-frames, etc.

Gum, White, a name applied to Eucalyptus amygdaliim [See
Ash, Mountain], E. gomphocephala [See Tewart], E. gonwcdlyx
[See Box, Bastard], E. Gunnii [See Gum, Cider], E. hcemdstoma
[See Gum, Scribbly], E. liemiphUia [See Canarywood], E. leu-
coxylon [See Ironbark], E. pauciflora [See Gum, Mountain
White], E. populifdlia [See Gum, Nankeen], E. redunca [See
Wandoo], E. resinifem [See Mahogany], E. rostrdta [See Gum,
Red], E. saligna [See Gum, Blue], E. stelluldta [See Gum,
Black], E. Stuartidna [See Gum, Apple-Scented], and E. vimi-
ndlis [See Gum, Manna].

Gum, Yellow, a name applied in Australia to E. Gunnii [See
Gum, Cider], E. punctdta [See Leatherjacket], or E. mellioddm
[See Box, Yellow], and in North America to Nf/ssa multiflora
[See Gum, Black].

Gum, York (E. facunda Schauer-^. loxophleba Benth).
Western Australia. Small, light pink, hard, heavy, close-grained,
elastic. Used by the aborigines for spears ; suitable for spokes.

Gurjun (Dipterocdrpus turbindtus Gaertn. fil. or D. aldtus Roxb. :
Order Dipterocarpdcece). Andaman Islands and Further India.
Also known as "Wood-oil tree." Burm. "Ka-nyin" and some-
times " Eng." Height up to 250 ft.; diam. 8 ft. W 38. Light
brown to red, dense, hard, but will not stand moisture. Excellent
for house-building, posts, or planks.

Guru-kina (Cdlophyllum tomentdsum Wight : Order Guttiferce).
Ceylon. W 62-6. E 657 tons./ 3-90. /e 2'41,/s '423. Used for
tea-chests and in building.

WATER-GUM—HAWTHORN. 213

Hackberry (Ctltis occidentdlis L. : Order Ulmdcece). Eastern
North America. " Sugarberry, Nettle-tree, False Elm." French
"Micocoulier occidentale," Germ. "Abendlandischer Ziirgelbaum/'
Span. "Almez Americano." Height 100 fr.; diam. 4—5 ft.
S.G. 729. W 45-4. R 789 kilos. Sapwood yellowish or greenish;
heart brown, often dark, rather heavy, not hard or strong, tough,
fine-grained, working well, shrinking moderately, and taking a
good satiny polish. Sometimes used for fencing, furniture, or
wheelwrights' work, as a substitute for Elm ; but scarce.

Hackmatack. See Tamarack.

Haldu (Adina cwdifolia Hook. fil. and Thorn. = Naiiclea cordi-
fdlia Roxb. : Order Rubidcece). India, Ceylon, Burma. Hind.
"Haldu." Tamil " Manja Kadamba." Burm. "H'nau." Height
75 — 80 ft.; diam. 2 — 3 ft. Pretty, yellow, light, close-grained,
resembling Box, but soft, easily worked, not strong, much affected
by weather, but durable if kept dry, cracking and warping, but
polishing well. Used for masts, interior work in house-building,
turnery, modelling, combs, etc.

Hannoki (Alnus maritima Nutt. : Order Betuldcece). Japan.
Height 40 ft. ; diam. 1 ft. Used for gunpowder-charcoal.

Harra (Termindlia Chebula Retz : Order Combretdcece). India,
Ceylon, Burma. "Pilla murda wood." Hind. "Harra." Sansk.
"Haritaka." Tamil " Pilla marda." Height 45—80 ft.; diam.
H— 4 ft. S.G. 682. W 42 — 53. Brownish-grey, with a greenish,
3rellowish, or reddish tinge, darkening externally on seasoning,
hard, strong, smooth and close-grained, taking a good polish and
seasoning well, but subject to dry rot and to the attacks of
termites and carpenter-bees. Used for beams and other house-
building purposes, agricultural implements, etc. Its fruits,
Chebulic or Black Myrobalans, are largely exported for dyeing.

Hawthorn (Cmtcegus Oxyacdntha L. : Order Rosacece). " White-
thorn," " May." Europe, North and West Asia, and North
Africa. Height 10 — 20 ft.; diam. seldom large. Flesh-coloured,
with numerous pith-flecks, hard, heavy, difficult to split, with-
out lustre ; vessels small, those in spring-wood not numerous ;
pith-rays indistinguishable. Used in turnery and for walking-

214 WOODS OF COMMERCE.

sticks, and the best substitute for Box for engraving yet dis-
covered ; but slow-growing and seldom procurable of any size.

Hazel (Corylus Avelldna L. : Order Cupuliferce}, Europe,
North Africa, Temperate Asia. Height rarely 30 ft.; diam.
generally less than 1 ft. Reddish-white, resembling Beech,
without heart, soft, highly elastic, easily split, not durable ;
annual rings almost circular ; pith-rays wide and narrow ; vessels
small, in radial lines. Used for barrel-hoops and walking-sticks.

Hemlock Spruce (Tsuga canadensis Carr. : Order Coniferce).
Eastern North America. " Hemlock," " Hemlock Fir." French
"Peruche," Germ. " Schierling Tanne." Height 80—100 ft.;
diam. 3 ft. S.G. 244. W 26'4. R 736 kilos. Light reddish-grey
or brown, with lighter sapwood; free from resin-ducts, light, soft,
stiff, but brittle, usually coarse-grained, splintery, not very easily
worked, shrinking and warping considerably in seasoning, retain-
ing nails firmly, but wearing rough and not very durable. Used
for sleepers, laths, rafters, planks, fencing, etc. Its bark is
valuable for tanning.

Hemlock, Western (Tsuga Mertensidna Carr.). Western
North America. " Prince Albert's Fir." Height 180 ft. or more;
diam. 9 ft. or more. Heavier and harder than the eastern form,
but not strong. Used for rough lumber ; but chiefly valued for
its bark.

Hiba (Thujdpsis dolabrdta Sieb. and Zucc. : Order Cupressinece).
Japan. Japanese " Hiba, Asu-Naro, Thuia." French " Thuia de
Japon." Germ. " Hiba-Lebensbaum, Beilblatriger Lebensbaum."
Height 7 — 40 ft.; diam. small. Yellowish-white, durable. Used
in house, bridge, and boat-building.

Hickory, originally the name of the North American genus
Hicoria (Order Juglanddcece), closely allied to the Walnuts. " So
close an analogy exists in the wood of these trees that, when
stripped of their bark, no difference is discernible in the grain,
which is coarse and open in all, nor in the colour of the heart-
wood, which is uniformly reddish " (Michaux). In all, the sap-
wood is broad and white, the heart a reddish nut-brown, very
heavy, hard, strong, proverbially tough, elastic, coarse, smooth

HAWTHORN- HICKORY. 215

and straight-grained ; the pith large, pith-rays numerous but
hardly discernible ; with numerous fine peripheral lines of wood-
parenchyma ; the pore-circle narrow but with large pores, whilst
the vessels in the autumn wood are small and scattered. The
wood seasons slowly, shrinking and warping considerably ; unlike
Walnut, is very subject to the attacks of boring insects ; and is not
durable if exposed. It is, consequently, never used in house or
shipbuilding; but is specially valued for carriage-building, axles,
the handles of implements, screws such as those of bookbinders'
presses, bows, chair-making, coach-whips, gunstocks, hoops, fuel
and charcoal. It is harder, heavier and tougher than Ash. In
Australia the name has been applied to many species of Acacia
and other genera, to which reference will be made after the
description of the true Hickories.

Hickory Black, a name applied equally to H. alba [See
Hickory, Mocker-nut] and to H. gldbra [See Hickory
Pig-nut].

Hickory Big bud. See Hickory, Mocker-nut.

Hickory, Bitternut (H. minima Britton = Cdrya amdra Nutt).
Eastern United States. " Swamp Hickory." French " Noyer
amer." Height 70—80 or 100 ft.; diam. 2—3 ft. S.G. 755.
W 47. R 11 01 kilos. Less valuable than Shell-bark Hickory;
but used for ox-yokes, hoops and fuel.

Hickory, Brown. See Hickory, Pig nut.

Hickory, Mocker nut (H. alba Britton = Cdryatomentosa Nutt.).
Chiefly in the Southern United States. "Black, Big-bud" or
"White-heart Hickory." Height 90ft. or more; diam. 3ft. or
more. Heart-wood in young trees white, slow-growing, durable,
except when attacked by borers.

Hickory, Pecan (H. Pecan Britton = Cdrya olivcefdrmis Nutt.).
South-central United States. " Illinois Nut." Height 75 ft. or
more; diarn. 2 ft. or more. Brittle, not strong. Inferior to
Shell-bark Hickory, and chiefly used for fuel.

Hickory, Pig-nut (H. gldbra Britton = Cdrya gldbra and C.
pvrcina Nutt.). Eastern North America. "Brown Hickory."
French "Noyer de cochon." Germ. " Ferkelnusz." Height

216 WOODS OF COMMERCE.

80—100 ft.; diam. 3—4 ft. S.G. 822. W 51. R 1046 kilos.
Perhaps the best of all the hickories for axletrees and axe-handles.

Hickory, Shell-bark (H. ovdta Britton = Cdrya alba Nutt.).
Eastern United States. " Shag-bark Hickory/' " White Hickory."
French " Noyer tendre." Height 100—110 ft. ; diam. 1J— 3 ft.
S.G. 837. W 52. R 1200 kilos. Deriving its French-Canadian
name from its elasticity, this is the species most exported, especi-
ally for axe and hammer-handles, spokes, etc. It is also the best
fuel.

Hickory, Big or Thick Shell-bark (H. laciniusa Sarg. - Cdrya
sulcdta Nutt.). Central United States. Height 70 — 100 ft.;
diam. 3—4 ft. S.G. 810. W 50-5. R 1083 kilos. Similar in
character and uses to the last mentioned.

Hickory, Water (H. aqudtica Britton = Cdrya aqudtica Nutt.).
South-eastern United States. The lightest, weakest and most
useless species.

Hickory, in Australia, is applied to Acacia binervdta [See
Wattle, Black], A. dwatfaylon [See Spearwood], A. falcdta
[See Myall, Bastard], A. melandxylon [See Blackwood],
Eucalyptus punddta [See Leather jacket], E. resimfera [See
Mahogany], and Polydsma Cunninghdmii [See Feather-wood].

Hinau (Elceocdrpus dentdtus Vahl. : Order Tilidcece). New
Zealand. Small, light dull brown, very tough, strong and
durable. Used for sleepers, fencing, etc.

Hinoki (Cuprdssus obtusa Koch : Order Cupressinece). Japan.
" Japanese Cypress." Germ. " Feuercypresse, Sonnencypresse."
Height 70— 100 ft. ; diam. 2|— 3 ft. Sapwood yellowish-white ;
heart rose-red, fragrant, strong, fine-grained, taking a high polish.
One of the best of Japanese timbers, held sacred by the followers
of the Shinto faith, whose temples are built of it, as also are the
palaces of the Mikado. It is also the best for lacquering.

Holly (Ilex Aquifdlium L. : Order Ilidnece). Central Europe
and West Asia. French " Houx." Germ. "Stechbaum, Hulse,
Christdorn." Height 10—40 or 80 ft.; diam. 1—4 or 5 ft.
W 47 '5. White to greenish white, fine-grained, with fine but
distinct rings and pith-rays, vessels scarcely visible, approaching

HICKORY— HONEYSUCKLE. 217

ivory in colour and texture more than any other wood, hard,
heavy, susceptible of a high polish, but shrinking and warping
very much. Used, in the round, for engraving, especially in
calico-printing ; for staining as imitation Ebony, as in the wooden
handles of metal tea-pots ; in veneers, especially for white or
stained strings in inlaying, as in Tunbridge ware ; and, when
small, for walking-sticks.

Holly, American (Hex opdca Ait.). Eastern United States.
Height 50 ft. ; diam. 3—4 ft. S.G. 582. W 36. R 686 kilos.,
Similar to the European species and similarly used.

Holly, Smooth (Hedycdrya angustifdlia A. Cunn. : Order
Monimidcece). Eastern Australia. "Native Mulberry." Small,
very light, close-grained, and tough. Used by the aborigines for
fire-sticks and spears, and fit for cabinet-work.

Honey, Locust. See Locust, Honey.

Honeysuckle, a general name in Australasia for species of
Bdnksia (Order Protedcece), especially B. margindta and B. serrdta.

B. margindta Cav. ( = B. austrdlis R. Br.). South-eastern
Australasia. Height 10—20 or 40 ft. S.G. 598—610. W 38.
When fresh cut resembling raw beef, with reddish- white sap wood,
light, soft, porous, twisting and warping ; but, when thoroughly
seasoned, hard, susceptible of a fine polish, and beautifully
figured. Used for cabinet-work.

B. serrdta Linn. fil. Eastern Australasia. S.G. 803. W
39 — 50. Dark red, mahogany-like, handsome, finely figured,
coarse and open-grained, strong, requiring careful seasoning,
much bored by beetles. Used for window-frames and boats'-
knees and might be used for furniture.

Honeysuckle, Coast (Bdnksia integrifdlia L.). Eastern
Australia. Known also as " Beefwood." Height 20 — 30 ft. ;
diam. 1 ft. S.G. 799. W 50—39. Pink, beautifully grained,
moderately dense, tough, durable when not exposed. Used for
boats'-knees, etc.

Honeysuck, Silvery. See Beefwood.

Honeysuckle in New Zealand (Knightia excelsa). See Rewa-
rewa.

218 WOODS OF COMMERCE.

Honeysuckle-WOOd in the United States (Pldtanus occidentals).
See Plane.

Honoki (Magnolia hypoleuca S. and Z. : Order Magnolidcece)
Japan. Height 50 ft. ; diam. 2^ ft. A dense, hard, ornamental
wood, used for tables, wooden shoes, pencils, and for charcoal.

Hornbeam (Carpinus Bttulus L. : Order Coryldcece). Central
Europe and West Asia. French " Charme." Germ. " Weiss-
buche," " Hainbuche." Height 40 — 50 sometimes 70 ft. ; diam.
1, rarely reaching 3J ft. S.G. 1038—759. W 47-5. c 6405. c'
•846. v' 1'087. Yellowish-white, close-grained, heavy, hard, very
tough, strong, difficult to split, somewhat lustrous, and very
durable if kept dry: pores minute, in radial lines: broad pith-
rays lighter than the rest of the wood : annual rings very sinuous,
bending outward between the broad pith-rays. Used for handles,
mallets, lasts, etc., unequalled for cogs and bearers for printers'
rollers, and excellent for fuel, and imported from France at 9d.
or lOd. per cubic foot.

Hornbeam, American (Carpinus Carolinidna Walt.). Eastern
North America. Known also as "Blue " or " Water Beech " and
"Ironwood." Height sometimes 50 ft.; diam. 1—2 ft. S.G.
728. W 45-4. R 1149 kilos. Used to a small extent for
handles, mallets, levers, and hoops ; but apparently slightly
inferior to the European species.

Hornbeam, Hop (Ostrya mrginica Willd. : Order Coryldcece).
Eastern North America. "Iron-wood, Lever-wood." French
" Bois dur." Germ. " Amerikanische Hopfenbuche." Height 50
ft.; diam. 2 ft. S.G. 828. W 51-6. E 1134 kilos. Sapwood
whitish; heart dull brownish, heavy, hard, very strong and
tough, durable. Used for fence-posts, handles, levers, etc.. but
scarce : excellent fuel.

Horse-chestnut (dZsculus Hippocdstanum L. : Order Sapin-
ddcece). Supposed to be a native of Asia ; but largely grown for
shade throughout Europe and the United States. French " Mar-
ronier d'Inde." Germ. "Roszkastanie." Height sometimes 80
ft.; diam. 3 — 4ft. W 60 — 35'5. White, or slightly yellowish or
reddish, soft, close-grained, warping little, not durable, being

HONEYSUCKLE— IRON-BARK. 219

deficient in tannin and resin ; annual rings wide, circular ; pith-
rays narrow, numerous, indistinct ; vessels small, numerous,
uniformly distributed, 1 — 7 together ; pith large, round. Wood
similar in character to Willow and Poplar. Used for flooring,
cart-linings, barrows, packing-cases, blind-wood in cabinet-
making, moulds for castings ; and, in France, for sabots.

Huon Pine (Dacrydium Franklinii Hook. fil. : Order Coniferce).
Tasmania. Also known as "Macquarie Pine." Height 60 — 80 or
100 ft. ; diam. 3 — 5 ft. Light yellow, very beautifully marked with
dark wavy lines and small knots, light, close-grained, tough,
easily worked, susceptible of a good polish, durable, noxious to
insects. Used for boat-building, carving, and bedroom furniture,
and burns briskly with an aromatic fragrance ; but is now quite
scarce.

Illupi. See Mahwa.

Ipil. See Epel.

Iroko (Chlwophom excelsa Benth. and Hook. fil. : Order
Mordcece). Tropical West Africa. " Iroko " in Yorubu land,
" Odum " in Guinea, " Mbundu " in Uluguru, " Muamba-Camba "
in Angola. Yellowish or brownish, with dark zones, resembling
Satin-wood or wavy Maple, handsome, very strong, and durable,
termite-proof. Perhaps constituting part of the " African
Mahogany " of commerce, valuable for building or cabinet-work.

Iron-bark, a name applied to various species of Eucalyptus
(Order Myrtdcece). In Tasmania, E. Sieberidna [See Gum*
Cabbage]. In Australia, E. largiflorens [See Gum, Slaty],
E. macrorrhyncha [See Stringy bark], and especially E.
leucdxylon and E. siderophldia. E. leucdxylon F. v. M.
South-eastern Australia. Known also as " Black " or
"Ked Ironbark, Black Mountain Ash, White, Bastard,"
or "Scribbly Blue Gum." Height up to 200 ft.; diam.
2—5 ft. S.G. 1173—908. W 73-26—63-5. Light brown,
yellowish or pale pinkish-white, close- and straight-grained, hard,
very strong, tough, and durable, both in water and in the
ground, slightly greasy, which renders it suitable for cogs. It is
also used for naves and felloes, sleepers, piles, planks, telegraph-

220 WOODS OF COMMERCE.

poles, fence-posts, axe-handles, beams, rafters, treenails, and
screws. An allied form, E. sideroxylon A. Cunn. in New South
Wales, has darker and heavier wood, similarly employed, and
furnishing one of the best fuels in the country. E. siderophloia
Benth. New South Wales and South Queensland. Known also
as "Red" or "Broad-leaved Ironbark." Aboricj. "Tanderoo."
Height 70—100 ft. ; diam. 1J— 4 ft. S.G. 1171—936. W 71-5—
64. e 2-16. p' 1-74. c 8377. c 1-106. v' 1-348. Deep red, very
hard, heavy, strong, rigid, and difficult to work, plain and
straight-grained, liable to heart and star shake ; pores very
minute, filled with a hard, white, brittle secretion. Used for
beams, keelsons in shipbuilding, and in engineering works, being
one of the strongest and most durable of Australian timbers.

Ironbark, Grey (E. crebra F. v. M.). Eastern Australia.
Known also as " White, Red " or " Narrow-leaved Ironbark," or
"Grey Gum." Height 70—90 ft.; diam. 1| — 3 ft. S.G. 1119—
1211. Dark purplish or brown, hard, very heavy, tough, cross-
grained, hard to work, durable. Used for sleepers, piles, fence-
posts, spokes, etc.

Ironbark, White (E. paniculdta Smith.). Eastern Australia.
Known also as " Red, Pale " or " She Ironbark," and as " Blood-
wood." Height 70 — 150 ft.; diam. 3 — 4 feet. Brown, heavy,
very hard, tough, strong, seasoning and working well, durable.
Perhaps the most valuable Ironbark : much used for sleepers and
other railway work, fence-posts, beams, etc.

Ironwood, a name applied to many widely different timbers
in various countries ; but to a greater variety in Australia than
elsewhere.

(i) Acacia excelsa Benth. (Order Legumindsce). Queensland.
Height 70—80 ft.; diam. 2—3 ft. Violet-scented, ornamental,
hard, close-grained, tough, elastic. A cabinet wood.

(ii) A. stenophylla A. Cunn. Eastern Australia. Known also as
" Dalby Myall." Height 40—60 ft.; diam. 1—2 ft. Dark, beauti-
fully marked, very hard, heavy, close grained, taking a fine polish.

(iii) Casuarina equisetifdlia Forst. (Order Casuarinece). See

Oak, Swamp.

_
IRON-BAR K— IRON WOOD. / 221

(iv) Melaleuca genistifdlia Sm. (Order Myrtatece^T North-
eastern Australia. Known also as "Ridge Myrtle." Height
30 — 40 ft.; diam. 1J — 2 ft. Greyish, close-grained, hard,
durable.

(v) Myrtus gonoddda F. v. M. (Order Myrtdcece). North
Queensland. Very hard, and suggested for engraving.

(vi) Notelcea ligustrlna Vent. (Order Oledcece). South-eastern
Australasia. Known also as " Heartwood " in Tasmania, and as
"Spurious Olive" or "White Plum" in Victoria. Height 30
ft.; diam. 1 ft. S.Gr. 925. Irregularly figured, like Olive-wood,
exceedingly hard and close-grained. Used for mallets, blocks,
and turnery.

(vii) Olea paniculdta. See Marblewood.

(viii) Tarrittia argyrodendron. See Silver- tree.

In Borneo and the Straits Settlements (ix) Eusiderdxylon
Zwagtrii is so called. See Billian.

In Burma (x) Xylia dolabrifdrmis goes by this name. See
Acle.

In Cape Colony (xi-xv) Olea laurifdlia Lam. (Order Oledcece), 40
—70 ft. high and 2 — 3 ft. in diam., 0. unduldta Jacq., 0. capdnsis
L., 0. exasperdta Jacq., and 0. verrucdsa Link., "Olyvenhout" or
"Umguma," all very similar and nearly equal to Lignum-vitae,
are known as "Black Ironwood"; whilst (xvi) Todddlia lanceoldta
Lam. (Order Xanthoxyldcece) is known as " White Ironwood "
[See Umzimbit], and (xvii) Siderdxylon indrmt L. (Order Sapotdcece\
which occurs along the east coast of Africa from the Cape to
Zanzibar, a very heavy, hard, close-grained, durable, greyish-
yellow wood, with brownish-red markings, used in ship and
bridge-building, and for telegraph-poles, is known as " White
Ironwood of Mauritius," and also as "Soft" or "White Milk-
wood " in South Africa.

In Ceylon and India the name Ironwood is applied to (xviii)
Mesuaferrea L. (Order Guttiferce), also known as "Indian Rose-chest-
nut." Hind. " Nagesar." Andaman " Gangaw." Height 20 ft.
or more; diam. 1 — 2 ft. W 69 — 72. Dark red, extremely hard
and difficult to work, taking a high polish. Used for gun-stocks,

222 WOODS OF COMMERCE.

handles, wood-paving, and building. " Black Ironwood " is here
(xix) Conddlia ferrea Griseb. (Order Bhamndcece). S.G. 1300.
W85.

The Ironwood of China and Japan, used for rudders and
anchors, is believed to be (xx) Metrosideros vera Rumph. (Order
Myrtdcece), occurring in the Malay archipelago, and known in
Amboyna as "Nani": that of Guiana and Honduras is (xxi)
Lapldcea Hwmatuxylon Camb. (Order Camellidcece), also known as
"Blood-wood" and used for cogs; whilst in Jamaica (xxii)
Slodnea jamaicensis Hook. (Order Tilidcece), known also "Break-
axe," and (xxiii) Erythrdxylon areoldtum L., also known as "Red-
wood," are also so named.

Ironwood, Morocco (xxiv). See Argan.

In Natal, besides the White Ironwood [See Umzimbit], there
is (xxv) Olea lauri/olia Lam., known as "Black Ironwood," Zulu
"Tamboti." W 64-68. E 896 tons. / 7 -84. /c 4-79.

In New Zealand the name is applied to (xxvi— -xxviii) Metro-
sidtros robusta and M. likida Menz. [See Rata] and to M. tomen-
tdsa A. Cunn., Maori " Pohutakawa." This last yields timber
10 — 20 ft. long, and 9—16 in. square, with S.G. 1200—858,
dark red or walnut-brown, very heavy, hard, close-grained,
strong and durable, suitable for ship-building.

In the United States (xxix) Carpinus carolinidna is sometimes
called Ironwood [See Hornbeam, American] ; but in New
Mexico the name is applied to (xxx) Olneya Tesota, A. Gray
(Order Legumindsce). In Persia (xxxi) Parrdtia pdrsica (Order
Hamameliddcece) ; and in the island of Reunion (xxxii) Stadminnia
siderdxylon DC. (Order Sapinddcece) is so called.

Jacaranda, the Brazilian name for various species of Dalbcrgia
and Machairium (Order Legumindsce), known in English commerce
as Rosewood, including Jacaranda cabiuna (Dalbdrgia nigra
Allem.), Jacaranda roxa (Machc&rium ftrmum Benth.), and
Jacaranda preto (M. legdU Benth.). See Rosewood.

Jack (Artocdrpus integrifolia L. : Order Mordcece). India,
Beng. "Kanthal." Sink. " Kos." Brazil "Jaqueira." Sometimes
known as " Orangewood," Height 80 — 100 ft.; diam. 2 — 5 ft.

IRONWOOD— JARRAH. 223

S.G. 554—676. W 35-6—42. Yellow or orange, darkening on
exposure to a dull red or mahogany colour, somewhat coarse and
crooked in grain, moderately hard, requiring thorough seasoning
to check warping, taking a good polish ; but brittle when dry and
not tolerant of alternations of dryness and damp. Used as a
yellow dye, for boat-building, furniture, musical instruments,
grain-measures, and in England for cabinet-work, marquetry,
turning, and the backs of brushes.

Jack, Jungle. See Angelly.

Jack, Long (Flindersia Oxleydna F. v. M. : Order Melidcece).
North-eastern Australia. Known also as " Light Yellow Wood."
Height 80—100 ft; diam. 2— 3J ft. Yellow, often pretty, fine-
grained, strong, durable, almost termite-proof. Used in boat-
building and cabinet-work as a substitute for Cedar and often
coming to market as "Beech," i.e. Gmelina Leichhdrdtii [See
Beech] ; but not so valuable.

Jambolana (Syzygium Jambolana DC. : Order Myrtdcece).
India, Ceylon, Mauritius, Australia. Port. "Jambu." Hind.
"Jamoon." Beng. "Jam." Mahr. "Jambool." Tarn. " Nagal."
Austral, aborig. "Durobbi." Height 80—100 ft.; diam. 2—3 ft.
W 49. Flesh-colour or red, hard, firm, close-grained, durable,
shrinking little in drying, resisting the action of water or
termites. Used for sleepers, building, carts, well-work, and
agricultural implements.

Jarrah (Eucalyptus margindta Sm. : Order Myrtdcece). South-
western Australia. Sometimes known as " Mahogany " or
"Bastard Mahogany." Height 100 — 150 ft.; diam. sometimes
10 ft. S.G. 837—1120. W 54—76. E 620 tons, e' -66. / -85,
/413. ft 7-20. fa 3-04. c 2940. c -388. «/ -937. Straight-grown,
and, even when unsound in the centre, yielding timber 20 — 40
ft. long and 1 — 2 ft. square, red, mahogany-like in colour, some-
times exhibiting a ray of light across the grain and a beautiful
mottling, and sometimes curled in grain, very heavy, hard,
close-grained, working smoothly, taking a good polish, and,
when sound, extremely durable, resisting the action of damp,
water, earth, rust, termites or ship-worms, and very uninflam-

224 WOODS OF COMMERCE.

mable. This most valuable of Australian timbers is stated to
cover 14,000 square miles; but the best timber grows only on
the ironstone ridges. It should be cut when the sap is at its
lowest ebb and banded if in the round, or seasoned one month
for every inch in thickness if in scantlings. Its durability is due
to from 16 — 20 per cent, of a powerfully astringent gum, mainly
consisting of an acid allied to tannic, which is present in the
heartwood when sound. Burrs are sometimes formed on the
trees, from 6 — 10 ft. across and equal to those of Oak or Walnut
in their figure. For shipbuilding Jarrah is classed in line 3 of
Lloyd's Register : it can be used without copper-sheathing : while
cheaper in India than Teak when in the log and only half its
price in scantlings, roof-shingles made of it are water-tight and
almost uninflammable ; and it is largely used for sleepers,
telegraph-poles, piles, dock gates, and keelsons, but especially for
wood paving-blocks, for which purpose it is unequalled. Its
price in England is about £7 per ton, or from £9 10s. to £13 10s.
per 1000 blocks, the freight alone being 50 — 60 shillings a ton.
The ornamental varieties are valued for furniture, in spite of their
great weight ; and the wood also yields an excellent charcoal.

Jarul (Lagerstrcemia flos-regince Retz. : Order Lythrdcece). India,
Burma, and Ceylon. "Queen Lagerstroemia." SansL "Stotu-
lari." Hind. "Jarul." Burm. "Pym-mah." Sink. " Muruta."
Height 30 ft. to first branch ; diam. 4 ft. S.G. 744. W 41—46-5.
E 544 tons. /5-22. fc 2-76. fs -337. R 822 Ibs. Light red, hard,
lustrous, durable under water. The most valuable timber of
North-east India and second only to Teak in Burma. Chiefly
used in boat-building, often yielding compass-timber suitable for
knees ; but also for naves, felloes, waggon-frames, gun-carriages,
and building.

Jhand (Prosdpis spicigera L. : Order Leguminusce). Persia,
Afghanistan, Western India. A moderate-sized tree, yielding
timber 9 in. square, purplish-brown, straight-grained, very hard,
tough and strong, easily worked, but not durable. Used for
wheels, carts, agricultural implements, weavers' shuttles, furni-
ture, and building.

JARRAH— KAFIR DATE. 225

Judas-tree (Ctrcis Siliqudstrum L. : Order Legumindsce).
Southern Europe and Warmer Temperate Asia. Known also as
"Love tree." French "Arbre de Judee, Gainier." Germ. " Judas-
baum." Sapwood white ; heart brownish-yellow, veined with
black, handsome, hard, taking an excellent polish ; rings dis-
tinct ; pith-rays moderately broad ; vessels in spring-wood very
large, those in the summer-wood much smaller, 1 — 8 together.
(Fig. 37.)

Juniper (Junlperus communis L. : Order Cupressinece). Europe,
Northern Asia, and North America. Amer. "Ground Cedar."
French " Gene vrier." Germ. " Wachholder." Height 15—20 ft. or
more; diam. seldom considerable. S.G. 660. Sapwood narrow,
yellowish ; heart light yellowish-brown, fragrant, close-grained,
with no resin-ducts, no distinguishable pith-rays, wavy annual
rings marked by narrow reddish-brown zone of autumn wood,
tolerably heavy, soft, difficult to split, very durable. Used, on
the continent of Europe, for whip-handles, vine-stakes, and
turnery. Very similar in character to the wood of Cuprtssus and
Thuja.

Juniper, Greek or Tall (Jumperus excelsa Bieb.). Greek
Archipelago, Asia Minor, Syria, Persia, Afghanistan, Biluchistan,
Himalaya to Nepal. "Himalayan Pencil-Cedar." Height 30 — 45
or 70 ft.; diam. 1 ft. or more. Very fragrant, deep red, easy to
work, durable. Often the only valuable timber, as near Quetta.
Used for building and carpentry.

In Australia the name "Native Juniper" is applied to
Myop6rum serrdtum R. Br. (Order Myopwinece), known also as
t; Blueberry, Native Currant, Native Myrtle," and " Cockatoo
Bush." S.G. 809—819. White, hard, durable when protected,
but small. Used for inlaying.

Kaddam (Stephegyne parvifdlia Korth. : Order Eubidcece).
India, Burma, Ceylon. Height 70—80 ft.; diam. 2—5 ft. W 37.
Light pinkish-brown or deep yellow, easily worked, taking a good
polish, durable if kept dry. Used for building, furniture, carving
and turnery.

Kafir Date or Plum. See Date, Kafir,

226 WOODS OF COMMERCE.

Kahikatea. See Pine, White, of New Zealand.

Kamassi (Gonioma Kamdssi E. Mey. : Order Apocyndcece).
Cape Colony. "Knysna Boxwood." Height 16 — 20 ft.; diam.
1 — 1J ft. Close-grained, hard, tough, heavy. One of the finest
woods in South Africa, but small. Used for cabinet-work, planes
and other carpenters' tools, and suitable for engraving.

Kapor. See Camphor, Borneo.

Karamatsu. See Larch, Japanese.

Karri (Eucalyptus diversicolor F.v.M. : Order Myrtdcece). South-
west Australia. Sometimes known as "Blue Gum." Height
300—400 ft.; diam. 3—12 ft. S.G. 1023—885. W 60—63.
E 760 tons, e' 2'10. p' 1-05. ft 6-20. fc 2-92. c 7070. c' '934.
Reddish, heavy, slightly wavy or curled in grain, but without
ornamental figure, hard, tough, strong, not so easily wrought as
Jarrah, subject to star-shake and gum-veins, durable under water
or when exposed to alternate drought and wet, but not between
wind and earth. Much used locally for wheels, ship-building,
and planks, being classed in the third line of Lloyd's Register,
suited for piles and bridges, and coming into use for paving-
blocks and for furniture. Stated to cover 2300 miles of
country.

Katsura (Cerddiphl/ttum japtfnieum S. and Z. : Order Magnoli-
acece) Japan. Height 80 ft.; diam. 3 ft. Used in building,
carpentry, and turnery.

Kauri (Agafhis austrdlis Salisb. : Order Araucarinece). North
Island, New Zealand. "Kauri" or "Cowdie Pine." Height
120 — 200 ft.; diam. 4—10 or 20 ft. at base. S.G. 498 — 595.
W 37-4. E 470 tons, e' 1-78— 1-39. p' 1-01— -79. / 2-16. fc 2-03.
c 4543. c' *6. v' '769. Sapwood 3 — 5 in. wide, very resinous :
heart yellowish-white to brown, clean, fine, close and straight in
grain, moderately hard for Pine, very firm, strong and elastic,
generally sound or with slight heart-shake, shrinking very little
in seasoning, planing up well, with a beautiful silky lustre like
the plainest Satinwood, taking a good polish, wearing even with-
out splintering, and more durable than any other Pine, except
where exposed to the Teredo. It is sometimes richly mottled.

KAHIKATEA— KIRNI. 227

Unrivalled for masts and spars, valuable for the decks of yachts
owing to its freedom from knots and regularity of grain, used
also for sleepers, telegraph-posts, house-building, and joinery. It
is the most valuable forest-tree of New Zealand and the soft
wood of the country; but the supply is limited, and, though there
is a considerable export trade to Australia, the cost of freight
limits its employment elsewhere. Its price in London auctions is
from 2s. 6d. to 3s. 4d. per cubic foot.

Kay a (T6rreya nucifera S. and Z. : Order Taxdcece). Japan.
"Japanese Torreya." French "Porte-noix Torreya." Height
20—30 or 80 ft.; diam. up to 4—5 ft. Yellowish-white, hard,
straight-grained, strong. Much valued for building and cabinet-
making.

Keurboom (Virgilia capensis Lam. : Order Legumindsce). Cape
Colony. Height 15—20 ft.; diam. 1|— 2 ft. Light, soft.
Occasionally used for rafters, spears, etc.

Keyaki (Zelkdwa acumindta Planch. : Order Ulmdcece). Japan.
Used for common lacquered ware.

Kharpat (Garuga pinndta Roxb. : Order Burserdcece). India
and Burma. Mahr. " Kooruk." Telug. "Garuga." Height 40 ft.
to first branch; diam. 3 ft. W 52. Reddish, moderately hard,
seasoning well, but not durable. Occasionally used for building
or for fuel.

Khat (Cdtha tdulis Forsk. : Order Celastrinece). East Africa.
Seldom more than a shrub, but yielding a beautiful reddish-white
wood, with zones of darker red, very hard and heavy.

Kiamil (Odina Wddier Roxb. : Order Anacardidcece = CaUsium
grdnde O.K.). India, Burma, Ceylon. Burm. " Na-bhay." Tarn.
" Ooday." Telug. " Goompana." Height 50 ft. to first branch ;
diam. 4 ft. S.G. 656. W 41—65. Light-red when first cut,
darkening to red-brown on exposure, close-grained, moderately
hard, seasoning well but slowly, requiring two or three years, not
warping, not very durable. Used for spear-shafts, scabbards,
spokes, oil-presses and rice-pounders, suitable for cabinet-work.

Kirni (Mlmusops Kauki L. : Order Sapotdcece). India, Burma,
and represented by a variety, Brownidna A.DC. in tropical

228 WOODS OF COMMERCE.

Australia. Port. " Poma d'Adaeo." Hind. "Kirni." Malay. "Manil
kara." " Ironwood " in commerce. Red, fine-grained, very hard,
easily worked.

Kizi (Pauldwnia imperidlis S. and Z. : Order Scrophularidcece).
Japan. A moderate-sized tree, yielding a soft, white, very light
wood, employed for the finest lacquer ware.

Kola (Cdla acumindta R. Br. : Order Sterculidcece). West Africa ;
introduced into tropical America. Height 40 ft. Whitish, light,
porous, Poplar like wood, obnoxious to insects. Used in boat and
waggon-building and for tables.

Kolavu ( Hardwickia pinndta Roxb. : Order Legumindsce ).
South-west India. Brown, moderately hard. Used in building.

Kosum (SchUichera trijuga Willd. : Order Sapinddcece). India,
Burma, Ceylon. "Ceylon Oak." Seng. "Koon." Mahr.
"Kusoombh." Sinh."Kon." Tarn. " Kulu " or " Puvu." Height
50 ft.; diam. 1 — 4 ft. WT 70. Red, heavy, hard, strong, durable,
but not large. Used for axles, spokes, pestles, sugar crushers,
and screw rollers for mills.

Kranji (Didlium indum L. : Order Legumindsce). Java, Borneo.
" Tamarind Plum." S.G. 956—1067. e' 3-4. p' 1-83. c 10,920.
c' 1*442. Red, very heavy, hard, very tough and strong, close-
grained, resembling Spanish Mahogany, but without figure. Used
in Borneo for ship and house-building.

Kurumi (Juglans mandshurica Maxim. : Order Juglanddcece).
Japan. Resembling the European Walnut in characters and uses.

Laburnum. See Ebony, False.

Lacewood. See Plane.

Ladle-wood (Hartdgia capdnsis L. : Order CelasMnece). Cape
Colony. Resembling Mahogany, hard. Suitable for turnery or
cabinet work.

Lancewood in Honduras, etc. (Guatttria virgdta Dun : Order
Anondcece). " Yaya." Yellow, light, elastic. Used for shafts,
bows and arrows, and imported in spars fetching about 7s. each.
In Guiana the allied " Yariyari " (Duguttia quitardnsis Benth.) is
exported under the same name. [See also Myrtle, Scrub and
Shad-bush.]

KIRNI— LARCH.

2*29

Larch (Ldrix europcea DC. : Order Abielinece). Alps of Central
Europe, and represented by a variety in Siberia. French
"Meleze." Germ. "Larche." Ital. "Larice." Height 80— 100 or
120 ft.; diam. 2—4 ft. at base. S.G. 809 — 519. W over 68, when
green32— 38. E400— 600 tons, e1 1'45. p' -78. / -43. /M— 5-5.
c4203. c' -555. fc 2-5. t>' -783. /s -75. Yellowish-white, generally
straight and even, but sometimes rather coarse in grain, soft,
tough, strong, very easily split and very durable, being rich in
tannic and phenolic antiseptic subtances, shrinking excessively
and warping in seasoning, but lustrous and working up tolerably

FIG. 53. — Transverse section of Larch (Ldrix europcea).

well. In its native cold uplands, though there may be an inch of
yellowish-white sapwood, the heart is reddish-brown and harder.
The pith is small ; the*pith-rays with tracheids with bordered pits
above and below, and parenchyma with simple pits in the middle;
resin-ducts smaller and fewer than in Pinus; knots irregularly
distributed ; annual rings wide, defined by a broad dark zone of
autumn-wood, finely sinuous. (Fig. 53.) Its durability rendered

'230 WOODS OF COMMERCE.

Larch a favourite wood in ancient Rome. Caesar styles it " lignum
igni impenetrable." Augustus built his forum with it ; Tiberius
brought this timber for the repair of bridges from the forests of
Rha3tia and preserved one tree, which was 120 feet long and 2 feet
in diameter throughout, as a curiosity ; and Vitruvius attributes
the decay of the buildings erected in Rome at the time to the
disuse of Larch on the exhaustion of the forests near the city.
Much of Venice is built on Larch piles, which, after ages of
exposure to alternate wet and drought, are still sound. Being of
rapid growth, Larch is much used for scaffold-poles, ladders, pit-
props, sleepers, and fencing ; and, being more free from knots
than Spruce, is much prized by carpenters and wheelwrights. In
ship-building, though its durability is in its favour, its shrinking
is against it ; but it is classed with Douglas, Huon, Kauri, and
Pitch Pines, in the eighth line of Lloyd's Register. Larch is not
largely imported ; that from Italy being small, crooked, and
coarse-grained, that from Poland rather larger and straighter, and
that from Northern Russia the largest. When growing in the
plains the Larch has proved so susceptible to the fatal attacks of
the fungus Peziza Willkdmmii that it seems likely to be replaced
as an object of cultivation by the Douglas Spruce.

Larch, American, Black, or Red. See Tamarack.

Larch, Chinese or Golden (PseudoUrix Kwmpferi Gord. :
Order Abietinece). China. Height 120—130 ft. Very heavy
and hard.

Larch, Himalayan (Ldrix Gri/ithii Hook. fil.). Eastern
Himalayas. Height 40 — 60 ft. Of small dimensions, white,
soft, easily split, but durable. Of little value.

Larch, Japanese (L. leptolepis Gord.). Central mountains of
Japan. " Toga, Kara-matsu, Fuji-matsu." Height 60—80 ft. or
more; diam. 1 J — 2J ft. Heart red-brown, heavy, hard, and strong;
but little used, as it grows at altitudes of 5000 or 6000 ft.

Lasrin (AlUzzia odomtissima Benth. : Order Legumindsce).
India, Burma. Dark brown with darker streaks, very hard,
seasoning and polishing well, and fairly durable. Used for
wheels, oil-mills, and furniture.

LARCH— LEATHERJACKET. 231

Lauan (Amsdptera thurifera Blume = Dipterocdrpus thurifer
Blanco : Order Dipterocarpdcece). Philippines. Does not split
with shot. Used formerly for shipbuilding.

LaugOUSSi (Termindlia Tanibouca Rich. : Order Combretdcecv).
French Guiana. S.G. 1226— 922. K 250 kilos. Very commonly
used for canoes and curved timbers.

Laurel is a name not applied to any timber tree in Europe.
In Australia it is applied (i) to Pdnax dlegans and (ii) to Crypto-
cdrya austrdlis. Pdnax tlegans F. v. M. (Order Aralidcece).
North-eastern Australia. Also known as " Light " or " White
Sycamore" or "Mowbulan Whitewood." Height 30 — 40 ft;
diam. 1 ft. W 31. White, with a pretty grain, light, soft, easily
split, not durable, warping and cracking unless very carefully
seasoned. Might do for cricket-bats or blind wood.

Cryptocdrya australis Benth. (Order Laurinece). North-eastern
Australia. Also known as " Moreton Bay Laurel " and " Grey
Sassafras." Height 80—100 ft.; diam. 1— 1J ft. White,
light, easily wrought, obnoxious to insects, not durable if
exposed.

Laurel, Alexandrian. See Poon.

Laurel, Big. See Magnolia, Large-flowered.

Laurel, California ( Umbelluldria calif 6rnica Nutt. : Order
Laurdcece). California. Also known as " Myrtle." Light
brown, heavy, hard, susceptible of a high polish. A local sub-
stitute for Oak.

Laurel, Native. See Cheesewood.

Laurel, White. See Beech, She.

Laurier Cypre (Ocotta drnua Mez. = Oreoddphne cernua Nees :
Order Laurinece). West Indies. Durable, useful timber of
moderate size.

Laurier Madame (Necidndra sanguinea Rottb. : Order
Laurinece). West Indies. Light, used for staves and planks.

Laurier marbre (N. concinna Nees). A cabinet wood.

Leatherjacket, a name applied in Australia to (i) Alphittinia
excelsa [See Ash, Mountain], (ii) Ceratopttalum apdtalum [See
Coachwood], (iii) Cryptocdrya Meissntrii F. v. M. (Order

232 WOODS OF COMMERCE .

Laurinece). North-eastern Australia. Height 80 — 100 ft.; diam.
2 — 3 ft. White, close-grained, tough. Used for staves.

(iv) Eucalyptus punddta DC. (Order Myrtdcece). New South
Wales. Also known as " Hickory, Turpentine, Bastard Box,"
"Grey, Red" or "Yellow Gum." Height 40—100 ft.; diam.
1 — 2 ft. Sapwood yellow; heart pale reddish-brown, heavy,
hard, close-grained, tough, with gum-veins, difficult to split, but
seasoning well and very durable. Used for sleepers, fence-posts,
ship and house-building, wheelwrights' work, and fuel.

(v) Weinmdnnia Benthdmii F. v. M. : Order Saxifragdcece).
North-eastern Australia. Height 50 — 60 ft. ; diam. 1^ — 2 ft.
Close-grained, firm, easily wrought. Used for staves and inside
work.

Lein or Lienben (Termindlia bialdta Wall. : Order Combretdcece).
India, Burma, and the Andaman Islands. Height 80 ft. to the
first branch; diam. 1 ft. W 39. Brown, beautifully mottled,
moderately hard.

Lemon Wood (PsycMtria ecldonidna F. v. M. : Order Rubidcece).
Cape Colony. "Lanumi." Height 20—30 ft.; diam. 2—3 ft.
Hard, tough, useful.

Leopard or Letter-wood (Brdsimum AubUtii Poepp. = Pira-
tindra guiandnsis Aubl. : Order Mordcece). Guiana. " Snake-wood."
French " Lettre mouchete." Germ. "Lettern-holz." Port. "Pao
deletras." Aborig. " Buro-koro." S.G. 1333— 1049. R 340 kilos.
Sapwood yellow, not used ; heart squaring 20 inches, but only
exhibiting its characteristic dark mottling for about 6 in., very
hard, heavy, compact, taking an excellent polish, but difficult to
work and full of defects. Imported for inlaying and walking-
sticks. Microscopically this wood is remarkable in having its
large vessels filled with tyloses of very thick-walled cells.

Letter-wood, Red or Striped (Amanda guiantnsis Aubl. :
Order Euphorbidcece). Guiana. French "Lettre rouge" or
"rubanne." S.G. 1175— 1038. R. 317 kilos. Sapwood whitish ;
heart brown-red with blackish veins.

Lightwood. See Coachwood.

Lign-Aloes. See Eagle-wood.

LEATHERJACKET— LIGNUM-VITAE. 233

Lignum-vitae (Guaidcum officindle L. : Order Zygophylldcece).
Colombia, Venezuela, Jamaica, Cuba, Hayti, but chiefly St.
Domingo and the Bahamas. Cuba "Guayacan." Height 20 — 40
ft. ; diam. 1—2 ft. S.G. 1393—1248. W 60—83. E 508—498
tons. /4-8S— 7-18. /*7-14. fc 3-4— 4-4. fs -447— 1-246. E246
Ibs. Sapwood dingy yellow, J — 1 in. broad, as durable as the
heart, some of it being, therefore, left on to preserve the rest
from splitting ; heart blackish with a greenish tint ; pith-rays not
recognizable and annual rings scarcely so; very heavy, hard,
strong, and close-grained, with fibres running obliquely both
radially and tangentially, so that it can hardly be split, and
containing 25 per cent, of gum-resin, which renders it almost
imperishable. It is liable to cup-shake when more than 10 in. in
diameter. Imported in lengths of 6 — 12 ft. up to 10 in. diam.
and 3 — 6 ft. when of greater diam., realizing £5 — 18 per ton.
Used for ships' blocks, pestles, mortars, skittle-balls, rulers,
string-boxes, etc. Among the ancients and in France the name
has been applied to Tetraclinis artkuldta. [See 'Arar.]

Lignum vit33 in Australia (i) Acacia falcdta [See Myall,
Bastard] (ii) Myrtus semenioides [See Myrtle, White], (iii)
Eucalyptus polydnthema [See Box, Red], (iv) Phylldnthus Ferdindndi
[See Beech, White], (v) Vttex lignum-vitce A. Cunn. (Order
Verbendcece). North-eastern Australia. Height 50 — 70 ft.; diam.
1J — 2 ft. Blackish, hard, close-grained. Useful, but not yet
known to cabinet-makers, (vi) Dodoiuva viscdsa L. (Order Sapin-
ddcece). Found throughout the tropics. "Switch-sorrel" of
Jamaica. Sapwood white, heart dark-brown, in some varieties
greenish- black, streaked with rose, very hard, close-grained, and
durable. Used in India for engraving, turning, tool-handles and
walking-sticks, and suited for all the uses of the true Lignum-vitse.

Lignum-vitse in British Guiana (Ixdra fdrrea Benth. = Sidero-
de'ndron trifldrum Vahl : Order Rubidcece). Known also as
"Hackia," or "West Indian" or "Martinique Ironwood."
Height 30—60 ft. ; diam. 1—2 ft. W 65-8. E 1027 tons. / 6-72.
fc 4-85. fs -457. Dark-brown and hard. Valuable for cogs,
shafts, or furniture.

234 WOODS OF COMMERCE.

Lignum-vitae in New Zealand (Metrosideros scdndens Banks
& Sol. : Order Myrtdcece). Known also as " Akibaum." A
creeper "growing up the stem and over the tops of the tallest
trees in the New Zealand forests ... so exceedingly like
the Rata (M. robusta) in wood, bark, leaf, and flower, that I could
never distinguish any difference between them " (Laslett).

Lilac, Persian. See Bead-tree.

FIG. 54. — Transverse section of Linden ( Tilia parvijolia).

Lilly-pilly (Eugenia Smithii Poir. : Order Myrtdcece). Eastern
Australia. Height 80—120 ft. ; diam. 1—3 ft. S.G. 935—898.
Close-grained, but liable to split in seasoning and to dry rot.
Used for axe-handles.

Lima-wood. See Peachwood.

Lime, a corruption of Line, also known as Linden (Tilia parvi-
folia Ehrh., platyphyllos Scop, and argdntea. Desf. : Order Tilidcece).
Europe, the last-named only in the south-east. French "Tilleul."
Germ. "Linde," T. parmfdlia being known as " Winterlinde," T.
platyphyllos as " Sommerlinde." Russ. "Lipa." Height 20 — 90

LIGNUM-VITAE— LOCUST. 235

ft.; diam. 1—4 ft. S.G. 794—522. Pale yellow, white or
reddish-white, light, soft, close-grained, easily split, with a feebly
silky lustre, not very durable, being liable to become "worm-
eaten " ; annual rings indistinct ; pith-rays fine but distinct ;
vessels scarcely visible, equally distributed (Fig. 54). Though not
durable where exposed to the weather, Linden wood stands fairly
well when thoroughly dried and kept in a uniform atmosphere or
protected by paint or varnish. Used for sabots, as blind-wood in
pianofortes and other furniture, in turnery, especially for
druggists' boxes, for carving, as in the beautiful work of Grinling
Gibbons, for leather-cutters' planks, and for gunpowder-charcoal.
Imported from the Baltic for the piano trade.

Lime, American. See Bass-wood.

Locust, in Guiana and the West Indies (Hymenwa Courbaril L. :
Order Legumindsce). " Simiri," "Courbaril." Span. " Algarrobo."
Height 60—80 ft. ; diam. 8—10 ft. S.G. 1191—904. W 49—59.
E 549—1018 tons. / 4-54—8-13. fc 2-23—5-41. fs -49— -585. R
333 kilos. Fine reddish-brown, streaked with veins, hard, com-
pact, close and even grained, easily worked, elastic, taking a
beautiful polish, not splitting or warping in seasoning. Used
for ships' planks, engineering, tree-nails, furniture, and cabinet-
work.

Locust or Black Locust in the United States are names used
indiscriminately for the allied Robinia pseudacdcia and Gleditschia
triacdnthos, the former known distinctively as the Yellow, the
latter as the Honey or Sweet Locust.

Robinia pseudacdcia L. (Order Legwmindsce). Southern United
States. Height 75 ft. or more ; diam. 3 ft. or more. Sapwood
very narrow, comprising generally only five rings, yellowish-white ;
heart yellowish-brown, with shades of red and green, very heavy,
hard, strong, tough, firm, offering the greatest resistance to com-
pression in the direction of the fibres, elastic, shrinking consider-
ably in seasoning, but very durable, especially in contact with
soil. Vessels all plugged with thin-walled tyloses and appearing
as clear yellow spots : those in the spring-wood very large,
forming a broad pore-circle, those in the autumn-wood often in

236 WOODS OF COMMERCE.

peripheral lines. Used for fence-posts, waggon-hubs, and tree-
nails in America; and in Europe, where it is considerably
grown, under the name " Acacia," especially on railway-banks to
protect forests from sparks, for vine-props, wheel-spokes, turnery,
and cabinet-work.

Gleditschia triacdnthos L. (Order Legumindsce). Central United
States. Known also as " Three-thorned Acacia." French " Fevier
a trois epines." Germ. " Dreidorniger Honigdorn." Span.
" Algarrobo de miel." Height 90—100 ft. ; diam. 3—4 ft. S.G.
674. W 42. E, 923 kilos. Sapwood broad, yellowish to
greenish-white ; heart rose or brownish-red, heavy, hard, strong
and very durable, especially in contact with the soil, resembling
Robinia in character and uses ; but with open vessels, i.e. with-
out tyloses.

Logwood (Hcematdxijlon campechidnum L. : Order Legumindsce).
Central America, naturalized in Jamaica and introduced into
India. " Campeche." Germ. "Blauholz." Height 40 ft.; diam.
1J ft. S.G. 995. Deep dull brownish-red, very heavy and
hard. The heartwood is used exclusively as a red or black dye.
We import 40,000 to 60,000 tons annually, and it fetches from
.£5 to .£10 per ton. It comes to market in logs about 3 feet
long.

Loquat (Erwbdtrya japdnica Lindl. : Order Rosdcece). Japan.
" Biwa." Germ. " Wellenmispel." Hard. Used for musical
instruments.

Magnolia, Large-flowered (Magndlia grandifldra L. : Order
Magnolidcece). Southern United States. "Big Laurel," "Bull
Bay." Height 70 ft. or more; diam. 3 ft. "White, heavy,
soft, not strong. Suitable for cabinet-work and interior finish.

Mahogany originally (Swiettnia Mahdgoni L. : Order Melidcece).
Central America, Mexico, Cuba, and other West Indian islands.
" Spanish " or " Cuba Mahogany," " Mexican Mahogany," "Hon-
duras Mahogany" or "Bay-wood," "Nassau," and "St. Domingo"
are local names. French "Acajou." Germ. " Mahagoniholz." Span.
"Caoba." Height 5 — 50 ft. to the branches; diam. 1—4 ft.
S.G. 612—880. W 35—53. E 560—650 tons, e Ml— 1-9.

LOCUST— MAHOGANY. 237

p' -97— 1-06./4-46./M— 7. c2998— 3791. c' -396— -5. fc 3-3—3-5.
v -772— -953. When freshly felled light reddish brown, soon
darkening on exposure to light ; vessels equally distributed ;
annual rings distinct ; pith-rays fine, but distinct ; sapwood only
f — 1 in. thick ; heart generally heavy, hard, close and straight in
grain, difficult to split, susceptible of a very high polish, with a
beautiful satiny lustre, and sometimes with a wavy figure that
much enhances its value as a furniture wood. It does not, as a
rule, shrink or warp, and is superior to all other woods in taking
a firm hold of glue : it is also durable. Of the varieties above
enumerated Cuba or Spanish Mahogany yields accurately squared
timber 18 — 35 ft. long and 11 — 24 in. square, very solid at centre,
rarely affected by cup or star-shake and with insignificant heart-
shake. Its specific gravity ranges from 720 — 817. W 53. e' 1-71.
p' 1-06. c 3791. c' -5. v' -953. It has been used as an Oak-substitute
in ship- building for beams, planks, and stanchions, whilst figured
logs demand high prices for furniture. St. Domingo Mahogany
is very similar in quality, but much smaller, generally 8 — 10 ft.
long and 12 or 13 in. square, though occasionally 25 ft. long and
15 in. square. It is very hard, almost horny, a stress of 4300 Ibs.
per square in. being required to indent it ^ in. transversely to
the fibres. It is mostly figured, presenting a rich curl or feather at
the bases of its branches. It is entirely used for cabinet-work,
especially for veneers. Nassau Mahogany is similar, but even
smaller, measuring 3 or rarely 5 ft. in length and 6 or rarely
12 in. square. It is used in turnery. Honduras Mahogany,
reaching 50 ft. at its first branch and 3 ft. in diam., yields logs
25 — 40 ft. long and 12 — 24 in. square, or even larger. It is
seldom figured, becomes somewhat brittle on drying, and is apt to
develop deep star-shakes. S.G. 644—684. W 35. e' I'll,
p' -99. c 2998. c' -396. v' -806. Stress required to indent it
^V in- transversely to its fibres 1300 Ibs. It is known commer-
cially as "Bay wood," and, besides being used as an Oak-
substitute in ship-building, is largely used in cabin fittings and
by cabinet-makers, turners, and carpenters. Some Mahogany sold
asJHonduras is really Guatemalan. Mexican Mahogany reaches

238 WOODS OF COMMERCE.

the largest dimensions, sometimes squaring 48 in., but generally
coming to market in logs 18 — 30 ft. long and 15 — 36 in. square.
It is generally somewhat soft and spongy at the centre, often
affected by star-shake, and plain in figure; but that shipped from
Tabasco is largely free from those defects. S.G. 612—790. e' 1-9.
pf -97. c 3427. c' -451. v' '772. We import some 75,000 loads
of Mahogany annually, the value of which is about £730,000.

Mahogany, African (Khdya senegalensis A. Juss. : Order
Melidcece), also known as " Gambia Mahogany " and " Cailcedra-
wood," and probably also Chlordphora excdlsa Benth. and Hook. fil.
(Order Mordcece), known as " Odum " in Guinea and " Muamba-
Camba " in Angola. Yellowish or brownish, with darker zones,
very strong and termite-proof. Among the most valuable of
African woods, fetching 2d. — 6d. per foot ; but sometimes so
finely figured as to realize 7 to 10 shillings per superficial foot for
veneers. Perhaps identical with Niger, Lagos, and Benin
Mahogany. [See Iroko.]

Mahogany, Australian. See Jarrah.

Mahogany, Bastard (Eucalyptus botryoides Sm. : Order
Myrtdcece). Known also as "Swamp" or "Gippsland Mahogany,"
"Blue Gum," "Bastard Jarrah," "Woolly Butt," and "Bangalay."
South-eastern Australia. Height 40—100 or 160 ft.; diam. 2—4
or 8 ft. S.G. 891. W 55*59. Light dull red to warm rich
brown, heavy, hard, tough, close, even and straight in grain, easy
to work, but somewhat subject to gum-veins and shakes, durable.
Valuable for ship and waggon-building, yielding compass-timber
suitable for ships' knees. The name is also applied to Jarrah.

Mahogany, Bay (Gercocdrpus ledifolius Nutt. : Order Eosdcece).
California. Dark-coloured, hard and heavy.

Mahogany, Borneo or Penagah is probably Caloplif/llum
inophyllum. See Poon.

Mahogany, East India (Sdymida febri/uga A. Juss. : Order
Melidcece). "Bastard Cedar, Indian" or "Coromandel Eedwood."
Hind. "Rohuna." Telug. "Somida." Central and Southern India.
A large tree yielding logs 17 — 20 ft. long and 1 — 1| ft. diam.
S.G. 378. W 54-8. Dark blood-red, heavier than water when

MAHOGANY. 239

fresh, very hard, close and straight-grained, easily worked,
durable underground, termite-proof, but splitting on exposure
and becoming very brittle when seasoned. Used in boat-building,
well -work, plough-shares, tables, and carved work in temples.

Mahogany, Forest or Red (Eucalyptus resinifera Sm. : Order
Myrtdcece). North-east Australia. Also known as " Red, Grey "
or "Botany-bay Gum, Hickory" and "Jimmy Low." Height
80 — 130 ft. ; diam. 1 J — 5 ft. Light brown or dark or very dark
red, very heavy, close and smooth in grain, very strong, not
shrinking, affected with gum-veins, but very durable in air, water,
or soil, teredo-proof. Used for ships' knees, piles, fence-posts,
rafters, and shingles. The name " Forest Mahogany " is locally
applied also to E. microcdrys [See Tallow Wood].

Mahogany, Horseflesh (Ccesalpinia sp. : Order Legumindsce).
Bahamas. Very strong and durable. Used for ships' knees. This
name, or that of Horseflesh-wood, is also applied to the allied
species Swdrtzia tomentdsa DC., which has S.G. 1020 and is known
in Venezuela as " Naranjillo." Horseflesh Mahogany is exported
from the Bahamas to England as "Sabicu."

Mahogany, Indian. See Cedar, Moulmein.

Mahogany, Madeira (Persea Indica Spreng. : Order LaurtnecB).
Teneriffe. Known also as " Venatico " or " Viiiacito."

Mahogany, Mountain (Bttula Unto, [See Birch, Cherry] and
Cercocdrpus parmf6lius Nutt. (Order Rosdcece).

Mahogany, Swamp, a name applied in Australia to (i)
Eucalyptus botrycddes [See Mahogany, Bastard], (ii) Tristdnia
laurina [See Box, Bastard], (iii) T. suavfolens [See Gum, Broad-
leaved Water], and (iv) Eucalyptus robusta Sm. (Order Myrtdcece}.
This last species, a native of New South Wales, is known also as
" White Mahogany " and "Brown Gum." Height 100—150 ft. ;
diam. 2—4 ft. S.G. 1098—889. W 58-5. Light-brown to
dark-red, generally containing some gum-veins, often cross-
grained, difficult to split, seasoning well, but with some warping,
and becoming rather brittle, durable in damp situations and
obnoxious to insects, probably owing to its containing no less
than 19 per cent, of kino-red, the astringent gum-resin so

240 WOODS OF COMMERCE.

characteristic of this genus, a higher percentage than in any other
species. It is valued for ship-building, shingles, inside work,
wheelwrights' work, mallets, rough furniture, and fuel.

Mahwa (Hlip6 latifdlia Eng. and /. Malabrdrum Konig = Bdssia
latifdlia Koxb. and B. longifdlia L. : Order Sapotdcece). The former
in Northern India, the latter in the south and Ceylon. Hind.
"Mahwa." Tarn. " 111 up a." Sink. "Mee." These trees are rarely
felled, being valued for their edible flowers. In Central India the
wood is pinkish, weak, invariably rotten at the heart, so as only
to square 4 — 6 in., though approaching 2 ft. in diam. ; but in the
Upper Provinces it is harder, strong and tough, and is used for
the naves of wheels, furniture, and sleepers. The southern species
is light-reddish, hard, close grained, flexible, and durable. W 61.
It is apt to split on exposure to wind and sun ; but is used for
spars, keels, treenails, bridges, house-building, etc.

Maire, Black (Olea Cunninghdmii Hook. fil. : Order Oledcecei.
New Zealand. Height 40 ft. Light-brown, very heavy and
hard, dense and durable, averaging 11 fairly even rings to the
inch. Used for wheels and mill machinery. The strongest wood
in the Colony.

Makita (Parindrium laurinum A. Gray : Order Rosdcece). Fiji
Islands. Height 50 ft. Very hard, durable, and tough. Used
for spars for canoes.

Mammee-apple (Mdmmea americdna L. : Order Gutti/erce).
West Indies. Also known as " Wild " or " St. Domingo
Apricot." Height 50 ft. W 59— 61. E763— 857 tons. /6'95— 7-4.
fc 2-2—3-5. fs '36 — -55. White or reddish, light, durable under
ground or water. Used in building and carpentry.

Mammoth-tree. See Big Tree.

Mangachapui (Shdrea Mangdchapoi Blum. : Order Diptero-
carpdcece). Philippines. S.G. 671. W 42. Used in ship-building
at Manila, and classed in the third line in Lloyd's Register.

Mangeao (Tetrdnthera calicdris Hook. fil. : Order Laurinece).
New Zealand. Height not exceeding 40 ft. Tough, close-
grained. Used for ships' blocks.

Mango (Mangifera indica L. : Order Anacardidcece) . Tropical

MAHOGANY— MAPLE. 241

and sub-tropical Asia. Introduced in the West Indies. Hind.
"Am." Telug. "Mamidi." S.G. 597. Dull grey, porous, becom-
ing a light chocolate colour, harder, closer-grained, and more
durable in the centre of very large old trees, holding a nail faster
than any other wood, and standing exposure to salt water, but
not to fresh. It could readily be creosoted. Used for solid cart-
wheels, canoes, rough furniture, planking in the interior of houses,
for packing-cases, as blind wood and as ground for veneers, being
the cheapest light wood obtainable in Madras.

MangOSteen, False or Wild (Sanddricum indicum Cav. : Order
Melidcece). Southern India, Burma, Philippines, and Moluccas.
" Indian sandalwood." Burnt. " Theit-to." A large tree yielding
a timber with white or grey sapwood ; heart reddish, dense, hard,
susceptible of a high polish. Used in cart and boat-building.

Mangrove (Ehizdphora mucrondta Lam. : Order Ehizophordcece).
Maritime tropical swamps from Zanzibar to the Fiji Islands.
East Africa " Mkonko." Fiji "Dogo." Telug. "Ponna." Malay
" Mangi-mangi," " Api-api." Height 15—25 ft. W 70'5. Light-
coloured, red or brown-red at the centre with darker zones
often nearly black, very heavy, hard, close-grained, tough and
durable.

Maple, originally Acer camptstrt L. (Order Acerinece). England,
Central Europe, Northern Asia. " Common " or " Field Maple."
French "Erable champetre." Germ. "Gemeiner, Feld"or "Kleiner
Ahorn." Welsh "Masaran." Height 10—20 or 40 ft.; diam.
9 — 12 in. W 61-5 when green, 52 when dry. Light-brown or
reddish-white, hard, fine-grained, compact, tough, with a beautiful
satin-like lustre, sometimes containing dark pith-flecks, and not
uncommonly curled or speckled (" Bird's-eye Maple ") ; annual
rings slightly wavy ; pith-rays fine but distinct ; vessels minute.
(Fig. 55.) Curled or mottled specimens were prized in former
days for " mazer-bowls," which were mounted in silver. These
when cut into veneers, as by the rotary saw, are equal to
American Bird's-eye Maple. In France the wood is sought after
by turners and cabinet-makers. It makes excellent fuel and the
very best charcoal.

242 WOODS OF COMMERCE.

In Australia the same " Maple " is applied to Ftllardsia Mdorei
F. v. M. (Order Oladnece) of New South Wales, also known as
"Scrub Silky Oak." Along. "Belbil." Height 80— 120ft. ;
diam. 3 — 6 ft. W 41 '36. White, close-grained, prettily figured,
durable. Suitable for bedroom furniture.

FIG. 55. — Tangential section of Maple (Acer campestrtf).

Maple, Ash-leaved (Negundo acerofdes Moench. : Order
Acerinece). South Central United States, California, and Mani-
toba. Also known as "Box Elder" or "Black Ash," " Negundo."
French "Erable a giguieres." Height 50 ft. or more ; diam. 2 ft.
or more. S.G. 438. W 27. R 529 kilos. White or yellowish,
light, soft, not strong or durable. Of inferior quality, used to
some extent for interior finish and cooperage, and for fuel, but
chiefly for paper-pulp.

Maple, Bird's-eye or Pin. See Maple, Rock.

Maple, Black. See Maple, Rock.

Maple, Blister. See Maple, Rock.

Maple, Broad-leaved. See Maple, Oregon.

MAPLES. 243

Maple, California. See Maple, Oregon.

Maple, Great or Sycamore. See Sycamore.

Maple, Hard. See Maple, Rock.

Maple, Himalayan. Several species of Acer are of some
importance in this region; viz. (i) A. CampUlli Hook. fil. and
Thbg., in the Eastern Himalayas, a greyish- white, hard and
dense wood, used for tea-boxes and planking ; (ii) A. obldngum
Wall., in Nepal and Kumaon, a reddish-brown, hard and dense
wood, used for agricultural implements ; (iii) A. Ldbeli Tenore,
growing from the Eastern Mediterranean to the Himalayas, a
brownish-white, hard, dense, elastic wood ; (iv) A. Icevigdtum
Wall, in Nepal, reaching 30—40 ft. in height and 3—4 ft. in
diam., and used for beams, rafters, etc.

Maple, Japanese (A. pictum Thunb., A. pofymtirphum, etc.).
" Itaya-Kayede." Several ornamental species in Japan yield
timber similar to that of the European species.

Maple, Norway (A. platan6ides L.). Norway to Switzerland.
" Plane Maple." French "Erable plane." Germ. " Spitz Ahorn."
Height 60—70 ft. ; diam. 2—3 ft. W 43. White, but inclining
to grey, when mature, easily worked and taking a fine polish,
with the satin-like lustre of the pith-rays characteristic of the
group, and slightly wavy annual rings, hard, heavy, tough,
cracking and warping, but durable if kept dry. Used in
turnery, for musical instruments, gun-stocks, etc., being prac-
tically identical with the wood of the Sycamore.

Maple, Oregon (A. macrophyllum Pursh.). Pacific slope of
North America. Also known as " California " or " Broad-leaved
Maple." Height 90 ft. or more ; diam. 4 ft. or more. Rather
light, hard, and strong. Used in Oregon for axe and broom-
handles, snow-shoe frames and furniture, and on radial sections
exhibiting occasional curly figure, which is highly prized for
cabinet-work. This figure is produced by an unexplained
waviness or spiral twist in the elements of the wood, which is
rarely recognizable in the growing tree, but produces transverse
corrugations on the surface of the log when the bark is removed,
these curls or corrugations varying in number in different trees from

244 WOODS OF COMMERCE.

one or less than one to several to the inch. Though scarcely
visible in a transverse section, this beautiful figuring is seen on
all longitudinal or oblique sections, appearing on the planed
surface so like the light and shadow on an undulating surface
that it is difficult to believe it smooth. It is sometimes called
"Fiddle -backed Maple" from its resemblance to a variety of
Sycamore used for the backs of violins.

Maple, Red (A. nibrum L.). Canada and Eastern United
States. Known also as "Soft, Swamp" or "Water Maple."
Height 70—90 ft. ; diam. 3—4 ft. S.G. 618. W 38-5. R 811
kilos. Sapwood brownish-white with a small irregular brown or
reddish-brown heart, moderately heavy, hard and elastic, close-
grained, compact, taking a very smooth polish, not strong or
durable. Used in turnery, chair-making, for wooden dishes,
shovels, and other small ware. Occasionally curled, when it
is valued for gunstocks and for veneers. The bird's-eye figure
is rare in this species. This wood does not enter into American
export trade.

Maple, Rock (A. barbdtum, Michx.). Eastern North America-
Also known as " Hard " or " Sugar Maple," and a variety as
"Black Maple." Height 50—100 ft. or more; diam. 1—4 ft.
S.G. 691. W 43. E 1149 kilos. White when first cut,
becoming rosy on exposure, and, when seasoned ; sapwood
light yellowish ; heart brown, heavy, very hard, fine and close
in grain, compact, strong, tough, taking a fine polish, with a
satiny lustre. The most valuable species, but not durable if
exposed, requiring two or three years' seasoning. Used in New
England as an Oak-substitute, in preference to Beech, Birch or
Elm, for house-frames, ships' keels, axles, spokes, chairs and
other furniture, flooring and interior finish, wooden bowls, con-
sidered the best in the market, shoe-lasts, pegs, saddle-trees,
etc., and also for fuel. It is but little imported, except when
figured. " Blister " or " Landscape," " Bird's-eye " or " Pin " and
"Curly" or "Fiddleback" figures all occur in this species, the
first two being almost confined to it. The Blister figure is
produced by wart-like prominences on the wood beneath the

MAPLE— MARBLEWOOD. 245

bark and is cut tangentially by a rotary lathe in a veneer the
length of the log and running spirally inwards to the centre
of the tree. The name " Landscape Maple " is appropriate in
that this figure much resembles a contoured map. The Bird's-
eye or Pin figure, which is more common, is produced by
pittings, which are visible on the bark. These appear in trans-
verse section as "pins," or structures resembling branches,
radiating nearly from the centre of the tree ; and in tangential
section as "eyes." Veneers of these varieties are largely im-
ported at Liverpool.

Maple, Silver (A. saccJuirinum, Wang., often known as A.
dasycdrpum, Ehrh.). Eastern North America. Otherwise known
as "Soft" or "White Maple." Height 90—100 ft.; diam.
4_5 ft. S.G. 527. W 32-8. R 1019 kilos. Sapwood deli-
cate creamy white; heart reddish-brown, lighter and softer
than Rock Maple, brittle, not very strong or durable if exposed,
shrinking moderately, seasoning and working well, taking a fine
polish, wearing smoothly. Used for flooring, cheap furniture,
interior finish, turnery, wooden ware, and fuel. Sometimes curled.

Maple, Striped (A. Pennsylvdnicum, L.). Eastern North
America. "Moose-wood, Whistle- wood, Striped Dog-wood."
Height 30—40 ft.; diam. 8—10 ins. S.G. 530. W 33. Sap-
wood wide, light brown; heart rather darker, light, soft, close-
grained. Not used as timber.

Maple, Sycamore. See Sycamore.

Marblewood (Olea paniculdta R. Br. : Order Okdcece). New
South Wales and Queensland. Known also as " Ironwood "
and "Native Olive." Height 50—70 ft.; diam. 1J— 2 ft.
Whitish, darkening towards the centre, prettily mottled, hard,
tough, close-grained, durable. Used for staves and suitable for
turning or engraving.

Marblewood, Andamanese (Diospyros Kurzii Hiern : Order
Ebendcece). Andaman Islands. Handsomely streaked with black
and grey, very heavy, hard, close-grained and durable. Used for
handles and furniture, and valuable as a substitute for the scarce
Calamander wood of Ceylon.

246 WOODS OF COMMERCE.

Margosa (Azadirdchta indica A. Juss. : Order Melidcece).
India, Burma, Ceylon, Java. Planted in East Africa. Hind.
"Neem." S.G. 739. W 4G. Light reddish-brown, beautifully
mottled when old, heavy, hard, compact, and durable, resembling
Mahogany. Used for furniture, images, flooring, etc.

Marrara (Wemmdnnia rubifdlia F. v. M. : Order Saxifmgdcew).
North-east Australia. " Corkwood." Height 80—100 ft. ; diam.
2 — 3 ft. Close-grained, tough, easily wrought. Not much used.

Massaranduba (Mimusops eldta Fr. Allem. : Order Sapotdcece).
Brazil. Height 80 ft. ; diam. 10 ft. Very hard. Used in
construction and in joinery.

Matai. See Pine, Black.

Mee. See Mahwa.

Me-matsu. See Pine, Japanese Red.

Mesquite (Prosupis julifldra DC. : Order Legumindsce).
Southern United States and Northern Mexico. Height 30 ft.
Dark brown to red, very heavy and hard, durable. Used in
house-building and for furniture.

Messmate, a name applied in Australia (i) to Eucalyptus
amygdalina [See Ash, Mountain], (ii) to E. obliqua [See
Stringybark], (iii) to E. piperita [See Peppermint], from their
association with the Stringybarks.

Milkwood. See Ironwood (xvii).

Milkwood, Red (Mimusops obovdta Sond. : Order Sapotdcece).
South Africa. Height 15—20 ft.; diam. 1|— 2 ft. W 52-4.
E 876 tons. / 9*52. Moderately heavy, close-grained and
tough. Used for felloes of wheels and other parts of waggons.

Milla or Mililla (Vitex altissima L. fil. : Order Verbendcece).
Ceylon and Southern India. Sink. "Milla," "Mililla." W 60-9.
E 721 tons. / 6-59. fc 3-12. fs '448. A large tree yielding
a grey or olive-brown, heavy, very hard, fine and close-grained
wood, which in Ceylon is one of the most valuable for building
purposes.

Mirabow (Afzelia palemldnica Baker : Order Legumindsce).
Andaman Islands, Malay Islands, Borneo. "Merban," " Pyn-
kadoo." A large tree yielding timber 30 — 40 ft. long, and 1J—

MARGOSA— MORICYPRE. 247

2J ft. in diam. W 52. Dark yellow, darkening and reddening
with age, prettily figured, moderately heavy, of fine even grain,
very tough, durable, termite-proof, working freely and taking a fine
polish, thus resembling Mahogany. An esteemed furniture- wood.

Miro. See Pine, Black.

Molave ( Vitex aUissima [See Milla] and V. geniaddta Blanco :
Order Yerbendcece). Philippines. S.G. 819. W 51-2. e' 1-87.
p' 1-54. c 7812. c' 1-032. Straw-coloured, heavy, hard, close-
grained, strong, with a figure resembling Satin-wood, not
shrinking or splitting in seasoning, very durable even when
exposed. Used extensively for all kinds of work and con-
sidered almost equal to Teak in building, while it might prove
useful in cabinet-work.

Monkey-pot (Lecythis grandiflora Aubl. : Order Myrtdcece).
Guiana. "Wadadura." French "Canari Macaque." Height
100 ft.; diam. 2 — 3 ft., yielding logs 20 — 50 ft. long and
squaring 16 — 28 in. S.G. 1032. Light brown, very heavy,
hard, close-grained, tough, working easily, taking a fine polish
and very durable. Used for staves and furniture.

Moose-wood. See Maple, Striped.

Mora (Diwn'pMndra excelsa Baill. : Order Legumindsa). Guiana
and Trinidad. Height 100—150 ft., frequently 60—70 ft. to
the first branch; diam. 2 — 2J ft., yielding logs 18 — 35 ft. long,
squaring 12—20 inches. S.G. 1075—1094. W 57—72-3. E
1068—1465 tons, e' 1-05. p' 1-64. / 6-87—9-42. c 9240.
c 1-220. fc 3-14—5-34. v' M17. fs -456— -655. Chestnut-
brown or red, very heavy, hard, straight-grained, tough, strong,
sometimes with a beautiful curled figure, taking a good polish,
durable, but very liable to star-shake. Suitable for keelsons,
beams and planking in ship-building, classed in line 2 of Lloyd's
Register, and also fitted for house-building and as a substitute for
Rosewood or Mahogany for furniture and cabinet-work, especially
when figured.

Moricypre (Byrsdnima spicdta Rich. : Order Malpighidcece).
Brazil and West Indies. Height 30 — 40 ft. ; diam. 2 ft. Used
in building and cabinet-work.

248 WOODS OF COMMERCE.

Morrel (Eucalyptus macrocdrpa Hook. : Order Myrtdcece).
West Australia. Very hard. Used for spokes, shafts, and
furniture.

Morung Sal. See Sal.

Moutouchi (Pterocdrpus Draco L. = Moutduchi suberdsa Aubl. :
Order Legumindsce). Guiana. Introduced into India in 1812.
S.G. 1018—875. R 255 kilos. With long streaks of pale violet,
light brown and white, easily sawn or worked.

Mountain Ash. See Rowan and Ash, Mountain.

Mulato-wood. See Bois Mulatre.

Mulberry (Mdrus alba L. : Order Mordcece). Said to be a native
of China introduced into Europe in the 15th century. French
"Murier." Germ. "Maulbeerbaum." Span. "Moral." Height
20 — 30 ft. ; diara. 1 — 2 ft. Sap wood narrow, yellowish-white ;
heart yellowish-brown, becoming reddish, like old Mahogany,
on exposure, heavy, hard, lustrous, difficult to split; vessels in
the spring wood very large forming a very broad and distinct
pore-circle, most of them open, but a few filled with a white
secretion ; those in the autumn wood regularly distributed, very
minute ; pith-rays fine but very distinct. A durable wood,
similar to that of the Black Locust (BoUnid). Used chiefly in
veneers and inlaying.

Mulberry, Indian (i) M. indica L., a native of the Himalayas,
India, China and Japan, has a wood very similar to that of M.
alba, used for tea-boxes and furniture, (ii) more generally used
of Morinda citrifdlia L. [See Canary-wood.]

Mulberry, Native. See Holly, Smooth.

Mulberry, Red (Mdrus rubra L.). Eastern United States.
Height 60 — 70 ft.; diam. 3 — 4 ft. S.G. 589. W 36*76.
R 775 kilos. Sapwood very narrow, whitish ; heart, orange-
yellow, of moderate weight and hardness, tough, coarse-grained,
strong, taking a satiny polish, and very durable in contact with
the soil. Largely used for fence-posts and cooperage, and to
some extent for agricultural implements and in boat-building.

Mulga (Acacia aneura F. v. M. : Order Legumindsce). Australia.
"Myall." Height 20—30 ft.; diam. 9—12 in. Dark brown,

MORREL— MYALL. 249

very hard. Used for fence-posts, bullock-yokes, boomerangs,
spears and "mulgas," narrow wooden shields.

Musk-tree (Mdrlea vittinsis Benth. : Order Corndcece). Fiji
islands, introduced in Australia. Height 20 — 30 ft. ; diam.
6 — 12 in. Bright yellow, with black centre, pretty curl, musk-
like odour, and close grain. An excellent cabinet-wood.

Muskwood (Oledria argophylla F. v. M. : Order Compdsitce).
South-east Australasia. Height 20 — 30 ft.; diam. 1J — 3 ft.
S.G. 642. W 40. Brownish-yellow, beautifully mottled at the
butt end, working well, taking a good polish and fragrant. Highly
prized for cabinet-work and turnery.

Mutton-wood (Myrsini varidbilis R. Br. : Order Myrsinem}.
East Australia. Also known as " Jemmy Donnelly," a name
also applied to the totally dissimilar Euroschinus fakdtus. Height
45—50 ft.; diam. 12—15 in. S.G. 714. Yellowish or pinkish,
hard, tough, somewhat resembling Oak in figure, easily worked,
durable.

Myall, a name applied in Australia to various species of
Acacia (Order Legumindsce), especially (i) A. pdndula A. Cunn.
" True " or " Weeping Myall," " Violet-wood." Abarig. " Boree."
North-east Australia, Height 20 — 30 ft. ; diam. 6—12 in. Kich
dark brown, beautifully marked, heavy, hard, close-grained,
violet-scented as long as it is unpolished. Used for boomerangs,
veneers, fancy boxes, and especially for tobacco-pipes, and often
imitated by artificially scenting the wood of other species, a
perfume which does not last.

(ii) A. homalophylla A. Cunn. Also known as " Spear-wood."
Aborig. " Gidya." South-east Australia. A similar tree, simi-
larly employed. Used also in turnery and formerly for spears.
S.G. 1124.

(iii) A. acumindta Benth. West Australia. Known also from
its fragrance as " Raspberry Jam." Height 38 — 40 ft. Similar,
reddish-brown, but with a perfume resembling raspberries. Used
for weapons and fence-posts; but suited for ornamental work and
now coming into use for furniture.

(iv) A. ajietim. See Mulga.

250 WOODS OF COMMERCE.

(v) A. glaudscens Willd. Also known as "Mountain Brigalow"
and "Rosewood." South-east Australia. Height 30 — 45 ft.;
diam. 1 — 1J ft. W 54. Resembling Walnut or Rosewood,
prettily marked, slightly fragrant, hard, close-grained, tough.
Used for spears and handles and suitable for turnery or
veneers.

Myall, Bastard (i) (A. falcdta Willd.). Also known as
" Hickory, Lignum-vitse " and " Salee." East Australia. Height
20—30 ft; diam. 6—12 in. Sap wood yellow; heart light
brown, heavy, hard, tough. Used for whip-handles and coach-
building.

(ii) A. Cunninghdmi Hook. East Australia. Height 20 — 30
ft.; diam. 9 — 12 in. W 46'75. Dark, resembling the wood of
Red Cedar (Cedrela Toona], but heavier, close-grained, and taking a
good polish. A useful cabinet wood.

Myall, Brigalow (A. harpophylla F. v. M.). Also known as
" Brigalow " [See Myall]. South Queensland. Brown, strongly
violet-scented, heavy, hard, elastic, durable, splitting freely. Used
for turnery, vine-stakes, spears and boomerangs.

Myall, Dalby. See Ironwood (ii).

My Lady, a West Indian wood, perhaps Neddndm sanguined
Rottb. [See Laurier Madame.]

Myrobalan-wood (Termindlia belcrica Roxb. : Order Com-
bretdcew). India, Ceylon, Burma. "Babela." Sansk. "Bahira."
Pers. "Beleyleh.'; Tarn. "Tandi." Height 50—80 ft.; diam.
2 — 4 ft. W 40. Yellowish-grey, hard, improved by steeping,
but is liable to become worm-eaten and does not appear durable.
Used for packing-cases, coffee-boxes, grain-measures, canoes and
planking. [For allied species see Arjun, Harra, Lein, and
Saj.]

Myrtle, a name not applied to any useful wood in the
Northern Hemisphere. In Tasmania and Victoria it refers
generally to Fdgus Cunninghdmii [See Beech, Evergreen] ; but
in New South Wales and Queensland to Syncdrpia leptopMala
F. v. M. (Order Myrtdcece) and to Backhousia scaditiphora
F. v. M. ; belonging to the same Order. Syncdrpia leptopttala

MYALL— MYRTLE. 251

( = Metrosideros leptopetala F. v. M.) which is known also as
"Ironwood" or "Brush Turpentine," reaches a height of 50 —
60 ft., with a diameter of 2 ft., is heavy, hard and durable,
and is used in turnery. Backlwiisia scadiciphora, 80 — 90 ft. high,
with a diameter of 2 ft., is hard, close-grained and prettily
marked ; but, though possibly useful for engraving, is not yet
in use.

Myrtle, Black (CargUUa pentdmera F. v. M. : Order Ebendcece).
North-east Australia. Known also as "Grey Plum." Height
80—100 ft. ; diam. 2—3 ft. Reddish, close-grained, tough,
durable. Used occasionally for tool-handles and for flooring.

Myrtle, Brush. See Barranduna.

Myrtle, Drooping (Eugenia Fentendtii Benth. : Order
Myrtdcece). North-east Australia. Height 40 — 60 ft. ; diam.
2 — 3 ft. Grey or pinkish, beautifully marked, heavy, hard,
close-grained, tough. Used for handles, ribs of boats, and floors
of verandahs.

Myrtle, Grey. See Myrtle, Scrub.

Myrtle, Native or Red (Eugenia myrtifolia Sims : Order
Myrtdcece). North - east Australia. Known also as " Brush
Cherry." Height 50—80 or 100 ft.; diam. 1—2 ft. W 47'75.
Light reddish or yellowish, strong, elastic, seasoning and working
well. Used for boomerangs, shields, staves, oars, boat-building
and tool-handles. [See also Myrtle, Scrub, and Juniper.]

Myrtle, Ridge. See Ironwood (iv).

Myrtle, Scrub (Backhousia myrtifdlia Hook and Harv. : Order
Myrtdcece). North-east Australia. Known also as " Grey " or
"Native Myrtle" and as "Lancewood." Height 20—40 ft.;
diam. 9 — 12 in. Light yellow, often prettily marked with dark
brown, Walnut-like stains, hard, close-grained, tough, duiable.
Used for mallets, handles, bows, and suitable for turnery and
perhaps engraving.

Myrtle, Three veined. See Turpentine, Brush.

Myrtle, Water. See Gum, Water.

Myrtle, White (i) (Myrtus acmenioides F. v. M. : Order
Myrtdcece). North-east Australia. Height 60 — 70 ft. ; diam-

252 WOODS OF COMMERCE.

1 — 1^ ft. W 61. Light-coloured, close-grained, very hard,
tough and durable. Used by coach-builders.

(ii) (Ehoddmnia argdntea Benth., in the same Order.) North-
east Australia. Aborig. " Muggle-muggle." Height 80 — 100ft.;
diam. 2 — 3 ft. Close-grained, hard and durable ; but seldom used.

Nagesar. See Ironwood (xviii).

Nani. See Ironwood (xx).

Narango, Palo. See Fustic.

Narra- See Sanders, Fed.

Neem. See Margosa.

Needle-bush. See Pin-bush.

Nettle-tree (Celtis austrdlis L. : Order Ulmdcece), Mediter-
ranean. French "Micocoulier." Germ. " Ziirgelbaum." Height
30 — 50 or 70 ft. ; diam. 6 — 12 in. Yellowish, heavy, hard, compact,
elastic, taking a high polish ; vessels in spring wood few but
large, the smaller, later ones arranged dendritically ; pith-rays
fine but distinct (Fig. 32). When cut obliquely it resembles
Satin-wood. Used for furniture, carving, turnery, whip-handles,
walking-sticks, flutes, etc. [See Hackberry.]

Nettle-tree, Giant (Lapdrtea gigas Wedd. : Order Urticdcece).
North-east Australia. Height 80—100 or 160 ft.; diam. 2—8
ft. W 16 — 17, Brownish, soft, spongy. Useless.

Nettle -tree, Small-leaved (L. photiniphf/lla Wedd.). A
smaller tree, from the same region, yields an even lighter wood.
W 13'8. It might be used for floats for fishing-nets.

Nicaragua-wood. See Peachwood.

Nispero. See Sapodilla.

Nut. See Hazel.

Nut, Queensland (Macaddmia ternifolia F. v. M. ; Order
Protedcece). North-east Australia. Aborig. " Kindal - kindal "
Height 30 — 50 ft. ; diam. small. Reddish, firm, fine-grained,
prettily figured. Used for staves, bullock-yokes, shingles, cabinet-
work and veeners.

Oak, originally Quercus R6bur L. (Order Cupuliferce\ the
principal hardwood of Europe, afterwards extended to other
species of the genus in Southern Europe, North America, the

MYRTLE— OAK. 253

Himalayas and Japan, and to various other entirely unrelated
timber- trees, chiefly species of Casuarina, in Australia. It will
be convenient to depart from the strictly alphabetical arrange-
ment of the many kinds of "Oak" in use, in favour of a
geographical enumeration. Beginning, therefore, with the
Common Oak of Europe, we will then describe the other
European and North African forms, taking those of North
America next, and then those of the Himalayas and of Japan,
and relegating the so-called Oaks of Australia to the last.

Oak, Common, British or European (Q. R6bur L.) Syria,
Mt. Taurus and Mt. Atlas to 60° N. lat. French " Ch£ne."
Germ. "Eiche." Span. "Roble." Japan. "Gashi." Height
60—100 ft. ; diam. 1 — 22 ft., often with a straight stem 30 — 40
ft. high and 2—4 ft. in diam. S.G. 1280 when fresh cut, to 780
or 597 when seasoned. "It must be borne in mind, however,
that these weights refer to the wood as a structure, and do not
give the specific gravity of the wood substance itself. This latter
may be obtained by driving off all the air and water from the
wood, and is found to be 1560" (Marshall Ward). W 62—43.
E 535 — 800 tons, e' Mr. Laslett takes the mean elasticity of
British Oak as unity for the comparison of other woods. Other
specimens of the species range from -64 — 1-41. p 6500 — 11,300.
p' Here too Oak is unity, its range being -6 — 1-06. / 5-27. ft
3-4—8-8. c 7571—8102. c' English Oak being taken as unity,
French-grown Oak is 1-071. fc 2-7 — 4-5. tf English Oak unity,
Dantzic Oak, probably the same species, -99, French 1-04. fs
1—1-03. R 10,000—13,600 Ibs. Sapwood narrow, yellowish;
heart of various shades, from greyish or yellow-brown (fawn-
colour) to reddish or very dark brown, darkening on exposure.
" Oak is neither the hardest and heaviest, nor the most supple
and toughest of woods, but it combines in a useful manner the
average of these qualities. Good oak is hard, firm and compact,
and with a glossy surface, and varies much ; young oak is often
tougher, more cross-grained, and harder to work than older
wood " (Marshall Ward). A stress of 1900 Ibs. per square inch
is stated as the average requisite to indent Oak ^ in. transversely

254 WOODS OF COMMERCE.

to its fibres. Oak timber is apt to be affected by star and cup
shakes, especially in certain districts ; and, though it can be
readily seasoned, it is very liable to warp and shrink during the
process.

When Oak was largely in use in our Royal dockyards the
rules as to specifications were that only logs would be accepted
10 ft. or more in length that would side 9 inches and upwards in
proportion to their length ; and that each piece was measured for
contents by calliper measurement as far as its spire (or top-end)
" will hold 12 inches in diameter." It was then found by experi-
ence that 30 inches calliper will yield sided timber of about 21
inches, 24 inches calliper 18 J in the side, or on an average a
"siding" of about two-thirds of the calliper measurement. For
fencing or staves, Oak splits easily, with a moderately smooth
surface ; and, for ornamental purposes, it is susceptible of a high
polish.

The sapwood is very liable to insect-attack and cannot be
termed durable ; but the heart, whether under ground, under
water, or exposed to alternations of drought and damp, is re-
markably so, few woods changing so little when once seasoned.
The " life " of a railway-sleeper of young Oak is stated to be from
7 to 10 years if not treated with any preservative, or 16 years if
treated with zinc-chloride. The piles of Old London Bridge
taken up in 1827, sound after six and a half centuries' use, are a
striking instance of these lasting qualities ; whilst the " Bog-oak "
blackened by the action of the iron-salts in peat-mosses on the
tannin it contains — a natural ink — remains sound after far longer
periods. The durability of Oak timber is undoubtedly affected
by the time of year at which it is felled, the best season being
winter, when there is least water and sap or fermentable matter
in the wood. The greater amount of tannin in the bark and the
greater ease in stripping it in the spring have, however, often led
to the trees being felled at that time. Incipient decay often
shows itself in the heartwood of ancient oak trees as "foxiness,"
a warm deepening of the colour that actually enhances the value
of the wood for some ornamental purposes.

OAK. 255

The minute structure of Oak has already been to some extent
described and fully illustrated in Part I. The pith, at first
white, then brown, is pentangular and from 1 — 4 mm. across :
the pith-rays are of two kinds, very broad, lustrous, light-
coloured ones — the "silver-grain" — sometimes f in. apart, and
others, far more numerous — about 300 to the inch — very fine
and less straight. The annual rings undulate slightly, bending
outwards between the broad pith-rays : they vary in width from
1 — 8 or more millimetres, and they are conspicuous owing to the
pore-circle of very large vessels in the spring-wood, which is only
a single row when the rings are narrow or four rows when they
are wide. Into the autumn-wood there radiate outwards straight
or bifurcating bands of finer vessels, tracheids and cells (Figs.
19 and 27). Numerous, very narrow, wavy, peripheral lines
(" false-rings ") of wood-parenchyma, recognizable by their con-
tents, but seldom more than a single row of elements each, are
generally visible, especially when the annual rings are broad.

Owing to the large proportion that the pores bear to the fibre
when the annual rings are narrow, such slow-growing unthrifty
Oak, growing on poor soil or in severe climatic conditions, is,
though often beautifully marked, softer than the broad-ringed,
thrifty, quick-grown wood of good soils and a favourable climate.
They may differ to the extent of their specific gravities — a fair
criterion of their hardness and strength — varying from 691 to
827 respectively.

Que'rcus Rdbur is a somewhat variable species, three somewhat
inconstant types being recognized as British, viz. pedunculdta,
sessilifldra and intermedia. Que'rcus Rdbur pedunculdta derives its
scientific name from the long stalks to its acorns, for which
reason also the Germans call it " Stieleiche," whilst from the
situations in which it grows they call it " valley oak " (Thaleiche),
and from its early production and shedding of its leaves it is
called " early oak " (Friiheiche) and " Sommereiche." It is
generally quick-growing, but does not, perhaps, produce so great
a length of clear stem as sessilifldra. Its wood may be lighter in
colour, whence apparently it gets its French name, " Chene

256 WOODS OF COMMERCE.

blanc"; but it is generally more compact, denser and tougher,
and therefore better for purposes where strength is a primary
consideration.

Q. Edbur sessilifldra, known, from a supposedly greater resemb-
lance in its wood, as "chestnut oak," by the French as "Chene
rouge," and by the Germans as " Traubeneiche " " red, (Rotheiche)
hill, (Bergeiche) late " (Spateiche) or " winter oak," has long
stalks to its leaves, but not to its acorns, and is apparently
generally less dense in its timber. It is also, perhaps, more
liable to shakes ; but it must be admitted that, in the absence of
any record as to the source of the logs or of any exact measure-
ment of specific gravity, timber-dealers cannot discriminate the
wood of these two varieties. Stunted specimens, grown on rocky
hill-sides, produce crooked, hard, knotty wood, difficult to split,
formerly of considerable value in shipbuilding ; and coppice oak
is of a similar character.

Q, R6bwr intermedia, the Durmast Oak, is not common. It has
short stalks to both leaves and acorns and its leaves are downy
on their under surfaces. It has a broad sapwood and a dark-
brown heart, and is considered of inferior quality.

There is, perhaps, greater difference between the woods of Q.
Edbur imported from various parts of the continent than there is
between these home-grown varieties. French Oak, largely Q.
Edbur pedunculdta grown in Brittany and Normandy, is generally
smaller, shorter and more tapering than English ; but, with S.G.
992—720, e' 1-39— 1-41, p' 1-01—1-06, c 8102, c' 1-071, v' 1-04,
and shrinking and splitting less in seasoning than English, it
would appear, in spite of some former prejudice, to be better all
round, always presuming that a good sample be selected.
Dantzic Oak, shipped partly from Memel and Stettin, mostly
brought down the Vistula from Poland, which comes to market
as staves, in logs 18 — 30 ft. long and 10 — 16 in. square, or in
planks about 32 ft. long, 9 — 15 in. wide and 2 — 8 in. thick, is
brown, straight and clean-grained and free from knots. It would
seem to be largely Q. Eobur sessilifldra, and is sometimes so
figured as to be classed as " wainscot-oak." It has S.G. 897 — 768,

OAKS. 257

e -43. p' -59. c 4214. cf -556. v' -99, and is, therefore, decidedly
inferior in strength to good English-grown Oak. It is carefully
sorted or " bracked " for market, the planks of best or " crown "
quality being marked W, those of second best or " crown brack "
quality WW. Riga Oak, a very similar wood, also probably
sessili/ldra, only comes to market in "wainscot logs" of moderate
dimensions, for furniture or veneers, for which purposes it is the
finest quality in the trade.

From Italy and Spain a variety of Oak timbers were formerly
imported to our dockyards, partly the produce of varieties of
Q. Bdbur, but partly apparently from the evergreen Cork and
Holm Oaks (Q. Suber L. and Q. Ilex L.). Most of this wood
was comparatively small, curved, brown, hard, horny, tough,
difficult to saw or work, and very liable to shakes and, therefore,
unsuitable for boards.

Oak, Turkey (Qu^rcus Ctrris L.). Middle and Southern
Europe and South-west Asia. Known also as "Adriatic, Iron,
Wainscot" or "Mossy-cupped Oak." Germ. "Zerreiche." A
tall species with straight, clean stems, hard-wooded in the south
and in plains, softer in the north or on hills, very liable to
ring and star shakes. Sapwood broader than in Q. R6bur •
heart a redder brown ; broad pith-rays more numerous. On the
whole inferior.

Throughout Europe, and more especially in Britain, Oak was
employed for every purpose both of naval and civil architecture
until about the beginning of the eighteenth century, when Pine
was first largely imported from the Baltic and North America.
In our dockyards Oak continued to be in large demand until
about 1865, all other hard and heavy woods used in shipbuilding
being compared with it as a standard and described as "Oak-
substitutes." Oak has, however, one serious drawback in this
connection, viz., the presence of a powerful wood acid which
exerts a rapidly corrosive action upon any iron in contact with
it, this rusting being apt in turn to react upon the timber,
producing rot. With the introduction of armour-plating and
steel ships, wood of any kind has become far less important

258 WOODS OF COMMERCE.

in shipbuilding and Teak has largely superseded Oak. In
Lloyd's Register, however, English, French, Italian, Spanish,
Portuguese and Adriatic Oak, and Live Oak, Q. virens of the
United States, are classed together on Line 2. Though the
greater cheapness and lightness of coniferous wood have led
to its being now generally preferred in building, Oak is still
in request where strength and durability are objects. Large
quantities are used for palings, shingles, staves, parquet-floors,
wheelwright's work, wainscot, furniture and carving. For these
last three purposes the softer, more figured wood is preferred,
whilst for gate-posts, doors, stair-treads, door-sills, etc., the
harder sorts are employed. The ancient Romans are said to
have used the evergreen Holm Oak (Q. Ilex) for axles, and
hard Oak is still used for this purpose on the Continent.
Walking-sticks are also made of Oak and it furnishes an ex-
cellent charcoal. Excellent Oak is imported from Roumania.

Oak, Zeen (Qudrcm MiMckii Durien). North-west Africa.
Height 100—110 ft.; diam. up to 6 ft. S.G. when green 924.
Breaking-weight per sq. millimetre 7'4 kilos., as against 4'7 — 7*2
kilos, for European Oak. Yellowish or rose-coloured ; pith-rays
numerous, broad, close ; heavy, horny, straight-grained, very
durable, but liable to shakes and warping. Used for sleepers,
bridge-girders, piles, and wine-barrels; and, when winter-felled
and seasoned for six or twelve months, is one of the most
valuable timbers of Tunis, where it covers about 26,500 acres.
In 1883 it fetched on the spot 3s. 9d. per cubic metre; in 1888
8s. 9d.

Oaks in America are somewhat numerous, three well-marked
kinds, White, Red or Black, and Live Oak being distinguished
in commerce. The evergreen or Live Oak (Q. virens] of the
Southern United States, formerly much employed in shipbuild-
ing, though smaller than White Oak, is one of the heaviest,
hardest and most durable timbers of the country. White Oak
is more compact, tougher, stronger and more durable than Red
Oak. We will, however, briefly describe the various species
alphabetically.

OAKS. 259

Oak, Baltimore. See Oak, White.

Oak, Basket (Q. Michauxii Nutt.). South-eastern States.
Known also as "Cow" or "Swamp Chestnut Oak." French
"Chene de panier." Germ. " Korb-Eiche." Span. "Roble de
canasto." Height 100 ft. or more; diam. 3 ft. or more. Sap-
wood white ; heart fawn-colour : rings fairly broad : pores in
about two rows in spring wood : very heavy, hard, tough, very
strong, very durable in contact with soil. Largely used for
agricultural implements, cooperage, fencing, baskets, and fuel.

Oak, Black. See Oak, Red, and Oak, Yellow.

Oak, Burr (Q. macrocdrpa Michaux). Canada and the
North-eastern and Central States, westward to the Rocky
Mountains. Known also as "Mossy-cup" or "Over-cup Oak."
French "Che^ne a gros gland." Germ. " Grossfriichtige Eiche."
Span. "Roble con bellotas musgosas." Height 100 ft. or more;
diam. 4—7 ft. S.G. 745. W 46-45. R 982 kilos. Sapwood
pale buff, heart rich brown ; rings fairly broad ; pores in about
three rows in spring wood ; heavy, hard, strong, tough, rather
more porous than White Oak, more durable, in contact with
soil, than any other American Oak. Classed with and used
as White Oak.

Oak, Chestnut (Q. Prinus L.). Southern Ontario and North-
eastern United States. Known also as "Rock Oak." French
"Ch6ne de roche." Germ. " Gerbereiche," "Felsen Eiche."
Height 80 ft. or more ; diam. 3 — 4 ft. or more. S.G. 750. W
46-7. R 1031 kilos. Sapwood brownish white; heart rich brown;
rings narrow; pores hardly more than a single row ; heavy, hard,
rather tough, strong, durable in contact with the soil. Chiefly
valued for its bark but used for fencing, railroad-ties and fuel.
The name is also applied to Q. Muhlenbtrgii [See Oak, Chin-
quapin]. The Californian Chestnut Oak is Q. densifldra [See
Oak, Tan-bark], and the Swamp Chestnut Oak, Q. Michauxii
[See Basket-Oak].

Oak, Chinquapin (Q. MuUenUrgii Engelm.). Eastern United
States. Known also as "Chestnut Oak" and "Yellow Oak."
French " Chene jaune." Germ. " Kastanien Eiche." Height

260 WOODS OF COMMERCE.

80 ft.; diara. 3—4 ft. S.G. 860. W 53-6. R 1238 kilos.
Sapwood brownish white ; heart rich brown ; rings of moderate
width ; pores in 1 — 2 rows ; heavy, hard, strong durable in
contact with soil. Valued for rail way -ties, cooperage, furniture,
fencing and fuel.

Oak, Cow. See Oak, Basket.

Oak, Duck. See Oak, Water.

Oak, Iron. See Oak, Post.

Oak, Live (Q. virens Ait.). Southern States. French "Chene
vert." Germ. " Lebenseiche, Immergriine Eiche." Height 60 ft.
or more ; diam. 5 ft. or more. Sapwood light-brown ; heart
dark brown ; rings of moderate width ; pores very few and
small ; pith-rays distinct and bright ; very heavy, compact,
hard, tough, strong, fine but somewhat twisted in grain and
consequently very difficult to work, durable. Seldom yielding
large straight timber, but with many crooked pieces, it was
formerly much used for knees in shipbuilding. It is, perhaps,
stronger than any known Oak, and is now used by wheelwrights,
millwrights and toolmakers.

Oak, California Live (Q. clirysoUpis Liehm.). Pacific
States at altitudes of 3000—8000 ft. Known also as "Thick-
cup Live Oak, Maul Oak," and "Valparaiso Oak." Height
80 ft. or more ; diam. 5 ft. or more. Very heavy, hard, tough,
very strong. Considerably used in waggon-building and for
agricultural implements.

Oak, Mossy-cup. See Oak, Burr.

Oak, Peach. See Oak, Tan-bark and Oak, Willow.

Oak, Pin (Q. palustris Du Roi.). South-central States.
Known also as "Swamp Spanish" and "Water Oak." French
"Chene marecageaux." Germ. "Sumpf Eiche." No distinct
heart ; rings wide, very wavy ; pores very numerous, forming
a wide zone ; light brown.

Oak, Possum. See Oak, Water.

Oak, Post (Q. oUusiUba Michaux). Eastern and Southern
States. Known also as "Iron Oak." French "Chene poteau."
Germ. " Pfahl Eiche, Posteiche, Eiseneiche." Height 60 ft. or

OAKS. 261

more ; diam. 3 ft. or more. Sapwood light brownish ; heart
sharply defined, dark brown ; rings rather narrow ; pores
small, in about three rows ; very heavy, hard, very durable in
contact with soil. Used chiefly for railroad-ties, fencing and
fuel ; but occasionally for cooperage and carriage-building.

Oak, Punk. See Oak, Water.

Oak, Quebec. See Oak, White.

Oak, Quercitron. See Oak, Yellow.

Oak, Red (Q. riibra L.). Canada and North-eastern States.
Known in commerce as " Canadian Red " and as " Black Oak."
French " Chene rouge." Germ. " Rotheiche." Height 80 — 100
ft. or more; diam. 4—6 or 7 ft. S.G. 654. VV 40-76. R 990
kilos. Sapwood almost white ; heart light brown or reddish ;
rings wide; pores numerous, in a wide zone; pith-rays indis-
tinct; heavy, hard, strong, but inferior to White Oak, coarse-
grained and so porous as to be unfit for staves for liquor casks,
shrinking moderately without splitting, easy to work. Used
for flour and sugar barrels, clapboards, chairs and interior finish,
and imported from Canada to London and still more to Liver-
pool for furniture-making. It is valued for its bark. [See also
Oak, Spanish.]

Oak, Rock. See Oak, Chestnut.

Oak, Scarlet (Q. coccima Wang.). Eastern United States.
Height 100 ft. or more; diam. 3—4 ft. S.G. 740. W 46.
R 1054 kilos. Sapwood whitish; heart ill-defined, pinkish-
brown, heavy, hard, strong; rings narrow, wavy; pores in
3 — 4 rows making a rather broad zone; pith-rays prominent.
Used in cooperage, chair making and interior finish, being treated
in trade as Red Oak and of small value.

Oak, Spanish (Q. falcdta Michx.). Eastern and Southern
States. Known also as " Red Oak." Height 70 ft. or more ;
diam. 4 ft. or more. Heavy, very hard and strong, but not
durable. Valued for its bark; but used in building and cooperage,
and as fuel.

Oak, Swamp Spanish. See Oak Pin.

Oak, Tan-bark (Q. densifldm Hook and Am.). Pacific

262 WOODS OF COMMERCE.

coast. Known also as "Peach" or "California Chestnut Oak."
Height 60—70 ft.; diam. 2—3 ft. Heavy, hard, strong.
Classed as an inferior White Oak; but valued chiefly for its
bark.

Oak, Water (Q. aqudtica Walt.). Central, southern and
south-eastern States. Known also as "Duck, Possum" or
"Punk Oak." Height 70—80 ft. • diam. 3—4 ft.; heavy, hard,
strong. Sapwood whitish ; heart ill-defined, light brown ; rings
of moderate width, wavy; pores in 1 — 2 rows, graduating into
those of the autumn wood ; pith-rays numerous and prominent,
but not very wide. Used in cooperage, but chiefly as fuel. The
name is also applied to Q. palustris. [See Oak, Pin.]

Oak, White (Q. dlba L.). South-eastern Canada, Eastern
United States. Height 70—130 ft.; diam. 6—8 ft. S.G.
1054—695. W 46-35. e' 1-19— 1-58. / 1— -9. c 7021—3832.
c' -927— -506. v -912— -771. E 905 kilos. Sapwood whitish ;
heart defined, reddish brown ; heavy, hard, tough, straight-
grained, strong, durable in contact with soil ; rings narrow,
slightly wavy; pores in spring wood in 1 — 2 rows, those in
summer wood very fine ; pith-rays numerous and prominent ;
wide radial groups of dense woody-fibre extending across the
summer wood crossed by several concentric lines of fine pores.
One of the most generally useful of American hard-woods, being
so elastic that " planks cut from it may, when steamed, be bent
into almost any form," shrinking and splitting very little in
seasoning, but liable to some twisting, free from knots, and
shipped in logs from 25 — 50 ft. long and 11 — 28 inches square,
or in thick-stuff or planks. Largely used in shipbuilding, house-
frames, interior finish, door-sills, staves for wine-casks, railway
and other carriage-building, agricultural implements, fence-posts,
sleepers, piles, furniture and fuel. Though beautifully marked
when quarter-sawn, it is inferior to the best European Oak.
"Quebec Oak" is the trade name of an excellent quality and
" Baltimore Oak " that of a somewhat inferior one, both named
from their port of shipment, and realizing from Is. 4d. to 2s. per
cubic foot in London. The name "White Oak" is applied in

OAKS. 263

the southern states to Q. Durdndii Buckley, and in the west to
Q. garrydna Dougl.

Oak, Swamp White (Q. bicol&r Willd.). Eastern Canada and
United States. French "Chene de marais." Germ. " Sumpf
Weisseiche, Zweifarbige Eiche." Height 75 — 100 ft. ; diam. 5
ft. S.G. 766. W 47-75. K. 909 kilos. Sapwood whitish;
heart defined, pinkish brown, heavy, hard, tough and strong,
resembling Q. aqudtica but with more defined heart and wide
rings and pith-rays. Classed in trade as " White Oak " ; but
appearing inferior.

Oak, Weeping or Western (Q. lobdta N6e). California.
Germ. "Westliche Weisseiche." The largest-growing species on
the Pacific coast. Classed as " White Oak."

Oak, Willow (Q. PMlos L.). Eastern States. Known also
as "Peach Oak." Heavy, hard, very elastic, but small.

Oak, Yellow (Q. tinctdria Bartram). Eastern United States.
Known also as "Black" or "Quercitron Oak." French "Chene
jaune." Germ. "Farber Eiche." Height 80 ft. or more; diam.
3 ft. or more. Sapwood white ; heart reddish-brown, heavy,
hard, coarse-grained, porous, strong, but not tough ; rings narrow,
wavy : pith-rays numerous ; pores in spring wood in 3 — 5 rows.
Valued for its bark and used as a substitute for White Oak in
building, cooperage, etc., and for fuel. [See also Oak,
Chinquapin.]

In the Himalayas there is a considerable variety of species of
Oak, most of which are evergreen. The wood of these species is
often hard, durable and valuable, resembling English Oak, but
not having distinct annual rings, these being replaced by partial
zones of wood-parenchyma or " false rings." Among them are :

Oak, Brown (Q. semecarpifdlia Sm.). Afghanistan to Bhotan,
at altitudes of 8000—10,000 ft. Wood large, reddish-grey, very
hard. Used for all kinds of building and for charcoal.

Oak, Green (Q. dilatdta Lindl.). Afghanistan and the North-
west. Wood large, hard, seasoning well without warping, durable.
Used for building. The name is also applied to Q. glauca Thunb.,
which grows from Kashmir to Bhotan and in Japan, and yields

264 WOODS OF COMMERCE.

a brownish-grey, very hard wood, used in house and bridge-
building.

Oak, Grey (Q. incdna Koxb.). From the Indus to Nepal, at
altitudes of 8000—3000 ft. Known also as " Himalayan Ilex "
or "Ban," and in Kumaon as "Munroo." Heartwood reddish-
brown, very hard, but warping and splitting considerably in
building. Used in building.

Oak, Holm (Q. Ilex L.), the same species that occurs in
Southern Europe, occurs also in the North-west.

Oak, Ring-cupped (Q. annuldta Sm.). Sikkim, up to alti-
tudes of 10,000 ft. A well-marked, handsome, but not durable
wood.

Q. fenestrdta Roxb., of the Eastern Himalaya, from Sylhet to
Burmah, and of the Khasia Hills, growing down to 50 ft. above
the sea, yields a red, very hard, good and durable heartwood,
somewhat inferior to English Oak.

Q. Gri/ithii Hook. fil. and Thorn., of Bhotan, Sikkim and the
Khasia Hills, yields a brown, very hard, strong wood, much
resembling English Oak, used in building.

Q. lamelUsa Sm., occurring from Nepal to Bhotan, has a grey-
brown wood with a beautiful silver grain, used in building, but
not very durable if exposed.

Q. lancecefdlia Roxb., of the Garrow Hills arid Assam, yields a
light-coloured wood, resembling English Oak, but harder and
very durable.

Q. lappdcea Roxb., of the Khasia Hills, has a strong wood,
resembling English Oak, but hard and more close-grained.

Q. pachyphylla Kurz, of the Eastern part of the range, at
altitudes of 8000—10,000 ft., yields a greyish, very durable,
damp-resisting timber, used for fencing, shingles and planks.

Q. serrdta Thunb., which ranges from the Himalaya into China
and Japan, yields a brown, very hard, building wood, resembling
that of Q. Griffithii.

Q. spicdta Sm., the range of which extends from the Himalayas
to Malacca and the Sunda islands, yields a reddish, very hard and
durable wood, used in- India for building.

OAKS. 265

In Southern Japan several species of evergreen Oak occur,
including Q. aciita Thunb., " Aka-gashi," with a dark red-brown,
very hard and heavy heartwood, used in waggon-building; the
lighter-coloured Q. giha BL " Ichii-gashi " ; and the greyish-white
Q. vibrayedna Tr. and Tav., " Shira-gashi," and Q. myrsincefolia
Bl., "Urajiro-gashi," used in ship-building and waggon-building.
In Northern Japan occurs Q. grosserdta BL, " O-nara," the wood
of which is employed for building and furniture.

In Australia, where there are no true Oaks, many very diverse
species are so named : but the name is chiefly applied to species
of Casuarina (Order Casuarince), from a fancied resemblance in
the colour and broad pith-rays of their wood to that of true Oak.
These woods have been known in English trade as "Botany
Oak " and used in veneer and inlaying.

Oak, Bull (Casuarina glaum Sieb.). Also known as " Swamp-
oak, Desert" or "River She-oak." Aboiig. "Billa." Height
40 — 50 ft. ; diam. 1 — 2 ft. Red with small darker veins, some-
what resembling Quercus Ilex, the Holm Oak, close-grained, strong.
Used for staves, shingles and fence-rails, but not suited for
posts. The name is also applied to C. equisetifolia. [See Oak,
Swamp.]

Oak, Forest (C. toruUsa Ait.). North-east Australia. Known
also as "Beef-wood," "River" and "Mountain Oak." Height
60—80 ft. ; diam. 1 J— 2 ft. W 64. Heart well denned, prettily
marked, close-grained. Much used for shingles and fuel, and
also used for furniture, either solid or in veneer. The name is
also applied to C. equisetifttia [See Oak, Swamp] and to C.
suberdsa [See Oak, Erect She.]

Oak, River, a name applied to Callutemon saligmis [See
Bottle-brush, White], Casuarina Cunninghamidna [See Oak,
Scrub She], C. disiyla [See Oak, Stunted She], C. stricta [See
Oak, Shingle], and C. toruUsa [See Oak, Forest].

Oak, She, a usefully distinctive name for the five following
species of Casuarina, viz. : C. stricta [See Oak, Shingle],
C. glauca [See Oak, Bull], C. suberfaa, Cunninghamidna and
distyla.

266 WOODS OF COMMERCE.

Oak, Erect She (C. suberosa Ott. and Dietr.). Central and
Eastern Australasia. Known also as "Beef-wood, Forest,
Swamp" or "Shingle Oak." Height 30—50 ft. ; diam. 1—2 ft.
W. 59-6. Reddish, beautifully marked, very apt to split in
drying. Used for shingles, handles, mallets, etc., and formerly
for boomerangs ; but would be valuable for veneers.

Oak, Scrub She (C. Cunninghamidna Miq.). North-east
Australia. Known also as "River Oak." Height 60—70 ft.;
diam. 2 ft. Prettily marked, hard, close-grained. Used for
shingles, staves and fuel.

Oak, Stunted She (C. distyki Vent.). Southern and Western
Australasia. Known also as " River Oak." Height 40 — 60 ft. ;
diam. IJ — 2 ft. Brown to deep-red, light, tough, strong. Used
for bullock-yokes.

Oak, Shingle (C. stricta Ait.). South-east Australasia. Known
also as "Coast She-Oak," "Salt-water Swamp Oak" and "River
Oak." Height 20—30 ft.; diam. 9—15 in. S.G. 1037—935.
W 57 — 63. Reddish with dark longitudinal bands giving a
beautifully mottled appearance to the outer part of the heart,
the darker centre being less handsome, heavy, close-grained, very
hard, tough, working up splendidly, but not durable. Used for
shingles, staves, spokes, axe-handles, turnery and furniture.

Oak, Silky (i) (Stenocdrpus salignus R. Br. ; Order Protedcece).
North-east Australia. Known also as "Silvery Oak" and "Beef-
wood." Aborig. "Melyn." Height 30—50 or 80 ft. ; diam. 1—3
ft. W 44-25. Red-brown, sometimes dark, with a beautiful
wavy figure, hard, close-grained, splitting and working readily,
durable. A most beautiful wood, used for furniture, veneers and
walking-sticks ; but becoming scarce, (ii) (Grevillea robusta A.
Cunn. ; Order Protedcece.). North-east Australia and successfully
introduced into Ceylon. Height 70—80 or 100 ft. ; diam. 2—3
ft. S.G. 564. W 35-25—38-8. Light coloured but prettily
marked, especially where knots are present, moderately hard,
elastic, working well, durable. Largely used for staves for tallow-
casks and now becoming scarce, (iii) (Orites excelsa R. Br. ; Order
Protedcece). North-east Australia. Known also as "Red Ash."

OAK— OLIVE. 267

Height 40—70 or 80 ft. ; diam. 2—3 ft. Grey, prettily marked,
hard, susceptible of a good polish, durable. Used for cask-
staves, shingles and farm implements.

Oak, Swamp (Casuarina equisetifdlia Forst.). North-east
Australia; introduced near Madras. Known also as "Beef-
wood," "Forest" and "Bull Oak," and in the South Seas as
" Ironwood." Anglo-Indian " Fir," from an external resemblance
to Larch. Madagascar and Mauritius "Filaof." Deklian "Sarv"
(cypress). Indian Archipelago " Aroo." Tarn. " Chouk." Height
50 — 70 ft.; diam. 1— 1J ft. W 55—63. Reddish, coarse-
grained, beautifully- marked, hard, tough, strong, straight in
growth and very durable. Used for fencing and shingles and
largely for fuel, for which it is excellent. The name is also
applied to C. glauca [See Oak, Bull] and C. suberdsa [See Oak,
Erect She].

Oak, White (Lagundria Patersdni). See Tulip-tree.

In addition to these the name Oak is applied in Ceylon to
Schleichera trijuga [See Kosum], and in New Zealand to AUdrym
exctlsum Gaertn. (Order Sapinddcece), the "Titoki" of the Maoris,
which is used in building.

Oak, African. See African.

Oak, Indian, a name sometimes applied to Barringtonia
acutdngula Gaertn. (Order Myrtdcece), a species ranging from
the Seychelles to Queensland and Northern India. Hind.
"Samandar-phal, Hijjul." Tarn. "Radami." Telug. "Kanapa"
or "Kanigi." Burm. "Kyai-tha." A large tree, yielding red,
fine-grained, hard timber, said to be equal to Mahogany, and used
in boat and cart-building, well-work and cabinet making. W 46.

Olive (Olea europaM L. : Order Oledceoe.). Mediterranean
region; introduced into California, India, and other countries.
French "Olivier." Germ. Oelbaum," " Olivenholz." Height
seldom more than 20 feet. Very close and fine-grained, light
yellowish-brown, with irregularly wavy dark lines and mottlings,
especially near the root, resembling Box in texture, but not
so hard and rather brittle, taking an excellent polish, with no
distinguishable rings or pith-rays and minute, evenly distributed

268 WOODS OF COMMERCE.

vessels. Used chiefly in turnery and carving for small articles,
fancy boxes, paper-knives, etc.

Olive or Wild Olive in Cape Colony (Olea retrucosa Link.)
Boer " Olivenhout." Also known as " Olina wood." Zulu
"Umguna." Height 14—16 ft.; diam. 8—15 in. W 68'95.
E 669 tons. /6-65. fc 3-90. fs -8. Dark, very hard, heavy,
dense, taking a good polish. Used in waggon-building and for
furniture.

Olive, Indian (Olea dioica Roxb.). Silhet and Assam south-
ward. White, compact, strong. Used in building and might be
creosoted. Other Indian species are 0. glandulifera Wall., light-
brown, dense, hard, susceptible of a good polish, and durable, used
in building; and 0. cuspiddta Wall., resembling the Common Olive.

Olive, Mock. See Axe-breaker.

Olive, Native, in Australia (Notelffa ovdta R. Br. ; Order
Oledcece). Eastern Australia. Aborig. "Dunga-runga." Small
and crooked in growth, light-coloured, with irregular dark-brown
blotches, fine, close and even in grain, hard, firm, working easily
and taking a good polish, but requiring careful seasoning.
W 60-3. Used for tool-handles. [See also Marble wood.]

Olive, Native, in North America (Osmdnthus americdnus Gray :
Order Oledcece). Also known as "Devil-wood." French "Olivier
d'Amerique." Germ. "Amerikanischer Oelbaum." Span. "Madera
del diablo." Resembling Box, very hard and durable, with
evenly circular rings and fine vessels in dendritic lines across the
entire ring.

Olive, Spurious. See Ironwood vi., and for other allied
species, Ironwood vii, xi — xv and xxiv.

Omatsu. See Pine, Japanese Black.

Orange (Citrus Aurdntium L. : Order Aurantidcece). Probably
a native of India, cultivated for its fruit in most tropical and sub-
tropical countries. Sansk. "Nagranga." Arab, and Pars. "Naranj."
Hind. "Naringi." Span. "Naranja." French " Oranges.'' Germ.
"Pomeranzen." Small, light yellow, close-grained, hard. Im-
ported from Algeria for walking-sticks, and used in the West
Indies in cabinet-work.

OLIVE— PADOUK. 269

Orange, Black. See Broom.

Orange, Mock. See Cheesewood.

Orange, Native, in Australia (i) (Citrus austrdlis Planch.).
Height 30 — 40 ft.; diam. 9 — 12 ID. Resembling the Common
Orange ; (ii) from the shape of the fruit, (Cdpparis Mitchelli
Lindl. : Order Capparidece), known also as " Small Native Pome-
granate." Height 14—20 ft. ; diam. 1 ft. Whitish, hard, close-
grained, closely resembling Lancewood. Suitable for engraving ;
(iii) Endidndra vtrens F. v. M. : Order Laurdcece). North-east
Australia. Known also as " Bat and ball, ' " Native pomegranate,"
and "Ullagal Mabbie." A tall shrub, with grey, close-grained,
firm, apparently useful wood.

Orange, Osage (Madura aurantlaca Nutt. : Order Mordcece).
Arkansas and Texas. Known also as "Bow-wood." French
"Bois d'arc." Height 50 ft. or more; diam. 2 ft. Sapwood
yellow, heart brown transversely, yellow longitudinally, soon
turning greyish on exposure, very heavy, hard and strong, not
tough, flexible, of moderately coarse texture, shrinking consider-
ably in drying, very durable in contact with soil. Formerly used
for bows and wheelwrights' work, now for fence posts, railway-
ties, waggon-building and paving-blocks ; but suitable for turnery
and carving.

Pader or Padri (Stereosptrmum chelonddes DC : Order Big-
nonidcece). India and Burma, Ceylon and Sunda islands. Height
to first branch 30 ft. ; diam. 1 — 2 ft. Grey, reddish-brown or
orange wood, hard, elastic, easy to work, moderately durable.
Used in house-building, for canoes, furniture and tea-chests.

Padouk (Pterocdrpus indicus Willd. : Order Legumindsce).
Burma, Andaman, Sunda and Philippine Islands and Southern
China. Known also as " Andaman Redwood," " Burmese Rose-
wood," or "Tenasserim Mahogany." Fiji "Cibicibi." Height to
first branch 35 ft.; diam. 2 — 5 ft., yielding timber 15 — 30 ft.
long. W 60. R 1000 Ibs. Dark red, beautifully variegated
and darker near the root, resembling Mahogany, but heavier,
slightly aromatic, very heavy, moderately hard, coarse but close-
grained, working fairly well, taking two years to season, termite-

270 WOODS OF COMMERCE.

proof, and susceptible of a high polish. It is used by the
Burmese for musical instruments and cart-wheels ; in India for
gun-carriages and furniture ; and is recommended as a Teak-
substitute for railway carriages.
Pahautea. See Cedar, New Zealand.

Pai'cha (Eudnymus europums, var. Hamiltonidnus Wall. :
Order Celastrinece). Ning-po. Perhaps also known as "Tu chung
mu." Yellowish- white, very hard, close and fine-grained.
Inferior to Box; but one of the best substitutes yet found for it
as an engraver's wood.

Palisander-wood (i) Jacardnda brasilidna Pers. : Order
BignonidceoR) . Brazil. Sapwood very narrow, grey; heart dark
chocolate-brown, marked by deep black veins arid bands, very
heavy, hard, difficult to split, almost brittle ; rings scarcely
visible; pith-rays invisible; vessels large, appearing like strings
of pearls on longitudinal, and as light red spots on transverse
sections. A valuable wood, chiefly used in pianofortes. (ii)
possibly DalMrgia nigra Allem., or some species of the allied
genus Machcerium (Order Legumindsce) may be the source, in
whole or in part, of this wood. Dalbdrgia nigra, sometimes
apparently known as "Jacaranda cabiuna," is dark-coloured,
porous and open-grained. S.G. 768—841. It is a valuable
furniture wood.

Palo Maria. See Poon.

Palo Mulato. See Bois Mulatre.

Palo Narango. See Fustic.

PanaCQCO (Robinia Panacdco Aubl. = Swdrtzia tomentdsa DC. :
Order Legumindsce). French Guiana. Height up to 50 ft.; diam.
8 ft., imported in logs squaring 17 in. and upwards of 32 ft. long.
S.G. 1231—1181. R 400 kilos. Sapwood white; heart black,
more lustrous than ordinary Ebony, very compact and durable.
Used in fencing ; but most valuable for cabinet-work.

Pao d'arco (Tecdma speddsa D.C. ; Order Bignonidcece). Brazil.
Height 100 ft. ; diam. 10 ft. or more. Very hard, compact and
elastic.

Pao precioso (Mespiloddphnt pretidsa Nees ; Order Laurinece).

PADOUK— PEAR. 271

Brazil. Very hard, compact, with beautiful grain, fragrant.
Used in building and in perfumery.

Papaw (Asimina Mloba Dunal : Order Anondcece). Middle,
southern and western United States. Also known as " Custard-
apple" and "Cucumber-tree." French "Asiminier." Germ.
" Dreilappiger Flachenbaum." Span. "Anona." Height 15 — 30
ft. S.G. 397. W 24-74. Sapwood narrow, heart dark green,
light, soft, weak, coarse-grained.

Papri. See Elm, Indian.

Parcouri (Clusia insignis Mart. ; Order Climdcece). Guiana.
Known in Demerara as "Wild Mammee, Coopa" and "Cowassa."
S.G. 816 for the black, 784 for the yellow variety. Fine,
compact and even in grain.

Partridge-wood in South America may be A'ndira indrmis
[See Angelin]. In Northern Australia it is the outer part of
the Palm Livistdna indrmis R. Br., also known as " Cabbage-palm."
Height 14 — 40 ft. ; diam. 1 ft. Light grey, streaked with a
darker colour, the fibro-vascular bundles, producing a beautiful
effect, very hard and taking a good polish.

Patawa (CEnocdrpus Batatia Mart. ; Order Palmdcece). French
Guiana. With parallel veins of black and white. Suitable for
walking-sticks, umbrella-handles and inlay.

Peach-wood (Ccesalpinia echindta Lam. : Order Legumindsce).
Central and South America. Known also as "Lima, Nicaragua
or Pernambuco-wood," or "Bresil de St. Martha." Small and
little known, hard, heavy and susceptible of a good polish. Valu-
able as a red, orange, or peach-coloured dye; but inferior to
Brazil-wood.

Pear (Pyrus commtinis L. : Order Rosdcece). Europe and
Western Asia; cultivated as a fruit tree in other temperate
climates. French "Poirier." Germ. "Birnbaum." Span. "Peral."
Height 20 — 50 ft. ; diam. 1 — 2 ft. No true heart, but some-
times a darker more chocolate-brown in the centre, light pinkish-
brown, moderately heavy, hard, close-grained, tough, firm,
difficult to split, but easily cut in any direction, taking a satiny
polish, and very durable, if kept dry. Rings recognizable by the

272 WOODS OF COMMERCE.

dark zone of the autumn-wood ; pith-rays and vessels not visible
to the naked eye. Highly esteemed for turnery, cabinet-work,
T-squares and other drawing-instruments, calico-printing blocks,
coarse wood-engraving and, when " ebonized " or stained black,
for picture-frames.

Pear, Hard (Olinia cymdsa Thunb., var. intermedia : Order
OlinttcB). Cape Colony. Zulu "Umnonono." Height 14 — 16
or 30 ft. ; diam. 1 ft. Yellowish, very heavy, hard, compact
and tough. Valuable for axles and carriage-poles and suitable
for musical instruments.

Pear, Native in Australia (i) (Xylomelum pyrif6rm6 Knight :
Order Protedcece). New South Wales and West Australia.
Known also as " Wooden Pear." Height 20 — 40 ft. ; diam.
6 — 8 in. W 46. Sapwood narrow, light ; heart a rich dark
reddish with a beautiful rich figuring on tangential sections,
taking an excellent polish. Occasionally used for picture-
frames, veneers and walking-sticks, (ii) (Hdkea aciculdris R. Br.
var. lissosptrma : Order Protedcece). South-east Australasia.
Height 20—30 ft, ; diam. 8 — 10 in. Hard and used in turnery.

Pear, Red (ScoUpia EckUnii Benth. and Hook. fil. : Order
Flaawrtiticece). South Africa. Height 30—35 ft. ; diam. 2—3 ft.
Heavy, hard, close-grained. Used chiefly by wheel-wrights and
in mill-work.

Pear, Thorn or Wolf (ScoUpia Zcyheri Benth. and Hook. fil.).
Cape Colony. Zulu " Igumza elinameva." Height 60 — 70 ft. ;
diam. 2 — 3 ft. Straight-growing, very hard and close-grained,
very difficult to saw. Used for cogs.

Pear, Wooden. See Pear, Native.

Pear-wood, White (Pteroceldstrus rostrdtus Walp. : Order
Celastrdcece). South Africa. Zulu "Umdogan." Height 20—25
ft. ; diam. 1—2 ft. W 42'84. E 635 tons. / 6-95. fc 3-04.
Moderately heavy, strong and durable. Much used for felloes
and other waggon work.

Penagah. See Poon.

Pencil Cedar. See Cedar, Pencil.

Pencil- wood (Pdnax Murrayi F. v. M. : Order Aralidcece).

PEAR— PEROBA. 273

North-east Australia. Height 50 — 60 ft. S.G. 348. Light-
coloured, the lightest in weight of any wood in the district,
soft. Pith large. The wood hardens externally in drying, so
that the outside is often harder than the centre. Cuts well and
is recommended for lining-boards.

Pepperidge. See Gum, Black.

Peppermint, a name applied in Australia to various species
of Eucalyptus, including (i) E. amygdalina, which is known as
"Brown, Dandenong, Narrow-leaved," or "White Peppermint"
[See Ash, Mountain]; (ii) E. capitelldta [See Stringybark,
White] ; (iii) E. microcdrys [See Tallow- wood] ; (iv) E. pauci-
fldra [See Gum, Mountain White]; (v) E. Stuartidna [See
Gum, Apple-scented]; (vi) E. piperita • and (vii) E. odordta
E. piperita Sin. (Order Myiidcecs). Eastern Australia. Known
also as " Blackbutt, Redwood, Messmate, White " or " Almond-
leaved Stringybark." Height 80—100 ft.; diam. 2—3 ft.
S.G. 1109—922. W 69-22. Red, very heavy, but works with
difficulty and is very subject to shakes, durable. Used for posts,
shingles and rough house-building.

E. odordta Behr. South-East Australia. Also known as " Red
Gum, Box "and "White Box." Small. W 60— 70. Yellowish-
white or light-brown, heavy, very hard, tough, close and straight-
grained, generally hollow. Used for fencing, wheels and fuel.

Peppermint, Bastard. See Gum, Broad-leaved Water.

Pernambuco wood. See Peach-wood.

Peroba branca or Peroba de campos (Sapdta gonocdrpa
Mart. : Order Sapotdcece). Brazil. A large tree, yielding straight
timber, 60—70 ft. long, siding 24—40 in. S.G. 868—739.
W 50. Yellow, moderately heavy, stronger than Teak, but not
so heavy, close and fine-grained, easily worked, taking a high
polish, very durable, even when in contact with iron. Used in
building Brazilian ironclads, and is suitable for engineering or
building work, or for furniture.

Peroba vermelha (Aspidospfrma sp. : Order Apocyndcece).
Brazil. Red, moderately heavy, smooth, close and fine in grain,
somewhat resembling Pencil Cedar. Used in shipbuilding.

274 WOODS OF COMMERCE.

Persimmon (Diospyros virginidna L. : Order Ebendcece).
Eastern United States. Known also as "Date-plum." French
11 Plaqueminier de Virginie." Germ. " Virginische Dattelpflaume."
Span. " Persimon." Height 80 ft.; diam. 2 ft. S.G. 790.
W 49 '28. R 879 kilos. Sap wood very broad, sometimes
60 rings, cream-colour ; heart dark -brown or black, heavy, hard,
close-grained, strong and tough, resembling Hickory, but finer in
grain. Used for shuttles, shoe-lasts, plane-stocks, etc.

Pimento (PimMa offidndlis Lindl. : Order Myrtdcece). Jamaica.
Imported as walking-sticks.

Pin-bush (Hdkea Icucdptera R. Br. : Order Protedcece). Central
and Eastern Australia. Known also as "Beef-wood," "Water-
tree," and "Needle-bush." Height 15—25 ft.; diam. 4—6 in.
S.G. 818. Heavy, coarse-grained, soft, taking a good polish.
Used for tobacco-pipes, cigarette-holders and veneers.

Pine is the general name, originally applied in the Northern
Hemisphere to the trees and wood of the coniferous genus Pinus,
and subsequently extended — mainly in Australasia — to the allied
genera Agathis, Frendla, Araucdria, Dacrj/dium, Podocdrpus and
Pseudotsuga. Curiously enough, however, the wood of the various
local varieties of the Northern Pine (Pinus sylvdstns) imported
from Baltic ports, especially Dantzic, Memel and Riga, is known
in commerce as "Fir," or "Red" and "Yellow Deals," the name
" Pine " being used for the timber of other species of the same
genus imported from North America. The pines, often called firs,
are known in French as " pin," in German as " Kiefer, Fohre,"
or "Pynbaum," in Italian and Spanish as "Pino," in Swedish
as "Fura," in Danish as "Fyr," and in Russian as "Sosna."

The wood of Pines, as also of those other trees that are so-
called and of all Conifers, is of the simple structure described in
our first chapter, consisting only of tracheids, with the pith-rays,
and, in most cases, resin-canals. That of the true Pines — the
genus Pinus — has numerous resin-canals, uniformly scattered
through the annual rings and has a distinct dark-coloured heart,
though when the wood is freshly-cut this last is often not
recognizable. The pith-rays are rarely more than one cell thick,

PERSIMMON— PINE. 275

and are, therefore, invisible to the naked eye, but vary in depth,
having generally from three to eight radial rows of elements, of
which the central rows are parenchyma or cellulose walled cells,
with simple pits on their radial walls, i.e. on those in contact
with the tracheids of the xylem, whilst the upper and lower row
or two consist of tracheids with bordered pits. The rings are
rendered distinct by the darker and firmer zone of autumn wood
in each, consisting of more compressed, thicker-walled elements.
This simplicity of structure and resinous character renders the
wood uniform and even in texture, easy to work and of consider-
able durability. It is also on the whole soft, light, elastic, stiff,
and strong, characters which, coupled with its abundance in pure
forests — forests, that is, mainly made up of a single species —
combine to render the Pines the most generally useful and among
the cheapest of woods,

The wood even of a single species of Pine varies very much,
according to the conditions under which it is grown; but, though
connected by intermediate cases, most of the species fall into two
fairly well-marked groups, known in America as the " Hard " and
" Soft " Pines. The Hard Pines are harder, heavier, and darker-
coloured, ranging from yellow to deep orange or brown : their
autumn wood forms a much broader proportion of the ring and is
somewhat abruptly marked off from the spring wood ; and the
tracheids of their pith-rays have their walls very unevenly
thickened with tooth-like projections. This group includes the
Northern (Pinus sylvtetris), Austrian (P. austrtaca), and Mountain
(P. montdna) of Europe, and the majority of the North American
species. The Soft Pines are softer and lighter; range in colour
from light red to white; have a narrow autumn zone gradually
merging into the spring wood on its inner surface; and have
smooth v/alls to the tracheids of their pith-rays, with no tooth-like
projections. The group includes the Cembra Pine (P. Ctmbra)
of Europe, and the White (P. Strdbus), Sugar (P. Lambertidna) and
a few other species in America.

Pine seasons rapidly and with but little shrinkage, this being,
however, greater in the harder kinds: it is never too hard to nail;

276 WOODS OF COMMERCE.

and when once well seasoned, is not subject to the attacks of
boring insects. It is not, therefore, to be wondered at that Pine
has become by far the most extensively used of all woods. The
straight-growing, tapering stem fits it for masts and spars: its
strength and lightness recommend it for ships' timbers, planking,
bridges, and carriage-building, its durability for sleepers, its
resinous character for torches or fuel, the refuse yielding charcoal
and lamp-black, and its cheapness for street-paving, general
carpentry, common furniture and boxes and paper-pulp.

Pine, Adventure Bay. See Pine, Celery-topped.

Pine, Aleppo (P. halepdnsis Mill.) Mediterranean region ; in-
troduced in Australia. Height 50 — 80ft.; diam. 2 — 3ft. Yellowish-
white, fine-grained. Valued locally for telegraph poles, turnery,
joinery, or fuel, and as a source of turpentine.

Pine, Austrian (Plnus austrfaca Hoss.). Lower Austria and
the north of the Baltic peninsula. Known also as "Black
Austrian Pine." Germ. " Schwarzkiefer." French " Pin noir
d'Autriche." Height 80—120 ft., relatively slender. Wood very
similar to that of the Northern Pine (P. sylvestris) • but, when
grown in poor soil, apt to be knotty. Suitable for fencing or
fuel.

Pine, Bastard. See Pine, Cuban.

Pine, Bhotan (P. exdlsa Wall.). At altitudes of 6000 to
12000 ft., from Bhotan to the Kuram pass in Afghanistan. Also
known as " Himalayan Pine." French " Pin pleureur." Germ.
"Thranen Kiefer." Chinese "Tong-schi." Height 50—150 ft.;
diam. 2 — 3 ft. Ked, compact, close-grained, very resinous, durable.
Used for torches ; but the most valuable wood of its district for
building or engineering work and second only in durability to the
Deodar.

Pine, Big-cone (P* Coulteri Don). Coast-range of California.
Reported to be of small value as timber.

Pine, Bishops'. See Pine, Obispo.

Pine, Black, in North America (P. Jdffreyi Balf.). California
and Oregon, above 6000 ft. Known also as " Bull Pine." Height
100 ft. or more, up to 300 ft. ; diam. 4 ft. or more, up to 10 or

PINE. 277

12 ft. Light, hard, strong, very resinous. One of the "Hard
Pines," closely allied to the Bull Pine (P. panderdsa). Used
locally, chiefly as coarse lumber. See also Pine, Lodge-pole.

Pine, Black, in New Zealand (i) (Prumndpitys spicdta Masters :
Order Taxinece). Miuni " Matai." Height 80 ft. ; diam. 2—4 ft.
Heavy, close, smooth, and even in grain, strong, easily worked, very
durable. Used for piles, sleepers, house-building, mill-wrights'
work, etc. (ii) (Podocdrpus femiginea Don : Order Taxlnece). Maori
"Miro." Germ. "Mirobaum." Height 50—80 ft. ; diam. 1—3 ft.
S.G. 1214 when green, 752 — 660 when seasoned. Light to dark
reddish-brown, sometimes nicely figured, moderately heavy and
hard, close, straight, and even in grain, strong, elastic, planing up
well and taking a good polish, durable in contact with sea-water,
but not in contact with the soil. Used for piles and suited for
house-building, cabinet-work or turnery.

Pine, Black, in Australia. See Cypress Pine.

Pine, Bull (P. ponderdsa Dougl.). Western North America.
Known also as "Yellow" or "Heavy-wooded Pine." Germ,
" Westliche Gelbkiefer." Height 100—150 ft. or up to 225 ft. ;
diam. 5 — 6 or 12 ft. Sapwood wide; heart very variable in
weight, strength and durability, generally hard, brittle, strong,
resinous, but not durable in contact with the soil. Furnishing
most of the hard Pine of the West, being largely used for lumber,
railway ties, mining-timber and fuel. See also Pine, Black and
Pine, Nut.

Pine, Canadian Red (P. resinosa Sol.). Michigan and Minnesota
to Newfoundland. Known in Canada as " Norway Pine " and in
Nova Scotia as " Yellow Pine." French " Pin rouge d'Amerique."
Germ. " Rothkiefer " or " Harzige Fichte." Height 60—100 ft or
more; diam. 2— 2J ft. S.G. 578—485. W 30—44. E 650—
850 tons, e'1-32. p' -81. /3'71. ft 5'1— 6-3. c 2705. c' -357.
fc 2-4—2-76. if -62. fs -22— -35. R 800 kilos. Sapwood
yellowish white ; heart slightly reddish, light, harder than White
Pine (P. Strdbus), tough, elastic, moderately strong, fine-grained,
working up well, with a silky lustre, very resinous, durable,
not shrinking or warping much in seasoning. Used for spars,

278 WOODS OF COMMERCE.

shipbuilding, and piles ; but chiefly for flooring, for which it is
preferable to White Pine, with which it grows, it being in fact
a hard Pine, resembling resinous examples of Scots Fir.

Pine, Canadian Yellow. See Pine, White.

Pine, Carolina. See Pine, Short-leaf.

Pine, Cedar. See Pine, Lowland Spruce.

Pine, Celery-topped (Phyllodddus rhomboiddlis Kich. : Order
Taxinece ; = Podocdrpus asplenifdliaiisibi 11 . ) Tasmania. Known also as
" Adventure Bay Pine." Height up to 60 ft., usually too slender
to be useful. Even-grained and easily worked. Occasionally used
for spars.

Pine, Cembra (P- Cdmbra L.). From Kamtschatka to the
Urals, Carpathians and Alps. Known also as " Swiss Stone Pine."
French "Cembrot, Tinier." Germ. " Zirbelkiefer, Zirbe, Arve."
tfwwss " Alvier, Arolla." Height 60— 70 or 90 ft. Sapwood broad,
yellowish-white ; heart, when dry, white or yellowish-brown, light,
soft, fine-grained, easily split, shrinking little, susceptible of a fine
polish, fragrant and obnoxious to insects ; annual rings regularly
circular; narrow autumn wood scarcely distinguishable ; resin-ducts
numerous and very large ; pith-rays with one row of smooth-walled
tracheids above and below, with small bordered pits, and generally
three rows of parenchyma in the middle, with large simple pits.
A soft pine, in request for wainscotting, carved work, lining
clothes' chests, turnery, etc.

Pine, Chile (Araucdria imbricdta Pavon : Order Araucarinece)
Southern Chile. Known also as "Monkey Puzzle." Germ.
" Chilitanne, Schmucktanne." Height 70—100 ft. ; diam. 5—7 ft.
at base. Wood in English grown specimens cross-grained and not
seemingly of value ; but in Chile yellowish, beautifully veined, and
susceptible of a fine polish. Used in Chile for masts.

Pine, Cluster (P. Pinaster Sol. = P. maritima Lam.) Mediter-
ranean region ; naturalized in South Africa, Northern India, Aus-
tralia, etc. French "Pin de Bordeaux, Pin maritime, Pin des
Landes." Germ. " Sternkiefer, Strandkiefer." Height 50—60 ft.
Eeddish, soft, coarse-grained, not durable. Used only for coarse
carpentry, packing-cases and fuel ; but of great value as a source

PINE. 279

of turpentine, charcoal and lamp-black being manufactured from
the refuse.

Pine, Colonial. See Pine, Moreton Bay.

Pine, Common, of Australia. See Cypress-Pine.

Pine, Corsican (P. Laricio Poir.). Corsica and the Maritime
Alps. Known also as "Larch Pine." Germ. " Schwarzkiefer."
Height 80 — 100 ft. Creamy white when freshly cut, brownish-

FIG. 56. — Transverse section of Corsican Pine (Pinus Laricio).

yellow when seasoned, tough, elastic, long but rather coarse in
grain, very resinous, easily worked, susceptible of a fair polish,
very durable, obnoxious to insects. Resembling Northern
Pine (P. sylvestris) of good quality in its structure and uses.
(Fig56.)

Pine, Cuban (P. cubensis Griseb.). Southern United States.
Known also as " Bastard, Meadow, Slash, or Swamp Pine," and in
British Honduras as "Yellow" or "Pitch Pine." Height 75 ft.
or more; diam. 2 ft. or more. Heavy, exceedingly hard, very
strong, tough and durable, little inferior to Long-leaf Pine

280 WOODS OF COMMERCE.

(P. palustris), with which it is classed in Florida, but with wider
sapwood and coarser grain. Used in carpentry.

Pine, Cypress. See Cypress-Pine.

Pine, Dantzic. See Pine, Northern.

Pine, Dark. See Cypress-Pine.

Pine, Digger. See Pine, Nut.

Pine, Dundatha (Agathis robusta Salisb. : Order Coniferce).
Queensland. Known also as " Queensland Kauri." Height
80 — 130 ft. ; diam. 3 — 6 ft. Light yellow, soft, close-grained,
easily worked. Largely used by joiners and cabinet-makers.

Pine, Flexible (P. fltxilis James). Rocky Mountains at
altitudes of 4000—12,000 ft. Height 40—50 ft. ; diam. 2—4 ft.
Light clear yellow, turning red on exposure, light, close-grained,
compact, very pliable, but very knotty and coarse-grained.
Known and used locally as " White Pine."

Pine, Fox-tail (P. Balfour.idna Murray). California at
altitudes over 5000 ft. Known also as "Hickory" or "Awned
Pine." Height 30 — 50 ft. ; diam. 1—5 ft. Light, and appar-
ently soft and not strong; but used in Nevada for mine-
timbers.

Pine, Frankincense. See Pine, Loblolly.

Pine, Georgia. See Pine, Long-leaf.

Pine, Grey (P. Banksidna Lambert). Canada and Labrador
from the Arctic .Circle to Michigan and Maine. Known also as
"Scrub, Jack, Yellow," or "Prince's Pine." Germ. "Strauch-
kiefer." Height 25—60 or 70 ft. ; diam. 1—2 ft. Light, soft,
not strong. Used chiefly for fuel and railway-ties.

Pine, Hickory (P. pungens Michx.). Alleghany Mountains.
Known also as "Table Mountain Pine." Germ. " Stechende
Kiefer." Height 25 — 40 ft. Light, soft, coarse-grained, not
strong. Chiefly used for charcoal. [See also Pine, Fox-tail.]

Pine, Himalaya. See Pine, Bhotan.

Pine, Hoop, See Pine, Moreton Bay.

Pine, Huon. See Huon Pine.

Pine, Jack. See Pine, Grey.

Pine, Japanese Black (P. ThunMrgii Parl.). Japan and

PINE. 281

Korea. Japan "Omatsu, Kuro-matsu." Height, 80 — 90 or
120 ft. ; diam. 2 — 4 ft. Used in house-building and for fuel.

Pine, Japanese Red (P. densifldra S. and Z.). Japan " Me-
raatsu, Aka-matsu." Height 50 — 70 or 100 ft. Slender, coarse-
grained, moderately strong, more ornamental than that of the
preceding. Used for all kinds of carpentry and a favourite
species in a dwarfed condition.

Pine, Jersey (P- virginidna Mill. = P. inops Sol.). Eastern
United States. Known also as "Scrub Pine." French "Pin
chetif." Height up to 75 — 100 ft. ; diam. up to 2—3 ft. East
of the Alleghanies used only as fuel; to the west, where it
reaches timber size, used in carpentry, especially in contact
with water.

Pine, Kauri. See Kauri.

Pine, Lachlan. See Cypress-Pine.

Pine, Light. See Cypress-Pine.

Pine, Loblolly (P. T<Ma L.). Southern United States.
Known also as "Torch, Frankincense, Slash, Rosemary, Sap,
Short-straw," or "Old Field Pine." French "Pin a 1'encens,"
Germ. " Weihrauchkiefer." Height 80—100 or 175 ft.; diam.
2 — 5 ft. Sapwood wide ; heart hard, though less so than in the
Long-leaf Pine (P. paliistris), with which it is generally con-
founded, lighter, coarser in grain, and with wider rings than
that species, not strong or durable. Used for common lumber ;
but suited rather for fuel ; rich in resin.

Pine, Lodge-pole (P- Murraydna Balf.). Mountains of
Western North America. Known also as "Tamarack Pine,
Black Pine," or, in the smaller form (P. contdrta Dougl.) as
" Oregon Scrub Pine." Height 70—80 or 150 ft. ; diam. 4—6 ft.
Light, hard, straight-grained, easily worked, but not strong or
durable. Used locally for railway-ties and carpentry, and more
generally for fuel.

Pine, Long-leaf, in America (P. palustris Mill. = P. austrdlis
Michx.). Southern pine-barrens from North Carolina to Texas.
Known also in the Northern States as "Southern, Georgia" or
"Red Pine"; in the Southern States as "Turpentine-tree,"

282 WOODS OF COMMERCE.

"Yellow, Broom," or "Long-straw Pine"; and generally,
especially in foreign trade, as "Pitch Pine," associated with
the name of the port of origin, such as Darien, Pensacola,
Savannah, etc. Height 50—100 ft.; diam. 1|— 4 ft. S.G.
932—498. W 39—44. E 950 tons, e' 1-93—1-53. p' -91-
1-3. / 3-57. ft 4—5-09. c 4666. c -616. fc 3-99. v' -847.
Imported in logs and planks, 20 — 45 ft. long, squaring 11 — 18 in.,
or 3 — 5 in. thick and 10 — 15 in. wide. Reddish, resembling the
Northern Pine (P. sylvdstris), but heavier and more resinous,
owing to which latter character the broad zone of autumn wood
appears greasy, tough, compact, clean, regular, straight, and
sometimes fine and sometimes rather coarse in grain, susceptible
of a high polish, rigid, rather difficult to work, but harder and
stronger than other American Pine, liable to heart and cup-
shake; but, I believe, very durable. "There are," says Mr.
Stevenson, "numerous architects and civil engineers who rigidly
adhere to the use of Memel and Dantzic Fir, and who will not
allow the use of Pitch Pine, whilst there are others who rank
it almost with the Oak, and state that in piling, and in jetties,
exposed to the tides and weather, it will last double and treble
the time allotted to Memel and Dantzic Fir." It is still the most
abundant, and by far the most valuable Pine in the Atlantic
States, occupying a belt from 80 to 125 miles wide, once covering
130,000 square miles. "Invaded from every direction by the
axe, a prey to fires which weaken the mature trees and destroy
the tender saplings, wasted by the pasturage of domestic animals,
and destroyed for the doubtful profits of the turpentine industry,
the forests . . . appear hopelessly doomed to lose their com-
mercial importance at no distant day " (Sargent). Millions of
feet of marketable timber are constantly destroyed by the care-
lessness of the turpentine-workers. As a source of turpentine it
is the most important species in the world. Its timber is used in
shipbuilding for spars, beams, and planking, the redder wood
("Red Pine" of the dock-yards in the Northern States) being
specially valued for durability and a greater power of resisting
the ship-worm than that possessed by Oak. In English ship-

PINE. 283

building it has almost extinguished the use of Baltic timber for
spars, England importing, in all, over 500 million feet, or nearly
870,000 loads, more than a third of the entire export. In
America it is largely used for fencing, railway-ties, mine-timbers,
wood-paving, house-building, and fuel ; whilst in this country it
is largely used for wainscotting and church and school fittings,
and to some extent in cabinet-making.

Pine, Long-leaf, of the Himalayas (P. longifdlia. Roxb.). From
Bhotan to Afghanistan at altitudes of 1500 to 7500 ft. Hind.
"Chir." Height 100 ft. or more. Soft, not durable, easily
worked. Used for tea-boxes, shingles and building; but chiefly
valuable for its resin, one tree yielding 10 — 20 Ibs. the first year.
The wood is also used for torches and for charcoal, so that this is,
on the whole, the most valuable Himalayan species.

Pine, Lowland Spruce (P. gldbra Walt.). South-eastern
United States. Known also as " Cedar " or " White Pine," and
in Florida as " Old Field Pine." Height 80 ft. or more ; diam.
3 ft. or more. Light, soft, brittle, easily worked, not strong or
durable, resembling the Loblolly Pine (P. Tceda\ not resinous.
Employed chiefly for inside work.

Pine, Maritime. See Pine, Cluster.

Pine, Meadow. See Pine, Cuban.

Pine, Monterey (P. radidta Don^P. insignis Loud.). South
California. Height 80—100 ft. ; diam. 2 — 5 ft. Light, soft,
brittle, not strong. Used only for fuel.

Pine, Moreton-Bay (Araucdria Cunninghdmi Lamb. : Order
Araucariiiece). North-east Australia and New Guinea. Known
also as "Colonial" or "Hoop Pine." Height 150—200 ft.;
diam. 3— 5| ft. S.G. 763—500. W 30—33-75. Yielding
spars 80 — 100 ft. long, light-coloured, light, straight-grained,
hard and strong, the sapwood liable to rot, but the heart durable
if kept constantly dry or wet, working very easily, sometimes
exhibiting a peculiar figure from groups of small knots. In
request for flooring boards, carpentry, punt-bottoms, and to some
extent for cabinet-work and spars, mountain-grown timber being
preferred.

284 WOODS OF COMMERCE.

Pine, Mountain (P. montdna Mill., including P. Pumilio
Haenke, of Thuringia and the Carpathians, P. Mughus Wild, of
the Tyrol, and P. uncindta Earn, of the Pyrenees). Central and
Southern Europe, at altitudes of 500—8000 ft. French "Pin
nain." Germ. "Bergkiefer, Krummholzkiefer, Zwergkiefer."
Resembling the Northern Pine (P. sylve'stris), but small, often
eccentric in growth, narrow-ringed, harder and heavier.

Pine, Murray and Pine, Murrumbidgee. See Cypress
Pine.

Pine, New York. See Pine, Short-leaf.

Pine, Norfolk Island (Amucdria excelsa R. Br.). Germ.
"Norfolktanne." Height 150—200 ft. ; diam. 5—7 ft., yielding
excellent timber, but now scarce.

Pine, Northern (P. syMstris L.). Europe and Northern
Asia, up to 700 ft. above sea-level in northern Norway and 6500
ft. on the Sierra Nevada of southern Spain. Known in Scotland
as the "Scots," in England as the "Scotch Fir," and in the
timber trade by various names according to its origin, such as
White Sea, Baltic, St. Petersburg, Riga, Memel, Dantzic, Gefle,
Soderhamn, Eliasberg, Saldowitz, Swedish or Norway Fir, Red-
wood, "Red "or " Yellow Deal." French " Pin sauvage." Germ.
" Gemeine Kiefer, Fohre," or " Weissfohre." Dutch " Pynboom."
Danish "Fyrre." Euss. "Sosna." Height 80 — 100 ft.; diam.
2—4 ft. S.G. 774—478. W 34—47. e' 1-3—1-69. p'
•74—1-087. ft 2-5—5-5. c 4051—3231. c' -535— -427. v'
-93 — -618. The characters and quality of the wood vary much
according to climate and soil. Conversely to what is the case
with Oaks, the more slowly-grown Pines of high latitudes or
mountains, having narrower annual rings with a proportionally
smaller amount of springwood, are heavier, denser and stronger
than those of the south or of plains or from rich soils. English-
grown Pine is thick-baited, carrying a great amount — often four
inches — of sapwood, and is generally only used locally, not being
nearly as durable as Larch. Scotch-grown wood is of better
quality and is imported into the north of England, chiefly as mine
timber. The pine from Prussia and central Russia is large,

PINE.

285

heavy, hard, resinous, and of excellent quality for sleepers, paving-
blocks, masts, beams and planks ; whilst from farther north, as
from Gefle and Soderhamn in central Sweden, a wood of high
quality is shipped, and from the White Sea a closer-grown, less
resinous kind more suitable for joinery.

The sapwood is yellowish to reddish-white, the heart only
becoming distinct as a brownish-red in drying, and the wood

FIG. 57. — Transverse section of Northern Pine (Pinus sylvestris).

being on the whole whiter when grown on plains, redder when
on hills. The annual rings are very distinct, owing to the
broad sharply-defined zone of dark autumn wood that charac-
terizes the "hard-pines," and they are slightly wavy. The
resin-ducts are numerous, very large and distinct and mostly
in peripheral zones near the outer margin of the rings
(Fig. 57). The pith-rays consist of two or three rows of thin-
walled parenchyma with large oval pits on their radial walls,
each almost as wide as a tracheid, and two or three rows of

286

WOODS OF COMMERCE.

tracheids above and below, with very unevenly thickened walls
and small bordered pits. As the branches are in whorls, the
knots serve to distinguish Pine from Larch, in which they are
scattered (Fig. 58). In northern Europe the Pine is the chief
timber used in house-building, both for framework of hewn logs,
walls of logs in the round, and clap-boards : in Kussia pine-logs
are used for corduroy -roads and the use of the wood for fuel is

FIG. 58. — Radial section of Northern Pine (Pinus sylvestriz).

universal. Baltic Pine was imported to and used in our east
coast towns for flooring, wainscotting and joinery in the 15th,
16th and 17th centuries, when Oak was the chief building timber
employed in England. Not till the beginning of the 18th was it
recognized that the Scots Fir was the same species : the high
price of foreign timber during the Napoleonic wars led to the
clearing of the indigenous pine-forests of northern Scotland ; and
the excellence, easy working and great durability of the timber
obtained from them broke down the prejudice in favour of Oak,

PINE. '287

.and resulted in the great consumption of Baltic, White Sea and
Canadian pine during the 19th century. Dantzic Fir, floated in
rafts down the Vistula to that port, comes into the market in
lengths from 18 — 50 ft., squaring from 11 — 20 in., in deals 2 — 5
in. thick, and as irregularly-grown logs for sleepers. The longest
and straighest logs most free from knots are selected at Dantzic
as " inch-masts," " hand-masts " and " spars " or " poles " • " inch-
masts " being over 6 ft. in circumference and dressed octagonally
or square; "hand-masts," from 2 — 6 ft. round, their length
being measured in hands; and "spars" or "poles," less than
2 ft. round. This wood is valued for deck-planking, beams,
joists, scaffolding, railway-work, etc. Its average specific gravity
is given by Mr. Laslett as 582, and it is described by him as
light, moderately hard, even and straight in grain, tough, elastic
and easily worked. Riga Fir, with fewer knots but a slight
tendency to heart-shake which makes it more wasteful in con-
version into plank, averages about 541 in specific gravity, and so
is on the whole inferior to Dantzic. Swedish Fir is yellowish-
white, liable to heart, star and cup-shakes, and does not exceed
35 ft. in length, or 16 in. square. It furnishes cheap building
material, deals for rough carpentry and much wood for matches
and firewood. Norway Fir comes over in cheap prepared flooring
and matchboarding, and as firewood.

Pine, Norway. See Pine, Canadian Red.

Pine, Nut (P. Sabinidna Dougl.). California, up to 4000 ft.
Known also as " Digger " or " Bull Pine." Germ. " Nusskiefer,
Weisskiefer." Height 40 — 50 or 80 ft. ; diam. 1—4 ft. Light,
very soft, resinous, cross-grained, not durable. Valuable only as
fuel.

Pine, Obispo (P. muricdta Don.). Californian coast. Known
also, by a corruption, as "Bishop's Pine" and as "Prickle-coned
Pine." Germ. "Bischofs Kiefer." Height 25—50 ft.; diam.
1 — 2 ft. Light, resinous, coarse-grained. Used almost exclu-
sively for fuel, except in the north, where it is employed in rough
carpentry.

Pine, Old Field. See Pine, Loblolly and Short-leaf

288 WOODS OF COMMERCE.

Pine, Oregon (Pseudotstiga Dougldsii Carr.). Western North
America from lat. 55° N. southward to lat. 23J° N., up to 11,000
ft. Known also from its discoverer as "Douglas Fir" or "Douglas
Spruce," or as " Yellow ;' or "Red Fir." French "Sapin de
Douglas." Germ. " Douglas-Tan ne, Douglas-Fichte." Height
100—300 ft.; diam. 4—6 or 12 ft. S.G. 605. Though more
nearly allied to the Firs and Spruces, resembling Larch or hard
Pine in the general appearance, quality and character of its wood.
Sapwood narrow, yellowish, heart variable, usually reddish-white,
heavy, hard, strong, coarse-grained, with well-defined summer
wood, but sometimes yellowish, lighter and finer in grain ; close,
straight arid regular in grain, with few knots scattered as in
Larch, firm, tough, elastic, not in the least liable to warp, more
nearly resembling Canadian Red Pine (P. resindsa) than any other-
wood, rapid in growth, averaging 2 ft. in diameter at 100 years
of age, very durable ; annual rings well defined ; resin-ducts small,
often in groups of 8 — 30 ; pith-rays with tracheids with bordered
pits as upper and under rows and parenchyma with simple pits in
the centre ; tracheids in the xylem with a spiral thickening, which
distinguishes it from all allied wood. Coming to market in clean,
straight spars 40—110 ft. in length and 9—32 in. in diameter, this
timber is excellent for lower masts, yards, bowsprits, etc., though
less adapted for top-masts, where there is much friction, than Riga,
Dantzic, or Kauri timber. Used in its native country also for
house building, engineering work and fuel, its freedom from fungoid
disease and durability even when grown rapidly in Scotland suggest
that Douglas Fir may well supersede Larch for sleepers, etc. It is
25 per cent, cheaper than Archangel wood of the same quality.

Pine, Oyster-bay. See Cypress Pine.

Pine, Pitch (P. rigida Miller). Ontario and New Brunswick
to Florida. Height 40—80 ft. ; diam. 2—3 ft. S.G. 515. W 32.
R 739 kilos. Small, coarse-grained, resinous, knotty, light, soft,
brittle. Used chiefly for fuel, for which it is unsurpassed in the
North, and for charcoal ; but formerly much used in New England
for building The name in foreign trade belongs to the Long-leaf
Pine (P. paliistris).

PINES. 289

Pine, Pond (P. seroMna Michx.), little more than a southern
variety of the last-named.

Pine, Port Macquarie (Frenela Madeaydna Parlat. : Order
Cupresstnece). North-east Australia. Height 20 — 30 ft. ; diam.
6 — 12 in. Light, useful, and probably termite-proof, like other
Cypress-Pines. Used in house-building.

Pine, Prince's. See Pine, Grey.

Pine, Pumpkin. See Pine, White.

Pine, Red, of America. See Pine, Canadian Red.

Pine, Red, of Australia. See Cypress-Pine.

Pine, Red, of New Zealand. See Rimu.

Pine, Rock. See Cypress-Pine.

Pine, Rosemary. See Pine, Loblolly.

Pine, Sand (P. clausa Vasey). South-east United States.
Known also as "Upland Spruce" or "Scrub Pine." Height
15—20 or 80 ft. ; diam. 1—2 ft, S.G. 557. W 34-75. Sapwood
broad, nearly white ; heart light orange, light, soft, brittle, not
strong. Sometimes used for small masts.

Pine, Sandarac. See Cypress-Pine.

Pine, Sap. See Pine, Loblolly.

Pine, Scrub, of Australia. See Cypress-Pine.

„ „ of California or Oregon. See Pine, Lodge-pole.

„ „ of North-eastern America. See Pine, Grey.

[See also Pine, Jersey and Sand.]

Pine, She. See Cedar, Pencil.

Pine, Short leaf (P. echindta Mill = P. mltis Michx.). Eastern
United States. Known also as "Carolina, Bull, Soft-leaved,
Yellow, Slash, Old field," or " Spruce Pine." French " Pm-Sapin."
Germ. " Glatte-Kiefer, Fichten-Kiefer." Height 80—120 ft.;
diam. 3— 4ft. S.G. 610. W 34— 38. / 3-68. fc 2-46. R 1038
kilos. Sapwood variable in amount, yellowish ; heart light orange,
rather heavy, hard, coarse-grained, compact, strong, not difficult
to work, durable, much resembling Long-leaf Pine (P. palustris)
and but little inferior to it as timber. Used in house-building,
flooring, and interior finish.

Pine, Short straw. See Pine, Loblolly.

T

290 WOODS OF COMMERCE.

Pine, Slash See Pine, Loblolly, Cuban, and Short leaf.

Pine, Southern. See Pine, Long-leaf.

Pine, Spruce. See Pine, Short-leaf.

Pine, Stone (P. Pinea L.). Mediterranean region. French
"Pin de parasol." Germ. " Italienische Steinkiefer." Ital. "Pino
a pinocchi." Span. "Pino real, Pino de comer." Height 40 — 80
ft. • l — 2 ft. Whitish, very light, moderately resinous. Used in
southern France and Italy for building and carpentry ; but chiefly
valued for its nuts. [See also Pine, Cembra].

Pine, Stringybark. See Cypress-Pine, Mountain.

Pine, Sugar (P. LcmberMna Dougl). Oregon and California,
at 2500—8000 ft. Known also as " White, Soft," or " Pumpkin
Pine." French "Pin gigantesque." Germ. "Kiesen-Kiefer, Zucker-
Kiefer." Height 150—300 ft. ; diam. 10—15 ft. The loftiest of
all Pines. Wood very light, soft, coarse but straight grained,
compact, very fragrant, easily worked, not cracking or warping.
Much resembling White Pine (P. Strdbus) and used for indoor
carpentry, cabinet-work, cooperage and wooden ware.

Pine, Swamp. See Pine, Cuban.

Pine, Swiss. See Fir, Silver, and Pine, Cembra.

Pine, Table Mountain. See Pine, Hickory.

Pine, Torch. See Pine, Loblolly.

Pine, Umbrella (SciacUpitys vertidlldta S. and Z. : Order Taxo-
dinew). Japan. French " Sapin a Parasol." Germ. " Japanische
Schirmtanne." Japan " Koya maki." Height 100 ft. ; diam.
2 — 3 ft. Wood nearly white, yellowish, or reddish-white, strong,
straight-grained. Used at Osaka, to which port it is floated down
the Kisiogaiva.

Pine, Upland Spruce. See Pine, Sand.

Pine, Weymouth. Pine, White, of America.

Pine, White, of Australia. See Cypress-Pine.

Pine, White, of America (P. Strdbus L.). Newfoundland
and Quebec to Georgia. Known also as " Soft, Apple, Sapling,
New England," or "Pumpkin Pine," and in England as "Wey-
mouth Pine," having been largely planted by Lord Weymouth at
Longleat, or in the timber-trade as "Yellow Pine." Germ.

PINES. 291

" Weymouths-Kiefer, Strobe," French " Pin du Lord, Pin blanc."
Height 140 — 180 ft., sometimes 100 ft. to first branch ; diam.
3—4 or 8 ft. S.G. 385—600. W 24-25. E 600 tons.
e' 1-46—6-94, averaging 3-48- p' -6— -78. / 3. ft 1-5— 5-1.
c 2027. c' -267. fc 2-24—2-5. R 626 kilos. Straight-
growing ; sapwood yellowish-white ; heart pinkish-yellow to
pinkish-brown, light, very soft, straight-grained, compact, not
strong, free from resin, easily worked, susceptible of a fine
polish, but not durable in contact with soil, subject to cup
and heart-shake, and in old trees to a slight sponginess at the
centre, very closely resembling the Cembra Pine (P. C6mbra\
the narrow zone of autumn wood merging into the spring wood,
the tracheids of the pith-rays having smooth walls, and the
cells one or two large simple pits on their radial walls to each
tracheid of the xylem. This is the most useful of American
timbers, being very valuable for every description of joinery,
doors, sashes, blinds, interior finish, laths, shingles, clap-boards,
cabinet-work, and spars, and used also for fuel. Masts of
this timber are much inferior to Baltic or Douglas Pine in
strength, and cannot be relied upon for more than eight or
ten years, especially if in the tropics. They should be very
thoroughly seasoned before being painted and the paint then
renewed almost annually. Trees of a size suitable for masts
were protected in our American colonies at the beginning of
the 18th century; but a century later seven-tenths of the
houses in North America, except in the large towns, were
built of wood, and of these about 75 per cent, were of this
species. Eeference has already been made to its reckless
destruction by the axe and by fire.

Pine, White, of Western North America (P. montlcola Don.).
British Columbia to California, at altitudes of 2000—10,000 ft.
Height 80—100 ft. ; diam. 4—5 or 7 ft. Nearly white, very
light, soft, close and straight-grained, but inferior to P. Strdbus,
which it much resembles.

Pine, White, of New Zealand (Podocdrpus dacrydioides A.
Rich.: Order Tavlnece}. Maori "Kahikatea." Height 80—150

292 WOODS OF COMMERCE.

or 180 ft. ; diam. 4 — 5 ft., sometimes 60 ft. to the lowest
branch. S.G. 490—428. Yielding timber 20—60 ft. long,
squaring 1 — 2J ft., white, light, soft, straight and even in
grain, tough, easily worked, not durable when exposed or in
contact with soil, liable to become worm-eaten. Used in house-
building and occasionally for canoes, but better adapted for
indoor use or for paper-pulp.

Pine, Yellow. See Pine, White, Bull, Grey, and Short-
leaf.

Piney Tree. See Poon.

Piney Varnish (VaUria indica L. : Order Dipterocarpdcece).
Southern India and Ceylon. Known also as " Indian Copal "
or "White Dammar." Canarese "Dupa maram." Tamil "Piney-
maram." Sink. "Hal." Height 30—60 ft.; diam. 2 — 5 ft.
W 26. Sapwood reddish- white ; heart grey, tough, moderately
hard, porous, said to be termite-proof. Used on the West Coast
of India for boat and house-building and masts, and in Ceylon
for coffins, packing-cases, etc. It yields a fine copal or gum
anime, used in Ceylon as incense, the finest specimens being
sold as amber. Of allied species V. acumindta Hayne, of Ceylon
is used for tea-chests.

Pink Ivory, Zulu "Mnini" (Order Legumindsce). A beauti-
ful, but as yet undetermined, wood, of an Acacia-like tree of
moderate dimensions, growing in kloofs in south-western Natal,
with yellowish broad sapwood and rose-pink heart, compact, fine-
grained, moderately heavy and hard, and with indistinct rings.

Plane, Eastern, or Oriental (Pltitanus orientdlis L. : Order
Platandcece). Kashmir to Greece. French ." Platane de POrient."
Germ. " Morgenlandischer Platanus." Arab. " Doolb." Pers.
" Chinar." Height 70 ft. ; diam. 3—5 ft. Pale yellow or
slightly reddish, resembling Beech, but softer, in very old trees
becoming brown with black lines so as to resemble Walnut,
fine, close, and smooth-grained, capable of a high polish, but
very apt to warp and split, frequently worm-eaten and not
durable, but improved by soaking for several years ; annual
rings finely but distinctly marked, bending outward at the

PINE— PLANE. 293

pith-rays ; pith-rays numerous and broad, occupying nearly half
the surface and producing a pretty figure ; vessels scarcely recog-
nizable. Formerly used for "dug-out" boats at Mount Athos,
and by the Turks for ship-building; in Persia and the Levant
employed for cabinet-work, turnery, and carpentry, and in France
as a substitute for Beech or Hornbeam.

FIG. 59. — Transverse section of Plane (Pldtanus occidentdlis).

Plane, Western or Occidental (Pldtanm occidentdlis L.)
Eastern North America. Known also as "Sycamore, Button-
wood, Water-Beech, Button-ball Tree," or when cut radially as
"Lace-wood" or "Honeysuckle Wood." French "Platane
Americain, Platane de Virginie." Height 120 ft.; diam. 10—14 ft.
or more. S.G. 568. W 51-5—35-4. R 635 kilos. Sapwood
wider than in the Beech, yellowish ; heart reddish- white,
resembling Beech, except that the broad pith- rays are far more
prominent ; rather heavy, rather hard, compact, stiff, tough, not
very strong, usually cross-grained, difficult to split, but, when
dry, easy to cut in every direction, liable to warp, not durable if

•294 WOODS OF COMMERCE.

exposed ; rings marked by a fine line bending slightly outward at
the pith-rays; vessels evenly distributed (Figs. 59 and 60).
Used considerably for cigar and tobacco boxes, wooden bowls,
butchers' blocks, cooperage and blind-wood in cabinet work. The
cabinet-makers of Philadelphia object to the wood when in plank
from its tendency to warp ; but when well seasoned it stands well

FIG. 60. — Tangential section of Plane (Plr.ita.nut occidental it).

and is imported into England for furniture. It is also cut radially
as veneers, the "felt" or "silver grain" produced by the pith-
rays being darker than the ground colour, which is just the
converse of the arrangement of tint in Oak. Plane makes good
fuel when dry, but the difficulty of splitting it hinders its use.
The Californian species (P. racemosa Xutt.) has very similar wood.

By a tiresome confusion the name " Plane " is given in southern
Scotland to the wood of the Sycamore or Great Maple (Acer
Pseado-plata n us L. ). See Sycamore.

Plum (Primus domt.*tita L.: Order Bosdcea). Western Asia,

PLANE— PLUM. 295

cultivated elsewhere. French "Prunier." Germ. "Zwetschken-
baura." A small tree. Sapwood narrow, yellowish; heart deep
brownish-red, resembling Mahogany, heavy, hard, not very
durable ; vessels much more numerous in the spring wood, so
making a lighter-coloured zone ; pith-rays numerous and very
distinct. Used by cabinet-makers, turners, and instrument-
makers.

Plum, in Australia. See Acacia.

Plum, Black (Cargillia austrdlis R. Br. : Order Ebendcew).
North-east Australia. Height 60—80 ft.; diam. 1^—2 ft. W 52.
Close, very tough, firm, apt to split and discolour in seasoning and
very liable to insect attacks. Used for whip-handles.

Plum, Burdekin (Spfadias pleiogyna F. v. M. : Order Anacar-
didcece). Queensland. Known also as "Sweet Plum." Dark brown
with red markings, resembling Walnut, hard, close and straight
in grain. Suitable for turnery or cabinet-work.

Plum, Grey (Cdpparis Mills F. v. M. : Order Cappariddcece).
North-east Australia. Known also as " Caper Tree " and " Native
Pomegranate." Height 20—25 ft.; diam. 6—14 in. Light
coloured, hard, close-grained. Used for whip-handles and suitable
for carving. [See also Myrtle, Black].

Plum, Hog (Spdndias manglfera Pers. : Order Anacardidcece).
India and Burma. Known also as "Wild mango." Sansk.
"Amrataca." Hind. "Amra." Beng. "Ambalam." Telug. "Am-
bara." Height 30 ft.; diam. 1 ft. Light grey, soft, valueless
except as fuel. Yields a gum resembling Gum Arabic.

Plum, Kafir. See Date, Kafir.

Plum, Native or Wild. See Apple, Black or Brush.

Plum, Sebestan (Cdrdia Myxa L. = Sebestdna offidndlis
Gaertn. : Order Boragindcece). Egypt, Persia, Arabia, India, and
the Malay Peninsula. Known also as " Nakkeru wood " Sansk.
" Bukampadaruka." Hind. "Lesura." Arab. "Lebuk." Tarn.
"Vidi." Telug. "Nakkeru." Height 8—15 ft; diam. 1—2 ft.
W 28 — 42. Olive-coloured, greyish or light-brown, soft, coarse-
grained, easy to work, strong, seasoning well, but liable to insect
attack. One of the best woods for kindling fire by friction, used

296 WOODS OF COMMERCE.

for boat-building, gun-stocks, etc., excellent for fuel and perhaps
suitable for tea-chests, being said to have been used for Egyptian
mummy-cases.

Plum, Sour (Owtnia vendsa F. v. M. : Order Melidcece). Queens-
land. Known also as "Tulip-wood." Height 30 — 40 ft.; diam.
1 — 3 ft. W 62. Highly coloured, with handsome figure and
different shades from yellow to black, very heavy, very hard, very
strong, easily worked, taking a good polish and durable. A
valuable wood for cabinet-work. The allied 0. addula F. v. M.,
known by the same name and also as " Native Peach " and
" Emu " or "Mooley Apple," which grows to about the same size
and occurs also farther to the south and west, is reddish, but
similar in texture and would be suitable for furniture.

Plum, Sweet. See Plum, Burdekin.

Plum, White. See Iron wood vi.

Pohutukawa. See Ironwood xxviii.

Pomegranate, Native. See Orange, Native and Plum,
Grey.

Poon, an Indian commercial name, seemingly applied to the
timber of several species used for masts and spars, especially species
of Calophyllum (Order Guttiferce). Of these the more important
would seem to be (i) C. inophyllum, (ii) C. tomentdsum, and (iii)
C. angustifdlium. C. inophyllum L. native to Madagascar, Mauritius,
Ceylon, Southern India, Burma, Queensland and the Fiji islands.
Known also as "Alexandrian Laurel," "Tatamaka," "Dilo."
Hind. "Undi." Telug. "Punnaga." Apparently also the "Palo
Maria," of the Philippines. Height 35 — 80 ft. or more; diam.
1J— 5 ft. S.G. 579—647. W 63—35. E 755 tons, c 10,000—
14,700. c' 1-3 — 1'9. Eed-brown, with a pretty wavy figure, fairly
hard, close but coarse grained, very strong, durable. Said to be
superior to Eiga Fir for masts and spars : used in India for
sleepers and suited for joinery and cabinet-work. C. lomentosum
Wight, a native of Ceylon and of Queensland, is similar and is
used in the former country for tea-chests. C. angustifdlium Eoxb.,
the " Piney tree " of Penang, which also attains large dimensions
in the southern Ghats, and is apparently partly the source of

PLUM-POPLAR. 297

"Poons-pars." (iv) Dillenia pentagyna Roxb. (Order Dillenidcece), a
native of India and Burma, in no way related to the species just
mentioned, Telugu " Ravudana," seems also to be a source of these
spars. It is a large tree sometimes 20 ft. to its lowest branch and
2 ft. in diam. W 69. Reddish-grey, heavy, very hard, strong, and
durable in contact with the soil. Used for rice-mills, canoes,
deck planks and house-building and yielding a good charcoal.

Poplar, a name applied, with few exceptions, to the woods of
species of Pdpulus (Order Saliclnece), which are known in the
United States, from their hairy seeds, as "Cotton woods." French
"Peuplier." Germ. "Pappel." Span. "Alamo." Like those of
their allies the Willows, these woods are white or pale grey,
yellowish, or brown, very soft, and light, with neither pith-rays
nor vessels distinctly visible. They are used mainly for paper-
pulp and cellulose ; but to some extent for packing cases, blind-
wood, sabots and other purposes, especially in France, at Ivry
and elsewhere.

Poplar, Aspen. See Aspen.

Poplar, Balm of Gilead or Balsam (Pdpulus balsamifera L.).
North America. Known also as "Tacamahac." Height 70 —
80 ft. ; diam. 5— 7 ft. S.G. 363. W 22-6. R 550 kilos. Sapwood
wide, nearly white ; heart light reddish-brown, not strong or
durable. Used only for paper-pulp, for which it is excellent;
but as suitable for wooden-ware, etc., as other species.

Poplar, Black (P. nigra L.). Europe and Northern Asia.
Height 50—60 ft. ; diam. 1—2 ft. W 60-5 when green, 29 when
dry. Sapwood wide, nearly white; heart light reddish-brown,
shrinking more than one-sixth of its bulk in drying, not strong
or durable. From its non-liability to splinter useful for the
bottoms of waggons, sabots, clogs and turnery, and used also for
carving and for charcoal.

Poplar, Black Italian (P. monilifera Ait.). Eastern United
States, but now common in Italy, Switzerland and other parts of
Europe. Known also as " Carolina" or " Necklace Poplar," " Big
Cottonwood" or " White wood," or, in Europe, as "Swiss Poplar."
Germ. " Wollpappel, Rosenkranz-Pappel." Height 150—200 ft. ;

298 WOODS OF COMMERCE.

diam. 6—7 ft. S.G. 389. W 24-25. K 770 kilos. The quickest
growing of Poplars. Sapwood very wide, nearly white, heart
brownish, not durable if exposed to moisture, but of larger
dimensions than, and equal in quality to any other Poplar.
Used for flooring, clapboards, inferior fuel, and extensively for
paper-pulp, for which purpose it is now largely and remunera-
tively planted in Britain. "Were every cottager to grow his
own fuel . . . perhaps no tree would succeed so well " (London).
The polishing wheels used by glass-grinders are made of hori-
zontal sections across the entire tree.

Poplar, Carolina. See Poplar, Black Italian.

Poplar, Grey (P. canteens Sm.). Kashmir, Persia, Northern
Africa and Europe. Height 60—100 ft. ; diam. 2—4 ft. W 58
when green, 38-5 when dry. White, shrinking a quarter of its
bulk in drying, and cracking ; but not splitting when nailed. Said
to be superior to White Poplar, and used on the continent for pack-
ing cases, rollers and boards for winding ribbon, silk, cloth, etc.

Poplar, Large-toothed (P. gmndidentdta Michx.). Eastern
Canada and the North-eastern United States. Known also as
"Large Aspen" or " Whitewood." Height 60 — 75 ft.; diam.
2 ft. S.G. 463. W 29. K 721 kilos. Takes a smooth finish
with a satiny lustre and shrinks but little. Used for clothes-pegs,
turned ware, and formerly for ladies' high heels ; but chiefly for
paper-pulp.

Poplar, Lombardy (P. dilatdta Ait.). Kashmir, Persia and
Mediterranean area. French " Peuplier pyramidal." Germ.
" Pyramiden-Pappel." Span. "Alamo de Italia." Height 100
—150 ft.; diam. 3 — 4 ft. Sapwood wide, nearly white; heart
light reddish-brown, easily worked. Little used, chiefly for
packing-cases ; but, after some years' seasoning, also for churns
and coach-panels.

Poplar, Necklace. See Poplar, Black Italian.

Poplar, Swiss. See „ „

Poplar, White (P. dlba L.). Central Europe, Northern
Africa, Northern and Western Asia. Known also as "Abele."
Height 60—100 ft.; diam. 2 — 4 ft. Sapwood white; heart at

POPLAR— QUAR. 299

first yellowish, becoming browner and sometimes with reddish
discolorations. Of little value.

Poplar, Yellow. See Tulip-tree.

Porcupine-wood (C6cos imcifera L. : Order Palmdcece). Shores
of India and throughout the tropics. Height 60 — 100 ft. ; diam.
2 ft. W 70. The wood near the outside of this monocoty-
ledonous stem, being crowded with dense dark-coloured fibro-
vascular bundles resembling the quills of the porcupine, is very
hard, strong and durable. It is used in India for rafters, beams,
spear-handles and other purposes ; but in England for walking-
sticks, or as a veneer for work-boxes and other fancy articles.

Portia-tree. See Umbrella-tree.

Puriri (Vitex litiordlis A. Cunn. : Order Ferbendcete). New
Zealand. Height 60 ft. ; diam. 3—5 ft. S.G. 1100 when green,
1000 when dry. Yielding timber 9—18 ft. long, squaring 10—18
in.; sapwood 2 — 3 in. wide, yellowish; heart dark-brown, very
heavy, very hard, close-grained, very strong and durable. Much
used for posts, piles, sleepers, etc.

Purple-heart of Guiana (Copaifera piibifldra Benth., C. bractedta
Benth., and Peltdgynt vendsa Benth. : Order Leguminrfsce). French
"Amaranthe, Bois violet." Dutch " Purpuurhart." Aborig.
" Kooroobovilli." Germ. " Amarantholz." Large trees yielding
timber 20 — 50 ft. long, squaring 1 J — 2J ft., brownish to blackish
purple, especially when freshly cut, close-grained, very heavy, hard,
strong, elastic, working easily, taking a fine polish, durable. S.G.
967-721. E, 231 kilos. Used for furniture, gun-carriages and
works of construction.

Purple-heart of Trinidad (Peltogyne paniculdta Benth. : Order
LegumintfsfK). Known also as "Zapateri." Yielding timber
20 — 25 ft. long and 12 — 15 in. wide, of a beautiful purple when
freshly cut, but blackening with age, very durable. Sometimes
used for furniture. The allied species P. confertifldra Benth., the
" Pao roxo " or " Guarabu " of Brazil, is similar.

Pyengadu and Pynkado. See Acle and Mirabow.

Quar (Euclea unduldta Thunbg. : Order Ebendcete). Cape
Colony. Height 20—30 ft.; diam. 12—15 in. Sapwood light

300 WOODS OF COMMERCE.

brown ; heart dark brown, heavy, very hard, close-grained, with
beautiful transverse wavy figure. Suitable for furniture.

Queen-wood (Davie'sia arbor ea W. Hill. : Order Legumindscv).
North-eastern Australia. Height 15 — 30 ft.; diam. 6 — 12 in.
Streaked with pink, hard, close-grained, susceptible of a fine
polish. An excellent cabinet-wood.

Raspberry Jam. See Myall iii.

Rassak or Russock (Vdtica Rdssdk Blume : Order Diptero-
carpdcea'). Borneo. W 54. Light yellowish, becoming dark
red on exposure, heavy, coarse-grained, durable. Used for piles,
house-building, etc.

Rata (Metrosidfaos robusta, A. Cunn : Order Myrtdcea}. New
Zealand. Height 60—100 ft.; diam. 3—4 ft. S.G. 1228 when
fresh, 786 \vhen seasoned. Often 30 — 40 ft. to lowest branch,
and yielding timber 20 — 50 ft. long, squaring 1 — 2J ft. Red,
very heavy, hard, close-grained, strong, easy to work, durable.
Used in ship-building and for railway waggons.

Redwood, a name variously applied : (i) in the English
timber trade to Dantzic Fir (Finns sylvestris) [See Northern
Pine] ; (ii) in Australia to Eucalyptus piperita [See Pepper-
mint vi.] ; (iii) in Cape Colony to Ochna arUrea Burch. (Order
Ochndcecb). Known also as "Cape Plane." Boer "Roodhout."
Zulu " Umtensema," Height 20— 30 ft. ; diam. 1J — 2 ft. Red,
hard, strong, durable. Used for waggon-building and furniture,
and suitable for engraving.

Redwood, Andaman. See Padouk.

Redwood, Californian (Sequoia sempervirens Endl. : Order
Taxodine«j). Californian coast. Germ. " Immergriin Sequoie."
" Eiben Cypresse." Ital. " II Legno rosso di California." Height
180—250 or 300 ft.; often 75—100 ft. to lowest branch; diam.
12 — 20 ft. Sapwood light orange to dark amber, very soft and
light, scentless ; heart maroon to terra-cotta or deep brownish-red,
darkening on exposure, light, soft, brittle, close-grained, not
strong, without resin-ducts, very easily split, so that planks can
be made from it without the use of the saw, susceptible of a
high polish, in structure resembling Bald Cypress, very durable

QUAR-REWA-REWA. 30i

in contact with the soil ; pith-rays very distinct (Fig. 61). The
most valuable of Calif ornian timber-trees, and the most used
material for building and carpentry in the State, used also for
sleepers, fencing, telegraph-poles, shingles and furniture, corre-
sponding in quality and uses to White Cedar. Though suited
for drawers or lining, it is somewhat too monotonous for orna-
mental furniture. In the London cabinet trade it is now known

FIG. 61.— Transverse section of Californian Redwood (Sequoia semperviretu).

as " Sequoia." Though sending up vigorous coppice-shoots when
felled " at the present rate of destruction not an unprotected
Sequoia of timber-producing size will be left standing twenty
years hence" (J. G. Lemmon in 1895).

Redwood, Coromandel or Indian. See Mahogany, East
Indian.

Redwood, in Jamaica. See Ironwood xxiii.

Rewa-rewa (Knightia extflsa R. Br. : Order Protedcece). New
Zealand. Known also as " Honeysuckle-wood." Height 100 ft.

302 WOODS OF COMMERCE.

On a radial section lustrous golden-yellow with pretty wavy warm
red-brown silver-grain, perishable on exposure and becoming
" foxy " unless thoroughly seasoned. Valued for inlaying and
cabinet-work.

Rimu (Dacrydium cupressinum Solan d. : Order Taxinece). New
Zealand. Known also as " Ked Pine." Height 40—80 or 100
ft. ; diam. 2 — 5 ft. ; sometimes 40 — 50 ft. to the lowest branch.
S.Gr. 678 when seasoned. Yielding timber 20 — 50 ft. long,
squaring 10 — 30 in. Chestnut-brown near centre, lighter out-
wards, figured with light red or yellow streaks, moderately heavy
and hard, very strong, working well and taking a good polish,
but not durable in contact with soil. Extensively used in build-
ing for beams, girders, etc., for panelling, fencing, railway-ties,
native canoes and furniture.

Roble, the Spanish for Oak, used in Trinidad for Platymisdum
platystdchyum Benth. (Order Legumintisce), a hard, tough wood
with an ornamental silvery transparent grain, used locally in
shipbuilding.

Rose-chestnut, Indian. See Ironwood xviii.

Rosewood. French "Bois du rose." Germ. "Rozenholz."
Ital "Legno rodie." Span. "Leno de rosa." Port. " Pao de
rosada." The name of a number of different species in various
parts of the world, mostly heavy dense dark-coloured woods,
many of which belong to the Order Legumindsce, such as the
genera Dalbdrgia, Machcerium and Pterocdrpus, and one or two of
which contain a fragrant resin or oil, from which the name has
originated. They have nothing more to do with the Kose.

Rosewood, African (Pterocdrpus erindceus Poir. : Order
Legumindsce). Tropical West Africa. Known also as " African
Teak." French "Santal rouge d'Afrique." Sapwood white-
heart red-brown, hard, very elastic. Valuable as timber and as
yielding an astringent resin or Kino.

Rosewood, Australian (i) Acdda glauctscens [See Myall v] ;
(ii) Dysdxylon Fraseridnum [See Cedar, Pencil] ; (iii) Eremophila
MitcUlli [See Sandalwood, Bastard] ; and (iv) Syndum glandu-
Idsum A. Juss. (Order Melidcece). North-eastern Australia.

REWA-REWA— ROSEWOOD. 303

Known also as "Dogwood," "Bastard Rosewood" and "Brush
Bloodwood." Height 40—60 ft. ; diam. 1 J— 2 ft. W 41—45.
Deep red and rose-scented when fresh, resembling Cedar but
heavier and deader in colour, taking a fine polish, firm and
easily worked. Used for shipbuilding, the inside of houses and
cabinet-work, for which it has long been valued. An allied
form S. Ldrdneri, without scent and with more open grain, is
known as "Pencil Cedar," or, from the smell of its bark, as
" Turnipwood."

Rosewood, Brazilian, including that of Rio, the best, Bahia,
the second best, and San Francisco, is probably Dalbfrgia nigra
Allem. (Order Legumin6sce\ Brazil. " Jacaranda cabiuna," or in
part also species of the allied genus Machcerium, such as M.
sderdxylon Tul., known as "Pao Ferro," M. firmum Benth.,
"Jacaranda roxa," and M. legdU Benth., "Jacarando preto."
S.G. 768—841. In half-round logs 10—20 ft. long, seldom over
14 in. in diam. Dark chestnut or ruddy brown, richly streaked
and grained with black resinous layers, porous, open-grained,
heavy, taking a fine polish, liable to heart-shake and frequently
hollow and sold, therefore, by weight. Valuable, both solid and
in veneers, for furniture and ornamental cabinet-work, especially
pianoforte cases, and for turnery, realizing £10 — £1 2 per ton for
inferior, £20 — £30 for good, and even up to £90 for the best
qualities.

Rosewood, Bastard. See Rosewood, Australian.

Rosewood, Burmese. See Padouk.

Rosewood, Canary (Convdlvulus Scopdrius L., C. virgdtus Webb,
and C. fluridus L. : Order Convolvuldcece). Canary Islands.
" Lignum Rhodii." French " Bois des Rhodes des Parfumeurs."
Derived from the rhizome and bases of the aerial stems, whence
these species have been separated as a genus Rhodorrhiza. Rose-
scented and distilled for the powerfully-scented oil " Oleum ligni
Rhodii sethereum," used to adulterate attar of roses. Not other-
wise used.

Rosewood, Dominica. See Cypre, Bois de.

Rosewood, Indian. See Blackwood, Indian.

304 WOODS OF COMMERCE.

Rosewood, Jamaica (LinocUra ligustrina Swartz. : Order
Oledcece). See also Granadillo.

Rosewood, Moulmein, probably a species of MilUttia (Order
Legumindsce), possibly M. p6ndula Benth., a dense, hard, dark-
coloured wood.

Rosewood, Seychelles. See Umbrella-tree.

Rosewood, West Indian. See Granadillo.

Rowan (Pyrus Aucupdria G-aertn. : Order Rosdcew). Europe,
Northern and Western Asia. Known also as "Mountain Ash."
Germ. "Eberesche." Height 10— 40 ft. ; diam. 6 — 10 in. Sap-
wood reddish-white; heart reddish-brown, hard, tough, difficult
to split ; pith-flecks frequent ; vessels and pith-rays indistinct ;
autumn wood slightly darker. Used to a small extent on the
Continent in cabinet-work, carving and turnery.

Sabicu (LysiUma SdUcu Benth. : Order Legumindsce). West
Indies, especially Cuba. Somewhat crooked in growth but
yielding timber 20 — 35 ft. long, squaring 11 — 24 in. S.G.
899—957. e' 2-21. / 1-6. c 5558. cf -734. v 1-161. R
435 Ibs. Dark chestnut-brown, heavy, hard, strong, elastic,
close-grained, free from shakes, though sometimes exhibiting on
conversion a cross fracture of part of the inner wood, snapped,
perhaps, by West Indian hurricanes, seasoning slowly, but
shrinking but little and not splitting in the process, working
up well, susceptible of a high polish, durable when exposed, and
sometimes with such a curled figure as to be mistaken for Rose-
wood. Used in shipbuilding, especially for beams, keelsons, engine-
bearers, etc., and for furniture. The staircases of the Exhibition
of 1851 were of this wood and wore well. The allied species, L.
latisiliqua Benth., native to the Bahamas and Florida, is similar.

Saffron wood (Casslnt crdcea O.K.,=Elffioddndron crdceum DC. :
Order Celastrdcew). South Africa. Known also as " Safforan-
wood." Boer " Saffranhout," Zulu " Umbomoana." French
"Olivetier jaune, Bois d'or du Cap." Height 20—40 or
60 ft. ; diam. 2—4 ft. W 47 '5. E 510 tons. / 4-4. fc 3-18.
Yellow, hard, close, fine-grained, tough, handsome. Used for
beams, planks, waggon-building, furniture, etc.

ROSEWOOD-SALLOW. 305

Saj (Termindlia tomentdsa W. and A. : Order Combretdcece).
India and Burma. Hind. "Asan." Tamil "Maradu." Mahrat.
"Eyn." A large tree yielding timber 18 — 28 ft. long and
1—2 ft. in diam. S.G. 892. R 462—602 Ibs. Sapwood
white, narrow ; heart dark brown, finely variegated with darker
streaks producing a wavy figure, heavy, hard, elastic, strong,
difficult to work, but seasoning well and taking a high polish,
liable to split on exposure and to dry-rot if not steeped. Its
power of resisting termite attack is doubtful. Largely used for
joists and rafters and in waggon and boat-building, and recom-
mended for paving. Resembling the next.

Sal (Shdrea robusta Gaertn. : Order Dipterocarpdceoe). Northern
and Central India. Known also as "Saul," and formerly as
"Morung Sal." SansL "Sala." Philippine "Guijo." A large
tree yielding timber 20 — 60 ft. long and 1 — 2 ft. in diam.
S.G. 458—842. W 28-6—52-6. R 1043 Ibs. Sapwood
whitish, narrow ; heart light to deep brown, finely streaked
with dark lines, heavy, hard, coarse and cross-grained, elastic,
tough, comparing favourably as to strength with Teak, warping
and splitting considerably in seasoning, but almost unrivalled
for durability, its abundant whitish aromatic resin protecting
it from termites. The most extensively used timber of Northern
India for sleepers, piles, beams, bridges, planks, gun-carriages,
wedges, tool-handles, blocks, cogs, etc., but too heavy to float
and, therefore, expensive.

Saliewood (BuddUia salvifdlia Lam. : Order Loganidcece).
Cape Colony. Zulu " Unkaza." Height 15 — 20 ft.; diam.
10 — 15 in. Hard, tough, with a beautiful wavy grain. Used
for cabinet-work, yielding veneers equal in appearance to Wal-
nut, and for cogs ; but recommended for wooden type and coarse
engraving.

Sallow, in England, chiefly Sdlix Caprta, L. (Order Salidnece).
Europe, Northern and Western Asia. Known also as "Goat
Willow." Germ. "Sahlweide." A small tree. Sapwood reddish-
white ; heartwood a beautiful light red, light, very soft, easily
split, lustrous, with wide annual rings, pith-rays indistinguishable,

U

306 WOODS OF COMMERCE.

vessels minute and equally distributed, pith-flecks often present.
Used chiefly for crate and hoop-making; but in France one of
the most useful willows. [See Willow.]

Sallow, in Australia, or Sally, or White Sally, names
applied to some species of Acacia, especially A. longifulia Willd.,
var. floribunda, a brown black-streaked, light, tough, and hard
wood, used for tool-handles ; and to Eucryphia Modrei. [See

Acacia.]

Sandalwood, a name applied to the generally fragrant woods
of Sdntalum album and other species of the genus, to those of the
other genera of the Order Santaldcece, viz., Fusdnus, Eococdrpus,
and Osf/ris, to some members of the Order Myoporinece, and a few
other unrelated trees. True Sandalwood is Sdntalum album L.
(Order Santaldcem). India, chiefly in the south, and perhaps also
in the Malay Archipelago. Known also as " White " or " Yellow
Sandalwood." Sanskr. "Chandana." Hind. " Chandana, Sandal."
Telugu " Chandanam." Burm. "Sanda-ku." Chinese "Tan-mu."
Height 30 ft., 8 ft. to lowest branch ; diam. up to 2 ft. Sold in
billets weighing 50 — 90 Ibs. each. Yellowish-brown, very hard,
close-grained and fragrant, the heartwood yielding on distillation
about 2 drams of oil per lb., and increasing in fragrance with
age, very liable to heart-shake. Used for carving, ornamental
boxes, walking-sticks, fans, burnt as a perfume, ground into
powder as a cosmetic, and distilled for its fragrant oil. Kealizing
£30 per ton in the Chinese market.

Sandalwood, Australian (i) Fusdnus spicdtm R. Br. = F.
cygndrum Benth. : Order Santaldcefc). Southern and Western
Australia. Known also as "Fragrant Sandalwood." Height 30
ft. ; diam. up to 1 ft. Not very fragrant and scarce. Exported
to Singapore and China at about £10 per ton. (ii) Sdntalum
lanceoldtmn R. Br. Height 15 — 25 ft. ; diam 3 — 6 in. Yellowish,
firm, close-grained, taking a good polish, (iii) S. obtusifolium R.
Br. Eastern Australia.

Sandalwood, Bastard, of Australia, (i) (Eremdphila MitcMlli
Benth. : Order Myopvrlnece). Eastern Australia. Known also as
"Rosewood." Height 20—30 ft.; diam. 9—12 in. Brown,

SALLOW— SANDAN. 307

beautifully grained, very fragrant, very hard. Yielding handsome
veneers, (ii) (Myopfoumplatycdrpum R. Br.). [See Dogwood iv.].
Sandal wood, Bastard, of India (Erythrdxylm mondgynum
Roxb. : Order Erythroxyldcece). A small tree of Southern India
and Ceylon. Sansk. "Devadara." Arab. " Shajr-ul-jin." Hind.
"Deodhari." Tamil "Devatharam." Telug. "Devadari." Dark
brown, very hard, taking a fine polish, very fragrant. Used as a
substitute for Sandalwood.

Sandalwood, Bastard, of the Sandwich Islands (Myopdrum
tenuifdlium).

Sandalwood, East African (Osyris tenuifdlia Engl. : Order
Santaldcece). Portugese East Africa. "Mucumite." Length
6 — 8 ft. • diam. 8 in. Brown, with darker shades, heavy, crooked
in growth.

Sandalwood, Fiji (Sdntalum Ydsi Seem.).
Sandalwood, Fragrant. See Sandalwood, Australian.
Sandalwood, Indian. See Mangosteen, False.
Sandalwood, Native (Fusdnus persicdrius F. v. M. : Order
Santaldceat). Australia. Small and inferior.

Sandalwood, New Caledonia (Sdntalum austro-caledfaiicum
VieilL).

Sandalwood, Red. See Sanders-wood, Red.
Sandalwood, Sandwich Island (Sdntalum freycinetidnum
Gaud, and S. paniculdtum Hook, and Am.).

Sandalwood, Scentless (Eremdphila Sturtii R. Br. : Order
Myoporinece). South-east Australia. Merely a shrub, with grey,
nicely-marked, close-grained, hard wood.

Sandalwood, Scrub (Exocdrpus latifdlia R. Br. : Order
Santaldcece). North-east Australia. Known also as "Broad-
leaved Cherry." Height 10—16 ft.; diam. 6—9 in. Dark-
coloured, fragrant, very hard, coarse-grained, taking an excellent
polish. Used in cabinet-work.
Sandalwood, White. See Sandalwood.
Sandalwood, Yellow. See Sandalwood.
Sandan (Ougeinia dalbergioldes Benth. : Order Legumindsce).
Northern India. Mottled brown and red, hard, tough, close-

308 WOODS OF COMMERCE.

grained, taking a good polish, durable. Used for furniture,
carriage -poles, wheels, agricultural implements, etc.

Sanders-wood, Red (i) (Pterocdrpus santalinus L. fil. : Order
Legumindsce). Southern and Further India, Ceylon, China, Java,
etc. Known also as " Red Sandalwood." French " Santale rouge."
Germ " Ostindisches Santelholz, Caliaturholz." Sansk. "Rakta
chandana." Pers. "Sandal surkh." Hind. " Chandana." Tarn.
" Chandanum." Sinli. li Rakt-chandan." Height 20-25 ft. ; diam.
1 ft. S.G. 750. W 46-84. Deep red with lighter zones, heavy, very
hard, fine-grained, taking a beautiful polish. Used for images,
turnery, and occasionally building; but chiefly as a red dye,
soluble in alcohol but not in water, (ii) Adendnthera pavonina L. :
Order Legumindsa). India, Burma, Moluccas, North Queensland,
and cultivated in Tropical Africa and America. Known also as
"Red wood" or "Red Sandalwood." Germ. " Condoriholz."
Sansk. "Cambhoji." Hind. " Ranjana, Ku-chandana." Beng.
" Rakta-chandan." Tarn. "Gandamani." A large tree. W 56.
Yellowish-grey or light-brown, or in older trees a beautiful coral-
red, sometimes with darker stripes when fresh cut, turning dark-
brown, or purple like Rosewood, on exposure, rather heavy, hard,
coarse but close-grained, durable, but apt to be worm-eaten.
Used in house-building and for cabinet-work; or, ground into a
paste by rubbing the wood against a stone with some water, as a
dye.

Sanders, Yellow (Xime'nia americdna L. : Order Olacinece).
Tropical America, Pacific, Australia, Asia, and Africa. Brazil
"Ameixero," " Espinha de meicha." Guiana" Heymassoli." San
Domingo "Croc." W 57-3. E 721 tons. / 4-5. fc 4. fs -368.
Yellow, fragrant, very hard, tough, close and even-grained.
Employed in India as a substitute for Sandalwood, in the Fiji
Islands for the peculiar pillows ("kali") used by the natives, and
suggested for engraving.

Santa Maria (Calophyllum Cdlaba Jacq. : Order Guttiferce).
Tropical America. Known also as "Galba," "Galaba," "Accite
de Maria," and in Cuba as "Ocuje." Height 60—90 ft. ; diam.
2_3 ft. ; yielding logs 25—50 ft. long, squaring 12—22 in. S.G.

SANDAN— SASSAFRAS. 309

842. W 53. E 790 tons. / 5'14. fc 2-6. /* -215. R 354 Ibs.
Pale red to orange-yellow, moderately heavy and hard, clean fine
and straight in grain, flexible, with few knots, shrinking and
splitting very little in seasoning, easily worked, durable. Has
been used in our dockyards for beams and planks, and is equal to
plain mahogany for interior finish.

Sappan-WOOd (Cwsalpinia Sdppan L. : Order Legumintisw).
India and South-east Asia. Known also as " Red wood, Brazil,"
or "Brasiletto wood." Sansk. "Patanga." Hind. "Bakam."
Malay " Sapang." Height 30—36 ft. ; diani. 8 in. Brownish-red.
Used almost exclusively as a red dye for cotton goods, the roots,
known as " Yellow wood " or " Sappan Root," yielding an orange-
yellow one.

Sapodilla (Achras Sapdta L. : Order Sapotdcew). Tropical
America. Known also as "Nispero," "Bully," or "Bullet-wood."
Reddish-brown, very heavy, hard, and durable. Used for furni-
ture, cabinet-work, and occasionally building.

Saquisaqui (Bfrmbax mompoxtnsd H. B. : Order Bombdcew).
Venezuela. Known also as " Cedro dulce." S.G. 529. Rose-red,
of better quality than other species of the genus, similar to the
wood of the Cedar (Cedrdla odordta).

Sassafras in North America (Sassafras officinal^ Nees : Order
Laurdcece). Known as "Sassafras" in Latin, Arabic, French,
German, and Spanish, in German also as " Fenchelholz " and by
the French in America as "Laurier des Iroquois." Canada to
Florida and Texas. Height 50—90 ft. ; diam. 3— 7 J ft. S.G. 504.
W 31-4. R 602 kilos. Sap wood yellow, narrow; heart orange-
brown, with a slight characteristic aroma, light, soft, rather brittle,
coarse-grained, very durable when exposed and partially insect-
proof; with broad distinct annual rings, a marked pore zone of
springwood with 4 — 5 rows of vessels arranged radially in pairs,
and very fine pith-rays, distinguished from the Red Mulberry
(Mdrus rubra) by its lightness. Used for fencing, buckets, etc.
The essential oil which brought the tree into notice in the 16th
century is distilled from the bark of the roots. The name is
applied in various parts of the world to other species of the Order

310 WOODS OF COMMERCE.

Laurdcece and the closely-allied Monimidcece exhibiting the same
characteristic smell.

Sassafras, Assam (Cinnamdmum glanduliferum Meissn.). See
Camphor, Nepal.

Sassafras, Australian (i) Atherosptrma moschdta Labill. : Order
Monimidcece). South-east Australasia. Height 100 — 150ft. Dark-
coloured, often well figured, close-grained, very tough, easily
worked, taking a fine polish. Used for lasts, bench-screws, and
cabinet-work, and suggested for sounding-boards and doors,
(ii) (Daphndndra micrdntha Benth. : Order Monimidcece). North-east
Australia. Known also as "Satinwood" and " Light^ellow
Wood." Height 50—80 ft. ; diam. 1£— 2 ft. W 43-5. Yellow
when fresh, fragrant, soft, weak. Used for packing-cases and
perhaps fit for cabinet-drawers, (iii) (Dorypliora sassafras Endl. :
Order Monimidcece). North-east Australia. Height 50 — 100 ft. ;
diam. 2 — 3 ft. Light-coloured, sometimes neatly figured, light,
fragrant, soft, weak, insect-proof, but probably not durable. Used
like the last-mentioned, (iv) (Nesoddplme oUusifolia Benth. : Order
Laurdcece). North-east Australia. A large tree yielding light-
coloured, close-grained wood, easy to work and suitable for joinery.

Sassafras, Black. See Beech, She.

Sassafras, Brazil (Mespiloddphnt Sassafras C. : Order Lau-
rdcece).

Sassafras, Burmese. See Camphor, Nepal.

Sassafras, Cayenne (Dicypellium caryophyllcitum Nees = Licaria
guiane'nsis Aubl. : Order Laurdcece). Known also as " Cayenne
Rosewood," "Licari," "Pepper-wood," "Bois canelle," "Rose
male." Brazil and Guiana. An excellent wood. S.G. 1226 — 1108.
R 360 kilos. Pale yellow, slightly fragrant, moderately hard,
compact, and straight in grain, very easily worked, durable,
The name " Sassafras " or " Rose femelle " is applied in French
Guiana to Acrodiclidium chrysophyllum Meissn. (Order Lawdcecb).
S.G. 806 — 688. R 184 kilos. Yellow, very durable, readily
worked, yielding on distillation the essential oil known as " essence
de roses." Excellent for shipbuilding or furniture.

Sassafras, Grey. See Laurel.

SASSAFRAS-SATINWOOD. 311

Sassafras, Indian. See Camphor, Nepal.

Sassafras, Nepal. See Camphor, Nepal.

Sassafras, Tasmanian. See Sassafras, Australian (i).

Satin6 or Bois de feroles, of which there are two varieties,
" Satine rouge," a beautiful red-brown, and " Satine rubanne,"
lighter-coloured, veined and lustrous, is apparently Ferdlui
guianensis Aubl. and, perhaps, F. mriegdta Lam., probably species
of Parindrium (Order Rosdcecc). Guiana and Guadeloupe.
Known also as "Bois marbre," and, in Demerara, as "Washiba."
German " Feroliaholz." S.G. 877—825. Exported in logs 14—
28 ft. long, squaring 13 — 15 in., hard, solid, and of good quality,
working well, and susceptible of a beautiful polish. Used for
furniture and cabinet-work.

Satin Walnut. See Gum, Sweet.

Satinwood (Chlordxylon SwieUnia DC. : Order Melidcece).
Central and Southern India and Ceylon. Hind. " Dhoura." Tarn.
" Mutirai, Porasham." Sink. " Burutu." Height 30—60 ft. ; diam.
12— loin. W 64-3— 55. E 699 tons. /6-15. fc 3'37. fs -85.
R 329 — 510 Ibs. Light orange, beautifully feathered, heavy,
hard, close-grained, taking an excellent polish, durable, but liable
to darken unless varnished, somewhat apt to split. Used in India
for oil-mills, agricultural implements and furniture, the beautiful
feathered variety being imported into England for the backs of
hair- brushes, turnery, and cabinet-work.

Satinwood, in Australia (Zanthdxylum brachyacdnthum F. v. M. :
Order Butdcece.) North-east Australia. Known also as " Thorny
Yellow-wood." Height 40—50 ft.; diam. 12—15 in. Bright
yellow, silky, soft, close-grained, easily worked. Used in cabinet-
work and said to be superior to some Satinwood in the English
market. See also Sassafras, Australian (ii).

Satinwood, West Indian (Fdgara (Zanthfaylum) fldvd Krug.
and Urb. : Order Butdcece). This appears to be the species imported
in considerable quantities into England in logs 10 ft. long and
8 in. in width and thickness for ornamental purposes from the
Bahamas and Porto-Rico, fetching from £3 to £10 per ton; but
the name seems to be applied in Dominica to Bucida capitdta

312 WOODS OF COMMERCE.

Dow. (Order Combretdcece), which is also known as "Yellow
sanders," and in Brazil and the Guianas may be applied to other
unascertained species.
Savicu. See Sabicu.

Schaapdrolletje (Pledrdnia ventdsa L. : Order Eubidcece) Cape
Colony. Height 15—20 ft. ; diam. G— 10 in. Heavy, hard,
close-grained, tough, susceptible of a good polish and then hand-
some. Suitable for fancy-work.
Sequoia. See Redwood, Californian.

Securipa, an undetermined Brazilian wood, of considerable
dimensions, straight growth, moderate weight and fair quality,
brown in colour. Used for beams and planks in shipbuilding.

Serayah, probably a species of Hopea (Order Dipterocarpdcece).
Malay peninsula and Borneo. Known also as " White Cedar,"
"Borneo Cedar," "Majow," " Selangan." W 43. Reddish, re-
sembling soft Mahogany, but strong, tough and easily worked.
Used for house-building or furniture, being a substitute for Pine.
Service (Pyrus tormindlis Eluh. : Order Rosdceai). Europe,
West Asia and North Africa. Germ. " Elsbeerbaum." A small
tree, sometimes 30 ft. in height, with wood practically identical
in character and uses with that of the Rowan.

Shad-bush (Ameldnchier canacUnsis Torr. & Gray). Eastern
North America. Known also as " Shad-blow, Juneberry " and
"Service-tree." French "Grand Amelanchier." Germ. "Trau-
benbirne." Span. "Nispero." Height 40 ft.; diam. 15 in.
S.G. 784. W 48-85. R 1132 kilos. Sapwood thick, light
brown, with red spots ; heart reddish-brown, heavy, hard, strong,
close-grained, taking a satiny finish. Little used, except for tool-
handles and, under the name of "American Lancewood," for
fishing-rods.

She-Oak. See Oak, She.

Shoondul (Intsia bijuga O.K. = Afzelia bijuga A. Grr&y = Intsia
ambointnsis Thouars (\) = Ep6rua decdndra Blanco: Order Legu-
mindsce). Seychelles, India, the Malay archipelago and the Pacific.
Known also as "Pynkado." Fiji "Vesi." A moderate-sized
tree. Reddish-brown, very hard, close-grained. Used in the

SATINWOOD— SIRIS. 313

Pacific for war-clubs and in India for bridge and house-building,
and exported as a furniture wood.

Silk-cotton tree (Ceiba pentdndra Gaertn. =Eriodendron
anfradurfsum P. DC. : Order Bombdcece.) The Tropics generally.
Known also as " Cotton " or " White Cotton-tree." Hind. " Safed
Simal." Tarn. "Elava." Sink. "Imbool." Malay "Paniala."
French Arbre p, coton." Germ. " Baumwollenbaum." Cuba
"Ceiba." Height 150 ft. or more. S.G. 287. Straight grow-
ing, white, light, soft. Used for canoes, boats, rafts, floats, toys
and packing-cases.

Silk-bark (Celdstrus acumindtus L. : Order Celastrdcece.) Cape
Colony. "Zybast." Height 20 ft.; diam. 1 ft. Prettily
shaded, heavy, hard, even and close-grained, taking a good
polish. Used in turnery and furniture and recommended for
umbrella-handles.

Silverballi, Brown, Siruaballi or Cirouaballi (Nectdndra
sp. : Order Laurdcece). British Guiana. Height 90 ft. ; diam.
1 J ft. S.G. 830. Light brown, hard, easily worked, taking a
fine polish, durable. Used for boat-planks and masts ; but suited
for furniture.

Silver-tree (TarrMtia argyrodendron Benth. : Order Ster-
culidcece.) North-east Australia. Known also as " Iron wood,
Stouewood, Black Stavewood." Aborig. "Boyung." Height 70
— 90 ft. ; diam. 2 — 3 ft. White, hard, close-grained, tough,
firm, a substitute for Beech. Extensively used for staves and
suitable for piles.

Simarouba (Simaruba amdra Aubl. = S. officindlis DC. :
Order Simarvbdcece). Northern Brazil, Guiana and the West
Indies. " Maruba." " Acajou blanc " of Guadeloupe. A lofty
tree yielding logs 13 or 14 ft. long, squaring 14 to 16 in. W 23.
E 473 tons. / 3-36. fc 1-78. fs '224. White, bitter,
resembling Pine in quality, moderately hard, splitting in
seasoning, easily worked, insect-proof.

Siris, Pink (Albizzia Julibrissin Durazz. : Order Legumindsce.)
Tropical and sub-tropical Africa and Asia from Afghanistan to
China and Japan. Known also as "Sirsa" or "Sirissa."

314 WOODS OF COMMERCE.

" Cotton- varay " of Coromandel. Moderate sized tree. Dark
brown to almost black, mottled, very heavy and hard, capable of
a good polish. Valued for furniture and for house and boat-
building.

Sissoo (Dalbergia Sissdo Roxb. : Order Legumindsce). Northern
India. A large tree, 15 feet to its lowest branch, 1 J ft. in diam.,
yielding logs 10 — 15 ft. long. Greyish-brown, with dark longi-
tudinal veins, very heavy, hard, close and even in grain, strong,
elastic, seasoning well without warping or splitting, durable.
One of the most valuable of Indian timbers, rapid in growth,
sometimes almost as beautiful as Rosewood. Unrivalled for the
naves and felloes of wheels, frames of carriages, boat-building,
agricultural implements and furniture. Once extensively used
for the wheels of gun-carriages ; but not now plentiful.

Snakewood, in India, the wood of Strychnos colubrina L. and
S. nux-vdmica L. (Order Loganidcece). The former is a climbing-
plant 8 — 12 in. in diam. ; light grey, hard and intensely bitter;
the latter a tree reaching 15 ft. or 20 ft. to its lowest branch and
3 ft. in diam. S.G. 706. W 52. White, or ash-colour, hard,
close-grained, strong, very bitter. Used for ploughshares and
cart-wheels in Travancore. Hind. "Kuchila." Telugu "Naga-
musada." Portuguese "Pao-de-cobra." French "Bois de cou-
leuvre." The crooked and intensely bitter roots of Ophiorrhiza
Murigos L. (Order Cinchondcece), a native of the Sunda Islands,
and the twisted climbing stems of Rauwdlfia serpentina Benth. =
Ophidxylon serpentinum L. : Order Apocyndcece), a native of the
Malay archipelago, have also the same name. In the West
Indies Colubrina reclindta Brongn. and C. ferruginosa Brongn.
(Order Rhamndcece), from their twisted roots bear also the same
English and French names, though known also as "West Indian
Greenheart" or "Ironwood." Whilst all these woods get their
names from their form or taste suggesting their use as remedies
for snake-bite, the beautifully mottled Snakewood of British
Guiana is Brosimum AubUtii. See Leopard or Letter-wood.

Sneeze-wood (Pterdxylon utiU Eck. and Z. : Order Sapinddcew).
South Africa. Boer "Neishout." Zulu "Umtati." Height

SIRIS— SPINDLE-TREE. 315

20—30 ft.; diam. 2—4 ft. W 61. E 782 tons. / 8'62.
fc 5'96. Handsome, heavy, very hard, irregular in growth,
difficult to convert, its dust producing violent sneezing, taking
a fine polish, with a beautiful grain resembling Satinwood, and
containing a gum-resin which renders it very inflammable and
one of the most durable woods in the world, ranking with Jarrah
and Greenheart, termite and teredo-proof, very slightly affected
by water, and for bearings superior to brass, iron or Lignum-
vitse. Perhaps the most valuable of South African timbers.
Used for engineering work, bridges, furniture, agricultural
implements and carpentry.

Souari or Schawari (Caryocar gldbrum Pers., C. butyrdsum
Willd., C. tomentdsum Willd. : Order Rhizoboldcece). Guiana.
Known also as " Peki " or " Tatajuba." S.G. 932—820. R 211
kilos. Yellowish-red, moderately heavy and hard and very
cross-grained. Excellent for carriage-building, but used chiefly
in ship-building and cabinet-work.

Spearwood in Australia (i) Acacia homaluphylla [See Myall ii],
(ii) A. doratdxylon and (iii) Eucalyptus doratdxylon. Acacia
doratdxylon A. Cunn. (Order Legumindsce) is known also as
"Hickory, Brigalow," or "Caariwan." Height 20—35 ft.;
diam. 6 — 12 in. S.G. 1215. Sapwood narrow, yellow; heart
dark-brown, very heavy, hard, tough, close-grained, durable.
Used for furniture, carriage-poles, gates, etc., and, by the natives,
for spears and boomerangs. Eucalyptus doratdxylon F. v. M.
(Order Myrtdcece). South-west Australia. Height 60 — 80 ft. ;
diam. 2 — 3 ft. Straight-growing, hard and elastic, for which
qualities its saplings are much valued by the aborigines for
spears.

Spindle-tree (Eudnymus europceus L. : Order Celdstrdcece).
Europe, North Africa and Western Siberia. Height 5 — 20 ft. ;
diam. small. Clear yellowish-white with distinct annual rings
but indistinguishable vessels or pith-rays, hard, tough, fine-
grained, difficult to split, but easily cut. Used in turnery for
spindles, shoe-pegs, etc., and yielding a fine crayon or gun-
powder charcoal.

316

WOODS OF COMMERCE.

Spruce, a name applied originally to the Common or Norway
Spruce (Pice'a excelsa Link. = Pinus Abies L. = P. Picea Duroi =
Abies exce'lsa DC : Order Coniferce) from Pruce or Prussia, whence
it was obtained, and then extended to all the species of the
genus Pice'a and to a few other trees. Besides the fact of
their cones falling off whole, and other botanical characters,

FIG. 62. — Transverse section of Spruce (Picea exctlsa), one year old.

by which the Spruces are distinguished as a genus from
the Firs (Abies), their wood, though varying in durability
according to the soil on which it is grown, has most of
its characters common to all the species. There is no distinct
heartwood, the whole being of a whitish colour : the resin-ducts
are few and small; and the pith-rays have tracheids with
bordered pits for their upper and lower rows of cells with four
rows of parenchyma having simple pits in the middle (Figs. 62
and 63). The wood is less resinous than Pine, though equal to

SPRUCE.

317

some Soft Pines and superior to Silver Fir as timber, superior to
Pine for paper-pulp and much valued as a " resonance wood " for
violins and sounding boards. So similar are the Baltic and
Canadian Spruce that in England each is used on that side of the
country nearest to its origin and the price of one affects that of
the other.
Spruce, American. See Spruce, Black.

FIG. 63. — Transverse section of Spruce (Picta excelsa).

Spruce, Bastard. See Pine, Oregon.

Spruce, Baltic. See Spruce, Common.

Spruce, Black (Picta nigra Link). Alaska, Canada, New-
foundland and North-eastern United States. Known also as
" American, Canadian, New Brunswick, St. John's, Double " or
" Muskeag Spruce." French " Sapinette noir, Epinette noir,
Epinette a la biere." Germ. "Schwarzfichte." Height 25—80
ft.; diam. 1—3 ft. S.G. 451—510. W 28'5. e 1'74. p' '83.
R 747 kilos. Sapwood nearly white; heart slightly reddish,
light, soft, elastic, strong, compact, with satiny lustre, being

318 WOODS OF COMMERCE.

tougher, stronger, more elastic and more durable than White
Pine, only slightly resinous and, therefore, not good as fuel.
Trees with wide rings are known to lumbermen as " White
Spruce." Used as "lumber," especially for flooring; for spars
and other purposes in shipbuilding ; for piles, paddles and oars ;
when "quarter-sawn," i.e. cut radially, in the manufacture of
sounding-boards for pianos, violins, etc. ; and very largely for
paper-pulp. The "Canadian deals" largely imported to the
West Indies and England are used, among other purposes, in
Manchester and Birmingham for packing-cases. The tree yields
a chewing-gum and its shoots are brewed into Spruce beer.

Spruce, Blue (P. pungens Engelm.). Rocky Mountains at
altitudes of 6000—9000 ft. Known also as "Colorado" or
"Rocky Mountain Spruce." Height 80—100 ft.; diam. 1—3
ft. Coarse, strong, useful lumber.

Spruce, Californian Coast. See Spruce, Sitka.

Spruce, Canadian. See Spruce, Black.

Spruce, Colorado. See Spruce, Blue.

Spruce, Common (P. excdlsa Link). From the Urals and
Lapland to the Pyrenees and Alps. Known also as "Spruce
Fir, Norway Spruce," or " White Fir," and its wood as " White
deal." French "Faux sapin, sapin-pesse, sapin gentil, serente,
pinesse." Germ. "Fichte, Rothtanne, Pechtanne." Height
125—150 ft.; diam. 3—5 ft. W 64-7 when green, 28—32
when dry. E 715 tons. / 3-77. ft 5-5. fc 2-86. fs -27.
Stress requisite to indent it ^ in. transversely to the fibres, 500
Ibs. per sq. in. Straight-growing, white, reddish or yellowish,
light, straight and even in grain, tough, elastic, easy to work
except for the small hard knots, warping and shrinking slightly
in seasoning, durable. Mostly imported from Norway with the
bark on, in logs 30 — 60 ft. long, and 6 — 8 in. in diam., that
from St. Petersburg being the best, that from the White Sea
excellent and that from Riga, Memel and Dantzig large but
coarser. These poles are used for scaffolding, telegraph-posts,
ladders, roofs, fences, spars and oars. The largest wood is con-
verted into deals and planking, chiefly for central and southern

SPRUCE. 319

Europe, for flooring, for toys, for which wide-ringed wood is
preferred, for packing-cases, for sounding-boards, dressers and
kitchen- tables, on account of its whiteness, and to a very large
extent for paper-pulp. Spruce is also largely used for charcoal
and for fuel, while its resin is used in the preparation of
Burgundy pitch.

Spruce, Double. See Spruce, Black.

Spruce, Douglas. See Pine, Oregon.

Spruce, Engelmann's. See Spruce, White.

Spruce, Hemlock. See Hemlock Spruce.

Spruce, Himalayan (P. Morinda Link = Pinus Smithidna
Wall. = Abies Smithidna Loud. = Pida Smithidna Boiss.). Bhotan
to Afghanistan at 6000—11,000 ft. Known also as "Indian
Spruce," "Morinda," or "Khutrow." Height 120—150 ft.; diam.
5 — 7 ft. White or nearly so, non-resinous, soft, straight-grained,
easily worked, not durable, turning red and decaying rapidly on
exposure. Used largely in Simla and its district of growth,
for packing-cases, rough and indoor carpentry, planking and fuel.

Spruce, Hondo (P. Hondoensis Mayr). Mountains of Central
Japan. Japanese "Tohi." Perhaps identical with the Yesso
Spruce. Very light and soft. Used in building and carpentry.

Spruce, Indian. See Spruce, Himalayan.

Spruce, Menzies'. See Spruce, Sitka.

Spruce, New Brunswick. See Spruce, Black.

Spruce, Norway. See Spruce, Common.

Spruce, Red (P. rubra Link.). South-eastern Canada and
Eastern United States. French "Sapinette rouge." Germ.
" Kochfichte." Height 70—80 or 100 ft.; diam. 2—3 ft., being
larger than the Black Spruce, with which it was confused. The
most valuable timber of the district. Used for carpentry and
paper-pulp.

Spruce, Rocky Mountain. See Spruce, Blue and Spruce,
White (ii).

Spruce, St. John's. See Spruce, Black.

Spruce, Servian (P. Omfoica Pancic). Mountains of Servia,
Bosnia and Montenegro, at 2000—4000 ft. Servian "Omorica,

320 WOODS OF COMMERCE.

Morica." Said to have been largely exterminated for the sake of
its timber.

Spruce, Single. See Spruce, White.

Spruce, Sitka (P. sitcMnsis Carr.). Western North America
from Alaska to California. Known also as "Menzies', Tideland"
or " Californian Coast Spruce." Height 100—250 ft. ; diam. 6—
12 or 15 ft. Light brown, tinged with red, light, soft, straight-

Fio. 64. — Transverse section of Sitka Spruce (Pic6a sitcMnsis).

grained, compact, not strong (Fig. 64). Said to be the best of
American Spruces. Used for house and boat-building, carpentry,
cooperage, woodenware, fencing, etc.

Spruce, Tideland. See Spruce, Sitka.

Spruce, White (i) (P. dlba Link). Alaska to Newfoundland
and the Northern United States. Known also as " Single
Spruce." Light, soft, straight and even-grained, with a satiny
lustre, compact but not strong. Confused with wide-ringed
examples of the Black Spruce, (ii) (P. Engelmdnni Engelm.).
Rocky Mountains from Alberta to Arizona and New Mexico at

SPRUCE-STRINGYBARK. :W1

XfcCA'- '
3000—11,500 ft. Known also as "Rocky Mountain Spruce."

Height 100—150 ft.; diam. 3—5 ft. Very light, soft, straight
and close-grained, not strong. Used locally for lumber.

Spruce, Yesso (P. aji.inrnsis Fisher). Northern Japan, Yeso,
Saghalien, the Kurile Islands and Amurland. Japanese "Yezo-
matsu, Kuro-matsu." Height 120—130 ft. Very light and soft.
Much used in Yeso for carpentry.

Stavewood (Stemilw f<t'M<t L. : Order Sterculidcece). Deccan,
Ceylon, Burma, East Tropical Africa, Moluccas, and, though
doubtfully native, North Australia, and cultivated in Tropical
America. Known also as " Horse Almond, Bastard Poon " or
"Fetid Sterculia." Beng. "Jangli badam." Tamil "Pinnari."
Exported from Cayenne as "Bois puant." Height to first branch
50 ft. ; diam. 3—4 ft. W 26—33. Whitish, grey or reddish-
brown, generally soft, open-grained and of little use ; but said to
be used for spars for small vessels. The name is also applied in
Australia to other little-used woods.

Stinkwood (Owtta bulldta Benth. : Order Laurdcece). South
Africa. Known also as "Hard-black Stinkwood" or "Laurel-wood."
Height 50—60 ft.; diam. 4—5 ft. Golden-brown, often mottled
and resembling Walnut, sometimes iridescent, giving off a strong
peculiar odour when worked, very tough and considered little and
inferior to Teak in strength and durability. Used in house and
waggon-building, for gun-stocks and furniture; but now very scarce.

Stinkwood, Camdeboo (Ctltis Kraussid.na Bernh. : Order
Uln'i'icca-). South Africa. Known also as "Soft Grey Stink-
wood." Zulu "Umounari." Height 20 ft.; diam. 2 ft. Dark
greenish, beautifully veined, very heavy, close-grained, liable to
warp. Used in waggon-building and furniture.

Stinkwood, Red. See Almond, Wild.

Stringybark, a name, obviously descriptive, applied in various
districts of Australia to a good many different species of
En'-'ilf/ptus (Order Myrtdcece), especially (i) E. robusta [See
Mahogany, Swamp], (ii) E. &w/<-/vW//« [See Gum, Cabbage],
(iii) E. Stu'irti'iii > [See Gum, Apple-scented], (iv) E. rmcror-
rhyncha, (v) E. oM-lqua, and (vi) E. armeniofdes.

x

322 WOODS OF COMMERCE.

. E. macrwrliyncha F. v. M. South-east Australia. Known also
as Ironbark. Aborig. "Yangoora." Height 50—100 ft.; diam.
2— 4|ft. S.G. 1060—809. W 63-5. Tensile strength 11,700
— 23,400 Ibs. per sq. in. Light brown, generally tinged with
deeper red-brown, sometimes figured with yellow and brown
stripes, hard, strong, close-grained, tough, easily split, tearing
under the plane, capable of a good polish, durable, furnishing a
fair fuel. Used for fencing, flooring, wheelwright's work and
house-carpentry, but suitable for furniture.

E. olllqua L'Her. Tasmania and South-east Australia. Known
also as "Black" or "Ironbark Box," and in Victoria, from its
resemblance to, and association with, E. macrorrhyncha, as " Mess-
mate." Height 100—150 or even 250— 300 ft. ; diam. 3—4 or
even 15 ft. S.G. 1045—783. W 50-60-5. E 1202 tons.
/ 4-72. fc 2-9. fs -476. Tensile strength 8200—8500 Ibs. per
inch. Straight-growing, light to dark brown, with a wavy figure
near the base, heavy, hard, straight, close and even, but rather
coarse in grain, strong, splitting very freely, somewhat liable to
shakes and gum-veins, durable. Probably the most generally
used of all Eucalypts, being employed for fencing, agricultural
implements, joists, flooring, shingles, and for ships' beams and
keels. It has been successfully introduced into India, especially
in the Nilgiri hills.

E. acmenioides Schauer. South-east Australia. Known also as
« White Mahogany" and "Broad-leaved Box." Height 40—60
ft. ; diam. 1 J— 2J ft. S.G. 1066. W 67'25. Heavier and more
durable than the preceding, sometimes prettily figured, strong,
easily split, with a satiny lustre when planed. Used like the
last-mentioned.

Stringybark, White (i) Eucalyptus pipenta [see Pepper-
mint], (ii) E. capitelldta and (iii) E, eugenioides.

E. capitelldta Sm. Eastern Australia. Known also as " Spotted
Gum "and "Peppermint." Aborig. "Yangoora." Height 80— 120
or 200 ft.; diam. 3—5 ft. S.G. 838. W 52-26. Moderately
heavy, tough, strong, easily split, durable. Used for fencing,
house-carpentry and fuel.

STRINGYBARK-SUNDRL 323

E. eugeniofdes Sieb. South-east Australia. Known also as
"Broad-leaved Stringybark." Height said to reach 200 ft.
Light-coloured, said to be less easily split but more durable
than the other Stringy barks, but inferior as fuel. Used for
fencing, shingles and flooring.

Sugar-berry. See Hackberry.

Sugi (Cr>/ptom<'ria japdnica Don : Order Taxodmece), China
and Japan ; introduced into England in 1843. Growing at
altitudes of 500 — 1200 or 3000 ft. Known also as "Japanese
Cedar." Height 60 — 125 ft.; diam. 4 — 5 ft., tapering. Brownish-
red, resembling Seguoia in texture. Used for common lacquer-
ware. One of the most abundant and useful of Japanese forest-trees.

Sumach, Staghorn (Rhus typhina L. : Order Terebinthdcece).
Canada and North-eastern United States. Known also as
"Virginian Sumach." Germ. " Hirschkolben Sumach." Height
seldom 20 ft. ; diam. seldom 10 in. S.G. 436. W 27. Sap-
wood very narrow, dingy yellowish-white ; heart golden-orange
to greenish, the autumn zones much darker, handsome, some-
what aromatic, light, soft, brittle, rather close-grained, difficult
to split, lustrous, vessels larger and much more numerous in the
spring wood, slightly dendritic, 1 — 7 together, pith-rays not
visible. Used in dyeing, and occasionally in small pieces for
inlaying in cabinet-work.

Sumach, Venetian (Elms Cdtinus L.). Southern Europe.
Known also as "Wig-tree," "Wild Olive," " Young " or " Zante
Fustic." A shrub, yielding crooked sticks 4 — 5 ft. long and
2 — 3 in. in diam. Sap wood narrow, white ; heart golden-yellow
or greenish, hard, easily split, lustrous ; rings not distinct ; vessels
and pith-rays as in the preceding. Imported from Greece as a
yellow dye for wool and leather.

Sundri (Heritiera fames Buch. : Order Sterculidcece). Sunder-
bunds of Bengal, Malay Peninsula, and Borneo. Seng. " Sundri."
Burm. "Ka-na-zo." Germ. "Brettbaum." Not large, yielding
timber 15 ft. long and 1 ft. in diam. S.G. 927—799. W 58—50.
Brown, very hard, tougher than any other Indian wood, elastic,
strong and durable. Used for boat and bridge-building, handles,

324 WOODS OF COMMERCE.

naves and felloes of gun-carriages, and in Calcutta largely as fire-
wood, and yielding gunpowder charcoal of the best quality.
The close-allied H. littordlis Dryand. is a native of East Africa,
the Mauritius, Burma and Queensland, where it is known as
"Red Mangrove." It is the "Looking-glass tree" of English
gardeners. It yields timber 30 ft. long and 2 ft. in diam. W 102
when wet, 65 when dry. Dark-coloured, scented, firm, very
tough, durable. Used in boat-building, for handles, gunstocks.
planking and packing-cases.

Sycamore, a name that has been singularly and variously
misapplied. Belonging originally to the Fig-mulberry of the
Levant (Ficus Sylcomfous L. : Order Mordcece), a shade-tree yielding
a very strong wood used for Egyptian mummy-cases, it is applied
in England to the Great Maple (Acer Pseudo-platanm L. :
Order Acerfnece.) Central Europe and Western Asia, almost
naturalised in Britain. Known in the South of Scotland as
"Plane." French "Grand Erable, Erable blanc de montagne,
Fausse platane." Germ. "Bergahorn." Height 40—60 ft.;
diam. 1—3 ft. W 64 when newly cut, 48—36 when dry.
Without distinct heartwood, white, when young, becoming
yellowish with age, or slightly brown in the centre, often
beautifully figured, the fine but distinct pith-rays having a
satiny lustre, which distinguishes it from Linden wood, com-
pact, firm neither very heavy nor hard, fine-grained, tough,
splitting evenly but with difficulty, easily worked, susceptible
of a high polish, cracking and warping somewhat in seasoning
and shrinking one-twelfth of its bulk, very durable if kept dry,
and generally free from insect-attack ; rings marked by fine
evenly-circular lines ; vessels indistinct, evenly distributed.
Highly esteemed on the Continent by turners, cabinet-makers,
carvers and toymakers, the figured wood being used for violins.
Formerly much used for platters and spoons, it is still largely
manufactured at Glasgow and elsewhere into bread-platters,
butter-dishes and moulds and is also in demand for bobbins,
reels, coach-panels, cutting-boards for shoemakers, shop-boards
for butchers, and wooden type. Large wood is sought after for

SUNDRI-TAMARACK. 325

calico-printing rollers and when quartered for those of washing-
machines. It is superior to Beech both as fuel and for charcoal ;
but is by no means plentiful or cheap.

In America the name is applied to Phihtnutt omi/eiiftilis [See
Plane] ; in Australia to Pdnax elegans [See Laurel] and to
Sft-r.-i'iliu liiriilit F. v. M. (Order Sterculidcece), in the north-east,
also known as " Hat Tree," a white wood occasionally used for
shingles.

Sycamore, White (Cryptwdrya obovdta K. Br. : Order
Jjintri.icece). Queensland and New South Wales. Known also
as " Bastard Sycamore, She-beech, Flindosa." Aborig. " Myndee."
Height 70—100 ft, ; diam. 2—5 ft. W 35. White, light, soft,
fairly durable if kept protected, working well and darkening
with age.

Tacamahac. See Poplar, Balm of Gilead.

Talura (Slioreo Talura Roxb. : Order Dipterocarpdcece). Southern
India. A large tree. Grey, very hard, smooth grained. Used
for housebuilding, especially in Madras.

Tallow-wood (Eucalyptus microcdrys F. v. M. ; Order Myrtdcece).
Eastern Australia. Known also as " Peppermint, Turpentine-
tree" and "Forest Mahogany." Height 100—120 ft.; diam.
6-8 ft. S.G. 952. W 70-5—59-43. E 896 tons. / 5-48.
fc 4. fs '618. Light or dark yellow or yellowish-brown, straight
or wavy in grain, strong, durable under or above ground, very
greasy when freshly cut, liable to shakes and generally hollow
when large. Used by wheelwrights and for ballroom floors.
One of the best woods for paving.

Tamarack (Ldrix ptndula Salisb. = L americdna Michx. : Order
' '»n if free). Canada and North-east United States. Known also as
"Hackmatack, American" or "Black Larch." Frcm-Ji <«/////<//»///
" Epinette rouge." Height 80, or rarely 100 ft, ; diam. 2—3 ft.
S.G. 263. W 38-86. R 901 kilos. Sap wood light ; heart light
brown or reddish-grey, moderately heavy, hard, rather coarse-
grained, compact, very strong and durable in contact with soil, in
microscopic structure resembling European Larch. One of the
best American timbers for sleepers, valuable from its straight-

326 WOODS OF COMMERCE.

growth for telegraph-poles and fence-posts, while naturally
crooked pieces are used for knees in shipbuilding. Resembling
Hard Pine in appearance, quality and uses, equal in durability
to Oak and in strength to European Larch.

Tamarack, Western (L. occidentdlis Nutt). North-western
United States. Known also as " Western Larch." Height 100
— 250 ft. ; diam. 2 — 3 or 4 — 8 ft. Beautifully coloured, heavy,
very hard, free from knots, strong and durable. The largest of
Larches, harder and stronger than all other American conifers.
Suitable for furniture or lumber ; but used chiefly for sleepers,
posts and fuel.

Tamarind (Tamarindus indim L. : Order Leguminosce).
Throughout the Tropics. Pers. " Tamar-i-hindi." Hind, " Amli
ka jhar." Malay "Asarn, Kranji." San-sk. "Amlika." Taw.
"Pulia." Slow-growing but large. Height 60—80 ft.; diam.
5 — 8 ft. S.G. 1323. Yellowish-white with an irregular heart of
dark purplish-brown blotches in old trees, resembling Ebony or
Lignum-vitse, but apt to be hollow, very heavy and hard, difficult
to work, durable and free from insect-attack. Used for. blocks,
mallets, rice-pounders, oil and sugar-mills, turnery, fuel and gun-
powder-charcoal.

Tamarind-plum. See Kranji.

Tampinnis (Sloetia Siderdxylon Teijsm. and Binn. : Order
MordcecB). Straits Settlements and Sunda Islands. Known also
as "Ironwood." A large tree, yielding a dark-coloured, hard,
valuable timber, used in making the large implements employed
in stirring gambir.

Tanekaha (Phyllodddus trichomanoides Don. : Order Taxi-ne.ee)
New Zealand. Known also as "Celery-topped Pine." Height
50—80 ft.; diam. 2—3 ft., 30—40 ft. to lowest branch, yielding
timber 18—45 ft. long, squaring 10—16 in. S.G. 1000—600.
Yellowish-white, heavy, close and straight-grained, tough, very
strong, working up well, very durable, especially in moist
situations. Used for sleepers, piles, bridges, mine-props, masts,
decks and building.

Taraire (Beilschmiedia Tardiri Benth. and Hook. fil. : Order

TAMARACK— TEA. 327

New Zealand. Height 60—80 ft. ; diam. 1—2 ft.
Hard, compact, susceptible of a good polish, but not durable, if
exposed. Suitable for cabinet-work.
Tatamaka. See Poon.

Tawa (Beilschmiedia Tdwa Benth. and Hook. fil.). New
Zealand. Height 60 — 70 ft.; diam. 1 — 2 ft. Compact, even-
grained, but, like the allied Taraire, not durable if exposed.
Suitable for furniture.

Tea, a name transferred in Australia, from the varieties of
The'a assdmica (Order Camellidcece) cultivated in China and now
in India, to various species of Melaleuca and the allied genera
Kiinzea and Leptosptrmum (Order Myrtdcea), the leaves having
been used as a substitute for tea by Captain Cook's sailors. The
name is applied unqualified (i) to Leptospe'rmum lanigerum Sm.,
seldom larger than a tall shrub, with light-coloured, heavy, hard,
even-grained and durable wood, used by the aborigines for spears;
(ii) to L. flavescens Sm. similar, but reaching a height of 15 — 20
ft. and a diameter of 5 — 8 in. ; and (iii) to Melaleuca uncindta R.
Br., which reaches 70 — 90 ft. in height and 2 — 3 ft. in diameter.
Tea-tree, Black (Melaleuca styplielioides Sm.). Eastern
Australia. Known also as "Prickly-leaved Te%a-tree." Height
20—30 or 80 ft. ; diam. 1 — 3 ft. W 66'75— 73'35 when
seasoned. Heavy, hard, close-grained, difficult to work, splitting in
seasoning, very durable even in damp situations. Used for posts.
Tea-tree, Broad-leaved (Melaleuca leucadtndron L.). Known
also as "White" or "Swamp Tea-tree, Paper-bark Tree" or
"Milkwood." Height 40—50 ft.; diam. 1—2 ft. Beautifully
figured with ripple-like darker markings, heavy, hard, close-
grained, very durable underground. Excellent for posts or boat-
building.

Tea-tree, Mountain (Kunzea pedunculdris F. v. M.). South-
east Australia. Aboricj. "Burgan." Used for spears and
boomerangs.

Tea-tree, Prickly-leaved (Melaleuca armilUris Sm.). Eastern
Australia. Height 20 — 30 ft. Hard and durable under ground
or water, but decaying on exposure. [See also Tea-tree, Black.]

328 WOODS OF COMMERCE.

Tea-tree, Soft-leaved (M. Unariifulia Sm.). North-east
Australia. Height 40—50 or 80 ft. ; diam. 1—3 ft. Very heavy,
hard, close-grained and imperishable under water, but splitting
in seasoning. Used for piles, turnery and fuel.

Tea-tree, Swamp (i) (M. eridfvUa Sm.). Eastern Australia
and Tasmania. Small, very hard and durable. Used for
hurdles or rafters, and, in Tasmania, for turnery, (ii) (M.
squarrdsa Sm.). South-eastern Australia and Tasmania. Height
6—10 ft. S.Gr. 713. Heavy, very hard, difficult to work,
durable under water or when exposed. [See also Tea-tree,
Broad leaved.]

Tea-tree, White, in New Zealand, apparently (Leptosp6rmum
ericoides A. Rich.). Height 40 — 50 ft.; diam. 1 — 2 ft. Heavy
and hard. Much valued for piles and using also in fencing and
house-building. [See also Tea-tree, Broad-leaved.]

Teak (Tedona grdndis L. : Order Ferbendcece). Central and
and Southern India, Burma, the Shan States, Malay Peninsula,
Sumatra, Java and Celebes, extensively planted by the Dutch in
Ceylon. Hind. "Sagun." Burm. "Kuyon." Malay "Jati."
Tamil "Teak." Height 80—100 ft. or more; diam. 2—4 ft.,
yielding logs 23 — 50 ft. long, squaring 10 — 30 in. S.G. over
1000 when green; but, being generally "girdled" three years
before felling, 910 — 635 when seasoned. W 57 when green — 37.
E 1071—950 tons, e 1-19. p' 1-08. / 6-92. ft 4—9, aver-
aging 6-7. c 3301. c' '436 or more, fc 4 — 5-4. v' '832 or
more. R 322 — -406 Ibs. Straight-growing, light straw-colour
to a brownish-red, when fresh, but darkening on exposure, some
of the Teak of the Deccan is beautifully veined, streaked and
mottled, whilst some old trees have burrs the wood of which
resembles Amboyna-wood. It is very fragrant, so as to resemble
Rosewood, owing to an oleo-resin which also renders the wood
probably the most durable of known timbers, making it obnoxious
to termites and keeping off rust from iron in contact with it. It
is the general practice to " girdle " the trees, i.e. to cut a complete
ring through both bark and sap wood, so killing the tree and
rendering it light enough to float to the port of shipment ; and,

TEA— TEAK. 329

as usually a year elapses between the felling and its delivery in
England, it arrives sufficiently seasoned, heavy, moderately hard,
clean even and straight in grain, but little shrunken, split or
warped in the process. The rapid drying, however, induced by
girdling is said to render the wood inelastic, brittle and less
durable, so that it splits too readily for use in gun-carriages.
Teak varies very much according to locality and soil, that of
Malabar being darker, heavier and rather stronger than, though
not so large as, that of Burma. Though without shakes on its
outer surface, Teak nearly always has a heart-shake, which, owing
to a twist in the growth, may often at the top be at right angles
to what it is at the butt, thus seriously interfering with
conversion, though often little affecting the use of the timber in
bulk. In the large Rangoon or Irrawraddy Teak there is also
sometimes a close, fine star-shake. In these shakes an excretion
of apatite or phosphate of lime consolidates in white masses,
which will turn the edge of most tools. After girdling, the dead
trees are often attacked by burrowing insects which may
penetrate beyond the sapwood and so render the timber unfit
for reduction to plank. Being a deciduous tree, Teak has
distinct annual rings, with large and distinct vessels which are
rather larger and more numerous in the spring-wood and are
sometimes filled with the apatite. The pith-rays are distinct
and light -coloured, as in Oak, but fine, the vessels in the spring-
wood being 2 — 3 together between every two rays. Teak splits
readily and is easily worked, somewhat like Oak, but it owes its
superiority for shipbuilding over both Pine and Oak in part to its
freedom from any change of form or warping, when once seasoned,
even under the extreme climatic variations of the monsoons. In
India, Teak is used for railway-sleepers, bridge building and
furniture. As the Indian Forest Department plant several
thousand acres annually there is little fear of the exhaustion
of the supply, whilst the timber from cultivated trees is said to
be better than that grown in the natural forests. Teak is very
largely exported, especially from Moulmein and Rangoon, that
from the former port, drawn from the valleys of the Salwen and

330 WOODS OF COMMERCE.

Thungyen Rivers, being rather shorter but less shaky than that
shipped at Rangoon from the Irrawaddy valley. Whilst it is the
best timber known to us for shipbuilding, especially for the backing
of armour-plates, Teak is also considerably used in England in
the building of railway -waggons ; but is comparatively little
used in foreign dockyards. In the London market it is sorted
into A, B and C classes, according to size, and has varied in price
from £10 per load of 50 cubic feet in 1859 to £13 10s.— £15 10s.
at the present time.

Teak, African. See African.

Teak, Bastard (Pterocdrpus Marsupium Roxb. : Order Legu-
minrisce). Central and Southern India. Hind. " Bibla." Beruj.
"Bija," "Bija Sal." A large tree, yielding timber 18—30 ft.
long and 1—2 ft. in diam. S.G. 820. R 518—378 Ibs. Sap-
wood narrow, white soft, heart reddish-brown, handsomely
streaked with a darker shade, very hard, requiring thorough
seasoning, susceptible of a fine, polish and very durable. Darker-
coloured and harder than the allied Padouk, it is heavier
than most Teak, equally strong, and less liable to split,
but more expensive to work and not durable if exposed to
wet. It is largely used for door and window-frames, posts,
beams, agricultural implements, cart and boat-building, and
furniture.

Teazle, the name in the walking-stick trade for Viburnum
Opulus L. (Order CaprifoUacece). A native of Europe, Northern
and Western Asia, and North America, known also as " Guelder
Rose" or "Balkan Rose," reaching a height of 6 — 12 ft., and
imported as walking-sticks from the Balkans.

Tendu. See Ebony, Bombay.

T'eng-li-mu (Pyrus betulcefdlia Bunge : Order Rosdcew). China.
The best wood in Wuchang for engraving purposes, being a
tolerable substitute for Box, occurring in the market in planks
6 in. wide and 1J in. thick, costing 150 cash, or 5|d.

Tewart or Touart (Eucalyptus gomphocdphala DC. : Order
Myrtdcece). Western Australia, where it is stated it covers 500
sq. miles. Known sometimes as " White Gum." Height

TEAK— THORN. 331

100—150 ft., yielding timber 20—45 ft. long, squaring 11—28
in. S.G. 1194— 1000. W 73— 66. c 10,284. d 1-398. 1/1-229.
R 257 '25 Ibs. Straight-growing, pale yellow or light brown,
very heavy, hard, tough, strong and rigid, close, twisted or even
curled in grain so as to be difficult to cleave or work and with no
liability to split, with a slight heart and star-shake militating
against its reduction into planks, shrinking very little in
seasoning and apparently imperishable under any climatic
changes. Used in shipbuilding for beams, keelsons, capstans
and windlasses, strongly recommended for the woodwork in
engine-rooms, where it is exposed to great heat, and for piles
and dock-gates, and well suited also for naves and spokes of
wheels, but, though one of the strongest known woods, too heavy
for general use.

Thingan (Hopea odordta Roxb. : Order Dipteroairpdcece). Fur-
ther India. Burin. " Thingan." Anam " Sao." Height up to
•250 ft., 80 ft. to lowest branch; diam. 3—4 ft. S.G. 652—608.
\V 64—38. R 800 Ibs. Yellowish-brown, heavy, hard, close
and even-grained, not liable to insect-attack and very durable
under water, but liable to split in the sun. Used for house-
building, canoes, and cart-wheels, being one of the most valuable
woods of its district.

Thitka (Pentdce burmdnica Kurz. : Order Tilidcecf). Burma,
Pegu, Malacca and Java. Known also as "Kathitka." Very
large. W 42. White or yellowish-red, light, soft, even-grained,
taking a good polish ; pith rays moderately broad, wavy, red,
equidistant ; rings visible. Used in Burma for boatbuilding and
tea-chests, and exported in considerable quantities to Europe for
furniture, resembling inferior Mahogany.

Thitkado. See Cedar, Moulmein.

Thitya (Shdrea oUiisa Wall. : Order Dipterocarpdcece). Further
India. Burm. "Thitya," "Theya." A large tree, 50 ft. to its
lowest branch; diam. 2 ft. W 75. Dark-coloured, handsome,
very hard and durable wood. Used in house and canoe-building
and for handles.

Thorn. See Blackthorn and Hawthorn.

332 WOODS OF COMMERCE.

Thorn, in Cape Colony (Acdda hurrida Willd. : Order Legum-
indscu). Known also as "Mimosa." Boer "Doom- boom, Kamul-
boom." Height 20—25 ft.; diam. 1— 1-J ft. Hard, tough.
Used for building, agricultural implements, wheels, etc.

Tochi (dEsculus turbindta El. : Order Sapinddcece). Japan.
Height 20 ft. ; diam. 2 ft. Used in house-building, box-making
and lacquer-work.

Tonka-bean (Coumarouna odor aid Aubl. = Dipteryx odordta
Willd. : Order Leyuminosce). Brazil and Guiana. Known
sometimes as "Tonquin Bean," "Gaiac," "Cuamara." Height
60—70 or 9C ft.; diam. 1— 2J ft. S.G. 1213—1032. E 385
kilos. Dark yellow or reddish-brown, very heavy, hard, tough,
cross-grained, difficult to work, taking a fine polish, very durable
and said to bear a greater strain than any wood in the Colony.
Used for cogs, shafts, mill-wheels, and to a small extent for
turnery and furniture, and medicinally as a substitute for
Guaiacum.

Toon. See Cedar, Moulmein.

Torreya, Japanese. See Kaya.

Totara (Podocdrpus Totdra A. Cunn. : Order Taxhiece). New
Zealand. Height 40 — 70 or 100 ft., 35—40 ft. to the lowest
branch; diam. 2 — 6 or 10 ft., yielding timber 20—45 ft. long,
squaring 10—22 in. S.G. 1230 when fresh cut, 600 when
seasoned. Sapwood 2 — 3 inches wide, light-reddish ; heart
deep red, heavy, moderately hard, close, straight, fine and even
in grain, strong, easily worked, not warping or twisting, very
durable, teredo-proof. With the exception of Kauri, the most
valuable timber in New Zealand, and far more abundant than
Kauri. Used for piles in the sea, sleepers, telegraph-poles,
fencing, shingles, bridges and general building purposes.

Trincomalee-wood (Bfrrya Ammmilla Koxb. : Order TiUdeece).
Ceylon, Philippines and Tropical Australia; introduced in India.
Sink. "Halmilla." Tarn. " Katamanakku." Germ. "Halmalille-
holz." Height 20—40 ft. ; diam. 1— 2* ft. W 48. Straight-
growing, dark red, light, very hard, straight and fine-grained,
tough, strong, durable. Imported from Trincomalee to Madras.

THORN— TULIP-TREE. 333

Specially valued in Ceylon for staves for oil-casks, and in Madras
for boat and carriage-building. Used for spokes and shafts, for
handles, capstan-bars, etc.

Trumpet-tree (Cecrdpia peltdta L. and C. palmdta Willd. :
Order Mordcece). The former in Jamaica, the latter in Brazil and
Guiana. Height 50 ft. ; diam. 1 ft. Very light and resonant.
Used for floats for fishing-nets, razor-strops, for producing fire by
friction, for trumpets and drums made from the hollow branches
or stems.

Tsuga (T*i'nj<t Sieboldii Carr. : Order Coniferce). Japan.
Known also as "Japanese Hemlock Fir." Jap. "Tsuga Araragi."
Height 80—90 ft. ; diam. 3—6 ft. Reddish- white, durable. Little
used, owing to its inaccessibility.

Tulip-tree (Liriodmdron tuliptfera L. : Order Magnolidcece).
Eastern North America. Known also as " Saddle tree, Poplar,
Yellow, White" or "Virginian Poplar, Whitewood, Canary
Whitewood, Canary-wood," or " Canoe-wood." French " Tulipier."
Germ. " Tulpenbaum." Height 100—150 ft.; diam. 3—10 ft.
S.G. 423. W 26-36. E 657 kilos. Sapwood nearly white;
heart light lemon-yellow or brownish, light, soft, close and
straight in grain, tougher than many woods equally soft, com-
pact, not very strong or durable, easily worked, shrinking and
warping somewhat in seasoning, taking a satiny polish. Vessels
minute, evenly distributed; pith-rays fine but distinct. Much
heavier and more valuable as timber than the true Poplars.
Excellent for shingles and clapboards, as it does not split under
heat or frost; used for rafters and joists, and generally as a
substitute for White Pine or Cedar in building, especially for
doors, panels and wainscot, the seats of American Windsor chairs,
box -making, turnery and boat-building ; and formerly for Indian
"dug-out" canoes. Imported from New York to Liverpool as
11 American " or " Canary Whitewood " in large planks and waney
logs at a price equal to that of the best Quebec Yellow Pine, this
wood is valued, as easily worked, firm when fully dried and taking
polish, stain or paint very well, by carriage-builders, shop-fitters,
cabinet-makers, etc.

334 WOODS OF COMMERCE.

Tulip-tree, in Australia (i) (Lagundria Patersdni Don : Order
Malvdcece). Known also as " White Oak " or " Whitewood."
Height 40—60 ft. ; diam. 1 J— 2| ft. White, close-grained, easily
worked. Used for building, (ii) (Stenocdrpus sinudtus). See Fire-
tree.

Tulip-tree, in India. See Umbrella-tree.

Tulip-wood (Physocalymma scaMrnmum Pohl. : Order Lythrdcece).
Brazil. Pwtug. "Paode rosa." French "Bois de rose." Germ.
" Rosenholz." A rose-coloured, beautifully striped wood. Con-
siderably used for inlaying and small turned ware.

Tulip-WOOd, in Australia (i) (Harpiillia pendula Planch. : Order
Sapinddcece). North-east Australia. Aborig. "Mogum-mogum."
Height 50—60 ft.; diam. 1—2 ft. The outer wood light-
coloured, very tough, easily worked, the best wood in Australia
for lithographers' scrapers and suggested for engraving. The
inner wood beautifully marked with black and yellow, close-
grained, strong, and much valued for cabinet-work; (ii) the
similar wood of Owdnia vendsa [See Plum, Sour] ; (iii) the very
different light-coloured wood of Aphandntht phillippindnsis. [See
Elm.]

Tupelo. See Gum, Black.

Turnip-wood (Syndum glanduUsum A. Juss. : Order Melidcece).
New South Wales and Queensland. Known also as " Dogwood,
Brush Bloodwood" and "Bastard Rose-wood." Height 40— 60
ft. : diam. 1^—2 ft. W 41—45. Deep red when fresh with a
scent like that of roses, afterwards resembling Cedar, firm, easily
worked, but apt to tear under the plane, taking a good polish.
Used for cabinet-work, interior finish, etc. The bark has a
turnip -like smell. [See also Cedar, Pencil.]

Turpentine-tree, American. See Pine, Long leaf.

Turpentine-tree, in Australia (i) Eucalyptus microcdrys [See
Tallow-wood] ; (ii) E. Stuartidna. [See Gum, Apple-scented] ;
(iii) Syncdrpia laurifdlia Ten. (Order Myrtdcece). North-east
Australia. Height 100—150 ft. ; diam. 4—5 ft. W 63. Sap-
wood light-coloured ; heart dark brown, hard, apt to shrink and
warp unless well seasoned, very durable underground, in damp,

TULIP-TREE-YAU. 335

or in sea-water, termite and teredo-proof owing to the resin it
contains, taking a high polish, very uninflammable. Much
used in Sydney for piles, excellent for sleepers, fence-posts and
uprights in buildings, (iv) S. Hillii Bailey, of North Queens-
land, a dark pink, close-grained, tough wood, appears to be also
useful.

Turpentine, Brush (i) (Synmrpia leptopttala) [See Myrtle] ;
(ii) (Rhoddmnin irim'-nia Blume : Order Myrtdcece). New South
Wales and Queensland. Sometimes known as " Black-eye."
Height 70—80 ft.; diam. 2—3 ft. W 50—526. Keddish-
brown, moderately hard, close-grained, firm, not easy to season
and almost always hollow when large. Not much used.

Umbrella-tree (Thespdsia populnea Corr. : Order Malvaceae).
Western Tropical Africa, Seychelles, Ceylon, Southern India,
Burma, Tropical Australia, Fiji and other Pacific islands, and
Tropical America. Known also as "Tulip-tree, Portia-tree,
Rosewood of Seychelles." Sink. "Suriya." Telugu " Grangaravi."
Mahratti " Bendi." French " Faux bois de rose, Bois de rose de
1'Oceanie." Height 40—50 ft. W 50. Sapwood light red;
heart dark-red, a deep claret colour when hollow, resembling
Mahogany, hard, very strong, durable, especially under water.
Used in India for furniture, spokes and carriage-building, in
Ceylon for gunstocks and also in boat-building.

Umzimbit (Todddlia lanceolate Lam. : Order Xanthoxyldcece).
South Africa. Known also as "White Ironwood." Height 20
ft.; diam. 2 ft. W 60-37. E 772 tons. / 8-56. fc 4-33.
White, hard, tough, elastic, resembling Ash or Hickory. Used
chiefly for ploughs, axles and waggon-building.

Uroobie (Nephtlium tomentosum F. v. M. : Order Sapinddcece).
North-east Australia. Height 20—30 or 80 ft. ; diam. reaching
3 ft. Yellow, close-grained, hard. Occasionally used for
building.

Vaivai (Seridnthes vitiensis A. Gray : Order Legumindsce). Fiji.
Light, tough. Valued for planks in boat-building.

Venatico. See Mahogany, Madeira,

Vau, in Fiji. See Corkwood-tree.

336 WOODS OF COMMERCE.

Varnish, Black or Burmese (MelcmorrMa usitdta Wall. :
Order Anacardidcece). Further India. Known also as " Lignum-
vitse of Pegu." Emm. "Thit-si." Manipuri '• " Kheu." Height
30—40 ft. to lowest branch; diam. 2—4 ft. W 54. Dark red
or brown, with yellowish streaks, heavy, very hard, fine and
close-grained, tough, durable, the black gum which exudes from
it repelling termites. Used for anchors and tool-handles and
recommended for blocks, gun-stocks or sleepers. The varnish is
largely used in lacquering and gilding.

Vesi. See Shoondul,

Vesi-vesi. See Beech, Indian.

Vine (Vltis vinifera L. : Order Vitdcece). Originally a native
of Armenia. Small. Sapwood narrow, reddish-white ; heart
reddish-brown ; pith large ; autumn wood narrow ; spring wood
full of large vessels. Light, pliable and elastic. Suitable for
walking-sticks.

Violet-wood. See Purple heart. In Australia the name is
applied, on account of perfume, to Acdcia pdndula. See Myall.

Vlier (Nuxia floribunda Benth. : Order Loganicice.ee). Cape
Colony. Height 20 — 25 ft. ; diam. 1 — 2 ft. Light-coloured,
hard. Used in waggon-building.

Wacapou (Andira Aubletii Benth. : Order Legumindsce).
Guiana. French "Epi de ble." Dutch " Bruinhart." In logs
14— 21 ft. long, squaring 13— 16 in. S.G. 1113— 900. E 304 kilos.
Dark-coloured, straight-grained, strong, easily worked, very durable
and not liable to insect attack, one of the best of the hard-woods
of the country ; but subject to serious heart-shake. Excellent
for ship building, railway-sleepers or cabinetwork.

Wallaba (Eptnm falcdta Aubl. : Order Legumindsce). Guiana.
French "Wapagras." Height 40—50 ft.; diam. 1—2 ft. S.G.
945—930. W 52. E 1171 tons. / 8-1. fc 4-28. fs '424.
R 224 kilos. Deep red with whitish streaks, heavy, hard, and,
owing to a resinous oil, very durable, but rather coarse-grained.
Used for vat-staves, shingles, palings and, to a small extent, for
furniture. The Ituri Wallaba (E. Jenmani Oliver) is finer in
grain.

VARNISH— WALNUT. 337

Wallang-unda (Mondtoca elUptica E. Br. : Order Epamddcece).
Eastern Australia. Known also as "Beech." Height 20—30
ft. ; diam. small. W 37 — 44*5. Resembling Beech, sometimes
with a beautiful silvery grain, working well across the grain and
taking a polish. Excellent for planes, etc., but not answering
for engraving.

Walnut (Juf/1nns reffia L. : Order Jtiglandtic&i'). A native of
Northern China and Persia, introduced into Greece and Italy in
early times from Persia, and thence into the rest of Europe.
Pers. " Jaoz, Charmagz, Akrot." Greek " Carua, Persicon,
Basilikon." Latin "Juglans." French "Noyer." Germ. "Wal-
nuss." Height 30—50 ft. ; diam. 2—3 ft. W 58-5 when green,
47 — 46'5 when dry. Sapwood broad, greyish-white, very liable
to become worm-eaten ; heart brown to black-brown, often
"watered," i.e., showing dark wavy lines and zones, moderately
heavy, hard, fine and close in grain, splitting very little in
seasoning, but readily split artificially, taking a beautiful polish
and durable, if kept dry, especially when dark in colour and
figured : pith large, chambered : pith-rays fine, indistinct ; rings
distinct ; vessels uniformly distributed, few, very large and open,
single or in pairs. (Fig. 65.) Burrs, often 2 — 3 ft. across and a
foot or more in thickness, weighing 5 — 6 cwt., occur, and being
generally beautifully mottled are highly valued for veneers. The
sapwood may be rendered more durable by smoking over a fire of
Beech or by boiling in the juice of the green fruit ; but the
liability to worm- attack prevents Walnut being used in building.
English-grown Walnut, coming mostly from rich plains, is pale,
coarse, little figured, and perishable ; French is better; that from
the Black Sea, sometimes known as Austrian and Turkish, which
is imported in waney logs 6 — 9 ft. long, squaring 10 — 18 in., is
still more valuable ; whilst that from Italy, which comes in planks
4—9 in. thick, 10 — 16 in. wide, and 5 — 12 ft. long, is the best.
At the beginning of the 18th century W^alnut became very
fashionable as a furniture wood, marking the first departure from
the previous universal use of Oak. The severe winter of 1709
killed most of the Walnut trees in Central Europe, the dead trees

y

338

WOODS OF COMMERCE.

being bought up by the Dutch, who thus secured a " corner " in
this wood. So scarce was it in France that its exportation was
prohibited in 1720, and Mahogany, imported by the Dutch and
Spaniards, largely replaced it for furniture. No wood, however,
equals it for the manufacture of gunstocks, so that the wars of
the 18th century created a great dearth of this timber, and we
read of France consuming 12,000 trees a year in 1806, and of as

FIG. 65. — Transverse section of Walnut (Jtiglans rfyia).

much as £600 being paid for a single tree. European Walnut is
still in use for the best gun-stocks. The burrs have realised .£50
— £60 per ton, and veneers, some of which are of a beauty unsur-
passed by any other wood, as much as two or three shillings per
square foot. These are used in the pianoforte and furniture
trades. Swiss carvings are mostly in Walnut, and the wood is
also used in turnery, for screws for presses, musical instruments,
sabots, etc.

Walnut, American or Black (Juglans nigra L.). Eastern
North America. Height 60—150 ft. ; diam. 3—8 ft, S,G. 611,

WALNUT— WATTLE. 339

W 38'1. R 856 kilos. Sapwood narrow; heart violet-brown
or chocolate-brown, blackening with age, heavy, hard, tough,
strong, rather coarse in grain, easily worked, very durable in
contact with the soil. More uniform in colour, darker, less liable
to insect-attack, and thus more durable than European Walnut.
Formerly used on the Wabash for " dug-outs," 40 ft. long and
about 27 in. wide, and also largely for fence-posts, shingles,
building, naves of wheels, etc., this wood has now become too
valuable as a cabinet and veneer wood to be used for these
purposes. Before the middle of the 19th century it was only
used in England for carcase ends, frames for veneering, and other
inferior purposes : it has now more than doubled in price and is
more used than European wood, its uniform colour recommending
it to shop-fitters and as a basis for painted or other ornamentation
in the cabinet-trade. It is imported in logs 10 — 20 ft. long,
squaring 15 — 30 in. ; and, besides its use in cabinet-making, is
employed for the stocks of our army rifles. It fetches from Is. 8d.
to 4s. per cubic foot in the London market.

Walnut, Satin. See Gum, Sweet.

Walnut, White. See Butternut.

Wandoo (AV////////>/x ir-iliinca Schau. : Order Myrtdcece). West
Australia. Known also as "White Gum." Height up to 120ft. ;
diam. up to 17 ft. W 70. Light-coloured, heavy, very hard,
tough and durable. Valued for building, and especially for
wheelwrights' work, being superior to Tewart for spokes and
felloes and supplying the best naves and cogs; used also for
furniture.

Water tree. See Pin-bush.

Waterwood (ChimdrrJii* /•//////;*// Jacq. : Order Rvhid cece). West
Indies. Known also as "Bois Riviere." Height 50 — 60 ft.
Valued for furniture and joinery.

Wattle, the general name in Australia for species of Aniriii
(Order Legumindsce), from their use by the early colonists in
" wattling " their huts. French " Bois tresse."

Wattle, Black (i) (A. //?>/•/"/// DC.), North-east Australia.
Sometimes known as "Hickory." Height up to 30 — 40 ft.;

340 WOODS OF COMMERCE.

diam. 8 — 18 in. W 50 '5 — 56 '6. Dirty white to pinkish, close-
grained, tough, light. Valued for axe-handles and bullock-yokes,
(ii) (A. decnrrens) [See Wattle, Feathery], (iii) (A. mollissima
Willd.). South eastern Australia and Tasmania. Known also as
"Silver Wattle." Aborig. "Garrong" or "Currong." Height
20—30 ft. ; diam. 6—9 in. S.G. 804—727. W 50-2. Light,
tough, strong, liable to insect-attack. Formerly used for
boomerangs, mulgas and spears, and now-a-days in Tasmania for
cask-staves, treenails, etc.

Wattle, Feathery (A. den'irrens Willd.). New South Wales.
Known also as "Black" or "Green Wattle." Aborig. "Wat-tah."
Height 40—50 ft. ; diam. 1 — 1 -J- ft. S.G. 773-727. W 62'8—
45. Sapwood white, heart pinkish, light, tough, strong, easily
worked, very liable to the attacks of boring beetles. Good for
fuel or staves.

Wattle, Golden (i) (A. pycndntha Benth.). South-east
Australia. Known also as " Green " or " Broad-leaved Wattle."
S.G. 830. W 51-5. Tough, close-grained, (ii) (A. low/if Min)
[See Sallow].

Wattle, Green. See Wattle, Feathery and Wattle,
Golden.

Wattle, Hickory (A. aulacocdrpa A. Cunn.). Queensland.
Dark-red, heavy, hard, tough. Useful for cabinet-work.

Wattle, Prickly (A.juniperinaWilld.). South-east Australia
and Tasmania. Height 8 — 12 ft. ; diam. small, White, light,
tough. Used for mallet-handles.

Wattle, Silver (i) (A. dealhitn Link.). Eastern Australia and
Tasmania ; established in India since 1840. Height 60 — 120 ft.;
diam. 1 — 2 ft. Light-brown, moderately hard, warping consider-
ably. Used for cask-staves, treenails, turnery and fuel, (ii) [See
Wattle, Black (iii)]. (iii) [See Blackwood].

Wellingtonia. See Big Tree.

Whitethorn. See Hawthorn.

Whitewood, a name sometimes applied in the English timber-
trade to the Norway Spruce. [See Spruce.] In the United
States it refers mainly to Liriodtndron [See Tulip-tree]. In

WATTLE- WILLOW. 341

Australia it is either (i) /,",'////> "/•/<( [See Tulip-tree (i)], or Pitto-

xp'iniin in'a>hr [See Cheesewood].

Whitewood, American or Canary (Liriodendron). See
Tulip-tree.

Whitewood, Mowbulan. See Laurel (i).

Willow, a name restricted in Europe and North America to
the numerous and variable species of the genus Sdlix; but
extended in Australia to several trees in no way related to the
true Willows or to one another. These will be dealt with after
the true Willows. Some species of Sdlix are herbaceous and
others mere prostrate undershrubs of no value. Several other
species, and their numerous hybrids, are cultivated as coppice, in
river eyots, or wet ground, under the name of " Osiers," for the
manufacture of wicker-work. Of these the chief are S. vimituilis
L., the Common Osier (Germ. " Korbweide "), with silky hairs on
its young branches ; S. purpurea L., the Purple Osier, with red or
purple bark ; and S. vitelliim L., the Golden Osier, with yellow
bark. Other species are treated as pollards, the top being
valuable for hurdles, clothes props, hoops, handles for hay-rakes,
etc. Those most important as timber-trees are the White Willow
(S. dlba) and the Redwood Willow (S. frdgilis). S. Capi'ea has
been already described. [See Sallow.]

Willow, Black (X niym Marshall). North America. French
" Saule noir." Germ. " Schwarze Weide." Height up to
50 ft. ; diam. up to 1 \ ft., but generally a shrub. S.G-. 446.
W 27-77. R 424 kilos. Branches yellow, brittle at base ;
sapwood nearly white ; heart reddish-brown, very light, soft,
close-grained, easily worked. Used mainly for fuel and
charcoal.

Willow, Crack (S. frdgilis L.). Europe, Northern and
Western Asia ; introduced in America. Known also as " Withy,"
" Bedford " or " Redwood Willow," or " Stag's-head Osier."
Germ. " Bruchweide." Height sometimes 50 — 90 ft. ; diam. 4 — 7
ft. Branches green, yellow-brown, orange or crimson, smooth,
polished, brittle at the base ; wood, when dry, salmon-coloured,
light, pliable, tough and elastic. Said to be used in Scotland for

342 WOODS OF COMMERCE.

boat-building : used also in cabinet-work and for toys. Said to
be superior to other Willow.

Willow, White (S. alba L.). Europe, North Africa, North
and West Asia to the north-west of India. Height up to 80 ft. ;
diam. 7 ft. S.G. 785 when fresh, 461 when dry. W 35—24.
Branches olive, silky, not easily detached ; sapwood white ; heart
brownish, light, soft, smooth in grain, not splintering, shrinking
more than J of its bulk in drying, very durable in water ; vessels
uniformly distributed, indistinguishable ; pith-rays indistinct.
Used in Pliny's time, on account of its lightness, for shields, and
formerly for flooring ; now-a-days for break-blocks on railway-
waggons, since, owing to the absence of oil or resin, it will not
take fire on friction ; for wheelbarrows, especially at iron -furnaces,
as it will not split or warp when heated ; for the paddles of steam-
boats and strouds of water-wheels ; for shoemakers' lasts and
cutting-boards ; for whetting fine cutlery, and for toys ; but
especially for cricket-bats, for which purpose large sound trees
fetch exceptional prices. The smaller wood is used for clothes-
props, the handles of hay-rakes, hurdles, fencing and hoops, for
druggists' boxes, for paper-pulp and for fuel.

Willow, Yellow (S. vitelltna L.). Europe; introduced into
North America. Height up to 60 ft. ; diam. to 3 — 4 ft. Sap-
wood wide, nearly white ; heart irregular, reddish-brown, light,
soft, not strong, easily worked and taking a beautiful polish. Its
yellow twigs, known as " Golden Osiers," are used for basket-
work, and larger wood for fencing, fuel and charcoal.

In Australia the name " Willow " is applied (i) to Eucalyptus
piluldris [See Blackbutt] ; (ii) to Getjera parmflom ; and (iii) to
Pittosporum phillyrceoides, which is sometimes termed " Native
Willow," a name also given to (iv) Acacia salidna. (ii) Geijera
parviftdra Lindl. (Order Rutdcece). Known also as "Dogwood."
Abvrig. "Wilga." Height 20—30 ft.; diam. 6—12 in. Light-
coloured, fragrant, hard, close-grained, apt to split in seasoning
and liable to gum-veins. Used for naves of wheels, (iii) Pitto-
spdrum pMlyrceoides DC. (Order Pittospdrece). Known also as
"Butter-bush" and "Poison-berry." Height 20 — 25 ft.; diam.

WILLOW— YELLOW-WOOD. $4$

4 — 6 in. S.G. 767. Light-coloured, very hard, close-grained.
Useful for turnery, (iv) Acacia salicina Lindl. (Order Legumndsce).
Height 30—50 ft. ; diam. 1— U ft. S.G. 763. W 47'5. Dark
brown, prettily figured, heavy, close-grained, tough, taking a high
polish. Used for boomerangs and furniture.

Wood oil tree. See Gurjun.

Woolly-butt (i) (Eucalyptus longifdlia Link. : Order Myrkicece).
South-east Australia. Sometimes known as "Bastard Box."
Height 100—150 ft.; diam. 3—6 ft. S.G. 1187. W 68-5.
Red, heavy, hard, straight and close in grain, strong and tough,
liable to gum-veins and shakes, durable, especially under ground.
When sound, much prized for the felloes and spokes of wheels ;
but on account of its gum-veins, more used as fuel. [See also
(ii) Gum, Apple scented, (iii) Mahogany, Bastard and (iv)
Gum, Manna.]

Yacca (Podocdrpus coridcea Rich, and P. Purdiedna Hook :
Order Coniferce). Jamaica. Small, pale brown. W 38'6 — 46*9.
E 456— 596 tons. /4'3— 5-25. fc 2-49— 2-55. /* '-346— -486.

Yarrah (Eucalyptus rostrdta). See Gum, Red.

Yate-tree (Eucalyptus cornuta Labill. : Order Myrtdcece). South-
west Australia. Height 100 ft. S.G. 1235. The heaviest West
Australian wood, hard, elastic, somewhat of the character of Ash.
Valued for shafts, boat-ribs and agricultural implements.

Yellow-wood, a name applied in South Africa to various
species of Podocdrpus (Order Coniferce), and in Australia to four
or five woods in no way related to these or to one another. [See
also Fustic.]

Yellow-WOOd, Bastard (Podocdrpus pruirwsusRM., or perhaps
also P. elongdta L'Herit. and P. Thunbe'rgii Hook.). P.pruiruteus, a
native of Natal, is a tree of considerable size, yielding a pale-
yellow, tough and durable wood, much used for building. [See
Yellow wood, Natal, and Yellow wood, Real]

Yellow-wood, Dark or Deep (Rluis rhodanthema F. v. M. :
Order AnacardiAcea). North-east Australia. Known also as
"Yellow Cedar" or inappropriately as "Light Yellow-wood."
Ahurig. " Jango-jango." Height 60—80 ft.; diam. 1J— 2 ft.

344 WOODS OF COMMERCE.

W 47. Rich brownish or yellowish-bronze colour, darkening
with age, often beautifully marked, soft, fine and close in grain,
taking a fine polish, with a silky lustre, durable. A handsome
and valued cabinet wood.

Yellow-wood, Light (i) inappropriately, (Rliiis rhodanthema)
[See Yellow-wood, Dark] ; (ii) Daphtwmdra micrdntha) [See
Sassafras, Australian (ii)]; and (iii) and most appropriately
(FliniUrsia Oxleydna) [See Jack, Long].

Yellow-wood, Natal or Outeniqua (Podocdrpus elongdta
L'Herit.). South and Tropical Africa. Known also as "White"
or "Bastard Yellow-wood." Boer "Geel Hout." Zulu "Um-
koba," Height 30—70 ft.; diam. 3—7 ft. Pale yellow, soft,
light, close-grained, easily split and worked. Neither so common
nor so hard as the Real Yellow-wood (P. Thunbergii) ; but used
indiscriminately with it for roofs, beams, planks, flooring and
furniture, and, when creosoted, for sleepers.

Yellow- wood, Real or Upright (Podocdrpus Thunbergii Hook.).
South Africa. Boer "Geel Hout." Zulu "Umceya." Height
75 ft. ; diam. 4 — 8 ft. Light yellow, straight-growing, light,
soft, even-grained, fairly elastic and strong, easily worked but
somewhat liable to split or warp. Excellent for shingles
and used also for furniture, and, like the last mentioned, in
building.

Yellow-wood, Thorny (Zanthoxylurn brachyacdnthum). See
Satinwood in Australia.

Yellow wood or Yellow Cedar, in Guiana (Aniba guiandnsis
Aubl. : Order Launnece). French "Cedre jaune." S.G. 606—
489. R 145 kilos. Very strong, easily worked and durable.
Used for planks in building.

Yen-dike (Dalbergia cultrdta Grah. : Order Legumindsce).
Burma. Apparently sometimes known as "Blackwood" and
confused with some species of Ebony. Height 35 ft. to the
lowest branch ; diam. 1 — 3 ft, W 64. Black, sometimes with
white and red streaks, straight-grown, very heavy and hard,
tough, not brittle, elastic, but full of shakes, very durable, not
cracking any more after conversion and resisting sun or rain.

YELLOW-WOOD-YEVV. 345

Excellent for spokes, bows, handles of ploughs, tools, planes and
spears, and largely used for carving.

Yen-ju (Sophora japdnica L. : Order Legumindsce). China and
Japan. Height 40 ft. or more; diam. 2 — 4 ft. Hard, fine-
grained, ornamental. Used for turnery, furniture and interior
finish ; but valued as a shade tree and for its buds, the Chinese
•• \\ 'ai-hwa," which are used as a yellow or green dye.

Yew (Tdxus baccdta L. : Order Taxinece). Europe, up to
altitudes of 6000 ft. in Southern Spain ; Northern and Western
Asia, up to 11,000 ft. in the Himalayas; and Northern Africa.
French "If." Germ, "Eibe," "Eibenbaum." Welsh "Yw."
Ancient Greek "Taxos, Melos." Modern Greek " Maurelatos."
Latin "Taxiis." Ital " Tasso." Span. "Texo, Tejo." Height
15 — 20 or even 50 ft., and in the Himalayas 100 ft. ; diam. 1 — 5
ft. or more, up to 19 ft. Reddish brown, resembling Mahogany,
irregular in its growth, heavy, very hard, close-grained, tough,
very elastic and flexible, susceptible of a high polish, insect-proof
and more durable than any other European wood, especially in
contact with soil, it being an old saying that " a post of yew will
outlast a post of iron." On old trees burrs occur, figured and
mottled like Amboyna-wood. Sapwood very narrow, yellowish-
white : annual rings very narrow, wavy, well marked by the
broad dark zone of autumn-wood : pith-rays indistinguishable
and without tracheids : wood without resin-ducts, entirely com-
posed of spirally-thickened tracheids (Fig. 66). "The eugh
obedient to the benders will," as Spenser calls it, seems to have
been used, owing to its combined toughness and elasticity, for
bows from very early times. In England, though home-grown
wood was used, that imported, by Venetian traders, from Italy,
Turkey and Spain, was of better quality. At the close ot the
1 6th century the practice of " backing " bows with some other
kind of wood was introduced, and at the present day they are
largely made of Lancewood and Hickory. At the present day
Yew is employed to some extent at High Wycombe and Worksop
in chair making, and on the Continent in turnery. When stained
black it is one of the woods known as German Ebony. Small

346

WOODS OF COMMERCE.

branches are valued for walking-sticks and whip-handles. In the
latter part of the 18th century veneers of Yew burrs were largely
used for tea-caddies and other small articles. There is in the
library of the India Office a Persian illuminated manuscript on
thin sheets of Yew.

Yew, Californian, Pacific or Western (Tdxus brevifdlia
Nutt.). Pacific slope from British Columbia to South California,

FIG. 66.— Longitudinal section of Yew (Taxus baccdtaii.).

up to altitudes of 8000 ft. Height 40—50 or 80 ft. ; diam. 1—2
ft. Sapwood pale yellow; heart orange-red, heavy, hard, fine-
grained, extremely stiff and strong, seasoning well and durable.

Yew, Japanese (Tdxus cuspiddta S. and Z.). Yeso, and long
cultivated throughout Japan. Japan " Ichii, Momi-noki, Araragi."
Height 40 — 50 ft. ; diam. 2 ft. Dark reddish, handsome, close-
grained, tough. Used by the aboriginal Ainu for bows and by
wealthy Japanese for cabinet-work and interior finish. Used also
for pencils.

YEW— ZELKOVA. 347

Yoke (Piptadenia peregn'na Benth. : Order Leguminosce).
Tropical South and Central America. A large tree. W 70 '48.
E 286 tons. / 3. fc 2. fs -317. Reddish-brown, heavy, hard,
close-grained.

Zebra-wood, a beautifully marked furniture-wood, chiefly
obtained from Connarus guianensis Lam. ( = Omphalobium LamUriii
DC. : Order Connardcece). British Guiana. " Hyawaballi."
Height 90 ft., squaring 10 — 12 in. S.G. 1032. Reddish-brown,
beautifully marked, working well and taking a good polish ; but
very rare. The name is also applied to the woods of Eugenia
frdgrans Willd., var. cunedta (Order Myrtdcece), Guettdrda specidsa
L. (Order Eubidcece), the "Ron-ron" of Honduras, and G'entro-
lubmm rdbmtum Mart. (Order Legumindsce), the " Arariba " or
"Araroba" of Brazil, exported from Rio, in lengths of 30 — 40
ft. ; and to Diospyros Kurzii (Order Ebendcece) from the Andaman
Islands.

Zelkova (Zelk6va crendta Spach. = Pldnera liichdrdi Michx. :
Order Ulmicece). Caucasus. Height 70 — 80 ft. Sapwood
broad, light-coloured, very elastic, used for the same purposes
as Ash or Elm ; heart reddish, heavy, very hard, taking a good
polish. Used for furniture.

QV

.IU1C

ASSOCIATE

APPENDIX I.

EXPLANATION OF SOME TERMS USED WITH REFERENCE
TO CONVERTED TIMBER, ETC.

IT may be useful to give here the following definitions of terms used
in the English timber trades. (See also p. 89 supra.)

A balk is a log roughly squared.

A plank is 11 in. broad, from 2 to 6 in. thick, and generally from
8 to 21 ft. in length.

A deal is 9 in. broad and not more than 4 in. thick.

A batten is not more than 7 in. broad.

A square is 100 ft. superficial.

A hundred of deals is 120.

A load is 50 cubic feet of squared timber, or 40 cubic feet of
unhewn, or 600 superficial feet of inch planking.

In France wood, especially firewood, is measured by the stere or
cubic metre = 35'32 cubic feet, or T31 cubic yards.

The simplest formula, for measuring timber is :

where C = the cubic contents in cubic feet; L = the length of the log
in feet ; G = one-fourth of the girth of the tree midway in its length,
in feet ; g = one-fourth of the girth at one end, in feet ; g' = one-fourth
of the girth at the other end, in feet, a deduction for bark being made
from each quarter-girth.

APPENDIX II.
THE MICROSCOPIC EXAMINATION OF WOODS.

IT is generally recognised that much more trustworthy evidence as
to the identity of out-of-the-way woods can be obtained by a
microscopic examination than from reports of native opinion or rule-
of-thumb tests applied by lumbermen or unscientific traders. Such
microscopic examination, it is true, will not always enable us to refer
an undetermined wood even to its Natural Order, and will in many
cases fail to discriminate between the species of one genus ; but, on
the other hand, it will often afford, in addition to the evidence of
identity, much valuable information as to strength, durability, or
other reasons for suitability or unsuitability.

No one need be deterred from having recourse to this method of
examination by any alarm as to its technical difficulties or expense.
Though even an examination of a planed surface of wood with a
pocket lens may give useful suggestions, a thin transverse section
examined under the slightly higher powers of a compound microscope
will afford vastly greater information. Any ordinary microscope
costing from three to seven guineas will suffice ; but it is desirable to
have a wide simple stage and a triple or double nose-piece carrying,
preferably, objectives of 1^ in., ^ in., and £ in. focus.

The preparation of the sections is not difficult. It is quite unnecessary
for the ordinary purposes of study to make them of anything like the
superficial dimensions of the beautiful preparations of Herr Burkart or
Mr. Hough. All that is requisite is to get a transparent section, across
the grain, embracing a few annual rings, though it is well to have,
either in one or in more than one section, the pith or structural centre
and some of the sapwood as well as the heartwood. The best results
will be obtained with well-seasoned wood. The end of the specimen

350

APPENDIX.

having been roughly smoothed with a plane or chisel, a shaving can
be easily cut with a well-sharpened plane which, though not equally
thin all over, will serve all the purposes of study. It is best to drop
the shaving at once into some liquid dye, such as an alcoholic solution
of methyl violet, as this renders the structure far more readily visible
under the microscope. After dyeing, the thinner part of the shaving
can be cut square with scissors and mounted, for which purpose we
personally prefer an extra wide glass slip and a square cover-glass.
If carefully dried under moderate pressure the sections can be
preserved unmounted or mounted on paper, like the series prepared
by Herr Nordlinger.

Another method we have found efficacious is to immerse a small
squared specimen in a basin of water, such as a deep photographic
basin, by means of metal weights, and then to slice off thin shavings
with a broad chisel. The sections floating to the surface may then be
dyed, or may be simply floated on to slips of glass, lightly covered
with thin cover-slips and then dried slowly and cemented down. It
is important to use thin cover-slips.

Though the transverse section is most important, longitudinal ones,
either radial or tangential, are often also of use, the latter, for
instance, affording the readiest means of distinguishing Alder from
Birch.

: flYiL

I, 01 C.
AVIATION LPABY

APPENDIX III.
SELECT BIBLIOGRAPHY.

[The works of other authors to which I am most indebted are marked
with an asterisk.]

ANDERSON, SIR JOHN. — The Strength of Materials and Structures, llth

edition. 1892.
BAUSCHINGER, JOH. — Mittheilungen aus dem Mech. Tech. Laboratorium

in Munchen, 1883 and 1887.
BOOLGER, G. S.— Economic Forestry, Trans. Scottish Arboricultural Soc.

xi. 1887.

BOULGER, G. S.— The Uses of Plants. 1889.
BOULGER, G. S.— The Scientific Study of Timber, Trans. Surveyors'

Instit. xxiv. 1892.

CHARPENTIER, PAUL. — Timber. Translated by Joseph Kennell. 1902.
DARWIN, FRANCIS. — The Elements of Botany. 1895.
FERNOW, B. E.— Report of the Division of Forestry, U.S. Department of

Agriculture, for 1886.

FLETCHER, BANISTER F. and H. P.— Carpentry and Joinery. 1898.
GAMBLE, J. S.— Manual of Indian Timbers. 1881.
*HARTIG, ROBERT. — Timbers and how to know them. Translated, from

the 3rd German edition, by Dr. William Somerville. 1890.
*HouGH, ROMEYN B. — American Woods. 1888.
HOLTZAPFFEL, CHARLES and JOHN JACOB.— Turnery and Mechanical

Manipulation. 1843-1884.

KENT, ADOLPHUS H. — Veitch's Manual of the Coniferae. 2nd edition. 1900.
*KEW, ROYAL GARDENS.— Official Guide to the Museums of Economic

Botany. No. 3.— Timbers. 2nd edition. 1893.
KIRK, T.— The Forest Flora of New Zealand. 1889.
*LASLETT, THOMAS. — Timber and Timber Trees, Native and Foreign. 2nd

edition, revised by Prof. H. Marshall Ward, D.Sc., F.R.S. 1894,

352 APPENDIX.

*MAIDEN, J. H. — Useful native plants of Australia. 1889.

MASTERS, DR. MAXWELL T. — List of Conifers ... in cultivation, Journ.

Royal Hort. Soc. xiv.

NORDLINGER, H.— Les bois employes dans 1'industrie. 1872.
NORDLINGER, H. — Holzquerschnitte. 1862-82.
ROGERS, JULIAN. — Analysis of Returns . . . relating to Colonial Timber,

presented to Parliament, 1878.
*RoTH, FILIBERT. — Timber. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Division of

Forestry. Bulletin No. 10. 1895.

SARGENT, PROF. C. S.— Sylva of North America. 1891-8.
SARGENT, PROF. C. S.— Report on the Forest Trees of North America.

Ninth Census of the United States, vol. ix. 1880.
SHARPLES, STEPHEN P.— In the preceding.
STEVENSON, W.— The Trees of Commerce. 1888.
TIMBER TRADES JOURNAL. 1876-1901 (in progress).
TREDGOLD, THOMAS. — Elementary Principles of Carpentry. 7th edition,

edited by E. W. Tarn. 1886.
*UNWIN, PROF. W. C. — The Testing of Materials of Construction. 2nd

edition. 1899.

*WARD, PROF. H. MARSHALL. — Timber and some of its diseases. 1889.
*WARD, PROF. H. MARSHALL.— The Oak. 1892.
*WooD, PROF. H. MARSHALL. — Disease in Plants. 1901.
WIESNER, JULIUS.— Die Rohstoffe des Pflanzenreiche. 1901.
WOOD, H. T.— Colonial and Indian Exhibition Reports. 1887.

Acer platanoides, Norway Maple.

JEsculus Hippocastanum, Horse Chestnut.

Acer Pseudoplatanus, Sycamore.

Sambucus nigra, Elder.

Pmnus Avium, Cherry.

Pyrus Malus, Apple.

Prunus doimstica, Plum.

Robinia Pseiulacacia, False Acacia.

Populus tremula, Aspen.

Bctula alba, Birch.

Salix Caprea, Goat Willow.

Platanus oriental™, Plane.

Corylus Arellano, Hazel.

Caslanea tesca, Spanish Chestnut.

Carpinus Bctulus, Hornbeam.

Abies pectinata, Silver Fir.

INDEX.

Abedul, 165-8.

Abie*, 24, 49, 103, 203-4, 316, 319.

Abnoos, 196.

Acacia, 52, 53, 93. 97, 100, 102-4,

120, 141, 157, 169, 198, 220, 236,

248-250, 306, 315, 332, 339-340,

342-3.

Acacia, False, 17, 39, 43, 141, 235-6.
Acacia, Plum, 141.
Acajou, 141, 180, 236, 313.
Acer, 30, 34, 37-8, 45-6, 62-3, 91,

97, 103, 105, 112, 125, 127, 241-5,

324.

Acetic acid, 106-7.
Acha marani, 147.
Achras, 101, 309.
Acle, 92, 115-6, 141-2.
Acrocarptts, 185.
Acrocomia, 206.
Acrodiclidium, 310.
Acronychia, 153.
Adenanthera, 95, 99, 108, 308.
Adina, 46, 213.

.Etcidus, 30, 37, 39, 64, 176, 332.
African, 69, 90, 135, 142.
African timbers, 118-120.
Afzelia, 91, 95, 100, 115-6, 202, 312.
Agallocha, 195.
Agaricm melleus, 72-3.
Agathis, 70, 91-2, 101, 116, 226-7,

280.

Aguacate, 157.
Ahorn, 241-5, 324.
Ali-pill, 142.
Aildntus, 35, 55, 142-3.
Aka-gashi, 143, 265.
Aka-matsu, 281.
Aka-sbide, 143.

Akibaum, 234.

Akrot, 337.

Al, 179.

Alamo, 156, 297-8.

Albizzia, 46, 53, 100, 230.

Alder, 29, 34, 39, 61-2, 74, 93, 104-5,

107, 113, 143-5, 194.
Alectryon, 267.
Alerce, 97, 145, 148.
Alexandrian Laurel, 92, 296.
Algarrobo, 235-6.
Almez, 213.
Almond, 145, 321.
Alnus, 29, 34, 39, 62, 104, 143-5,

213.

Alphltonia, 154.
Alstonia, 100, 105, 188.
Alvier, 278.
Amanoa, 232.
Amaranthe, 299.
Amarello Pao, 205.
Amboyna-wood, 101, 145.
Ameixero, 308.
Amelanchier, 312.
American timbers, 120-8.
Amla ka, 146, 326.
Amoreira, 205.
Amrataca, 295.
Amyris, 205-6.
Anacardium, 180.
Anan, 92-3, 146.
Anderson, Sir John, 134-5.
Andira, 93, 103, 121, 146, 271, 336.
Andiroba, 191.
Angelim vermelho 93. 146.
Angelin, 121, 146.
Angelique, 90, 95, 120, 146.
Angelly, 9<», 146.

354

INDEX.

Angiosperms, Wood of, 4.

Angophora, 147-8.

Aniba, 344.

Anixoptera, 231.

Anjan, 41, 53, 102, 147.

Annual forest-increment, 112.

Annual rings, 4, 19-23, 37, 46.

Anobiiim, 77.

Anogeixsiifs, 102, 194.

Anonacece, 47.

Apfelbaun), 147.

Aphanathe, 201.

Api-npi, 241.

Apple, 34, 04, 147-8, 207, 296.

Apricot, 241.

Aqiularia, 195-6.

Arang-mill, 170.

Arar, 97, 148.

Araragi, 346.

Araroba, 347.

Araucaria, 92, 101, 116, 177,278,283.

Arbor-vitge, 47, 182, 187.

Argan, 118, 148.

Argania, 118, 148.

Arolla, 278.

Arod, 267.

Artocarpiis, 90, 100, 105, 146, 187-

Arve, 278.

Asam, 326.

Asan, 305.

Ash, 29, 34, 37, 41, 42, 53, 54, 84,
91, 97, 99, 101-2, 104-5, 113, 118,
127, 135, 148-155, 205, 242, 266.

Ash-percentage, 132.

Asiatic forests, 115-6.

Asimina, 271.

Asiminier, 271.

Aspen, 65, 102, 105, 107, 112, 114,
127, 156, 298.

Aspidosperma, 273.

Assegai-wood, 100, 119, 156.

Astrocaryum, 206.

Athcrosperma, 310.

Athrotaxis, 186.

Aune, 143-5.

Australian timbers, 116-7.

Austrian forests, 111, 114.

Avocado-Pear, 157.

Axe-breaker, 157.

Aydendron, 179.

Azadirachta, 246.

Babela, 95, 157, 250.
Babul, 53, 102, 157.

Backhousia, 251.

Baden forests, 111, 114.

Bagassa, 157.

Bagasse, 157.

Bahira, 250.

Bakam, 309.

Bakula, 157.

Balata, 120, 157-8.

Balkan-rose, 102.

Ballow, 158.

Baloghia, 170.

Balsam, 203.

Ban, 264.

Banaba, 91, 116.

Bandara, 53, 158.

Bangalay, 238.

Banksia, 158, 217.

Banyan, 52.

Baphia, 108, 158.

Barberry, 34, 43, 58, 158.

Barlow's formula, 137.

Barranduna, 158.

Barringtonict, 267.

Barwood, 179.

Basilikon, 337.

Baskets, 105.

Bassia, 46, 95, 240.

Basswood, 63, 99, 158-9.

Bast, 10, 15.

Bat and ball, 269,

Bauhima, 198, 202.

Bauschinger, 132, 134, 136-8.

Bavarian forests, 113.

Bay, 236.

Baywood, 236.

Bead-tree, 159.

Bean-tree, 189.

Beati, 159.

Bedfordia, 195.

Beech, 29, 36, 37, 41, 42, 62, 69,

71-2, 74, 91, 93, 96, 98-9, 101-2,

104, 107, 112-4, 135, 159-163, 173,

190, 337.
Beefwood, 96, 100, 163, 217, 265-7,

274.

Bee-tree, 158-9.
Beilschmiedia, 326-7.
Belbil, 242.

Berberis, 34, 43, 58, 158.
Bereza, 165.
Bcrrya, 332-3.
Betis, 91, 116, 164.
Betula, 29, 34, 37, 39, 41, 64, 91,

104, 165-8, 239.

INDEX.

355

Bharjapatri, 168.

Bibiru, 206.

Bibla, 330.

Big-tree, 164.

Bija Sal, 330.

Billa, 265.

Billian, 90, 115, 165.

Billy Web, 196.

Bilsted, 63, 211.

Binburra, 162.

Birch, 29, 34, 37, 39, 41, 64, 84, 91,

96, 99, 102, 104-5, 107, 111-3, 115,

125, 127, 165-8, 239.
Bird's-eye grain, 38, 76.
Bird;s-eye Maple, 76, 98, 244-5.
Birke, 165-8.
Birnbaum, 271.
Biti, 170.

Bitternut. See Hickory, Bitternut.
Biwa, 236.
Black-butt, 95, 117, 169, 208, 210,

273.

Black-eye, 335.
Blackthorn, 102, 169.
Blackwood, 47, 93, 97, 169-170,

344-5.

Bladdernut, 64.
Blauholz, 236.
Bleistift-holz, 186.
Blood wood, 170-1, 220, 222, 303,

334.

Blueberry, 225.
Boco, 171.
Bog Oak, 44.
Bog-onion, 185.
Bois, 172.
Bois beni, 172.
Bois canelle, 310.
Bois chaire, 171.
Bois d'arc, 269.
Bois de cotelet, 202.
Bois de couleuvre, 314.
Bois de f e" roles, 311.
Bois de natte, 171.
Bois de Perpignan. See Nettle-tree.
Bois de Rhodes, 192.
Bois de rose, 334-5.
Bois des Rhodes, 303.
Bois d'or, 304.
Bois dur, 218.
Bois fidele, 202.
Bois graine bleu, 171.
Boislezard, 171.
Bois mulatre, 171.

Bois puant, 321.

Bois Riviere, 121, 339.

Bois rouge, 71.

Bois tresse, 339.

Bolongnita, 116, 172, 196.

Bombax, 42, 53, 105, 191, 309.

Boona, 170.

Bordered pits, 16, 17.

Boree, 249.

Boree, White, 153.

Bottle-brush, 172.

Boucherie's process, 87. .

Bouleau, 165-8.

Bow- wood, 269.

Box, 37, 46, 64, 90-1, 93, 98, 102,
112, 119, 121, 172-6, 179, 207, 209-
211, 226, 232, 273, 322, 343.

Box-elder, 63, 242.

Boxthorn, 176.

Boyung, 313.

Brabejum, 145.

Braziletto, 101, 108, 176, 309.

Brazilian timbers, 120.

Brazil-wood, 108, 120, 176.

Breaking-weight, 139.

Bresil de St. Marthe, 271.

Brettbaum, 323.

Briar, 103, 176.

Brigalow, 250, 315.

Britain, Wood-supply of, 110-111.

Broom, 102, 176.

Brdsimum, 17, 103, 232.

Bruinhart, 336.

Bruyere, 176.

Brya, 101, 103, 196.

Buche, 159-161.

Buchsbaum, 172.

Bucida, 206, 311.

Buckeye, 64, 104-5, 176.

Buckthorn, 34, 37, 38, 61, 107, 176-7.

Bud, Structure of, 6-9. .

Buddleia, 100, 305.

Buffelsbal, 102, 177.

Building timbers, 94-5.

Bullet-wood, 46. 102, 121, 157-8,
177, 309.

Bundles, Fibro-vascular, 10-14.

Bunya-bunya, 177.

Burgan, 327.

Buro-koro, 232.

Burrs, 38, 76.

Bursaria, 176.

Bursera, 167.

Buruch, 157.

356

INDEX.

Burutu, 311.

Butternut, 61, 177.

Buttonwood, 62, 293.

Buxus, 37, 46, 64, 98, 102-3, 119,

172-4.
Byrsonima, 247.

Caariwan, 315.

Cabbage, 146.

Cabbage-palm, 271.

CwcUirinia, 101, 108, 120, 176, 239,

271, 309.

Cagueyran, 95, 177.
Cailcedra, 238.
Cajeput, 177-8.
Calabash, 178.
Calamander-wood, 178.
Calembeg. See Eagle-wood.
Caliaturholz, 308.
Callistemon, 172.
Callilris, 92, 94, 116, 148.
Calodendron, 189.
Calophyllum, 37, 91-2, 93, 100-1, 116,

121, 212, 296, 308-9.
Camara, 92, 178.
Cambhoji, 308.
Cambium, 10-12, 24-27.
Campeche, 236.
Camphor-tree, 44, 178-9.
Camwood, 108, 179.
Canadian Elm, 21.
Canadian forests, 109, 125-7.
Canadian Oak, 21.
Canadian timber export, 110, 125.
Canari macaque, 247.
Canary- wood, 179, 333.
Canella, 93, 95, 179.
Canker, 72.

Cannon-ball tree, 179-180.
Canoe-wood, 333.
Caoba, 236.

Cape Colony, Timbers of, 119-120.
Capparis, 269, 295.
Carana, 157.
Carapa, 120-1, 179-180.
Carbeen, 153.
Carbonizing, 86.
Cargillia, 251, 295.
Carob, 102, 180.
Carpentry woods, 96.
Carpinus, 34, 37, 41, 62, 96, 102,

218.

Carriage-building woods, 96-7.
Carua, 337.

Gary a, 215-6.

Caryocar, 315.

Cashew-nut, 180.

Caxsia, 159.

Cassine, 304.

Castama, 29, 37, 41-2, 58, 91, 93-4,

102.

Castanopsis, 190.
Castanospermum, 189.
Casuarina, 37, 39, 92, 96, 119,

265-7.

Catalpa, 54, 180.
Catha, 227.
Ceanothus, 191.
Cecropia, 333.
Cedar, 42, 44, 47, 50, 60, 84, 91,

96-7, 100, 104, 116, 121, 152, 159,

175, 180-7, 190, 225, 312, 343.
Cedar, Havannah. See Cedar,

West Indian.
Cedar, Himalayan. See Juniper,

Greek.
Cedrela, 60, 91, 100, 105, 116, 121,

141, 181, 184-6.
Cedrus, 180-1, 183.
Ceiba, 313.
Celastrus, 313.
Cellulose, 6,105.
Celtis, 55, 56, 98, 213, 252, 321.
Cembrot, 278.
Ceratonia, 102, 180.
Ceratopetalum, 190.
Cercidiphyllum, 226.
Cercis, 59, 225.
Cercocarpus, 238-9.
Certosina work, 98.
Chair-making, 110.
Champa, 95,^187.
Chandana, 306, 308.
Chaplash, 105, 187-8.
Charcoal, 106-7.
Charme, 218.
Chataignier, 189.
Chatwan, 100, 105, 188.
Cheesewood, 188.
Chene, 253.
Chereen, 150.
Cherry, 60, 98, 102-3, 188-9, 251,

307.
Chestnut, 29, 37, 41, 42, 58, 91,

93-4, 102, 145, 189.
Chichipate, 196.
Chickrassia, 100, 190.
Chicot, 190.

INDEX.

357

Chilauni, 93, 190.

Chimarrhis, 121, 339.

Chinar, 292.

Chinquapin, 190.

Chir, 105, 283.

Chittagong-wood, 100, 184, 190.

Chittim, 98.

Chlorophora, 100, 108, 121, 219, 238.

Chloroxylon, 311.

Chouk, 267.

Chow, 92-3.

Chow- way, 163.

Christdorn, 216.

Cibicibi, 269.

Cinnamomum, 178, 310.

Citharexylum, 96, 202.

Citron- wood, 97, 148.

Citrus, 34, 268-9.

Citrus-wood, 97.

Clematis, 10.

Climate, Forests and, 109.

Clusia, 271.

Cockatoo-bush, 225.

Cocoa-nut, 179.

C6cos, 4, 299.

Coco- wood, 171.

Cocus-wood, 103, 121.

Coffee- tree, 190.

Cogwood, 175, 191.

Cola, 228.

Colour in wood, 21, 42.

Colnbrina, 314.

Compass, 115, 191.

Condaliaferrea. 41, 132, 222.

Condoriholz, 308.

Coniferous wood, 3, 5, 19-27, 49-52.

Connaru*, 101, 347.

Conversion, 79, 80.

C&Jivolvitlus, 303.

Coobagum, 157.

Coopa, 271.

Cooperage woods, 104.

Copalfera, 95, 99, 102, 177, 299.

Copal, 292.

Copalm, 211.

Corang, 153.

Cordia, 192, 295.

Cork- wood, 191, 246.

Cornel, 194.

Cornus, 30, 64, 103, 173, 194.

Corylus, 30, 37, 39, 62, 215.

Cotton-tree, 42, 191.

Cottonwood, 65, 104-5, 297.

Couaie, 206.

Coumarouna, 120, 332.

Couraivo, 152.

Courbaril, 120, 235.

Couroupita, 180.

Cowassa, 271.

Cowdie-pine, 70, 226-7.

Crab-apple, 102.

Crab-wood, 120-1, 191.

Cratagus, 30, 34, 39, 64, 213-4.

Creosoting, 86-7, 108.

Crescentia, 178.

Crow's-ash, 95, 205.

Cryptocarya, 231, 325.

Cryptomeria, 323.

Cuamara, 120, 332.

Cucumber-tree, 63, 104, 192, 271.

Cudgerie, 205.

Cullonen, 162.

Cunonia, 100, 185.

Cupania, 152.

Cupressm, 47, 50, 95-8, 125-6, 184,

187, 192-3, 216.
Cup-shake, 66-8.
Cupuliferce, 46.
Currant, 225.
Curtisia, 100, 119, 156.
Custard-apple, 271.
Cypre, Bois de, 192.
Cypress, 84, 95-8, 103, 118, 184,

192-3, 216.

Cypress-pines, 50, 94, 116, 193-4.
Cytisus, 102, 176, 197.

Dabi, 179.

Dacrydium, 50, 91-2, 101, 117, 302.

Dalbergia, 47, 53, 93, 98-9, 120, 170,

198, 270, 302-3, 314, 344-5.
Dammar, 292.
Daphnandra, 310.
Daphne, 195.
Dargan, 175.
Date, Kafir, 194.
Date-palm, 102.
Date-plum, 274.
Davietia, 100, 300.
Deal, 104, 112-3, 194, 274.
Decay, 70-1.
Den, 175.

Deodar, 93, 118, 183; 190.
Desmogen, 9, 10.
Deva-dari, 307.
Devaderm, 183.
Devil-wood, 268.
Dhaura, 102, 194.

358

INDEX.

Dhoura, 311.

Dialium, 115, 228.

Dicorynia, 90, 120, 146.

Dicotyledons, Wood of, 4.

Dicypdlium, 179, 310.

Diffuse-porous woods, 49, 61-65.

Dillenia, 46, 297.

Dilo, 296.

Dimorphandra, 41, 90, 92, 121,247.

Diospyros, 42, 43, 53, 99, 102, 116,
121, 172, 178, 196-8, 245, 274,
347.

Dipterocarpus, 53, 93, 115-6, 201-2,
212.

Disafforesting, 109-128.

Dodonwa, 233.

Dogo, 241.

Dogwood, 30, 64, 103, 173, 177, 194-
5, 245, 303, 334, 342.

Domba, 92.
Dombeya, 198.

Doolb, 292.

Doornboom, 332.

Doryphora, 310.

Douglas Spruce, 41, 42, 51, 93-4,

126, 288.

Dougon, 116, 195.
Druxy knot, 71.
Dryobalanops, 93, 178.
Dry rot, 75-6.
Dthaaman, 202.
Duboisia, 191.
Dudhi, 195.
Duguetia, 120, 228.
Dunga-runga, 268.
Dungon, 91.
Dupa-maram, 292.
Durobbi, 223.
Dye-woods, 108, 121.
Dysoxylon, 90, 100, 182, 184-5.

Eagle -wood, 195.

Ebenacece, 46-7.

Ebene, 171, 196-7.

Ebony, 33, 39, 53, 85, 98, 103, 120,

150, 196-8.

Eckeberc/ia, 100, 119, 153.
Egolla, 175.
Elbe, 345.
Eiche, 113, 253.

Elcnocarpus. 94, 150, 153-4, 216.
Elffiodendron, 100, 152, 304.
Elava, 313.
Elder, 9, 29-31, 34, 61, 198.

Elm, 21, 29-31, 41, 42, 56-7, 69, 74,
76, 91, 93, 98, 101, 135, 191-2,
198-201, 213.

Els, 201.

Elsbeerbaum, 312.

Emmenospermum, 195.

'Endiandra, 269.

Eng, 53, 201-2, 212.

Engraving woods, 103.

Engyin, 202.

Epel, 202.

Eperua, 312, 336.

Epi de ble, 336.

Epinette, 317, 325.

Erable, 241-5, 324.

Eremophila, 306-7.

Erica, 103, 176.

Eriobotrya, 236.

Eriodendron, 313.

Erie, 143-5.

Erythrina vuberosa, 41, 46.

Erythrophlcewn, 142.

Erythroxylon, 222, 307.

Esche, 148, 151, 155, 324.

Espinheiro, 205.

Essen boom, 100, 119, 153.

Eta-balli, 171.

Eucalyptm, 70, 90-7, 117-9, 153-4,
170-1, 174-5, 179, 207-212, 219-
220, 223-4, 226, 232, 238-9, 273,
315, 322-3, 325, 330, 339, 343.

Euclea, 100, 196, 299.

Eucryphia, 141.

Eugenia, 234, 251, 347.

Euonymm, 34, 46, 103, 270, 315.

Eusideroxylon, 115, 165.

Exocarpm, 102, 188-9, 307.

Exogenous wood, 4, 5, 10-39.

Eyn, 305.

Faggio, 159-160.

Fagrcea, 92-3, 146.

Fagus, 29, 36-7, 41-2, 62, 91, 96,

102, 135, 159-163, 167.
False rings, 33, 34, 37, 52, 53.
Fenchelholz, 309.
Fencing woods, 96.
Ferotia, 311.
Fevier, 236.
Fibres, 14, 15, 32-34.
Fibrous cells, 33.
Fichte, 277, 317-9.
Ficw, 41, 132, 138, 202-3.
Fiddlewood, 96, 202.

INDEX.

359

Fig, 37, 98, 202-3.

Filaof, 267.

Fir, 24, 44, 49, 83, 103, 107, 115,

135, 203-5, 274, 333.
Fire-tree, 205.
Flachenbaum, 271.
Flindertia, 95, 205, 223.
Flindosa, 205, 325.
Flintamentosa, 205.
Flintwood, 169.
Fohre, 274.

Forest-areas of Europe, 111.
Forest-clearing, 109-128.
Forest increment, 1 12.
Fowke, Captain, 136.
Foxiness, 44, 71, 254.
Fraxinm, 29, 34, 37, 41-2, 53-4, 62,

91, 99, 135, 148-155.
French forests, 111-2.
Frene, 148, 151, 155.
Frenela, 193-4.
Fresno, 148, 151, 153.
Fromage de Hollande, 191.
Fuclma, 205.
Fuel value, 132.
Fuel wood, 106.
Fuji-matsu, 230.
Function of wood, 2, 26-28.
Funera, 205.
Fungal attack, 71-6.
Furniture woods, 97-101.
Furza, 102.
Futanus, 117, 306.
Fustic, 54, 100, 108, 121, 205, 323.

Gaiac, 332.

Gainier, 225.

Galba, 101, 121, 308-9.

Gamble, J. S., 45-7, 134.

Gandamani, 308.

Gangaravi, 335.

Gangaw, 221.

Gardenia, 102, 177.

Garuga, 227.

Gashi, 253.

Geel Hout, 94, 344.

Geijera, 342.

Genevrier, 2'J").

Geistospermum, 92, 178.

German forests, 111, 112-4.

Gidya, 249.

Ginkgo, 3.

Girdling, 81, 328-9.

Gleditschia, 55, 235-6.

Gmelina, 92-3, 100, 162.

Goat-moth, 77.

Gonioma, 226.

Goompana, 227.

Grain, 37, 38.

Granadillo, 121, 205-6.

Greenheart, 41, 70, 90, 110, 120,

206, 314.

Grevillea, 100, 163, 266.
Grignon, 206.
Growth, Rates of, 21.
Gm-gm, 206.

Gvaiacum, 42, 43, 53, 93, 121, 233.
Guarabu, 91, 206.
Guatteria, 228.
Guazuma, 182.
Guelder-rose, 102.
Guettarda, 121, 347.
Guiana, Timbers of, 120-1.
Guijo, 91, 116, 305.
Guira, 178.
Gum, 90, 92, 117, 154, 171-5, 179,

206-212, 219-220, 226, 232, 238-9,

273, 322, 330, 339.
Gumbar, 92, 100.
Gunpowder-charcoal, 107.
Gun-stocks, 84, 101-2.
Gurjun, 212.
Guru-kina, 212.
Gymnodadus, 55, 190.
Gymnosperms, Wood of, 3.

Hackberry, 56, 213.

Hackia, 233.

Hackmatack, 125, 325.

Hcematoxylon, 43, 108, 236.

ffakea, 272, 274.

Hal, 292.

Haldu, 46, 213.

Halmilla, 332-3.

Hannoki, 213.

Hardness of wood, 42.

Hardirickia,*], 53, 102, 147, 202,

228.

Hardwoods, 5, 52-65.
Haritaka, 213.
Harpephyllum, 194.
Harpullia, 91, 334.
Harra, 95, 213.
ffartogia, 102, 228.
Hat-tree, 325.

Hawthorn, 30, 34, 39, 64, 213-4.
Haya, 159-162.
Hazel, 30, 37, 39, 62, 67, 102, 214.

360

INDEX.

Heart-shake, 67, 69-70.
Heartwood, 20, 221.
Hedycarya, 100, 217.
Hemlock Spruce, 41, 49, 96, 125-6,

214.

Heritiera, 92, 323-4.
Hetre, 159-162.
Heymassoli, 308.
Hiba, 214.
Hibiscus, 191.
Hickory, 41, 42, 60, 91, 97, 102,

104, 169, 202, 214-6, 232, 239,

250, 315.

Hicoria, 41-2, 60, 91, 97, 102, 214-6.
Hijjul, 267.
Hinau, 84, 216.
Hinoki, 115, 216.
H'nau, 213.

Holly, 29, 34, 37, 42, 63, 102, 216-7.
Honey-combing, 83.
Honey-Locust, 55.
Honeysuckle, 101, 163, 217-8, 293,

301-2.

Honoki, 218.
Hooke's law, 133.
ffopea, 90, 312, 331.
Hopfenbuche, 218.
Hornbeam, 34, 37, 41, 62, 69, 74,

96, 101-2, 107, 218.
Horse-Chestnut, 30, 37, 39, 64, 104,

218-9.

Horse-flesh wood, 157.
Houx, 216.
Hulse, 216.
Humbah, 172.

Huon Pine, 50, 91-2, 101, 117, 219.
Hyawaballi, 347.
Hymenaa, 93, 120, 235.

Ichii, 346.

Ichii-gashi, 265.

Idea, 157, 183.

If, 345.

Ikusi, 119.

Ilex, 29, 34, 37, 42, 63, 216-7.

Illarega, 147-8.

Illinois nut, 215.

Illupi, 95, 240.

Ilumba, 153.

Imbool, 313.

Impregnation-methods, 86-8.

Indian forests, 115-6.

Intsia, 312.

Ipil, 91, 116.

Iroko, 100, 219.

Ironbark, 92, 117, 508, 211, 219-220,

322.
Ironwood, 90, 93, 95, 102, 119, 141-

2, 148, 218, 220-222, 233, 245, 251,

267, 313-4, 326, 335.
Ironwood, Black, 41, 221.
Ironwood of India, 42, 221.
Italian forests, 109, 111, 114-5.
Itaya-Kayede, 243.
Iti, 170.
Ivy, 34.
Ixora, 233.

Jablon, 147.

Jacaranda, 222, 270, 303.

Jack, 100, 222-3.

Jacksonia, 195.

Jambolana, 225.

Jambu, 141-2.

Jangli badam, 321.

Jango-jango, 343-4.

Japanese forests, 115.

Jaqueira, 222-3.

Jarrah, 41, 47, 90, 95, 223-4, 238.

Jarul, 90-1, 93, 224.

Jasan, 148.

Jati, 328.

Jhand, 52, 224.

Jimmy Low, 239.

Judas-tree, 59, 225.

Jufflans. 30, 34, 41-3, 61, 91, 98-9,

i77, 228, 337-9.
June-berry, 312.
Jungle Jack, 146.
Juniperm, 49-50, 81, 90, 92, 104-5,

125-6, 181-2, 186, 225.

Kaddam, 225. .
Kahikatea, 291.
Kahua, 148.
Kaju, 180.
Kakarat, 171.
Kala Kudu, 195.
Kamassi, 226.
Kamulboom, 332.
Kanapa, 267.
Kanigi, 267.
Kanthal, 222-3.
Kanyin, 212.
Kapor, 93, 178.
Karamatsu, 230.
Karri, 47, 90, 95, 117, 226.
Karung, 162.

INDEX.

361

Katamanakku, 332.

Kathitka, 331.

Katsura, 226.

Kauri, 70, 91-2, 101, 116, 226-7, 280.

Kawaka, 184.

Kaya, 227.

Kaya Boka, 145.

Kayu Gabas, 188.

Kayu Kapor Barus, 178.

Kayu-puti, 177.

Keurboom, 227.

Keyaki, 115, 227.

Kharpat, 227.

Khat, 227.

Khaya, 238.

Kheu, 336.

Khutrow, 319.

Kiamil, 227.

Kiabocca-wood. See Amboyiia-

wood.

Kidgi-kidgi, 185.
Kiefer, 274-292.
Kikar, 157.
Kiln-drying, 83.
Kindal-kindal, 252.
King- wood, 120. See Purple-heart.
Kirni, 227-8.
Kith Gular, 202.
Kizi, 102, 228.
Knauers, 76.
Knightia, 101, 301-2.
Kcempassia, 115, 191.
Kohutuhutu, 205.
Kokra, 196.
Kola, 228.
Kolavu, 228.
Koon, 228.
Kooroobovilli, 299.
Kooruk, 227.
Kos, 222-3.
Kosum, 228.
Kova-maki, 290.
Kranji, 115, 228, 326.
Kreuzdorn, 176-7.
Kuchila, 314.
Kulankik, 190.
Kulu, 928.
Kunzea, 327.
Kura, 179.
Kurana, 157.
Kuro-matsu, 321.
Kurumi, 228.
Kusoombh, 228.
Kuyon, 328.

Kyai-tha, 267.
Kyanizing, 86-7.

Labourdonnaisia, 171.

Laburnum, 39, 43, 56, 98-9, 197.

Lacewood, 101, 293.

Ladle-wood, 102, 228.

Lagerstrcemia, 53, 90, 116, 158, 224.

Lagunaria, 334.

Lancewood, 47, 120, 228, 251.

Lanumi, 232.

Lanza, Prof., 134, 136.

Laplacea, 222.

Laportea, 252.

Lapparent's process, 86.

Larch, 50, 72, 74, 91, 93-4, 107, 113,

115, 125, 127, 135, 229-230, 325.
Larch disease, 74-5.
Larix, 50, 72, 74, 91, 125, 127, 135,

229-230, 325-6.
Laslett, Thomas, 83, 89-90, 134,

139.

Lasrin, 230.

Lauan, 93, 115, 116, 231.
Langoussi, 231.

Laurel, 163, 188, 231, 236, 321.
Laurier, 159, 331, 309.
Leatherjacket, 154, 190, 231-2.
Lebensbaum, 182, 214.
Lebuk, 295.
Lecythis, 247.
Legno rodie, 302.
Leguminosce, 52.
Leichhardt's Tree, 179.
Lein, 232.
Leinben, 232.
Leitmria, 191.
Lemon-wood, 232.
Leno de rosa, 302.
Leopard wood, 17, 103, 232.
Letterwood, 17, 103, 232.
Lever-wood, 218. .
Libocedrus, 96.
Licaria, 310.
Light wood, 19_0.
Lign-aloes, 195.
Lignitication, 14.
Lignum Rhodium, 205-6, 303.
Lignum-vitae, 42, 43, 67-8, 93, 121,

163, 175, 233-4, 250, 336.
Lilac, 61, 159.
Lilly-pilly, 234.
Lima wood, 108, 271.
Lime. See Linden.

INDEX.

Linden, 29, 35, 41, 42, 48, 63, 74,

98, 104, 112, 235-6.
Lingoa-wood, 145.
Lipa, 234.

Liquidambar, 63, 96, 211.
Liriodendron, 43, 63, 97, 104, 3S&
Litscea, 152.
Livistona, 271.
Lloyd's Register, 90-1.
Locust, 17, 39, 43, 54, 93, 120-1,

235-6.

Logwood, 43, 108, 120-1, 236.
Looking-glass tree^ 324.
Loquat, 236.
Lotos-wood, 98.
Love-tree, 225.
Lysiloma, 69, 90, 92, 101, 121, 304.

Macadamia, 252.

Machcerium, 270, 302-3.

Madura, 54, 108, 269.

Maddagowrie, 153.

Magntiia, 35, 63, 104, 192, 218, 236.

Mahogany, 41, 44, 60, 69, 91-2,

99-101, 103, 120-1, 167, 173, 184,

212, 223, 236-240, 269, 322, 325.
Mahwa, 46, 240.
Maiden, J H., 85.
Maidenhair-tree, 3.
Mail, 201.
Maire, 240.
Makita, 240.
Makulai, 157.
Mammee-apple, 240, 271.
Mammoth-tree, 164.
Mandania, 185.
Mangachapuy, 91, 116, 240.
Mangeao, 240.
Mangi-mangi, 241.
Mangifera, 240-1.
Mango, 53, 240-1, 295.
Mangosteen, 241.
Manzana, 147.
Maple, 30, 34, 37, 38, 45, 62-3, 74,

76, 84, 91, 97, 101-5, 112, 125,

241-5.

Maradu, 305.
Marblewood, 245.
Margosa, 100, 159, 246.
Marlea, 249-.
Marrara, 246.
Marronier, 218-9.
Maruba, 313.
Marum, 172.

Marung, 193.

Masaran, 241.

Massaranduba, 246.

Matai, 277.

Matches, 105, 112.

Maulbeerbaurn, 248.

Maurelatos, 345.

May, 213.

Mbundu, 219.

Medlar, 102.

Medullary rays, 11.

Mee, 240.

Melaleuca, 221, 327-8.

Melanorrhcea, 336.

Meleze, 229.

Melia, 100, 159.

Melyn, 266.

Mematsu, 281.

Menkabang Penang, 92.

Merban, 246.

Merisier, 168.

Meristem, 7, 25, 26.

Merulius lacrymans, 75-6.

Mespilodaphne, 270-1, 310.

Mespilus, 102.

Mesquite, 246.

Messmate, 117, 246, 273, 322.

Mesua, 42, 53, 93, 95, 102S 221-2.

Metrosideros, 90, 93, 148, 222, 234,

261, 300.

Michelia, 95, 187.
Micocoulier, 213, 252.
Milkwood, 177-8, 221, 246, 327.
Milla, 246.
Millet wt 102, 304.
Millingtonia, 191.
Mimosa, 332.
Mimusops, 46, 102, 120-1, 157-8, 177,

227-8, 246
Mine-props, 94.
Mirabow, 100, 115, 246-7.
Miro, 101, 277.
Mirobaum, 277.
Mkonko, 241.
M'Neile's process, 84.
Mnini, 292.
Mogum-mogum, 334.
Molave, 91, 116, 247.
Momi-noki, 346.
Monkey-pot, 247.
Monkey-puzzle, 278.
Monotoca, 337.
Moose-wood, 245.
Mootchong, 169.

INDEX.

Mopani, 119.

Mora, 41, 90, 92, 95, 120-1, 247.

Moral, 248.

Moricypre, 247.

Mor'mda, 179.

Morrel, 248.

Morns, 55, 248.

Mountain-ash, 30, 34, 64, 154, 169,

174, 207-210, 219, 304.
Moutouchi, 248.
Muamba-Camba, 238.
Mucumite, 307.
Muggle-muggle, 252.
Mulberry, 55, 91, 98, 179, 248.
Mulga, 248-9.
Munamal, 157.
Mundiri, 180.
Munroe, 264.
Marier, 248.
Murray a, 174.
Murr-rung, 154.
Muruta, 224.

Musical instruments, 103.
Musk-tree, 249.
Musk-wood, 102, 249.
Mutton -wood, 249.
Myall, 53, 103, 248-250.
My Lady, 250.
Myndee, 325.
Myoporum, 195, 307.
Myrobalans, 52, 95, 250.
Myrsine, 249.
Myrtle, 158, 162, 221, 231, 250-2.

Nagal, 223.

Nagesar, 93, 221.

Nakkeru-wood, 295.

Nalli, 200.

Nani, 222.

Naphtha, 108.

Naranj, 268.

Naranjillo, 239.

Narra, 91, 116.

Narulgun, 179.

Natal timbers, 119.

Nauclea, 179.

Nectandra, 41, 70, 90, 95, 120, 179,

182, 206, 231, 250, 313.
Needle-bush, 274.
Neem, 100, 159, 246.
X'lnmdo, 242.
Neishout, 100, 314-5.
Nella ulimera, 197.
Xephelium, 335.

flesodaphm, 310.
Nettle-tree, 55, 98, 213, 252.
New Zealand timbers, 1 18.
Niaouli, 177-8.
Nicaragua- wood, 108, 271.
Nila-Pila, 195.
Nispero, 309, 312.
Nodon-Bretonneau process, 87-8.
Nonna maram, 179.
Norwegian forests, 111-2.
Notelcea, 93, 157, 221, 268.
Noyer, 177, 215-8.
Nut, 252.
Nuxia, 336.
Nyssa, 104, 207.

Oak, 4, 9, 17, 18, 21, 27-32, 34-37,
38-42, 44, 46, 58-9, 67, 71-4, 79,
83-4, 90-1, 93-6, 98-100, 102, 104,
107, 111-4, 118, 135, 172, 228,
242, 252-267.

Ochna, 300.

Ocotea, 90, 100, 231, 321.

Ocuje, 121, 308-9.

Odina, 227.

Odours of woods, 44.

Odum, 219, 238.

Oelbaum, 267-8.

(Enocarpus, 271.

Oil-nut, 177.

Oldfiddia, 69, 90, 135.

Olea, 221-2, 240, 245, 267-8.

Olearia, 102, 249.

Olina-wood, 268.

OUnia, 272.

Olive, 43, 53, 98, 102, 153, 157, 176,
221,245,267-8, 323.

Olivetier, 304.

Olneya, 222.

Olyvenhout, 221, 268.

Omorica, 319.

Omphalobium^ 347.

Onara, 265.

Ooday, 227.

Ophioxylon, 314.

Orange, 176, 188, 222, 268-9.

Ordnance woods, 89.

Oreodaphne, 231.

Orites, 266-7.

Orme, 182, 198-9.

Osage Orange, 54, 269.

Osiers, 341-2.

Ostrya, 218.

Osyka, 156.

304

INDEX.

Osyris, 307.
Ougeinia, 307.
Owenia, 296.

Packing-case woods, 104-5.

Pader, 269.

Padouk, 37, 97, 99, 116, 269-270.

Pabautea, 184.

Paicha, 103, 270.

Palisander-wood, 270.

Palo Maria, 91, 116, 296.

Palo Mulato, 171.

Palo narango, 205. '

Panacoco, 270.

Panax, 153, 231, 272-3.

Paniala, 313.

Pao d'arco, 270.

Pao de cobra, 314.

Pao de rosa, 334.

Pao de rosada, 302.

Pao precioso, 270-1.

Pao roxo, 206.

Papaw, 271.

Paper-pulp, 105-6, 126.

Pappel, 156, 297.

Papri, 200.

Parcouri, 271.

Parenchyma, 14.

Parinarium, 240, 311.

Parpa, 202.

Parrotia, 222.

Partridge-wood, 103, 271.

Patanga, 309.

Patawa, 271.

Paulownia, 102, 228.

Payena, 91, 116.

Peach- wood, 271.

Pear, 34, 64, 101, 103, 197, 271-2.

Peki, 315.

Peltofjyne, 91, 206, 299.

Penago, 92.

Pencil Cedar, 90, 101, 119, 163,

184-6, 303.
Pencil-wood, 272-3.
Pen-lay, 179.
Pentace, 331.
Pentaclethra, 171.
Pepperidge, 207.
Peppermint, 95, 97, 117, 154, 207,

209, 212, 273, 322, 325.
Pepperwood, 310.
Peral, 271.

Pernambuco-wood, 271.
Peroba branca, 92, 273.

Peroba vermelha, 273.

Persea, 157, 239.

Persicon, 337.

Persimmon, 42, 102, 274.

Peruche, 214.

Peuplier, 156, 297.

Peziza WUlkommii, 72, 74-5.

Philippines, Timbers of , 116.

Phloem, 10, 15, 16.

Phung-nyet, 92.

Phyllanthus, 146, 184.

Phyllodadus, 95, 278, 326.

P/tysocalymma, 334.

Picda, 22-24, 50, 94, 96, 104-5, 112-5,

125, 194, 316-321.
Piles, 81, 86, 144, 254.
Pilla murda, 213.
Pimento, 103, 274.
Pin-bush, 274.
Pine, 26, 41, 42, 51, 68-9, 84, 91-2,

93-6, 101, 105, 110, 112-9, 123-5,

135, 184-5, 193-4, 203-4, 226-7,

274-92, 326.
Pine, Northern, 41, 43, 51, 91-2,

94-6, 105, 107, 112, 135, 194, 203,

274 284-7.

Pine, White', 124-5, 290-2.
Pines, Hard, 51, 275.
Pines, Soft, 52, 104, 275.
Pinesse, 318.
Piney tree, 296.
Piney Varnish, 292.
Pink Ivory, 119, 292.
Pinnari, 321.
Pinus, 51, 91-2, 94-6, 104-5, 123,

135, 194, 203, 274-292, 316.
Piptadenia, 347.
Piscidia, 195.
Pistacia, 98.
Pitch-pine, 41, 67-8, 70, 91-2, 94,

138, 279, 282, 288.
Pith, 9, 28-31.
Pithecolobium, 90.
Pith-flecks, 39, 44.
Pith-rays, 11, 22-24, 27-32, 39.
Pits, 16, 17.
Piltosporum, 188, 342.
Plane, 29, 34, 46, 62, 98, 292-4, 324.
Planera, 347.
Plaqueminier, 274.
Platanu*, 29, 34, 46, 62, 98, 101,

292-4.

Platymiscium, 302.
Platylophus, 145.

INDEX.

365

Plectronia, 312.

Plerome, 8.

Plum, 34, 60, 141, 147, 221, 228,

2M, 294-6.
Podocarpus, 92-5, 101, 184-5, 278,

291, 332, 343-4.
Pohutakawa, 222.
Poirier, 271.
Polyosma, 202.
Polyporus, 73-4.
Poma d'Adaeo, 228.
Pomegranate, 295.
Pomeranzen, 268.
Pommier, 147.
Ponna, 241.
Poon, 92-3, 296-7.
Poonga, 162.
Poplar, 21, 29, 34, 39, 41, 42, 63,

65, 67, 72, 97, 104-5, 125, 297-9,

333.
Poplar, American Yellow, 43, 63,

97 333
PopiUus, 21, 29, 34, 39, 41-2, 63, 65,

156, 297-9.

Porcupine-wood, 4, 299.
Pores, 46, 48.
Portia-tree, 335.
Prickwood, 194.
Pride-of-India, 159.
Procambium, 9, 10.
Prosopis, 52, 224, 246.
Protoplasm, 6-7.

Prwnis, 60, 102-3, 169, 188-9, 294-5.
Prussian forests, 113.
Pseudolarix, 230.
Pseudotsuga, 41 42, 51, 91-2, 126,

288.

Psychotria, 232.
Pterocarpus, 53, 91, 97, 99-101, 108,

116, 145, 248, 302, 308, 330.
Pterocelastrus, 272.
Pteroxylon, 90, 100, 119, 314-5.
Puhutukawa, 90, 93.
Pulia, 326.
Puriri, 93-4, 299.
Purple-heart, 99, 299.
Purpuurhart, 299.
Puvu, 228.
Pym-mah, 224.
Pynkado, 53, 92, 95, 97, 115, 141-2,

246, 312..

Pyroligneous acid, 106-8.
Pyrus, 34, 39, 64, 103, 147, 154, 271,

304, 312, 330.

Qualea, 206.

Quar, 299.

Quarter-sawing, 79, 82.

Quebracho, 108.

Queenwood, 100, 300,

Quercus, 4, 9, 17, 18, 21, 27-32,
34-7, 38-42, 44, 46, 58-9, 90, 95-6,
98-100, 102, 104, 107, 111-4, 135,
143, 252-9.

Quince, 37.

Quirapaiba, 171, 197.

Radami, 267.

Rakta chandana, 308.

Rauwdfia, 314.

Raspberry -jam, 117, 249.

Rassak, 93, 115, 300.

Rata, 90, 300.

Redwood, 50, 99, 122-3, 222, 238,

269, 273, 300-1, 309.
Resin-ducts or passages, 22-23, 50.
Resonance of woods, 44-5.
Rewa-rewa. 101, 301-2.
Rhamnu.% 34, 37-8, 61, 176-7, 194.
Rhizomorphs, 72.
Rhizophora, 241.
Rhodamnia, 252.
Rhododendron, 39.
Rhopala, 163.
Rhus, 61, 201, 323, 343.
Rift-sawing, 79, 82.
Rimu, 101, 302.
Rind-gall, 70.

Ring-porous woods, 48, 53-61.
Rings, Annual, 4, 19-23, 37, 46.
Rings, False, 33-4, 37, 52, 53.
Ring-shake, 67.

Robinia, 17, 39, 43, 54, 235-6, 270.
Roble, 253, 302.
Roger Gough, 170.
Rohuna, 238.
Rolleston, Sir J. F. L., quoted,

110-1.

Ron-ron, 347-
Rood Els, 185.
Roodhout, 300.
Rose Balkan, 330.
Rose femelle, 310.
Rose, Guelder, 330.
Rose male, 310.
Rosewood, 53, 98-9, 103, 118, 120,

170, 185, 192, 205-6, 250, 269,

302-4, 306, 310, 334-5.
Rowan, 30, 34, 64, 102, 107, 127, 304.

366

INDEX.

Royena, 170.
Rozenholz, 302, 334.
Rubywood. See Saunders, Red.
Rudraksha chettu, 182.
Russian forests, 109, 111.
Ruster, 198.

Sabicu, 69, 90, 92, 101, 121, 239,

304.

Sabots, 104, 161.
Sadebaum, 186.
Saddle-tree, 333.
•Safed Simal, 313.
Saffron-wood, 100, 304.
Sagun, 328.
•Sahlweide, 305-6.
Saj, 53, 305.

Sal, 61, 90, 93, 100, 170, 305.
Salee, 250.
•Saliewood, 305.
Salix, 29, 34, 39, 41, 64, 104, 305-6,

341-2.

•Sallow, 305-6.
Sally, 169, 207.
Salting timber, 85.
Samandar-phal, 267.
JSamara robusta, 46.
•Sambucus, 9, 29-31, 34, 61, 198.
Sandalwood, 44, 102, 108, 117, 195,

241, 306-7.
Sandan, 307-8.
Sanders, Red, 108, 308.
•Sandoricum, 241.
Santal, 302.

Santalum, 102, 117, 306-7.
Santa Maria, 101, 308.
Sao, 331.
Sapang, 309.

Sapin, 204, 288, 290, 318.
Sapinette, 317, 319.
Sapodilla, 101, 309.
Sapota, 92, 157-8, 177, 273.
SapotacecK, 46-7.
Sappan, 108, 309.
Sapwood, 19, 26.
Saqui-saqui, 309.
Sarcocephalus, 179.
Sarv, 267.

Sassafras, 54, 163, 178-9, 309-311.
Sating 311.
Satin Walnut, 211.
Satinwood, 97, 102, 310-2.
Sauerdorn, 158.
Saule, 341-2.

Savin, 186.

Schaapdrolletje, 312.

Schima, 93, 190.

Schizomeria, 190.

Schleichera, 228.

Schusserbaum, 190.

Scolopia, 272.

Scots Fir. See Pine, Northern.

Seasoning, 80-8.

Sebestana, 295.

Securipa, 91, 312.

Selangan, 312.

Sequoia, 50, 122-3, 164, 300.

Serayah, 312.

Serente, 318.

Serianthes, 335.

Service, 64, 312.

Shad-bush, 312.

Shajr-ul-jin, 307.

Shake, 66-70.

Sharpies, S.P., 131-2, 138-9.

Shembal, 105, 191.

She-oak, 37, 39, 265-6.

Shingles, 96.

Shipbuilding woods, 89-93.

Shira-gashi, 143, 265.

Shoondul, 95, 312-3.

Shorea, 61, 90, 91, 93, 116, 240,

305, 325, 331.
Sideroxylon, 147, 221.
Silk-bark, 102, 313.
Silk-cotton, 313.
Silverballi, 313.

Silver Fir, 44-5, 49, 103, 107, 113-5.
Silver-grain, 32.
Silver-tree, 313.
Simaruba, 313.
Simiri, 235.
Sipiri, 206.
Siris, 46, 100, 313-4.
Siruaballi, 313.
Sissoo, 47, 93, 99, 314.
Sleepers, 93-4, 254.
Sloanea, 222.
Sloe, 169.
Sloetia, 115, 326.
Snakewood, 232, 314.
Sneezewood, 90, 100, 119, 314-5.
Soft woods, 3.
Somida, 238.
Sosna, 274.
Souari, 315.
Soymida, 238.
Spanish forests, 109, 111, 113.

INDEX.

367

Spearwood, 249, 315.

Specific gravity of wood, 41, 131-2.

Spindle-tree, 64, 315.

Spondias, 295.

Spring wood, 19, 25.

Spruce, 22-24, 41, 42, 50, 72, 81,

84, 91, 104-5, 112-15, 125-7, 194,

288-9, 316-321.

Spruce, Douglas, 41, 42, 51, 91,288.
Spruce, Hemlock, 41, 49.
Stacking, 82-3.
Stadmannia, 222.
Stapkyka, 64.
Star-shake, 68-9.
Stavewood, 313, 321.
Stechbaum, 216.
Stele, 8.

Stem, Functions of, 2, 5.
Stenocarpus, 100, 205, 266.
Stephepyne, 225.
Sterciiiia, 91, 321, 325.
Stereospermum, 269.
Stiiikwood, 44, 90, 100, 145, 321.
Stone-wood, 172, 313.
Storage, 98.
Storaxbaum, 211.
Stotulari, 224.

Strength of timbers, 133-140.
Stringybark, 95, 117, 154, 169, 208,

273, 321-3.

Structural aggregates, 80.
Structure of wood, 1-39.
Strychnos, 314.
Sugarberry, 213.
Sugar-tree, 195.
Sugi, 323.
Sumach, 61, 323.
Summer wood, 19, 25, 26.
Sundri, 92, 323-4.
Suriya, 335.
Sicartzia, 239, 270.
Swedish forests, 111-2.
Swietenia, 41, 44, 60, 69, 91, 99, 101,

135, 236-8.

Swiss forests, 111, 114.
Swiss Pine, 44-5.
Switch-sorrel, 233.
Sycamore, 41, 42, 62, 84, 98, 103,

159, 231, 293, 324-5.
Symplocos, 171.
Syncarpia, 91, 250, 334-5.
Synoum, 302-3, 334.
Syringa, 61.
Syzygium, 223.

Tacamahac, 297.

Tallow- wood, 91, 325.

Talura, 325.

Tamarack, 50, 91, 125, 325-6.

Tamarind, 102, 326.

Tamboti, 222.

Tampinnis, 115, 326.

Tanakaha, 92, 95, 326.

Tanderoo, 220.

Tandi, 250.

Tan-mu, 306.

Tanne, 113, 204, 214, 278, 318.

Tanning woods, 108.

Tar, 106-8.

Taraire, 326-7.

Tan-ietia, 313.

Tasmanian timbers, 117-8.

Tatajuba, 315.

Tatamaka, 92, 296.

Tavola, 145.

Tawa, 327.

Tawhai, 167.

Taxodium, 192.

Tax-lit, 49, 99, 345-6.

Tcheergun, 169.

Tea-tree, 172, 177, 207, 327-8.

Teak, 37, 41, 44, 60, 70, 79, 81, 90,

100, 118, 135, 302, 328-330.
Teazle, 102, 330.
Tecoma, 103, 121, 171, 175, 197,

270.
Tectona, 37, 41, 44, 60, 70, 79, 81,

90, 135, 328-330.
Tejo, 345.

Telegraph-poles, 94.
Tendu, 196.
T'eng-li-mu, 103, 330.
Tensile strength, 130.
Terebinth, 98.
Teredo, 76.
Terminals, 52, 53, 91, 145, 148, 206,

213, 231-2, 250, 305.
Termites, 76-7.
Tetraclinis, 97, 118, 148.
Tewart, 70, 92, 117, 330-1.
Thalai, 200.
Thea, 327.
Theit-to, 241.
Thespesia, 100, 335.
Thingan, 90, 331.
Thitka, 331.
Thitkado, 184.
Thit-si, 336.
Thitya, 331.

368

INDEX.

Thorn, 331-2.

Thujopsis, 214.

Thurston, Prof., 139.

Thuya, 47, 50, 81, 96, 148, 182,

187.

Thyine wood, 97, 148.
Til, 44.
Tilia, 29, 35, 41-2, 48, 63, 99, 158-9,

234-5.

Tilleul, 234-5.
Tinier, 278.
Tissues, 7.
Titoki, 267.
Tochi, 332.
Toddalia, 119, 335.
Toga, 230.
Tong-schi, 276.
Tonka-bean, 332.
Toolookar, 147.
Toon, 44, 100, 105, 184.
Torchwood, 205.
Torreya, 227.
Totara, 92-5, 101, 332.
Toughness, 38.
Touloucouna, 192.
Tow- war, 163.
Trachea, 17-19, 32-38.
Tracheids, 17-19, 23, 26, 33.
Trametes radiciperda, 73.
Tremble, 156.
Trincomalee-wood, 332-3.
Tristania, 91, 97, 173, 212.
Trochocarpa, 158.
Trumpet-tree, 333.
Tsuga, 49, 96, 125-6, 214, 333.
Tubbil-pulla, 173.
Tu chung mu, 270.
Tulip- tree, 43, 63, 99, 104, 205,

333-5.

Tulip- wood, 91, 201, 296, 334.
Tunis forests, 110.
Tupelo, 104, 207.
Turkish forests, 109, 111.
Turnery-woods, 101-2.
Turnip-wood, 185, 303, 334.
Turpentine, 91, 123-4, 207, 232, 251,

281, 325, 334-5.
Turraic, 163.
Tyloses, 17.

Ullagal Mabbie, 269.

Ulmus, 21, 29-31, 41-2, 56-7, 91,

135, 198-201.
Umbellularia, 231.

Umbomoana, 304.

Umbrella-tree, 335.

Umcaza, 170.

Umceya, 94, 344.

Umdogan, 272.

Umguma, 221.

Umguna, 100, 156, 268.

Umkoba, 342.

Umnoiso, 156.

Umnonono, 272.

Umounari, 321.

Umtati, 100, 314-5.

Umtensema, 300.

Umzumbit, 102, 119, 335.

Undi, 296.

United States forests, 109, 111-2,

122-5.

Unkaza, 100, 305.
Unoyie, 172.

Unwin, Professor, 131-2, 135, 138.
Urajiro-gashi, 265.
Uroobie, 335.

Vaivai, 335.

Vanatica, 90.

Varnish, 336.

Vatica, 93, 115, 300.

Vem-pu, 159.

Veiiatico, 239.

Veneers, 4, 98, 101.

Vesi, 312.

Vesivesi, 163.

Vessels, 13, 17-19, 32-38, 46.

Viburnum, 102, 330.

Villaresia, 242.

Vinacito, 239.

Vine, 57-8, 336.

Violet wood, 102, 120, 249, 336.

Virgilia, 227.

Vitex, 91, 93-4, 116, 171, 173, 233,

246-7, 299.
Vitis, 57-8, 336.
Vlier, 336.

Wa, 159.
Wacapou, 336.
Wach holder, 186, 225.
Wadadura, 247.
Wahoo, 201.
Wai-hwa, 345.
Walking-sticks, 102-3.
Wallaba, 336.
Wallang-unda, 337.
Wallundun-deyren, 188.

INDEX.

369

Walnut, 30, 34, 41, 42, 43, 61, 76,

84, 91, 98-9, 101-3, 112, 177,

337-339.

Wandoo, 117, 339.
Wane, 206.
Wangara, 154.
Wapa-gras, 336.
Ward, Prof. H. M., 45, 73, 90.
Washiba, 311.
Waterbush, 195.
Water-tree, 274.
Water- wood, 121, 339.
Wat-tah, 340.

Wattle, 93, 104, 169, 339-340.
Weide, 341-2.

Weight of wood, 40-42, 131-2.
Wtlnmannia, 232, 246.
Weissbuche, 218.
Wellingtonia, 164.
West Indian timbers, 121.
Whistle-wood, 245.
Whitebeam, 64.
Whitethorn, 102, 213.
White-top, 169.
Whitewood, 43, 63, 99, 104, 188,

231, 297-8, 333-4, 340.
Widdringtonia, 96, 119, 185.
Wig-tree, 61, 323.
Wilga, 342.
Willow, 29, 34, 39, 41, 64, 72, 93,

98, 104-5, 169, 305-6, 341-3.
Wineberry, 202.
Wood as fuel, 106.
Wood, Colour of, 42.
Wood, Defects of, 67-77, 79.
Wood, Function of, 2.
Wood, Hardness of, 42.
Wood-oil tree, 212.
Wood, Our supplies of, 109-128.
Wood-parenchyma, 33.
Wood, Rate of consumption, 1.
Woods, Classification of, 45-65.
Wo >d, Selection of, 78-9.
Wood-spirit, 106-8.
Wood, Structure of, 1-39.
Wood, Tasting, 129-140.
Wood, Uses of, 89-108.
Wood-vinegar, 106.

GLASGOW : PRINTED AT THK UN1V

Wood, Waste of, 109-128.
Wood, Weight of, 40-42, 131-2.
Wood-wool, 105.
Woolal, 150.

Woolly Butt, 207, 209, 238, 343.
Worms, 76-7.
Wound-parasites, 71-5.
Wurtemberg forests, 111, 113-4.
Wyagerie, 205.
Wych-hazel, 201.

Ximenia, 308.

Xylem, 10-37.

Xylia, 53, 92, 95, 97, 115-6, 141-2.

Xylocarpus, 179.

Xylomdum, 272.

Yacal, 91, 116.

Yacca, 343.

Yangoora, 322.

Yaralla, 205.

Yari-yari, 228.

Yarrah, 210.

Yate, 117, 343.

Yaya, 228.

Yellow-jacket, 210.

Yellow-wood, 63, 95, 108, 155, 223.

310-1.

Yendike, 344-5.
Yen-ju, 345.
Yew, 3, 44, 49, 76, 99, 101, 197,

345-6.

Yezo-matsu, 321.
Yiel-yiel, 205.
Yoke, 347.

Young's modulus, 133.
Ypil, 202.

Zanthoxylum, 155, 311, 344.
Zapateri, 299.
Zebra- wood, 101, 121, 347.
Zdkowa, 277, 347.
Zirbe, 278.

Ziirgelbaum, 213, 252.
Zwartbast, 170.
Zwetschkenbaum, 295.
Zybast, 102, 313.

PRESS BY ROBERT MACLEHOSK AND CO.

MR. EDWARD ARNOLD'S

LIST OF

5eientijie and ^Technical SJooks.

FOOD AND THE PRINCIPLES OF DIETETIC:, By ROBERT

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HUMAN EMBRYOLOGY AND MORPHOLOGY. By A. KEITH,

M.D., F.R.C.S. Eng. , Lecturer on Anatomy at the London Hospital Medical
College. With nearly 250 Illustrations. Demy 8vo. \_Just Ready.

THE PHYSIOLOGICAL ACTION OF DRUGS. An Introduction to

Practical Pharmacology. By M. S. PEMBREY, M.A., M.D., Jo nt Lecturer on
Physiology in Guy's Hospital Medical School ; and C. D. F. PHILLIPS, M.D.,
LL.D , Examiner in Materia Medica and Therapeutics in Aberdeen University.
Fully Illustrated. Demy 8vo., 4.3. 6d. net.

' Will undoubtedly be most useful to everyone undertaking the study of Experimental Pharmacology.'
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PHOTOTHERAPY. By N. R. FINSEN. Translated by J. H. SEQUEIRA,

M.D. With Illustrations. Demy 8vo., 45. 6d. net.

CONTENTS.— I. The Chemical Rays of Light and Smallpox— II. Light as an
Irritant — III. Treatment of Lupus Vulgaris by concentrated Chemical Rays.

A MANUAL OF HUMAN PHYSIOLOGY. By LEONARD HILL,

M.D., F.R.S., Lecturer in Physiology at the London Hospital Medical College.
With 173 Illustrations, xii + 484 pages. Crown 8vo., cloth, 6s.

recommend its perusal.' — Lancet.

A PRIMER OF PHYSIOLOGY. By Dr. LEONARD HILL, Author of

'A Manual of Human Physiology.' [In the Press.

LONDON: EDWARD ARNOLD, 37 BEDFORD STREET, STRAND.

2 Mr. Edward Arnold's List of Scientific Books.

LECTURES ON THEORETICAL AND PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY.

By Dr. J. H. VAN 'T HOFF, Profess-or of Chemistry at the University of Berlin.
Translated by Dr. R. A. LEHFELDT. In three volumes, demy 8vo., Illustrated,
28s. net ; or obtainable separately, as follows :

Vol. I. Chemical Dynamics. 125. net.
Vol. n. Chemical Statics. 8s. 6d. net.
Vol. in. Relations between Properties and Composition.

7s. 6d. net.

' It is everywhere evident that the material has been wrought into form by a powerful thinker, who
sees deeper and more clearly into his subject than any of his contemporaries.' — Nature.

A TEXT-BOOK OF PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY. By Dr. R. A. LEH-

FELDT, Professor of Physics at the East London Technical College. With
40 Illustrations. Crown 8vo., cloth, 7s. 6d.

SUMMARY OF CONTENTS. — Introduction, Physical Summary— Chap. I. Deter-
mination of Molecular Weight — Chap. II. Physical Constants in Relation to
Chemical Constitution — Chap. III. The Principles of Thermodynamics —
Chap. IV. Chemical Dynamics of Homogeneous Systems — Chap. V. Chemical
Dynamics of Heterogeneous Systems — Chap. VI. Application of Thermodynamics
to Chemical Equilibrium— Chap. VII. Electro-Chemistry — Index and Biblio-
graphy.

PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY FOR BEGINNERS. By Dr. Ch, M. VAN

DEVENTER. With a Preface by J. H. VAN 'T HOFF. Translated by Dr. R, A.
LEHFELDT, Professor of Physics at the East London Technical College. 2s. 6d.
CONTENTS. — Chap. I. Definitions — Chap. II. Fundamental Laws of Com-
bination—Chap. III. Behaviour of Gases — Chap. IV. Some Points of Thermo-
chemistry—Chap. V. Solutions — Chap. VI. Photo-Chemistry -Chap. VII. The
Periodic System.

THE ELEMENTS OF INORGANIC CHEMISTRY. For use in

Schools and Colleges. By W. A. SHENSTONE, F.R.S., Lecturer in Chemistry
at Clifton College. With nearly 150 Illustrations and a Coloured Table of
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LABORATORY COMPANION. For use with Shenstone's ' Inorganic
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A FIRST YEAR'S COURSE OF EXPERIMENTAL WORK IN

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AN EXPERIMENTAL COURSE OF CHEMISTRY FOR AGRI-
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Agricultural Chemistry in the County Technical Laboratories, Chelmsford.
WTith 50 Illustrations. 192 pages. Crown 8vo., cloth, 2s. 6d.

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he has now published. . . . The ideas of the author have been gradually perfected by practice. We
can cordially commend the book.' — Nature.

LONDON: EDWARD ARNOLD, 37 BEDFORD STREET, STRAND.

Mr. Edward Arnold's List of Scientific Books. 3

THE STANDARD COURSE OF ELEMENTARY CHEMISTRY.

By E. J. Cox, F.C.S., Headmaster of the George Dixon Higher Grade School,
Birmingham. With 90 Illustrations. 350 pages. Crown 8vo., cloth, 3$.
Also obtainable in five parts, limp cloth. Parts I. -IV., yd. each ; P.m V., is.
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THE BALANCING OF ENGINES. By W. E. DALBY, M.A., B.Sc.,

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Mathematics in the City and Guilds of London Technical College, Finsbury.
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PHYSICAL DETERMINATIONS. Laboratory Instructions for the

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TRAVERSE TABLES. With an Introductory Chapter on Co-
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on-Tyne; and G. W. CAUNT, M. A., Lecturer in Mathematics, Durham College
of Science, Newcastle-on-Tyne. Demy 8vo., 4?. 6d. ne'.

THE CALCULUS FOR ENGINEERS. By JOHN PERRY, M.E.,

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need. ' — Electrician.

MAGNETISM AND ELECTRICITY. An Elementary Treatise for

Junior Students, Descriptive and Experimental. By J. PALEY YORKE, of the
Northern Polytechnic Institute, London. With nearly 150 Illustrations. Crown
8vo., cloth, 35, 6d.
'The author notes clearly the fundamental facts and laws of Magnetism and Electricity. The

explanations are lucid, and the illustrations have a freshness not usually seen in text-books. It will

probably be largely adopted in schools.' — Scientific American.

ELEMENTARY NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. By ALFRED EARL,

M.A., Assistant Master at Tonbridge School. With numerous Illustiations and
Diagrams. Crown 8vo., cloth, 45. 6d.

AN ELEMENTARY TREATISE ON PRACTICAL MATHEMATICS.

By JOHN GRAHAM, B. A. , Demonstrator of Mechanical Engineering and Applied
Mathematics in the Technical College, Finsbury. Crown 8vo., cloth, 3-;. 6d.

ELECTRICAL TRACTION. By ERNEST WILSON, Wh.Sc., M.I.E.E.,

Professor of Electrical Engineering in the Siemens Laboratory, King's College,
London. Crown 8vo., 55,

STEAM BOILERS. By GEORGE HALLIDAY, late Demonstrator at the
Finsbury Technical College. With numerous Diagrams and Illustrations. 400
pages. Crown 8vo., 5*.

LONDON: EDWARD ARNOLD, 37 BEDFORD STREET, STRAND.

Mr. Edward Arnold's List of Scientific Books.

AN ELEMENTARY TEXT-BOOK OF MECHANICS. By R. WOR-

MKLL, D.Sc., M.A. With 90 Illustrations. Crown 8vo., cloth, 35. 6d.
%* Solutions to Problems for Teachers and Private Students. 3->. 6d.

A TEXT-BOOK OF ZOOLOGY. By G. P. MUDGE, A.R.C.Sc.

LOND. , Lecturer on Biology at the London School of Medicine for Women, and
the Polytechnic Institute, Regent Street. With about 200 original Illustrations.
Crown 8vo. [In the Press.

A H NDBOOK ON FERMENTATION AND THE FERMENTA-
TION INDUSTRIES. By CHARLES G. MATTHEWS. Fully Illustrated.
Crown 8vo. [In the Press.

A MANUAL OF THE NATURAL HISTORY AND INDUSTRIAL
APPLICATIONS OF THE TIMBERS OF COMMERCE. By G. S. BOULGER,
F. L.S., F.G.S., A.S.I., Professor of Botany an<t Lecturer on Forestry in the
City of London College, and formerly in the Royal Agucuitural College.

[In the Press.

WORKS BY PROFESSOR C. LLOYD MORGAN, F.R.S.
ANIMAL BEHAVIOUR. By C. LLOYD MORGAN, F.R.S., Principal

of University College, Bristol, author of 'Animal Life and Intelligence.' etc.
With numerous lllustiations. Large crown 8vo., IDS. 6d.

OUTLINE OF CONTENTS. —I. Organic Behaviour— II. Consciousness— III. The
Mental Faculties of Animals — IV. Heredity and Evolution — V. . Instinctive
Behaviour — VI. Intelligent Behaviour — VII. Some Types of Animal Behaviour
— VI II. Social Behaviour — IX. Emotional Behaviour — X. The role of Con-
sciousness in Evolution.

HABIT AND INSTINCT. By C. LLOYD MORGAN, F.R.S. viii + 352

pages. With Photogravure Frontispiece. Demy 8vo., cloth, l6s.

The earlier chapters contain the author's original observations upon the young
of many species of birds and mammals. These are followed by an interesting
discussion upon Animal Habits and Instincts, and the work ends with chapters
on kThe Relation of Organic to Mental Evolution,' 'Are Acquired Habits
Inherited ?' 'Modification and Variation,' and 'Heredity in Man.'

'An admirable introduction to the study of a most important and fascinating branch of Biology, now
for the first time based upon a substantial foundation of carefully observed facts and logical induction
from them.' — Professor ALFRED RUSSEL WALLACE.

PSYCHOLOGY FOR TEACHERS. By C. LLOYD MORGAN, F.R.S.

xii + 25i pages. Crown 8vo., 35. 6d.

CONTENTS. — States of Consciousness —Association — Experience — Perception
— Analysis and Generalization — Description and Explanation — Mental Develop-
ment—Language and Thought —Literature — Character and Conduct.

'The author of this book speaks with special emphasis and authority, and his remarks will be found
of exceptional value to students.' — Sir J. G. FITCH, in the Preface,

ANIMAL SKETCHES. By C. LLOYD MORGAN, F.R.S. viii + 3i2

pages, with 52 illustrations (many of ihem full-page). Crown 8vo. , cloth, 35. 6d.

LONDON : ED WAX D ARNOLD, 37 BEDFORD STREET, STRAND.

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