u w B jj c_ r

SCHOOL

o I\E ST ENGINES

IN SPAIN.

SCHOOL

OK

FOREST ENGINEERS

IN SPAIN,

INDICATIVE OF A TYPE FOR A

BRITISH NATIONAL SCHOOL OF FORESTRY,

COMPILED BY

JOHN CROUMBIE BROWN, LL.D.,

Formerly Lecturer on Botany in University and King's College, Aberdeen ;
subsequently Colonial Botanist at Cape of Good Hope, and Professor
of Botany in the South African College, Cape Town ; Fellow of the
Linman Society; Fellow of the Royal Geographical Society; and
Honorary Vice- President of the African Institute of Paris.

EDINBURGH:
OLIVER AND BOYD, TWEEDDALE COURT.

LONDON : SIMPKIN, MARSHALL, AND CO,

IB 75

- Forestry . M aiix Library

PREFACE.

IN the spring of 1877 I published a brochure entitled :
The Schools of Forestry in Europe : a Plea for the Creation
of a School of Forestry in Connection with the Arboretum at
Edinburgh, in which I submitted for consideration the
opinion that with the acquisition of this Arboretum, and
with the existing arrangements for study in the Univer-
sity and in the Watt Institution and School of Arts, there
are required only facilities for the study of what is known
on the Continent as Forest Science to enable these
Institutions conjointly, or either of them with the help of
the other, to take a place amongst the most completely
equipped Schools of Forestry in Europe, and to under-
take the training of foresters for the discharge of such
duties as are now required of them in India, in our
Colonies, and at home.

On the 15th of May, 1885, it was ordered by the House
of Commons that a Select Committee be appointed to
consider whether by the establishment of a Forest School
or otherwise our woodlands could be rendered more
remunerative. By this Committee valuable evidence was
collected, and on the 24th of July they agreed to the
following report : — " Your Committee are of opinion that at
this late period of the session it will not be in their
power to conclude their investigation ; they have there-

vi PHEtfACfr

fore agreed to report the evidence already taken to the
House, and to recommend that a Committee on the same
subject should be appointed in the next session of Parlia-
ment." And this was done ; but in like circumstances,
and with like result. Meanwhile, at the meeting of
the British Association for the advancement of science
held in Aberdeen in the autumn of the year, the general
Committee of that body adopted a resolution that Sir A.
Taylor, Professor Bayley Balfour, Dr. Croumbie Brown,
Dr. Cleghorn, and Sir John Lubbock, be a Committee for
the purpose of considering whether the condition of our
forests and woodlands might not be improved by the
establishment of a forest school.

I was called to give evidence before the Committee of
the House of Commons appointed last summer to consider
this matter. In reply to a query then put to me
I stated, amongst other things, that I could not name any
School of Forestry which I could propose as a model for a
School of Forestry which would meet the wants of
Britain, but that the School of Forest Engineers in Spain
was one of a type which might be followed with advan-
tage in the organisation of a British National School of
Forestry if it should be determined to establish one in
Edinburgh, which offered special facilities for the establish-
ment of such a School.

The following compilation has been made to illustrate
what is implied in the opinions which I then expressed.

I adhere to these opinions, but I consider that valuable
suggestions which might be utilised in the organisation of
a British National School of Forestry may be derived
from a knowledge of what arrangements exist in other
Schools of Forestry on the Continent of Europe than

PREFACE. vii

that specified ; and I have prepared tor the press a
companion volume on the Schools of Forestry in
Germany, the Fatherland of Modern Forest Economy,
and the land in which Schools of Forestry originated. In
this I have given accounts of the Schools of Forestry in
Saxony, Prussia, Hanover, Saxe Weimar, Hesse Darmstadt,
Baden, Wurtemburg, and Bavaria; with notices of an
exhaustive discussion of the relative advantages of
having a School of Forestry in the country in immediate
proximity to a forest in which the students might be
exercised in forest operations, or of having it established
in connection with a University, or some similar seat
of learning; and of stations for experimental research
and observation established at the sites of Schools
of Forestry.

In connection with this intimation I may mention that
in the Plea, &c., to which I have referred, I have given
notices more or less extended, of the existing Schools of
Forestry in Russia, Saxony, Hanover, Hesse Darmstadt,
Wurtemburg, Bavaria, Austria, Poland, Russia, Finland,
Sweden, France, Italy, and Spain.

In the Journal of Forestry information is given in
regard to the course of study followed at Hohenheim, in
Wurtemburg, vol. i., pp. 81-87; at Carlsruhe, in Baden,
pp. 394-398; and at Evois, in Finland, pp. 545-551, 701-
707. In regard to this last, details are also given in a
volume entitled : Finland : its Forests and Forest Manage-
ment. In a similar volume entitled : Forestry of Norway,
information is given in regard to instruction in Sylvicul-
ture given in the Agricultural School at Aas ; and in one
entitled Forestry in Poland, Lithuania, and the Baltic
Provinces of Russia, are given the code of regulations

riii PREFACE.

prescribed for the institution of Agriculture and Forestry
at Novoi Alexandra.

It is my belief that a light will be found thrown upon
any or all of these notices of Schools of Forestry if the
reader have, previous to the examination of them, glanced
at a volume published by me entitled : Introduction to the
Study of Modern Forest Economy ; and in connection with
this, another entitled French Forest Ordinance of 1669,
with Historical Sketch of Previous Treatment of Forests in
France.

JOHN C. BROWN.

HADDINGTON, IQth, September, 1886.

CONTENTS.

PART I.

?AOB

CHAPTER I.— Origin of Corps of Forest Engineers in

Spain, ..... 1

CHAPTER II. — Origin and Development of School of

Forestry, ... . . 9

Origin of Schools of Forestry in Germany (p. 9) ; and in
other Countries (p. 11) ; Spanish Ordinances regarding
Schools (p. 13) ; Opening of School at Villaviciosa
(p. 15) ; Development of Programme of Instruction
(p. 17) ; Removal of School to the Escurial (p. 22).

CHAPTER III. — School of Forestry in the Escurial, . 24

Entrance Examination (p. 25) — First year's Studies :
Topography (p. 28) ; Applied Chemistry (p. 28)—
Second year's Studies : Applied Mechanics (p. 30) ;
Geodesy (p. 31); Meteorology and Climatology
(p. 33) ; Constructions (p 34) — Third year's Studies :
Applied Geology and Mineralogy (p. 35) ; Applied
Botany (p. 37) ; Applied Zoology (p. 41) ; Sylviculture
(p. 42) — Fourth year's Studies : Xilometry (p. 44) ;
Forest Ordenadon (p. 44) ; Forest Industries (p. 45) ;
Jurisprudence (p. 46) ; Political Economy (p. 47) ;
Drawing (p. 47).

CHAPTER IV. — The Library, . . . .48

SECTION I. — Books appropriate to Studies of First Year, 49

Sub-Section I. — Applied Mathematics (p. 49).
Sub-Section II,— Applied Chemistry (p. 49).

x CONTENTS.

SECTION II. — Hooks appropriate to Studies of Second

Year, ..'... 50

Sub-Secticn I. — Meteorology, Climatology, Stations
of Observation and Experimental Research (p. 51).
Sub-Section II.— Construction (p. 59).

SECTION III. — Books? appropriate to Studies of Third

Year, ... 64

Sub-Section I.— Mineralogy and Geology (p. 64) ;

Sub-Section II.— Applied Zoology (p. 66).

Sub-Section III. — Applied Botany (p. 69) ; Excursion
into the Field of Botany (p. 70) ; The Temperature
of the Tree (p. 77) ; Topical Botany (p. 84).

Sub-Section IV.— Sylviculture (p. 86).

SECTION IV. — Books appropriate to Studies of Fourth

Year, Xilomctry and Forest Ordtnacion, . 90

SECTION V. — Books relative to Forest Industries, . 100

Sub-Section I. — Preparation of Timber, Firewood, and

Charcoal (p. 101).
Sub-Section II. — Collection and Manipulation of Resin

(p. 103).
Sub-Section III, — Collection and Manipulation of Bark

and Cork (p. 113).

SECTION VI. — Books relative to Jurisprudence and Political

Economy, . . . . .118

Organisation of the Government of Spain (p. 120).

SECTION VLI. — General Forcstal Literature, . .135

CHAPTER V. — Fore-it Excursions, . . .145

Excursions (p. 145) ; Excursion to Gerona (p. 153) ; to
Austria (p. J55) ; to Scandinavia (p. 155) ; to America
(p. 156) ; to Algeria (p. 158) ; to Naples (p. 160).

CHAPTER VF. — Corps of Forest Engineers and Staff of

Teachers, , 162

CONTENTS, xi

PART II.

Practical Arrangements in accordance with those in the
School of Forest Engineers in Spain, suitable for
a British National School of Forestry, . .168

CHAPTER I. — Appropriate Site for a British National

School of Forestry, . . . .170

Advantages offered by Edinburgh (p. 171) ; Additions
required (p. 173) ; Facilities for Practical Training
(p. 175).

CHAPTER II. — Scholastic Arrangements, . .178

SECTION I. — Conditions, . . . .178

School under Science and Art Department of Com-
mittee of Council on Education, (p. 178) ; Professorship
of Forestry in University (p. 1 80) ; or in connection with
Watt Institute (p. 183 ; or in connection with some
Public Body (p. 184).

SECTION II. — Curriculum of Study, . . .186

Object aimed at (p. 186) ; Teachers (p. 187) ; Students
(p. 189) ; Suggested Programme (p. 190).

SECTION III. — Expense, . . . .195

Expense of such Schools on the Continent (p. 195) ;
Expense of Royal School of Mines in London, and of
Eoyal College of Science in Dublin (p. 198) ; Scholar-
ships for Students in connection with these (p. 198) ;
Expense of British Students of Forestry at Nancy
(p. 200), aad at Cooper's Hill (p. 201).

CHAPTER III. — Relative Importance to a School of
Forestry, of Scholastic Surroundings, and of
Adjacent Forests, . . . .205

Prevalent Feeling in favour of Adjacent Forests
(p. 205) ; Opinion of Dr James Brown (p. 206) ;
Extent to which a different feeling prevails on the
Continent (p. 212) ; Exhaustive Discussion of the
Subject at Congress of German Forestal Authorities,
(p. 214.)

xii CONTENTS.

CHAPTER IV. — Forestal Literature,

Limited Forestal Literature in Britain in Comparison
with that of the different Countries on the Continent
(p. 218) ; Late Increase in the Publication of such
Works in Britain (p. 220) ; Reason of past want of
Interest in Modern Forestry (p. 230) ; Notices of
Pecuniary Returns (p. 232.)

ERRATA.

PAGE

UXl

FOR

fcfeAfi

2

12

de

Don.

5

9

Ley La

La Ley.

7

11

Arices

Arias.

7

37

Francesco Goercia

Francisco Garcia.

14

19

los Horas

las Heras.

19

9

jardine

Jardin.

21

27

unsabo

no sabe.

55

14

Frederico de Botello

Frederico de Botella.

55

23

Torea

Teoria.

58

26 and 27

lldefonsa

Ildefonso.

58

28

Fomenta

Fomento.

58
67

38
17

Guadalajara
adeocuardos

Segovia,
adecuados,

69

32

Seriex

Sereix.

84

9

Sciencas

Ciencias.

86

18

des

del.

87

15

Paniagua

Paniagua.

Page 167.— By later information, I learn that now the allowance for
travelling expenses is to students 40 reals, or 8s, and to professors
100 reals, or £1 a-day, when on excursions.

SCHOOL OF FOREST ENGINEERS
IN SPAIN.

CHAPTER I.

ORIGIN OF A CORPS OF FOREST ENGINEERS IN SPAIN.

THE treatment of forests in Spain for many ag^s seems to
have differed little from that of the treatment of forests in
other countries, differing chiefly in this : for while in many
other lands the disposition to practice a wasteful destruc-
tion of forests was to some extent held in check by
measures adopted by kings and nobles to secure for them-
selves what are called the pleasures of the chase, and
this leading them to punish unmercifully the destruction by
others of trees which afforded covert for their game,— this
does not seem to have been the case, or the case to the
same extent, with the successive rulers of the Peninsula,
who were all of them of different races from the later-
conquerors of Central Europe.

The present endeavour to secure the conservation,economic
exploration, improvement, and so far as practicable and
expedient the replenishing and extension of existing forests
in Spain may be said to have originated, or taken a fresh
departure in the issue of General Ordinances in reference
to these in 1833. There had been previous legislation
in regard to the forests; and some of the laws and official
instructions which had been issued were not unimportant.
Among those deserving of notice are such issued by J)on
Fernando and Donna Isabel in 1496, and others by Don
Carlos J, and Donna Juana in 1518. And a memoir on.

2 FORESTRY IN SPAIN.

the then fctate t>£ agrarian -law by the illustrious Jovellanos,
published towards the close of the last century, made
manifest the necessity which there was for a development
and improvement of the agricultural capabilities of the
country, and arrest of the bad administrative management
to which were being subjected the extensive but fast dis-
appearing masses o£the public forests. It was published
originally in 1796; successive editions appeared in 1 814
and 1820, and yet another edition followed in 1834. It is
entitled Informe de la Sociedad Economica de Madrid, ol
Real y Supremo Consejo de Castillo,, en el Expediente de ley
Agraria Extendido por su Individuo l)e Numero de
Melchor Gaspar de, Jovellanos a Nombre de la Junta
Encargada de sa Formation y Con Arreglo a Sus
Opiniones. — ' Statements of the Economical Society of
Madrid to to the Royal Council of Castile in regard to
the Agrarian Law, prepared by one of their number in
the name of a Committee charged with the work, and
in accordance with their views.'

The edition of 1820 is considered the most trustworthy
of the earlier editions, as it was prepared under the
auspices and direction of the Economical Society, following
most scrupulously the original, corrected by the author, so
as not to reproduce inaccuracies which had appeared in
other editions.

Amongst points discussed, which relate more imme-
diately to forestal matters, are those connected with com-
mons, lands belonging to communal councils, and public
forests, which, with some trifling exceptions, it was at that
time considered would be best protected from destruction
by their passing into the hands of private proprietors.

It is a prevalent opinion amongst students of forest
science that while coppice woods may be exploited by
private proprietors, without detriment to public interests,
timber forests, and more especially timber forests from
which are expected trees of very large growth, can only be
satisfactorily administered by the State. It has thus cotne
to pass that importance has been attached as a point of

ORIGIN OF FOREST ENGINEERS IN SPAIN. 3

some interest, to what were the views of Jovellanos on
this matter.

In a Catalogue Raisonne prepared and printed for
private circulation, by lino Sr. Don Jose Jordanay Morera,
of upwards of eleven hundred books, MSS. and charts in
Spanish, original or translated, bearing upon forest science,
the author writes thus of a treatise included in a collection
of published works by Don Gaspar Melchor de Jovellanos,
entitled Representation de la Villa de Gijon para
que se prorogue el arbitrio de vino y sidra para
Fuentes, Calles y Plantios : — c For this work we are
indebted to the illustrious author of the Informe Sobre La
Ley Agraria, which, notwithstanding its unpretentious
appearance, is one of the greatest importance in deter-
mining precisely what were the opinions of that enlightened
patriot in regard to the nature, the advantage to the
country, the utilisation, and the possession or tenure
by the State of the public forests, in regard to which
many, misled it may be by the brevity or conciseness
of his statements, have supposed that he spake doubtingly,
rather than with certainty, in regard to the question of
the absolute and entire alienation or sale of the forest
possessions of the country. From the text of the
Representacion it is apparent at least that his opinion did
not go so far as this, but rather that on the contrary he
assigns to public forests advantages, and a utilisation of a
national character impossible to be obtained from forests
held only in the interest of a private proprietor.' And he
remarks in regard to the Representacion /—'One of the most
noteworthy paragraphs in it is the following : — Nor is
less certain the necessity of creating on the approach to
this town a plantation of pines on the extensive sand
plain stretching away to the east and the south, the sand
composing which is kept in continuous movement by the
wind, enters the streets and accumulates in them,
obstructing and embarrassing the public way to the great
trouble of passengers, and the great discomfort
annoyance of the inhabitants,

FORESTRY IN SPAIN.

* It is the case that with a view to remedy this evil there
have been constructed protective banks, in regard to
which this town addresses a separate representation to
your Highness ; but much more important would be such
a plantation of pines as has been spoken of which would
be productive of two great benefits — one arresting and
breaking the force of the winds, and the other clothing and
solidifying the ground, delivering this beautiful town for all
time coming from an enemy which has been destructive
to it in many ways, and proportionally producing an
abundance of wood so necessary at the entrance to a port
which has its little shipbuilding yard, where are being
constructed continuously boats, pinaces, launches, and
other vessels used in fishery and commerce.

' This is the more desirable because it would lead the
town to extend other plantations in its immediate vicinity,
for which it holds lands more extensive and well adapted
for the purpose than may be imagined, affording protection
to the new highway which is being constructed by orders
of his Majesty ; and giving shade to the new promenade and
canals of the Humedal, made by permission of your
Highness ; and crowning with trees the forest of Santa
Catalina, which protects this coast town on the north.

' All of these plantations, and many others which might
be made in the vicinity of this town, were proposed to
our Town Council by our compatriot D. Gaspar Melchor
de Jovellanos.'

It has been for many years past a subject of keen contro-
versy, I may say of bitter dispute, between the Govern-
ment and the students of forest science in Spain, whether
it would tend to the saving or the ruin of the country to
alienate the State forests, which, it is alleged, would almost
certainly issue in the destruction of them ; and it supplies to
the opponents of alienation a sentimental satisfaction to find
that Jovellanos, to the publication of whose Informe Sobre
Icy Agraria is attributed the modern development of
forest science and forest economy in Spain, of whom it
been alleged thathe was opposed to their views, was

OF >ORESf ENGINEERS Itt SPAIN.

really at one with them. What however chiefly interests
us is that this work of Jovellano's marks the rise of the
present interest in forestry manifested in Spain.

In a work by Sr. Don Francisco Garcioa Martino, entitled
Los Monies y el Cuerpo de Ingenieros en las Cortes Con-
stituents — the Forests and the Corps of Forest Engineers
in the Cortes and Legislative Assembly, the author, hav-
ing referred to the work, proceeds : — 'The well-remembered
Informe Sobre ley la Agraria of the distinguished Jovel-
lanos produced a profound sensation in the beginning of
the present century amongst the illustrious men of the
country who realised the necessity of developing more
fully the productions of our soil. The doings denounced
in that celebrated document, with impregnable proofs of
the vices inherent in the administrative management of
our public forests, led to the serious consideration of that
department of spontaneous products, which, with the
abrogation of certain ordinances relative to the marine
trade, were left abandoned and at the mercy of interested
persons, and the ever-increasing pecuniary necessities of
the municipal proprietors. Under the inspiration of the
views of Jovellanos, they broke the fetters which pre-
vented liberty being enjoyed by agriculture. Thus was
extended its sphere of action ; but under the pretext of
convenient, useful, and even necessary forest clearings,
there were committed such abuses in the forests, and
our best forest masses were felled in such a way that the
Government saw itself under the necessity of legislating
anew in regard to forest property, and of doing so in accord-
ance with the prevailing views of the day. Reformed
France and cultured Germany set the example of restrain-
ing and repairing destructions which ignorance and
administrative errors on the one hand, and wars and
political confusion on the other, had produced in their
forest riches.'

Sr. Martinos, in his introduction to this work, having

6 FORESTRY IN SPAIN.

alluded to the important measures which had been
previously adopted with a view to the development of
the agricultural capabilities of Spain, to the good service
which had been done by the several corps of engineers,
and to what more might have been done, writes: — 'The
law of the 22nd December, 1833, promulgating the
general ordinances relative to forests, recognised the
fact of the progressive destruction of these, and to meet
them created a General Directory, to the charge of which
were committed all those denominated public forests.
The Admiralty lost then all the privileges it had previ-
ously exercised in regard to inspection, marking and
appropriating trees. This was a reasonable and just
arrangement ; but on the other hand the interests of the
State were doomed by the limitation in Art. 24 that no
other proofs will be admitted beyond authentic titles of pro-
prietorship and uninterrupted possession for more than
thirty years ; which is a period far too brief in a matter
pertaining to lands without fixed boundaries, and aban-
doned from remote times. Moreover, while there is mani-
fested an interest in the proper regulation of this branch
of the service in these ordinances, comprising in all 236
articles, of arrangements in regard to administration, conser-
vation, sales, felling, utilization, policy, legal proceedings
and penalties, there is apparently a lack of sound doctrine
and of special knowledge of the matter in hand. It is a
collection of practical rules, some of them contradictory
and others impracticable, but they tended, beyond all
doubt, to restrain abuses by imposing severe penalties for
these. It is an almost literal translation of the French code,
applied without sufficient study to our country ; it opened
the door to great abuses ; and it was the occasion of no small
destruction of the riches, the conservation of which it was
designed to secure.'

What was now felt to be of imperious necessity was
that those employed in this department should possess
the requisite special knowledge. To meet this it was there

ORIGIN OF tfORESt ENGINEERS IN SPAIN. 1

were issued special decrees on the 30tli April and on the 1st
May, 1835. It was said in Art. 7 of the former :
— ' There shall be created in the corps of the civil
engineers other two bodies (besides those of roads
and of mines), geographic engineers and woodland forest
engineers, so soon as the formation of primary schools of
both shall admit of their being established.' The second
postpones till the 1st of October following the creation of
a special school for forest or woodland engineers, under
the direction of the inspector of forests, Don Sandalio de
Arices ; and in Art. 7 it says : — ' When it shall
be the case that there shall be created a corps of wood-
land or forest engineers, the director of the school shall
be assigned rank and position in this, with due considera-
tion of the services which up to that time he may have
rendered.'

The civil war, and other matters of greater importance
demanding attention, prevented the realising of this
patriotic purpose at this time. But subsequently both
purposes were carried out ; and in studying the general
question of forestry in Spain we find that the develop-
ment of the School of Forestry, La Escuela especial de
Ingenieros de Mantes, and that of the corps of forest
engineers, Cuerpo de Ingenieros de Monies, were con-
current, each reacting upon the other, the instruction and
training received in the school qualifying the members of
the corps to make a progressive advance in the discharge
of their professional functions, and this making new
demands on the teachers of aspirants for such appoint-
ments. Thus, in marked parallelism, may be observed what
is stated in regard to the development of the School of
Forestry in a work by Sr. Don Carlos Castel y Clemente,
entitled Noticia Sobre la Fundacion y Desarrollo de la
Escuela Especial de Ingenieros de Monies : Notice of the
Foundation and Development of the Special School of
Forest Engineers, and in the arguments of the treatise by
Sr. D. Francesco Goercia Marti no, entitled Les Monies
y el Caerpo de Ingenieros en los tiortes Constituents.

CHAPTER II.

ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT OF THE SCHOOL OF
FORESTRY.

THE Cuerpo de Ingenieros de Monies, or Spanish Corps of
Forest Engineers, is recruited exclusively from the School of
Forestry, Escuehi Especial de Ingenieros de Monies.

Such a school was instituted by decree of the 1st May,
1835 ; but many modifications were subsequently made in
the arrangements and organisation, more especially in 1843
and 1846. when the school acquired something of the
development which it now presents as a State institution
under the Minister of public works and the Director General
of public institutions. It was for a considerable time
located at Villaviciosa d'Odon, near Madrid ; but in 1809
it was transferred to one of the buildings pertaining to the
palace of the Escurial, not far from the Sierra Guadarama,
about two hours' distance by rail from Madrid. To Sr.
Don Carlos Castel y Clemen te we are indebted for much
information in regard to the early history of the diffusion
of forest science in Spain by schools of forestry. In the
latter end of 1876, in accordance with instructions given
to him, he undertook to collect information which might
serve as the basis of a memoir on the subject ; and in the
following year the substance of this was published by him
in a brochure entitled Noticia Sobre la Fundaciony Desar-
rollo de la Escuela Especial de Ingenieros de Monies, in the
introduction to which honour was done, as was most
meet, to Sr. D. Bernardo de la Torre Rojas, founder, and
for many years Director of the first school of forestry in
Spain, the acknowledged 'father of the Spanish School
of Forestry.'

After sketching triefly the reckless destruction of forest

OF THE SCllOOL OF FORESTRY. 9

wealth in Central Europe in byegone times, to arrest
which was again and again attempted by legislation in
France and other countries, but with little effect, he refers
them to what was done in Germany : —

' In the seventeenth century originated in some of the
States of Germany the application of technical science to
the treatment of forest masses. The rules, the aphor-
isms, and the whole of the directions which are compressed
in the forestal knowledge of the ancients, are principles
indefinite, obscure, uncertain, unconnected, destitute of
method or systematized relations. Moser created in 1757
the first body of systematic teaching on the subject j and
to the impulse given to this by him, and the weighty
energy of Langen/ Laspar, Zanthier, and others, are we
indebted for the formation of the first plans of scientific
treatment of forests begun in 1731 in the forests of the
Dukedom of Brunswick. He, in his time, Langen having
been the first to do so, perceiving the necessity of entrusting
the management of the forests to a specially ed ucated and
trained body of officials, possessing all necessary know-
ledge and information, with a view to raising up a body
of such men, established the first school of forestry in
Wernigerode in the year 1772. But others consider as the
first school that founded by Zanthier in Ilseriberg, which
was followed some years later by the establishment of
that by Haase in Lauterberg, that which G. Hartig
founded in Hungen in 1791, that founded in Zillbach by H.
Gotta in 1795, and various others, all due to the efforts of
individuals, and manifesting that essentially practical
character which was so requisite to meet the requirements
of the time and the conditions in which the distinguished
founders were placed, but they lacked means which would
allow of there being given to them the influence and
development which became needful.

/ Contemporaneously with the schools there were pro-
duced also new methods, or systems of exploitation ; and the
names which have been cited are those of men who
proved authorities of the highest rank, who have opened

lo FORESTRY IN SPAIK.

up new paths in forest study. For me it is impossible,
nor does space permit me, to produce a chronological and
critical narrative of the principal phases through which the
newborn forest science passed in its evolution and succes-
sive development ; fresh in the memory of many in Spain
must be the remarkable articles written under the title,
Sistemas Forestates, by*the erudite Forest Engineer, His
Excellency Sr. D. Agustin Pascual, the first Spanish
writer on dasanomy, and formerly professor in our School
of Forestry, to whom it is enough that I thus refer while
passing on to state succinctly the new form, and report
the multiplication and general organisation of forestal
schools which occurred in Germany and in some other
countries in Europe.

' The primary organisation of the schools founded in
Ilsenberg, Wernigerode, Lauterberg, Hungen, Zillbach,
Walterhausen, Rottenhaus, Castell, &c., in the period from
1766 to 1805, was that of several other private centres of
instruction, which died out with their founders, or
suffered the fate which befell these in the course of their
existence. All these made themselves remarkable by the
great impulse and development which they gave to the
diffusion of forest science, and by their having raised up
a numerous and distinguished body of men to assist and
direct at a later time the work of bringing into order the
forests of the districts in which they were situated. There
stands out prominently amongst all these the school
founded by Gotta. He, being charged with the reduction
to an orderly condition of the forest of Fishbach, spent
some years in the execution of this work, during
these years giving theoretic and practical instruction to
the young men who assisted him there : thus was insti^
tuted the new centre of forestal instruction of Zillbach.
Such reputation was acquired by this establishment of
modern times, that in 1795 there was .granted to it a sub-
vention from the State, by means which Cotta was enabled
considerably to augment the means available then for the
prosecution of study. In 1810 Cotta was appointed

ORIGIN OF THE SCHOOL OF FOREStRt. il

Director of forest maaagement in Saxony. He at once
perceived and pointed out the lack which existed of a
skilled staff of officials, who should execute and assist in
the execution of his projects, and with a view to meeting
this desideratum the forest school of Zillbach was trans-
ferred to Tharand in 1811, and was ceded to the Govern-
ment on the 12th of May, 1816. Converted into a Govern-
ment academy, and furnished with all necessary resources,
the school of Tharand, devoted to the instruction of the
forest engineers of the State, very soon flourished bene-
ficently, attracting to study there the studious youth of
many different countries, and serving as the sharp edge
of a wedge for the general diffusion of those truths which,
spreading themselves a little latter in different countries,
proved the occasion of there being opened other schools
which take pride in calling themselves daughters of the
Saxon academy.

' In their turn, in Austria and Russia — nations which,
if they did not take the first step, followed at once the
advancing march of the States of Germany — there had
been organised Schools of Forestry ; those in A ustria hav-
ing the character of a private establishment in the begin-
ning, but those of Russia being Government institutions
from the first. Amongst those, the first established — that
founded in 1770 by Ehrenwerk in Rotherhaus, in
Bohemia — continued till 1791. This was succeeded by
another, established in the beginning of the present
century in Km man ; and coincident with its appearance
we meet with the schools of Eisgneb in Moravia,
Eisgenstadt in Hungary, and Gratzen in Bohemia.

' Passing from private seminaries to public and Govern-
ment institutions, there were founded the schools of
Datschetz in Moravia, and that of Plass in Bohemia,
opened in 1823 and 1880, in which there is some Govern-
ment intervention, but this is very limited. When the
Government was once convinced — as was the case like-
wise with the Government of Germany — of the urgent
necessity there was for entrusting the administration of

IS FORESTRY IN

forests to a staff of officials endowed with special scientific
knowledge, they arranged in 1805 the opening of a course
of practical instruction in sylviculture in Purkersdorf,
near Vienna ; and subsequently, in 1813, increasing the
staff of professors, and with a well-considered plan of
instruction, this school was transferred to Mariabrun, not
far from the capital of the empire. In 1827 the plan of
study was changed, and the subjects of study were
divided into four semestres, or half-year sessions ; ulti-
mately, in 1852, this was reorganised by distributing over
three years the study of the different prescribed subjects
which comprised the course followed by forest engineers.

' Other schools exist in Austria, due — some to the
initiation of private individuals, others to the action of
provinces, and most to the exertions of forestal associa-
tions, which have increased in that country. Such, for
example, is the school of sylviculture in Weisswasser, that
in Aussee, that of Kreuz, and others.

' A faithful imitator of Germany, and endowed with a
great amount of practical spirit, Russia in the beginning
of the present century introduced the forestal instruction
imported from the academies which were founded years
before by those who well merit the name of Fathers of
the present forest science. The schools of Zarsko-Selo
and Kafelskoy, created in 1803 and 1804, propagated the
movement which was being initiated by the successful
scholars of the German schools. These being reorganised
in 1813, the school was removed to St. Petersburg, where,
in 1829, the new school received the name of Forest
Institute, and was some time later made more complete
by the establishment of a school of practical forestry at
Lisseno}7. Russia has now additional schools, which may
be reckoned amongst the means available for forestal
instruction. These are called schools of the Steppes,
amongst which, deserving special mention, is that opened
in 1842 in Anadol, the highest lying and most barren
spot in the Steppes of Ekatherinoslav ; the primary object
of which is to educate and train sylviculturists for the

ORIGIN OF THE SCHOOL OF FORESTRY. 13

management of steppe lands of that extensive dis-
trict.

1 In regard to France, into which the ideas prevailing in
Germany penetrated without difficulty, they then perceived
also the necessity of entrusting the administration of
public forests to a staff of officials possessed of a know-
ledge of the several departments of forest science ; and, to
secure this, they instituted in Nancy, in the year 1824, the
school where the forest engineers thenceforward have
received instruction. The first director of this school, M.
Lorentz, having been educated at Tharand, the school was
formed after the model of the earlier schools of Germany,
and its organisation was accordingly similar to that of
those schools ; and it has long maintained a well-deserved
consideration for the zeal, and energy, and work of its
professors.

4 Such, in rough outline, is a sketch of the history of
forestal instruction in Europe, reflecting the dominating
ideas of different nations in which schools of forestry had
been established, when first there was heard in Spain a
voice with authority proposing to open for her also a road
which might lead to the consideration and restoration of
her diminished forest riches.'

Sr. Castel, in his treatise on the origin and develop-
ment of the school, writes, in accordance with what has
been stated in the preceding chapter in reference to the
General Ordinance of 1833, cited in the preceding chapter,as
issued to prevent a progressive devastation and destruc-
tion of forests in Spain. In reference to the General
Ordinance of 1833, he says : ' While these General Ordi-
nances put an end to some vicious practices and privileges
which could not be sustained, and created a General
Directory, to the charge of which were committed all the
forests now designated public, they did not break with the
traditions and proceedings of established usage comingdown
from the olden times, manifesting a lack of special know-
ledge of the matter in hand, and great if not absolute

14 FORESTRY IN SPAIN.

ignorance of the good doctrine which found its birth,
some fifty years before in the schools of Germany, and had
cast its dawning light upon the northern slopes of the
Cordilleras of the Pyrenees/

Two years later, by Royal decree of 30th April, 1835,
it was established, that within what was called the corps
of civil engineers, tUere should be established a depart-
ment designated Inspector of Woods, so soon as the
creation of the necessary school should admit of this being
efficiently organised ; and next day (1st May), there was
prepared a Royal decree, according to which the said
school of forest engineers was established in the capital of
the kingdom, in October of Uhe same year, under the
direction of Don Antonio Sandalio de Arias.

The year, however, closed without the project being
realised, and the subject might seem to be forgotten. But
some years later a son of Gotta, who with Hartig founded
the original school of forestry in Saxony, was invited by
Senor Don Martin de los Horas, Intendente de la Real
Casa y Patrimonio, to come and organise a scientific
management of the forests of the Royal patrimony. He
could not come ; and to meet the more pressing require-
ments of the case two young men were sent, at the charges
of the Royal treasury, to the forest academy at Tharand,
to go through the course of study required of them as forest
engineers; and on 16th March, 1843, there was issued by
the Regent of the kingdom a decree ordering anew the
establishment in Madrid of a special school of forest
engineers, and practical schools of sylviculture, land sur-
veying, and mensuration, in the provinces of Cuenca,
Huesca, Jaen, and Santander. Along with this decree
there were issued regulations for the schools, but like the
first attempt to accomplish the same object this second
proved abortive.

A Royal decree, issued on the 18th November, 1846,
had, however, happier results, and 011 the 10th January,
1847, by Royal order, Senor Don Bernardo de la Torre
Rojas was appointed Director of the projected sciiool,

ORIGIN OP THE SCHOOL OF FORESTRY. 15

Regulations were prepared, and professors were appointed to
give instructions in the school, and befitting premises,
worthy of the school of sylviculture was found first in the
ancient palace-castle of Villaviciosa d'Odon, a chaste and
beautiful building erected in times anterior to the com-
mune of Castile, destroyed partially on that account in
1520, and restored internally in the year 1584, according
to plans by the celebrated Juan de Herrera, honoured of
Spain, and the creator of many of her architectural
treasures.

By a Royal decree of 18th August, 184-7, the regulations
were confirmed, and the school was opened on the 2nd of
January, 184-8, under the director and four professors,
with a vice-director and assistant professor superadded.
All of these are spoken of in terms of high commendation.

Villaviciosa was situated, as has been stated, some four
leagues and a-half from Madrid. S'enor Castel writes : —

' If we advert to what has been said elsewhere in regard
to the conditions of the place where the school was to be
located, it may be remembered that according to the
arrangements laid down in 1835 and 1843, it was required
that the school was to be created in the Capital. The
Royal decree of 18th November, 184G, is the first public
document from which it appears to have been determined
that the school of forestry should be established in some
locality near to this — and in consequence — though the
statement is but vague — away from Madrid, the centre of
superior instruction in all Government civil careers, and in
many of the military ones. It may be asked — what was
it which determined this resolution, which was maintained
in the Royal decree of 1847, and to which practical effect
was given in appropriating for the purpose the palace-
castle of Villaviciosa, in which the classes were opened on
the 2nd January, 1848?

' Two principal arguments which suggest themselves at
once as fundamental ones which may have weighed with the
Government are these : The belief that a school of sylvi-
culture would find its natural and appropriate place in the

16 FORESTRY IN SPAIN.

midst of fields, and near to a forest where the practical
application of the fundamental studies might be possible
and easy ; and the knowledge that there did not exist in
the city a property with suitable buildings: this might
make the acceptance of the offer of that building
more easy for the founder than to take from the general
funds an amount, necessarily large, for the construction
and fitting up of premises destined for an establishment
which in truth owed its birth more to the personal energy
of one resolute person than to any spontaneous and
creative interest taken in it by individuals occupying a
prominent place in the administrative centres concerned/
And he proceeds : —

4 We may here glance for a moment at the primary pre-
requisites of such an institution, and at the measure in
which the castle of Villaviciosa met these, as these had led to
the preference being first given to Madrid by Professor
Don Maximo Laguna in I860, and supported in his
remarkable memoir, Excurcion Forested por los Imperios
de Austria y liussia, he considering that from the par-
ticular character of the fields around Villaviciosa and, the
insignificant population there, with the absence of nil
scientific appliances beyond those pertaining to the
school itself, that place could not compete with Madrid
as a site for a school of forest engineers, the slight
advantage gained by facilities for practical instruction being-
eclipsed by the immensely greater facilities for scientific
instruction presented by the numerous museums and
libraries which eniich the capital of the kingdom.

' More weighty however, and determining, in my opinion,
the ulterior decision, was the circumstance that within three
leagues and a-half from the city was a magnificent palace,
which could be had by the State at comparatively small
expense, and on which necessary works of repair and
adaptation could be executed at much less expense than
the rents yielded by it — an immense benefit not easily to
be met with elsewhere. And there the school was esta-
blished in 1847, at least temporarily, as said Senor

ORIGIN OF THE SCHOOL OF FORESTRY, 1?

Laguna, the most weighty reason being that it was now a
question of — To be or not to be. Before that question all
the considerations which have been mentioned, and all
others which might have been advanced, had to give way ;
nor could this be considered in any way a censure on the
honoured founder, as the aforementioned Forest Engineer
elsewhere remarks : " Bitter vexations always accompany
him who initiates or attempts to carry out an improve-
ment ; and the noble patrician, together with all the
worthy persons who with disinterested patriotism have
contributed to open the gates of the castle of Odon to
the studious youth, deserve for ever the applause and
gratitude of those who have any regard for the true
advancement of the country." '

Much is attributed to the zeal, energy, intelligence, and
influence of the director, Senor Don Bernardo de la
Torre Rojas, of whom mention has already been made,
and to the practical experience and knowledge of modern
forest science of Professor Don Agustin Pascual, and
eleve of the Forst-Austalt, of Tharand.

The course of instruction soon became considerably
developed and extended. Much was done by virtue of
inherent energy, and powers given to the senatus and
staff of professors. As extended powers were required,
these were given or sanctioned by successive Royal orders.
Besides those which have been referred to, there are
mentioned by Senor Castel a Royal order of 2d July,
1848 ; one of 24th November, 1849 ; and one of 29th
November of the same year ; one of 18th January, 1850,
and of 4th April of that year. By these alterations,
additions and corrections were made in the regulations
which were originally issued. And again, additions were
made to the studies prescribed, and modifications in the
arrangements for the prosecution of these, by a Royal
ordinance issued 31st January, 1858.

Additional and greater changes were introduced by a
Royai decree of 20th September, 1858, which greatly

C

IS FORESTRY IN SPAIN.

modified the programme of study. Ou the 31st October
iu the following year (1859), arrangements were made for
the establishment of a school of practical forestry, in
which instruction might be given in forest work under the
direction of a forest engineer ; and these were carried out
in the institution of such a school by Royal order of the
9th December of thafr year, in the forest of Espiuar, a
village in the Province of Segovia

About the same time, in consequence of the flourishing
condition of the School of Forestry at Villa viciosa, a
scheme was formed for raising still higher the character of
that school by increasing the number of sciences in which
instruction should be given there to candidates for appoint-
ments as forest engineers, so as to make it equal to other
special schools of the highest estimation in the country —
if riot also to the most distinguished schools of forestry in
other lands. This was carried into effect in accordance
with a Royal decree of 18th May, 1862; and at the same
time the school ot practical forestry at Espinar was given
up, after a year's experience, under the direction of the
Forest Engineer-in-Chief in charge of the service in the
Province.

In no other respect was the course of study greatly
changed, but this has been considered as marking the
close of the first, and the commencement of the second
stage in the development of the school.

In that first stage of this development very great im-
portance was attached, and not improperly, to training in
practical work in the forests. In the second stage now
commenced, without detriment to such practical work,
more attention than had previously been given was given
to education, and instruction, and study, during the school
session, and practical training was prosecuted away from
the school in forest districts; and at this time the several
museums attached to the school received great additions :
they then entered upon that development which has secured
for them the full equipment which they have now attained

OklGIN OF THfe SCHOOL OF FORESTRY. Id

by additions obtained on the occasional and annual
excursions of the students, and otherwise.

A campo forestal, created in 1850 in connection with a
leafy wood of elms in the immediate vicinity of the school,
which, with some adjacent ground, was planted with pines
and beeches, and served for the practice of students in
sylviculture, and the acclimisation of trees from other
countries, now took more and more the form of an
arboretu m , or ja rdine forestal.

In the spring and autumn, to supply lack of practice in
forest work, excursions were made sometimes to the
pineries of the Sierra del Guadarrama ; at other times to
the oak and beech woods of the Liebana ; also to the
pineries of Coca to study the collecting and manipulation
of rosin; and to the magnificent forests of Valsain and
the Espinar, and to those which form the great mass of
the Serranias of Cuenca and of Segura, in the province of
Jaen. In these excursions the students were accompanied
by some one of the professors, who, to quote from Senor
Castel, ' in one place finds what suggests the explanation
and discussion of matters pertaining to botanical geography,
in another records of geognostic and miueralogical know-
ledge already acquired in the school, and always spots
suitable for exercising the students in fixing forest com-
partments, in determining the ages of different kinds of
trees, in calculating the possible yield of produce, and the
many other problems which go to complete the questions
embraced in the systematic arrangement of a forest.'

In the year 1866 there was published by Royal order,
a report of a Tour of Observation of Forestry in the
Empires of Austria and Russia, made by Royal order in
the spring of 1864 by Sr. D. Maxima Laguna y Villanueva,
Forest Eugineer-in-Chief of the 2nd class, and Professor in
the School of Forestry, Excursion Forestal, &c., to which
reference has already been made. In this there is given
the Royal order, communicated by the Minister de
Fomento, under date of 30th May, 1864, requiring Senor

20 FORESTRY IN SPAIN.

Lagurra to undertake the tour of observation m question,
and give his attention to the state of information and
mode of instruction, the administration of the forests, and
the cultivation and improvement of the Steppes in the
Empires of Austria and Russia.

The report treats also of the instruction given in Austria in
the schools and academies of Mariabrunn, Schmnitz, Weis-
wasser, Ausee, and Kreuz, comparing it with that given at
Villaviciosa, and proposing certain useful modifications in
this. It then discusses the forest services of Austria
and Bohemia, Hungary and Saxony, together with the
instructions in forestry ffiven in Russia, in the School of
Practical Forestry in Lissino, and in those of the Steppes,
and the general administration of forests in Russia.

From 1862, the programme of study then instituted,
with such modifications as have been indicated, was
followed for six years. But by Royal order of 22nd July,
1868, approval was given to a new programme of entrance
examination to the so-called special schools of the king-
dom ; and on the 23rd October of that year there was
issued a decree reorganising the special schools of roads,
canals and bridges, of mines and of forests. By this the
number of studies required in each school was reduced,
and there \va,s substituted for instruction in these in
elementary and higher mathematics, and a good many of
the physical science, entrance examinations on these sub-
jects ; and on 24th October, 1870, there was issued the
regulation completing what was then begun. The reforma-
tion ultimately effected, which arose out of the Acts of
23rd October, 1868, and of 24th October, 1870, is what is
now in operation, modified only in one or two points by
Royal order of 25th May, 1877. By the decree of 23rd
October, 1868, the prescribed course embraced a period of
three years; by the decree issued under date of 24th
October, 1870, it was so extended as to embrace a period
of four years ; but by a temporary or provisional arrange-
ment it is at present completed in three years.

OKIG1JS OF THE SCHOOL OP FuKESTKY. 21

The first year embraces the study of topography, geology,
cubic mensuration, and applied mathematics ; the second
year — chemistry, mineralogy, botany, zoology, and geology;
the third year — construction, sylviculture, forest economy,
political economy, and administrative law ; and of late
years a private preparatory school for students has been
organised and conducted.

Students on leaving the school are attached, in the
character of candidates, to forest districts ; and it is only
after passing through this stage of training that they
receive appointments as Forest Engineers of the second
class.

By His Excellency Senor Don Bernardo de la Torre
Rojas, founder of the school of Forest Engineers of Villa-
viciosa de Odon, there was published in January, 1880,
an autobiographical pamphlet entitled Ingenieros de
Monies — Recaerdos de la Fundacion, in the concluding
note of which the author expresses his desire that it should
be considered as part of his last will and testament recom-
mending the treatise to the Forest Engineers that they
should see to the preservation of it, as a family memoir,
and as the last evidence he could give to them of his un-
changing affection.

In the treatise itself, is declared, the philosophical senti-
ment adopted by him, and embodied in the institution to
the effect that productive work must be founded on know-
ledge saber es haxer, el que no hace unsabo. He traces
cursorally the history of the creation of the school, states
certain ruling principles which served as a guide to him in
what he did in founding it, and in giving to it the practical
character impressed upon it; lie comments on these, and
enlarges on the bearing of them on the creation and main-
tenance of an esprit de corps, and the importance of this,
together with self-negation, of high moral character and
conduct, of discipline, and of other fundamental require-
ments in every professional institution designed for the
service of the State,

22 FORESTRY IN SPAIN.

A third stage in the development of the school com-
menced with the removal of it from Villaviciosa to the
Escurial. Of this change Senor Castel writes : —

' At no great distance from the Court, and in this respect
not otherwise than in accordance with the text of the decree
of 18th November, 1846, there was in possession of the
State a valuable jewe[, the bequest of the piety of our
kings, and a superb manifestation of the genius of our
artists. In this, among its numerous adjuncts, there
were buildings abundantly spacious, and in conditions
equally adequate to lodge worthily a school, though it
should have to come thither from an ancient palace, the
property then of the Counts of Chinchon.

' The first building of the adjuncts to the palace, one
erected for the lodgment of attendants on the Royal
Court, was the building appropriated in 1869, with neces-
sary alterations, as a site for the school which still occupies
it.

' It may be asked what were the considerations deter-
mining this arrangement? On the one hand there was
the desire to save the money, which, under the head of
rent for the palace school and the experiment ground, had
annually to be paid to the proprietors; and, on the other,
an urgent necessity existing for enlarged accommodation
for the museums and cabinets, for more numerous and
more valuable objects connected with the instruction given,
which had been presented to the institution, than could be
procured in the buildings originally assigned to them ; and
in fine the appropriate forestral situation of the Royal
palace of San Lorenzo, and the facility which existed
there for enriching the school with an experimental forest,
a garden in which culture might be tried, and spacious
grounds for the various forms of practice which the instruc-
tion of the students might render desirable. Without
materially exceeding the distance from Madrid, and vir-
tually diminishing this by the superior facility of communi-
cation, the new site prepared for the school fulfilled two
important conditions ; it gave to the school a spacious

ORIGIN OF THE SCHOOL OF FOKI&TRY. 23

building adequate to its requirements, and it offered to
the school certain facilities for the practical study of science,
in which respect the town of the Escurial compared
advantageously with that of Villaviciosa, which were in-
creased by the greater facility for communicating with
Madrid. To such an extent was this the case that amongst
the opinions expressed by parties best qualified to form a
judgment in regard to the expediency of the removal of the
school from the one place to the other, there appears an
approval expressed by the founder of the School of Forestry,
His Excellency Senor D. Bernardo de la Torre Rojas, who,
after the removal, visiting what he always called his dear
school, declared with the utmost cordiality the satisfaction
which he felt in seeing it located in a situation more
appropriate to the requirements of the institution.

' The alterations, rapidly executed with remarkable
skill under the direction of Professor Don Ignatio Macias
allowed of the transference of the school during the
vacation at the end of 1870, and the consequent opening
of the classes in the new premises on the 7th of January,
1871, and thus, in so much that it coincided with the decree
of the 24th October in the preceding year, may be said to
have completed the second period, and commenced the
current period of instruction in this school.'

In the transferred school the previously existing regula-
tions continued in force for years, being only modified by
some slight alteration in the entrances and examinations
made by Royal order of 25th May, 1877 ; and while it had
been the case that there were two classes of students, one
resident within the school designated Interior, the other
being outside designated Exterior, but in every other re.spect
enjoying the same advantages, privileges, an 1 status, — this
was altered, and only one class was now recognised the
Interior, though, in consequence of the removal of the
school to the Escurial, while the designation was retained
all the students lived outside the school.

CHAPTER III.

THE SCHOOL OF FORESTRY IN THE ESCURIAL.

-

IN the School of Forestry in the Escurial, as was the case
in the School of Forestry at Villaviciosa, for some years
previous to the removal of the school to the Escurial,
the curriculum of study embraces two periods — that of
preparatory studies ; and that of what are more strictly
reckoned professional studies.

The so-called preparatory studies are classified, and
are arranged in two sections, the first of which may be
attested by academic certificate ; the second comprises
matters on which the aspirant must pass an examination
at the School of Forestry. The former comprises Spanish
grammar, Latin grammar, geography, and general history,
with special knowledge of the history of Spain. The latter
comprises arithmetic, elementary, and the higher algebra,
plane and solid geometry, rectilinial and spherical trigono-
metry, analytical geometry of two or three dimensions,
natural philosophy, chemistry, natural history, lineal,
topographic, and landscape drawing, French and German.

The second period of study embraces four years spent in
the school. The studies pursued during the first of these
years com prise topography, integral and differential calculus,
applied mathematics, applied chemistry, and drawing.

The studies of the second year comprise theoretic and
applied mechanics, geology, meteorology and climatology,
construction, including building and hydraulic engineering,
and drawing.

In the third year are studied mineralogy and applied
geology, applied zoology, applied botany, sylviculture, and
drawing.

In the fourth year xilometry, or measurements of wood

THE SCHOOL OF FORESTRY IN THE ESCURIAL. 25

of every kind ; forest ordenacion, or partition and exploita-
tion on scientific principles ; forest industries ; the adminis-
tration of law ; political economy ; and drawing.

This summary, however, can convey to one unacquainted
with the programmes of studies followed at such schools
a very inadequate conception of what is comprised under
the heads stated as has been intimated.

In order to gain admittance to the school, the applicant
must be accredited by certificates or diplomas of having
passed an academic examination in the following subjects
— Spanish grammar, Latin grammar, geography, and the
general and detailed history of Spain ; and he is admitted,
after passing with approval, an examination in the school
on the elements of natural history, the elements of the
theory of mechanics, descriptive geometry and its applica-
tion to projections and to perspective, physics, chemistry,
lineal, topographical, and landscape drawing, and his
knowledge of the French and German languages.

The attainments made in the latter preparatory
studies are determined by personal examination at the
school. Every year there are issued programmes specifying
the subjects on which applicants fur admission must be
prepared to be examined. According to the programme for
the year 1877, the only one I happen to have at command,
the preliminary entrance examination through which
applicants have to pass embrace amongst others the follow-
ing subjects: — Theory of mechanics, the general principles of
statics, and their application to the determination of the
centre of gravity ; the general principles of dynamics,
including inertia, momentum, reaction, vital force, move-
ments of points and movements of bodies under varied
conditions, and the establishment of equilibrium. De-
scriptive geometry : its application to projections and
perspective, embracing points, straight lines, circles, and
planes, triangles, polyhedrons, sections and intersections of
these, tangents, cylinders, cones., lines of revolution,
involution, plane and conic sections, the projection of

26 FORESTRY IN SPAIN.

shadows, and the geometrical laws of perspective. Physics :
properties of bodies, gravity, specific gravity peculiarities
of solids, of liquids, capillarity, gases, atmospheric pressure,
elastic force of bodies, flotation, and temperature.
Acoustics : propagation of sound, and distinctive character
of sounds. Heat : expansion of bodies in a solid, a liquid,
and a gaseous state, an,d operations by which it is effected ;
hygrometry. and transmission of heat. Optics : propaga-
tion of light, photometry, reflection from plane and curved
surfaces, refraction and dispersion of rays, structure of the
eye, optical instruments, double refraction, and polarization
of light. Electricity and magnetism : static electricity,
distribution by conductors, measure of electric force,
magnetism, dynamic electricity, electro-magnetism, electro-
telegraphy, thermo-electric currents, electric induction.
Meteorology : thermometrical observations, winds, aqueous
phenomena, electric phenomena, luminous phenomena.
Chemistry : chemical notation, combining proportions,
theory of chemical equivalents, specific heat, atomic theory,
metalloids, and their more important compounds, other
elementary bodies, the more important combinations of
hydrogen, combinations of oxygen with other quasi-
elements, fluorate of silica, carburetted hydrogen, cyanogen,
general properties of metallic and other salts, special studv
of the more important metals and their compounds.
Natural history: distribution of existing bodies in groups
and kingdoms, distinctive characteristics of species, of
organs, apparatus and functions, mode of studying minerals
and determining their production, composition, and im-
portance, crystallography; classification, nomenclature, and
chemical properties of minerals. Botany : structure and
forms of vegetables, organs of vegetation, roots, stems,
leaves, with their variation and arrangement, and effects
of this on ramification ; flowers, inflorescence, calyx, corolla,
stamens, pistils, and ovary ; fruits, seeds, vegetable physi-
ology, nourishment and growth, reproduction, classification,
and specification of properties common to classes of plants.
Zoology ; difference between animals and vegetables.

THE SCHOOL OF FORESTRY IN THE ESCURIAL. 27

animal structure, organography, and physiology ; classifi-
cation proposed by Cuvier and modified by Milne Edwards;
characteristics of mammiferse, with description of the
principal families of rodents, of pachydermata, and of
ruminants ; characteristics of birds, and description of the
principal families of gallinaceous, of wading and of web-
footed birds; characteristics of fishes, and description of
the principal families of soft-finned fishes ; characteristics
of the principal families and the more remarkable genera
of the coleoptera, of the orthoptera, hyinenoptera, and
lepidoptera ; and the geographical distribution of animals,
with causes influencing this.

On such subjects the candidate for admission is ex-
amined before he can enter the school. He is free to pass
through these preliminary studies when and where he
pleases; and there are specified works on the several
subjects from which information preparatory to examination
may be obtained,

It is stated that in the examination in drawing there
will be required manifest facility in copying correctly an
order of architecture, or a machine ; some model drawing
of a landscape in Les Etuds d'aprvs Nature, by Calame,
and a pen-and-ink representation of mountains, sands,
rocks, and arable land, according to the method of Rinda-
vets; and in French and German, correct translations
from thevse languages into Spanish.

Application for admission must be made previously to
the 1st of September in any year.

It is not requisite that the applicant should be examined
in any one year on all of the subjects embraced in the
entrance examination, and he is required to specify those
on which he desires to be examined. If he pass any ex-
amination with approval, this will be certified, ana when
he has been examined in all with approval he will be
admitted, and enter on the special studies of the
school.

After admission the first year's course of study, as has

28 FORESTRY IN SPAIN.

been stated, comprises among other subjects, topography,
applied mathematics, and applied chemistry.

The programme of studies under the head of Topography
comprises 1. The determination of the object of topography
and the difference between this and Geodesy. 2. General
rules in regard to tri^ngulation, and methods of giving a
graphic representation of the ground. 3. The selection of
a system which should be followed, and methods which
should be employed according to the cases in the prepara-
tion of a chart or plan ; and methods to be adopted in the
case of lands covered with woods. 4. A theoretic and
practical knowledge of the instruments and apparatus
employed to obtain the data required ; and of instruments
more adequate to meet the necessities of forestral topo-
graphy. 5. Calculations to be made with the data obtained.
6. The constructions of plans ; horizontal projections; and
scales. 7. The resolution of partial problems, such as
tracing lines of the same altitude or level ; valuation or
determination of areas and volumes ; the divi«ion of super-
ficies, and the finding or training of proper divisions in the
forests, in order to the separation of quarters, sections of
the forest for successive operations, and limits of fellings.

With regard to Applied Chemistry, it may.be remarked
that amongst the preparatory studies, a satisfactory know-
ledge of which is required as a preliminary to admission
into the School of Forestry is the general science of chem-
istry. In Ihe school studies, under the head of applied
chemistry, is comprised the study of the objects and the
divisions of analitic chemistry, including : 1. With regard
to a laboratory, the instruments and apparatus which it
should contain, and the use and manipulation of these.
2. Reactions and general chemical analysis. 3. Qualitative
analysis, and the volumetric method of procedure. 4.
Qualitive and quantitive analysis oi rocks. 5. Analysis
of earths in general, and in particular that of those which
constitute the soli of the forests, 6, Different methods of

SCHOOL OF FORESTRY IN THE ESCURIAL, ^

reducing plants to ashes, with a special regard to that of
ligiious plants, and the qualitive and quantitive deter-
mination of the fixed elements in the same. 7. General
analysis of the waters and the elemental constituents of
organic substances. 8. Application of chemistry to vegetable
physiology and to sylviculture, to the preservation of wood,
and to the carbonization of wood, and the determination
of its calorific potency. 9. Dosification or determination
of quantity of tannin in materials containing this.

In the cabinet and laboratory of chemistry provided
for the instruction of the students in chemistry, there
is in the school an extensive and well -equipped
laboratory, with various furnaces, water-pipes, and four
tables covered with zinc. Crucibles, capsules, retorts,
mortars, retort stands, lamps of different kinds, and other
accessory utensils are there in no stinted numbers ;
and pneumatic troughs, water and mercurial glass jars of
different sizes, permit of the collecting and study of gases.

A varied collection of reactives to facilitate analytical
experiments are contained in a case of great value, together
with the more indispensible apparatus, which, in virtue
of its small volume, is contained in the chest of Platner,
made with admirable perfection.

Amongst other articles and apparatus deserving of special
notice may be mentioned eudiometers of Volta and of
Hitscherlich ; different delicate balances ; the apparatus of
Donovan for filtration without access of air; that of
Marguerite for the dosification of oxygen; that of Guy-Lussac
for the analysis of potash ; that of Pelouce for the analysis
of copper ; that of Mohr for the extraction of ether ; the
sulphi-hydrometer of Dupasquier; the saccahrometer of
Mitscherlich ; the apparatus of Bunsen and Bischoff for
spectral analysis ; and various others not less important for
the analysis of earths, of chlorine, of lead, and of other
bodies.

Amongst the material pertaining to analytical chemistry
the school possesses the elements necessary for volumetric

36 FORESTRY IN SPAIN.

analysis, by means of specified liquids and for the qualitative
and quantitative analysis of organic substances.

In the studies of the second year are comprised those of
applied mechanics ; geodesy or land surveying ; meteor-
ology and climatology and construction, under which are
comprised works of •hydraulic engineering and forest
buildings.

The programme of study in Applied Mechanics com-
prises:—!. The general ideas and principles and general
laws of forces and motion. 2. General observations on
machines, and the study of their essential organs. 3.
Changes of motion of most frequent application in
machines, moderators and regulators, passive resistances.
4. Transport in general ; forestal transports. 5. General
principles of hydrology water gauge of natural and arti-
ficial currents; the distribution of waters; modules or
appliances for securing uniformity • of delivery ; and
partidors for securing the same in dividing currents ; units
of measurement in the gauging of waters. 6. Calculation
of resistances, thickness of dykes of conducting pipes and
of steam boilers. 7. Motors : hydraulic motors, steam
motors, wind motors. 8. Machines employed for raising
liquids, machines employed to transmit gases. 9. Forestal
tools and instruments : hammers, machines, mills, cutting
tools, and saws.

In the Cabinet of Mechanics there are various levers
and balances ; pulleys, single and combined, and in blocks ;
models of simple and differential wheels, and wheels with
a catch ; capstans ; cylindrical and conical accumulators ;
cog-wheels ; elevator ; fixed crane, and moveable crane ;
inclined plane, wedge, shears, circular eccentric ; expanding
eccentric ; spiral of transformation ; vertical and circular
saw; Atwood's and Morin's machines; apparatus to
demonstrate the parabolical movement in the fall of solids
and liquids; pendulums, simple & Kater's; endosmo
meter of Ducrochet ; V&nturi's apparatus ; apparatus of

'tttfi SCHOOL OF FORESTS IN THE ESCtflUAL. 3l

capillary tubes, that of Bohnenberger ; syphons, ordinary
double syphon, and that of Porta ; float of De Prony ;
funnels, gasometer, spherical float, hydroraetric pendule,
tube of Pilot, rheometers of flat paddles, and of Polellu ;
Woltman's mill ; different parts of pumps ; pistons and
valves of different kinds ; suction pumps, forcing pumps,
suction and forcing, and combined rotary pumps of different
kinds ; water-wheels with cords, and with chain pumps
and buckets ; archimediau screw ; drum ; hydraulic ram ;
water-wheels with flat floats, with boxes, with buckets, and
that of PoDcelet ; turbines of Fourneyron, and of Koechlin ;
wind mills; distributors fixed, and oscilating cylindrical ;
Leroy's spring dynamometer; steam engines, different
models; Krampton's locomotive.

The programme of study, under the head of Geodesy,
comprises : — 1. The determination of the object of geodesy
or land surveying. 2. The necessity of a network of
triangles, iu order to the determination of the distance of
given points on the ground, and the projection of these on
the area of the ground. 3. Stations and signals ; a general
idea of the superficial figure of the ground ; geographical
maps ; a knowledge of the geodesic instruments
required in the calculations of the angles of the triangles,
different modes of procedure, and causes of error which it
is necessary to avoid or to correct in each case. 4. A base
line and apparatus for the measurement of it ; the
connection oj this, the base, with the triangles of the net-
work, arid calculation of the sides of each triangle. 5,
Determination of the longitudes and latitudes of the
vertices and azimuths of the sides of the triangles, and
the distance of the meridian and its perpendicular, 6.
Geodesic determination of altitudes ; and barometric
levelling, or determination of altitude by barometric
observation. 7. Necessity of triangulations of the second
order ; difference between this and the first in respect to
operations and calculations ; convenience of triangulation
of the third order, iu order that a connection may thus be

aa FORESTRY IN

obtained between the operations of geodesy and those of
topography. 8. Construction of geographic maps.

For instruction in topography and geodesy, and for use
in practical exercises in both departments, the school con-
tains, writes Signor Castel, abundant material, acquired
for the greater part with funds supplied by the State.
Grouping the articles «vith a view to a brief description of
them, they may be classed together in the following
order : —

Apparatus for use in the direct measurements of distance. —
Chains, tape measures, similar measures made of elastic
steel, levels, and graduated rulers.

Apparatus for use in the indirect measurement of distances. —
A. Lugeol micrometer, Ertel's telemeter, longi meter, eye-
glasses of the tacheometer, and of the olometric theodolite
of Porro ; mobile estadias ; Groetar's apparatus.

A ngle-determining instruments. — Quadrants, pantometers,
grafometers, box compass, Burnier's compass, level with
vertical arc, Ladois' level, Linglae"s level ; sight, with
reflection by Porro ; Kater's compass, Cugnot's planchette
or circumferenter, French planchette, German planchette
of Lehman, planchette perfected by Ertel and Starke ;
quadrant with sights, with eye-glass, with eye-glass and
level, with an arc of a circle ; declinator used in dialling,
copper compass, reflecting mirror, quadrant with two eye-
glasses ; graphic sextant, another with two eye-glasses,
pocket sextant ; Porro's sextant, reflecting by prisms with
water-level ; the same, with sights and one eye-glass ;
Porro's octant of reflection and graphic prism ; Douglas's
circle of reflection ; artificial horizon ; theodolites on
system of Richer, Spanish theodolite, German theodolite
of Breithaupt, theodolites of Troughton, Pastorelly,
Evererest; Trough ton's repeater; Brunner's theolodite of
the third order, Brunner's of the second order ; Troughton's
great zeni-azimutal circle; Gaus's heliotrope.

Instruments used in levelling. — Mason's level, water level,
level with prism and perpendicular, clisimetres of Burel
and of Mayer, levels of Chairgrasse, levels with sights,

THE SCHOOL OF FORESTRY IN THE ESCtfRIAL. 33

level of mercury and eyeglass, Porro's simple level, Porro's
level with compass, simple level with eye-glass,
levels of Ertel, of Grairats, of Casella, and of Lincke with
eye-glass, eclimetric level of Chezy, great level of Dollon ;
miras, or sight knobs of different kinds.

Instruments used in constructing Plans. — Case of largo
mathematical instruments ; pocket case of instruments ;
graduated scales of wood, white metal, and platinum ;
rulers and squares, graduated squares, compasses ; semi-
circular transportador, with scale ; another with scale and
nonius, one with entire circle and nonius, that of Trougton
with two nonii ; pantograph.

Determination of areas. — Planimeters of Elliot, and of
Beuviere and Starcke.

Various instruments. — Eye-glass of prism, of Porro, of
observation and delineation ; astronomic telescope, sphero-
meter, Focometer,chronometer,D. Carlos Ibannez's apparatus
for measuring bases ; rule, stands, microscopes, levels, eye-
glass lor delineation, eye-glass for references, tracer, ivc.

The programme of study in meteorology and climatology
comprises— 1. The study of the atmosphere, and its
principle properties. 2. The nature and laws of light,
heat, magnetism, and electricity, and phenomena presented
by each of these agents. 3. Wind 8 : their origin, laws,
and different characters which they present. 4. Aqueous
meteors, and theories and hypotheses advanced in explana
tion of them. 5. Theoretic and experimental study of
apparatus used to measure the intensity of meteorological
phenomena. 6. Connection and dependence of some
meteors on others. 7. Climates : factcrs which determine
the origin and classification of different climates. 8.
Action of the atmospheric agents and of meteorological
phenomena on the life of plants. 9. Relations between
the factors of climate, and the orography, nature, and
vegetation of an extensive district.

The Cabinet of Meteorological apparatus and a Meteoro-
logical observatory contain an anemometer by M, Osier;

34 FORESTRY IN SPAIN.

and another, that of Dr Robinson ; a barometer of
Newman, a large specimen; a well barometer, of the
English pattern, with the scale in inches ; two of Fortin's
barometers ; a barometer of Gay-Lussac ; an aneroid
barometer; a barometer of M. Bourdon ; a hygrometer of
Regnanlt, a hygrometer of Daniel; an English psycrometer,
by M. Casella, on Masstm's system ; ordinary thermometers;
also maxima and minima thermometers ; also that ot
Walferdin, &c. ; and a pluviometer.

Of the arrangements made at the Escnria to facilitate
the study of forest science, that which proved most inter-
esting to me was the observatory, partly because of the
importance of the objects which it was designed to subserve,
partly because of the knowledge I have of work done by
students in the prosecution of researches connected with
them after they have left the school ; and partly because
of the simplicity and inexpensive character of the arrange-
ments made.

The meteorological observatory is in the campo forestah of
the school. It is a building of less than twenty feet square,
and of similar height. On the flat stone roof of it are
arranged the instruments employed. To them all the
students have access at any time. Of these, from time to
time, two are appointed to make and record observations.

The observations made by the students are published
every fortnight in the Revista de Monies, in a tabulated
form. In this are stated in regard to every day the height
of the barometer at 9 A.M. and at 3 P.M , the average or
medium height of these, and the variation found by
substracting from the greatest height at 3 P.M. the
lowest at 0 A.M.; the maximum and minimum tem-
perature; the variation and the medium temperature oi
the ground ; the relative humidity at the same hours :
the rainfall ; the direction and the force of the wind ; and
observations in regard to the clouds in connection with the
state of the winds.

The studies comprised under the head of Constructions

THE SCHOOL OF FORESTRY IN THE ESCURIAL. 3f>

are — 1. The general conditions of a good construction, and
the materials employed, including an examination of the
qualities, extraction, preparation, and fabrication of these
materials. 2. Foundations, and operations relative to the
establishment of these in different cases ; sinking wells j
raising piers. 3. Construction of walls, partitions, and
roof's. 4. Stables, sheds, bridges. .5. Hydraulic works :
tracing and locating confining walls and dykes ; arrange-
ment and construction of leading canals, and of canals of
derivation. 0. Application of principles of construction to
seed-drying stores, and stores of timber and firewood, pitch
kilns, and saw-pits or saw-mills. 7. Road-making : high-
ways, foiest wood tracks, and forest bridges.

Tn the studies of the third year are comprised —
Mineralogy and Applied Geology, Applied Botany,
Applied Zoology, and Sylviculture.

The programme of study in Applied Geology comprises
— 1. Definitions and divisions of geology, and specifications
of its relations to the other sciences, and especially to
sylviculture. 2. General geography, which treats of
mountains, and in particular the geography of Spain. 3.
Physical geography. 4. Petrography, or natural history
of rocks and stones ; origin of rocks, their characteristics
and analytical decomposition, •>. Natural decomposition
of rocks, nature and forestal conditions of the land thus
produced. C. Geologic periods, natural history of stratifi-
cation. 7. Description of the different geognostic forma-
tions which constitute the terrestrial crust, and their
forestal applications. 8. General notions of paleontology,
and description of the principal fossils characteristic of
each formation.

Instruction in what is designated Applied Mineralogy
comprises — 1. Fundamental ideas, and the characters and
chemical and physical properties of minerals. 2. Chrystalo-
graphy, systematic mineralogy, different classifications of
minerals. 3. Analysis of minerals. 4. Description of the
more important kinds of minerals, with special attention

38 FORESTRY IN SPAIN.

given to those which enter into the composition of the
rocks and the soil found in forests.

For use in the study of geologic mineralogy the school
possesses two collections : one chrystalographic, the other
rnineralogical.

The chrystalographic collection is composed of 336
models in plaster of Paris, formed and arranged according
to the system of Naumann, and containing in each
chrystaline system representatives of its typical holoe'dric
and hemie'dric forms, and of the more remarkable combi-
nations of one form with another, &c.

Double crystals, or hemitropes and anomolous and
imperfect forms : there are in this collection crystals and
models representative of the fundamental forms of the
recognised systems of these, and of their primary deriva-
tion.

The rnineralogical collection contains 770 specimens,
each of which is representative of a type, a variety, or a
different locality. It comprises 175 distinct species,
amongst which are representatives of the 15 classes of
Naumann, on whose system they are arranged ; there being
largely represented the classes — 1, metallic oxides; 3,
haloids ; 5, geolites ; and 6, anfoterolites ; these being
considered the most important for study in the career of
a forest engineer.

And for instruction in geology this museum contains,
as important auxiliaries, a petrographic, and also a
palseontological collection.

The former is composed of 800 specimens of rock, of
which the greater number are Spanish, and some are
French, representing the most varied types and varieties
of the principal species found in the Peninsula.

The collection of fossils consists of 1200 rpecimens,
classified according to different characters of ground, after
the method of d'Orbigny, and bringing together types of
the most characteristic species of all of these. The total
number of species represented is about a thousand.

THE SCHOOL OF FORESTRY IN THE ESCURIAL. 3*7

Under the head of Applied Botany, or botany in its
connection with the studies and subsequent work of the
forester, there are included in the prescribed programme of
the- class — 1. Definitions and general ideas in regard to
organised bodies. 2. Characteristics of plants or vege-
tables, orgauography and morphology. 3. Anatomy,
physiology, and nosology of plants. 4. Methodology,
classification in general, artificial systems of classification.
5. Natural classification 6. General description of the
principal families of plants, with a special and detailed
description of the woody plants of the flora of Spain. 7.
Geographical botanical association of vegetables, affinities
and analogies determining their distribution. 8. Agents
influencing the distribution of plants. 9. Distribution of
trees and shrubs in the forests of Spain.

In the Cabinet of Botany, in the museum, there were
contained, according to Senor Castel in 1877, the
herbarium of the Senores Boutelou, presented to the
school by Dona Maria Soldevilla de Boutelou, in the year
1848. In this herbarium there are 9244 species of plants
from different countries, a great proportion of them being
from America; another European herbarium of 3000
species, the greater part of them being French, but the
collection being increased from day to day, chiefly by the
addition of Spanish plants ; and a herbarium of 500 species
uf Spanish lignous plants prepared by the ' Comision de la
Flora Foresta ' ; * a herbarium composed of plants found in
the vicinity of the Escurial, in which are more than 800
species of phanerogams ; a collection of 120 species of ferns
from the Phillipines, presented by the Ilmo Senor D.
Isidro Sainz de Baranda ; various collections prepared by
Professor Rabenhorst, comprising in all 5030 species of
cryptogams, distributed into the following groups: vascular

• Amongst works illustrative of the natural history of forest trees and other plants,
a prominent place must be assigned to the works prepared by the ' Comision de la
Flora Foresta,' by which was presented to the museum of the school this herbarium of
iOO species of lignous plants. Of this, descriptive of the collection of specimens, and
of similar works from the Philippines, a n account will afterwards be given. These
are made mention of here as supplying facilities for the study of the specimens
exljibtted.

$8 FOREStRV IN SPAIK.

cryptogams, 120; mosses, 1200; liverworts, 550; lichens,
900 ; algae, 2260 ; a collection of transverse sections for
the anatomical study of wood of different trees, presented
by Professor Nordlinger, consisting of 500 species belonging
to different regions of the globe ; a microscope by Ober-
hauser, with tw.o lenses. j;

The collection I fojmd considerably enlarged beyond
what it was at the time Signor Castel prepared this
account of it ; but I did not enquire to what extent the
specimens preserved in it had been increased in number.

Besides this museum, there are within reach, and of easy
access, the trees growing in the botanic garden in Madrid,
and those growing in the gardens attached to the institu-
tion at the Escurial.

In 1877, the latest year in regard to which I have at
command any reports, there were growing in the gardens
attached to the school specimens of the following trees : —

Abies balsam ea. Mill, Abies excelsa. D. C., Abies
IVtorinda. R., Abies Nordmanniana. Spach., Abies pectinata.
D. C., Abies pinsapo. Boiss., Acer monspessulanum. L.,
-3£sculus hippocastanum. L., Androscemum officinale. All.,
Araucaria imbricata. Pav., Arbutus unedo. L., Arbutus
uva-ursi. L, Aucuba japonica. L., Berberis vulgaris. L.,
Bupleurum fruticosum. L.. Buxus balearica. Lam., Buxus
sempervirens. L , Buxus sempervirens, var. aurea.
L., Castanea vesca. Gaertn., Catalpa bignonioides. Walt.,
Cedrus atlantica. Manett., Cedrus Deodara. Loud., Cedrus
Libani. Barrel., Celtis australis. L., Cephalotaxus peduncu-
latus. Sieb.,Cerasus Lauro-Cerasus. Lois., Cerasus lusitanica.
Mill., Cercis siliquastrum. L., Cissus quinquefolia Desf.,
Cistus salviajfolius. L.. Clematis vitalba. L., Cornus san-
guinea. L., Coronilla glauca. L., Crataegus monogyna, Jacq.,
Cupresus fastigiata. D.C., Cupresus glauca. Lamk., Cupresus
horizontalis. Mill., Cupresus pendula. Staunt., Cydonia
japonica. Pers., Cytissus Laburnum. L., Deutzia crenata.
8ieb., Deutzia gracilis. Zucc-Erica scoparia., L., Eriob-
otrya japonica Lindl., Eucalyptus globulus. Labill.,
Evonynius japon'icus. L., Evonymus japonicus var. argentea.

THE SCHOOL OF FORESTRY IN THE ESCURIAL. 39

L., Evonymus japonicus var. aurea. L , Forsythia viridissima.
Lindi., Frangula vulgaris. Reichb., Genista florida. L.,
Gynerium argenteum. Nees., Hibiscus siriacus. L., Ilex
aquifolium. L., Jasminum fruticans. L., Jasmin, nudiflorum.
Lindl., Jasminum officinale. L., Juglans regia. L., Juniperus
oxycedrus. L., Juniperus virginiana. L., Lavandula spica.
L., Ligustrum japonicuin Thunb., Ligustrum vulgare. L.,
Ligustrum vulgare. L., Ligustrum fol. variegatis. L.,
Loniceni hispanica. B. et Rv Magnolia grandiflora. L.,
Mahoniaasquifolium, Nntt., Mahouia Fortunei. Hort.,Morus
alba." L., Myrtus communis. L., Nerium oleander. L.,
Paliunis australis. Gaertn., Paulownia imperialis. Sieb.,
Philadelphia corouarius. L.,Phlomis fruticosa, L., Photinia
serrulata. Lindl., Pinus Austriaca. Tratt., Pinus halepensis.
Mill, Pinus insignis Dougl., Pinus laricio. Poir., Pinus
pinaster. Sol., Pinus pinea. L., Pinus pinea. var.
fragilis. Lois., Pinus sabiniana. Dongl., Pinus Strobus.
L., Pinus sylvestris, L., Pittesporum chinense. Don.,
Platanus vulgaris. Spach., Populus alba, L., Populus
balsamifera, L., Populus canadensis. Mich.,Punicagranatum.
L., Punica granatum flore pleno. L., Quercus suber. L.,
R-harnnus Alaternus. L., Rhus thyphina. L., Robinia
pseudo-acacia.L., Rosa bengalensis. Hort.,Rosa centitblia. L.,
Rosa Damascena, Mill, Rosmarinus officinalis, L., Ruscus
aculeatus. L;, Salix babylonica. L., Sarothamnus purgans
G et G., Sequoia gigantea. Endl., Spartium Junceum. L.,
Syringa persica. L., Syringa vulgaris. L., Thuja orientalis.
L., Thuja gigantea. Doug., Ulmus campestris. L., Viburnum
opulus. L , Viburnum tinus. L., Weigelia rosea. Lindl.

Besides these, there had been planted during the years
1871-1876, while it was in connection with the school
park of the Casita de Arriba, in the vicinity of the
Escurial, specimens of the following species of trees : —

Abjes pecjinata. D. G., Abies pinsapo. Boiss., Acer
pseud oplatanus. L., Argania Sideroxylan. Roem. et Sch.
^Esculus hippocastanum. L., Castanea vesca. Gaertn., Celtis
australis. L., Cupresus fastigiata. D. CM Cupr. glauoa.

ti) FORESTRY IN SPAIN.

Lauik., Cupr. hori/ontalis. Mill., Cytisus Laburnum. L.,
Eucaliptus globulus. Lauill., Fagus sylvatica. L., Fcaxinus
oxyphylla. Bieb., Gleditschia triacanthos , Juglans regia. L.,
.Juniper us oxycedrus. L., Paliurus australi. Gaertn., P.
ranariensis. Buch., P. laricio. Poir., P. pinaster Sol., Pinu-
pinen. L., P. sylvestris. L, Robinia pseudo-acacia. L.,
(jueruus ilex. L., Q. roljjur. L. — V. pedunctulata., Q. robur,
L.— V. Sexilitiora., Q. snber. L., Q. toza. G., Thuya orient-
alis. L., Ulmus campestris. L.

In the capital, moreover, there is the valuable
Botanic Garden, to which there is free access for all, and
ni where there are not only umbrageous walks, lined with
trees labelled with their popular scientific names, but
numerous trees so labelled growing freely in the enclosed
spaces. It was removed from a situation on the road
leading from the palace to the Prado to its present position,
by desire of Carlos III., and it abounds in the products
of foreign climes.

In the first year of the present century M. J. F. Bourgoing,
who had been Minister Plenipotentiary from France to the
Court of Madrid, wrote thus of the foundation of the present
fame of this garden : ' At the commencement of his admini-
stration of the Indies Galvez earnestly recommended to all
officers — civil, military, and ecclesiastical — within the whole
circuit of the colonies, to transmit to Spain whatever
appeared worthy of notice in the three kingdoms of nature.
His directions were complied with, at least with respect to
the vegetable kingdom. Scarcely a year elapses without
announcing the arrival from the Spanish Indies of some
new plants, which augment the collection of the metropolis,
or at least the importation of seed, of roots, and slips, which
they endeavour to naturalise in the Botanical Garden at
Madrid. Young botanists, whom the Court maintain in
Mexico, Peru, and elsewhere, transmit along with their
consignments a description of the plants immediately
within their observation, and of the soil and atmosphere
which appear most congenial with them, and of the culture

THE SCHOOL OF FORESTRY IN THE ESCURIAL. 41

they require. Conformably with these instructions the
professors of botany deposit the germs transmitted to
them in the earth ; and attended by their disciples they
watch with the most wistful solitude their different appear-
ances during growth, in order to compare the properties
of these exotic plants with the description that has
been sent to them.'

Such are some of the provisions made for the study of
applied botany.

Mineralogy, geuiogy, and zoology, with much besides,
are all included in the Natural History in which the aspirant
is examined before being admitted into the school; but there
the prosecution of the study of each is continued. Under
the head of Applied Zoology is comprised : — 1. A statement
of difference between the general zoology and that
of zoology pertaining to the department of forests ; observa-
tions on the organography and physiology of animals ;
and on organic harmonies, analogies, and homologies. 2.
The classification of animals and nomenclature adopted ;
general theory of classifications. 3. General study of the
vertebrates, with a description of the indigenous species
useful or damaging to the forests. 4. Forestal entomology ;
the importance of the study of insects with an application
to the department of forests ; a description of all the
species useful and detrimental to sylviculture; study of
preventive and destructive measures employed against
those which are detrimental, o. Geographical zoology,
giving an idea of the distribution in the Peninsula of those
animals to which pertains a forestal interest.

For the study of Applied Zoology there are in the cabinet
of zoology the following collections : —

A collection of forty-five species of mamifers, in which
there are, or were in 1877, when Senor Castel prepared
the statement, comprised ninety-two specimens, amongst
which predominate the insectivora, carnivora, rodentia,
pachyderniata,and rum inantia, being thegroups most iinpor-

42 FORESTRY IN SPAIK.

tant in sylviculture, and amongst these are specimens of
all the species found in the forests of Spain.

Another is composed of 103 species of birds, of which
there are 1 41 specimens ; the most numerously represented
being the raptores and the passeres. Another of 37 species
of reptiles' and bactrians, and some river fishes.

A collection of lu'41 -specimens of insects, distributed
under 522 genera and 1000 species, comprising a great
part of the foreign as well as indigenous species useful and
. hurftul to forests. 25 picture-frames contain woods attacked
by insects; in each of these is a specimen of the wood,
with the damage done, and the insects by which it is
attacked.

A collection of nine anatomical frames represent in wax
figures, on a large scale, the digestive apparatus of certain
insects, the ovaries and spawn of the lobster, and the
nervous system of the cephalopods, prepared by D. Jacinto
Castro, the naturalist preparer of the school.

There are also two collections of shells, composed one of
102 species, and the other of 196 species, consisting of 400
specimens, the latter prepared by Senor D. Luis Urrejola,
an engineer- iti -chief of the corps. Besides these, there
are sundry small collections for use by the professors and
in the practical studies of the alumni.

The programme of Sylviculture studied in this the third
year of the course, comprises ; — 1. The natural history, &c.,
of different species of trees cultivated. 2. Extent of succes-
sive fellings, and duration of cycle or period embraced
between sowing and clearing of successive crops; and
methods of exploitation : timber forests, coppice woods,
and mixed forests. 8. Methods of felling, and theory of
clearings. 4. Sowing, gathering, and preservation of seeds.
5. Preparation of the ground for sowings. 6. Season, and
method most to be preferred in different cases. 7. Plan-
tations, perches, and poles. 8. Cultivation of wood, and
of drift sands. 9. Reboisement and creation of turf on
mountains. 10. Pastures and protection against trespasses.

THE SCHOOL OF FORESTRY I& THE ESCURIAL. ' 43

In the cabinet of sylviculture, writes Senor Castel,
for a practical acquaintance with the implements
of labour employed in sylviculture, not only in Spain but
also in the principal agrico-forestral centres abroad, there
is located in the -school a magnificent collection of 400
specimens of these, of perfect construction, and arranged
with great taste. They comprise implements used in
burning over earth, such as spades, hoes, pickaxes, two-
pronged forks, rakes, weed-hooks, &c.; together with these are
those used in the surveying and treatment of trees, among
which the most important are axes and saws of a great
many different forms.*

There are also an abundance of mattocks, knives, adzes,
hooks,, mallets, hammers, rammers, gouges, augurs, gimlets,
scrapers, shears, &c., &c. ; and there are not a wanting those
modest aids in sylviculture — sowers, planters, transplanters,
primers, &c. Fruit gatherers, tree ladders, resin collectors,
scrapers, resin tree openers, hooks for use in rafts of
wood, timber, scythes, &c., complete the collection, which,
when shown at some exhibitions, has had awarded to it
the highest distinction granted for this class of objects.

This cabinet contains also a collection of 60 ploughs,
harrows, rollers, levellers, rakes, scythes, axes, mattocks,
two-pronged forks, and sowing machines, perfectly executed
on the scale of Jth and Jth of full size.

In the studies of the fourth year are comprised xilometry j
forest ordenacion end exploitation; forest industries;
political economy and administration of law ; while drawing
is practised continuous from the commencement of the
curriculum till its close.

* Among the axes in this cabinet there deserve special notice the pruning hand-axe
used in Arragon ; the French hand-axe ; the common axe with one cutting edge, hoca ;
the common hatchet with long handle ; axe used in cutting for resin in Ooou ; small
pitch -maker's hatchet for cutting pitch-wood; hatchet for splitting wood; French
hatchet for testing ; pitch-maker s axe with shield ; pitch-maker's hatchet without
shield, for use on foot ; testing hatchet with two edges, used in Cuenca ; testing hatchet
used in Jaen ; pointed axe used in charcoal making in Cuenca ; common wood-cutter's
axe ; American testing axe ; workman's axe used in Segovia ; testing and felling axe
used in Jaen, called the Biscayan axe ; axe of Dabie ; axe of Chambray ; axe of Macon,
called Tailleirtarc ; Leipzig axe ; fireman's pointed axe; marking hatchet used in
forestral districts ; English woodman's axe, &c.

44 FORESTRY IN SPAIN

The programme of studies iu Xiiometry comprise :— 1.
A discussion of the general forms* affected by the different
parts of a tree ; the geometric and deudometric volumes
of these. 2. Description of dendometric instruments, and
the management and comparison of these 8. The deter-
mination of the cubic contents of trees considered isolated
or individually. 4. f he apparent, and the real volume of
wood; xilorneters: description, comparison, and use oi
them. 5. The determination of the normal co-efficient.

6. Methods of determining the value in respect of the
weight and density of the timber. 7. Increase of wood in
growth, and determination of future and of maximum
increase. 8. The branding or marking of timber.

In the cabinet of xilometry are various compasses for
the determination of diameters in the trunks of trees;
tape measures, and other metrical cinctures; rules for
marking of timber tit for cutting ; ordinary circumference
meters; circumference meters of Bouvart ; dendrometer
by right angled triangles ; dendrometers by arc of a circle;
dendronieters by the square or the perpendicular.

In connection with the study of the ordenacion of
forests for successive thinnings and fellings, or the partition
and arrangement of sections, attention is given to — I.
Definitions of terms in use in Dasonomia, or forest science,
a term derived from Daso forest, and Nomos law. The
object of dasocracia and divisions of the subject. 2. The
legal and natural condition of the forest. 3. Forestal
condition ; dasometry, forest measurement; and dasography,
or preparation forest maps. 4. Forestal condition, deter-
mination and survey of partitions designed for fellings,
and epidometry, or measuration of the trees. 5. Selection
of kinds of trees to be felled, and of treatment to be
adopted ; that of coppice-wood or timber forest, and
duration of cycle of operations. 6. Methods of exploitation ;
exposition of that devised by J. L. Hartig and by E. Cotta.

7. Rational or scientific methods. 8. General plan, of
exploitation. 9. Special plan of operations in the first

THE SCHOOL OF FORESTRY IN THE ESCURIAL. 45

period. 10. Determination of the maximum possible
production ; reserves, and successive revision of scheme of
exploitation. 11. Systematic management of irregular
forests. 12. Valuation of forests, interest, dues, profits.
13. Value of the soil. 14, Value of the vegetable
covering of the ground. 15. Value of the forest.

The programme of studies under the head of forest
industries embraces: — 1. The physical properties of
different kinds of woods, and deductions from these
relative to principal applications which may be made of
them in civil and naval architecture. 2. The exploitation
of primary and secondary products of forests ; and the
transport of these by land ana Water. 3. Storage, and storage
charges of wood ; its conservation by means of substances
injected into it; and the preparation of wood pulp. 4.
The collection of resin, and preparation of products derived
i'rom resin. 5. The preparation of charcoal, charcoal fuel,
and potash. 6. Barking of trees, the disposal of bark, and
the manufacture of cork. 7. Collection and preservation
of seeds for employment in manufactures. 8. Manufacture
of oils, essences, and acids from forest seeds. 0. Panago
and swine herding, and disposal of primings. 10. Utilisa-
tion of dead wood, branches, leaves, and peat.

In one section of the Cabinet of Forest Industry, confine^
to objects from Spain, there is a collection of models
representing a secherie for drying seeds; fanners for
dislodging fine seeds ; vertical and horizontal furnaces
used in Sweden in the fabrication of vegetable carbon :
three carts for transport; and peguiras, or piles of pine
wood burnt to make pitch, from Sierra Segura; tools used
in disbarking the cork oak, and in the manufacture of
corks; and the more important implements used in the
collecting of resin ; various collections of wood arranged in
boards of different , sizes, comprising specimens from
the different provinces of Spain ; and a collection of 200
species of these woods, the produce of indigenous; plants,
arranged according to the method of Rossmoessler : collar-

46 FORESTRY IN SPAIN.

tions of charcoals and potashes, ashes, barks, resins, gums,
corks, esparto grass, and palms.

In a second section, containing colonial products, are
preserved products of the Island of Cuba — a forestal
collection presented to the school by D. Francisco de Paula,
a member of the corps of forest engineers — composed of
36 cases, each containing leaves, branches, a board speci-
men of the trunk, charcoal, firewood, bark, and any other
product of the plant to which it is dedicated, and a
collection of woods comprising 200 specimens. Of products
of Porto Rico there are two collections of woods in boards,
and composed of 200 specimens of forest trees produced in
that island, and another collection of woods in blocks from
the same locality. Of products of the Philippine Islands
there are a collection of woods consisting of 90 species,
comprising the principal kinds growing in the Archepelago,
:md a collection of textile materials, and articles fabricated
of forest ral products of the Philippine Islands.

The programme of study in the administration of justice
comprises: — 1. Fundamental principles in regard to the
State, the Government, and the Administration ; and the
character and range of the administrative organisation of
the country. 2. The administrative organisation of the
country, and territorial limitations of the authorities, of
the functionaries, and of corporations in active administra-
tion, in consultation, and in settlement of disputes, o.
Duties and legal position of public employes in general ;
legislation in regard to administrative matters of general
application, such as those relative to undertaking public
service, responsibility, &c. 4. General idea of ancient
legislation in the branch relating to forests. 5. Special
legislation relative to the facultative or professional, and
the administrative service in the public forests ; forest
exploitations, delimitations, watching, fires, &c. 6. Transfer
of property ; acquisition of forests by the state ; excambs ;
ex-appropriation. 7. Police of th e State forests; penal portion
of the ordinances : forests belonging to private proprietors,

THE SCHOOL OF FORESTRY IN THE ESCURIAL. 47

The study in Political Economy comprises: — 1. Defini-
tions and general idea of the science. 2. Production and
capital, and natural differences observable in capital.
3. Natural agents concurring in production. 4. The study
of labour; of the general conception of this, and of advantages
and disadvantages resulting from division of labour. 5.
Idea of value in things ; prices ; interest. 6. Influence of
the quality and quantity of the production on the increase
or diminution of population. 7. Consumption of products.

Drawing is practised from the commencement to the close
of the professional curriculum. The instruction in this per-
taining to what may be required in the work to which the
students aspire, comprises: — 1. Topographic drawing; the
representation of lands, according to the generally accepted
principles of procedure ; hand-drawings, washed with
China ink, or with an application of colours and conven-
tional tints. 2. Drawings of machinery, and elevations
of buildings. 3. Phytographic drawings, or representations
of species of vegetables. 4. Dasographic drawings, com-
prising plans or charts; phytographic, geognostic, forest
partitions, &c., &c.

CHAPTER IV.
LIBRARY.

TOGETHER with the liberal provision which has been
made in the School of Forestry in the Escurial, for the
prosecution of studies prescribed for candidates for
admission into the corps of Forest Engineers in Spain,
inclusive of an extensive museum, with apartments devoted
to the exhibition of implements and objects pertaining to
oach department of study, and appropriate laboratories,
rhero is a spacious library, richly furnished with works
treating of all the subjects embraced in the course of study.
From the work of Senor Castel on the foundation and
development of the school it appears that in 1877, when
that work was published, th;'re were in the library 2505
scientific and professional treatises, comprising 5349
volumes of letterpress, and '316 atlases of plates, diagrams,
and maps, pertaining to these works.

In these works there are supplied the means of prosecuting
the study of any or all of the subjects brought under the
consideration of the student in the class, or otherwise
engaging his thoughts — •

659 treated of Mathematical Science- ;
231 of Physics ;
1189 of NaWal History ;
1<S2 ot Ethics and Politics ;

71 of Literature and Language;

S3 of History and Geography ;

24 of Arts and Manufactures; and

66 were Encyclopaedias or classed as Miscellanies.

The numbers have been increased since then, and every
branch of study is well represented,

THE LIBRAkY. 49

SECTION 1.— STUDIES OF FIRST YEAR.

As has been stated, the studies during the first year of
the professional course relate to Topography, Integral and
Differential Calculus, Descriptive Geometry, Applied
Mathematics and Applied Chemistry.

Sub-Section 1. — Applied Mathematics.

In the Library there were 6 works on subjects pertaining
to Mathematics, 218 on Pure Mathematics, and 435 on
Mixed and Applied Mathematics j in all, 1015 volumes.

Sub Section 2. — Applied Chemistry.

Amongst subjects to which attention is given in the
study of applied chemistry is Tannin.

A good illustration of the mode and exhaustive character
of the instruction given in Applied Chemistry is supplied by
a treatise on Tannin by Professor Don Carlos Castel, which is
at the command of the students. The subject in this is thus
stated :— To determine the intrinsic value of the tannin or
astringent substances pertaining to tannin, produced by
the vegetables of five or more of the province of Spain,
and in regard to each to state with the nearest approxima-
tion attainable, the age of the plant, and thereafter its
growth, habitat, seasons of the year most favourable for
the collecting of the produce, and the routes or means of
export or transport of this to market ; a treatise adopted
by the Royal Academy of Exact Physical and Natural
Sciences at their annual meeting in 187G.

In the introduction to this treatise, citing words with
which M. J. Pelouse in 1833 opens his valuable work on tan-
nin and its sources, to the effect that there is no organic sub-
stance, in regard to which there have been so many enquiries,
and yet in regard to which the history is so greatly desid-
erated— Senor Castel cursorally reviews what had been done
by chemists in different countries during the forty years pre-

50 FOREStilY IN

ceding the date of bis memoir. In successive chapters he
discusses the nature and properties of tannin ; the question,
Is the tannin contained in different vegetables identical ?
and the physiological action of tannin. Treating next of
analysis, he states the general ideas involved in these ;
examines different methods of analysis; and gives — 1. A
detailed exposition of the methods of Monier and Lowenthal;
he then gives tabulated results of analysis performed
to determine the quantity of tannin contained in different
plants ; analysis performed by various observers giving
the popular and scientific names of the plants ; conditions
of the plant in regard to age, or aught else deserving of
notice, in regard to the season of the year at which the
bark was collected, &c. ; the part of the tree subjected to
an analysis, the percentage of tannin obtained, and the
name of the experimenter. 2. Analysis made by Neubauer,
giving specification of bark operated on ; the percentage
of tannin soluble in cold water ; the additional percentage
obtained by solution in warm water, and the sum of the
two. 3. Analysis made by T. Hartig, in regard to which
ate specified relating to the material, a number of parti-
culars, including the part of the oak whence each was
taken, fruit, bark, leaves, or roots; the character of the
forest — timber-forest, coppice-wood or medium ; from what
part of the tree the bark was taken, the degree of shade
under which it grew, and the season of the year at which it
was collected — some of these particulars being given in
regard to some, others in regard to others, of the specimens
operated on, and all of these strictly classified. There
are stated then the quantity of extract obtained from a
gramme of material in the open air, according as this was
in winter, or spring, or in both ; next, the tannic acid
contained in one gramme of dry material, as calculated by
the volumetric method, and as calculated by precipitation,
and in both cases according as it was in winter or in
spring, and in many cases in both. 4. Analysis of plants
gathered in Spanish localities, in which are given the
names of the plants; the province and the pueblo or

THE LIBKAKV. 5l

township ; the age of the plant ; the month in which it
was gathered ; the portion or part of the plant analysed ;
the colour produced by the salt of iron, and the tannin
contained in 100 parts of dry material ; and the results
of experiments on the influence of light.

In the next chapter are discussed tannin plants, aud
causes determining the greater or less abundance of tannin,
under the headings of general ideas, flowers, fruits, leaves
and galls, barks, and determination of the times most favour-
able for the debarking of the trees in regard to the conserva-
tion and development of these; does the richness of the bark-
ings vary with the season in which the debarking occurs ?
the age at which the debarking should be executed, and the
methods of utilisation most convenient for the Casquizales j
the influence of heat, humidity, soil, and light on the pro-
duction of the tannin ; methods of disbarking trees. And the
chapter closes with a detailed account of the principal
lignous plants made use of in the tannin industries.

SECTION 2. — STUDIES OF THE SECOND YEAR.

The studies of the second year embrace, as has been
stated, theory and application of Mechanics, Geodesy,
Meteorology and Climatology, Construction and Drawing.

Sub-Section 1. — Meteorology and Climatology.

In Spain, as in other similarly situated countries — in
which are included some of our colonies and dependencies —
questions connected with meteorology and climate, and as
pertaining thereto, means of preventing disastrous conse-
quences from drought, torrents, and inundations, and of
securing an equitable diffusion in time and space, if not
also an increased rainfall, and humidity of soil and climate,
are of importance.

In illustration to what students have thus been trained
to attempt and accomplish, I may refer to papers of

&2 FORESTRY IN SPAIN.

forcstral, meteorological, and other cognate subjects, by
Senor Don "Rafael Alvarez Sereix, member of the Corps of
Forest Engineers, an eleve of the School of Forestry, and now
Director-General of Geography and Statistics in Madrid,
which have appeared in Spanish periodicals, and been
re-publshed in two series, entitled Estudios Botanico-
F or estates ; and others* which have been published in a
volume entitled Cuestiones Cientificas, copies of which
are at the command of the students.

One of the papers published by Senor Alvarez, under
the title of Estudios Botanico-Forestales, is entitled 'The
Influence of Forests on Climate,' based on the valuable
treatise on the subject by M. A. C. Becquerel. In this the
term rendered forest is used as one applicable to a con-
siderable extent of country covered with a spontaneous
growth of an arborescent vegetation. And following
Humboldt, the author says the climate of a country is the
result of the calorific, aqueous, aerial, luminous, and electric
phenomena, which may cause one determinate locality to
present a different meteorological character from another
of the same latitude and geological conditions.

Assuming that of the influences specified heat exercises
the greatest influence, and next to this the quantity of the
rainfall in the different seasons of the year, and next to these
the humidity or aridity of the air, the predominating winds,
the number and distribution of storms in the course of the
year, the degree in which the heavens are clouded, the
nature of the ground, and of the vegetation covering it,
and whether this be spontaneous, or the result of culture,
Senor Alvarez proceeds to discuss the questions which will
determine what is the effect of woodlands on the climate
of a country, which questions he assumes to be these :—

1. In what degree do the forests act as a protection
against the winds, and in what measure do they retard the
evaporation of the water of the rainfall ?

2. How do they modify the hydrometric condition of
the surrounding atmosphere by absorption by roots, and
by evaporation from leaves?

THE LIBRARY. 53

3. How they modify the temperature of a country ?

4. Have forests any influence on the rainfall as to its
frequency, or its abundance and distribution, and do they
regulate more or less equally the flow of stream sand springs?

.5. To what extent do they prevent the erosion of
mountains and lesser slopes ?

6. Do forests draw off electricity from thunder-clouds,
and if they do so do they to an extent corresponding to this
action effect the region of the woodlands ? And

7. What kind of influence do they exercise upon the
public health ?

But with these preliminary points determined it is neces-
sary, he says, in order to determine the effects of forests on
any district.to know also the geographical position of this,its
geological character, its latitude.its proximity to or distance
from the sea, the composition of its soil, and of its subsoil,
and whether this may be permeable or the reverse-
calcareous or argilaceous — all of which particulars can only
be determined by observation. Aud he further states thnt
the action of forests on the climate will be more or less
pronounced according to —

1. The extent, elevation, and nature of the soil and
subsoil.

2. Its exposure in regard to heat or cold, and in regard
to the humidity or aridity of the winds.

.*]. The "season of the year in which fellings are made ;
whether the kinds of trees be those with deciduous, or
with persistent leaves ; and the evaporation and radiation
going on in the different seasons.

4. According as the season of rains be the spring, the
autumn, or the winter ; and

5. The proximity of pestilential lakes, &c.

All of these points are discussed in an exhaustive
manner, commencing with a permeable soil with a per-
meable subsoil, and a permeable soil with an impermeable
subsoil; and an impermeable soil with an permeable
subsoil, and an impermeable soil with an impermeable
subsoil.

54 FORESTRY IN SPAIN.

Another of the papers published by Senor Alvarez is
one under the title Trabajos de Ebermayer. On the works
of Ebermayer, in which are discussed successively the
influence of forests on the humidity of the atmosphere ;
on the humidity of the ground ; on the temperature of
the ground ; on the temperature of the atmosphere ; and
on the constituents of lihe atmosphere.

The views of Ebermayer are also brought forward at
great length in a brochure entitled Breves Consideraciones
fiobre Estatica Quimica — Brief remarks on forestal chemical
statistics — by Senor D. Luis de la Escosura y Coronel,
Chief in Corps of Forest Engineers. In this the author
sought to give as detailed an analysis as possible of the
valuable work by that distinguished Professor of Agricultural
Chemistry and of Geognosia, in the Royal Central School
of Forestry at Ascaffenburg, entitled Die gesammte Lehr?
der Waldstreu, mit ttuecksicht auf die chemische Statik des
Waldbaues. Unter Zugrundlegung der in dem Kcenigl,
Staatsforsten Bayerns angelstellten Untersuchungen — a
work, to follow a description given of it by M. Grandeau,
methodical in the highest degree, and written with sobriety
and lucidity, the perusal of which is lightsome and inter-
esting, notwithstanding the numerous statistical and
analytical data which it contains ; and beyond all manner
of doubt one of the most important forestal works of our
age.

The author commences with the study of the formation
of the covering of the forest ground ; that is of the condi-
tions of the fall of the leaves, comprising the causes, the
times, the quantative importance according to species of
trees, the altitudes at which they grow, &c. In the second
chapter he takes up the data procured by analysis, in
reference to the chemical composition of the ground covering,
and of the wood ; determining thus the chemical statistics
of the forests. In the third he brings under considera-
tion the physical properties of that covering, and the
influence which this exercises on the physical properties
of the ground. In the fourth, attention is given to

THE LIBRARY, 55

chemical modifications experienced in the ground-covering
of forests, and its chemical action on the ground. In the
fifth and last chapter are brought under consideration
the influence on the forest of the removal of the leaves
and other debris constituting the ground-covering of the
forest. In an appendix is given a statistical comparison
between agricultural and sylvicultural productions, and
tabulated statements of numerous data which had served
as a basis for the conclusions of the author.

In 1879 was published a brochure entitled Inundaciones
y sequias medios de defensa — Jn forme redactado por acuerdo
de la Junta Directiva de la Sociedad Geografica de Madrid,
con motivo de la Inundaciones de Murcia ; por El Exmo,
Senor Don Frederico de Botello y de Hornos — which is full
of important and interesting details, illustrative of the
production of torrential rains, and consequent torrents in
mountainous regions, and wide-spread inundations on
plains ; all which, it is shown, might in many cases, if not
also in every case, be prevented by planting the basin
receiving the rainfall with herbage and bushes and trees.

In the following year (1880) was published, Lluvias e
Inundaciones : Distribution general de las aquas en toda la
superficie del gloLo y panicularmente en Kspanna ; Torea de
las Avenidas, de los rios y medios de evitarlas y resistirlas ;
por D. Vincente de Vera y Lopez, Doctor en Ciencias, Qui-
mico del Ayuntamiento de Madrid ; con un prologo, de D.
Manuel Maria Jose de Galbo.

After notices of the general distribution of the rainfall
over the surface of the globe, and illustrations of the effect
of circumstances upon this, the author takes up the con-
sideration of the rainfall in different regions in the
Peninsula, and the local conditions of these. There is
given then an exposition of the theory of floods, with
details of the action of geographical position in regard to
latitude on varying degrees of humidity in the atmosphere ;
of the influence of the geological character of the ground ;

66 FORESTRY IN SPAIN.

details of different phenomena of rivers flowing over
permeable and impermeable lands ; of the action of vege-
tation on the rainfall. Passing then to the consideration
of great inundations, details are given in regard to inun-
dations of the Amazon, of the Mississippi, and of inundations
within the temperate zones, and local conditions by which
they are affected. The author next proceeds to the
consideration of torrential inundations in Spain, in Almeria,
and in the basin of the Lorga ; floods of the Sangonera
and of the Segura ; floods in the great Cuencas ; inunda-
tions of the Duero and of the Rodano ; and the inundations
of 1857. Information is given in regard to the effects of
inundations, and to the alluvial deposits left by inundations.
There follows a review of the hydrography of the Peninsula,
in which it is shown that to the mountainous character of
the country is attributable the fact that there are no great
rivers there ; with notices of the various slopes of the
country toward the sea, and of the districts included in
each. In discussing means of preventing inundations
there are brought under consideration, in succession, the
contour of the country, and the effects of vegetation ; the
geological character of the ground in each locality; the
permeability of the ground, pantanott, or large reservoirs ;
lateral or littoral deposits; canals; the riches lost in the
sea ; and the extent to which the water might be utilised.
In the conclusion of the work the author refers to the
importance of international arrangements of meteorological
observations, and of works designed to prevent the abrasion
of the banks of rivers by dykes and other works of defence,
a measure which had commanded attention in many
countries.

The advanced forest economy of the day is based on
scientific observations, and scientific reasoning. In the
first-formed schools of forestry, such as those under Hartig
and Gotta-, observation was combined with instruction and
practice. The importance of this was felt deeply by two
German foresters, Handshagen and Yon Wedekind, and in

THE LIBRARY. 57

the latter made an effort to organise a society to
conduce to prosecuting forestal experiments, but did not
succeed. In 1868, at a congress of German foresters, held
in Vienna, the subject was brought under discussion. A
committee was appointed to consider on what plan such
forestal experiment stations as were considered desirable
should be organised. 'They agreed' — says Mr Adolphe
Leue, in a paper read before a Convention of the Ohio
State Forestry Association, held in Cincinnatti in August,
1883 — ' On a plan of organisation, and questions to be
subjected to investigations and experiments. The report
was adopted by the German Foresters' Congress, and
submitted to the several Governments, which were to bear
all the expenses of these stations.

' The first station was organised on the 16th April, 1870,
at Baden, Saxony, Prussia, Wurtemberg, Austria, Bavaria,
Brunswick, and Hesse followed in the order mentioned.

1 The great aim of these stations is/ he says, c to furnish a
scientific foundation forarational management of forest,based
upon exact experiments and careful investigation. They are
intended to determine the significance of forests in the
economy of nature, to try the various methods of forest
management, to examine the advantages which one method
may have over the other, and, finally, to establish a plan
of forest administration, which will enable the owners of
forests to realise the greatest possible profit from forests,
and at the same time reduce the expenses of their
administration.

' Among the many problems to be solved through the
agency of these stations, are the following : to determine
the influence of forests upon soil and climate ; to investi-
gate the relative value of the several methods of thinning ;
to establish reliable tables of increase, and methods of
valuing forests ; to study the foes of the forest, both animal
and vegetable, and to devise means of successfully com-

58 FORESTRY TN SPAIN.

bating them ; to determine the value of forest-litter upon
the growth of trees; to test the relative value of forest
implements; to devise new methods of obtaining forest
products, and to find new uses for the same ; in short, they
are intended to furnish the means by which to increase
the wealth of the owners of forests, and thus that of the
entire country, and t?> furnish legislative bodies with the
foundation necessary for a just taxation of forests, and for
a wise and beneficient code of forest-laws.'

These stations are State institutions, connected with
schools of Forestry.

Tn Prussia, with the Forest Academy at Eberswalde.

In Bavaria^ with the University at Munich.

In Saxony, with the Forest Academy at Tharandt.

In Wurtemberg, with the University of Tubingen.

In Badon, with the Poletichnicum at Carlsruhe.

In Thuriugia, with the School of Forestry at Eisenach.

In Hesse, with the University of Giessen.

A. desire was felt by eUves of the School of Forestry in
Spain that they should be enabled to join the union, and
take part in the prosecution of observation and experiment;
and that to them should be allotted observations connected
with meteorology and climatology : and in 1882 was
published, under the title Estacion Meteor ologica- For estal
de San lldefon*a — a project for the creation of a Meteoro-
logical-Forestal Station in San Ildefonsa — which had been
presented to the Minister de Fomenta in the year 1874,
by the Commissioners entrusted with arrangements for
the systematic management of the forests of Balsain, a
royal appenage in the vicinity of Madrid, lying between
that city and Guadalajara. Having stated and detailed
the origin of the union, the writers add : ' Since Septem-
ber, 1872, there have been conformed and brought into
reciprocal communication the stations of Prussia, with
thoso of Wurtemberg, Baden, Hesse, Bavaria, Saxony, and

THK LIBKARY. f>9

Thuringia, according to an agreement adopted at a re-union
of German foresters held in Brunswick. The stations in
Prussia are ten in number, besides other three which have
been created in Alsace-Lorraine. The regulations of these
stations were made on llth March, 1872, and according to
the arrangements made the central station is organically
united to the Academy of Forestry in Neustad-Eberwald ;
and all the others are subordinate to this. In general, the
studies or investigations are divided into five sections — the
forestal, properly so-called ; the chemi co-physical ; the
meteorological ; that of vegetable physiology ; and zoology.
But the central station has the whole of these sections,
the others have only forestal and meteorological sections,
or only one of these.

Referring then to the stations in Bavaria, under the direc-
tion of Dr,Ebermayer,as models deservingof imitation, there
are stated the points to which attention is given in these ;
and the results which might be expected from the con-
sideration of data obtained. There are next described
what apparatus it would be desirable to have, and sugges-
tions are submitted in regard to the organisation and
service of the station proposed, with an estimate of the
prices of at which the apparatus might be procured in
Munich, amounting in all to 1570 pesetas or francs — of
the expense of establishing the observatory amounting to
550 pesetas, and of the probable annual expenses amounting
to 2150 pesetas. So far as known to me nothing resulted
from this memorial in the form submitted for consideration ;
but the matter to which it had reference has been taken
up, in connection with the other arrangements made for
the study of aspirants to the forest service of the country,
in the School of Forestry in the Escurial.

Sub-Section 2. — Construction.

In the same year, under the head of construction, attention
is given to the construction of forest-roads and highways,
bridges, sheds, forest huts, and homes for forest officials,

60 FORESTRY IN SPAIN.

who are required to reside permanently or occasionally
within the precincts of the forest ; and to works of
hydraulic engineering : wells, tanks, canals, and works of
irrigation. In connection with the information which has
been given in regard to published works, to which the
students have access, on matters pertaining to meteorology
and climatology as Departments of forest science, I think
it well first to make mention of works on hydraulic
engineering, and thereafter to advert to works connected
with the others.

Of treatises on subjects pertaining to hydraulic engine-
ering the most instructive is one entitled Tratado de ayuas
y liiegos, por Don Andres Llaurado, Irtgeniero de monies
Jefe de Print eri Clase, Professor rfe Construction y Mecanica
Aplicata en la Escnela especial dtr Cuerpo, $c.$c. — A treatise
on rivers and irrigation works, by D. Andre's Llaurado,
Chief of the first-class in Corps of Forest Engineers, and
Professor of Constructions and Applied Mechanics in the
School of Forestry. It is a treatise which, published in
1870, has reached a second edition, and meanwhile has
procured for the distinguished author high honours in
orders of knighthood in his own country, in Portugal, and
in France and Italy,— and membership in numerous
scientific and agricultural societies in different parts of
Spain, in Russia, in Italy, in Piedmont, in France, and in
the United States of America.

After an introduction, in which is given a brief review
of irrigation works in Spain, and a statement of economic
considerations involved in the enterprise, and of means by
which it might be further developed, the author devotes the
first part of his treatise to preliminary matters, discussing
in successive chapters : — 1. The importance of irrigations,
and the climate of Spain. 2. The composition and nature
of waters of irrigation, and their effects on vegetation, and
on different crops. 3. The quantity of water required for
irrigation. 4. The price of recovering water, and employing
it in irrigation, f>. The current or flow, and the leading

THE LIBRARY, Bl

oft" of Water. 6. The distribution of water led off, and the
effecting of this in determined proportions. 7. The
distribution of water in fixed quantities.

The second part is devoted to the consideration of meaus
of procuring water, in regard to canals of irrigation ; and
after determining preliminaries, there are discussed schemes
of operation and works of execution. In regard to reservoirs,
there are discussed certain general principles connected
with them, and the construction of them ; followed by an
account of reservoirs in Spain. Fountains or springs from
subterranean sources are next discussed, with special
reference to the discovery arid opening up of subterranean
supplies; the geological strata, and the general conditions
of the strata in which they exist; the directions in which
the water flows in subterranean channels ; the most favour-
able points for discovering these ; the depths at which
they exist ; the delivery which may be expected from
them ; rules proposed in olden times for discovering and
opening up such supplies; and different methods which
have been employed in modern times ; artesian wells ;
raising of water by mechanical appliances ; machines which
jirc in use.

The third part is devoted to irrigation, and there are
discussed the irrigation of arable lands, and of meadows.
In connection with the latter are discussed certain pre-
liminary matters ; general ideas regulating the operation ;
and methods employed.

The fourth part is occupied with the reclaiming or
improvement of wet lands. Here are brought under
discussion drainage; warping; drying up of lagoons;
reclaiming of land from the sea; the planting of sand
dunes in Andalusia ; and the reclaiming of salt soils.

Such are the contents of the first book. The second
book is devoted to works of irrigation in Spain. In
succession are brought under consideration those on the
Northern or Cantabrian slope of the country ; those
on the Western slope ; those on the Southern Oceanic
slope; those on the Southern Mediterranean slope;

fc£ FORESTRY IN SPAIN.

and those on the Eastern slope. In regard to each
information is given relative to the lands and water supply,
and to irrigation works of every description mentioned
in the previous book to be found in the basins of the
different rivers by which it is traversed.

There are several works on irrigation, and matters
pertaining thereto, iit the Spanish language, and distinct
references to these are given, in some cases with copious
citations.

Under the head of ibrestal construction, in the programme
of study followed in the School of Forestry, is comprised
also the construction of forest huts and homes.

In connection with this department of study there were
published in 1882, Proyecta de una casa, para Guardas dc
montc f/ Capataces de Gutivos, en la Dehesa del Moncayo de
Tarazona, pur Jose Bragat, Ingeniero, Jefe de monies y Jefe del
Uictrito Fot-eslal de Zaragoza ; and in 1885, Proyecto de casa de
Guardas ara el monte Pelonno.

And in illustration of the character of the studies
pursued in this department, I may cite these projects, and
estimates for the erection of foresters' houses. The
first is a project for the erection of forest cottages for
forest warders, and foremen superintending planting
operations in the pasture lands of the Moncayo of Tarazona.
In this are given details of the zone of the Moncayo ; of
the pasture grounds in question ; of forests comprised in
these, or adjacent thereto ; and such information in regard
to all of these as might be deemed necessary to the forma-
tion of a correct opinion of the necessity or importance of
the work. The papers to which this is introductory
consist, in accordance with Article 8 of Regulations for the
carrying out of the law of llth July, 1877, of specifications
of the works required ; of the materials to be employed ;
of the manner in which the works are be executed ; and
general arrangements in regard to reporting the progress
of the work, and the taking over of this when completed.
It was prescribed that the work should be done by contract,

THJE LIBRARY. 63

and executed within a specified time; and there are appended
to the specifications a tariff of different wages to be allowed
to different kinds of workmen ; of charges for means of
transport of material, including drivers ; and for lading>
transporting, and discharging the loads, based on the cubic
measure of the whole, or by cubic metre per kilometre of
distance; of payments to be made for excavating earth,
according to specified unit of measurement ; a statement of
the average distances of transport from different localities,
with accounts of the quality of the materials yielded by each;
the condition in which these exist, and that of the state of
the roads from those to the site of the building ; and a
statement of the expense of the several works, according
to these estimates, with a summary of the whole, which
amounted to 6499' 15 pesetas — to which was added, to
cover unforseen expenses 1 per cent. 64'99 ; expense of
direction and administration 5 per cent. 324'96 ; profit to
contractor, including 3 per cent, for money advanced, 9
per cent. 584'92 ; in all, 7474 02. To the whole are
added general directions issued by the directory of public
instruction, agriculture, and industry, to be followed in
the erection of the house.

The project and specifications, and estimates, included
the furnishing of a room for the use of the forest engineer
when visiting the district. This comprised a sofa, bedstead
and bedding, wash-stand, cupboard, writing table, lamp,
drawing-board, and all requisites for the preparation of
charts and reports — the sum allowed for all which was 400
pesetas, and this was included in the general estimate.

The second was a project for a warder's cottage in the
Pelonno forest, with plans and elevations. In this the
preliminary statement was more brief, but the tabulated
statements more full. These comprised specifications of
measurements; estimates of expenses of each kind of
work, according to unit of measurement ; general estimate
of the whole, and summary, with additions of 5 per cent., and
of 9 per cent., giving a total of 100*86 32 pesetas.

64 FORESTRY IN SPAIN.

SECTION 3.— STUDIES OF THIRD YEAR.

In the third year of study attention is given to Mineral-
ogy and Applied Geology; to Applied Zoology; to
Applied Botany ; and to Sylviculture.

Sub-Section j.. — Mineralogy and Geology.

Besides other works on geology and mineralogy, there
lias been published under the title of Lecciones de Petro-
raphia Aplicada Ewplicada en le Escuela Especial de
Ingenicros de Monies por el Ingeniero del Cuerpo y Pro-
fessor de la misma D., Juan Jose Munnos de Madariago,
Lectures on Applied Petrography expounded in the School
of Forest Engineers by Senor Munnos, Forest Engineer and
Professor of Mineralogy in the school. In this are given
details in regard to some GOO different rocks, including the
scientific and the popular names under which they are
known, and is a work spoken of in terms of high com-
mendation by the Junta Consultative or Council of Advice,
of the corps, by which the publication was recommended.

In this volume, after some preliminary observations,
notices of the bibliography of the subject, and a definition
of the designation, there are discussed : —

1 Under the head of Hilolgy the division of rocks
according to their constitution, with the distinction
between phaneromeric and cryptomeric rocks.

2. Under the head of Histology there are discussed the
forms and dimensions of the elements of rocks ; the forms
and structure of accessory masses ; the general forms of
structure ; particular structures of rocks ; cross sections
and fractures.

3. Under the head of Morphology are discussed forms
of stratification, of aggregation, and of concretion.

4. Under the head of Synopsis there are given the
classification of Naumann, with a tabulated classification
of the rocks according to this ; the classification
of rocks, according to Cordier ; the classification of rocks

THE LIBRARY. fc£

Considered mineralogically, according to Broigniart ; the
classification of rocks considered mineralogically according
to D'Omalius : D'Halloy ; the mineralogical classification of
rocks according to Coquand ; the classification of Coquand
modified by Viianova ; and the dichotomous classification of
rocks. The different species are then described according
to classes, and orders, and families.

5. Under the head Petrogenia are discussed succes-
sively eruptive rocks and neptunic rocks, in a normal con-
dition, divided into those formed by chemical sediment, and
those by mechanical sediment ; metamorphic rocks,
and rocks of organic origin, divided into those formed of
animal remains, and coal formations of vegetable origin.

6. Under the head of Aleofologia, or the decomposition
of rocks, are discussed the various rocks thus produced.
And this is followed by a discussion of the general constitu-
tion of earths ; of the component parts of these ; of the
influence of these upon the properties of the earths thus
formed ; the physical properties of earths ; and the classi-
fication of earths according to the method of Hundeshagen
of Masure, and of Columelo.

Of this sixth section of the work the Junta Consultiva
speak in terms of the highest commendation.

It appears from their statements, and the statements
of others, that facts which are met with scattered and
dispersed in various treatises on sylviculture, mineralogy,
geology, and other allied subjects, are here presented in such
collocation and combination that with ease and advantage
there may be deduced from the composition of the soil the
vegetation with which it should be covered, and vice versa ;
and be determined with certitude the case frequently
submitted to the forest engineer — to what should be
destined certain lands requiring to be replenished ; or what
species of trees should make way for others for which the
land is better adapted : and this department of study is
presented in the work in a simple and attractive aspect,—
deducing so naturally from the composition of the soil,
and the course of the alterations in the nutritive principles

F

6& FORESTRY IN SPAIN.

which it contains, and from its qualities, physical, chemical,
and mechanical, the requirements which should be satisfied,
and the relations which, within definite limits, should exist
between the soil and vegetation which it prefers— that in
this part of the work the forest engineer has a safe guide
in the discharge of one of the most important of the
services required of him. They allege that Senor Munnos
has (it may be unintentionally, but not on that account the
less meritoriously) so carried out his idea as to elevate it to a
place amongst those ideas which are of much avail in the
development of the practical applications made of physical
science; showing that appliances which are oftimes found
to be a burden on the memory appear as corollaries or
consequences like to those which are derived from mathe-
matical problems, and satisfying suspicions and doubts
which naturally arise as the horizon is extended, by the
demonstration that what happens could not but happen,
and could not have been brought about otherwise.

Sub-Section 2. — Applied Zoology.

Like attention has been given to provision for the study
of Zoology and Botany in their application to forestry. An
extensive acquaintance with both sciences is a pre-requisite
to admission to the school in the Escurial, but the
information otherwise obtained has to be brought to bear
upon phenomena presenting themselves to the forest
engineer in the discharge of his functions, so as to secure
the conservation and healthful development of forests
under his charge or administration.

What may be considered a handbook, which may be
used in diagnosing vegetables and animals coming under
his notice in connection with his profession, as might be
used the Petrography of Munnos in diagnosing rocks and
soils, is a volume entitled Claves Dicotomicos, para la deter-
minacion de los typos, ordenes y Familias, en los reinos, animal y
Vegetal, by Senor D. Adolfo Parada y Barreto, Forest

LIBRARY. 67

Engineer-in-Chief of the second class, and Professor of
Applied Zoology in the School of Forestry.

And information in regard to methods of prosecuting
microscopic investigations, so necessary in the study of ento-
mology, in relation to injuries done to forests by insects, is
embodied in a volume printed by Royal order, under the title
La, Estacion Zoologica de Napoles, y sus procedimientos, para el
examen Microsopico, The zoological station at Naples, and its
proceedings by microscopic examinations — a memoir
presented to the illustrious the Director-General of
Agriculture, Industry, and Commerce, by Don Joaquin
Maria de Castellarnau y de Lleopart, Forest Engineer.

Illustrations of the practical application of a knowledge
of entomology, to the study of damage done to forests by
insects, are supplied by a memoir entitled, Estudia de la
Invasion de los Monies de la Provincia de Salamanca, del Insect
llamado vulgarmente Lagarta. y medios mas adeocuardos, para
evitar sus estragos — A Study of the Invasions of the Forests
of the Province of Salamanca, by the insect popularly called
Lagarta; and the most efficient means of averting its
ravages — by Don Antonio Garci Maceira, Forest Engineer-
in-Chief ot the second class.

In consequence of great devastation being occasioned in
the forests of Salamanca by an insect, the increase and
spread of which was imperilling the existence of the woods
and forests in the province, by Royal order of 2 1st May,
1883, a commission of enquiry was appointed ; and Senor
Maceira was entrusted with the commission. He proceeded
to the province, prepared a report, which was submitted
for examination to the Facultative Junta, or Professional
Council of Forests, by whom it was highly approved, and
its publication for general information was advised. This
approval and advice were forwarded by the Director-
General of Agriculture, Industry, and Commerce, to the
Minister of Fomento, and publication followed.

In the memoir by Senor Maceira there is given the
history of the invasion and its rapid spread ; there follow

IN SPAIN.

notices of the generic and specific characters of the insect,
and of its natural history, with general observations on the
causes and occasion of its rapid increase in the province.
There are adduced climatic observations, with statements
of contributory effects, direct or indirect, which climatic
conditions may have had in favouring the rapid increase
of the insect. There &re next stated effects which may be
attributed to the diminution of carnivorous insects,
parasitic insects, and insectivorous birds, with references
to the occasion of this. Next are specified extensive
changes which had taken place in the culture of different
crops in the district, but not in adjoining districts, with
the effects of diminishingthe woodlands in it, and so affecting
the climate ; of starving out certain insects, and as a conse-
quence diminishing the aliment of insectivorous insects and
birds ; and, as a second consequence, leading to the diminu-
tion of these, but increasing at the same time the vegetation
supplying food for the Logarta — the Bombyx Dispar of
Latreille, the Liparis Dispar of Linnjeus ; and thus
producing an extraordinary increase of the insect, and of its
ravages in the forests, with disastrous consequences.
Next, with courtesy but firmness, there are reported as
contributory causes the apathy and negligence of the
people ; the unsatisfactory condition of the municipal
guard as forest watchmen, and that of watchmen supported
by private proprietors of forest lands ; and in connection
with this the itiefficacy of the law as it exists to secure the
destruction of injurious insects; and the desideratum of
associations of forest proprietors and foresters for consulta-
tion and action in matters affecting the interests of owners
of forests and woodlands.

A more commanding illustration of the application of
the knowledge of entomology to the averting of a threatened
calamity is supplied by what occurred to Spain, on the
invasion of Europe by the Phylloxera vastatrix. In many
of the vine-growing communities of Europe, on the appear-
ance and rapid spread of tie Phylloxera, there was great

*THE LIBRARY. CO

and wide-spread consternation, and that not without reason.
Spain was not an exception to this panic, but at once the
forest engineers in various parts of the country came to
the front spontaneously, or at the call of the Government,
or the entreaty of their compatriots, and the result showed
that they were thoroughly competent to deal with such a
case. It would fill a volume to detail what they did in
prescribing and advocating preventive protective measures,
which were adopted and proved efficient; and what they
did to expose the insufficiency or other means which
elsewhere had become famous. Details of what was done
in both of these departments of operations are embodied
in a report, published by Government, by His Excellency
Senor D. Mariano de la Paz Graells, Professor of Com-
parative Anatomy and Physiology, in the University of
Madrid, entitled La Phylloxera vaxtatrix. In it is a large
volume with an atlas of illustrative plates. It gives details
of the natural history of the insect ; of what had been
published in regard to it elsewhere ; and of what had been
done to avert the evil in Spain and different parts of
Europe.

Sub-Section 3. — Applied Botany.

As with the provision made for the study of Applied
Mineralogy and Applied Zoology, so with the provision
made for the study of Applied Botany. It was, as
might have been anticipated from the immediate relation
of botany to forestry, still more copious.

One valuable contribution to the provision made for
aspirants to the membership of the corps of Forest Engineers,
enabling them to make themselves acquainted with the
latest discoveries in modern forest science, are various
publications by Senor D. Rafael Alvarez Seriex, of some of
whose writings mention has been made. Amongst these
are Geografia-Botanica ; and Estudios Botanico-Foreatales. Of
the latter two series have been published, most of them

70 FORESTRY IN SPAIN.

being translations or resumes of papers or larger works by
men of note in other lands, given in a flowing popular
style, attained without detriment to the scientific precision
of the original — or papers giving the result of his own
observations, or of observations made by others under his eye.

With these may be olassed one entitled Incursion par la
Botanica. Of this,the following translationwill supply a better
idea of his treatment of such matters than I could give by
a brief notice or summary. The design was, as may be
seen, to supply an indication of the state of botanical
science among students of forest science ; and taking as a
motto that line of Virgil, Felix qui potuit rerum cognoscere
causas, he proceeds : —

1 The vegetable world presents to the view of the attentive
observer who studies it, marvellous charms and mysteries
of complicated and but little comprehended organisation ;
all in beautiful harmony with the eternal Hosamias which
heaven and earth are giving forth; producing admiration,
and presenting motives prompting the spirit to meditate —
the infinitely great, but also the infinitely small ; the milky
way, with the innumerable stars of which it is formed,
but also the microscopic ephemera, which is born, lives,
and reproduces its kind, and dies all in a space of time of a
few moments duration. So many and such are the transfor-
mations of matter brought about by vital force, the reality
of which is indisputable although its essential nature is
unknown, that not even imagination can grasp such an
immense combination, in which it appears as if we found
an infinite within another infinite, and in wondrous harmon-
ious co-operation, always working, and always unvarying,
the laws by which all is moved by the Sublime Architect
of so grand a work.

' Shall man go on progressing without end ? Will there
come a time, more or less remote, in which he will be
able to give account of the causes originating all that
comes under the cognisance of his senses ? We believe not.
His perfectability is limited with his intelligence ; there is

THE LIBRARY. 71

something at the bottom of all the problems which he
proposes to himself to solve that is inherent to his own
personal imperfection. He does not know the connection
of the subjective and objective ideas; and in his laudable
endeavour to obtain possession of the truth he encounters
obstacles which he cannot remove, and which it is not
given him to interpenetrate and fill.

' It became possible, after a lapse of centuries, and con-
tinued observation, to discover the existence of sexes in
plants. The middle ages having passed a dark night of
human intelligence, Camerer wrote his famous letter in
1694, in which he declares that the anther is the funda-
mental portion of the flower ; and somewhat later, on the
10th of July, 1717, Vaillant delivered an erudite discourse
rejecting the hypothesis of Samuel Morland, and affirming
that " the stamens trans wit to the ovules— not the grains
of pollen — but the vapour or volatile spirit, which is emitted
by them ; :> and J. B. Amici examines the Portulaca oleracca
(a species of the Purslane), and opens to science, with
his description of the pollen tube, a wide field for investiga-
tion, in which there distinguished themselves Broigniart,
Schleiden, Fritzsche, Mohl, Hofmeister, Radlkofer,
Schaeht, and many other distinguished naturalists. Let us
study the progress of fecundation ; let even the different
speed with which the pollen tube advances from its
formation be determined ; let it be followed, and be seen to
penetrate the microphile, in which it shows a remarkable
incisory force — and this having been done, when the
triumph seems complete arid the phenomena explained,
there presents itself the insuperable difficulty of ascertaining
what may be the action of the extremity of the pollen
tube upon the embryotic vesicle, from which it is kept
apart by a membrane which is not perceptibly modified,
and the basis being awanting we begin to diverge into the
dangerous field of hypothesis — ingenious, no doubt, but it
may be far from correct,

72 FORESTRY IN SPAIN.

* What a beautiful world is the world of plants ! and what
a time man has lived without giving to them the attention
they claim, believing them to be the gratuitous gift of
nature — manna which might be enjoyed without any
trouble about its preservation ! A silent and solitary
world living by itself alone : a beautiful carpet which
covers the earth, and forms, with the blue of the heavens,
a landscape of charming lovliness such as no painters —
not even the most illustrious — have been able to depict
and perpetuate upon their canvas ! Overwhelming is the
thought in considering only the infinity of the numbers
of the individuals of which it is composed, from the gigantic
Wellingtonia, whose head is lost in the clouds at the
height of a hundred metres, and the twisting twining
Calamus, a thousand yards in length, to the Moss and
the Lichen, which cover with green tints the abandoned
lordly towers ; or the Algae, which float lightly on the
waters of the murmuring brooks. Just as they exist on
the burning sands of Africa, and quench by their juice the
thirst of the lost caravan, and with their shade protect
from the burning rays of the sun, and cover and save
from the terrible Sirocco, are they found likewise in
reduced size in the regions of perpetual snow.

' It is they which mainly contribute to keep the atmosphere
in fit condition for the support of animal life. During
the day their cellules, which contain chlorophyll, h'x the
carbon for the growth of the plant, and set free the oxygen,
for which great blessing we are indebted to them as a
boon, as thus we owe to them life and unappreciable
jov, to which we cling the faster the nearer we are about
to finish our pilgrimage and go.

* Vegetables are also vast deposits of solar heat, which they
store up and keep by their chemical action, assimilating
it for their growth, and which they subsequently give forth
entirely and without reserve, so that, as was affirmed by
the unfortunate Lavosier : In nature nothing is lost, and

THE LIBRARY. 73

nothing created. These mines of coal, of which London
consumes annually six millions of tons— what are they
but immense antediluvian woods hidden by geological
deposits? We can fully enter into the views expressed
when interpreting, for the first time, the movement of the
locomotive on roads, Stephenson said to Buckland, who
was looking on with astonishment, " Do you know what
gives movement to this machine ? The sun, which more
than than two million years ago darted to earth with its
rays of light, those same fires which are now to-day con-
verting the water into steam."

'Blissful nations are ye in which all the importance
which it deserves is allotted to the vegetable kingdom,
and in which it is studied in its different manifestations,
with a view to secure to it all the means of life which it
requires. — Nations in which a tree is sacred, and forests are
not devastated to meet some momentary requirement,
without any eye for the future ! Base spirits are they which
reckon for merit their hardihood, and their ignorance for
glory !

'A proof of the attention which is nowgiven to these is sup-
plied by the fact that the most abstract theories have been
under discussion, and even such as the satisfactory deter-
mination of which would, as their only consequence, have
brought about a scientific triumph ! Known to every one is
the marked fixity with which the root tends towards the
centre of the earth, and the stem towards the zenith—
a constancy which was made the more manifest by the
experiments of Duhamel and Dutrochet. Well then, the
attempt has been made to gain an explanation of this, Astrue
supposing that it was due to an accumulation of sap ;
Dodar believing that the sun attracted the stem, and the
earth the roots ; La Hire imagining that the roots direct
themselves to the centre of the earth, dragged down by the
weight of the nutritious sap, which is reduced to a state of
vapour in the stem, through the effect of the elaboration of
the plant ; Darwin attributing it to humidity ; and Knight

74 FORESTRY IN SPAIN.

making the action of gravity to come into play. If they have
not yet resolved the question satisfactorily — if there be still
awanting the theory which will account for the same force
of gravitation causing the root and the stem to take
opposite directions — the various conjectures manifest at
least the power of the human mind, and they are all of
them deserving of commendation.

'More important, doubtless, it would have been to have been
able to determine whether vegetables possess the property of
selecting the nourishment which suits them, and refusing
what would be noxious ; or whether, on the contrary,
they absorb all indiscriminately. And great advances in the
somewhat complicated art of cultivation would have been
made if we had been able to discover whether vegetables
excrete at the extremity of their rootlets, and what it is
which they excrete. Although it is nearly a century since
Brugman submitted to botanists his views on this last point,
and although Macaire, Chatin, Meyen, Garreau, Brauwis,
Goldman, Sachs, Unger, Walser, and others, have studied
the matter judiciously and carefully, we only know after
all that the Rotation of Crops of De-Candolle has no certain
basis to stand upon, having been followed because it was
expounded by so illustrious a master — as genius, like the
sun, blinds its satellites, and leads them blindly to follow
on, without subjecting their procedure to reason.

'Another problem, however, and that one more difficult
to solve, is to determine clearly whether plants have feeling.
In presence of the phenomena presented by curious
movements, and special attitudes, it is customary to say
that these are caused by the irritability of the tissues, but
never by sensibility, which is generally repudiated as an
absurd hypothesis; but, bear with me if I ask : Where
does sensibility terminate, and irritability begin? What
are the limits which separate them ? It is an old trick of
man to try to cheat himself by the employment of words
which do not express ideas explicitly. We may feel assured

THE LIBRARY. 75

that it is not known in any determinate manner why the
name has been given to what is called The sleep of plants
(The Somniis Plantarum of Linaeus), and what difference of
constitution occasions this phenomenon so pronounced in
some, and imperceptible or awanting in others. When
the sun declines below the horizon, and the long twilight
comes on, it may be observed that the leaves of certain
species of plants, as those of the Cassia floribunda,
turn their leaflets in such a way that they approximate
one another considerably, a movement which is generally
manifested by the acacias, which are extensively cultivated
in our gardens as an ornamental tiee: And who has not
heard of the sensitive plant, Mimosa pudica L., whose move-
ments, like the natural and periodic ones of sleep, are
originated so easily by a passing cloud obscuring for a time
the light of the sun, or the distant galloping of a horse, or
by the excitation which an insect produces by alighting on
the leaves ? Who is not aware that it is enough to touch
the extremity of one of its leaflets, in order that all the
leaves, and even a b.anch, close up as if frightened by the
imprudent mortal who has taken the libeity to come near
it?

' Remarkable also are the movements of the Htdysarum
girans L. (Desmodium girans D.G.), a curious plant, discovered
in Bengal by Lady Monsen, in which a large odd
leaflet is in constant motion ; and the other two, a good
deal less in size, keep up a lively oscillation of a peculiar
kind, on which the vertex, or extremity, of each describes
an elipsis — the plane of which is oblique to the axis of the
leaf. And we may lastly cite the Dionaii Muscipula L.
(the Venus Trap-fly), which, togetherwith the Drosera.to the
Saracenia, and the Altpanthus, has by its movements given rise
to a lengthened controversy, in which Darwin, Hooker,
Reess, and Will, have displayed their genius and vast
experience, as they have discussed with all earnestness the
fact whether they be carnivorous plants or not.

' In 1866, Ligeisan and Divers having made curious
experiments on the sensitive plant, found a remarkable

76 FORESTRY IN SPAIN.

relation between the movements of this plant, and the
nervous system of man, and believed the influence to be
in its origin of the nature of magnetism. Ligersan experi-'
enced a painful impression, produced or communicated
apparently by this plant, it being observed that its contrac-
tions were more rapid and persistent through contact with
an organic body than through contact with a mineral.

'To bring to a close these unconnected statemerits.im perfect
expressions of unconnected ideas, it is but right that we
should give place to the immortal Goethe, poet and
naturalist, and author of the theory of Morphology, which
is now almost universally accepted. He sings one of his
beautiful compositions in memory of Schiller, glorious son of
Germany, and says eloquently : " The coloured leaf feels the
divine hand, and contracts on being touched; its slender forms
enfold themselves,and find themselves destined to embrace ;
they appear in graceful pairs re-united around the sacred
altar. Hymen covers them with his wings ; and with the
diffused precious aromatic perfumes they are deliciously
inebriated ; and then they develope in seed the numerous
germs which the ovaries enclose.

' " Thus uniting themselves as a new link to that which
went before, the mysterious chain is carried across our
times, and the type is preserved as well as the individual.

' "Turn now, friend, never to be forgotten, thy gaze to the
whirlwind which is agitating all around thee, and to thy
spirit there will be nought of confusion : every plant will
speak to thee its eternal laws ; every flower will speak to
thee in language more explicit ; and if thou k no west how
to read in them the thoughts of the gods, thou shalt know
how to comprehend them in all their parts, and under
whatever form they present themselves— the same in tne
hydra, which turns round embracing itself, as in the
butterfly which disports itself in the sunshine, and in man,
who artificially disfigures his true physiognomy."'

A second paper, by Senor Alvarez, in. this department of

THE LIBkAR^. 77

study — Applied Botany — written more in the severe style
of the scientist in dealing with the data and scientific
deductions of inductive science, than in that which befits
the expression of emotions called forth by the contempla-
tion of discerned truth, is one entitled Causas dela Ascension
de la Savia, or sap, based on the able works of Dr Boehm.

Another paper by Senor Alvarez which I may cite in
illustration of the character of the studies in research
pursued in this department of forest science in the School of
Forestry in the Escurial, and of the kind of publications to
which students may have access in the prosecution of
their studies, is one entitled Temperatur del Arbyr, Tem-
perature of the tree. The following translations of
excerpts from this will, I think, better indicate the
character of it than would any summary I could give of its
contents. In introducing his subject the author writes : —

' Amongst the repeated experiments which have been
made on the temperature of trees, those made by Boehm
and Breitenlohner, which we are about to bring under
consideration, deserve special attention.*

' Krutzsch, professor in the Forest Institute of Tharand,
published observations made by him during the years
1852 and 1853,t and Becquerel has published in a series
of dissertations his experience, the principal object of
which was to determine the thermometric or climatic
influence of the forest.}: In the meteorologico-forestal
observations of Bavaria and Switzerland, the internal
temperature of trees has also been the subject of observa-
tion ; but up to this time there has only been published
a resume of the data obtained during the first years.§

' From these and other experiments, it appears that the
periodical and irregular changes of temperature influence
differently different parts of the tree, from the roots to the
branches. The atmosphere and the soil are two factors

* V. Band LXX. Der Sitz. der K. Akad. d. Wissensch., I. Abth. Mai Heft.

t Untersuchunyen ueber die Temper atur der Bauine, etc., 1854.

{ Memoires de L'Acadeniie des Sciences, 1861-64.

§ ZeUachrtft, der Outer reicliiiictien GeselLacha/t/aet- Meteoroloyie, Baud IV.

78 FORESTRY IN SPAIN.

which almost exclusively determine the temperature of
the tree, both in its aerial and its subterranean parts.
The influence of the temperature of the soil extends frotn
the roots to the trunk, but only to a certain height, which
is determined by the temperature of the air which
surrounds the tree.

' The temperature of the roots is imparted by the soil.
The origin and nature of the soil and the subsoil, its
mechanical and physical properties, the degree of humi-
dity, the absence or presence of subterranean water, the
superficial covering of the ground, and the varying
degrees of sunshine and shade, are so many other factors
which influence that by modifying the character and
degree of temperature imparted to the roots. With
change of temperature in the soil, which in most kinds of
land are very slight even in the warm days of summer at
a depth of one metre from the surface, the temperature of
roots must change in the same proportion. The portion
ot these roots situated more than a metre in depth will
only be affected by the heat of the ground throughout the
year, which varies very little ; while the roots at a less
depth experience the daily changes of temperature in the
superficial layers. A long, large, deeply-penetrating tap-
root will produce in the warm months a diminution, and
in the cold months an increase, in the temperature of the
superior roots. Humidity exercises a very great influence
on the thermometric conditions of the soil and roots.
From this it may be inferred that the influence of the
heat of the soil is not confined to the roots, but through
the ascending sap makes itself to be felt to a certain
height in the trunk. To determine by experiment this
hypothesis, Hartig made some observations on two oaks
of the same magnitude and same age, 200 years. At the
height of a metre from the ground, he introduced ther-
mometers to three different depths, and noted the ther-
mometric condition of both trunks during the winter's
lethargy, as well as during the season of active vegetation.

* The aerial parts of a tree are exposed to the direct

TTHE LIBRARV. V9

action of the temperature of the air, and to the occasional
sunshine, so that the degree to which it is heated or
cooled down, depends, when the conditions are the same,
on the degree and duration of the sunshine or the shade.
And in this respect the trees which are in a clump are
differently affected from those which are isolated. The
rapidity with which, other things being equal, the mass of
a tree becomes warmed, depends on the surface and thick-
ness of the bark, and on the conducting power of the
roots and the wood in regard to heat. Wood in general
is a bad conductor of heat, but all species are not alike in
this respect. The influence of the specific heat of the
bark and wood, as well as the chemico-physiological func-
tions of the tree, however, we shall not here take into
account.

' Differences in the size and diameter of the .tree pro-
duce differences in its temperature. The daily oscillations
and the maximum temperature of the trunk are so much
the greater as the diameter of the trunk is less or as the
point of examination is nearer to the surface. The ther-
mometer shows a higher temperature in the branches than
in the trunk ; and so much is it so as to show the tem-
perature indicated by thermometers introduced into the
trunk branch and branchlet to be in inverse proportion to
the respective diameters of these.

' From this, then, it is deduced that the internal tem-
perature of a tree takes a character related to and is
produced by a great many circumstances having a reaction
upon one another. It is therefore necessary, in order to
similar observations being comparable together, that they
should be made under identical conditions, and exact
accordance in the location of the thermometers, in the
height and depth of their position, the diameter of the
trunk at the point at which the temperature is observed,
and finally in the measure of sunshine or shade.

' All of these particulars serve as a basis to determine
at three different heights the influence which the cooling
effect of the roots and the crown of the tree exercises on

$0 FOfiJESTHY IN Si»Alti.

the temperature of the same. In experimenting, the
cooling effects proceeding from the roots is produced by
abundantly watering the ground ; and that of the crown
of the tree by suspended apparatus acting as a covering or
shade. To ascertain with exactitude the cooling effect
thus produced, it is required to have two trees, one of
which may serve as «a subject of experiment, and the
other, under natural conditions, to serve as a tree for
verification or comparison of results obtained.

' To find two trees of the same species, development,
girth, and height, and equally exposed to the action of
light, presents some difficulty. Others also presented
themselves to Boehm and Breitenlohner, arising from the
necessity there was that there should be within a certain
distance abundant water, and that the tree used for
verification should not be so remote from the subject of
experiment as to render impossible the comparison of
conditions.

' Two birches were chosen, which, however, did not
fulfil all the conditions, as they were not in every respect
exactly alike. The tree selected for experiments was in
every respect weaker than the other which was to serve
for comparison. In three different ways could be carried
out the idea of placing thermometers, one at the foot of
the tree, another halt-way up the trunk, and the third in
the branches — viz., first, placing them vertically equidistant
without regard to the diameter of trunk or branches ;
second, without regard to equality of vertical distances,
to seek for equal diameters; third, without regard to
diameters, to place the thermometers at equal distances,
and at equal depths in the trees. It was necessary to
avoid a mixing of these three methods, in order not to
complicate and confuse the observations.

' Through the central layers of the birch constituting
soft wood through which circulates the sap, it presents a
possibility of placing the thermometer in the medulla of
the tree. By adopting the first of the methods specfied,
the depth at which the thermometers would have been

THE LIBRARY. 81

placed in corresponding points in the two trees would
have been very different ; and by adopting the second, the
distances of the points of observation would have been
rather great, especially in the lower pirt of the trunk.
The principal object to be attended to, was the determin-
ing the influence of the temperature of the soil on the
thermometric condition of the trunk in relation with the
ascending movement of the sap. Taking as a fundamental
fact that the temperature of the soil influences the internal
temperature of the trunk the more, the less distant the
p.rint is from the ground, and the younger are the wood
circles, the experiments ought to be made at equal
distances from the ground. In the first case, the
temperature of the tree is intimately connected with the
volume of the trunk or branches, and with variations in
the themometric conditions of the air. And the effects of
temperature of this and of the sunshine propagate
themselves transversely, while the temperature of the
ground is propagated from below upwards. The direct
comparison of the temperatures of the trees in the first
two cases being excluded, this determined the naturalists
Boehm and Breitenlohner to adopt the third method
possible, that is, equal heights and equal depths. The
two birch trees selected presented the following
measurements : —

Horizontal distance between the two trees,

Height of birch experimented on,

Height of birch of verification or comparison,

Distance of lowest point of observation from ground,

Distance of middle point irom lowest.

Distance of highest point from middle one,

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THE LIBRARY. S3

The tables on the preceding page are tabulated results
obtained, omitting remarks rna le on each, and on many
of the details of each,

Temperature [probably Centigrade] of the air around
the trees. Averages of fifteen daily observations from 21st
August to 10th September: —

Lowest. Middle. Highest Point. Averages.

Experiment Tree, . . 1830 1858 18'49 18'4t>

Comparison „ . . 18'30 18'50 18'38 18'39

Difference „ . . 0'08 O'll 0'07

Temperature of the trees from 21st August to 10th
September, Average of fifteen daily observations : —

Lowest. Middle. Highest Point.

Experiment Tree, . . . 1668 16'S3 17'57

Comparison „ ... 17 '03 IH'88 17 '13

Difference „ ... + 0'35 + 0'05 -0'44

Thermometric difference between the air and the tree: —

Lowest. Middle. Highest Point.

Experiment Tree, . . . -162 -172 -0'92

Comparison „ . . . -1'27 -1'62 -1-25

In a comparison of the two trees, it is seen that the
comparison birch is in its lower part as much hotter, as
in its upper part it is as much cooler than the tree which
was the subject of experiment. The higher temperature
of the lower part of the former is attributable to the greater
accumulation of heat in its greater volume; and on the
other hand, that in the upper part is smaller through the
greater diamater retarding the occurrence of the extremes/

There has been published also by Senor Alvarez another
paper entitled Transpiration de las Plantas — Transpiration
of Plants— a paper based on the works of M.. J. Dufour,
and on a memoir, Ueber das steigen des Transpiration stromes
bei holzplanzen, published in the Arbeiten des Botanishen
Instituts in Wurzbourg III. Heft I.; and another
entitled Formation de los Nitratos en las Plantas.

84 FORESTRY IN SPAIN.

It may be long before Botany takes a place among the
so-called exact sciences, but much was done to impart to
the studies prosecuted under the designation of Applied
Botany somewhat of the character of these. In 1877 there
was published by El Illmo. Senor D. Maximo Laguna, one of
the fathers of the School of Forestry, of whom mention
has been made, an inaugural discourse, delivered by him
before the Royal Academy of Science in Madrid — Discurso
leido ante la Real Academia de Sciencas Exactes, Fisicas, y
jVaturales, por El flmo. Senor D. Maximo Lagwia, en su Reception
Publica.

Some years since, by Royal order, a commission was
given to this distinguished naturalist, as Inspector-
General of of the Corps of Forest Engineers, and others to
be associated with him, to prepare a report of the forest
flora of Spain. In 1883 the first part of their report was
printed at the expense cf the Government. It comprises
a description of the trees, shrubs, and bushes, indigenous
or naturalized, in Spain, with short notes and observations
or. the culture and economic uses of the more important.
There are given the most generally-used systematic names ;
1 he popular mimes; references to plates besides those accom-
panying the roport which have been examined : a detailed
description of each plant ; the areas throughout which they
are found ; the locality in Spain in which each is found ; con-
ditions of the locality in which it flourishes; and brief
remarks on its culture and exploitation. And it was
intimated that probably theie would afterwards be issued
as an apptndix to this woik, a description of the trees and
shrubs most frequently cultivated in Spain • but that this
would be strictly a flora, and not a treatise on sylviculture,
nor on exploitation or forest management ; there would be
given, however, some indications of the products and the
culture of the more important.

In the following year there were issued, at the expense
of the Government, 1000 copies of 38 plates, executed in
chromo-lithograph, illustrative of the first part of the report
of the commission. Every precaution necessary was taken

LIBRARY. 85

to secure a perfect re-production of the drawings which
had been prepared ; and the work has been beautifully
executed, representing the leafage, flowers, and fruit, with
the organs delicately drawn and exquisitely coloured,
having been completed under the charge of Senor Don
Justo de Salinas, by whom the drawings were prepared.

While this work was in progress, there was published by Sr.
Laguna a pamphlet, entitled Com/eras y Amentaceas Espanolos
—Spanish Coniferse and Amentacese. In the preface
to this he intimates that the Forest-Flora Commission
had presented to the Minister of State a report in manu-
script, illustrated by drawings, of their work in regard to
conifers and amentuacese, in which details were given of
some species of special interest to forest engineers engaged
in sylviculture ; but not knowing what time might elapse
ere this should be published, be considered it might be
of use to some meanwhile in classifying species belonging
to these groups, the principal ones of Spanish trees, to
have this key, which was arranged dichotoniously. The
portion relating to Conifers had been published in 1874
in the Revista Forestal, Economica y Agricola, vol. VII., and
with some corrections and additions made to it it was
added now to a like key to the Amentaceae

In 1870 and in 1872 had been published Re'sume's, the
former of the work done by the Commission in the years
1867 and 1868 ; the latter of this done in the years 1869
and 1870.

In 1880 there was published by the same author, a paper
read at a Conference on Agriculture, held in theConservatorio
de Artes in Madrid on the llth April in that year, entitled
Plantas Cryptogamas, su importancia en la Agricultural —
Crytogamic plants, and the importance of them in con-
nection with agriculture. In the following year was
published by him another monograph, Un Mesto Italiano
y varws Mes\,os Espannolas — An Italian Oak, and sundry
Spanish Oaksj and in 1884 a paper entitled Caracteres

86 FORESTRY IN

de la Flora Espannola — Characters of the Spanish Flora.
A paper read at a Conference held in the Athenaeum,
Madrid, on the llth March in that year.

And in the Revista de Monies, or Forestry Review, for
January, 1881, appeared the first of a series of papers by
him on Cypress— like plants, their habits and their homes.

Thus has been made* and is being made, provision for aid
in the prosecution by students in the School of Forestry,
of the studies in Applied Botany.

Of the ferns from the Philippine Islands in the Museum,
there is a descriptive catalogue by Senor Laguna ; and by
the same author a description of an oak found only in
these Islands. There is a memoir on the productions of
the forests of the Philippine Islands, by Senor D. Ramon
Jordana y Morera, Chief of the first-class of the Corps of
Forest Engineers; and in 1885 was published a large
volume by the same author, Bosquetjo Geografico e Historico-
Xatural des Archipielago Filipino — A Geographical and
Natural Bistory Sketch of the Philippine Archepelago—
with additional notices of the productions of the forests, of
which for many years he had been inspector; and a
systematically arranged catalogue of the lignous forest and
cultivated plants, collected in the forests of Manilla by
Forest Engineer D. Sebastian Vidal y Soler, with notices
of localities in which each had been found — a work of
merit; and thus are the students supplied with works of
reference in regard to all the forest products of the
Philippines stored in the museum of the school.

Sub- Section 4. — Sylviculture.

Sylviculture on the Continent corresponds to arboriculture
in Britain. The difference is mainly this: the former
regards the wood or furest as the object with which it has
to deal ; the latter looks to the trees individually, whether
growing solitary or in a mass of greater or less extent, as
the subject of its consideration. There is more in this
difference than may at first be supposed; but it may be

THE LIBKARY. ft

that the difference in the treatment of woods and forests
in the countries in which these terms respectively are used,
is in a great measure the result or consequence of the new
departure taken by forest economy within the present
century ; and many of the treatises on subjects connected
with sylviculture, published in Spain, are not greatly
dissimilar to works which have been published in Britain
on arboriculture.

In 1842 there was published byD. Pablo Bentelou,Director
of the Royal Gardens of Alcazar, Memorice, fyc., a Memoir on
the Acclimitisation of Foreign Plants, treating of climatic
transplantation and acclimitisation ; with a list of foreign
plants suitable, in the opinion of the author for introduction
into Spain, stating their habitat and properties.

In 1845 was published D. Jose Maria Pamagua, Pro-
fessor Emeritus of Agriculture, and member of several
scientific societies, Manuel del Podador, &c. — The Pruner's
Manual, or directions for the treatment of forest trees, in
forests, woods, or plantations— in which physiological
phenomena, the knowledge of which is necessary to the
intelligent practice of pruning, are detailed; and the
operation is described in its application in different ways,
and to a great many different kinds of trees — being a
compilation from various French authors, and instruments
employed ; with notices of the appropriate seasons of
the year for such operations.

In 1844 was published in Madrid El Arbolista Practice,
treating of the art of cultivating all kinds of trees ; of the
preparation and division of each ; of the multiplication of
them ; of diseases from which they suffer ; and of insects
injurious to them ; with a description of all kinds of forest
and garden trees ; the culture which each requires ; its
properties and uses. It is a manual, one of a series
published about that time, under the collective title of
Agricultura Popular. The directions are compiled from
the most distinguished writers of the day.

FORESTRY IN S

In 1862 was published a work entitled Calendario del
Agricultor and Ganadc.ro Para, 1862, &c. — Almanack of
Agriculture and Pastoral Husbandry — by D. Domiuga de
la Vega y Ortis, illustrated by 17 engravings, and a
beautiful agricultural map of Spain and Portugal. It
contains, amongst other things, an article entitled Arboles
de Ribera — Trees of the Coast — divided into three parts,
which treat of the importance and usefulness of these ; of
the storing of the water, and the amelioration of the
climate ; and of the utilisation and equalisation throughout
the year of the flow of rivers and running streams. And in
all, much is said of -the utility of extending the woodlands a-s
a means of increasing the salubrity of the country, or
diminishing the duration, frequency, and intensity of
droughts: of ensuring the perennial flow of rivers by
increasing lignous 'productions, and by other appliances of
importance; and -information is elsewhere supplied in
regard to the proper treatment of timber. The article of
which mention has been made was re-produced in the
Gaceta de Madrid of the 29th October, of the year of its
publication, 1862. i

In 1863 was published a volume entitled Manual de
Selvicultura Practicapr a Manual for the forester,thegardener
the proprietor, and the forest warder, by D. Jose Garcia
Sanz. It treats of sowing, planting, pruning, and all that
concerns the cultivation of various kinds of forest trees ; the
collecting of their seeds, the diseases from which they
suffer, &c. And iii the following year another, entitled
Manual del Agricultor Asturiano, by D. Luis Guez, of the
Faculty of Science, Professor of Natural History, and
member of the Patriotic Economical Society of Oviedo. It
treats of the cultivation of the beech, the oak, the chesnut,
the walnut, the pine, the ash tree, and others.

In the same year, 1864, was published Arboricultvra o sta
Cultivo de Arboles y Arby^tos — a large work, in two volumes
8vo, with numerous plates. They were lectures delivered
at the Scientific and Literary Athenaeum of Madrid, by D.
Antonio Blanco Fernandez, Professor in the Institution,

LlfefcARY. ^

Doctor in Medicine and Surgery, Professor of Special
Cultures in the Central High School of Agricultural
Engineers, and member of various scientific societies at
home and abroad. It treats of the organs, the physiology,
the influence of atmospheric agencies, and the longevity
and death of trees; it enters then on the consideration of
all that relates to the culture of trees, and to the greatest
possible extension of woodlands, with a view to aiding in
which there is given a monograph on the culture required
by each species ; with notices of what is required in this
in gardens, in pasture lands, in the open country, in parks,
&c. ; and the work concludes with observations on the
utilisation and profitable exploitation of woodlands ; and a
recapitulation of the Spanish forestal legislation, which
might affect or interest proprietors. The author states
that he has throughout these lectures made use of the
doctrines advanced in the work on the same subject by
M. Du Breuil.

In 1874- was published in Tarragona, under the leading
title of Estudios Forestales— two volumes by D. H. Ruis
Amado, Forest Engineer, treating of the forests in their
relation to the necessities of the village population. The
author held the rank of Forest Engineer-in-Chief of the
first class In this are discussed numerous matters pertain-
ing to forestry. The work was held in high estimation, as
was also the author, to whom was awarded a gold medal
for its publication.

Interested as the authors of these several works were as
professional men, in the professional work to which they
were more immediately called, they saw, as enlightened
patriots, that by them, if not also by all who engaged
in a similar calling, the importance of replenishing divested
forests, and creating an extension of the woodlands of the
country, was being realised, as it had not yet been realised,
by the mass of their countrymen.

ito FORESTRY IN SPAIN.

SECTION 4.— STUDIES OF FOURTH YEAR.

In the fourth year of the student's curriculum, he is
required to give attention to xilometry ; forest ordenacion,
or forest partition and systematic exploitation on scientific
principles; forest industries; the administration of law;
and political economy-
Sylviculture, to which attention is given in the third
year of the course of study, and xilometry and forest
ordenacion, to which attention is given in the fourth year
of that curriculum, all relate to the modern scientific
exploitation of forests, which, devised and developed by
Hartig and Cotta in Saxony, in the beginning of the
present century, has been introduced into Spain as into
the other countries on the Continent of Europe, giving a
character to the whole course of procedure in regard to
forests, and the training of forest officials for the manage-
ment of these.

Sub-Section 1. — Xilometry and Forest Ordenacion.

Xilometry comprises all that relates to the measuring of
wood, and the principles involved in the application of this
to trunks, boughs, and branches of growing trees, in order
to enable the administrator of a forest to ascertain what
cubic increase is being made by growth in each year, or
decade, in the trees of a forest under his administration —
that he may proportion to this the quantity of timber or
firewood which may be taken from different compartments
in it, it may be in different stages of growth and with
varying degrees of vegetative vitality, with a view to
insuring sustained productiveness. Ordenacion relates to
the partitioning of the forest into compartments ; with a
view to successive thinnings of different extent, culminating
in a final felling, which will leave only the trees reserved for
seeding to ensure the natural re-production of the forest.
And Sylviculture relates to the culture of seedlings, saplings,

LIBRARY. 91

poles,and perches; the production of these by self-sown seeds;
and artificial sowings or plantings required in the extension
or creation of forests, or the replenishing of any which have
become to a greater or less extent devastated, and of spots
in self-sown re-produced forests, which from any cause
may not have been covered with seedlings like the ground
around ; and to the treatment of the whole, till the cycle
or revolution of re-production and felling has been
completed.

In the conservation, culture, and exploitation, or profit-
able disposal, of forest products, considerable differences
of practice exist. In Britain we hear much of game-
keepers ; on the Continent of Europe we hear much of
forest- warders ; here the game, there the wood, is the
object of conservation. In Britain we hear much of
arboriculture; on the Continent we hear much of sylviculture:
the former term I have told refers to woods and plantations,
the other term to woods and forests; in the one case
the unit is the tree, and the wood is considered as the
collection of trees ; in the other the wood is the unit, and
the trees are considered only as its constituent parts. In
the former, attention is given primarily to the sowing and
planting, and pruning it may be, and general culture of
the tree : nowhere, perhaps, has this arboriculture
been carried nearer to perfection than it has been in
Britain ; and the effects produced by the resulting woods
are wonderful. In the latter, attention is given primarily
to the wood or forest as a whole, capable of yielding pro-
ducts which can be profitably utilized ; and the result
generally is to produce a much greater proportion of fine
trees than does even the arboriculture which has been
referred to. And not less different is the exploitation of
woods in Britain and on the Continent. In Britain the
pecuniary returns obtained from woods is considered a
secondary matter in comparison with the amenity and
shelter which they afford ; but on the Continent the
material or pecuniary product is made the object of
primary importance.

§6 FORESTRY IN SPAIN.

The arboriculture of Britain may seem to leave little to
be desired; but nowhere, perhaps, are forests treated with
greater recklessness than they have been in some of our
colonies and dependencies. In India, however, and in some
of our colonies, an endeavour is now being made to arrest
the destructive practices which have prevailed, and to
introduce a system of treatment of forests more in accord-
ance with the advanced forest science of the day.

In the United States of America, and in Canada, there
have been effected extensive clearings of forest lands,
resulting in injurious effects upon the climate, and in a
greatly diminished supply of timber, with no prospect of
this being compensated by the subsequent growth of trees in
the localities. And in some of ourcolonies extensive forests
have been treated like beds of onions, leeks, cabbages,
and turnips, in the kitchen garden. Trees deemed suit-
able for some purpose desired have been felled, others
around them have been left standing, or have been cut
down to allow of the felled timber being brought out ;
and the results have been scarcely less destructive than
the forest clearings elsewhere. These results may be seen
in what were once forest -lands in the colony of the Cape
of Good Hope.

More than 200 years ago France was in danger of being
entirely devastated by this system of jnrdinage in the
exploitation of forests, and in 1669 there was issued an
ordinance — which soon became extensively famous, and
is famous still — requiring the forests to be divided
into a specified number of sections, one only of
which should be exploited at a time, so as to allow time
for the trees to be reproduced in each before all the others
had been exploited in succession. The measure was not
new, but was one likely, where adopted, to save not only
France, but also other countries in Europe from devasta-
tion. Less than 150 years sufficed to show that this
was a vain hope, for the reproduced forests were not equal
to those which had been felled. And early in the present
century there was devised, in Saxony, a more complicated,

THE LIBRARY. 93

but a much more efficient method of exploitation, which
is being adopted everywhere on the Continent of Europe.
It has been introduced with most satisfactory results into
the management of forests in India ; and the adoption of
it seems to be the only means available to prevent the
ruin of forests in our colonies, which are now being
rapidly destroyed.

In this also the forest is divided into a number of
sections corresponding to the time required for the repro-
duction of the trees. But instead of exploitation being
confined to one of these at a time, the supply of wood
required is obtained from the felling of the trees in one or
more lots, and from first, second, and third thinnings in
others — all being so arranged as to secure simultaneously,
and without prejudice to one or other of them, an improved
condition of the forest, a sustained supply of products, and
a natural reproduction of the felled forests by self-sown
seed. And all these results are now being obtained by this
method of exploitation. This may seem to be the ne plus
ultra of forest management. But in its application to any
forest the arrangement of details must be based on the
knowledge of a number — of a great number — of facts in
regard to that forest, and an ordenacion or arrangement of
sections and divisions of the forest founded on these.

There was published in 1847 a resume of a treatise on
forest taxation by M. IS oirot-Bonnet, which had been pub-
lished in France. It is a brochure of 129 pages quarto, entited
Manual de la Tasacion de montes y bosquet, por Don Jose Maria
Aniagua. It comprises eight chapters, under which respect-
ively the author treats of : — 1. The taxation of woods, with
different tables for use in the valuation of them under
different aspects. 2. Tables of cubic measurement. 3.
The increase in cubic measurement of trees. 4. The
taxation of different species, with regard to various systems
of exploitations. 5. Of the general possible production
relatively to area and volume. 6. The comparative
quantity of material products. 7. The pecuniary return
obtainable by these. 8. The produce, brought under
exploitation by thinnings and successive fellings.

94 FORESTRY IN SPAIN.

From the use made in English of the word tax, and its
derivatives, which in popular discourse, if not also in
scientific discussions, are applied to what is exacted by the
State directly or indirectly from members of the community,
some difficulty may be experienced in receiving it as it is
used in connection with forest economy on the Continent, in
which the term taxation is applied to the determination of
what produce a forest may yield, without injury to itself
and with advantage to all concerned. Taxation, or the
determination of this is a necessary operation in the profit-
able and scientific exploitation of a forest. It follows the
survey and preparation of an inventory, and the presentation
of a report on the conditions as to the growth and the vigour
of vegetation of a forest. It has for its object to ascertain the
quantity of wood material contained in a separate portion, or
in an entire wood, and to determine the laws of its increase.

By Professor D. Francisco de P. Arrillega, member of
the Corps of Forest Engineers, and Professor in the School
of Forestry, it was seen that to facilitate important studies
there was required a text book of formulas and tables
required in the valuation of forests. Such a work was
published by Dr. Gustav Heyer, Director oi the School of
Forestry in Munden, a man deservedly held in high
estimation throughout Germany, and amongst students of
forest science in other lands. This Senor Arrillaga
translated into Spanish, and in 1872 it was printed by
the Government at the National Press, under the title
Compendia de Valoracion de Monies. According to the defini-
tion of Dr. Heyer the valuation uf forests is that department
of Dasocracia or forest economy, which has for its object
the determination of : — 1. The value of the ground by
itself. 2. The value of the entire vegetable covering of this.

3. The value of the forest trees, and arborescent productions.

4. The annual rent or revenue of the ground, of the
vegetable covering, and of the forest. The designation
forest being now applied to the ground, and the vegetable
covering and the trees growing upj;i it conjointly. And iq

TttE LIBRARY. 95

his work he treats:—!. Of general principles comprising
the knowledge of the mathematical, economic, and forestal
principles affecting the determination of the value of
forests ; and thereafter of the special application of these
to the valuation of a forest. Under the first of these heads
he discusses in successive chapters — 1. The subject of
value, distinguishing between price and intrinsic value.
2. The idea of interest, discussing differences existing in
the amount of interest in general; differences affecting
forestal interest in particular ; and the determination of
interest in relation to forest property. 3. The calculation
of interest according to a critical determination of the
kind of interest, simple, compound, or combined, which
should be selected in the capitalisation of revenue or rent;
a critical determination of simple interest of compound
interest ; and of a combination of these. 4. Formulae for
the calculation of interest, according to necessary modifica-
tions of compound interest, with tables of factors to be
made use of in such calculations. 5. Income and expen-
diture.

Under the head of special application of the general
principles to the valuation of a particular forest, he dis-
cusses in successive chapters : — 1. The determination of
the value of the ground by its abstract value, its cost, and
the price which would be obtained by sale, with a state-
ment of some general considerations affecting the
abstract value, and a critical determination or decision
relative to the employment of this in determining the
value of a forest. 2. The determination of the value
of the vegetable covering according as this may relate to
the whole plot, or to isolated trees, or to a specified
portion of the lot, discussing in regard to the first
mentioned case the determination of the abstract value
of this, and conditions which may effect this advantage-
ously or otherwise ; the determination of it by the cost,
and general conditions on which the amount of this
depends ; and the determination of it by the price which
would be realised by sale, Thereafter are discussed the

96 FORESTRY IN SPAIN.

valuation of the increase by growth of the vegetable
covering in one or more years ', and the valuation of the
vegetable covering of a whole forest, in the condition of a
formal series of compartments in successive stages of
growth, and preparation for thinning and felling. 3.
Valuation of a forest, comprising both ground and crop
by its abstract value, its cost, and the price it would
bring if sold — viz., with a valuation of its returns or rent.
4. Determination of forest returns or rent— that of the
ground ; that of the crop ; and that of the forest com-
prising both. And there are appended tables for the
calculation of interest on the bases of different factors.

In 1880 was published a volume entitled Elemenlos de
Tasacion Forestal por el Ingeniero Cav. Francisco Piccioli,
Director de la Real Escuela de Monies de Valambrosa Traduci
— dos del Italiano por R. Alvarez tieriex Alamno de la Escuela
Especial de Ingenieros de Monies, Elements of Forestal
Taxation by the Cavalier Francisco Piccioli, Forest Engineer
and Director of the Royal School of Forestry at Vallain-
brosa, translated from the Italian by R. Alvarez Seriox,
rh've. of the School of Forest Engineers, Alumnus.

The two parts of this work by Cav. Piccioli, remarks
Senor Alvarez, though intimately connected are yet
severally complete, and both manifest similarly excellencies
of lucidity in arrangement, and a free style in strictest
harmony with mathematical precision. In the flowing
language of Ariostu, and others of his country's literary
men, he describes the implements, and the mode of using
them in collecting the data required, and the application
afterwards made of the data obtained.

The Taxation relates to the determination of the material
at the command of the engineer ; the Assessment has to do
with the determination of what may be utilised. As
stated, it is the first part only of the Cavalier Piccioli's work
which is brought under consideration. The fundamental
data required tor taxation are measurements of the trees,
of each and all, or of a number of them so selected as to

THE LIP.KARY. '.C

suffice the operator in ascertain ing, with proximate
accuracy, such average measurements as will afford satis-
factory data for estimating the measurements of the
remainder.

In the work under consideration the first chapter is
devoted to a description of the structure and application
of dendrometric instruments ; and under successive head-
ings are described: — 1. Instruments for the measurement
of circumferences and diameters. 2. Means of determining
heights of trees. 3. Various dendrometers. 4 Trigono-
metrical measurements of heights and diameters. 5.
Instruments for measuring the increase made by growth.
G. Instruments employed in the measuring of timber, and
in determining the power of resistance and density of
woods.

The second chapter relates to instruments employed in
determiningthe measurements and the increase by growth of
single trees; and under successive headings are described : —
1. The typical measurements made. 2. The determination
of the cubic measurement of single bolls. 3. The deter-
mination of the cubic measurement of a standing tree.
4 The determination of the cubic measurements of stump,
branches, and bark. 5. The determination of the increase
made by growth.

The third chapter is occupied with discussions
relative to trees, and the increase made by them in
woods. Under successive headings are discussed: —
1. The density of the growth of trees in a forest, and
corresponding classifications of them on this ground. 2.
The determination of the number of trees in a foiest by
different methods — enumeration and otherwise ; the
formation of classes, according to height and bulk; the
selection of the number of typical trees for each class,
concluding with observations and formulas relative to the
selection of type trees. 3. The increase made by growth,
and the determination of periods in which this varies by
increase or diminution. 4. The construction of tables,
including the calculation of co-efficients, and methods of

H

98 FORESTRY IN SPAIN.

determining approximately the increase made. 5. The
determination of the produce of clearings.

In 1883 there was published a valuable exhaustive
treatise on the scientific classification, arrangement, and
exploitation of forests, entitled Ordenacion y Valoracwn de
Monies, by D Lucas de, Olabazal, of the Corps of Forest
Engineers. In this are embodied and assimilated the
instructions given otherwise in regard to the mensuration
of trees, to the determination, by estimate or otherwise,
of the cubic measurement of the contents of a clump of
trees, a wood, a compartment, or a forest ; to the determina-
tion of what increase by growth is being made, or which is
expected to be made ; and to the valuation of forests and
forest lands : the whole being subordinated to the purpose
for which these data are required — the management and
exploitation of forests in accordance with the advanced
forest science of the day. In doing this the author
defines a forest as ground of considerable extent
covered with woods of spontaneous growth or artificial
planting, maintained specially with a view to obtaining
timber or wood, or with a view to prevent damages being
done by denudation. He recognises the difference between
what he designates herbaceous forests, and timber forests
and coppice- woods.

In the first part of his work, in which he treats of data
required as preliminaries to Ordenacion, he specifies
amongst these an inventory or special report in regard to
the legal condition of the forest, in regard to the administra-
tion of it, and in regard to rights of servitude upon it ; its
boundaries ; its natural conditions in relation to position ;
the character of the ground as to composition and super-
ficial contour; and its forestal condition in numerous
particulars. Amongst others these : details in regard to the
general plan of the forest ; the outline, position, contents,
and general conditions of the different clumps, woods, or
compartments, and the relative value of the characteristics
of each of these ; with details of a complete and of a

THE LIBRARY. 99

partitional survey ; and a plan or chart of each compart-
ment. The author details then all information embraced
in the studies of the school in xilometry : both that
relating to the cubic measurement of the wood, and that
measurement in regard to all the trees on the ground ; and
all the information embraced in the studies of the school in
regard to increase made by growth. He then treats of
secondary products, and of intrinsic conditions of the forest.
Treating in the second part of Ordenacion strictly so-called,
he specifies as preliminaries to be determined the formation
of circuits ; the kind of trees to be grown ; the exploitation
to be followed — timber forest, coppice, or a combination,
of the two — and the number of years to be preferred as
constituting the revolution or cycle of growth and repro-
duction. Next, under the head of Methodes de Ordenacion ,
there are detailed the different methods of division of
forests in use— that according to eqiial areas, or the
French Metkode a tire et aire ; that inversely proportional
to the condition of the crop ; areas inversely proportional
to the actual produce ; and what he calls the indirect
division. There are next discussed the methods of division
followed in Spain ; and there is given in detail, with
illustrative chart, the plan of Ordenacion adopted in the
forest ' La Herreria.' There are then passed in review the
methods of distribution proposed by Bekman, Ostellt,
Schilcher, Hennert, Wedel, J. L. Hartig, and E. Gotta.
There are next discussed what are designated the rational
methods of exploitation, summarised as: — 1. Methods based
on average increase. 2. Methods based on the Austrian rates.
And 3. The harmonic methods. Under the head of Austrian
rates, a development of that of Hartig and Cotta, he
passes in review the views of Huber, advanced in 1812, and
those of Hundeshagen.

Proceeding then to the subject of exploitation the author
discusses in succession the preparation of a general plan
of operations ; the preparation of a special plan for each
compartment; and the successive revisions to which this
should be submitted as exploitation advances, and new

100 FORESTRY IN SPAIN.

data are obtained — all in accordance with what is generally
done in other countries in which the forests are thus
managed. There follows a chapter on the ordenacion of
irregular timber forests ; and thereafter discussions of the
theory and practice followed in the valuation of forests,
with detailed cases in illustration of the satisfactory con-
solidation of lordship ot tenure and territory, in disputed
cases involving difficulties.

SECTION 5. — FOREST INDUSTRIES.

Under the head of Forest Industries, information is
supplied to the students in regard to all that is being done
in Spain with forest products to prepare them for the
market and for use. It includes the cutting up, if not the
felling of timber, excepting in so far as the manner of doing
this may affect the use to be made of it ; the preparation
of fuel yielded by the forest, whether as firewood or as char-
coal ; the collecting and preparation of bark, and in
connection therewith the preparation of cork ; the collecting
and manipulation of resin ; the collecting and disposal of
esparto grass ; and much besides.

Of the comprehensive character of the instruction given
under this head, and the provision made to fit forest
engineers for the efficient discharge of duties to which they
may be called to give their attention, in connection with
the profitable disposal of forest production, an illustration
is supplied by a volume entitled Industria Forestal-Agricola,
published by the illustrious Senor D. Salvador Ceron, Chief
of the First Class in the Corps of Forest Engineers, superior
Honorary Chief of the Civil Administration, and Knight-
Commander of the Royal Orders of Charles III. and of
Isabel la Catholic, &c., in which information is supplied in
regard to well-nigh a hundred materials and products and
processes of forest industry.

In the catalogue of articles of forest produce sent to
the Agricultural Exhibition, held in Madrid in 1807, there
appear round timber, cut timber, charcoal, resin, bark, &c,

THE LIBRARY. , , lOl

Sub-Section 1. — Preparation of Timber, Firewood, and CMrcoal. ' '

In 1877 there was published by Senor D. Euge'nio Pla y
Rave, Marcos de Maderas, &c., or Felled Timber for use in
Civil and Naval Structures, with the prices obtained for them,
and other forest products in the different provinces of Spain.

After classifying the timber referred to as timber used
in shipbuilding, in architecture and engineering, in
carpentry and cabinet-making, and as round logs, logs
partially squared, square logs, and sawn timber — and
stating what kinds of timber yielded by the forests of
Spain are used for the different purposes, and sold in the
different forms spoken of, and conditions determining
different sizes, and prices of these, he proceeds to give
tabulated statements of the linear and cubic measurement
of different kinds, the unit of measurement by which each
was then sold, and the prices obtained in the different
provinces in Spain, in Cuba, in Porto Rica, and the
Philippine Islands; also, tariffs settled by Government
for direction in the purchase of timber in the arsenals and
other public workshops in the kingdom ; and in an appendix
tabulated statements of corresponding longtitudinal and
specificial measurements, weights, measures of capacity,
liquid and dry, and designations of quantity used in sales
of firewood in the different countries of Europe.

And in the Kevista de Monies, or Forestry Review, of
November, 1879, is given the first of a series of papers
on the specific gravity and density of woods of different
kinds.

For firewood there is in Spain nothing like the demand
which there is in Central and Northern Europe. The climate
is different, and I saw there no such extensive preparation
and storage of this as I had seen elsewhere. For domestic
purposes there seemed to be used exclusively small wood,
such as might be yielded by branches and brushwood, and
charcoal seemed to me to be used by all who could afford
to make the purchase of this.

I5l> FO&ESTkY IN SPAIN.

Information in regard to the preparation of charcoal,
and in some cases in regard to the collecting and utilising
of products, resulting from the distillation of wood, is
supplied by Senor Ceron ; and in 1885 there was published
by D. Carlos Castel y Clemente, member of the Corps of
Forest Engineers, a volume entitled Combustibles Vegetates:
Teorla y Practica de l/a Combustion, Carbonization, y
Destilacion de la Madera, or wood. For some years it had
been felt as a great desideratum in the class of Forestal
ludustriy in the School of Forestry, a treatise on
this department of forest industry, which, being
adapted to the existing conditions uf forest production
in Spain, and to the possible development of industries in
which might be utilised more extensively the forest pro-
ducts of the country, might serve as a text-book for the
students, and for any others who might give their attention
to this branch ot industry. The collection of data for the
preparation of such a work was begun by the author,
others communicated to him observations made by them ;
and the production of this work was the result.

In successive chapters are discussed : — 1. General ideas
of combustion ; the combustible elements of wood ; and
the theory of combustion. 2. Firewood, with a definition of
firewood ; notices of the calorific power and phenomena of
its combustion ; directions in regard to the felling of
firewood, and the classification and sale of the material. 3.
Charcoal ; the nomenclature and classification of different
kinds; horizontal and vertical furnaces; qualities and
produce of charcoal made in the open air ; relation between
the wood burned and the charcoal obtained. 4. Charcoal
and tar furnaces constructed for the preparation of tar ; car-
bonisation in the;:e; different structures employed. 5.
Apparatus for distillation of wood, and process for the
procuring of pyrolignous products; apparatus and process
employed in the separation of tar, methylene, and
acetic acid ; apparatus and process for the preparation of
illuminating gas from the distillation of wood. 6. Potash,
mode of obtaining this, and process of purifying ash salts

THE LIBRARY. 103

obtained from wood. And in the appendix are discussed the
origin and classification of peat or turf; the composition and
analysis of this ; the digging out of peat ; the carbonisa-
tion of it, and the products of the distillation.

Sub-Section 2. — Collection and Manipulation of Resin.

Similar to pitch and tar in chemical composition are
resin and turpentine. But these can be obtained from
growing trees. In the work by Senor Ceron, which I have
cited, information is given in regard to the collecting of the
raw material, the manipulation of this, and uses to which
the products are applied in Spain. This is an industry
carried on largely in the plantations, of maritime pine,
on the Landes of the Gironde.* The abundant growth
of this tree on the Peninsula is confined almost entirely
to the western slopes of the west coast of Portugal.

The pine most abundant in Spain is the -stone pine
Pinus Pinea, there known as the Pino Pinnonero, the Pino
de La Tierra, the Pino Doncel, the Pino de Pinnon Comes-
tible ; and it is found to be well adapted for profitable
exploitation as a resin yielding tree. It abounds in the
province of Cadiz, and Senor Ceron gives the account
which follows of the exploitation and manipulation of its
produce: — It. is believed to be indigenous, and produced
from seed ; it covers extensive areas of sandy soil, and of
lands called Barros — alluvial lands — in the lower lying
and sub-mountainous regions of that province.

' The resiniferous vessels are not so pronounced in this
pine as they are in the Pinus Pinaster — the cluster pine — and
in the Pinus maritima ; and the body of the tree is not so
impregnated with resin as are these. When the east
wind prevails,t and the days are warm, the resin accumu-
lates in great quantities in the incisions made in the

* Information in regard to these, and the exploitation of resin produced, I have given
in a volume entitled Pine Plantations on the Sand Wastes of France.

1 1 presume the wind is designated from the direction whither it blows, contrary to
British practice o£ designating the direction of winds by reference to whence they cotne.

JOt FORESTRY IN SPAl'N.

trees ; and the evaporation of the spirit of turpentine is
so rapid that the resin solidifies, obstructing thus the How
of additional material. There have not as yet been made
the experiments necessary to determine the maximum
quantity of resin which the stone pine may yield.'

Senor Ceron having been urged repeatedly to undertake
the direction of the resination in the pinery called
ViUanueva in the Province of Puerto-Real, undertook, but
with some reluctance, the task, making 5000 pines of from
30 to 50 years of age the subject of experiment.

1 In the latter half of March, 1872,' says he, ' they began to
bleed the pines. From a decimetre above the ground, to the
height of a metre, they cleared the bark of all asperities
and roughnesses for a breadth of two centimetres. With
a pitch worker's hatchet the first incision in the tree was
made, cutting into the trunk from the lower edge of the
cleared bark, with a bivadth of 11 centimetres, a length
of 2 decimetres, and a depth of 1 centimetre.

'To collect the resinous material there was followed the
method of M. Hughes, there being used small vessels of
clay, glazed inside, in the shape of a truncated cone — like a
small flower pot — and about a quarter of a litre in size.
At the bottom of the incision there were fixed some iron
holdfasts, slightly bent, along which the resin might run,
flowing without loss into the receivers. As the incisions
are enlarged the receivers must be raised, which is done
by their being suspended from a nail by a hole in their
side.

' It may be observed that with this species of pine the
receivers require to be renewed every third, or it may be
in some cases every fourth day, this depending on the
vegetative vigour of the tree and the state of the atmos-
phere. When, as is frequently the case in summer, the
east wind prevails for some time, the evaporation of the
spirit of turpentine, and the aqueous constituent with
which the resin is combined, evaporate with great rapidity ;
the turpentine becomes solidified, and it is thus kept from

ME LIBRA&Y. 105

flowing into the receiver, and the resiniferous vessels of
the tree become obstructed, the flow of the liquid is
arrested. To meet this it is necessary to change the
receivers every three days. When the wind is north-west
and west the air is cooled, and the turpentine flows till
the fourth day without any necessity to change the
receivers.

' It has also to be stated, that when the incision penetrates
the sixth ring of the alburnum, there are thence obtained
only slight indications of turpentine ; that from the second
and third layers are obtained the largest quantities ; that
from the first and fourth there flows less, and still less
from the fifth. Amongst the trees chosen for observation
those from 35 to 45 years of age yielded proportionately
the greatest quantity of turpentine; and of these those
which were growing with greatest vigour and luxuriance.

'The collecting of resin was continued till the 15th of
October, giving seven months of a resin harvest, or, as it is
designated, resination. Collected conveniently in a
receptacle prepared for the purpose, the whole quantity
measured 7335 litres, which was equivalent to about 1*2
litre per tree. From this, when manipulated in manner
and form to be afterwards detailed, there were obtained 368
litres, or 32 arrobas — the arroba is a weight of 25
pounds — of boras, or earth, impure resin, mixed with small
fragments of chips, bark, &c., or 5 per cent of the material
extracted and measured ; 5369 litres, or 467 arrobas, of
colofonia or resin, amounting to 78 percent; and 1471
litres, or 128 arrobas, of spirits or essence of turpentine,
equivalent to 20 per cent. ; and 147 litres, or 12 arrobas,
of water and other matters were lost by evaporation.

' To determine the expense, and returns of the resination
of these 5000 trees, it is only necessary to state the value
of the products at the fabrique or manufactory on the
pinery of Villanueva : 467 arrobas of colofonia at 11 reals* =
5137 reals ; 128 arrobas of aquarras, or spirits of turpen-

* The real is equal to 2£d.

106 FORESTRY IN SJPAIN.

tine, at 60 reals = 7680 reals ; 5 arrobas of breas, tar resulting
from the borras and impure resin, at 12 reals = 60 reals —
in all, 12,877 reals.

'The expenses were : —

420 days' wages of the men, two in number, employed in

collecting the resin, at 14 reals, - - 5880 reals

210 days' wages of a boy, assistant to them, - 1260 ,,

10 per cent, interest on the capital of 15,000 reals invested

in the small fabrique and utensils employed, - - 1500 ,,

10 per cent, on the sum of these for unforeseen incidental

expenses and the direction of the work, - 864 ,,

9504 reals

' Deducting the expenses from the returns, there is a
nett gain of 3373 reals, corresponding to a gain from each
tree of 67 reals. With the problem thus solved, showing
that it would be profitable and satisfactory to continue
the resination of stone pines, the proprietor did not hesitate
about submitting to this method of exploitation a greater
number of trees.

'In the year following he subjected 75,000 trees to this
treatment, and judging from the quantity of turpentine
obtained during the first month of operation, it may be
supposed that the products, if not superior to those yielded
in the experiments of the previous year, would have been
approximately equal to them ; but the political movements
which were so accentuated in Cadiz arid the province
around, prevented the ascertaining in an indubitable
manner of the entire production, as during a third part of
the time of the resination the operations were stopped.

' Let it be supposed, and it is no great concession, that
the 75,000 trees yielded proportionately the same profits
as were obtained from the exploitation of the former 5000,
there would result a nett return of 50,574 reals.

' In the year 1874 the resination was extended to 120,000
trees, but the work has been stopped in consequence of
ruinous losses to which the proprietor of the state has been
subjected through operations of a different kind, and the
lamentable depression of trade which has come upon all
our larger towns.

THE LIBRARY. 107

c By the resinatioii of pineries similar to those of Villa-
nueva, there is in no way whatever affected the produce
in pasture and fruit, the seeds being in demand as such ; and
firewood, and small-kneed timber, made use of in the
construction of small vessels and boats, being unaffected
either in quantity or in pecuniary proceeds. Tortuous and
crooked trees, and those from which resin is collected,
when these have yielded all the turpentine obtainable from
them, admit of easy and convenient application to such
boat and ship-building ; and it should be known that the
wood obtained from trees which have thus been bled, is
better than those which have not so been treated, because
from being saturated with turpentine, they decay or rot less
readily and prove more lasting. The stumps, chips, and
defective wood of trees, which cannot be used in carpentry,
are appropriated for use in the manufacture of alquitran,
pitch or tar.

' To effect the resination and extract the product, the
following implements are used : — 1. A common hatchet.
This is used to clear away any roughness or projections
from the bark, and the place where the incision is made.
2. A pitchman's hatchet. This instrument has a certain
curvature in the handle, and is used to make the flat
wounds in the tree, and renewals of these. 3. A ladder.
When the cutting cannot be reached from the ground it
is necessary to make use of a light hand-ladder, or a three-
cornered pole or beam, with steps cut in it on two of the
angles, that placed at an inclination against the tree it
may enable the workman to reach the place on which he
has to operate. 4. A rake ; formed like a pick-axe or
hoe, provided with a handle a metre and half long,
which serves for clearing the bark at heights which cannot
be reached with the hatchet. 5. A resin rake. This
implement is used to rake off resin in a concrete or
solidified state from the cuttings ; it is composed of a short,
handle, and a curved blade of iron. 6. A shovel. This
shovel is of iron, with a handle of wood, and serves
principally for the removal of the resin to the bucket.

108 FORESTRY IN SPAtN.

7. A pitchman's bucket. This bucket is similar to those
in domestic use ; it serves for the transport of resin to and
from the receivers and the deposits. 8. Depots or receptacles
for the resin. The depot depends in size on the magnitude
of the fabrication, and care must be taken to prevent the
absorption of the spirit or oil of turpentine. What gives
the best results is to Mne it with Roman cement, and paint
this with pirogenado oil ; precautions must also be taken
against fire.'

There follows detailed information regarding the various
processes employed in the preparation of spirits of turpentine,
resin, pitch, tar, and lamp-black ; and of the various uses
to which these, and preparations from them, are applied -
with all of which it is considered desireable that the forest
engineer should be acquainted, or in regard to which he
should have at command the information which at any
time may be required in the discharge of his functions.
The volume by Senor Ceron was published in 1879

In a paper on the resin trade of Valladolid, by Serior
D. Felipe Romero Gilsariz, which appeared in the same year,
the writer says: — ' We do not undertake to describe the
process of collecting the rough turpentine from the
Maritime Pine, Pin an Pinarte, Sol., arid the elaboration of
this in the manufactory. Uur purpose is more limited : it
is to give a brief sketch of the resin trade in Valladolid,
considered from an economic point ot view ; and in entering
upon this we believe that the deductions which may be
drawn will prove applicable to a great extent to that
industry everywhere throughout the Peninsula.

' Some eight years ago it was proposed to collect the
rough turpentine, or raw resin, from 20,000 pine trees, as
a means of obtaining a new product from the public forests ;
and with a view to securing good results, attention was
directed to what had been accomplished in this way in the
district of Segovia. To the cutting of these pines succeeded
the establishment of a resin manufactory within the
bounds of the aforesaid town ; and in the year 1874, by

THE LIBRARY. 109

Senors Don Theodora Elias Huard, and Don Julio
Touchard, there were liberally assigned for this on the plan
still practised, the great number of 118,000 pines, of which
94,000 are now in course of being exploited, and the rest
are to be disposed of by auction.

' Not only has a beginning thus been made, but we find
there is being utilised in this way 8 per cent, of the pro-
duce of the forests ; and that thus has been promoted the
better conservation of those which enjoy the constant
watchful care of the guards in charge of the erections for the
manufacture of the resin.

' Assuming then, as a starting point, that there is obtained
from each pine 3 kilogrammes of rough turpentine, which
we do not consider to be at all an extravagant assump-
tion, the annual product from the 94,000 trees mentioned
will amount to 282 metrical tons ; and a greater quantity
than this might be procured, in as much as the possible
yield of the forest would admit of this, if all the measures
favourable to this new-born industry were taken ; but as
up to this time it has not been possible to get any
extraneous impulse towards its development, we fear that
the produce of the raw material will, on the contrary, be
found gradually decreasing. This supposition is based on
data, which in the sequel will be adduced, taken from the
manufactory, of which the nephew of Don Julio Touchard
has charge, which is distinguished alike for the skilful
devotion under which it is conducted, and for the exacti-
tude of its management and accounts,

' Rate of cost of manufacture of 500 kilogrammes of resin
in the manufactory in Valladolid : —

Pesetas* Cent.
Hire of Pine Trees,

Labour of Collecting Raw Material, - - 6 — 41

Packages and Packing, - - 0 — 54

Transport to Manufactory, - - 1 — 85

Sundry Incidental Expenses, • 0 — 58

Total per 100 Kilogrammes, - 13 — 12

* The Peseta, as has already been stated, is equal in value to a franc, and like it is
divided into centimes,

110 FORESTRY IN SPAIN.

' Cost of making 100 kilogrammes of distilled resin : —

Resin at Manufactory,

Loss in Manufactory.

Wages,

Expense of Manufactory,

Fuel, -

Packing of Material,

Vessels,

Total per 100 Kilogrammes, - 20 — 32

'The products obtained in the distillation of 100
kilogrammes are according to the following scale : —

Spirits of Turpentine,
Colofonia (Resin) No. 1,
No. 2,
,. No. 3,
Pitch,
Residue and

Total, - - 100 Kilo.

' Bearing in mind the cost of 13*12 pesetas, at which 100
kilogrammes of resin is brought to the manufactory, which,
when distillation is completed, amounts to 20'32 peseta*,
it will be easily calculated what the cost of these several
products will be ; and seen that the actual cost or price will
be:-

Per 100 Kilo.

Spirits of Turpentine, - 57-50 Pesetas

Resin, No. 1, - - 18-75

„ No. 2, - - 15-

„ No. 3, - - - 12-50

Pitch, - 10-

' What we have shown to be the expense of obtaining
these products in the manufactory of Valladolid it may be
presumed will, with slight differences, be the expense in
the district of Segovia, at the manufactory of Coca, and
supply the data required in judging of the resin trade ;
and may clear US of exaggeration in extending them' to

THE LIBRARY. Ill

the products obtained at the manufactory of Las Navas —
the conditions under which they are obtained in the two
provinces in which they are situated being similar to that
of Avila ; and we may feel ourselves at liberty to make
use of these data in discussing the competency of our home
products to compete in our markets with products imported
from abroad. Adverting then to the proximity of France
to Barcelona, the first market in Spain for this class of
produce, we find in the following tabulated accounts the
disadvantages under which the Spaniards labour: —

SPIRITS OF TURPENTINE.

FRENCH PRODUCE.

Pes. Cent.

Actual cost in Dax, ..... - 44— 0

Transport to Cette, -2-20

Transport from Cette to Barcelona, ..... 1 — 70

Duty. .......... 10— 0

Cost in Barcelona of 500 Kilogrammes, .... 57 —90
SPANISH

7V.v. Cent.

Cost in Arevalo, Las Navas. or Valladolid, ... 57 — 50

Transport to Barcelona at Kail way Rates, 7 — 75

Cost in Barcelona of 500 Kilogrammes, .... 65—25

COLOFONIA OR RESIN, No. 1,

FRENCH PRODUCE.

Pes. Cent.
Actual Cost in Dax, ........ 14—50

Transport to Cette, ........ 1 —90

Transport from Cette to Barcelona, ..... 1 — 70

Duty, 0—25

Cost in Barcelona of 500 Kilogrammes, ... . 13 — 35
SPANISH PRODUCE.

Pest. Cent.

Cost in Arevalo, Las Navas, or Valladolid, • - - 18 _ 75

Transport to Barcelona at Railway Rates, 6—75

Cost in Barcelona of 500 Kilogrammes, . 25 _ 50

112 FORESTRY IX SPAIN.

'The relative cost of spirits of turpentine and of resin,
No. 1, indicate the relative cost of the other products, and
show that France can put them in the market in Barcelona
six pesetas cheaper than we can. In Santander, and other
ports of less importance, the effects of this competition are,
less manifest, the inequality not being so great as in
Barcelona ; and if, from the French products yielded by
their renowned plantations, the Landes, we go to the
products obtained on a great scale from American forests
favoured by an exuberant vegetation, the Spanish products
cannot successfully compete with these, since the expense of
extraction and elaboration in America is much below
what it is in Spain ; and we have little to add to this for
expense of transport, as vessels carry this class of products
as ballast, at a very low charge for freight.

'From what has been stated it is manifest that the
resin trade cannot be said to be in a lively condition, or to
contain germs of vitality, seeing that it cannot compete
with imports from abroad, which can be put in the market
paying 10 pesetas for 100 kilogrammes duty for spirits of
turpentine, and 25 centimes duty for a like quantity of
resin, No. 1. It seems then to be indisputably necessary to
raise the duty, especially that on resin, which is almost
nil; for so long as the duties are what they are at present
it is easy to account for the great quantities of the latter
products being stored in the manufactories, aud the
difficulty in effecting sales.

' We do not consider that we are competent to discuss
the graver question of general regulations, applicable to
every case, which would require lengthened consideration
and a clear judgment in regard to general utility; but
what we think is that with a growing industry, as is the
resin trade in our country, everything proper to increase
it should be done, and so far as it presses, every difficulty
should be taken out of its way, that it may compete freely
with foreign products in the home market. Every industry
labours under difficulty which has in its beginning to bear
equal burdens with those which are already established,

THE LIBRARY. 113

in consequence of the natural obstacles which are always
encountered in beginning anything new, notwithstanding
that it requires, on the contrary, means to promote its
development. This once secured, the new industry can,
and should, bear its part in sustaining the burdens which
fall necessarily upon a nation ; but it is only thus, accord-
ing to our judgment, that it can become useful, as by
gathering the fruit too soon the tree which yields it may
be destroyed, while otherwise it might have yielded crops
continually and plentifully.

' As the information solicited, by circulars dated 8th
August last, should now be collected, we may presume that
the Consulting Committee of Valuations and Regulations
may now take up the question, and give a deliverance
upon it. Granted the competence, and proper action of
the persons comprising it, we may hope that they will be
able to propose some measures to enable the resin industry
to come out of its present lethargic condition ; and we
should greatly rejoice if these, and other forest industries
of a similar character, should enter upon an era of progress
and profit ; and this would beyond all doubt redound to the
increased pecuniary productiveness of our public forests.'

Snb Section 3. — Collection and Manipulation of Bark and Cork.

In connection with the collection of bark for tanning,
there is supplied in the work of Senor Ceron information
in regard to the quantity of tannic acid yielded by the
bark of different kinds of trees ; and in the same year in
which it was then published was published a work by Don
Carlos Castel, Professor in the School of Forestry, entitled
Estudios sobre el Tanino : Memoria premiada con el accesit. por
la Real Academia de Ciencas Exactas, Pisicas y Naturates, en la
Concurs Publico, para 1876, Sobre el tema deter minar el valor
intrinsico de la materias curtientes o astringentes, referido al del
Tanino producido por los vegetales de Cinco o mas provincias de
Espanna ; y exporter con la aproximacion posible, in edad de los
vegetales, de donde proceden su cultivo, habitacion y estaqion, epocas

I

114 FORESTRY IN SPAIN.

del anno mas favorables, para la recoleccion de los productos, y
las vias o medios de exportarios o conducirios a los Mercados —
Studies in Tannin — a memoir for which a prize was
awarded by the Royal Academy of Exact Physical and
Natural Science, at the public meeting in 1876 ; a prize
offered for a paper on the subject of the determination of
the intrinsic value of the tanning, or astringent matter in
the tannin produced by the vegetables of five or more
provinces of Spain, with a statement as precise as possible
of the conditions of the vegetables from which the tannin
had been obtained, the culture to which the plants had been
subjected, their habitat, the season of the year most
favourable for the collecting of the products, and the ways
and means of exportation and bringing these to market.

A more important industry in Spain in connection with
bark is that of cork, yielded by the Quercus Suber which
grows there abundantly; and on this subject also Senor
Ceron supplies valuable information, nor is there any lack
of special treatises on the subject.

In regard to the collecting and manipulation of cork-
bark, there was printed for private distribution in 1876 a
pamphlet, entitled Elcornoque y la Industria Taponera, por
Don Primitivo A rtigas y Teixidor, Ingeniero de Monies, Profesor
Interino y Ayudante de la Escuela Especial del Ramo — The
Cork Tree and Cork-Cutting Industry, by Don Primitivo
Artigas y Teixidor, Forest Engineer, Interim Professor and
Assistant in the School of Forestry. In this information
is supplied in regard to the botanical character of the
species; and to its different parts; the climatic and other
physical conditions of its vigorous growth ; the artificial
production or replenishing of cork tree woods ; the area of
the growth of the tree ; the exploitation adapted to it ;
the secondary products yielded by it; the enemies and
diseases to which it is exposed ; and the pecuniary returns
yielded by the culture ol it. In connection with the cork
industry are detailed the preparation and manipulation of
the sheets of bark j the manufactory and improvement ot

THE LIBRARY. 115

corks ; and much relating to the commerce in corks and to
other appliances to which the material is and may be put.

In 1879 there was published a work entitled Le Chene
Liege en Algerie, par M. A. Lamey, Inspecteur des Forests —
The Cork Tree in Algeria, &c. Of this, in 1881, Senor
D. Primitive Artigas, now Chief in the Corps of Forest
Engineers, and Professor of Sylviculture, Meteorology and
Climatology, in the School of Forestry, published in the
Revista de Monies, and afterwards reprinted a Resena Critica
or Critical Review And four years later, in 1885, he pub-
lished as a reprint a pamphlet entitled Alcornocales Industrie
Taponica—The Cork Industry of the Cork-Oak— a part of
a larger work reporting what had been made subjects of
observation on a professional tour made with the students
under his care, in the province of Gerona, in the spring of
1882.

Another work on the same subject is one published in
1884, Notas Sobre los Alcornocales, y la Indastria Corchera de
la Argelia par D. Jose Jordana y Morera, Jcfe de Primera
Clase der Ouerpo, de Ingenieros de Monies ; publication oftcial
del Ministero de Fomento — Notes on the Cork Trees and the
Cork Industry of Algiers, by Senor Jordana, Chief of the
First Class in the Corps of Forest Engineers ; an official
publication of the Minister de Fornento.

Appended to the first-mentioned work of Senor Artigas
is the following list of works, consulted by him in the
preparation ot that work, which might prove useful to
others engaged in the prosecution of the study of this
subject, while it shows what provision was made for
facilitating such studies by members of the corps : —

Alonso de Herrara (Gabriel). — Agricultura general. — 4 vols.
1818-19. Madrid.

Barruel (G.) — Traite de Chimio appliquee aux arts et a
1'industrie, a la pharmacie et a 1'agriculture, — 5 yols,,
1856-60. Paris,

116 FORESTRY IN SPAIN.

Baudrillart. — Traite general des Eaux et Forets, Chases et
Peches, &c.— 2 vols., 1823-25. Paris.

Boissier (Edmond). — Voyage botauique dans le midi de
1'Espagne pendant 1'annee 1837. —2 vols., 183945. Paris.

Bosch y Julia, (Excmo. Sr. D. Miguel). — Memoria sobre la
parte Forestal de la Exposicion de Londres de 1862. — 1863.
Madrid.

Bosch y Julia (Excmo. Sr. D. Miguel). — Memoria sobre la
inundacion del Jucar en 1864. — 1863. Madrid.

Candolle (Alphonso de). — Prodromus Systematis Naturalis
Regni Vegetablis.— 16 vols., 1824-73. Paris.

Colmeiro (D. Miguel). — Catalogo metodico de plantas obser-
vadas en Cataluna, particularmente en las inmediaciones de
Barcelona.— 1846. Madrid.

Collantes (Excmo. Sr. D. Augnstin Esteban). — Dicciomxrio de
Agricultura Practica y Economia Rural. — 7 vols. and an
Atlas.— 1855. Madrid,

Comision de la Flora Forestal Espanola. — Resumen de los
trabajos verificados por la Comision de la Flora Forestal
Espanola durante los anos de 1867-68-69-70. — 2 vols.,
1870-72. Madrid.

Costa y Cuxart (D. Antonio Cipriano). — Introduccion a la
Flora de Cataluna, y Catalogo razonado de las plantas observadas
en esta region. — 1864. Barcelona.

Cutanda (D. Vicente). — Flora compendiada de Madrid y su
provincia. o descripcion sncinta de las plantas vasculares que
espontaneamente crecen en este territorio. — 1861. Madrid.

Daunassans(A.) — Nouveau dictionaire d'Agriculture pratique.
—1854. Toulouse.

Duchartre (P.). — Elements de Botanique. — 1867. Paris.

Garcia Martino (D. Francisco) y Gonzalez de la Pena (D. Pablo).
— Revista Forestal, Economica y Agricola. — 7 vols., 1868-74.
Madrid.

Girardin («/.). — Lecons de Chimie, elementaireappliquee, aux
arts industnels. — 2 vols., 1860-61. Paris.

Gomez de Ortega (D. Casimiro). — Tratado del cuidado y
aprovechamiento de los montes y bosques, &c., por D. M.
Duhamel de Monceau, traducido al castellano por el Dr. I).
Casimiro Gomez de Ortega. — 2 vols., 1873-74. Madrid.

Qrenier et Godron, — Flore de France, ou description de plantes

THE LIBRARY. lit

qtii croissent naturement en France, et en Corse. — 3 vols.,
1848-50-55. Paris.

Heyer (Dr. Gustavo). — Allgemeine Forst-und Jagd-Zeitung. —
Veintiseis tomos: 1848-74. Frankfurt am Main.

Joigneaux (P.) et Moreau (E.). — Dictionaire d'Agriculture
pratique. — 2 vols., Paris.

Junta Directiva de la Exposition. — Memoria sobre los pro-
ductos de la Agricultura espanola, reunidos en la Exposicion
general de 1857-61. Madrid.

Koch (D. Quit Dan Jos). — Sinopsis Florae Germanicae, et
Helveticae.— 3 vols., 1843-45. Francofurti.

Laboulaye (C.). — Dictionaire des Arts, et Manufactures de
1'Agriculture, des Mines, &c. Description des precedes de
1'Industrie Francaise, et etrangere. — 2 vols., 1853-54.

Lambert (Ernest). — Exploitation des Forets, de Chene-Liege,
et des Bois d'Olivier en Algerie. — 1860. Paris.

Liebeg (Justo). — Tratado de Quimica organica publicado en
frances por Ch. Gerhardt. — Traduccion en espanol, por Saez y
Ferrari.— 4 vols., 1837-48. Madrid.

Parlaiore (Filippo). — Flora italiana, ossia descrizione, delle
piante, cfae crescone spontanee o vegetano corao tali in Italia e
nelle isole ad essa Aggiacenti. — 5 vols., 1848-73. Firenze.

Pelouze (J.) et Fremy (E.). — Traite de Chimie generale, &c. —
6 vols. and an atlas, 1855-56. Paris.

Quer (D. Joseph). — Flora espanola o Historia de la plantas
que se crian en Espana. — 6 vols., 1762-84. Madrid.

Rozier. — Nuevo Diccionario de Agricultura-teorico-practica y
eeonomica y de Medicina domestica y Veterinaria. — 1842-45.

Societe d? Agriculture. — Memoires d'Agriculture d'economie
rural et domestique, publics par la Societe d'Agriculture. —
73 vols., ano IX : 1856. Paris.

Tessier. — Annales de 1'Agriculture francaise. — ano VI :
1855. Paris.

Willkohmm (Mauritius) et Lange (J.). — Prodromus Florae
Hispanicae. — 3 vols., 1861-74. Stuttgartiae.

Semanario de Agricultura y Artes, dirigido a los parrocos. —
23 vols., 1797-1808. Madrid.

Annales Forestieres. — 24 vols., 1842-65. Paris.

Revue des Eaux et Forets. — 13 vols., 1862-74. Paris.

Comptes rendus, hebdomadaires des seances de I'Academie
des Sciences. — 77 vols., 1835-73. Paris.

11 S FORESTRY IN SPAi'tf.

SECTION 6.— JURISPRUDENCE AND POLITICAL ECONOMY.

From the first it was considered desirable that in the
School of Forestry in Spain, as is the case in those of
many, if not also of all such schools in other countries,
the students should be instructed in the principles and in
the administration of law. In this, as in other departments
of study, the professors appear to prepare a programme of
what they consider desirable should be taught to the
students, which programme requires the approval and
sanction of the authorities of the school ; arid provision
was made for this being done in the earlier programmes of
those schools which were projected but were not established.

The following is a summary of a handbook of study in this
department, issued in 1861, five-and-twenty years ago,
which shows what subjects were embraced in this depart-
ment of study at that time. It is entitled Lecciones de
Admmistraclon Forestal ; apuntes de la Clase — Lectures or
Instruction in Forestal Administration; Notes for the use
of Students.

It is intimated in the text that what is referred to in the
title is the administration of forest law; and under successive
heads there are indicated the subjects of successive lectures,
embracing : — 1. Notions of property in general. 2. Appli-
cation of proprietorship to the territory of forests. 3.
Servitudes. 4. Duty of the State to maintain in favour of
itself the legal presumption of the proprietorship of forests
on disputed or doubtful property, at least till the contrary
be proved arid established. 5. That law-suits in regard to
forests should always be prosecuted in the most suitable
manner, and, if possible, in the regular administrative way,
so as not only to facilitate and expedite the suit, but to
ensure the execution of the judgment. 6. That the Govern-
ment administers of its own right the forests of the State ;
directs for public convenience the service or management
of forests belonging to communities and corporations ; and
in the forests belonging to private proprietors exercises

THE LIBRARY. 119

police powers conformably to the laws and local regulations.
7. Duty and behaviour of engineers in the service. 8.
General idea of the organisation of the Government of
Spain.

In this handbook the distinction between possession and
proprietorship is distinctly drawn. The State, by which
it is explained is to be understood the Community, is held
to have the sole right to hold land of its own right, but also
to have the right to transfer possession, constituting thus
what is known as private property, which again ma}7 be
limited by servitudes, and rights of usage recognised by
the State — with the Government as its representative.
It is stated that while some nations hold that pro-
prietorship extends de ceilo a ceilo — from the surface to the
antipodes, Spain, with some other nations, holds that it
extends only to a certain depth, the determination of which
depth affects the decision of questions raised as to the
proprietorship of minerals ; and that the proprietorship
of forests comprises that of the soil and vegetable covering,
herbaceous and lignous. There are discussed changes
which have taken place in consequence of the diminished
importance of pasturage in forests, and the increased
importance of firewood and timber. It is alleged that in
Spain the proprietorship of the forests has never been
abandoned by the State, and that the tenure or possession
is limited by servitudes and usage. Of servitudes there
are recognised three categories — urban, rustic, and mixed.
In the first mentioned are comprised rights to light,
rights to form gardens, and rights of water-flow
to and from the property. In the second are comprised
right of pasturage, right of erecting fences, with right to
the soil for culture of crops, and right of use of forest
products ; and it is stated that there are special servitudes
peculiar to different provinces. It is maintained that the
State ought not to part with its legal right of possession,
beyond the limits imposed by cosmical, geographical,
and social requirements of the country, or of the
district, which would be affected by any such transfer ;

i-20 FORESTRY IN

and there are specified what constitute prescriptive rights
of private property, which are confined to what can be
supported by legal evidence of just title, and continuous
possession for not less than 10, 20, or 30 years, according
to circumstances. Importance is attached to proper
provision being made for the prosecution of forest mis-
demeanours and offences, and to safeguards against the
miscarriage of justice — the governing Administration
having a right to prosecute in the interests of the nation,
and the forest officials in cases of wrongs committed in
forests belonging to communities and corporations, and
even in the case of the forests belonging to private
individuals, prosecuting conformably to the laws and
local regulations.

The following is a translation of what is stated under
the head of Lecture VIII. — General Idea of the organisation
of the Government of Spain : —

'To the formation of a just idea of the Administration
of the State, it is necessary to have some knowledge of the
nature of government in general, and of the particular
distribution of its functions. To communicate this is the
object of this lecture.

' The present Government of Spain is a Constitutional
Monarchy, or, what is the same thing, the King rules in
accordance with the Constitution of the State.

' The Constitution establishes three powers ; namely,
the Legislative, the Executive, and the Judicial.

' The Legislative power is exercised by the King, with
the Cortes. The Cortes is composed of two co-legislative
bodies, which are the Senate, the members of which hold
office during life, and the Congress of Deputies, who are
elected temporarily in the provinces, in accordance with a
special law.

' The King convokes, suspends, and dissolves the Cortes
in a form prescribed by the Constitution. With him lies
trie initiative and the sanctioning of laws ; and he may

THE LIBRARY. l2l

assemble the Cortes in any place which seems to him
convenient. For the promulgation of a law there is
requisite the perfect agreement of the co-legislative bodies
and the sanction of the King. A law once promulgated,
its arrangements cannot be altered excepting by another
law enacted by the Cortes; but the Government may
explain, and secure the operation of it, by means of
Regulations.

' In general terms it may be said that there pertain to
law all the arrangements which effect directly the govern-
ment of the State ; those which create or annul established
rights ; those which interpret or substantially alter other
existing laws : the general arrangements in regard to
taxes, and the public service, or the maintenance of the
army and navy, which ought to be voted annually.

' The laws ought to embody in a concrete form, and to
establish rules. The Regulations ought to explain the
application to be made of the same ; and special Instruc-
tions of Service, special details required in the execution of
the Regulations in any case, and to determinate cases of
which they treat.

1 There is nothing more difficult or more important in
practice than to determine how far the Precepts of a law
ought to extend ; at what point the arrangements in the
Regulations ought to begin to operate ; and what are the
details which ought to be entrusted to the Instructions of
Service. Hitherto, so great has been the want of agreement
on these points, that the greater part of the laws
may be frustrated, or made of no avail in practice, by
comprising in the law what ought to have been left to the
discretionary flexibility of regulations, and by including
in regulations what can only be pointed out in an instruc-
tion of service.

' The Executive power, as its designation denotes, is
that which is charged with the execution of the laws, and
with the direction of the government of the State.

' The King exercises this power, which is called Govern-

I2i> FORESTRY IN SPAIN.

ment, in the widest comprehension of the term, by means
of responsible ministers. The King participates in the
legislative power in the manner which has been indicated,
and in respect to the government of the kingdom he holds
in his hands the army and the navy ; he declares war, makes
peace, and signs treaties ; he confers all appointments,
honours, and dignities ; he grants gracious pardons, and he
sees to the internal and external security of the State.

' The Judicial power is exercised in the name of the King
by tribunals of justice, whose powers are confined to
judging, and carrying their judgments into effect.

* This power holds as fundamental the immutability of
justice, because in no other way can be conceived the
independence of the tribunals ; but the circumstances of
the country have not hitherto permitted the establish-
ment of this immutability, and consequently it may be
said that this power has not existed amongst us hitherto,
as it is recognised by the constitution of the State.
On the other hand, the constitution assumes that we
cannot have more than one standard for the Spanish
people ; and that the whole kingdom must be governed
by codices, which has not been absolutely realised.

At present, besides the ordinary jurisdictions, there exist
those of war and the navy, the ecclesiastical, the special
judicatories of the exchequer,and thetribunals of commerce.
Lest any case should arise which is not fully provided for
by these tribunals, the powers of the common courts
are curtailed to some extent by the establishment of what is
designated the Judicial Administration sanctioned among
us by special laws with an appropriate prescribed proce-
dure, and with a recognised place between the judicatories
and tribunals, in which it exercies the supreme functions
of the Council of State.

' It will be understood that these indications are con-
fined to the matters of fact, without entering upon a
discussion of the principles involved, which would be
arduous and delicate enough under whatever conception
the subject might be brought under consideration.

TtiE LIBRARY. 123

'' In representative Governments the King alone is
inviolable ; all the other public functionaries are respon-
sible for their acts, as strictly speaking there is no
sovereign power but the legislature.

' The responsibility of the Ministerial Secretaries of
Despatch is to the Congress and Judges of the Senate sitting
as a constituted tribunal of justice. Accomplices of Ministers
in delinquincies, are however, judged by the Senate itself.
In the trials of other functionaries these are heard
according to their classes by the tribunals to which they
severally pertain.

'The King holds by the Constitution the power of
submitting to the cognisance of the Senate, as tribunal of
justice, grave crimes committed against his person or
dignity, and against the security of the State.

' The Senate sits, moreover, as a tribunal in criminal
trials of Senators.

'The King exercises the government of the State as
Supreme Chief of the Executive power, by means of
seven Ministers. These are that of the State, that of
Grace and Justice, that of War, that of the Navy, that
De Haciendo, that of the Government, and that De Fomento.

1 The seven Ministers form a Council, which is under
the presidency of one of their number, with or without a
portfolio, who is usually he who has been entrusted by
the King with the formation of the Cabinet. In this
Council are treated the general business of the State, and
those special matters which give form to the law. The
Royal Decrees are always issued with the accord of the
Council of Ministers, and to that extent involve obligations
on all the authorities and dependencies of those Ministers.

' The president ought to take upon himself the direction
of foreign affairs, and what relates to the general statistics
of the kingdom. If he do not do so he delegates these
functions to other Ministers, by virtue of Royal Decrees.

c The responsibility involved in resolutions of the
Council of Ministers is collective, and cannot be confined
to any particular Minister.

124 FORESTRY ifr

' 1. THE MINISTER OF STATE, or of Foreign Affairs, as he is
designated in other countries. By this Minister is managed
such business as arises from abroad; and for the management
of this he has a diplomatic corps, which attends to the affairs
of Government, and a consular body, which has under
its immediate charge what relates to the commerce of
Spaniards at the places of their residence.

'The Diplomatic Corps is composed of Ambassadors,
Ministers-Plenipotentiary, Resident Ministers, Charges
d' Affaires, Secretaries of Embassy or of Legation, and
effective attaches with a salary, and honorary attaches
without position.

'The Ambassadors represent the person of the King,
with powers to treat of all kinds of business.

''The Ministers-Plenipotentiary represent the Govern-
ment, and hold likewise ample powers.

' The Resident Ministers attend only to ordinary
business, and such extraordinary business as may be
entrusted to them.

' The Charges $ Affaires are those who act as substitutes
for resident Ministers, and may be entrusted with most
kinds of business, but more as a commission than as a
function of their position.

'The Secretaries of Embassy and Legation exerci&e
functions indicated by these designations ; and the attaches
are a kind of official auxiliaries, who work under the
immediate orders of the Secretaries.

' The Consular body consists of Consuls and Vice-
Consuls. To Consuls of the first class is given the title of
General. Those who serve in states on the coast of
Africa, and in some places in India, discharge functions
connected with the charge of commercial business, but
they pass nevertheless into the position of the diplomatic
corps.

' The Consuls possess public credit, and may certify as
notaries documents and papers which are granted by
Spaniards, within the limits of their respective consulates.
They may, moreover, also intervene in the execution of

THE LIBRARY. 125

testamentary deeds, and proceedings relative to prizes,
damages, and other similar matters. In general, the
Consuls represent officially the personal rights of Spaniards ;
but they do not possess any footing in the representation
of affairs of Government, which pertains to the diplomatic
corps, or only do so in special specified cases, if these have
been entrusted to their charge.

fln the interior of the kingdom there depends on the
Ministry of State the supreme ecclesiastical court De la
Rota ; the office of interpreters ; the general commissary
of the holy places at Jerusalem ; the negotiations with
Rome relative to public worship ; the permanent Deputa-
tion of the grandees ; the disposal of the crosses of the
Golden Fleece, of Charles III., of Isabella the Catholic,
and of the noble dames of Maria Louisa and St. John of
Jerusalem ; the four Societies of the knighthood of the
kingdom, namely those of Seville, Granada, Valencia,
and Ronda. There pertains, moreover, to this Ministry
certain functions in the internal government of the palace ;
these, however, are not at present in use. By This
Ministry also are dispensed the rewards of the Grandees
of Spain, and are ordered the ceremonies to which these
concessions give occasion.

' 2. THE MINISTER OF GRACE AND JUSTICE. This Minister,
as the name indicates, has charge of business relating to the
ordinary administration of justice in the kingdom ; the
dispensing of grants and rewards ; the affairs of the Royal
ecclesiastical patronage ; and the Seal of the State ; with
the higher notarial powers of the kingdom exercised by
the Minister.

' The principal functions of this Ministry in the depart-
ment relating to justice are: — 1. To see that this is
administered exactly and completely by the tribunals of
ordinary jurisdiction, suspending from their functions and
prosecuting any judges who fail in their duties. 2. To
nominate, in accordance with the laws, the ministers of the
supreme tribunal of justice, the magistrates and fiscals of

126 FORESTRY IN SPAIN.

the courts, and the judges of first instance and prosecuting
fiscals, and the other under-officers of the courts, be they
clerks, notaries, recorders, or other subaltern officers of
justice ; and amongst other duties to present or instal such
as hold office by right of inheritance, and who consequently
cannot be elected. 3. To provide the material which
the tribunals require »for the performance of their service
with becoming decorum. With regard to the department
relating to grants and rewards, it has charge of pardons,
concessions of Titles of Castile, the habilitation of minors in
the administration of their possessions ; and, in general,
all those dispensations of law called grants of extract, for
which certain dues must be paid to the Chancery.
With respect to ecclesiastical patronage, this Ministry is
charged with the presentation of the archbishops and
bishops to the Pope ; the nomination of canons and
ecclesiastical prebendaries,according to the form established
by the concordat; the provision of curates in accordance with
the minutes of competition which come from the dioceses ;
the protection of the clergy, by recourse to force if
necessary; the promulgation, or it may be the exequatur,
of bulls and pontifical briefs; the disposal of the funds
granted for the maintenance of worship and of the clergv ;
and in general, all business relating to the ecomic regimen,
the policy, and the protection of the Church, of which the
King is the permanent and supreme defender in
Spain.

' Moreover, the Council of the military orders of Santiago,
Calatrava, Alcantara, and Montesa, depend on this Ministry
for the episcopal functions which they discharge in the
Churches of the order— which, by the last concordat, has
been reduced to a very small number indeed.

The Seal of the State is entrusted to the Chancery of
this Minister, on whom, moreover, depends the decision
relative to the circumstances which require its application
to executed deeds ; and the notarial record of the power
exercised by the Ministry of Grace and Justice alone
sanctions its use in authenticating solemn deeds in the

THE LIBRARY. 127

State, such as those relating to the birth and marriage of
the Princes, Acts of the Cortes, and other similar matters.

' 3. THE MINISTER OF WAR. The Secretary of State,
entrusted with the despatch of the business of this
Ministry, has under his charge all business relating to the
personnel, the material, the service and the administration
of justice, of the military in peace and in war. The
personnel comprises all, from the captain-general of the
army to the soldier inclusive. The Government business,
of every kind which has reference to these persons, is
discharged through the Direction- Generals of the armies
of infantry, cavalry, artillery, and engineers, and the
Inspection- Generals of the organisations of the civil guard,
and of the carabineers of the coast and the frontier. These
corps, it may be well to remark, depend also, the first on
the Ministry of Government, and the second on the Ministry
De Hacienda ; they are, however, dependant on all that
relates to their organisation, recruiting, and discipline, on
the Minister of War. Personal affairs, and privileges
of war, are also attended to by this Ministry, with the
difference that complaints are sent through the captains-
general in their1 places of retirement, or those in which they
reside, and not through the Direction- Generals of the army.
Also the material of victuals, clothing, hospitals,and utensils
pertaining to the corps of administration and military
health, and the armament of the troops, and places for the
manufacture of powder, parks of artillery, and foundries,
are under charge of the corps of artillery. The works of
fortification, with their dependencies in peace and war,
pertain to the Corps of military engineers. The service
is directed in the provinces by the captains-general, and
in the field by the generals-in-chief of the army.

' Justice is administered by Councils of War, when it
has to do with purely military crimes ; and by the
tribunals of the captains-general of the provinces when it
has to do with civil cases, or criminal trials for common
crimes,

128 FORESTRY IN SPAIN.

' The Courts-Martial are held by the captain when the
accused is a member of the troop ; and by general officers
when the accused is an officer, whatever may be his rank.
The sentences of the captain's court are executed only
with the approval of the cap tain -general of the district.
Those of the courts of generals, when they are condemna-
tory, require the confirmation of the King, after previous
advice by the Supreme Tribunal of war and marine.

' The Corps of Artillery, Engineers, and Military
Administration, retain their own special courts. These
courts take cognisance in the first instance of business, and
disputes relative to the personnel, material, and service of
these corps; and the appeals from these courts are
addressed to the Supreme Tribunal of war and marine,
in the same form as is u^ed by the courts of the captains-
general.

' The civil pleas and criminal trials of those who infringe
the laws of war, are prosecuted and decided in the courts
of the captains-general. The tribunals of common law
take cognisance of litigations relative to inheritances.
Amongst those who are holders of privileges there are
some who are entirely subject to military law, that is to
say whether relating to civil or criminal prosecution — others
are so only in regard to criminal proceedings.

'The ordinary courts-martial are composed of the
captain-general of the district, of an auditor, a fiscal,
and a clerk or war secretary. When the captain-
general dissents from the judicial sentence of the auditor-
he remits the proceedings to the decisions of the Supreme
Tribunal of war and marine.

fThe infantry and cavalry, and. the special corps of
artillery and engineers, have their respective schools of
cadets. The military administration manages the estab-
lishment of these.

'The supreme assemblies of the military orders of
San Fernando and San Hermenegildo, have charge of the
S upreme Tribunal of war and marine,

THE LIBRARY. 1&

' THE MINISTER OF MARINE. The organisation of this
Ministry is analogous to that which exists in the Ministry
of War, just detailed, with the difference that the
Directions and Inspections of the different institutions and
services are connected with the secretariat of the office.

'In the nomenclature of these Directions, and in the
names of the personnel of the navy, may be noted certain
variations which it may be well to indicate, that they may
not be confounded with those of the army when there is
occasion to make use of them.

'The Directions-General of the Navy, attached to the
secretariat of business, are known under the following
names : — The Directiva Junta, or Council of the Minister ;
the Direction of marine engineers ; Direction of armament,
expeditions, and stores; Direction of the personnel;
Direction of the marine list, and the personnel of crews ;
Direction of marine, artillery, and infantry ; Direction of
accounts, and of the administrative corps.

' In the naval military personnel, the gradations of rank and
their names are in every respect similar to those of the
army, but the major-generals are called chiefs of the
squadron or admirals ; the colonels, captains of the navy;
the lieutenant-colonels, captains of frigates ; captains,
lieutenants of the navy ; lieutenants, ensigns of the
navy ; and the cadets, marine guards.

' In the personnel of the crew, those who attend to the
observation and direction of the boats are named pilots ;
boatswain and boatswain's mate are names given to
kinds of sergeants holding on ship-board a position similar
to that of these in the army ; and ship boys and cabin boys,
to those of the rank of troopers in the army. In the navy
they have only three Captains-general of Departments,
which are those of Cadiz, Carthagena, and the Ferrol.
Those which exist in foreign provinces are called Com-
mandants-general, or Commanders of naval stations.

' The administration of justice in the navy constitutes a
distinct jurisdiction, as does that of the army; and it is

K

130 FORESTRY IN SPAIN.

administered by the commandants of the naval stations,
and auditories of departments, subject to appeal to the
Supreme Tribunal of war and the marine.

' The enlistment of the crews of the navy is governed by
special ordinances, and they enjoy the privileges of the
navy, with other exemptions and privileges in ports.

' There is a NavaJ College, for the instruction of the
marine guard, in the city of San Fernando ; and various
special schools in different places for the training of marine
engineers, naval artillery, and pilots for the merchant
service.

' THE MINISTER DE HACIENDA, or of Finance. By this
Ministry is transacted all business relative to the possessions,
rights, imposts, contributions, and general charges of the
State.

' For the discharge of these functions there are constituted
departments of the Ministry : the direction -general of the
treasury ; that of accounts of State funds ; that of general
contributions; that of revenues of monopolies; that of
taxes on articles consumed, the money office, and the
mines ; that of duties and customs ; that of lotteries ;
that of the bank of deposit; that of the properties and
dues of the State ; and that of general assessments of the
chancery. There depend, moreover, on the same Ministry
the court of exchequer ; the direction-general of the public
debt ; the commission de Hacienda of Spain in foreign
lands ; the junta of elective classes ; that of the sale of
national possessions ; that of regulations ; and that of the
portion of the corps of carabineers engaged in the service
of this Ministry; with other dependencies of lesser
importance.

' In the Ministry of Finance are collected the estimates
of income and expenditure of the other Ministries;
and by it is presented to the Cortes the budget or general
estimates of the State.

'The Administration of Justice special to the exchequer
is confined to affairs which are within its own competency ;

THE LIBRARY. 131

and is secured by special courts, appeals from which go to
the audiences of the territory, where this Ministry has
fiscals appointed by itself there to defend its rights.

' We may summarise the functions of this department
by saying that the Minister de Hacienda is the only
administrator and collector-general of all possessions and
revenues pertaining to the State. It is important to
notice that having the supremacy over the ancient Intend-
ancies de Hacienda which exist in the provinces, it exercises
the principal powers in the civil governments of these.

'THE MINISTER OF EXECUTIVE GOVERNMENT. This
Ministry, as its designation indicates, has in charge the
interior administration of the kingdom, in its multiple and
separate branches ; but experience having demonstrated the
difficulty, if not the impossibility, of one Ministry being
able alone to undertake the charge of such vast and
extensive dependencies, it was deemed necessary to form
separate Ministries to attend to the more important
departments of these— creating, as has been done in
France and other nations, Ministries of public works,
agriculture, commerce, and public instruction, to which
have been given the names of these particular departments.

' The Spaniards, to effect such division, have formed
two great groups, giving to the one the name of the
Gobernacion, and giving to the other that of Fomento,
charging each respectively with the functions which these
names continue to describe.

' The Ministry de la Gobernacwn discharges business
relating to the public administration, and the governing
regimen of the population, by means of the directions-
general of the administration ; the post office ; penal
establishments ; beneficence ; health ; and telegraphs.

' In the provinces it exercises the government by civil gov-
ernors, assisted by provincial councils and courts of provincial
deputies, of which they ex-officio are presidents. The local
government of the population is dispensed by Alcaldes,
Mayors, or rather by the Alcalde-Corregidores, where there

132 FORESTRY IN SPAIN.

are any ; assisted one and other by Ayuntamientos^ or Town
Councils, corporations which, like the courts of provincial
deputies, although popularly elected, perform various
economical functions dependent on the Government.

'The laws of 1845 limit the power of these deputies
and ayuntamientos to business purely administrative, and
it is also required, in regard to the greater part of their
decisions, that they should receive the approval of the
Government.

'The Administration of Justice in disputed administra-
tion is under the charge of this Ministry, and consequently
dependent on it are the Council of State, and the
provincial councils, to which is entrusted the cognisance
of appeals. Moreover, in dependence on this Ministry are
the Council and provincial juntas of the health of the
kingdom ; the Academies of medicine and surgery ; the
Pharmaceutical college of Madrid ; the medical officers of
medicinal baths; the Aranjuez college for orphans; the
savings banks; the Monte de Piedad of MadrU ; the Junta
for aid to prisoners ; the Government printing press.

'The same Ministry of Government attends to the regulation
of the press ; the election of deputies to the Cortes ; the
election of provincial deputies, and of ayuntamientos or
town councillors ; and carries on the correspondence with
the co-legislative bodies in all matters in which the
Government has to correspond with them. Finally, it has
at its orders the civil guard, which is a corps of the army
of from 10,000 to 12,000 men— as remarkable for its
organisation, as distinguished by its services. The rural
guards is also dependent on this Ministry.

' THE MINISTER DE FOMENTO. This Ministry has under
its charge public instruction ; agriculture, industry, and
commerce; and public works. There are entrusted to
this Ministry vast and complicated interests ; but there are
not given to it agents of its own in the provinces, so that
its principal representative and director of operations is
everywhere the civil governor of the province ; and this

THE LIBRARY. 133

functionary is appointed by, and depends immediately
upon, the Ministry of Government. This difficulty has
not passed unobserved in this department; and it not having
received power to create equal superior chiefs in each of
the provinces, this has led to one of those inconveniences
which occasionally occur — the despatch of business by
partial arrangements, which do not accomplish all that was
designed ; and this in the end has led to the formation of
Sections de Fomento, which in reality are no more than a
kind of special secretariat of the governors, appointed by
the Ministry de Fomento, to hear, consider, and formulate
the resolutions of the said governors on matters pertaining
to this Ministry.

' On tho Ministry de Fomento depends for the direction
of public instruction the royal council of that name ; and
all the universities, institutes, academies, general archives
nnd libraries of the king lorn ; the schools, as well superior
as professional and industrial ; with all the other provincial
and local establishments designed for communicating
instruction in its various forms and grades.

'On the Direction General of Agriculture, Industry,
and Commerce depend the personnel, material, and service
of the corps of engineers of mines and of forests, with
their Facultative Juntas or professional councils, and their
special schools; the Royal council of agriculture; the
Royal commissions ; the juntas and committees of the
provinces ; the oversight of the breed of horses ; the general
association of cattle rearers ; the economical societies; the
tribunals and juntas, or councils, of commerce.

' On the Direction-General of Public Works depend the
corps of engineers of roads, canals, and bridges, with the
consultative council, and the special schools ot the depart-
ment j the syndicates of irrigation ; and also all committees
of inspection of other kinds whatsoever, which have to do
with railways, waters, light-houses, and public works of other
kind whatsoever among dependencies of the Ministry de
Fomento. The diplomas or commissions of p ofessional
careers are issued by the Ministry de fiomento.

134 FORESTRY IN SPAIN.

' The Engineers of Mines, Roads, and Forests hold Royal
warrants for the ranks entrusted to them in their corps,
with continuous salary.

' It may be well to bear in mind, in view of cases
which may occur, that the department of forests had,
until the second period of the century, a directing and
administrative relation nvith the Ministry of marine with its
own tribunals, and a multitude of powers and privileges
which have disappeared being courts incompatible with the
legislation now in force.'

With regard to the government of colonies it is
added : — ' The possession abroad, according to the con-
stitution of the State, should be governed by special laws.
These laws, however, have not yet (1861) been enacted,
consequently the islands of Cuba and Porto-Rico, the
Phillipines and Fernando, Po, &c., continue to be governed
by the old laws of the India, and by ordinances, and Royal
decrees, which are issued to meet cases as they arise.
The inhabitants of these are not represented in the
congress of deputies ; but they are in the Senate, when
there occur the conditions prescribed for that case. The
Captains-general of some dominions hold the supreme
position in all branches of the public administration; but
these are subject to be called to account before the
Supreme Tribunal of justice when they terminate their
appointment.

'Through the Direct! on-general of foreign affairs they
discharge under the president of the council of ministers,
or on the minister substituted for him in this matter, the
business assigned to the Ministries of grace and justice,
hacienda, government, and foment 'o.

' The despatch of affairs of State, of war, and of marine,
is retained in the hands of the ministries of the peninsula,
as the nature of such business does not admit of its being
separated. It is, however, enjoined that the secretaries
of despatch of the ministries mentioned shall send to the
Direction of foreign affairs a list of the orders which they

THE LTBRAKY. 135

have communicated — these being communicated to the
authorities by the secretaries, in order to prevent the
occurrence of contradictory arrangements relative to the
same affairs being sent by two or more ministries, as has
repeatedly occurred in some remote countries when these
conflicting orders were followed with fatal effect, as well
in respect to the service as in respect to the prestige of
the government at the capital, which it is of much import-
ance to maintain in these/

The citation is a long one ; but the matter may prove
not without interest to some of my readers while it
supplies at once an illustration of the comprehensiveness
of the course of study followed in the School of Forest
Engineers in Spain, and the exhaustive character of the
studies.

SECTION 7.— GENERAL FORESTAL LITERATURE.

The accounts given under preceding headings of
different works were designed simply to supply some
illustration of the kind of provision made for students in
the School of Forest Engineers prosecuting their studies
in each department of instruction embraced in the
programme, being accounts of books taken almost at
random in so far as this use of them was concerned.
They supply an average, not a special indication of what is
provided; and the provision is much more copious than
these citations alone would indicate. Mention has been
made of the number of books in the library of the school
being, according to information in my possession when
previous sheets were sent to press, being 5665 ;
from information since communicated to me I learn that
they now number upwards of 7000.

In an appendix to an Escalaf6n of the Corps of Forest
Engineers which appeared in the Revista de Monies, on the
1st July this year, 1886, there is given the following list

136 FORESTRY IN SPAIN.

of works published of late years by members of the corps,
copies of all of which are accessible to the students. The
arrangement followed is that of the alphabetical order of
the names of the authors : —

ACEBAL DEL CuETo (D. Ricardo).

Proyecto de casa de guardas para el monte Pelono. — Madrid,
1885.

ALVAREZ SEREIX (D. Rafael).

Determinacion de la masa lenosa de un monte, por P. Nico
(Translated from the Italian).— Madrid, 1880.

C arias de Navarra.— Madrid, 1880.

La desamortizacion forestal. — Madrid, 1883.

Estudios botanico-forestales (la serie). — Madrid, 1885.

Geografia botanico. — Lugo, 1884.

Jfstudios botanicQ-forestales (2a serie) — Madrid, 1885.

Cuestiones cientijicas. — Madrid, 1885.

La opinion de la prensa sobre los monies pullicos. — Madrid,
1886.

Discursos pronunciados en la Asociacion de Agricultores de
Espana. — Madrid, 1886

Adiciones y enmiendas a la ultima edicion del Diccionario de
la Academio Espanola. — Madrid, 1386.

ARRILLAGA Y DE GARRO (D. Francisco de P. de).

Compendia de Valoracion de monies, por G. Heyer (Translated
from the German). — Madrid, 1871.

La produccion forestal en la Exposicion universal de Viena. —
Madrid, 1875.

Resena del Congreso y Exposicion de Geografia en Venecia. —
Madrid, 1882.

ARTIGAS Y TEIXIDOR (D. Primitive).

El alcornoque y la indnstria taponera. — Madrid, 1875.

Resena critica de la obra ( Le chene-liege en Algerie), por M.
A. Lamey.— Madrid, 1881.

Los torrentes de Barcelonnette. — Madrid, 1881.

Breve resena critica relativa a la obra intitulada ( Nota sobre
los alcornocales y la industria corckrra de la Argelia), por D.
Juse Jordana y Morera.. — Madrid, 18^3,

THE LIBRARY. 137

Memoria relativa a la excursion verificada por los alumnos de
la Escuela especial de Ingenieros de Monies a los monies publicos,
dunas y alcornocales de la provincia de Gerona por el verano de
1882.— Madrid, 1885.

Alcornocales. — Industria taponera. — Madrid, 1885.

Dunas. — Madrid, 1885.

BACHILLER (D. Buenaventura).

Dictamen sobre las causas que influyen en las continuadas
sequiis que experimenta la provincia de Valencia y medios que
tiendan a corregir las. — Valencia, 1878.

BOSCH Y JULIA (D. Miguel).
Manuel de mineralogia. — Madrid, 1858.
Manuel de botanica. — Madrid, 1858.

Memoria s'tbre la parte forestal de La Exposicion de Londres de
1862.— Ma.lri.l, 1863.

Memoria sobre la inundacion del J near en 1864. — Madrid, 1866.
P arte forest al de la ultima Exposition de Paris. — Madrid, 1869.

BRAGAT Y VINALS (D. Jo^e").

Guia practica para combatir y atajar la phyloxera vastatrix. —
Zaragoza, 1878.

Influencia de los monies en lahidrJ.ogia de unpais. — Zaragoza,
1879.

BRENOSA Y TEJADA (D. Rafael).

E&tation mettorologico-forestal de Sanlldefonto. — Madrid. 1882.

La porfiritas y microdioritas de &au lldt-foitso y .<os contorn s.
— Ma.irid, 1834.

Una macla de yeso. — Madrid, 1885.

El dimorfismo del basilicato de cat. — Madrid, 1885.

Guia del Real Sitio de /San Ildefonso (En cu.auunn. ion con el
Sr. Castellarnau).— Madrid, 1885.

CAMPUZANO Y BROCHOWSKI (D. Antonio).
Sistema de podas de arbolado, con notas. — Madn-i. 186-1.

CASTEL Y CLE.MENTE (D. Carlos).
: dasografica del ha^a, — Madri I. l6("3,

138 FORESTRY IN SPAIN.

Memoria sobre la Influencia de la luna en la vegetacion. —
Madrid, 1875.

Memoria sobre la fimdacion y dessarrollo de la Escuela especial
de Ingenieros de Monies. — Madrid, 1877.

Estudios sobre el tanino (Memoria premiada por la Real
Academia de Ciencias). — Madrid, 1879.

Description fisica, geogqpstica, agricola y frrestal de la provincia
de Guadalajara. (Publicada por la Comision del Mapa geologico
de Espana.)— Madrid, 1882.

Memoria sobre las condiciones naturales y production agricola y
forestal de la Peninsula Escandinava. — Madrid, 1883.

Combustibles vegetales : Teoria y practica de la combustion,
carbonization y destilacion de la madera. — Madrid, 1885.

CASTELLARNAU Y DE LLEOPART (D. Joaquin Marie de).

Estudio ornithologico del Real Sitio de San Ilde/onso y sus
alrededorts. — Madrid, 1877.

Estudio micrografico del tallo del pinsapo. — Madrid, 1881.

Estudio micrografico de la madera de la coniferas espanolas, y
especialmente del genero (Pinnus). — Madrid, 1884.

Guia del Real Sitio de San Ildefonso. (En colaboracion con
el Sr. Brenosa).— -Madrid, 1885.

Vision microscopica. — Madrid, 1885.

La estation zoologica de Napoles y sus procedimientos para el
examen microscopico. — Madrid, 1885.

Description microscopica de la madera del Quercus Jordance. —
Madrid, 1885.

CERON Y MARTINEZ (D. Salvador).

Cultivos de las estepas y dunas de las provincia de Cadiz. —
Madrid, 1877.

Industria forestal-agricola. — Cadiz, 1879.

Estudio sobre los mater iales y efectos usados en la marina. —
Cadiz, 1883.

COMPANO Y ROSSET (D, Manuel).

Apuntes de botanica. — Fitografia, — Escorial, 1884.

DIAZ OYUELOS (D. Jose).
frontuario forestal. — Burgos, 1877<

THE LIBRARY. 139

DIAZ ROCAFULL (D. Aurelio).
Legislation del ramo de monies.- — Madrid, 1881.

DIEZ DE ANDINO (D. Julian).
Cariilla dr selvicultura. — Santander, 1860.

ESCOSURA Y CORONEL (D. Luis de la).
Manual del capoiaz de cultivos. — Madrid, 1877.
La Phyloxera.— Madrid, 1878.

Breves conridemciones sobre estaiica quimica forestal. — Madrid,
1879.

ESCRIRANO Y PERFZ (D. Jose Maria).

Pomona de la provincia de Murcia. Memoria premiada por
la Real Academia de Ciencias. — Madrid, 1884.

FENECH Y ARTELLS (D. Antonio).
El voto particular del Sr. Moret. — Pontevedra, 1883.
Los monies publicos de Galicia. Memoria preraiada por la
Sociedad de Juegos florales de Pontevedra. — Madrid, 1884.

GARCIA MACEIRA (D. Antonio).

La agricidtura salamantina ; sus males y sus remedios. —
Salamanca, 1871.

La cana de azucar. — Madrid, 1875.

Apuntes y noticias sobre la agricultnra de los arebes espanoles.
— Salamanca, 1876.

Beneficios de las aves insectivoras. Obra premiada en concnrso
publico.— Madrid, 1882.

Estudio de la invasion en los monies de la provincia de Sala-
manca del insecto llamada vulgarmenie Lagarta. — Madrid, 1885.

Leyendas salmantinas. — Madrid, 1885 y 1886.

GARCIA MARTINO (D. Francisco).

Historia y literatura, de la ciencia forestal en Alemania. —
Madrid, 1869.

Consider aciones economicas sobre la propiedadforestaL — Madrid,
1869.

Un proUema de la ciencia de monies. — Madrid, 1869,

140 FORESTRY IN SPAIN.

Memoria sobre los trabajos ejecutados por la Direction general
de Estadistica.— Madrid, 1870.

Los monies y el Cuerpo de Ingenieros en las Corles Constitu
yentes. — Madrid, 1871.

HOCEJA Y ROSILLO (D. Javier).

Manual de entomologia. — Dos tomos. — Madrid, 1881 y 1882.
Influential del arbolado. — Madrid, 1883.

JoRDANA Y MORERA (D. Jos6).

Apuntes bib liografico for estates. — Madrid. 1875.

Los monies y la, colonization en Australia. Tasmania y Nueva
Zelanda. En colaboraeion con D. Juan Morphy. — Madrid, 1878.

Apuntes sobre los monies y la agricultura norteamtricana. En
colaboracion con D. S. Vidal. — Madrid, 1878.

La agricultiira, la industria y las bellas artes en el Japon. —
Madrid, 1879.

La agricultura y los rnontes de los Estado* Unido*. — Madrid,
1880.

La production agricola y forestal de la Argelia. En colabora-
eion con los Srs. Madrid D&vila y Rubles. —Madrid, 1882.

Sofas sobre los alcornocales y la industria corchera de la
Aryflia.-M.*dr\d, 1884.

Curiosidndes naturales y caracter social de los Estados Unidos.
Madrid, 1884.

LI Monasteiio de Pi'd/a visto al natural. — Madrid. 1885.

Novelas norteamericanas (translated from the English). —
Madrid, 1885.

JORDAXA Y MOREUA ( D. Raruon).

Mcrnoria s^br* laproiiicti-n de Is monks puklicos dt Filipinos
tn <l ano c<-on.<»i,ic,<, ue 1871 72 — Mmlnd, 1874.

Idem de \^7-2 73. — Ma-imi, 1874.

Id m dc. 1^73 74. — MMdrid. 1876.

Idem de 1*74 75 y 1875-76. — Madrid. 1879.

Mnnudl de l<i ci-ia dt animal's domes icos. — Madrid, 1882.

Manual de p»d<ts e iagertos de arb-Jis frutafes y forestalls. —
Madrid, 1882.

Bosqueju geografico e hist orico natural del Archipdauo filipino.
—Madrid, 1885.

Guia del viajero de Barcelona a Manila por el canal de Suez,
—Madrid, 1886.

1HE LIBRARY. l41

LAGUNA Y VILI.ANUEVA (D. Maximo).

MtnLoria de reconocimiento de los monies de Sierra Bulloiiex
pertenecientes a Espana. — Madrid, 1861.

Memoria de reconocimiento de la, Sierra de Cfuadarrama bajo
el punto de vista de la repoblacion de sus monies. — Madrid, 1864.

Excursion forestal pos los Imperios de Austria y Ru&ia. —
Madrid, 1866.

Resumen de los trabajos veriflcados por la Comision de la flora
forestal Espanola. Dos tomos. — Madrid, 1870 y 1872.

Un neuvo roble de la flora de Filipinas. — Madrid, 1875.

Discurso leido ante la Real Academia de Ciencias exactas,
flsicas y natural 'es. — Madrid, 1877.

Coniferas y amentaceas espannolas. — Madrid, 1878.

Cien helechos de Filipinas. — Madrid, 1878.

Un mesto italiano y varios mestos espannoles. — Madrid, 1881.

Que son las plantas. — Madrid, 1883.

Flora forestal espanola. Con un atlas de 50 laminas crorao-
litografirtdas.— Madrid, 1883.

Caracteres de la flora Espannola. — Madrid, 1884.

LEON DEL RIVEBO (D. Roque).

Memoria de ordenacion de la Reales Matas de Valsain. —
Madrid, 1886.

LLAURADO Y FABREGAS (D. Andres).
Tratado de aguas y riegos, Dos tomos. — Madrid, 1886.

MONIES Y PEREZ (D. Victoriano).

Dictamen sobre la scausas qur influyen en las continuadas sequias
que experimenta la provincia de Almeria y mtdios que tenderian
a corregirlas. — Madrid, 1879.

MUNOZ DE MADARIAGA (D. Juan Jose).

Leccionfs de petrografla aplicada. — Madrid, 1878.
Manual da mineraloyia. — Madrid; 1880.
Manual d' grologia — Madrid. 1881.
Lecciones de quimica aplicada. — Madrid, 1886.

142 FORESTRY IN SPAIN.

NAVARRO REVERTER (D. Juan).

Del Turia al Danubio : Memoria de la Exposition universal
de Viena. — Valencia, 1875.

OLAZABAL Y ALTUNA (D. Lucas).

Suelo, clima, caltivo agrario y forestal de la provinda de
Vizcayo. Memoria precniada por la Real Academia de Ciencias.
—Madrid, 1857.

Proyecto de ley de monies. — Madrid, 1877.

Ordenacion y valoradon de monies. — Madrid, 1883.

Sobre la desamortizacion de los monies publicos proyectada por
el Sr. Camacho.— Madrid, 1884.

PARAUA Y BARRETO (D. Adolfo).

Claves dicotomicas para la determination de los tipos, clasps,
ordenes y familias en los reinos animal y vegetal — Madrid, 1878.

PARDO Y MORENO (D. Eduardo).
Apunles sobre el esparto. — Madrid, 1865.

PASCUAL (D. Agustin).

Estudios forestales. — Madrid, 1 852.

Resenna agricola de Espana Se pnblico en el Anuario de
Estadistica correspond iente a 1858. — Madrid. 1859.

Informe de la Junta Facnltiva dd Cuerpo de Ingenieros de
Monies con motivo de la desamortizacion forestal. — Madrid, 1855.

Sobre el vocablo forest al. — Madrid, 1869.

Sistcmas forestales. — Madrid, 1870.

Discarso leido ante la Heal Academia Espanola. — Madrid, 1870.

PLA Y RAVE (D. Eugenio).

Maderas de construction naval. — Madrid, 1875.

Marcos de maderas paras la construction civil y naval. —
Madrid, 1879.

Tratado de maderas de construction civil y naval. — Madrid,
1879.

Manual de cultivos agricolas. — Madrid, 1879.

Manual de cultivo de arboles frutales y de adorno, — Madrid,
1880.

THE LIBRARY. 143

Manual de cultivo de arboles forestales. — Madrid, 18tSO.
Manual del madtrero. — Madrid, 1882.

PUIG Y VALLS (D. Rafael).

Breves considerations sobre la importancia industrial, minera,
agricola y torestal de la alta cuenca del Llobregat, — Madrid, 1881.

ROMERO Y GILSANZ (D. Felipe).
Articulos sobre una cuestion de mantes. — Valladolid, 1883.

Ruiz AMADO (D. Hilarion).

Manual de legislation y administration fortstal. — Geroua,
1859.

Estudios forestales '. Los monte en sus relaciones con las necesi-
dades de los pueblos, Dos tomos. — Tarragona, 1870 y 1&72.

Tobias taquimetricas. — Barcelona, 1885.

UGALDEZUBIAUR (I). Santiago).
Memorla descriptiva de laprovincia de Manila. — Madrid, 1880.

VIDAL Y SOLER (D. Domingo).
Manual dd maderero en Filipino,*. — Manila, 1877.
La flora filipiuo agustiniana. — Manila, 1877.

VIDAL Y SOLEU (D. Sebastian).

Memoria sobre el ramo de monies el la Islas Filipinos. —
Madrid, 1874.

Apuntes sobre los monies y la agricultiira norteamerlcana. En
colaboracion con D. J. Jordana. — Madrid, 1878.

Catalog o metodico de la plantas lenosas silvestres y cultiva las
observadas en la prouinda de Manila. — Madrid, 1880.

Resena de la flora del Archipelago filipino. — Manila, 1883.

Sinopsis de familias y generos de plantas hnosas de Filipinos.
Con un atlas de 100 laminas — Manila, 1883.

Phanerogams Cumingianoe philippinaram — Manila, 1885.

XERICA E IDIGORAS (D. Rainou de).
La teoria y la practica de la resinacion. — Madrid, 1869.

144 FORESTRY IN SPAIN.

In this list is included a volume, which was printed
in 1873, not for sale, but for distribution, by Don
Jose Jordana y Morera, to which reference has
areadly been made as a Catalogue Raisonne, of upwards
of eleven hundred books, manuscripts, maps, and charts,
bearing upon forestry and forest science, which had been
published in the Spanish language. It is entitled Apuntes
Bibliog raphico Forestales, o sea breve resumen de los Libros,
folletos, articulos, impresses, manuscriptos, mapas, pianos, y
demas trabojos originates o traducidos, por Autores Espandes,
relatives a ta cria, cultivo aprovechamiento administration,
legislacion y economia de los monies, armolados, plantios,
prados, cazay pesca — Forestal Bibliographic Notes, or short
resumes, of books, pamphlets, papers, short treatises, manu-
scripts, maps, charts, and other original works, or translations,
by Spanish authors, relative to the creation, cultivation,
exploitation, administration, legislation, and economy of
forests, woodlands, plantations, meadows, the game, and
fisheries.

The list comprises works published previous to 1860.
By Senor D. Rafael Alvarez Sereix, now of the Govern-
ment Department of Statistics and Geography, there was
prepared and printed a list of works on forest science,
published in Spain between the years I860 and 1881;
and he has since prepared a list in manucript of works
published since 1881 to the present time. In these appear
most of the works included in the foregoing list of works
published by members of the Corps of forest Engineers.

CHAPTER V.

FOREST EXCURSIONS.

At Villaviciosa there were many local advantages enjoyed
by the. students engaged in prosecuting their studies, and
there was formed a campo forest'it for their benefit. This
took much of the character of an arboretum, in which the
students might familiarise their minds with the habits of
different kinds of trees, acquire some knowledge of the
general appearance and natural history of these ; and
acquire some experience in planting, transplanting, and
sowing. But there was no campo de practices in which they
could be exercised in any way in forest management; nor
was there in the immediate vicinity extensive forests, in
which a practical knowledge of what is called in Spain
Forest ordinacion,or the scientific arrangement of partitions,
and of forest exploitations, might be gained. This made it
more easy to secure the acquiesence of all concerned in
the removal of the school to the Kscurial when that was
carried out, though, as has been indicated, this was resolved
upon on other considerations.

Within the domains of this spacious royal palace there
existed formerly pine woods of considerable extent, but
these unhappily had been sold, and were being so devas-
tated as to threaten their entire destruction. There were
ceded to the school the forests of the tlerraria and
the Romeral, that in these might be established for
the school its own field of operations ; but these forests
did not admit of the end designed being gained without
studies in the replenishing of exhausted forests, and this it
was impossible, through lack of mean>?, to effect ; and the
forests had been so badly treated that tor their
restoration it would be absolutely necessary to suspend

L

H6 FORESTRY IN

all exploitation beyond that of depasturing such portion
as was adapted for this, to the prevention of that mode of
carrying out fellings in the localisation and practical
execution of which the students would have found profit-
able instruction. Still there were some advantages
accruing to the school from having possession of these
properties — advantages »the loss of which was painfully
felt when the park of the Casita de Arriba, which had
been at first placed at the service of the school, was
afterwards withdrawn, and had been for some months under
the administration of the Royal patrimony, which at the
end of the year freely disposed of the improvements which
they found carried out in it.

The Casita de Arriba is a mansion surrounded with
umbrageous grounds, situated little more than half a mile
from the school. It was erected in 1772 by the Infanta
D. Gabriel, and was granted to the authorities of the
school to supply the place of the campo forestal, or arbore-
tum, at Villaviciosa. The grounds were of such extent as
to afford facilities for the students being exercised in the
sowing and planting of trees, and being made acquainted
with the operations and requirements of sylviculture. But
the shortness of the time in which it was so used, from 1870
to 1876, did not allow of a great deal being done in the
development of it as a exercise field, and when embodied
in the Royal patrimony the authorities of the school ceased
to have the administration and use of it in forest manage-
ment ; and the privation was felt by them. But there are a
number of trees growing in the entrance court of the
school ; and in a neighbouring street is a campo forested in
which the students are exercised in nursery work, but
this is limited in extent, and the school was reduced in
this respect to a condition not greatly dissimilar to that
under which it had been placed at Villaviciosa; but it
was not worse. The students still had access to the
celebrated pine forests of Valsain, though these were at a
distance, and thither they could be taken in spring, on
excursions of observation, and exercised, if it were desired, in
operations of practical forestry.

FOREST EXCURSIONS. 14^

From the founding of the school, up to the present
time, it has ever been the desire of those taking the
deepest interest in it, to raise up a body of able-bodied,
strong-minded, well educated, thoroughly trained, and
well instructed gentlemen —gentlemen both in the usual
acceptance of the term, and in the higher one according
to which he gentle is who gentle does,* heartily devoted
to their profession, taking a comprehensive view of the
range of matters with which forestry has to do, and able
to state distinctly and explicitly in courteous language
what in connection therewith they consider the interests
of the country require should be done.

His Excellency Senor D. Bernardo de la Torre Rojas,
the founder and first director of the school, in a manus-
cript work preserved in the library of the school, entitled
Apuntes de mi Diaris Particular Relative a la Fundacion de la
Escuela y Cuerpo de Ingeiiieros de Monies — Notes from my
Private Journal relative to the Founding of the School
and Corps of Forest Engineers — writing of the importance
of combining with the instruction given in the school the
practical application of knowledge acquired, and the
development in the students of an esprit de corps, goes on
to say : — ' It is with this in view that I attach so much
importance to the development of physical strength in
the forest engineers ; for 1 am persuaded that otherwise
they will be considered and treated as only poor students,
devoid of the strength needed to inspire respect in the
employes of the department who may be required to
accompany them, if they do not on their forest expedi-
tions show themselves to be as strong as they are.

' Discipline,' he adds, ' does not consist, as many others
believe, in the simple obedience of the inferior to his
superior in what pertains to the service, but it extends
to uninterrupted respect in the private intercourse of the
classes with each other. The conduct thus spoken of
must be based not on the force of prescriptions or

* [Mark him who doeth all the good he can,
And take him for the truest gentleman.]

14 g FORESTRY IN SPAltt.

precepts, which it is so easy to evade, but on the habits of4
which they see a constant example in the superior chiefs
under whom they serve.

'A body without a soul is a galvanised corpse. An
isolated individual is nothing; two are some, and three
constitute an integer or entirety if they constitute a
corps* The esprit* de corps, without discipline, may,
however, become a public calamity. But still 1 would not
feel that I had completed the work I had laid out for
myself if I did not embody in this basis the idea at least
of a matter of so much importance.'

Citing these statements Senor Castel remarks: —
' These paragraphs which I quote entire, fearing to
weaken in the least degree the idea of the founder ot our
school, it may be seen justify what I have already alleged,
that during the period of foundation, and introduction
into Spain of what may be called a new science, there could
only be made experiments or trials of what had proved
the best methods of instruction employed elsewhere ; and
thus it came about that this acquired an eminently
practical character, corresponding to the necessities of the
time, and the example which it was sought to follow-
that found in the forest academies of Saxony.

1 The studies of topography, which constitued essentially
at that time the first year's section of the course to be
followed, were prosecuted more in the field than in the
class-room ; and such a progress was made in carrying out
the principle of having the class-room under the open
heavens [what in Britain would be called field lectures]
that even the examinations at the end of the session were
held in the forest of Las Huelga.s, near the banks of the
Guadarrama.

' Many forest engineers there are who still remember
with pleasure the examination held on the 21st of July,
1848. There was pitched in the locality mentioned an
elegant commodious tent, ornamented with the national

* [Scottice.— Ane's nane; twa's some ; three's a pickle; four's a crum.]

FOREST EXCURSIONS. HO

shield, and the emblems or symbols of the corps. In this
met the professors constituting the tribunal, and there,
under the branches of the trees, was exhibited the first
authorisation of the formation of a School of Forestry,
which was exposed —curious circumstance but appropriate
— on the board of a theodolite.

' To these field exercises there succeeded in the second
year, and the others following, forestal excursions to the
forests of the Sierra. With disregard of selfish considera-
tions, both professor and students made the journeys on
foot, collecting and discussing as they went all objects
possessing any interest with which they met, whether
these were plants, or insects, or rocks. The strictest disci-
pline, compatible with perfect and expansive freedom,
characterised their whole procedure, even in details ; and
to maintain the enthusiasm and joviality of the esprit <le
corps there wras sounded forih by the youthful students
the so called Forest Hymn, composed by one of them, and
enspirited with the purest love of science, of nature, and
of their country. Eighteen years later we, the disciples
of these students, sing that same hymn, reproducing it in
the pineries of the Cordillera of the Guadarrama, and
shouting out with a voice which the echo repeats and
extends —

Al campo marchemos !
Risueuna la aurora,
Las blancas estrellas,
Luciente borro ;
Subid ! Pemialara,
De nieve vestido,
Los rayos nacientes,
Refleja del sol.

Mirad como brota,
Y baja espumoso,
Banuaudo los riscos,
Torrente veloz ;
Y roca tras roca,
Cruzando el abismo,
La cabra ligera,
ain temoy,

150 FORESTRY IN SPAIN.

Mirad de los pinos,
Las copas gigantes,
Que mece suave,
El aura al pasar :
Hoy canta en sus ramas,
Amores el ave,
A^innana iran elloa,
(Jruzando la mar.'

The verses may be roughly rendered —

We are off for the forest !
The smiling aurora
Effaces with brightness

The white stars of night !
Climb up Pendalara,
Which in vestments of snow,
Reflects clear the bright rays

Of the new risen sun.

See ! how yonder bursts forth,
And comes down in white foam,
Filling full its mountain bed

The rushing torrent !
While the sure-footed goat,
Crossing that deep abyss,
Bounds from rock to rock

Without tremor or fear !

And afar, the massive crowns
Of the mountain pine trees
Are swaying gently

In the passing breeze !
To-day birds in the branches
Sing joyfully notes of love :
To-morrow these are felled

And cross the deep sea !

While one or more sing stanza after stanza — either the
same singers or others — all thunder forth a chorus. The
chorus may be roughly rendered thus : —

Cotta the learned ! Thy children in Spain
Invoke thy name, which is now immortal,
To their country promising such fruits
Ag thy genius has produced in Tharand !

frOREST

Comrades let us follow the path
Traced out by the hand of Cotta !
Our science will be proved by our work I
Our power will be tound iu union.

The song was, and is, a favourite with the students, and
I was told that it was constantly sung by them on their
excursions to the forests of the Escural and of La
Grainja, in 1847 and 1848.

I have seen a MSS. copy varying somewhat in phrase
and measure, but not in sentiment, with a notation of the
air to which it was sung, a strophe being sung in tenor by
a single voice, and each verse as an antistrophe sung by
another in bass, and then the strophe as a chorus sung by
all in tenor and bass in harmony.

The verses I have cited I have heard sung to the air
of one of the popular songs of the Revolution.

M. Bourgoing, minister plenipotentiary from France
to the Court of Madrid in the end of last century, tells in
a work published by him on his return to France, that
the forms of poetry in Spain are varied to a singular
degree ; their language, being very easy of inversion, is
capable of all .sorts of verses seen in modern language, but
they reckon three as those in general use — blank verse
without any kind of rhyme, which differs from prose only
in the number of feet, and the orderly interchange of the
long and short syllables ; verses with perfect rhyme,
which they call consonamtes ; and what they call asonantes,
in which are written almost all their old plays, and many
of the modern ones. These commonly, says A I Bourgoing,
begin in a series of true verses, con>onantes, either in
common rhyme, and with equal feet or in alternate rhyme
and unequal measure. After a scene or two, sometimes
only a speech or two, comes the turn of the asonantes,
which generally last to the end of the piece, nnless in
some part the consonates reappear for a little time. These
asonantes are a string, often very long, of cadenced phrases
subject to a certain measure. Each of them is a verse j

152 FORESTRY IN SPAIN.

but the asonanle returns only every other line, and makes
no rhyme. It is sufficient that the two last vowels are
the same. In illustration are given quotations from
classic dramas, in one of which sirve and vides ; in another
tema and era ; in another vara* and casas, plantas, and
probanza, are asonantes ; and he goes on to say : without
being acquainted with this beforehand, a foreigner might
frequent the Spanish theatre for years without perceiving
the existence or effect of the asonantes ; and though lie
be put into the way he will often have much trouble to
trace them when he hears them on the stage. But what
is so difficult for him to catch at does not escape a
Spaniard for an instant, however unlearned he may be.
After the second verse of a long string of asonantes he
discovers the final vowels which govern ; he listens at the
proper places, and an actor could not with impunity dis-
appoint him : this is a rare quality, owing to the delicate
organisation of the people, and to the habit of declama-
tion which the most obscure and vulgar acquire. I leave
to my readers to classify the song.

In accordance with what I have stated in regard
to the usage coming down from what some would call
the olden time of 18-47 and 1848, provision is made for
excursions to neighbouring forests, and even forests at a
considerable distance from the school, being made by the
students in company with one or more of the professors
— including provision for meeting the expenses of all on
such excursions, — and for excursions being made by the
professors into the forest lands of other nations for pur-
poses ot observation and report.

Of what may thus be done, and has been done, an
illustration is supplied by a Report already mentioned,
published by official anthority, entitled ' Mernoria Rela-
tiva a la Excursion Verificada por los Aluminos de tercer
Anno de la Escuela Especial de Ingenieros de Montes a
los Montes Publicos, Bunas y Alcornocales de la Provincia
de Gerona por el Verano de 1882, Escrita por Don,

FOREST EXCURSIONS. 153

Primativo Artigas, Ingeniero Jefe de Monies, y Professor
de Selvicultura, Meteorologia y Cliniatologia de la
Escuela Especial de Ramo. Publicata con Authorizacion
Ofirial'— Memoir relative to the Excursions made by the
Students of the third year of the School of Forest
Engineers to the public forests, dunes, and cork-tree woods
of Gerona, in the spring of 1882— written by Don Primitive
Artigas, Chief in the Corps of Forest Engineers, and
Professor of Sylviculture, Meteorology, and Climatology
in the School of Forestry, and published with official
authority.

The report of the tour of observation shows such tours
to be made not in a desultory manner, but with some
special object to be accomplished, as in this case in fulfil-
ment of a commission given to the Professor, with authority
to take students with him to see what he sees, and learn
from him what he may consider it of importance that they
should know. The tour was made by an order of the
Minister of the State, issued on 8th June, 1882, in fulfil-
ment of arrangements sanctioned by Royal order in the
May of the preceding year. It was submitted by the
Professor to the Council of the School of Forestry, with
explanatory statements, and on their recommendation it
was published at the expense of the State.

The report, interesting to us chiefly as illustrative of the
kinds of objects to which the attention of the students
was directed, comprises accounts of Barcelona, of the
large manufactory of land and naval engines there, the
carpet manufactory, the saw mills, the ships and shipping,
and the public park — with lists of trees, shrubs, and
interesting herbs, indigenous and exotic, seen there ; of the
public forest of the province of Gerona; of an inundation
which had occurred, and the need there was for an increase
in the staff of officials employed. Of Gerona itself accounts
are given of the saw mills; of the manufacture of paper
pulp ; oi the public park, and trees and plants seen there ;
the geology of the district ; the institution of secondary
education j and the Archaeological Museum. There are next

154 FORESTRY IN SPAIN.

described the pineries of Palafargell ; the lighthouse, and
the academy. To this succeeds the accounts of the cork-oak,
and the cork man ufacture, which has been cited [ante p. 11 4]
and of the dunes on the coast ; of measures adopted for fixing
.these, with notices .of the climate, and of legal questions
relative to the proprietorship of these ; a list of 125 articles
used or produced in the forestai industry of the district,
collected and deposited in the museum of the school ; lists
comprising 100 specimens of plants, minerals, and rocks, also
collected and so deposited ; and a resume of the whole, with
practical and scientific conclusions arrived at.

Passing next to Torroella de Montgri, accounts are given
of the mansion and forest La Fonollera; of the dunes of
JBagur ; of the invasion of the phylloxera in Ampurdan ;
of the forest Montana Gran, and its management ; reasons
why the forests of Torella de Montgri should, with other
classified State forests, be exempted from sale ; of the
agricultural productions of the district, with notices of the
importance of establishing there a forestai meteorological
observatory. To this follows a report of the dunes, which
has been reprinted and published in a separate form ; in
this accounts are given of the dunes of the first, the second,
and the third zones; remarks on the fixation of dunes;
on the climates of the dunes ; opinions relative to the
fixation of dunes ; a question at law relative to dunes ;
and there is discussed the question of the appointment of
a Commission on dunes, with some account of what has
been done in other lands in connection with the fixation
of dunes. There follows a catalogue of objects of forestai
industries, of plants, of minerals, and of rocks, collected by
the students in the course of the tonr, and deposited in
the School of Forest Engineers in the Escurial. These
lists fill eight pages of large 8vo.

In article 23 of the Reglamenta of the school is stated :
every year one of the professors appointed in turn shall go
abroad during the summer, in order personally to see what
improvements or additions rnioht be introduced into the

FOREST EXCURSIONS. 155

course of instruction followed in the school; and shall
embody in a memoir the results of his observation, which,
having been submitted to the council of the school, shall
be transmitted by them to the Minister de Fomento. And
according to article 30 of the Beglamenta of the school,
when the professors prepare memoirs, lessons, or relative
treatises, on matters comprised in the course of instruction,
or in the programme of preliminary examination, they are
entitled to special grants in remuneration on a proposal
to that effect of the Junta Facultative of the corps, on the
previous report of the professors. The amount of the
remuneration is determined by the Government.

Such a tour of observation was made in 1864, by Royal
order of the King of Spain, by Sr. Don Maxima Laguna y
Villanueva, Forest Engineer in Chief, and Professor in the
School of Forestry in the Escurial. The report made by
him, published in 1866, by Royal order, treats of the
instruction in forest science and practical forestry in
Austria in the schools and academies of Mariabrunn,
Schemnitz, Weiswasser, Ausee, and Kreul, comparing it
with that given in Villaviciosa in Spain ; and suggesting
certain modifications in this deemed likely to be useful.
It discusses also the forest service in Austria, in Bohemia,
in Hungary, and in Saxony, together with the instruction in
forestry given in Russia, and in the School of Practical
Forestry in Lissino, and in those of the Steppes; and the
general administration of forests in Russia.

Senor D. Carlos Castel y Clemente, Commander of the
Order of Isabel la Catholica, and Chief of the Second
Class of the Corps of Forest Engineers, made a tour
through Norway and Sweden, and by Royal order the
observations submitted by him to the Facultative Junta, or
Council of the Corps, were printed in an edition of 600
copies, under the title ' Memoria sobre las condiciones
naturales y produccion Agricola y Forestal de la Peninsula
Escandinavia.' Under successive chapters there are
detailed the geographic condition of the Scandinavian

156 FORESTRY IN SPAIN.

Peninsula, embracing: — 1. The situation, boundaries, and
area ; the geography, and the hydrography of the land.

2. Factors of production : the soil, climate, and people.

3. The agricultural production, with details of the different
botanic regions, and of agriculture. 4. The forests,
comprising the mode of tenure by which they are held,
and the condition and products of the forests. 5. Forest
industries, embracing the transport and sawing up of tim-
ber ; the fabrication of wood pulp ; of charcoal, and of
lucifer matches ; and other products of the forests.

On the occasion of the International Exhibition in
Philadelphia being held in Pennsylvania, again Senor Don
Jose Jordana y Morera, Chief in the Corps of Forest
Engineers, author of the 'Catalogue Raisonne of Spanish
Works on Forest Science/ of which mention has been
made, was sent as a commissioner and director of the
agricultural department of Spanish exhibits, and Senor
Don Sebastian Vidal y Soler, Chief in the Corps of Forest
Engineers in the Phillipine Islands, and official in the
order of the royal crown of Prussia, as commissioner from
the Minister of foreign affairs, and by them a report was
made under the title of ' Apuntes Sobre los Montes,
y la Agricultura Norde- Americana, Memoria Elevada al
Exmo. Sr. Ministro de Fomento' — Notes on the Forests
and Agriculture of North America : a Memoir submitted to
the Minister of Agriculture, Public Works, Trade, and
Commerce — which was published in 'El Tiempo/ and in
the ' Boletin Oh'cial del Ministerio de la Ultramar' — Foreign
affairs ; and subsequently reprinted and published for
general use.

In this there are given reports of the boundaries, area,
orography, hydrography, geology, geognosy, temperature,
and rainfall of the territory of the United States ; which is
followed by a lengthened review of the forestal condition
of the country throughout its extent, based on data obtained
from the work bv Professor Brewer of Yale College, New-
haven, and the statistical atlas of General Walker, It

FOREST EXCURSIONS. 157

comprises: — 1. Prevalent ideas on forestal matters, as
advanced by distinguished writers, and by scientific
societies. 2. Forestal legislation in regard to the Union
and to individual States. 3. Instruction given to officials,
and methods of management followed in the existing
forests. 4. A forestal sketch of the country, specifying the
wooded areas, and the kinds of trees growing. 5. Sylvi-
cultural conditions of such species as might be introduced
advantageously into Spain. 6. Forest industries, more
especially those connected with the trade in timber, and
the exploitation of resinous products ; and an account of
maps and works and forest products which might be useful
in the instruction given in Spain, which they had collected.
This is followed by a more condensed review of the
agriculture of the United States, in which are tabulated the
respective money value of the several agricultural products
of the country, aod of the different kinds of animals reared
and tended ; the population of the different States ; and
the number of bushels of maize raised in each, with the
number of bushels of wheat to each inhabitant; the value
of cotton raised ; the value of the annual production of sugar
during the preceding five-aud-twenty years in the State of
Louisiana and throughout the United States; and in con-
clusion there are enumerated as deserving of study : — 1.
Special articles of culture : cereals, roots, forage plants,
tobacco, sugar cane, and rice, with the adaptation of the
first mentioned three for culture in the Peninsula, ami the
remainder in the foreign dependencies of the country. 2.
Implements, apparatus, and machines for the improvement
ot culture, and subsequent preparations of the afore-
mentioned, according as the produce is required for the
market, or for agricultural reproduction. 3. Systems of
breeding and rearing cattle, and the best breeds for
draught, and for the production of flesh, wool, milk, and
leather. 4. The principal schools of agriculture, and
methods of instruction followed in these. 5. Works, maps,
and agricultural works of all kinds which might be of
benefit for Spain. G. An agricultural and pastural
iiketch of the United States.

158 FORESTRY IN SPAIN.

In the spring of 1.881 there was held in Algiers what in
Britain would be called an Agricultural Show, the
comprehensive character of which led to considerable
importance b^ing attached to it by those living in
Northern Africa and elsewhere, who were desirous of
becoming acquainted with the agricultural capabilities of
Algeria, and the development which these had received
The Government of Spain commissioned again Senor D.
Jose Jordana y Morera, Chief in the Corps of Forest
Engineers ; Senor D. Alfre o de Madrid Davila, mining
engineer ; and Senor D. Eduardo de tlobles, agricultural
engineer, to attend, make their observations, and report.
Every facility they could desire was afforded to them by
the authorities in Algiers. The Exhibition continued from
the 2nd to the 1 1th of April. On the 14th there was
assembled a Congress of Science, which was continued till
the 20th ; after which several scientific excursions, for
which preparations had been made, were undertaken by
the members of tne Congress. This was attended by the
Spanish Commissioners ; and these giving their attention
chiefly to matters pertaining to agriculture and forestry,
availed themselves of the arrangements made to visit,
and reconoitre with the greatest extent and precision
possible, the Cedar mountains of the Atlas range;
the agricultural exploitations of Bouffarik ; the fruit
cultures of Blida; those of the Huerta of Perreguex ;
those of the Secano, or dry arable land of Sidi Bel
Abbes; and the system of irrigations and pantanos or
reservoirs of the Cuenca, or basin of the Habra.

Their report comprised, with a critical account of the
Exhibition, a detailed description of the agricultural and
forestal cultures, of the cattle stock, of the tixed property,
and, in a word, of everything constituting the territorial
strength of that fertile country. It was illustrated by
numerous drawings, and accompanied by a detailed account
of the excursions and professional visits of inspection made
by the several members of the Commission to estates and
districts remarkable in connection with some of the

FOREST EXCURSIONS. 159

matters interesting to agriculture ; with interesting an 1
useful statements of comparisons between the agriculture
of Algeria and the agriculture of Spain, and recommenda-
tions of innovations by which the productions of Spanish
lands might be improved. By the Government it was
recognised that the report by the multiplicity of matters
which it embraced, and the character of its details, con-
stituted it an excellent agricultural and forestal description
of Algeria, such as was not to be found in the Spanish
language, if such an account of that country existed in any
language ; and it was by Royal order published at the
expense of the Ministry de Fomento, under the title of* La
produccion Agncola y Forestal de la Argelia en el
Concuso de Argel de 1881 — The Agricultural and Forestal
Productions of Algeria in the Colonial Exhibition in
Algiers in 1881. In an introduction is given an account
of the country ; and there is added a list of the more
important of the works, printed books, pamphlets, and
periodicals made use of by the Commissioners in the pre-
paration of their report, constituting a valuable bibliography
of Algeria. Details are given of agricultural exploitations
in different parts of the colony, and of the works of
irrigation ; descriptions of the cattle, oxen, sheep, arid
goats ; of asses, mules, and horses ; of camels, dromedaries,
and swift dromedaries, meh'iris ; of poultry and domestic
animals under acclimation ; accounts of machinery,
implements, and tools, including hydraulic apparatus,
steam engines, and wind-mills ; detailed notices of agri-
cultural and forestal products, and industrial manufactures
connected with these, including sericulture, apiculture,
pisciculture, &c., horticulture, arboriculture, the culture of
the eucalyptus, and that of the cork tree, and the collec-
ting of esparto grass ; and agricultural and forestal maps
of Algeria, including charts of the orange producing region,
of that of the vine arid the olive, of the zone of the esparto
grasses, and of the so-called mer d'alfa.

In further illustration of the breadth and comprehensive-

160 FORESTRY IN SPAIN.

ness of views taken in Spain in regard to what should be
done under the provision made in the lieylamenta of the
school for excursions in foreign lands, such as have been
mentioned, I may state that a commission was given in
accordance with a Royal order to a member of the Corps
of Forest Engineers, TSenor D. Joaquin Maria de Castell-
arnau y de Lleopart, to visit the zoological station at
Naples, study proceedings there, and report. This he did
in a memoir entitled ' La Estacion Zoologica de Napoles y
sus Procedimientos par el Examen Microscopico,' which
was presented to the Minister De Fomento, the Minister of
Agriculture, Trade, and Commerce, and published.

Senor Castellarnau spent at the station the first three
months of 1883 ; and in his memoir he sought to give a
definite and correct idea of the station, of the facilities for
study afforded by it, and of the importance, and even
necessity, which there is for such stations, if zoology is to
be made a true science founded on observation ; and
thereafter to discharge the commission with which he had
been entrusted, by describing the methods and special
proceedings at the zoological station at Naples, omitting
all such generalities, formulas, and modes of operation as
may be met with in treatises on the microscope, but

narrating some which miffht not have beon previoa-,1/

j -i i

described.

In the first part is supplied information relative to
the necessity, the object, and the importance, of such
observatories ; the history of this zoological laboratory, in
which there are 22 tables, supported by different nations,
including one supported by the British association for the
advancement of science, where anyone nominated by the
association may prosecute researches; and two were formerly
supported by associations in the United States of America,
at one of which a young lady was then engaged in thj
study of cephalopods ; — publications which had appeared
communicating the results of observations made ; means
which had been adopted there and in other countries for
the preservation of marine animals; and the aquarium of

FOREST EXCURSIONS. 161

the station. And with this information is given a detailed
account of the fauna of the Gulf of Naples.

In the second part there is given copious, explicit, and
valuable information, such as might be desired and found
satisfactory by any parties desirous of establishing a
similar institution, or deciding on the expediency of pro-
ceeding thither for study of the protozoas, both general and
special, and in regard to proceedings followed in the study
of marine animals in general : first, proceedings connected
with the killing, setting, and preservation of these ; and the
application made of these to the different classes— protozoas,
sponges, and corals, the actineoe or sea anemones, and
madrepores, the medusae, &c., &c., the Crustacea?, the
molluscs, and the vertebrates; operations connected with
dissection, with colouration, and with making and
mounting sections. In an appendix there is given informa-
tion in regard to photo-micrography; and in each section
there is given the bibliography pertaining to the subject.

By the Minister De F'omento the report was submitted
to the Junta Facultaiiva de Monte*, or Forest al Professional
Council, in accordance with the regulation cited. By them
its publication and distribution amongpersonsand establish-
ments dedicated to the study of natural sciences was
cordially recommended. In their report they enlarge on
its relating chiefly to study of the aquatic protozoa, but
recognise the bearing of a knowledge of the natural
history of these on the natural history of all higher
organised structures, animal or vegetable; and thus they
indicate the comprehensive character of the views enter-
tained by them of what is comprised in forest science.

M

CHAPTER VI.

CORPS OF FOREST ENGINEERS AND STAFF OF TEACHERS.

By the Revista de Monies there was published an Escalafon,
or classified list of the members of the National Corps of
Forest Engineers, arranged according to their rank, on
the 1st July last (1886).

In an appendix to this it is stated that the title
National Corps of Forest Engineers is given to the
Association of Engineers, so designated, who have charge
of the conservation, replenishing, improvement, and
exploitation of the public forests of the kingdom.

By Royal Decree of the 17th of March, 1854, there was
created this Corps of Forest Engineers, for the facultative
or professional service of the department; and it was
arranged by Royal Decree of the 16th March, 1859, that
this should be composed of three inspectors-general ;
fifteen district inspectors ; forty chief engineers of first
class ; fifty chief engineers of second class ; sixty
engineers of first class ; seventy engineers of second
class.

According to article 14* of the organic regulations of the
Corps, it is obligatory on the Engineers to make use of
their distinctive badges in acts of service, and of their
uniform in solemnities and public acts in which they are
required to take part.

There is also a subaltern service, composed of 25
assistants of first class, and 350 assistants of second
class, and of 400 foremen planters, created by the law of
llth July, 1877.

The custody of the public forests is entrusted to the
civil guard.

ENGINEERS AND STAFF OF TEACHERS. 163

From what is stated in this appendix to the Fscatofon,
it appears that the School of Forest Engineers at the
Escurial is governed by the regulation of 27th October,1879.

It was in the summer of 1885 that I visited Spain. In
the account of the School, which I have given in a pre-
ceding chapter, I have stated [ante p. 20] — ' By the Decree
of 23rd October, 1868, the prescribed course embraced a
period of three years ; by the Decree issued under date of
24th October, 1870. it was so extended as to embrace a
period of four years ; but by a temporary or provisional
arrangement it is at present completed in three years/
And again [ante p. 24*]— 'The second period of study
embraces four years spent in the School/ and the studies
assigned to each have been detailed. And according to
the statement in the appendix to the Escalafon, in the
re-organisation of the School on the 18th August, 1847,
the course of instruction embraced four years. I have
never heard of any Royal order, or other act, authorising
a change ; but it appear> from what is subsequently stated
here that at present the curriculum extends over five
years.

In accordance otherwise with what I have stated, to
enter as a student the aspirant must pass an examination
in arithmetic, elementary and higher algebra, rectilinear
and spherical trigonometry, physics, and the French
language ; and he must present a certificate of academic
examinations in geography, history, Spanish, and Latin, or
grammar. The instruction in the School is now distributed
thus : — First year, descriptive geometry, differential and
i n tegral calculus, theoretic mechanics,and general chemistry.
Second year, topography, app'ied meshanics, zoology, and
applied chemistry. Third year, botany, mineralogy,
geology, and geodesj*. Fourth year, sylviculture, meteorologv,
and climatology, administrative justice, and legislation
relative to forests. Fifth year, ordenacion of forests and
xilometry, forestal industries, and political and forestal
economy ; and throughout all the years of study there is
continuous instruction in drawing.

164 FORESTRY IN SPAIN.

Having concluded their studies, and spent some time
in practical work in a forestal district, the students then
receive the appointment of forest engineer.

The salaries of the six grades of forest engineers are
respectively 12,500, H0,000, 7,500, 6,500, 5000, and 4000
pesetas or francs. In field work the inspectors have also an
allowance of 25 francs a day; chief engineers one of 20 francs;
engineers of first class and second class one of 15 francs or
pesetas.

Spain is divided into 46 forestal districts; three less
than the number of provinces and departments. The
forests in each of these are under the charge of a Chief
Engineer. Besides the forestal district court there is a Junta
Facultativa, or Professional Council, composed of eighteen
inspectors ; the Commission of forestal flora ; that of a
forestal map, and another of the catalogue of forests
reserved from alienation ; one of replenishing exhausted
forests ; and one of the Sierra de Guadarama.

For conductingthe studies in the School there areappointed
a Director, who is head of the school ; ten professors of the
corps of engineers ; two assistants, who must also be
engineers ; and to these are joined the following subor-
dinates:— a collector, preparer, and conservator of objects
of natural history ; an official assistant secretary ; an
official assistant librarian; two clerks; a steward; a resident
in charge of the school forest ; a porter ; three servitors ;
necessary warders and sub-warders for the protection of
the land and mountains appropriated to the service of the
school ; and labourers and peasants required for work on
the same.

The professors, previous to appointment, must each have
completed five years of active service in the Corps of Forest
Engineers ; the assistant professors must have completed
two years of such service ; and of the Director of the School
it is required that he must have attained to the position of
an Inspector in the corps.
They all continue to receive the salary attached to their

FOREST ENGINEERS AND STAFF OF TEACHERS. 165

positions in the service, and with this an annual allowance
determined by the Government, with a definite increase at
the termination of every period of fiveyearsservice, continued
annually during the next period, the successive augmenta-
tions being equal in amount to half the allowance made
during the first five years ; and should the requirements of
the service at any time interrupt the discharge of the duties
of the professorship, either during the currency of one
quinquennial period or between two, as may happen, this
takes place without detriment to the right acquired by
previous service in the School ; and the Director of the
School receives in addition to his salary, as Inspector of
Forests, an allowance determined by the Government, in
accordance with the same rule as to increase.

Of the officials, the Director and the janitor alone reside
in the school buildings.

From the Budget of the Minister De Fomento for 1881-
1882, the latest to which I had access, it appears that at
that time the gratuity to the director was 2000 pesetas ;
to one professor, a member of the Corps, 2000 ; to ten
professors, 1500 = 15,000; to two assistant professors,
1500 = 3000; to the collector, preparer, and con-
servator of objects of natural history, were paid 2000,
and as a gratuity to the same for special work, 250 ; to
the secretary, a salary of 1500, and a gratuity for special
work, 750 [sic] 1750; second secretary, 1250; and to
a consierge, 1500 ; a porter, 1000 ; three lads, 750 each =
2250 ; an overseer of the campo forestal, 1000 ; a watchman
of this, 750 : in all, 33,750 pesetas,

To this has to be added the expense of the establishment,
which is given as : maintenance of the school buildings,
500 pesetas ; expenses of the secretariat, 500 ; the campo
forestal, labour, cultivation, plantations, and tools, 2000 ;
three day labourers at T50 of days' wage, 821 ; library
and collections in the museum, 1000 — in all, 4,821 :
together, 38,750 pesetas or francs.

As has been intimated, the allowance to the Director
and to the professors is in addition to the salaries which

166 FORESTRY IN SPAIN'.

they draw as members of the Corps of Forest Engineers,
which varies with their rank in the service, hence it is
designated gratificacion, allowance, or gratuity.

The instruction is given (1) by oral lectures and lessons
in drawing by the professors ; (2) by written exercises,
calculations, and analyses on the subjects embraced by
these lectures; (3) by the detailed study of the animals,
rocks, plants, and forest products preserved in the
collections and adjuncts of the establishment ; (4) by the
practice of topography, land surveying, the study of natural
history and orography in the field ; (5) by excursions to
the plantations and mountains.

The school sessions extend, with specified holidays, from
the 1st of October of one year to the 31st of May in the
year following. Field exercises are included in this session,
but according to what may be required in different classes
the«e may be extended over the months of June, July, and
August.

The material provisions for study, as has been intimated,
consist of the buildings, lands, forests, nurseries, gardens,
and their dependencies, appropriated to the school ; the
meteorological observatory ; the furniture of the institution,
a library and collections of charts and drawings ; a labora-
tory and cabinet of chemistry, with apparatus and reagents;
collections and museums of topography, land surveying,
and cabinets of illustrations of natural history, of moun-
tains, of mechanics, and of forest industries ; the collection
of iron implements employed in the practical working of
the school lands or in the studies of the pupils; herbaria
and collections of plants and of fruits ; and in conclusion,
the workshops and machinery, with all the iron tools
belonging to these, and the equipments and arms of the
warders and dependents.

The students do not live in the school; but each is required
to lodge his address with the secretary of the school, and
to keep him informed of any change of residence made by
him. They are required to supply themselves with all
text-books, mathematical instruments, writing and drawing

FOREST ENGINEERS AND STAFF OF TEACHERS. 167

implements, and the uniform prescribed to the students ;
but beyond this I know of no pecuniary charge made upon
them. Regular and punctual attendance, studious atten-
tion, and respectful and orderly behaviour are enjoined.

Occasional absence, even with consent of the instructor,
want of punctuality, inattention, &c., are punished by
deductions from the numerical value attached to the
attendance required in order to obtain a diploma at the
close of the course ; disobedience, insubordination, &c., are
punished by expulsion, or suspension till the decision of
the Government is obtained.

They are not required to have previously engaged in
work of practical forestry ; but, as has been intimated, there
is provision for this being done where it may be desired,
and for excursions being made to forests, under the
guidance of one or other of the professors, in the course of
the curriculum. On these excursions their travelling
expenses are met from the funds of the school, with an
allowance of 10 reals, or about 2s a day, and the professor
in charge has an allowance of 25 reals, a little more than
5s, for provisions.

PART II.

PRACTICABLE ARRANGEMENTS IN ACCORDANCE WITH

THOSE IN THE SCHOOL OF FOREST ENGINEERS IN SPAIN,

SUITABLE FOR A BRITISH NATIONAL SCHOOL OF

FORESTRY.

IN the session of the British Parliament in 1886, a Select
Committee of the House of Commons was appointed to
consider whether, by the establishment of a School of
Forestry, or otherwise, our woodlands could be rendered
more productive. Before this I was called to give evidence
in regard to the constitution of Schools of Forestry; when I
stated, amongst other things, in reply to successive queries,
in substance that there was no one School of Forestry
on the Continent of Europe which I could propose as a
model for a British National School of Forestry, if such
should be organised ; nor one which I could recommend as
a type ; but that I considered the School of Forest
Engineers in Spain one organised after a type which it
might be advantageous to follow, in organising any such
School in Britain for the training of officials to administer
and manage extensive forests in our colonial possessions,
and other similarly conditioned countries.

One difference which may be remarked in the School of
Forest Engineers in the Escurial, and others in Central
and Northern Europe, is that while these generally are in
accordance with a system of graded schools there existing
and are adapted to a forestal condition of the country,
similar, if not identical, in all of them ; that in
the Escurial is, to a considerable extent, indepen-

BRITISH NATIONAL SCHOOL OF FORESTRY. 16$

dent of any such organised school system, and is designed
to meet the requirements of a state of things considerably
different from that which exists in these other lands; and
this is a state of things very similar to what I have seen
at the Cape of Good Hope, and what 1 have reason to
believe to be existant in others of our Colonies.

It is in view of this that I cited it, not as a model,
or as a type to which it is expedient that a National
School of Forestry in Britain should be conformed ; but as
illustrative of the category of schools of forestry, which
are desireable amongst the English speaking nations, and
Colonies in which modern forest science and appliances
might, in accordance with national school organisations, be
adapted to meet national requirements. This has been
done efficiently in Spain ; and I am persuaded that
mutatis mutandis it might be done in Britain, and
other lands similarly conditioned. Under this impression
I proceed to discuss some of the facilities presented in our
country for the execution of such an enterprise ; bringing
under consideration thoss which relate to an appropriate
site ; those which relate to scholastic arrangements adapted
to the site recommended — including conditions, curri-
culum of study, and expense — and those which relate to
the creation of forest literature, similar to the modern
forest literature of the Continent.

CHAPTER I.

APPROPRIATE SITE FDR A BRITISH NATIONAL SCHOOL
OF FORESTRY,

THE selection of a site for a National School of Forestry
is a matter of considerable importance. The original idea,
or one at least which was entertained at a very early period
in the considerations of arrangements to be made for the
establishment of a School of Forest Engineers in Spain,
was that the school should be established in the capital.
Difficulties experienced in securing suitable house accom-
modation for the school in Madrid proved almost fatal to
the scheme. To cite the phraseology made use of, it had
become a question of To be or not to be? when the
discovery was made that suitable accommodation might
be obtained at Villaviciosa ; and subsequently the discovery
was made that, all things being considered, still more suit-
able accommodation might be found intheEscunal: and thus
was determined the sites successively adopted. Both of these
sites were, by what seems like a legal fiction, considered
to be covered by the praseology employed in the Royal
Decree, which required it to be located in the vicinity
of the Court, by which was meant, in the capital.

These locations successively commanded the assent of
His Excellency Senor D. Maximo Laguna y Villanueva, by
whom, after making himself acquainted with the conditions
of Schools of Forestry elsewhere, the location of the school
in Madrid had been advocated ; and the assent of His
Excellency Senor D. Bernardo de la Torre Royas, by whom
the school at Villaviciosa had been organised ; but the
original design was that indicated, that the school should be
located in the capital, and this was desired because of
the educational advantages which could be commanded
there.

BRITISH NATIONAL SCHOOL OF FORESTRY. lH

In giving evidence before the Select Committee of the
House of Commons, I stated in reply to a query put that
Edinburgh affords special advantages, and such as are
unequalled elsewhere, for the site of a National School of
Forestry.

Among the more manifest advantages of Edinburgh as
a site for a National School of Forestry may be mentioned
the following: — Adjacent to the city is an Arboretum pur-
chased by the inhabitants at an expense, it is said, of
£20,000, and presented to the nation in the hope that it
might be utilized for the study of forestry. Conterminous
with this, and connected with it, there is a large well-
equipped and well-stocked Botanic Garden, supported by
the nation. In this there is a large comprehensive
museum of all kinds of vegetable products.

In the Museum of Science and Art, maintained by the
Committee of Council on Education, in close proximity to
the University buildings, there is already a large and
valuable collection of woods and other forest products, and
well-selected specimens of illustrations of mineralogy and
geology, of entomology, ornithology, and mazology ; and
in the report of this Museum for 1884 it is stated : —
'Considerable additions have accrued to the forestry
section of the Museum from the International Forestry
Exhibition which was held in the city during the last year.
The whole of the Johore collection of forest products have
been presented by His Highness the Maharajah of Johore,
G.C.M.G., K.C.S.I., &c. A large portion of the extensive
Indian collections has been received from Her Majesty's
Minister of State for India, and an extensive selection of
the products of British Guiana, Sierra Leone, Gambia,
and St. Vincent, has been given by the Commissioner in
charge, the Hon. William Russel. From the Japanese
Commissioners to the International Health Exhibition,
Messrs Tegima and Nagai, interesting collections of
educational objects and food products have also been
received.' Nearly three thousand articles were thus added
to the Museum. Corresponding collections of articles from

172 FORESTRY IN SPAIN.

the International Exhibition, placed at the disposal of a
Committee appointed to take measures for the establish-
ment of a permanent Museum of forest products, have been
transferred to this Museum by that Committee ; and along
with these, according to a report made to that Committee,
a large collection accumulated during many years by
the Scottish Arboricultural Society, all to be arranged
for exhibition, so soon as contemplated additions to the
building are made.

There are numerous nurseries in the immediate vicinity
of the city, and well-kept woods and plantations of easy
access. There is an Arboricultural Society, a Botanical
Society, and a Field-Naturalist Club, to the membership
of all of which it is presumable students of forestry might
be eligible. Thither gravitated the publication of Forestry,
a Journal oj Forestry and Estate Management; and there
are resident the gentlemen with whom originated the idea,
and by whom were carried out the arrangements for the
International Forestry Exhibition, and those who, from
their known interest in the enterprise, have been com-
missioned to endeavour to secure the establishment there
of a National School of Forestry. And there are situated
the headquarters of the Highland and Agricultural Society
empowered to grant certificates of attainments in know-
ledge of forestry.

In the University are taught the following subjects, by
professors whose names are annexed :— Mathematics —
Prof. Chrystal ; Natural Philosophy — Dr Tait ; Chemistry
— Dr C. Brown; Agriculture — Prof. Wallace; Botany —
Dr Dickson ; Geology and Mineralogy— Dr Geikie ; Natural
History— Dr J. C. Ewart ; Engineering — Prof. Armstrong J
Commercial and Political Economy and Mercantile Law —
Prof. Nicolson ; Conveyancing — Dr J. S. Tytler; Anatomy
— Prof. Turner; Surgery — Prof. Chiene. In summer,
tutorial classes for the study of Mathematics and Natural
Philosophy are conducted by the assistants of the professors
of those subjects, for students who have attended a winter
course therein.

BRITISH NATIONAL SCHOOL OF FORESTRY. 173

And means are afforded for practical instruction during
winter and summer in the following subjects : — Practical
Chemistry, under the superintendence of Prof. Crum
Brown ; Practical Physiology, under the superintendence
of Prof. Rutherford ; work in Physical Laboratory, under
the superintendence of Prof. Tait ; work in Natural
History Laboratory, under the superintendence of Prof.
Ewart ; and in Herbarium and Botanical Museum, under
the superintendence of Prof. Dickson. During winter —
Bandaging and Surgical Appliances, under the superin-
tendence of Prof. Chiene ; work in Mineralogicai and
Geological Laboratory and Museum, under the superin-
tendence of Prof. Geikie. In the summer— Practical
Botany, by Prof. Dickson ; Vegetable Histology, by Prof.
Dickson ; Practical Natural History, by Prof. Ewart.

In the Watt Institution and School of Arts provision is
made for the instruction of classes in Chemistry Theore-
tical and Practical, Natural Philosophy, Mathematics,
Arithmetic, Engineering, Architectural, Mechanical, Geo-
metrical, and Machine Drawing, Sanitation, English
Language and Literature, History, Animal Physiology,
French, German, Agriculture, Botany, Geology, Biology,
Freehand Drawing, Bookkeeping, and Writing.

With such provision for preparatory and accessory
instruction, all that is further required is provision for
professional studies. These may be classed under the
following heads : —

Part I.—

Forest botany, embracing the structure, physiology,
scientific classification, and natural history of herbs
found in woods, and arborescent shrubs and trees.

Forest Pathology, or diseases, and the natural decay
and death of trees.

Forest Mycology, or natural history of fungi found in
forests, and of fungi injurious to trees and timber.

Forest Entomology, or natural history of insects
injurious to forest products.

IN

Forest Ornithology, treating of birds .injurious or

beneficial to the forests.
Forest Mazology, treating of quadrupeds, &c., injurious

to forests.

Part II.—

Destruction of Forests by Man.

Forest Conservation in France and in Germany.

History of Forestry.

Advanced Modern Forest Economy.

Sylviculture in accordance with the Advanced Modern

Forest Economy.
Forestry of different Countries on the Continent of

Europe.

Forestry and Arboriculture of Britain.
Improved Forestry in India.
Treatment of Forests in British Colonies.
Destruction, Conservation, and Extension of Forests in

the United States of America.

With many, the proximity of a forest in which students
may be familiarised with practical work, is considered
necessary to the efficiency of a School of Forestry in
Britain. Such an adjunct has not been found necessary
in Spain ; but no one will deny that it might be advan-
tageous to any School of Forestry to have such an adjunct.

In the number of the Journal of Forestry for December,
1880, reference is made (p. 4%) to the proprietor of an
estate in Midlothian being willing to feu to the Govern-
ment, at a low rate, a highly eligible an 1 conveniently
situated piece of land, stretching from the environs of
Edinburgh to the top of the Pentland Hills, for experi-
mental purposes in arboriculture, agriculture, and horti-
culture. It is stated that the land in question comprises
a great diversity of soils and aspects, suitable for the
growth and cultivation of all kinds of trees, and a burn,
or watercourse, which affords a plentiful supply of water,

BRITISH NATIONAL SCHOOL OF FORESTRY. 175

and which could easily be made to form a highly attrac-
tive as well as useful object in the landscape. It is
stated, further, that it presents a considerable range of
altitude, rising from about 200 feet above the level of the
sea to a height of about 1,600 feet.

In some of the Schools of Forestry on the Continent
the students remove with their teachers to some forest at
a distance in spring, and spend the summer in practical work.
I do not suppose that any difficulty would be experienced
in finding foresters of established reputation willing
to supply practical instruction in the forests under their
charge to students who were able to avail themselves of
such an advantage ; nor is it impossible that satisfactory
arrangements might be made for such practical training
being obtained in some of the Crown forests in England.

By Mr Mackenzie, superintendent of Epping Forest
under the Corporation of the City of London, there was
submitted to the Epping Forest Committee of the Court
of Common Council in 1881, a memorial, in which he
unfolded a scheme for the establishment of a School of
Forestry in connection with that forest. There appears to be
little probability of effect being given to his suggestion;
but there is one point in regard to which he makes some
important statements, of which advantage might be taken
in endeavours to secure practical training for students
who have no access to forests in Scotland in which to gain
a knowledge of the practical work in which they desire to
engage.

Writing to the Epping Forest Committee of the
London Court of Common Council, he says : ' You
possess about 6000 acres of land all more or less forest,
neglected, detached, and inharmonious in effect by reason
of its having been, from circumstances well known to you
all, so very much subdivided, that an effort must be made,
as soon as the outlying portions are restored to your care,
to blend them all into one harmonious, albiet diversified,
whole ; consequently the land must be carefully surveyed,
and mapped out accurately, in order that a reliable plan

176 FORESTRY IN SPAIN.

may be obtained on which to work out a scheme which
may guide the conservators of the forest for all time ; and
lastly, that much planting, and the careful thinning and
prunning of existing trees, must be judiciously prosecuted
for many years.' It- is added : ' The execution of all
these works would form the best possible groundwork for
the practical training of the foresters in the future.' And
in the programme of study which he submits, he says :
' If the course of study should extend over four years, the
first two to be spent at Epping Forest, where the trees
have been neglected for so many years, it will be the
object of the staff to organise order, and produce regularity
out of disorder and chaos ; the third year should be spent
in the New Forest, which is a tract of sufficient extent,
having over 60,000 acres, and which, having been in
Government keeping, may be supposed to be a farther
advance and development of the principles pursued by
the student during his first two years at Epping ; the
fourth year should be spent at Windsor, where may be
seen the full development of the principles commenced by
the student at Epping. After this course of training,
those pupils who have diligently applied themselves to
their studies during the four years should be drafted off
to other fields of usefulness, either at home or abroad/

Should it be deemed desirable, as I think it is, that
provision be made for still higher or more varied training
being given to a select number of the more promising
students, the desideratum can be met. In more than one
of the most celebrated Schools of Forestry on the
Continent, provision is made for the attendance of
foreigners, and these enjoy all the educational advantages
of the alumni on specified terms. Assuming that the
teacher of Botany— if there be but one — or one of them, if
there be more, be qualified by knowledge of the language
spoken, such advanced students might be sent under his
direction to attend at one of these Continental Forest
Schools for a summer session; and possibly permission might
be obtained from the same or some other School of

BRITISH NATIONAL SCHOOL OF FOREST?^. 177

Forestry for the British students to accompany the
students of that country on their autumnal excursion, and
to take part with them in the forest work, to the great
advantage of teacher and taught, and through them to that
of the country at large.

GHAPTER II.

SCHOLASTIC ARRANGEMENTS.

SECTION 1. — CONDITIONS.

SUPPOSING Edinburgh selected as the site of a National
School of Forestry, there are four practical arrangements
by any one of which the advantages derived from this
selection might be secured at a moderate expense: — 1.
The creation of a Professorship of Forestry or Forest Science
in the University. 2. The creation of a Lectureship on
Forest Science in the Watt Institute. 3. The creation of
such a Lectureship in connection with the Royal Highland
and Agricultural Society of Scotland. 4. The creation
by the Science and Art Department of the Committee of
Council on Education of a School of Forestry in Edinburgh,
resembling the Royal School of Science in Dublin, and the
Royal School of Mines and Practical Geology in London.

In the Normal School of Science, and Royal School of
Mines and Practical Geology in London, under the Science
and Art Department of the Committee of Council on
Education, instruction was given in the winter session
1883-84, the latest of which I have a report, in chemistry,
physics, mechanics, &c , mathematics, geology, and miner-
alogy, biology, botany, metallurgy, mining, agriculture,
and astronomy. In the summer course of 1884 instruction
was given to students in chemistry, mechanics including
mechanical drawing, heat, metallurgy, hygiene, and agri-
culture; and lectures were given to working men in
mineralogy, mechanics, and chemistry.

In the Royal College of Science in Dublin, under the
Science and Art Department of the Committee of Council

SCHOLASTIC ARRANGEMENTS. 179

on Education, instruction was given in the same session,
(1883-84), to students of the first year in pure mathematics,
elementary mechanics, descriptive geometry with lessons
in geometrical drawing, theoretical chemistry, and experi-
mental physics. To students of the second year instruction
was given in pure mathematics, general mechanics,
mechanical drawing, practical physics, practical chemistry,
biology, and mineralogy. To students of the third year
instruction was given in mechanism and thermo-dynamics,
applied mechanics and hydro-dynamics, engineering,
drawing, surveying, geology, paleontology, mining, metal-
lurgy, applied chemistry, assaying and analytical chemistry ;
and there were special courses of instruction given in
botany and practical botany, and in zoology and practical
zoology.

The total number of individuals who attended the
stated lectures was eighty, of whom twenty-nine were
associates, students prosecuting the whole three years'
course with a view of obtaining the diploma of associate.
The corresponding numbers in the preceding year were
fifty-nine and twenty-one respectively.

While England and Ireland have such institutions under
the Science and Art Department of the Committee of
Council on Education, Scotland has none. But it has
under that depaitment of the Government exceptional
facilities for the organisation of a School of Forestry on
the lines I have suggested. In the Museum of Science
and Art, which is under their direction, there is, as has
been intimated, a valuable collection of forest products,
enriched by a contribution of well-nigh 3000 articles
obtained from the Forestry Exhibition, enriched also with
those placed at the disposal of the Committee appointed by
the Conference held at the close of that Exhibition, and
according to credible report, to be further enriched with
the copious and valuable collection of the Scottish
Arboricultural Society, making it probably the most
comprehensive and extensive collection of such articles
in Britain, if not ip Europe or in the world; and in

180 FORESTRY IN SPAIN.

the same Museum are well-selected illustrations of ento-
mology and other departments of zoology, of mineralogy
and geology, &c. And adjacent to the Museum is the Watt
Institute, receiving grants from the Department, reported
in 1885, amounting to9 £179, where it may be assumed
accommodation for classes might be obtained, and where,
as in the University, contiguous to the Museum, accessory
studies might be pursued.

By the nearest possible approximation to unanimity,
the Committee appointed at a meeting held in the
International Forestry Exhibition in Edinburgh to con-
sider the means necessary to the establishment of a School
of Forestry in that city, have advocated in preference to
the organization of classes for the study of Forestry in
Edinburgh by the Science and Art Department of the
Committee of Council on Education, the establishment of
a Professorship of Forestry in the University.*

Amongst other advantages of such an arrangement, the
expense — subject to the disadvantage of not having a
number of teachers of equal rank in many departments of
forest science and of forest economy which it is expedient
should be comprised in the curriculum of study, would
be very much less; and this being determined there
would be little probability of its being subsequently
increased, unless the advantage of this should become
manifest. There would be secured for the study, and for
successful students, a prestige which might operate
favourably both in securing students able to meet the
expense of University instruction, and in securing the
services of teachers of higher grade than might be found
willing to undertake the work in connection with the
more extensive arrangements which have been under

» The following are the names of the members of that Committee :— The Most Hon.
The Marquis of Lothian, K.T., President ; The Right Hon. Thomas Clark, Lord Provost
of Edinburgh ; Sir William Muir, K.C.S I., Principal of the University of Edinburgh ;
Alexander Dickson, Esq. of Hartree, M.D., Professor of Botany, Edinburgh ; Colonel
Murdoch Smith, R.E., Director of Edinburgh Museum of Science and Art ; Sir Alexander
Christison, Bart., M.D. ; Robert Hutchison, Esq. of Carlowrie : P. Neill Fraser, Esq. ;
J. Croumbie Brown, LL.D. ; Hugh Cleghorn, Esq. of Stravithie. .M,l>. : Malcolm Dunn
Esq. ; W. A. Belfrage, Esq., C.E. Colonel Dods, Convener,

SCHOLASTIC ARRANGEMENTS. 181

consideration, and arrangements might be made for the
students graduating in the University.

At a meeting of the Council of the Edinburgh Univer-
sity held in the month of July last (1886), on considera-
tion of a communication from the Senatus as to the
proposed rules for graduation in science in the Depart-
ment of Agriculture, the draft of a resolution embodying
the proposed rules was approved, and it was ordered that
it should be submitted to the General Council of the
University at their next meeting for their consideration,
in terms of sec. xii. (2) of the Universities (Scotland) Act,
1858. It was also ordered that any communication which
might be received on the subject from the directors of the
Highland and Agricultural Society of Scotland should be
transmitted to the General Council for consideration in
connection with the proposed rules The following is a
copy of the proposed rules : —

' 1. In the Department of Agriculture the degree of
Bachelor of Science shall be the only degree conferred.
2. The rules as to a preliminary examination on subjects
of general education shall be the same as those for
graduation in the Department of Physical and Natural
Science. 3. The rules as to attendance on qualifying
classes for three sessions shall be the same as those for
graduation in the Department of Physical and Natural
Science ; provided always that instead of one of such
three years of attendance, a year may be spent on a farm
or farms, in pursuance of the practical study of agriculture.
4. Each candidate must produce a certificate of attend-
ance upon a qualifying class on each subject of examina-
tion, if that subject is taught in the University ; and if
the subject be not taught in the University, he must
produce a certificate of attendance on lectures on that
subject, at an institution recognised by the University for
the purpose ; and should he, instead of one of the three
years of attendance required in section 3, have spent a
year in the practical study of agriculture, he must produce
a certificate to that effect. 5. There shall be two

18-2 FORESTRY IN SPAIN.

examinations for the degree of Bachelor of Science in the
Department of Agriculture. These examinations shall be
written, oral, and practical. 6. The first examination
shall be in — (1) Agriculture, to such extent as may from
time to time be fixed by the Senatus ; (2) Chemistry, to
the extent required for the first examination for the
corresponding degree in the Department of Physical and
Natural Science ; (3) Engineering, with special reference
to field work and draining ; (4) Biology, (a) botany or
(/>) natural history —either subject at the option of each
candidate. In either case the examination shall be
to the extent required for the first examination
for the corresponding degree in the Department of
Physical and Natural Science. 7. Candidates who
have passed the first examination may present them-
selves at the end of six months for the second
examination. 8. The second examination shall be in — (1)
Agriculture, the whole subject ; (2) Chemistry, as applied
to agriculture ; (3) Geology, in so far as bearing on agri-
cultural science ; (4) Veterinary hygiene, to such an extent
as may from time to time be fixed by the Senatus. 9.
Candidates who have passed the second examination shall
be recommended to the Senatus for the degree of Bachelor
of Science. 10. The examinations shall be conducted by
University examiners appointed by the University Court,
and an additional examiner in agriculture, to be appointed
by the University Court, after communicating with the
Council on Education of the Highland and Agricultural
Society of Scotland, and considering any recommendation
by them. 11. The fees for the degree ot Bachelor of
Science in the Department of Agriculture shall be — (1)
For the preliminary examination, or for registration of any
exempting qualification, £1 Is ; (2) for the first Bachelor
of Science examination, £2 2s; (3) for the second
Bachelor of Science examination, £2 2s = £5 5s.'

On consideration of a minute of Senatus, it was resolved
to recognise the University College of South Wales and
Monmouthshire as one of the institutions at which two of

SCHOLASTICS ARRANGEMENTS. iss

the three academic years of study of candidates for the
degree of Bachelor of Science may be passed.

It seems reasonable to suppose that in the event of a
Professorship of Forestry or of Forest Science being estab-
lished in the University, similar arrangements might be
made for students passing satisfactorily through this class,
being also allowed to graduate in science.

In conjunction with such arrangements, or irrespective
of them, arrangements might be made for the study of
forestry being pursued in the Watt Institute.

The advantages of such an arrangement, amongst others,
would be these : — It is a popular institution of compre-
hensive technological study, many of the classes of which
might be made subservient to the study of forestry by
students giving their attention to this ; and such a degree
of completeness might be thus given to a prescribed
programme of forestal studies that, without detriment to
any other course of studies followed there in some of the
same classes, a fully equipped School of Forestry might
be represented as one of the constituent parts of the
institution. It would allow of expansion being easily
given, temporarily or permanently, to the course of study
in forestry, if this should at any time be deemed expedient,
or of contraction or change in this, if such should appear
advisable ; and that without requiring radical or funda-
mental change, or such modification as would justify
captious censorious remark.

The fees charged, if in accordance with the fees charged
in the other classes, would be such as might be met with-
out difficulty by students of limited means; while the
hours of study, if like those of other classes, being in the
evening, would suit the convenience of those who are
engaged in daily labour; and others, who, from any cause,
might prefer studying accessory subjects in the course of the
day in the University, which is adjacent, would have the
opportunity of doing so, — while the proximity of the
Museum of Science and Art, with its invaluable collection

181 FORESTRY IN SPAIN.

of forest products, &c., would give every facility for the
study of these.

From what has been commuuicated to me, on what I
consider good authority, students at the Watt Institute,
whatever their skill an^l attainments might be, would not,
according to existing arrangements, be eligible for admission
into the forest service of India, which is at present the
only very eligible career open to educated foresters ; but I
have no doubt that students, trained as they might be in
classes in the Watt Institute, would prove themselves the
equals in every respect but that of social position, of those
in that service who have studied in Nancy; that when
this came to be seen, and recognised as a fact, their
services would be in demand for even the Indian service ;
that whether they were admitted to the Indian service
or not, they would soon in India, or elsewhere, create
their own prestige ; and other students succeeding
them, if such arrangements be carried out, would reap the
benefit of this, and the School would rise in favour, On
these points I have no misgiving or doubt.

Failing all of these plans whereby might be established
a National School of Forestry in Edinburgh, or meanwhile
until the necessity or the importance of something of the
kind indicated being done, permanent or provisional
arrangements might with advantage be made by existing
organisations, or by private enterprise, to organise
arrangements for the study of forestry there. The latter
was what was contemplated by the Committee of which
mention has been made as having been appointed at a
meeting held in the International Forestry Exhibition,
and it was only when they found that they could not
obtain the requisite funds that they resolved to advocate
the establishment of a Professorship in the University.

As has been intimated, a large collection of implements,
specimens of wood, seeds, fibres, &c., was, at the close of
the Exhibition, placed at the disposal of this Committee
for use in connection with a proposed School of

SCHOLASTIC ARKANGEMENTS. 185

Forestry. ID a circular which they issued under date of
28th January, 1885, the Committee intimated that they
felt difficulty in suggesting a definite scheme for the
organisation of the School until they had some knowledge
of the amount of funds which might be placed at their
disposal ; but that they contemplated the establishment
of a Professorship of Forest Science for the instruction of
students in all that pertains to practical and to scientific
forestry, including the physiology and pathology of trees,
the climatic and other effects produced by forests, the
different methods of forest management in use in this
and other lauds, the economic uses to which forest products
have been, or may be applied, and forest engineering
and forest administration generally : the instruction being
communicated by lectures, examinations, written and oral,
excursions, &c. And should their funds permit, that the large
collection of forest implements, produce, and specimens of
various kinds illustrative of forest science and forest
economy, with such additions as from time to time might
be available, should be placed in a permanent museum in
connection with the contemplated School of Forestry ; for
the accomplishment of all of which they considered £10,000
would be requisite.

In the end of 1885 it was found that a mercantile
establishment, in which free storage had been generously
given for the large collection of articles placed at their
disposal, required the premises in which these were stored.
In these circumstances the Committee deemed it expedient
to make over the whole to the Museum of Science and Art,
in which, along with others which have been procured, they
may be permanently exhibited, so soon as the necessary
accommodation for this can be provided ; and the sub-
scriptions placed at their disposal, amounting only to £660,
they resolved to advocate the establishment of a
Professorship of Forestry in the University,

Should their original design be carried out by any, in
so far as it related to study and instruction, whether this
were done by private enterprise or by some one or other

186 FORESTRY JN SPAIN.

of existing organisations, such as the Royal Highland and
Agricultural Society of Scotland, or the Scottish Arbori-
cultural Society, this would give an opportunity of seeing,
and of showing, what can be done with even limited means;
and by inference, what might be done with greater or
better means at command ; and it would afford oppor-
tunities for experimenting, and so preparing for the
perfecting of a scheme, which, placed on a more satisfactory
basis, might achieve all that is desired. It is possible
that the insecurity in regard to continuance attaching to
such arrangements, together with the absence of prestige,
might have a prejudicial effect on the supply both of
teachers and of students ; but even should it prove only a
temporary arrangement, it might, in the absence of some-
thing more commanding in promise and in effect, do much
good.

SECTION 2.— CURRICULUM OF STUDY.

I do not happen to know of a more eligible site for a
British National School of Forestry than Edinburgh
would be ; and in proceeding to bring under consideration
what I consider suitable curriculum of study for adoption,
I assume hypothetically that others will feel with me
that such is the case.

This assumed, it is requisite to the satisfactory pro-
jection of a programme of instruction to know something
of the object to be kept in view ; of the teachers to be
employed — their number and their qualifications; and of the
students who are to study there — their capabilities and
the time they can give to their studies.

If the sole object aimed at be to impart the instruction
necessary for the satisfactory management of woods and
plantations in Britain, or for the satisfactory management of
forests and plantations in India, or in one or another, or
more — in any or all of our colonies, the curriculum might
properly be determined by the circumstance of which

SCHOLASTIC ARRANGEMENTS. 18$

one of these objects was to be the object aimed at ; but
as at comparatively little additional expenditure of
teaching power and of money, there could be imparted
the instruction which is required in common by all of
these, together with much beside, which might be advan-
tageous, in every way, this is what is desirable in a
British National School of Forestry, and what alone
would render any School worthy of such a name.

With this point settled, there arises the question of the
number and qualification of the teachers to be employed,
and the question, Where may qualified teachers of forestry
and forest science be looked for with some hope of their
being found ?

There are three qualifications which I deemed desirable,
if not requisite, in teachers in a School of Forestry —
the necessary knowledge ; power of communicating to
others the knowledge which it is desired they should
impart ; and aptitude for teaching. It may be necessary
in the commeucement of a School of Forestry to abandon
the hope of securing in a teacher or teachers, otherwise
eligible, one or more of these qualifications, whether it be
determined to organise a school in a fully equipped con-
dition, or one in what may be called an embryotic form.
Which should be sacrificed may depend on circumstances
too varied to be specified.

Subject to this caveat I may mention that in the Plea
for the orgaanisation of of a School of Forestry in connec-
tion with the Arboretum in Edinburgh, issued by me in
1877, I stated :—

' The laying out of such grounds can be executed only by a
professional forester. But thereafter it may be open to
question whether the curatorship of them should be
entrusted to a practical or to a scientific officer, and if the
latter should be resolved on, there is provision made for
the experiment of introducing the study of forest science
at little additional expense.

' I presume if this were done, and if it were extensively

188 FORESTRY IN SPAtti.

made known tbat this was the case : that there was an
Arboretum, about 30 acres in extent, adjoining the Botanic
Gardens and Experimental Gardens, in extent some 20
acres more, with a view described " as one of the most
magnificent views of Edinburgh which could be obtained,"
and " as one of the finest in Europe, including as it did
the northern portion gf the city, with its spires and domes,
and the outstanding eminences of the Castle, Calton Hill,
Salisbury Crags, and Arthur's Seat," and that related
studies could be carried on under such men as Sir
Wyville Thomson, and Professors Balfour, Kelland, Tait,
Jenkin, Wilson, Geikie, Hodgson, Stuart Tytler, and
Alexander Crum Brown, with such assistants as they have,
and such men as are gathered around Dr Stevenson
Macadam and Mr Lees in the Watt Institution, there will
be no lack of candidates for the work.

' I consider that there must be many of the officers of
the Forest Service in India well fitted, by previous training
and experience, for conducting such a course of study as 1
have proposed Failing this, there might be found, by
correspondence with students of forestry on the Continent,
able men who might be willing to master the English
language and give lectures on some or all of the subjects
I have enumerated.

4 1 have, for some years, myself been engaged in the
compilation of information on subjects connected with
Economic Botany, with a view to this being, if not previously
printed, or otherwise used, deposited in manuscript in the
Public Library, Cape Town, Cape of Good Hope, for con-
sultation by scientific and practical men seeking to develope
the vegetable resources and the agricultural capabilities of
that colony ; and I have ready, compiled and translated,
all the material requisite for such courses of lectures on
Forest Science as I have spoken of. If other duties
permitted, I should esteem it an honour, as any man
might do, to be entrusted with an opportunity of testing
the practicability of establishing a British School of
Forestry in connection with the proposed Arboretum ;

SCHOLASTIC ARRANGEMENTS. 189

and from this I conclude, that no difficulty need be
anticipated in procuring teachers, if only the necessary
arrangements for the teaching were made/

This speaks of the past, not of the present ; but as I felt
then, many, I doubt not, will feel now, or as soon as
measures may be matured for the opening of the School,
I anticipate a plethora, and not a lack of candidates.

In order to the projection of a satisfactory programme
of study, it is necessary to know something of the attain-
ments and other qualifications of the teacher or teachers
whose services can be obtained.

But beyond this there are to be taken into account the
number and capabilities of the students, the period over
which the curriculum is to extend, and ihe number of
hours which the students can daily spend in class studies.

In lack of all these data it is impossible to speak with
the precision which might otherwise have been practicable :
they are important, but they are as yet unknown qualities.

With these unknown, I may state that in the Plea for
the establishment of a School of Forestry in connection
with the Arboretum in Edinburgh, which I issued in 1877,
I submitted the following, as what I deemed at that time
practicable and suitable; mentioning that 1 still deem
them so.

'Since my return to Europe, some ten years ago, from
the Cape of Good Hope, where I held the appointments
of Colonial Botanist and Professor of Botany in the South
African College, I have, with the exception of a brief
period, been in constant communication, personal and
epistolary, with professors and students of forest science,
and officials entrusted with the management or admini-
stration of forests in Britain, on the Continent of Europe,
in the United States of America, in the British Colonies,
and in India, having in the course of that time visited the
United States a second time, and travelled extensively in
France, Bavaria, Austria, Russia, Finland, Prussia, and

190 FORESTRY IN S^AIN.

Belgium, to obtain and to verify information otherwise
obtained in regard to forest economy and forest science.
And I submit for your consideration the opinion that, with
the acquisition of this Arboretum, and with the existing
arrangements for study in the University of Edinburgh,
and in the Watt Institution and School of Arts, there are
required only facilities for the study of what is known on
the Continent as Forest Science to enable these Institu-
tions conjointly, or either of them with the help of the
other, to take a place amongst the most completely
equipped Schools of Forestry in Europe, and to undertake
the training of foresters for the discharge of such duties
as are now required of them in India, in our Colonies, and
at home.

' I have before me the Programme de I'enseignement h
JU Ecole Forestiere, at Nancy, and the official Report of the
prescribed studies in the Central-forsthhr-Anstalt, at
Aschaffenburg, and I am more or less acquainted generally
with the courses of study followed at most of the other
Schools of Forestry in Europe ; and I consider that some
such course of study as the following would be equivalent
for the purposes of our countrymen to that followed in
any one of these valuable institutions, with the advantage
of not requiring the acquisition of a foreign language,
which few of our foresters and sons of foresters have
facilities for effecting, or at least of effecting to such an
extent as to enable them to understand instructions as
thoroughly as they would instructions given in their own
tongue : —

' FIRST YEAR.
' WINTER SESSION —

' Instruction to be given in the structure and physiology
of Trees and Shrubs ; in the geographical distribution
of Forests ; in the treatment of Forests by Cartage,
by Jardinayr., by a tire et mVtf, and bytes Compart ements,
or the Fachwerk*. Method?, of Germany ; in the applica-
tion of this to coppice wood, with a view to securing,

SCHOLASTIC ARRANGEMENTS. 191

along with other advantages, a sustained production
of wood ; and in the application of it to timber
forests, according as the object may be to secure
from these a maximum size of timber, or a maximum
produce of wood, or a maximum pecuniary return,
along with natural reproduction, sustained produc-
tion, and progressive improvement of the woods ;
and in measures to be employed in the conversion of
coppice wood into timber forests, of timber forests
into coppice wood, of mixed woods into either, and
of either into mixed woods ;

' With attendance on the classes in the University for
the study of Natural History, of Mathematics, of
Engineering; or with attendance on the classes in
the Watt Institution and School of Arts for the study
of Mechanical Philosophy, and of Mathematics.

SUMMER SESSION—

'Attendance on the classes in the University for the
study of Botany and Vegetable Histology ; and of
Practical Natural History ; and of Practical Engin-
eering; or attendance on classes, if open, in the
Watt Institution for the study of Botany, and of
Mechanical and Geometrical Drawing.

AUTUMN MONTHS —

' Tours of observation, with or without the teacher, in
woods and forests in Britain, in France, in Germany,
or in the North of Europe.

1 SECOND YEAR.
WINTER MONTHS —

' Instruction in regard to Forest Economy, Forest
Legislation, and Forest Literature in Britain ; in
France and in Germany, countries in advance of all
others in Forest Science, and in the practical applica-
tion of it to the management of forests ; in Russia,,
where arrangements are being made to introduce and
to carry out extensively the improved forest manage-

192 FORESTRY IN SPAltf.

ment practised ID Germany and in France; in
Finland, where arrangements have been made to
manage the forests in accordance with the inquire-
ments of Forest Science ; in Sweden, where the
latest arrangements suggested by Forest Science are
being carried out with vigour ; in British Colonies ;
in the United Stages, and in India where have been
introduced many of the suggestions of modern Forest
Science, and the Forest Economy practised on the
Continent of Europe ;

' With attendance at the classes in the University for the
study of Theoretical Chemistry and Practical
Chemistry, and Natural Philosophy, and the practical
application of the same ; or with attendance at the
classes in the Watt Institution and School of Arts
for the study of Chemistry, of Engineering, and of
Geology.

' SUMMER AND AUTUMN MONTHS —

' Practical experience in the management of Woods, or
in the management of Nurseries, to be acquired
under the direction of approved foresters or approved
nurserymen.

'THIRD YEAR.
1 WINTER SESSION ONLY —

4 Instruction in the Chemistry of Vegetation and of
Soils ; in the Meteorological Effects of Forests on
Moisture, on Temperature, and on Constituents of
the Atmosphere; in Sylviculture, as applied in
Belgium, &c., to utilise waste lands, — in the Landes
of France, to arrest and utilise drift sands, — in the
Alps, the Cevennes, and the Pyrenees, to prevent the
disastrous effects and consequences of torrents, — on
the Karst, in Illyra, to restore fertility to a land
rendered sterile by the destruction of trees, — in the
United States of America, to prevent anticipated
evils, — in India, to secure desiderated good, — ia

SCHOLASTIC ARRANGEMENTS. 193

Britain, to increase amenity, covert, and shelter ; and
instruction in the injurious effects of animals, birds,
insects, and various diseases on trees ;
( With attendance on the classes in the University for
the study of Geology, of Agriculture, and, if it be
desired, any of the following : for the study of
Political Economy, of Conveyancing, or of Bandaging
and Surgical Appliances ; or with attendance on the
classes in the Watt Institution for the study of
Animal Physiology, of German, or of French.

' In the curriculum which I have sketched, I have had
regard to all that is required in Continental Forest
Schools, and only to what is required in some, if not in
all, of these institutions, in the study of what is included
under the designation of Forest Science. I have also had
regard only to the teaching power of the University of
Edinburgh, and of the Watt Institution and School of
Arts, as existing provision for the teaching of the
classes specified.

1 In many of the institutions referred to, the provision
for practical training in woods and forests is much more
ample than is at present at command in Britain; but
there is here a corresponding reduction in the time allotted
to the curriculum ; and this is so arranged that it may be
entered upon at the commencement of any one of the
sessions.

' It is contemplated that the studies should be conducted
by the use of text-books, by lectures, by oral examina-
tions at which the students should be encouraged to ask
questions of the teacher, by written exercises of various
kinds, and by formal discussions by the students under
the presidency of the teacher.

'And it is contemplated that the class should meet for
an hour five days a week, at a time which would not
interfere with the classes attended at the University, or
in the Watt Institution.'

In the enumeration of classes in the University and

o

194 FORESTRY IN SPAIN.

in the Watt Institution which might be attended by
students of Forestry, I gave the names of the professors,
lecturers, and teachers then in charge of those classes.
Many of the honoured men whose names were then cited,
are no longer amongst us, but others have entered upon
their labours, men to be associated with whom many
would esteem to be an»honour and a privilege,

For thoroughly efficient and satisfactory teaching in the
subjects of special study mentioned, there would be required
a staff of at least three teachers, one giving instruction
in forest science ; a second, in forest economy and sylvicul-
ture ; and the third, in arboriculture and the management
of woods and plantations such as are seen in Britain.
But neither is it necessary to have so many teachers from
the first ; nor is it necessary to have only these, or no
others until these may have been installed.

A commencement might be made with one te ;cber,
anil I had almost said, with a teacher in any one of these
departments of study. Supposing a commencement made
with a teacher of forest science ; a teacher qualified for
conducting the studies of a class satisfactorily in forest
science would be one qualified for communicating instruc-
tion in both of the other departments ; and with such
instruction in these as might be given by him, the
promoters and supporters of the school might rest satisfie 1
till the necessity for an addition being made to the
teaching power of the institution began to manifest itself.
Then, another being added, the first would be relieved of
having to give instruction in the department assigned to
the new teacher, whether this should be one or other of
those mentioned, or some one or more of departments of
study comprised under the comprehensive designation
Forest Science ; and thereafter successive differentiations
could be introduced as circumstances might require or
warrant.

It may be questionable whether this could be
done with a Professorship of Forestry in the University ;

SCHOLASTIC ARRANGEMENTS. 193

but so far as appears, it might be done if arrangements
were made for the study of forestry in connection with
the Watt Institute, the Highland and Agricultural Society
of Scotland, or in connection with the Museum of Science
and Art in Edinburgh, on terms similar to those of the
Royal School of Mines and Practical Geology in London,
and the Royal College of Science in Dublin, all of which
admit of expansion and curtailment, and changes being
made more easily than could de done with a professorship
in the University,

SECTION 3.— EXPENSE.

The expenditure which might be entailed, by arrange-
ments such as had been under consideration, should
not, even with the expenditure already incurred on the
annual maintenance of the Museum, make the total
expenditure of the Department in Edinburgh equal to the
expenditure on the Normal School of Science, and Royal
School of Mines, in London ; or approximate by thousands
of pounds the expenditure on the Royal College of
Science, and the Museum of Science and Art, in
Dublin, Nor would it involve an expenditure on a
National School of Forestry out of keeping with what is
spent on such institutions elsewhere.

There is some difficulty in stating what may be con-
sidered the total expense incurred in the maintenance of
almost any of the Schools of Forestry on the Continent :
from this circumstance among others — in the published
accounts no mention is made of what might be considered
the equivalent of rent for the premises in which the school
is located, and of the grounds connected with these —
whether a simple arboretum, or an extensive forest as the
case may be. I know not an exception. The premises
and grounds, sometimes a mansion, sometimes a palace,
with corresponding appointments, is granted by the
Government free of reckoning. The rent of such premises,

196 FORESTRY IN SPAIN,

if charged, would add greatly to the actual expenditure.
But so would it be here.

On examination I find in the Forest Budget of Spain
for 1882, and I have no reason to suppose that that was in
any way an exceptional year, the credit asked and granted
for the School of Forestry was 33,750 pesetas or francs ;
but this did not include the salaries drawn by the director,
professors, and assistant professors, as members of advanced
grades in the Corps of Forest Engineers, amounting to a
much greater sum, probably about 70,000 pesetas : in all,
103,750 pesetas, say £4,000.

In the French Forest Budget for 1880, and in that of the
preceding year, 1879, there was asked and granted for
instruction in forestry 208,785 francs, about £8,700, of which
sum 98,800 francs were designed for the School of Forestry
at Nancy ; and it is this alone perhaps with which we need
concern ourselves here.

There existed at that time an organisation for
imparting what is called secondary instruction in
forestry in other schools situated at Villers-Cotterets,
Grenoble, and Toulouse, to which forest engineers under
forty years of age were admitted without being subjected
to an entrance examination. The course of instruction
extended over seven months ; this was attended by men
in active service, and any who passed satisfactorily the
final or exit examination were eligible for appointment as
(,'arde-yeneral adjoint. But it was found by a sub-
committee of the Chambre, to which had been submitted
questions relative to the instruction in forestry, that the
system followed at these schools failed generally to produce
men fitted for the duties which the holders of that office
were, by the forest regulations, required to discharge ; and
the committee recommended that these schools should be
given up as not accomplishing the object for which they
were organised. The instruction given in these schools
represented an annual expense of 22,300 francs.

The credit granted also included provision for the Ecole
Forestiere at l)es Barres-Loiret, founded by M. Vilmorin}

SCHOLASTIC ARRANGEMENTS. 19?

and so designated by him in contradistinction on the one
hand to a nursery, a designation borrowed from domestic
lite; and in contradistinction on the other hand to a
plantation or forest, it being a collection of trees raised
from seed obtained from forests or from nurserymen or
seedsmen of note, and reared with a view to the study of
their habits, their identity, and their differences : an
establishment such as an arboretum might be made.
Subsequently to the death of the founder it became State
property. Since then it has been greatly extended, arid
there are received into it, after passing satisfactorily an
entrance examination, sons of forest overseers, for two
years' study, to prepare them for employment as gardeners
or as forest warders ; instruction being given to them in
French, drawing, mathematics, land surveying, sylviculture,
and all details of forest service. For this instruction there
was allotted 20,610 francs, to cover the salaries of a
director, of a garde-general or warder, and of a brigadier,
the wages of the students, and other expenses for materials.
The grant for the whole of the Schools was, as has been
stated, 208,785 francs— say £9,280.

I cannot conceive of any circumstances in which the
expenditure on a National School of Forestry in Edin-
burgh, if regulated by reasonable economy, should
approximate that incurred on the maintenance of the
School of Forestry in Nancy, or the School of Forestry in
the Escurial, unless it expanded far beyond the arrangements
fouud sufficient in these institutions ; nor is it necessary
that the expenditure at first should exceed what might be
required to make efficient the teaching of one instructor,
or afterwards be increased unless the first lectureship or
professorship should produce results such as would make it
manifest that it would be pecuniarily advantageous to the
empire to perpetuate and extend the arrangements made.
And these amounts are much short of the expenditure
insured on the existing Royal School of Mines in London,
and the Royal College of Science in Dublin.

m FORESTRY IN 8PAtKr.

On the Normal School of Science and Royal School of
Mines in London there were expended in the financial
year terminating on 31st March, 1885, £14,313, 2s 5d;
on the Royal College of Science, Dublin, £6804-, Is 4d ;
with £14,056, 15s lOd for the Dublin Museum of Science
arid Art. The expenditure on the Edinburgh Museum of
Science and Art was £^0,b'89, 2s lid, and such an arrange-
ment as I have submitted for consideration would at first,
or even when fully developed, require no such expenditure
as these. And the expenditure would be entailed largely by
provision for the support of students prosecuting their
studies.

The arrangements for the support of students is similar,
if not identical, in London and in Dublin. I may then
take for illustration the Royal School of Science in Dublin.
This supplies as far as practicable a complete course of
instruction in science applicable to the industrial arts,
especially those which may be classed broadly under the
heads of mining, engineering, and manufactures, and it is
intended also to aid in the instruction of teachers for the
local Schools of Science. Students may enter as associates
or as non-associates. By ' associate students ' is meant all
those who enter for the three years' ' curriculum of the col-
lege ' in any department. There are nine ' royal exhibitions '
of the value of £50 per annum, entitling the holder to free
admission to all the lectures and to the laboratories ; these
are tenable for three years. And there are four 'royal
scholarships ' of the value of £50 yearly each. And there
are thirty-six 'national scholarships/ These are of the
value of 30s a week during the session of about nine
months for three years, and they are tenable at the option
of the holders at either the Royal College of Science,
Dublin, or the Royal School of Mines, London. They also
entitle the holders to free admission to all the lectures and
all the laboratories.

Of the Royal Exhibitions, there are three open for
competition annually. Of the Royal Scholarships, two

SCHOLASTIC ARRANGEMENTS. 199

are ottered for competition each year to students, not
being royal exhibitioners, on the completion of their first
academic year. Of the National Scholarships, twelve are
open for competition annually to persons who have taken
a first or second certificate in the advanced stage in any
subject of science in the examinations of the Science and
Art Department, and who show that they arc bona-fide
science teachers. Holders of these may attend all the
day lectures gratuitously, provide! that they be examined
on in at least one subject, arid that they pay a fee of £1 for
each course in which they propose to be examined.

The fees charged to associate students for lectures and
laboratories average £15 a year. Students wishing to
make one payment for the whole three years' course of
lectures are allowed to compound for £25 in addition to
the laboratory fees. The fees payable by non-associate
students are £2 for each separate course of lectures, with
charges for laboratory instruction, graduated in each class
according to the time attended. A non-associate student
taking a complete course of instruction is admitted at the
same fees as are charged to associate students ; and in
any case such receive certificates after examination, if
they have attended two-thirds of an entire course of
lectures. By these arrangements provision is made for
enabling students of limited means to meet the expense
of board and education without loss of self-respect. They
are similar to those carried out in London ; and if such
were made in connection with a School of Forestry in
Edinburgh they would bring the course of study
prescribed, in whole or in part as the student might wish,
within reach of a great number of intelligent young men,
who could not meet the expense of University life and
University fees, with the advantage suporadded that the
holder of the exhibition or scholarship would have the
satisfaction of knowing, and of having it known by his
fellow-students, that this he has secured by giving
evidence of his qualification for engaging in the studies to
which he aspires, — which may be more than they could

200 FORESTRY IN SPAIN".

have done. And at the same time, a certificate of his
having obtained such exhibition or scholarship, with
certificate of his having passed satisfactorily both the
entrance and the exit examinations of such a Government
institution, might have assigned to it a definite value in
any application the holder might make for a Government
appointment at home or abroad.

If similar provision were made for students of forestry,
should a School be organised in connection with the
Science and Art Department of the Committee of Council
on Education, this would only be in keeping with
what has hitherto been done for aspirants for employment
in the Forest Service of India.

In an editorial note in the number of the Journal of
Forestry issued in March, 1879, it is stated :—

' We regret to find that no attempt has yet been made
to reduce the enormous expense to which the country, and
the parents or guardians of a pupil, are put to pay for his
training in the Forest School at Nancy, an institution, too,
be it observed, that does not at all meet the requirements
necessary for the proper training of first-class forest
officers for the management of the forests in British India
or in the Colonies. Each pupil costs, for fees and mainten-
ance, £220 per annum, of which heavy sum the parents
are held liable to pay £183, which may be reduced to an
average of .£120 per annum by the industry and good con-
duct of the pupil ; in reward for which the Government,
at its discretion, pays the difference, £60 per annum.

* Such heavy charges can only be afforded by the opulent
classes, and very much exceed the cost of training for any
other profession in this country. They are also quite
prohibitory to the young men best qualified by nature and
early training for filling the office of forest officers in India
or elsewhere. For less than half that cost per head per
annum we train our clergy, doctors, lawyers, naval and
military officers, engineers, &c. ; in fact, we do not know
of any professional training which necessarily requires such

SCHOLASTIC ARRANGEMENTS. iZOi

aii enormous expenditure for such poor results. Suppose
there is an annual average of fifteen pupils being trained
at Nancy for the Indian forest service. This would give a
total cost of £3000 per annum. Such a large sum properly
expended in training forest students in a Forest Depart-
ment in connection with any of our Universities would
train fifty students in place of fifteen, and make much
superior men of them for the duties they are called on to
perform in the management of our home, colonial, and
Indian forests. The special training for India, or any
colony, should be taught in that country. The science and
technics of forestry can be better and more economically
taught in Britain than anywhere else, and the practical
training specially necessary for any particular country
cannot be so well taught anywhere as on the spot where
it has to be put into practice.'

Mr W. G. Pedder, revenue secretary, India Office, in
giving evidence before a Select Committee of the House
of Commons in July 1885, it is reported in a subsequent
issue of that periodical, September 1885, stated, in regard
to candidates for employment in the Forest Department
in India : — ' It was found that the young men sent to
France were not sufficiently well acquainted with the
French language to acquire knowledge through that
medium. A change has consequently been made. The
young officers selected were sent to undergo a course at
the Royal Engineering College at West Hill, where they
were instructed in the ordinary engineering education,
and in addition were taught Forestry, and Botany, and
Forest Law, and Jurisprudence. . . . No application
had been received from other than the Indian Depart-
ment ; but no doubt other students would be received,
who would pay the fees of £180 a year, including every-
thing excepting pocket-money.'

At much less expense than this, then, might be provided
in Edinburgh, education, instruction, and training, equal
to what has hitherto been given to candidates for appoint*

200 FORESTRY IN

have done. And at the same time, a certificate of his
having obtained such exhibition or scholarship, with
certificate of his having passed satisfactorily both the
entrance and the exit examinations of such a Government
institution, might have assigned to it a definite value in
any application the holder might make for a Government
appointment at home or abroad.

If similar provision were made for students of forestry,
should a School be organised in connection with the
Science and Art Department of the Committee of Council
on Education, this would only be in keeping with
what has hitherto been done for aspirants for employment
in the Forest Service of India.

In an editorial note in the number of the Journal of
Forestry issued in March, 1879, it is stated :—

' We regret to find that no attempt has yet been made
to reduce the enormous expense to which the country, and
the parents or guardians of a pupil, are put to pay for his
training in the Forest School at Nancy, an institution, too,
be it observed, that does not at all meet the requirements
necessary for the proper training of first-class forest
officers for the management of the forests in British India
or in the Colonies. Each pupil costs, for fees and mainten-
ance, £220 per annum, of which heavy sum the parents
are held liable to pay .£180, which may be reduced to an
average of .£120 per annum by the industry and good con-
duct of the pupil; in reward for which the Government,
at its discretion, pays the difference, £60 per annum.

' Such heavy charges can only be afforded by the opulent
classes, and very much exceed the cost of training for any
other profession in this country. They are also quite
prohibitory to the young men best qualified by nature and
early training for filling the office of forest officers in India
or elsewhere. For less than half that cost per head per
annum we train our clergy, doctors, lawyers, naval and
military officers, engineers, &c. ; in fact, we do not know
of any professional training which necessarily requires such

SCHOLASTIC ARRANGEMENTS. &)l

an enormous expenditure for such poor results. Suppose
there is an annual average of fifteen pupils being trained
at Nancy for the Indian forest service. This would give a
total cost of £3000 per annum. Such a large sum properly
expended in training forest students in a Forest Depart-
ment in connection with any of our Universities would
train fifty students in place of fifteen, and make much
superior men of them for the duties they are called on to
perform in the management of our home, colonial, and
Indian forests. The special training for India, or any
colony, should be taught in that country. The science and
technics of forestry can be better and more economically
taught in Britain than anywhere else, and the practical
training specially necessary for any particular country
cannot be so well taught anywhere as on the spot where
it has to be put into practice.'

Mr W. G. Pedder, revenue secretary, India Office, in
giving evidence before a Select Committee of the House
of Commons in July 1885, it is reported in a subsequent
issue of that periodical, September 1885, stated, in regard
to candidates for employment in the Forest Department
in India : — ' It was found that the young men sent to
France were not sufficiently well acquainted with the
French language to acquire knowledge through that
medium. A change has consequently been made. The
young officers selected were sent to undergo a course at
the Royal Engineering College at West Hill, where they
were instructed in the ordinary engineering education,
and in addition were taught Forestry, and Botany, and
Forest Law, and Jurisprudence. . . . No application
had been received from other than the Indian Depart-
ment ; but no doubt other students would be received,
who would pay the fees of £180 a year, including every*
thing excepting pocket-money.'

At much less expense than this, then, might be provided
in Edinburgh, education, instruction, and training, equal
to what has hitherto been given to candidates for appoint-

204 FORESTRY IN SPAIN.

at Cooper's Hill, would the omission of their annual visit
to Nancy of six weeks for two successive years be a regrett-
able matter in any way ? We think not, but leave
practical people to draw their own conclusions.'

CHAPTER III.

RELATIVE IMPORTANCE TO A SCHOOL OF FORESTRY, OF

SCHOLASTIC SURROUNDINGS, AND OF ADJACENT

FORESTS.

IN discussing in a preceding chapter the question of an
appropriate site for a British National School of Forestry,
I have adverted [ante p. 174] to the practicability of
securing by feu, property in the immediate vicinity of
Edinburgh, on which might be created a forest, in- the
creation and subsequent management of which students
might hereafter be exercised in all that pertains to
practical forestry, if Edinburgh should be selected as the
site of such a School of Forestry.

This matter demands further consideration in connec-
tion with the subject of the immediately preceding
chapter — that of expense. Is such a forest really necessary
to the efficient teaching of forestry and forest science ?
Many will say yes ; beyond all doubt or question it is.
That advantage might be derived from the creation of
such a forest may be freely admitted ; and that thus the
efficiency of the teaching might be increased need not
be denied, but the expense would be considerable, and I
do not consider it necessary that that expense
should be incurred. It may be asked, Is it not
necessary to the efficiency of a School of Forestry to have
adjacent to it a forest, in which the students may be
exercised in various departments of forest work ? There
prevails in Britain an opinion that it is. Rut [ consider this
a prejudice, by which I mean an opinion formed a priori,
and not the result of observation ; and one which has
retarded the establishment of a School of Forestry in
Britain, by suggestions of an enormous expenditure for
which it would be difficult to provide.

206 FORESTRY IN SPAltf.

Dr James Brown, in his treatise on Forestry,* already
referred to, laments thatthere is notaschool in Great Britain
where young men can learn efficiently all the branches of
study in connection with forestry ; and he gives the following
advice as to the way in which a self-supporting institution
for that purpose might be established : ' Let an arboricul-
tural association be f owned of some of the leading landed
proprietors in the country, with a few men of science
among them, having for their object the cultivation of
trees on the most approved and improved principles of
the age, and the training up of young men as foresters
according to these principles, in order to fill the places of
the existing foresters of the school, and thus as early as
possible bring about an improved state of arboriculture for
the general welfare of the country.

' Then, supposing that such an association were formed,
where and how is the field of their operations to be had ?
Of course, they could not undertake anything in a definite
and practical way in respect to forestry without this. Such
a field may be easily had, as there are many landed pro-
prietors in this country who have more estates than one,
and who would be willing, I have no doubt, to give over
the woodlands on one of them for the purpose of forming
an arboricultural school of it, of course under safe and
proper conditions to both parties. The outline of the
conditions might be made somewhat as follows : The

proprietor, R. F., lets to the association , for a period

of, say forty years from date, all the woodlands at
present on the estate of A., extending to about 2000 acres,
as per plan of the property to be referred to, at an annual

rent of £ . The several crops embraced to be thinned,

and otherwise to be dealt with for their improvement in
health and value by the said association, and according to
a mode to be proposed by them and approved of by the
said R. F., the proprietor, who is to sell the timber and

'Forestry; or, A practical treatise on the planting, rearing, and general manage-
ment of forest trees.' Fourth edition, William HlacKwoocJ & Sons, Edinburgh and
Condon. 1871,

RELATIVE IMPORTANCE TO A SCHOOL, &c. 207

other produce for his own behoof, the association to be
paid by him for the labour performed by them in dealing
with the works of thinning and otherwise improving the
crops, as may be agreed upon, all at the usual rates for
such works ; these to be agreed on between the associa-
tion and the said proprietor's agent at the beginning of
each year, and before the works commence for the season.
And the said R. F., the proprietor, lets also to the said
association, for the said period of forty years, for the
purpose of being planted by them from time to time with
suitable kinds of trees, as may be agreed on between the

parties, that piece of waste land known as , and

extending to 1800 acres, at the annual rent of £ .

This portion of land is let to the association on the under-
standing that, at the end of their lease, the said R. F., the
proprietor, shall take over all the crops that shall then be
found growing on it, at a valuation to be settled by two
neutral men of skill, mutually chosen, when the said R. F.,
or his heirs, will pay the association the full value that
may then be made iu respect to the crops of trees that
may have been planted by them on said land. And it is
to be understood that during the currency of the lease the
said association shall have full power to manage the woods
they may plant on said waste land in their own way and
as they may think fit, and to use for their own behoof all
proceeds arising from them ; it being understood, however,
that all the crops they may plant shall be properly treated
and trained, so as to insure their being valuable to the
estate as a crop on the land, when they are handed over
to the proprietor of the land at the end of the lease. And
it is also agreed that the said association shall have no
power to clear any portion of said crops or trees they may
plant, or any portion of any crops, whatever, without the

consent of the proprietor of the land

' A president and vice-presidents, with directors, would
have to be appointed, as also a secretary, a treasurer, and
auditor. Next, the working-resident staff might be a
manager, who would be accountable to the president and

208 FORESTRY IN SPAIN.

directors for the proper working of the objects of the
association. He would be assisted by a professor of botany
and vegetable physiology, and one of geology and chemistry,
the latter combining physical geography and climatic
science ; while he, the manager, would also have the
assistance of a first-class practical forester, whose duties
would be to carry outfall the practical operations, under
the directions of the manager, in dealing with the woods,
and at the same time instruct and guide the pupils while
at their various works in the woods.

' To accommodate a staff of this kind, together with, say
fifty or sixty pupils, a convenient house would require to
be provided, and as to whether the pupils would be resi-
dent in it or not, would of course depend on a careful
consideration of all the circumstances in connection with
the locality in which the field was situated. At all
events, one-half of the pupils would require to attend at a
given hour every morning, to bear lectures and other
instructions on the subjects to be taught by the professors,
while the other half would go out to work in the woods.
These would return in the afternoon to get their course of
instructions, while those who were studying in the
morning would go out and take their places in the woods ;
and in this way the routine of daily theoretical and
practical instructions would be carried on. Of course a
portion of the waste land would be taken up for planting
every year, in order to have the young men trained to the
proper way of doing it, as also thinning in the different
plantations, with bark-stripping, pruning where necessary,
draining, &c. In short, all these branches of work would
be undertaken every year on some portion of the crops ;
and as all the works would be performed by the pupils
themselves, under the direction of the forester, every one
would have the full opportunity of gaining practical
experience, as well as theoretical knowledge, on the
various branches of forestry. And it would be necessary
to keep all the woods under the management of the
association in the very best possible condition, so that

RELATIVE IMPORTANCE OP ADJACENT FORESTS. 209

their character might become a model for all others to
imitate. And, besides, it would be desirable for the
manager and his professors to visit, from time to time, the
woods on other properties, and take with them their
pupils to see them, when they would have an opportunity
of comparing the management of other woods with that of
those on their home district ; and in this way the pupils
would get much useful information and experience, within
the shortest possible time, under the guidance of their
teachers, and thus render them more intelligent and
experienced than they would be were their observations
confined to the woods on the home field alone. . . .

1 In dealing with the pupils, the amount of fees they
would pay would, of course, depend upon whether they
were lodged in the institution or not, and had bed and
board provided for them. I should say that they should
be resident in the institution, and all receive like treat-
ment as to education, board, and lodging. If they were
not resident lodgers, irregularity would be certain to
ensue, and want of proper rule. Then, if lodged, £50 a
year might be a fair charge for each pupil. At all events,
it should not exceed this sum. In accounting with the
pupils they ought to have put to their credit, and
deducted from their fees at the end of each term, when
settlement is made, the value of the work they perform in
the woods, at a fixed rate per hour or per clay, as may be
arranged. This would make them more industrious than
they otherwise would be, and make them take good
interest in the works they were engaged in. This value
of work would, of course, be refunded to the association
by their account against the proprietor of the woods for
the work performed in them by their pupils,

' In order that the pupils might be properly instructed
in all the branches bearing on arboriculture, and to secure
the professors and all concerned doing their duties, an
examination of the progress made by the pupils should be
made by the president and directors at the end of every
six months, and afterwards put to the credit of the most

proficient and deserving

P

210 FORESTRY IN SPAIN.

' As the young men became proficient in all the
branches (after three years' residence at the institution),
theoretical and practical, of forestry, and leave the insti-
tution, they should have each his certificate or diploma,
stating his general acquirements and abilities, and
whether he isjirst, second, or third class in his profession.
These certificates should of course be given by the presi-
dent and directors, ancl signed also by the professors ; and
they should form a guarantee to landed proprietors who
might be in want of foresters that the holders are men of
undoubted professional abilities, and worthy of being
trusted with the mangement of their woods.'

In the first editorial article in the Journal of Forestry it is
said, vol. i., p. 9 : ' It is necessary for a properly equipped
Forest School to have a large extent of forest attached to
it, having a variety of elevations and soils suitable for the
profitable cultivation of all our hardy trees, besides the
garden, nursery, or arboretum, which forms the nucleus or
head-quarters for the schools. By proper arrangements,
such an extent of suitable land could be got within easy
reach of Edinburgh, along the slopes amongst the glens,
and upon the Pentland Hills; or if for a school in
England, amid the uplands of Surrey and Hants, or
among the hills of Derbyshire, or in Wales, where trees
thrive to perfection, and the land is of comparatively
small value for any other purpose.'

At a meeting of the English Arboricultural Society held
last summer — 1886, there was advocated by Mr
Wallace, land agent for Ravensworth, the purchase, with
Government assistance, of a large tract in the Northum-
brian Hills for a Forest School on a large scale. It was
with the design that this should be in addition to any-
thing which might be done in Scotland, it being alleged
that it was well known that trees growing luxuriantly in
Scotland will not live in the north of England.

RELATIVE IMPORTANCE OF ADJACENT FORESTS, 2U

In the evidence given before the Select Committee of the
House of Commons by others, the same idea was advanced.
I have intimated that I think otherwise.

The earlier German Schools of Forestry were instituted
in connection with forestal operations, and consequently
in connection with extensive forests; and the earlier
Schools of Forestry instituted in accordance with them
as a model were naturally established in connection with
some extensive forest. But after a more extended
experience had been gained, and greater facilities for
travelling great distances at comparatively little expense
were created, the Schools of Forestry were removed from
the forests to seats of learning in the cities and towns,
and combined with Universities and- Polytechnicums, and
Schools of Agriculture and Rural Economy, and only in
connection with like educational institutions do I know
of Schools of Forestry having been of late years organised.

It appeared to me in visiting Schools of Forestry and in
reading of their origin and existence, that most, if not all, of
the old-established institutions were adjacent to forests,
while most, if not all. of the later founded schools were
not; and that some of these made much more use of
forests somewhat remote from them for the practical
training of students than did some of the former appear
to me to make of like facilities for the work at their own
door.

I have met with convictions in favour of different
forms of ecclesiastically prevailing on this side, and on
that of geographical boundaries ; and so have I
seen it with these conflicting opinions in regard to such
forests. In the older Schools of Forestry in Germany, which are
in the northern part of the Empire, we have the former;
in the later formed schools in the south we have the
later.

And certainly it was the case that practical training was
not neglected by any — I never heard a complaint made of
wantoi facility for securing this; and my opinion is decidedly
in favour of the education and technical instruction being

212 FORESTRY IN SPAIN.

prosecuted in connection with facilities for prosecuting
without interruption these and higher studies, with some
time spent annually in observing, and, if possible, in practis-
ing forestal operations under properly qualified teachers of
practical forestry. And I have stated in the preceding
chapter, on an appropriate site for a British National
School of Forestry [ante. pp. 174-7], how this might be done
if Edinburgh were made choice of for the site of such a
school.

Having made this statement, I feel free to advance,
and state that I have never known of a forest official in
the south of Germany advocate a return to the old model
in so far as tbis was essentially a school organised in
connection with a forest, and I have never known such a
location for a School of Forestry advocated in Germany or
out of Germany by any one known to me to be acquainted
with the details of instruction in different existing Schools
of Forestry, who had not himself been educated at a School
of Forestry so located. 1 do not call in question the fact
that such may have had far better opportunities of
forming a satisfactory opinion on the subject from experi-
ence than I have from limited personal observation and
hearsay; and I have mentioned the fact cited in the full
knowledge that it may tell both ways.

In more than one case on visiting a School of Forestry, I
have looked in vain for a forest, or even for an Arboretum,
such as that in Edinburgh is becoming, and yet may
become ; and even where a removal of location has been
made to the site now occupied by a school adjacent to a
forest, it has never been from a University town to an
exclusively forest district, but the reverse, with perhaps
an exception which will be mentioned.

In Denmark, the School of Forestry is conectedn with
the School of Agriculture and Rural Economy in
Copenhagen, In Sweden, the principal School of Forestry
is in Stockholm, and the practical training is effected at a
distance. In Finland, the School of Forestry is at Evois,

RELATIVE IMPORTANCE OF ADJACENT FORESTS. 213

adjacent to a forest; but the practical training is
conducted elsewhere. In Russia, the principal Schools
of Forestry are in St. Petersburg and Moscow ; the practical
training is at Lissino. In Saxoay, the School of Forestry
is at Tharand, adjacent to a forest. In Prussia, the School
of Forestry is at Neustadt Eberwalde, adjacent to a forest.
In Hanover, it is at Munden. In Hesse-Darmstadt, the
School of Forestry, after mature deliberation, was incor-
porated with the University of Giessen. In Baden, the
School of Forestry is connected with the Polytechnicum of
Carlsruhe. In Wurtemburg, it was part of the Royal
Academy of Rural and Forest Economy at Hohenheim ;
but I understand it is now combined with the University
of Tubingen. In Bavaria, the School of Forestry acquired
a high reputation at Aschaffenburg, whence it was
removed to be combined with the University of Munich ;
subsequently Aschaffenburg was re-occupied as a pre-
paratory School of Forestry, from which students proceed to
Munich : but my latest information from Bavaria does not
speak in commendation of the measure. Be this as it
may, it is the only case of the kind known to me. The
buildings were vacant; the inhabitants of the adjacent
town were urgent ; but even if the most were made of it,
it could scarcely be considered an exception to what 1
have stated. In Austria, the School of Forestry has been
removed from Mariabrum to Vienna. In Italy, the School
of Forestry is at Vallambrosa, in the midst of a forest ; and
in Gotha, the School of Forestry is in Eisenach, not far
from a forest. In Switzerland, the School of Forestry is
combined with the Polytechnicum at Zurich. In France,
the School of Forestry is in Nancy, adjacent to a forest.
In Spain, the School of Forestry has been removed from
Villaviciosa to the Escurial, where an effort was made
to establish an Arboretum, but this was interrupted ;
and the maintenance of a crown forest in a
distant province, as a special school for practical instruc-
tion, has been abandoned. I have met with no indication
of opinion in Spain, that the school in the Escurial has at

214 FORESTRY IN SPA IK.

any period of its history suffered from not being adjacent
to such, a forest as is spoken of; and looking at the
experience of schools of industry on the Continent, I
am satisfied that there is no necessity for the organisation
of a School of Forestry in Britain being clogged with the
supposition that it must be located in a forest.

The relative advantages of having forestry, in-
cluding under that designation both forest science and
forest economy, taught in isolated professional Schools of
Forestry, and of having it taught by professors of forestry
in Universities and other educational institutions of a
like comprehensive character, has been exhaustively
discussed in Germany, the birthplace of forestry and of
modern Schools of Forestry; and an unequivocal expression
of opinion in favour of the latter arrangement was given
at a Congress of German Foresters, held in the autumn of
1874 at Freiburg, in the Breisgau, in the Grand Duchy of
Baden.

It was the third Congress of these which had been held
in Germany, and it was numerously attended, more
numerously than either of the preceding meetings, The
members of the Congress were from all parts of Germany,
and from countries adjacent: 134 were from Baden; 55
from Bavaria; 55 from Prussia; 41 from Wurtemburg ;
35 from Alsace-Lorraine ; 21 from the Central German
States; 15 from Hesse; and there were besides 18 from
Switzerland, 3 from Austria, and 1 from Russia— 378 in
all. In that number were 23 members who were not
professional foresters ; a large proportion of the authors
of German works on forestry were there, and many
Government officials entrusted with the administration of
forest management in Prussia, Bavaria, Wurtemburg,
Hesse, and Baden.

Th-3 president chosen was Dr Nordlinger, Forstrath> and
then Professor of Forestry at Hohenheim.

Four subjects had been proposed for discussion, and the
first of these was that above referred to, which was stated

IMPORTANCE OF SCHOLASTIC SURROUNDINGS. 215

thus, ' Forstakademie oder Allgemeine Hochschule? ' Forst
Academie being the name given to isolated educational
institutions designed exclusively for the study of forest
science and forestry ; Allgemeine Hochschuley the com-
prehensive designation given to colleges in which provision
is made for a much more extensive and comprehensive
course of study being followed, if desired, while attendance
may be confined to specified classes if this be required or
preferred.

Such Allgemeine Hochschulen are the following: — The
Royal Academy of Land and Forest Economy at Hohen-
heim in Bavaria, in which there are three distinct
departments of study: — 1. Landwirthschaft, or Rural
Economy, inclusive of agriculture, horticulture, cattle
breeding, &c. 2. Forstwirthschift, or Forest Economy in
all its departments ; and 3. Grund-und-Hilfs- Wissenshaften,
or sciences on which these are based, and sciences by
which they may be advanced, including mathematics,
physical science, technical arts, political economy, and
jurisprudence. For the teaching of all of these there is
provided a staff of professors, &c., with all necessary
appliances. And the Polytechnic School at Carlsruhe, in the
Grand Duchy of Baden, in which there is embodied — 1. A
school of mathematics. 2. A school of engineering. 3.
A school of machinery. 4. A school of architecture. 5. A
school of forestry. For the teaching of all these there is
provided a staff of forty-nine professors, lecturers, college
tutors, and assistants, with all necessary appliances. And
the designation is susceptible of such distention as to
include universities.

The interest created by this discussion was great and
wide-spread. Both official* and private reports of it were
published.

For the following information I am indebted to an account
of the Congress furnished by Herr J. Lehr to the Allgemeine
Forst-und Jagd Zeitung, edited by Professor Dr Gustav

* Bericht uber di« III. Versammlung deutschcr Forstmanner zu Freiburg i. B. Vom
Ibis. 5. September, 1374, pp. 21:2 3vo. Berlin, 1S75. Verlag vou Julius Springer.

•Jir, FORESTRY IN SPAIlS.

Heyer, Director of the Forest Academy of Mtinden, in
Hanover, and Privy Councillor of the kingdom of Prussia.

The question gave occasion for a discussion occupying
six hours, which was conducted with ability, and listened
to throughout with marked attention, the sederunt, com-
mencing at 8 A.M., being continued with an hour's interval
till three o'clock in tiie afternoon. It appears to have
been a continuation or resumption of a discussion of the
same subject at Mtihlhausen the year before. Two dis-
tinguished students of forest science had been appointed
to open the discussion by reading papers, each stating the
case in favour of that one of the arrangements which he
approved.

The discussion was opened by Oberforstmeister Pro-
fessor Dankelmann, Professor of the School of Forestry
at Neustadt-Eberswalde, in Prussia, defending the organi-
sation of forest academies in preference to the substitution
for these of arrangements for the study of forest science in
Universities or other seats of learning.

The second speaker appointed to open the discussion
was Dr Von Secketidorff, from Austria, Professor and
Councillor of State, who spoke in support of the proposal
to combine Schools of Forestry with Hochschulen in which
other studies were prosecuted, and stated — in reference to
an allegation which had been made, that the movement
had originated entirely with professors and candidates for
professors' chairs, and not with practical foresters, or
forest administrators — that the opinion held by him he
had found shared by numerous forest officials with whom
he had been brought into contact in other lands, and
more especially by those of them who had studied at
forest academies, a very great majority of whom had
spoken of a combination of Schools of Forestry with the
Hochschulen as a thing demanded by the honourable
standing of forest science and of the forest service.

Before the introducers of the discussion had commenced
the delivery of their addresses, several gentlemen, all
from Prussia; had announced their intention to speak in

IMPORTANCE OF SCHOLASTIC SURROUNDINGS. 217

defence of the maintenance of the special professional
schools. It was now proposed, and agreed to, that as in
the meantime a great many friends of the Aligemeine
Hochschule had added their names to the list of intending
speakers, speakers pro et contra should alternately address
the meeting

There spoke in succession Dr R. Hartig, Professor in
Neustadt-Eberswalde, in Prussia ; Oberforster Beiss, from
Neustadt, in the Palatinate ; Oberforster Use, from
Beurig-Saarburg, near Treves ; Forstmeister Ganghofer,
from Wiirtzburg, in Bavaria; Forstmeister Bando, from
Neustadt-Eberswalde, in Prussia ; Dr Borggreve, Professor
in Bonn (Poppelsdorf), on the Rhine. Dr Lothar Meyer,
Professor in Carlsruhe, in the Grand Duchy of Baden ;
Dr Gerstner, Professor in Wiirtzburg, in Bavaria; and
Professor Dankelmann replied.

Thereafter the President desired those who wished to
give their vote in favour of professional school instruction
.in forestry being combined with that given in the
Allgemeine Hochschulen to stand up, when the whole
assembly seemed to rise with loud cheering. Then those
who were in favour of the continued maintenance of
separate Schools of Forestry were requested to stand up,
when sixteen members only of the assembly stood up.
Thus was the decision of the Congress given in favour of
the former arrangement.

CHAPTER IV.

•

FORESTAL LITERATURE.

UNIQUE as may be our position among the nations of
Europe, in not having either in Britain or in any of our
Colonies, a School of Forestry, or provision for the study of
Forest Science, beyond arrangements made for candidates
for employment in the Forest Service of India, which have
been latterly introduced into the College of Engineering
at Cooper's Hill, our position is scarcely less unique in
regard to forest literature.

In my Plea for the creation of a School of Forestry in
connection with the Arboretum, published in 1877,
in illustration of the difference in the amount of literature
existing in our language and in the language of Continental
Europe, and as indicative of the magnitude of the change
which is passing over different lands in which the English
language is the language of the people, I asked to be allowed
to make the following statement, though in its commence-
ment personal to myself:—

' 1 went to the Cape of Good Hope to act as Colonial
Botanist in the beginning of 1863. On my arrival I was
officially informed that the office had been created some
five years before with the two-fold object (I) of ascertain-
ing and making generally known the economic resources
of the Colony, as regards its indigenous vegetable produc-
tions, and its fitness for the growth of valuable exotic trees
and other plants ; and (2) of perfecting our knowledge of
the flora of South Africa, and thus contributing to the
advancement of botanical science.

' On making my first tour of the Colony to see its flora
and its capabilities, I found myself face to face with a

FOREStAL LITERATURE. 2l6

difficulty in the way of the developement of these capabili-
ties, arising from a reckless destruction of forests and of
forest products which was going on, and a progressive
desiccation of the climate, accompanying or following the
destruction of forests and the burning of herbage and bush
in connection with agricultural operations and pastoral
husbandry. And I knew not then, nor do I know now, of
a single work published in England from which I could
then have procured information in regard to the treatment
required by aboriginal forests, to secure their conservation
and improvement, excepting Forests and Gardens of South
India, by Dr Cleghorn, then Conservator of Forests in the
Madras Presidency; The Forester, by Dr James Brown ;
the Arboretum et Fruticetum Britannicum, by Louden ;
and English Forests and Forest Trees, an anonymous
work published by Ingram, Cooke, & Co., London. But
none of these supplied the information I required.

' Contrast with this the richness of continental languages
in literature on such subjects. I have had sent to me lately
Ofversight of Svenska bkogsliteraturen, Bibliografaka
Studieren of Axel Cnattingius, a long list of books.and papers
in Forest Science published in Sweden ; I have also had
sent to me a work by Don Jose Jordana y Morera, Ingenero
de Montes, under the title of Apuntes Bibliographic
Forestafe, a catalogue raissone of 112(5 printed books, MSS.
&c., in Spanish, on subjects connected with Forest Science.

' I am at present preparing for the press a report on
measures adopted in France, Germany, Hungary, and
elsewhere, to arrest and utilise drift-sand by planting them
with grasses and trees ; and in Der Europaeische Ftug sand
und seine Kuttur, von Josef Wessely General-Domaenen-Inspektor,
und Forst-Academie-Direktor, published in Vienna in 1873, I
find a list of upwards of 100 books and papers on that one
department of the subject, of which 30, in Hungarian,
Latin, and German, were published in Hungary alone.

'According to the statement of one gentleman, to whom
application was made by a representation of the Govern-
ment at the Cape for information in regard to what suit-

•220 FORESTRY IN SPAIN.

able works on Forest Economy could be procured from
Germany, the works on Forst- IVissenschaft, Forest Science,
and Forst- Winhschaft, Forest Economy, in the German
language, may be reckoned by cartloads. From what I
know of the abundance of works in German, on subjects
connected with forestry, I am not surprised that such a
report should have been given. And with the works in
German may be reckoned the works in French.

' In Hermann Schmidt's Fach Katalogue, published in
Prague last year (1876), there are given the titles, &c., of
German works in Forst-und Jagd-Literatur, published from
1870 to 1875 inclusive, to the 31st of October of the
latter year, amounting in all to 650, exclusive of others
given in an appendix, containing a selection of the works
published prior to 1870. They are classified thus : —
General Forest Economy, 93 ; Forest Botany, 60 ; Forest
History and Statistics, 50 ; Forest Legislation and Game
Laws, 56 ; Forest Mathematics, 25 ; Forest Tables and
Measurements. &c., 148 ; Forest Technology, 6 ; Forest
Zoology, 19 ; Peat and Bog Treatment, 14 ; Forest
Calendars, 6 ; Forest and Game Periodicals, 27 ; Forest
Union and Year Books, 13 ; Game, 91 ; Forestry and Game
in Bohemian, 44 — in all, 652. Upwards of a hundred
new books published annually. Amongst the works
mentioned is a volume entitled Die Literatur des letzten
sieben Jakre (1862-1872) atis dem Gesammtgebiete der Land und,
Forst-wirthschaft mit Einschlusz der landw. Gewerbe u. der
Jagd, in Deutscher, Franzosischer u. Englisher Sprache Herausg,
v. d. BuchJiandl. v. Gerold & Co., in Wien, 1873, a valuable
catalogue of 278 pages in large octavo.

' Since the time of which I have spoken, fifteen years
ago, a change has manifested itself in the different lands
in which the English language is spoken. By an order
of the House of Commons, dated 17th August, 1871,
there was printed the "Return to an address of the
House, dated 15th May of the same year: a selection of
dispatches and their enclosures to and from the Secretary

FORESTAL LITERATURE. 221

of State for India in Council, on Forest Conservancy in
India, showing the measures which have been adopted,
and the measures which are going on, in the several
presidencies and lieutenant-governorships, beginning with
the dispatch from the Governor-General in Council, of
21st day of May, 1862, to the present time." And the
Return comprises two printed volumes, consisting of 1G71
folio pages on India, one of 441 pages on Madras, and one
of 357 pages on Bombay — in all, 2469 pages folio. And
they report an approved estimate of expenditure, for the
year 1871-1872, on forests in the Indian Empire of
45,11,000 rupees, and an estimated income of 57,34,000
rupees; or, according to another account, an annual
expenditure of upwards of £450,000, with annual returns
of upwards of £570,000.

'In 1871 a commission was appointed by the Govern-
ment of Victoria to report amongst other things on the
best means of promoting the culture, extension, and
preservation of State Forests in Victoria, and the intro-
duction of such foreign trees as may be suitable to the
climate, and useful for industrious purposes, which
Committee has gone to considerable expense and trouble
in collecting and printing information from New Zealand,
India, the United States, Hanover, Prussia, Saxony,
Bavaria, Austria, Baden, Italy, and Sweden, as well as
Great Britain, availing themselves largely of the published
report by Captain Campboll Walker on State Forests and
forest management in Germany and Austria, which I
have cited in speaking of the Forest Schools of Germany.

'In the Report of the Commission of Agriculture, laid
before the Senate and the House of Representatives of
the United States, in 1865, there was embodied a Memoir
on " American Forests — their Destruction and Preserva-
tion," by the Rev. Frederick Starr, of St. Louis, Missouri,
of which Report 105,000 copies were ordered by the
House of Representatives to be printed, and within a
week 20,000 " extra copies " were ordered by the Senate,'

222 FOfeESTfcV IN S^

The work by Sennor Jordan a cited in this quotation was
published in 1875, and referred, as has been stated, to
works which had appeared in Spain previous to I860.

Apart from the forestal literature which was in exist-
ence in Spain previous to the establishment of a School
of Forest Engineers, there has been issued in connection
with demands felt in.connection with operations resulting
from that enterprise, numerous works on subjects
connected with Forest Science and modern Forest
Economy. There have been given in a preceding chapter
[ante pp. 136-143] the titles of a hundred and fifty of
these, with the dates of publication, and the names of the
writers— forty-two in number — all of which works may
be considered works designed to meet a felt want ; and
most of them have been published within the last ten
years.

We cannot compare with such progress ; but a
beginning has been made in the publication of similar
works in our language.

The " Plea " issued by me was published in the spring
of 1877. Within a month thereafter there was issued
the first number of the Journal of Forestry. The first
paragraph of the Introductory Editorial Notes urged the
establishment in the British Islands of a School of
Forestry. From that day till the close of the publication
of the periodical with the issue for April last, prominence has
been given to this matter in the pages of that journal ;
and in it valuable contributions have been made to the
forest literature of our country. Long before that there
had been organised the Scottish Arboricultural Society ;
one of the first subjects brought before them was the
expediency of securing some such institution, and with
like pertinacity to that of the Journal of Forestry, the
published transactions of the Society have urged this
measure, and added to our stores of information in regard
to forests and forest operations in Scotland. During the
period within which these transactions have been pub-

FORESTAL LITERATURE. 2&3

lished repeated new and enlarged editions have appeared of
The Forester: a Practical Treatise on the Planting, Rearing,
and General Management of Forest Trees, by Dr James
Brown, lately deceased, one of the fathers and founders of
the Society.

This work of Dr James Brown constitutes a kind of
connecting link between the past and the present. It is
likely long to hold its place as an authority on the subjectsof
which it treats — different from, but related to, other matters
brought forward in connection with the advanced forest
science of the day, but gracefully, and of right, taking its
place amongst these. And something similar may be said
of many other works, published in Great Britain both
before and since ; prominent amongst which are some of
the works of Louden.

It may have been noticed that amongst the forestal
works published in Spain, within the last fifteen years,
are many prepared in accordance with the arrangement in
connection with the School, whereby professors and others
are commissioned to visit foreign lands, on special errands
relating to some one or more departments of research or
of practical operations pertaining to forestry ; and to report
the results, for consideration in connection with corres-
ponding researches or forestal operations carried on in
Spain, provision being made for their expenses being paid
by the State, and for the report being published at the
expense of the State, if this be recommended by the
Facultative Junta, and approved by the Minister of State
entrusted with the cognisance of the School.

Some years ago, in the Scottish Arboricultural Society,
there was mooted by Mr Hutchieson of Carlo wrie, one of
the vice-presidents of the Society, the project of an
International Forestry Exhibition; and when the project
was carried into effect it was with a view to promote a
movement for the establishment of a National School of
Forestry in Scotland, as well as with a view of furthering
and stimulating a greater improvement in the scientific

224 FORESTRY IN

management of woods in Scotland and the sister countries
which has manifested itself during recent years.

At the meeting at which the movement for the
accomplishment of this was formally initiated, all of
those who were present formally pledged themselves to
give their best efforts and endeavours to render the
Exhibition a success, and of such importance and general
interest as to make it worthy of the name of International.
In redemption of this pledge I published popular treatises
on the following subjects: —

/. — Introduction to the Study of Modern Forest Economy.

In this there are brought under consideration the extensive
destruction of forests which has taken place in Europe and
elsewhere, with notices of disastrous consequences which have
followed — diminished supply of timber and firewood, droughts,
floods, landslips, and sand-drifts — and notices of the appliances
of Modern Forest Science successfully to counteract these evils
by conservation, planting, and improved exploitation, under
scientific administration and management.
//. — The Forests of England ; and the Management of them in
Bye-gone Times.

Ancient forests, chases, parks, warrens, and woods, are
described ; details are given of destructive treatment to which
they have been subjected, and of legislation and literature
relating to them previous to the present century.
///. — Forestry of Norway.

There are described in successive chapters the general
features of the country. Details are given of the geographical
distribution of forest trees, followed by discussions of conditions
by which this has been determined — heat, moisture, soil, and
exposure. The effects of glacial action on the contour of the
country are noticed, with accounts of existing glaciers and
snow-fields. And information is supplied in regard to forest
exploitation and the transport of timber, in regard to the
export timber trade, to public instruction in sylviculture, and
to forest administration, and to ship-building and shipping.
IV. — Finland : its Forests and Forest Management.

In this volume is supplied information in regard to the

FORESTAL LITERATURE. 225

lakes and rivers of Finland, known as The Land of a Thousand
Lakes, aud as The Last-born Daughter of the Sea; in regard to
its physical geography, including notices of the contour of the
country, its geological formations and indications of glacial
action, its flora, fauna, and climate ; and in regard to its forest
economy, embracing a discussion of the advantages and disad-
vantages of Svedjande, the Sartage of France, and the
Koomaree of India ; and the details of the development of
Modern Forest Economy in Finland, with notices of its School
of Forestry, of its forests and forest trees, of the disposal of its
forest products, and of its legislation and literature in forestry
veu.

V. — Forest Lands and Forestry of Northern Russia.
Details are given of a trip from St. Petersburg to the forests
around Petrozavodsk on Lake Onega, in the government of
Olouetz ; a description of the forests on that government by
Mr Judrae, a forest official of high position ; and of the forests
of Archangel by Mr Hepworth Dixon, of Lapland, of the land
of the Samoides and of Nova Zembla j of the exploitation of
the forests by Jardinage, and of the evils of such exploitation ;
and of the export timber trade, and disposal of forest products.
In connection with discussions of the physical geography of the
region information is supplied in regard to the contour and
general appearance of the country; its flora, its forests, and
the palseontological botany of the regions beyond, as viewed by
Professor Heer and Count Saporta ; its fauna, with notices of
game, and with copious lists of coleoptera and lepidoptera,
found there by Forst-Meister Gunther, of Petrozavodsk.

VI. — Forestry in the Mining Districts of the Ural Mountains,

in Eastern Russia.

Information is in this volume supplied in regard to forest
exploitation in the government of Ufa ; an account of the
country passed through in a journey thither from St. Peters-
burg, and of mishaps and difficulties experienced in travelling
there ; information in regard to the country and people to the
east of the Ural Mountains ; the metallurgic works there
established ; the mines and forests in the Ural Mountain
Range ; the forest exploitation of the region ; abuses practiced
in connection with this ; aud conditions occasioning a diminished
supply of wood ; with glimpses of life in the district ; of the cou-

Q

220 FORESTRY IN SPAlti.

dition of the labouring population ; and notices of the Russian
conquest of Siberia.

VII. — Forests and Forestry in Poland, in Lithuania, in the
Ukraine , and in the Baltic Provinces of Russia; with
Notices of the JZxport of Timber from Memel, Dantzig,
and Riga.

In relation to Polanj information is supplied in regard to
the journey thither from St. Petersburg ; the history of Poland ;
the area, distribution, management, exploitation, and produce
of the forests in the Vice-Royalty ; its Schools of Forestry ;
and forestal literature. In relation to Lithuania information
is supplied in regard to the country and its people, and the
Jewish population, who traffic largely in forest produce ; in
regard to the forests of the Dnieper ; forest exploitation ; and
forest game. There follow accounts of the forests of the
Ukraine, and of the appearance of the country ; of the timber
exports by the Baltic ; and the forest lands, forest administra-
tion, and general appearances at different seasons of the
Russian Baltic Provinces of Courland, Livonia, and Estonia.

VIII. — French Forest Ordinance of 1669 ; with Historical Sketch

of Previous Treatment of Forests in France.
The early history of forests in France is given, with details
of devastations of these going on in the first half of the seven-
teenth century; with a translation of the Ordinance of 1669,
which is the basis of modern forest economy ; and notices of
forest exploitation in Jardinage, in La Methode d Tire et Aire,
and in La Methode des Compartements.

Besides these, I had previously published ou subjects
connected with Forest Science and Forest Economy : —

/. — Pine Plantations on Sand Wastes in France.
In this are detailed the appearances presented by the Landes
of the Giroude before and alter culture, and the Landes of La
Sologne ; the legislation and literature of France in regard to
the planting of the Landes with trees; the characteristics of
the sand wastes; the natural history, culture, and exploitation
of the maritime pine, and of the Scots fir ; and the diseases
and injurious influences to which the maritime pine is subject.

FORESTAL LITERATURE 22?

If. — Reboisement in France ; or, Records of the Re-planting of
the Alps, the Cevennes, and the Pyrenees, with Trees,
Herbage, and Bush, with a view to arresting and prevent-
ing the destructive consequences of torrents.
In this are given a resume of Surell's study of Alpine torrents,
of the literature of France relative to Alpine torrents, and of
remedial measures which have been proposed for adoption to
prevent the disastrous consequences following from them —
translations of documents and enactments, showing what legis-
lative and executive measures have been taken by the Govern-
ment of France in connection with reboisement as a remedial
application against destructive torrents — and details in regard
to the past, present, and prospective aspects of the work.
///. — Forests and Moisture ; or Effects of Forests on Humidity

of Climate.

In this are given details of phenomena of vegetation on which
the meteorological effects of forests affecting the humidity of
climate depend — of the effects of forests on the humidity of the
atmosphere, and ou the humidity of the ground, on marshes,
on the moisture of a wide expanse of country, on the local rain-
fall and on rivers — and of the correspondence between the
distribution of the rainfall and of forests — the measure of
correspondence between the distribution of the rainfall and
that of forests — the distribution of the rainfall dependent on
geographical position, or determined by the contour of a country
— the distribution of forests affected bv the distribution of tho
rainfall — and the local effects of ft rests on the subsequent
distribution of the rainfall within the forest district.
IV. — Hydrology of South Africa; or Details of the Former
Hydrographic Condition of the Cape of Good Hope, and
of Causes of its Present Aridity, with Suggestions of
Appropriate Remedies for this Ariditity.
In this the desiccation of South Africa, from pre-Adaraic
times to the present day, is traced by indications supplied by
geological formations, by the physical geography or the general
contour of the country, and by arborescent productions in the
interior, with results confirmatory of the opinion that the
appropriate remedies are irrigation, arboriculture, and an
improved forest economy : or the erection of dams to prevent
the escape of a portion uf the rainfall to the sea — tke abandon-

S28 FORESTRY IN SPAIN.

raent or restriction of the burning of the herbage and bush in
conuection with pastoral and agricultural operations — the
conservation and extension of existing forests — and the adoption
of measures similar to the reboiseme&t and gazonnement carried
out in France, with a view to prevent the formation of torrents,
and the destruction of property occasioned by them.
V. — Water Supply of jSouth Africa, and Facilities for the

Storage of it.

In this volume are detailed meteorological observations on
the humidity of the air and the rainfall, on clouds, and
winds, and thunder-storms ; sources from which is derived the
supply of moisture which is at present available for agricul-
tural operations in the Colony of the Cape of Good Hope
and regions beyond, embracing the atmosphere, the rainfall,
rivers, fountains, subterranean streams and reservoirs, and the
sea ; and the supply of water and facilities for the storage of
it in each of the divisions of the colony — in Basutoland, in
the Orange River Free States, in Griqualand We.st, in the
Transvaal Territory, in Zululand, at Natal, and in the Transkei
Territory.

In view of the requirements of South Africa, with a
view to the development of its agricultural capabilities, I
have also prepared and placed at the service of the Govern-
ment and community of the Colony of the Cape of Good
Hope, like reports to these on forestal engineering in
Spain ; on hydraulic engineering in Spain ; on the forest
industries of Spain ; on the phylloxera inSpain, with details
of the invasion of Europe by it, and reports of measures of
defence adopted in different countries against its devasta-
tions j and on the locust in Spain and Southern Europe,
Asia, Northern Africa, South Africa and America.
Together with special reports on forestal, hydraulic, aud
agricultural requirements of the Colony.

Amongst the reports procured by the Executive
Committee of the Edinburgh International Forestry Exhibi-
tion is an exhaustive one on the forestal literature of
other lands, and English works exhibited there, prepared
by the jurors appointed to report on these.

FORESTAL LITERATURE. 220

Not a little has been done by members of the forest
service of India to make their acquirements of knowledge
and of forestal skill subservent to the advancement of
forestry in other lands besides India. Amongst other
names which suggest themselves at once are those of Dr
Cleghorn, Colonel Walker Campbell, Colonel Michael, and
Colonel Pearson ; and good service is being done by the
Indian Forester, a valuable periodical.

It is impossible to speak in too high terms of treatises
published by the late Baron Von Mueller, of Victoria.
Most valuable practical inform' ition is embodied in
Reports, Memoirs, and Manuals, issued by Mr J. E.
Brown, Conservator of Forests for the Government of
South Australia. And the forest reports annually published
in various of our Colonies, and the official reports issued
by the Government of the United States of America, are
producing a large and valuable body of forestal literature
in the English language.

Besides these, many valuable treatises on subjects
connected with forestry, and pertaining to forest science,
have been published both in Britain and in America. Several
of these are known to me, and highly valued by me, but I
am not able to supply a complete list of the works which
have been published ; and it might seem invidious, and
prove misleading, were I to give a partial list, and it is such
alone which I could supply.

We have an extensive and valuable literature relative
to Arboriculture. For this there is, and ever has been, a
demand ; but with works on Sylviculture, Modern Forest
Science, and Modern Forest Economy, it is otherwise. Nor
is there yet such a demand for works of this kind
as would make it pecuniarly remunerative to any to engage
largely in the publication of such works ; but as the
demand increases so will the supply.

But a beginning has been made. In so far as I have
taken part in this I have done so in anticipation of a
future demand, not in consequence of any manifestation
of a felt want, And in reference to the rapid supply of

£30 FORESTRY IN

works on forestry in the Spanish language of lateyears, which
I have noted, I may remark that this did not occur until
after several successive batches of students had entered upon
the active duties of their profession. It was then that it
became manifest wherein the existing forestal literature
of the country was deficient in view of the requirements
of the day ; and that the desire for information induced
purchase and perusal. " And it is noteworthy that even
still in connection with the publication of almost all of the
Spanish works referred to, including the most expensive
and least popular of them, the writers were relieved of
the expense of publication. It is not so with us.

To quote again from my " Plea for the Establishment
of a School of Forestry in connection with the Arboretum
in Edinburgh":-

' I have been asked — How has it come to pass that so
little has been done in Britain, while so much has been
done on the Continent of Europe, to raise up a body of
foresters, highly educated for the discharge of their duties?
My answer must be — Hitherto the problem to be solved
in Britain did not require the amount of information
which was required for the solution of the complicated
problems demanding solution there. On the Continent
they were threatened in many quarters with a lack of
fuel, with a lack of timber, with ruinous desiccation, and
with destructive torrents, all consequent on the destruction
of their forests, and with the devastation of fertile lands
by drift sands, which could only be arrested and utilised
by the planting of trees. In Britain we find fuel in our
coal mines, and in many country districts in our peat
bogs ; excepting for a short time about the beginning of
the present century, when war was raging, we could get
timber of every description from beyond the sea; and we
know little of drought, of torrents, and of drift sands, and
the difference has even told upon our language. While
our French neighbours speak of Sylviculture, the culture
of woods, we speak of Arboriculture, the culture of trees.

VORESTAL LITERATURE. 231

While they, in speaking of Les Forets and of La Code
Forestiere, refer to a country covered more or less with
trees, we, in speaking of The Green Wood and of Forestry,
hitherto have thought chiefly of the game and of the
chase, or of the shooting of deer. Our forest laws relate
mainly, if I may not say exclusively, to hunting, these
laws having nothing to do with shrubs and trees, except-
ing in so far as they may supply shelter or covert for
game. I speak advisedly when I say, that, according to
the technical use of the term in English law, a forest need
not contain a single tree, and a dozen of contiguous
counties might be covered with trees without these
constituting a forest. The totally different circumstances
in which the different countries have stood in regard to
the requirements of forest products account for the
difference in the attention hitherto given on the
Continent and in Britain to the study of what is known
there as Forest Science.

' It may be asked, seeing it is so -Why should we not
go on as we have been doing hitherto ? The answer is—
in our Colonies, and in the Indian Empire of India, evils
which have existed long are being experienced and
remedied ; and those whom the country would engage to
go forth to meet the evils must go, at the country's
expense, to acquire the necessary education in other lands,
and in a foreign language unknown to most young
gardeners and foresters, and sons of foresters, whose life
has been spent in connection with the management of
trees, and which is so taught in many of our schools, that
few even of the young men of our country who have had
a liberal education could understand instruction given in
it as they could instruction given in their own tongue.'

The pecuniary returns, I may add, are likely far to
exceed in amount the expenditure likely to be incurred.

In the years 1860-64, during which years I held the
office of Colonial botanist, and thus had my attention
directed to this matter, the annual revenue derived from

232 FORESTRY IN SPAIN.

the whole of the Crown forests at the Cape of Good Hope
was then only about £250 a year in excess of the
expenditure on what was called the conservation, but
included a wasteful sale of the produce ; and thereafter
the free revenue rapidly diminished, and the forests were
rapidly disappearing. But latterly Count de Vassolot,
an cleve of the Forest School of Nancy, was appointed
Commissioner of Forests in the Colony ; and from a
Colonial notice of an official report of his, it appears that
these Crown forests, if regularly worked, would produce a
yearly revenue of £235 ,000 !

At the time referred to (1863-64) comparatively little
was being done to obtain the greatest possible good from
the Colonial forests of South Australia. In the interval
the defence, exploitation, and extension of these forests
has been entrusted to Mr J. E. Brown as Conservator of
Forests. For eights years past there has been expended
on these works, under his advice, well-nigh £6000 a year ;
but this has been repaid within a small amount by
revenue derived from the forests \ while the value of the
permanent improvements and extension of the forests is
estimated at £100,000.

Again, from a statement in the Indian Pioneer, it
appears that the Indian forest revenue for official year
(1883-84) amounted to £1,040,000, and the charges to
about £600,000, leaving a clear revenue of £440,000.
In France the revenue and expenditure of the forest
department were £1,405,104 and £641,508, according to
a quotation by Dr Brandis. But the French State forests
cover less than 4000 square miles. Those of the Indian
Government, including the second-class reserves, cover
over 89,000 square miles, and a large proportion of the
expenditure in India is occasioned by extensive planta-
tions. In Prussia, from 10,000 square miles of State
forests, there is derived a net gain of nearly a million
sterling annually.

THE END.

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