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THE WORLD'S CHIEF LANGUAGES

THE WORLD'S CHIEF LANGUAGES

Formerly LANGUAGES FOR WAR AND PEACE

MARIO A. PEI

--

PH.D.

Associate Professor of Romance Languages at Columbia University

THIRD EDITION

LONDON

GEORGE ALLEN & UNWIN LTD

FIRST PUBLISHED IN GREAT BRITAIN IN 1949

Copyright in the U.S.A.

This book is copyright. No portion of it may be reproduced by any

process without written permission. Inquiries should be addressed to the publishers.

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CONTENTS

FOREWORD pag« 11

*I. Language Types and Language Families 15

II. Geography and Language 41

III. Languages of the Germanic Group 63

ENGLISH. DISTRIBUTION AND VARIETIES 64

U.S.A. 65

Great Britain 66

Australia 72

New Zealand 76

South Africa 77

Canada 79

Anglo-Indian 80

English as a Colonial, Secondary and Cultural Language 81

^Pidgin" English 83

^Immigrant Dialects 87

THE SCANDINAVIAN TONGUES 88

Swedish 92

Danish and Norwegian 98

j Icelandic 105

DUTCH 110

IV. German 123 V. ^Languages of the Romance Group 167

ROUMANIAN 173

VI. French 183

VII. Spanish 227

AMERICAN VARIETIES OF SPANISH 244

VIII. Portuguese I 269

AMERICAN VARIETIES OF PORTUGUESE 287

IX. Italian / 313

DIALECTS V 329

X. Languages of the Slavic Group 351

POLISH 361

CZECH 368

SERBO-CROTI AN 371

BULGARIAN 374

XI. Russian page 377

XII. Other European Languages 419

GREEK 421 ALBANIAN 427 EUROPEAN LANGUAGES OF THE URAL- ALTAIC GRO.UP 429 Finnish 432 Hungarian 436 Tnrkigh 440

THE BALTIC LANGUAGES LITHUANIAN

ANDLETTISH 443

THE CELTIC LANGUAGES 446

Irish 449

Welsh 450

Breton 451

BASQUE 452

XIII. Languages of the Middle and Far East 454

THE NATIVE SCRIPTS 461

THE SEMITIC LANGUAGES ARABIC,

HEBREW 463

Arabic 465

PERSIAN 477

THE INDO-EUROPEAN LANGUAGES OF

INDIA 479

HINDUSTANI 482

THE DRAVIDIAN LANGUAGES OF INDIA 485

LANGUAGES OF THE SINO-TIBETAN GROUP 487

Chinese 489

Siamese, Tibetan, Burmese 504

MALAY 507

XIV. Japanese 525

APPENDIX A ESPERANTO 580

APPENDIX B ENGLISH SPEAKERS AND

LOCATION 609

APPENDIX C ENGLISH MILITARY SLANG

AND NEOLOGISMS 611 GLOSSARY OF GRAMMATICAL AND LINGUISTIC

TERMS 615

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 646

INDEX OF PROPER NAMES 651

LINGUISTIC MAPS

The World's Chief Languages and their Spheres of Influence page 4

The World's Great Language Families 26

The Languages of North and Central America 40

The Languages of South America 44

The Languages of Europe 46

The Languages of Ana 50

The Native Languages of Africa 54

The Colonial Languages of Africa 58

English Throughout the World 62

German Throughout the World 122

French Throughout the World 182

Spanish Throughout the World 220

Portuguese Throughout the World 268

Italian Throughout the World 312

Russian Throughout the World 376

Japanese Throughout the World 524

ALPHABETS AND ILLUSTRATIONS

The German Alphabet and Script 124

The Cyrillic Alphabets 355

The Russian Alphabet and Script 378

The Greek Alphabet 421

Sample of Printed Irish 448

Sample of Printed Hebrew 463

Sample of Printed Arabic 463

Sample of Printed Persian 478

Sample of Printed Hindi (Devanagari) 479

Sample of Printed Bengali 480

Sample of Printed Urdu 481

Sample of Printed Teragu 485

Sample of Printed Tamil 486

Sample of Printed Chinese 490

Sample of Printed Siamese 504

Sample of Printed Burmese 505

Sample of Printed Korean 506

The Japanese Syllabaries (Hiragana, Katakana) 527

Sample of Printed Japanese 529

FOREWORD ] I

FOREWORD

The man who speaks another language besides his own has "another string to his bow".

In the late war, if he knew the language of the enemy ', he was able to avoid capture, or, if taken prisoner, to make his escape far more easily; he could question prisoners and obtain from them valuable information, or glean such information from their notebooks and letters; he could even derive it from a military sign-post in the enemy's language. He could com- municate directly with the allies whose language he knew, make things infinitely more comfortable for himself and his unit when billeted in an allied or enemy country, give and re- ceive directions, speak the language of friendship, of command, of common everyday needs. Striking examples of the way in which linguistic training could be put to military uses appeared in the early days of the war, when German parachutists came down in Holland equipped not only with Dutch uniforms, but also with a command of the Dutch tongue, and German motor- cyclists, disguised as French soldiers, swept across Belgium and northern France spreading disorder and panic in excel- lent French.

Now tluit peace is restored to a war -weary world, the bene- fits of linguistic training will be equally vast and far more en- during. American soldiers, scattered throughout the four cor- ners of the globe in the post-war days while the preliminaries of a permanent peace are being worked out, need languag- es. Later, when world economy is put on a far more stable footing and commercial exchanges become far more intense than ever before, men and women with linguistic training will be at a premium. The demand for diplomatic and consular representatives, for government employes, for commercial

12 FOREWORD

travellers with a knowledge of foreign languages will exceed anything ever known. More foreigners will come to our shores, more Americans will travel abroad. Travelling for pleasure, in the post-war world, will no longer be restricted to a few tourists. The men who have been abroad, to a hundred different lands, on a military mission, will wish to revisit those lands, to continue and tighten the bonds of friendship and comradeship and interest formed there. American com- mercial and industrial enterprises in foreign countries, ex- panding because of the imperative needs of nations whose in- dustries have been disrupted by war, will call for American- born, American4rained skilled workers who are conversant with the language of the country to which they are destined. Politically, as well as economically, present indications are that the world will become more closely welded together than it has been in the past. In any political arrangement in which races and nationalities are drawn closely together, the need for linguistic interchange will be more keenly felt than ever before. In the world of tomorrow, political, economic and military isolation will be things of the past. Linguistic isola- tionism and self-sufficiency, the sort of thing that some Amer- ican educators have been preaching during the last two de- cades, will be regarded as something just as outmoded and ridiculous as political isolationism and economic autarchy have been proved to be.

So the study of foreign languages becomes imperative. Our immediate war need was of a military nature — to equip as many members of our fighting forces as possible with a quickly acquired, practical knowledge of a few important for- eign tongues, to be used in their ordinary intercourse with al- lied or enemy troops and populations. Our present need is to create the world-minded attitude that will lead to the pro- per kind of international relations, commercial, economic, di- plomatic and cultural, now that the war is over, making a recur- rence of the recent conflict unlikely, and to endow a consid- erable segment of our population with the sort of linguistic training that will enable them, to their own personal advance-

FOREWORD JJ

merit and to the benefit of the Nation and the world at large, to take advantage of the innumerable opportunities that peace is bringing in its wake.

How shall we go about this? What languages are to be studied, and how? The traditional method has been one of high specialization. Most high-school and college students have normally been required to choose one of an extremely limited number of languages (French, Spanish, German, oc- casionally Italian), to study it for a two- or three- or four-year period, mastering every intricacy of grammar and syntax, then go on with it and imbue themselves with the literature, customs and habits of life of the particular nation speaking this partic- ular language, more or less to the exclusion of the rest of the world. There is nothing wrong with this specializing method, save the fact that it is restrictive. Let it by all means be con- tinued. But let us also have, for the people who do not wish to become specialists and literary and cultural experts in any one language, and for those who do, but who also want to know something about other languages, a method that will enable the individual of average linguistic ability to acquire the basic facts about the world's chief languages, where they are spoken and by whom, to identify them readily, and to handle more than just one of them in a comprehensible and acceptable fashion, even if without absolute grammatical correctness and literary style.

The purpose of the present work is to present the main facts about languages, not in the form of a philosophical or psychological or literary essay, not from the historical and scientific point of view, but as something of an immediate, practical value. The world's main languages and their geo- graphical distribution, the linguistic families and the elemen- tary relationships among their members, the identification of the written and possibly the spoken form of several important tongues, and lastly the description of the sounds and gram- matical structure, together with a limited vocabulary, of seven of the world9 s most widely-spoken languages — all this will serve the purpose of giving the reader the elementary linguistic

14 FOREWORD

consciousness that the soldier of yesterday needed in his military activities on foreign soil and that the man and woman of to- morrow will need in a world destined, by reason of the constant advances in our mechanical civilization and spiritual point of view, to become more and more a single political, economic and cultural unit.

LANGUAGE TYPES AND LANGUAGE FAMILIES

CHAPTER I

LANGUAGE TYPES AND LANGUAGE FAMILIES

What languages are to be studied in connection with our post-war needs? Gray's Foundations of Language (p. 418) tentatively places the total number of present-day spoken languages, exclusive, of minor dialects, at 2,796 — a staggering total, when we consider the amount of effort required to master even one foreign tongue. Obviously, a wise choice is imperative. But fortunately for the practical linguist, there are "key" languages, which open up to us vast areas of the earth. THE MAN WHO HAS SOME PRACTICAL ACQUAINTANCE WITH ENGLISH, FRENCH, GERMAN, SPANISH, POR- TUGUESE, ITALIAN, RUSSIAN, AND JAPANESE IS, ROUGHLY SPEAKING, IN A POSITION TO MAKE HIS WAY AROUND THE WORLD. If to this knowledge he adds a smattering of Arabic, Chinese, Malay, and Dutch, and the ability to identify a few other tongues, so that he can distinguish between Polish and Czech, Swedish and Danish, Finnish and Hungarian, at least in their written form, his linguistic educa- tion, for purely utilitarian purposes, is completed. Can this be demonstrated?

The impressive total of 2,796 tongues, mentioned above, includes over a thousand American Indian languages, whose present-day speakers number a few thousand or even a few hundred each. Over five hundred "languages" are spoken by African Negro tribes; nearly five hundred more by the natives of Australia, New Guinea, and the islands of the Pacific. Sev- eral hundred others are little-known tongues spoken by isolat*

I ft LANGUAGE TYPES AND LANGUAGE FAMILIES

ed groups in Asia. All these can safely be disregarded for the purpose on hand.

This does not mean that they are scientifically unimport- ant. Some of them, though spoken by small and semi-savage groups, are of the highest interest to the professional linguist by reason of their peculiar structure, and to the psychologist and anthropologist because of the mental processes they be- token. But our present aim is immediate use. Whether from a military, economic and political standpoint, or from a cul- tural one, we find that the world's truly significant languages now number less than one hundred.

We also find that not all of these significant languages are of equal importance. The number of speakers has some- thing to do with this. For practical purposes, in spite of the civilization behind it and the contribution it has made to the vocabularies of all civilized modern tongues, Greek, with its seven or eight million present-day speakers, cannot be ranged alongside of Spanish, whose speakers number well over a hun- dred million. Political and cultural influence also comes into play. Dutch may be the language of only some nine million speakers in Holland, but it is current, side by side with native Malay languages, in the Dutch colonial empire (Java, Suma- tra, Borneo, Celebes, etc.), with over 60,000,000 inhabitants. French is a mighty and widely spoken language in its own right (42,000,000 Frenchmen, plus about six million French speakers in Belgium and Switzerland, plus the speakers of French in Canada and in the French colonial possessions) ; but in addition, French is also a current tongue among the more cultured classes of numerous European countries, so that it may be, and frequently is used as a means of common inter- course between, say, an American who has learned it in the schools and a native Pole or Italian or Hollander. This mat- ter of bilingualism (one individual speaking two languages) and polylingualism (several languages spoken by the one per- son) will have to be taken into account as our study proceeds, particularly when we come to countries which are or have been colonial possessions. While it is true, for instance, that In-

LANGUAGE TYPES AND LANGUAGE FAMILIES J J

dia's 390,000,000 inhabitants are linguistically divided among three groups (Indo-Aryan, Dravidian and Munda), it is also true that the use of English is widespread by reason of the long British occupation of the Indian Peninsula. This leads neces- sarily to a certain amount of duplication in enumerating the speakers of various tongues. We can list the majority of Czechoslovakia's former 15,000,000 inhabitants among the speakers of Slavic tongues, but it is also true that more than half of them can be reached with German. In Budapest, the Hungarian capital, it was the writer's experience that four out of every five people approached responded to German. The bald figures of the number of native speakers of a given lan- guage, therefore, very often do not tell the whole story. Cer- tain languages spread far beyond their national or colonial borders, and can be used, with greater or lesser effectiveness, in other lands as well.

What of the matter of facility in acquiring foreign tongues for practical purposes? Are some languages inherently "easy", others inherently "difficult"? While it is true that some tongues seem to possess a more simple structure than others, no language is intrinsically difficult to its own speakers, who have acquired and used it, and only it, from childhood. Speaking Chinese is not difficult to the Chinese speaker, though writing it may be. To him, the complicated tones1 which we describe as "sing-song" and master only with the greatest dif- ficulty are the most natural thing in the world; he has learned to produce them .and use them in the proper place ever since he first began to use his vocal organs. "Ease" or "difficulty" in acquiring a language is not something intrinsic, but some- thing which functions with reference to one's own previous lin- guistic habits. The more a tongue resembles our own, in sounds, in grammatical structure, in vocabulary, the "easier" it is to us; the more it diverges from our own, the "harder" it becomes. To the speaker of a language like English, the gram- matical structure of a language like French is comparatively

1— Cf. p. 32.

Jg LANGUAGE TYPES AND LANGUAGE FAMILIES

easy ("I have laid the book on the table" can be translated ab- solutely word for word into French) ; German, which says "I have the book on the table laid", seems a little harder; Latin, requiring "Book on table laid-I", is harder still. On the other hand, German ich habe — - gelegt and das Buck come considerably closer to English "I have laid" and "the book" than French fai pose and le livre, or Latin librum and posui, with the result that for the example in question, the advantage of similarity in French word-order is offset by the advantage of similarity in German vocabulary, and the beginner would be tempted to say: "French and German are about equally dif- ficult". But the minute it is pointed out to him that French translates "of the book", "to the book" more or less literally, while German effects a change in the article and the ending of the noun, and omits "of" and "to", he will vote in favor of French as the "easier" language.

What governs similarity between two languages in sounds, grammatical structure and vocabulary? The answer to this question leads us into a discussion of linguistic classification. A few extremists among language scientists are of the opinion that all languages go back to one original common stock, which in the course of thousands of years and countless prehistoric migrations has evolved into the various language types of to- day. The process by which this took place would be, accord- ing to them, one of infinite differentiation and change. But the divergences and differences among the world's languages seem too radical and far-reaching to be accounted lor by any such process, no matter how drastic or prolonged. On the other hand, it is undeniable that a somewhat comparable process has, so to speak, taken place under our eyes in the case of sev- eral languages whose history can be traced. This is true, for example, of French, Spanish, Portuguese and Italian, stemming from an original Latin during the course of the last two thou- sand years, or of English and German, originally far closer than they are today. This means that even if languages can- not be reduced to one single, common ancestry, they can at

LANGUAGE TYPES AND LANGUAGE FAMILIES jp

least be grouped into large family units, the members of which bear enough of a fundamental resemblance to one another to be described as proceeding from a common ancestor, or "par- ent-language", frequently unknown because no written^ trace of it has come down to us, but which can be hypothetically re- constructed.

This means that language goes through a constant process of change or evolution. The English of today is no longer the English of Shakespeare, which requires a certain amount of study and even the occasional help of a glossary to be fully understood; still less is it the English of Chaucer, or of the Anglo-Saxon days before the Norman conquest of England. Nor will the English of tomorrow be the English of today. New words, new expressions, even new grammatical constructions are constantly being added to the language, while old ones drop out, become "obsolete", then "archaic", and finally re- quire the aid of a dictionary to be understood. The slang of today may become the colloquialism of tomorrow and the cor- rect literary form of a hundred years hence. As the present-

2. Language, be it noted, comes in two forms, the spcken and the written. The former, of course, invariably precedes the other. People learn to speak before they learn to write, and spoken languages ante- date their written counterparts. The latter assume varied forms. The alphabet we use in English is current in a great many languages (French, Spanish, Italian, etc.) ; in others it diverges slightly (Ger- man); the divergence is still greater in others (Greek, Russian); while in Hebrew and Arabic the alphabetic kinship is almost completely disguised. The writing of languages like Chinese and Japanese not only bears no resemblance to, but has no kinship with our own. Note also the different values of the same alphabetic symbol in different languages, or even in the same language (Eng. far, bat, fare, all, etc.). Occasionally, the same language is written in different alphabets, according to the religious or cultural background of its speakers; such is the case with Serbo-Croatian, written in Roman characters by the Catholic Croats and in Cyrillic characters by the Greek Orthodox Serbs; or with Hindustani, written in Devanagari characters (derived from Sanskrit) by its speakers of the Hindu faith (in which case it is also called Hindi) , and in Arabic script by its Muhammadan speakers (in which case it is also called Urdu).

20 LANGUAGE TYPES AND LANGUAGE FAMILIES

day speaker delves back into his own language of past centu- ries, it becomes increasingly more difficult to him, until the point is reached where it is a "foreign" tongue. The cultured English speaker can struggle backwards as far as the English of Chaucer, but when he comes to "Beowulf" he needs a course in Anglo-Saxon. The cultured French speaker can make his way back with ease to the fifteenth-century French of Villon, and with considerable difficulty to the eleventh-century "Song of Roland"; but if he goes back beyond the ninth century he finds himself in a Latin atmosphere, and has to study the lan- guage once spoken on his own soil, and from which his own language proceeds, just as he would a foreign, though related, tongue.

The present-day geographical aspect of languages within the same family bears some similarity to the historical picture of a single language throughout its evolution. Starting with English, we find sufficient striking resemblances in German, Dutch and Scandinavian to permit even the layman to classify these tongues as closely related. The resemblances are almost equally striking when we come to French, Spanish, Italian, Portuguese. As we wander further afield, into Greek, Rus* sian, and some of the languages of India, we can, if properly trained, still detect a sufficient number of similarities to en- able us to class these languages as originally akin to our own.

On the other hand, we come across a certain number of languages which differ so radically in structure and vocabulary that we can safely decide they do not belong to our group. Yet some of these languages show the same striking similar- ities among themselves that are shown by English and German, or by French and Spanish. Such is the case, for instance, with Finnish and Hungarian, or with Hebrew and Arabic. The re- sult is that languages have been classified into families and sub-families. The classification is imperfect, particularly in the case of the less known and less important languages. It is fairly exact for languages which have been and are the vehicles of important civilizations.

The linguistic family to which English, French, German,

LANGUAGE TYPES AXD LANGUAGE FAMILIES 2 I

Spanish, Italian, Portuguese and Russian belong is called Indo- European, by reason of the fact that its members stretch across all of Europe and west central Asia to northern India. The term "Indo-Germanic" is preferred by the Germans, ostensibly because Icelandic, the westernmost member of the family, be- longs to the Germanic subdivision. The term "Aryan" has also been used, but here we run into a major difficulty. "Ary- an" is also used in referring to a somewhat hypothetical race: die race which, it is supposed, originally spoke the "Aryan" parent-language. Such a race, speaking such a language, may have existed, though the evidence is far from absolute. But if there is one thing of which we are mathematically sure in the field of language, it is that race and language do not neces- sarily coincide; a Negro whose ancestors came from Africa, a Jew whose forebears spoke a Semitic language, can (and do) today speak perfect Indo-European English and have no recol- lection of their ancestral tongues; an Aztec Indian of Mexico may speak Indo-European Spanish with no memory or trace of his ancestral American Indian language. The nations or groups that today speak Indo-European languages are not at all necessarily of "Aryan" stock. The description of the ideal "Aryan" (tall, blond, long-skulled) certainly does not fit the majority of the peoples living in central or southern Europe, who nevertheless speak pure Indo-European languages. The fact of the matter seems to be that races have an inherent tend- ency to become mixed, and languages to be borrowed, assimi- lated and appropriated by people who originally did not speak them. "Aryan", therefore, is best discarded,3 and Indo-Euro- pean is best taken as a purely linguistic term, with no racial connotation.

It is undeniable, on the other hand, that the greatest con- tributions to civilization, both ancient and modern, have been

3. Save in one legitimate linguistic connection: the Indo-European languages of northern India are often described, as a group, as "Indo- Aryan". But even this term is becoming obsolete.

22 LANGUAGE TYPES AKD LANGUAGE FAMILIES

made by peoples speaking Indo-European tongues, with Sem- itic speakers as closest rivals. It is also true that of all the language-families the Indo-European is the one which has re- ceived the most careful scrutiny at the hands of linguists, and concerning the classification and subdivisions of which we are most certain. Lastly, it is true that an absolute majority of the world's chief present-day languages, both from the stand- point of number of speakers and that of cultural, political and economic importance, belongs to this group.

English is, in many ways, a fair representative of Indo- European. Its numerical strength and power of expansion, its influence upon civilization and the destinies of the world, are characteristic. Its vocabulary, which represents an almost equal blending of the two greatest Indo-European subdivisions, the Germanic and the Latin-Romance (with considerable addi- tions from Greek and other sources), tends to make it interna- tional in scope, lls rich variety of sounds is such that its speakers can adapt themselves with comparative ease to the sounds of many foreign tongues. On the other hand, its alpha- betic notation is far from perfect, and very distressing to the foreigner, and even to the native (the process of learning to "spell" goes on through grammar school, high school and col- lege, and is often not q-uite completed by the time the student emerges with a university degree). On the structural side, modern English displays a process of simplification4 of orig-

4. The process is perhaps better described as one of analysis (break- ing up a thought-concept into several words representing its com- ponent parts: "I" "have" "ended") versus the old Indo-European sys- tem of synthesis (gathering together the complete concept into a single word: Latin fini-v-i) . It means, in the case of nouns, using position ("Peter sees the boy"; "The boy sees Peter") and prepositions ("to the boy", "of the hoy") instead of case-endings indicating subject, object, "of", "to", etc. (as with Latin puer, puerum, pueri, puero) ; in the case of verbs, using pronouns ("I", "you", "he", etc.) and auxiliaries ("shall", "will", "have", etc.) in the place of suffixes car- rying those meanings (Latin jmi-v -i) . Note that even in modern Eng- lish the two system?, synthetic and analytic, occasionally appear side by side ("the boys' books", or "the books of the boys").

LA/\GLAGE TYPES AM) LANGUAGE FAMILIES 23

inal Indo-European grammatical forms which sets it rather far away from the original Indo-European type ( much farther away, for instance, than modern Russian, or even German); in this, it is accompanied, though not all the way, by the major Romance tongues.

The original Indo-European type is described as "inflec- tional", which means that it indicates grammatical relations by means of endings, or "suffixes", which are added on to the "roots" of words. Latin, for example, takes a root mur-y "wall", and indicates that it is the subject of the sentence by adding -us (murus), or that it is the object by adding -urn (murum] ; "of the wall" is indicated by the ending -i (muri); "to the wall" by -o (rnuro). In the case of verbs, Latin uses a root like fini-, "end", adding an ending -o (fini-o) which at the same time marks the present tense and the first person singular ("I end"); for the future ("I shall love"), Latin adds to the root ama- a suffix -b-, indicating futurity, and another suffix -o, indicating "I" (amabo) ; while for the past tense ("I en- ded") the root fini- receives the suffixes -v- and -i (finivi); different personal suffixes are used throughout, eliminating the need for subject pronouns ("you ended", fini-v-isti; "he ended", fini-v-it; "we ended", fini-v-imus; "they ended", jini-v- erunt). Old English (or Anglo-Saxon) had a very similar structure, but modern English has largely discarded it ('5 in die possessive case, -5 in the third person singular of the pres- ent tense, -d in the past tense of verbs, are vestiges of the older system). This process of simplification has gone on, to some extent, in all Indo-European languages, but in some to a far greater degree than in others. The Romance languages, for example, have simplified their structure even more than Eng- lish for what concerns the noun, but practically not at all for what concerns the verb. The Slavic languages, on the other hand, have a comparatively simplified verb, but retain a full "inflectional" system for the noun. German effects a minor degree of simplification in both, but still retains a good deal of the original inflectional structure.

24 LANGUAGE TYPES AND LANGUAGE FAMILIES

From a practical standpoint, this means that the English speaker will encounter little difficulty with the Romance noun ("dog", Spanish perro; "of the dog", del perro; "to the dog", al perro; "dogs", perros; "of the dogs", de los perros; "to the Q ,gs", a los perros) ; but he will meet considerable hardship with the Romance verb ("1 loved", Spanish ante; "you loved", amaste; "he loved", amo; "we loved", amamos; "they loved", amaron). He will experience trouble with the Slavic noun ("dog", Russian pyos; "of the dog", psa; "to the dog", psu) ; but he will breathe more easily when he sees: "I loved", ya lyubil; "you loved", ty lyubil; "he loved", on lyubiL German der Hand ("dog", subject); den Hund ("dog", object); des Hundes ("of the dog"); dem Hunde ("to the dog"); and ich liebte, du liebtest, er liebte for "I", "you", "he", "loved", will prove moderate stumbling-blocks.

When we come to other linguistic families, the difficulties encountered will be much greater. In the first place, the voca- bulary resemblances to which we are accustomed in German, French, Spanish, Italian, and, to a lesser degree, in Russian or Greek, are largely, almost totally, absent. Secondly, we meet a grammatical structure which bears no resemblance to ours. Japanese, for instance, utterly fails to recognize our concept of gender (masculine, feminine, neuter), and has very vague notions about number (singular, plural). It does not care much for our "personal" verb ("I", "you", "we" do some- thing), but prefers to use a different verb altogether, according as the subject is the speaker (in which case the verb is a "hum- ble" verb), or the person addressed (in which case it is a "po- lite" or "respectful" verb). Hungarian attaches prepositions and possessive adjectives to the noun ("house", hdz; "in the house", hdz-ban; "arm", kar; "my arm", kar-om).

But here, our process of choice and elimination comes to our rescue. ^Of the world's chief languages, only a few that are not Indo-European combine numerical strength, cultural importance, and practical value. Very few of them are "irre- placeable", in the sense that a good many of their speakers

LANGUAGE TYPES AND LANGUAGE FAMILIES 25

cannot be reached through the medium of another, more acces- sible tongue. The chapter on geographical distribution will tell us which they are, and why they are irreplaceable.

Meanwhile, for the sake of curiosity, we present a table of the world's chief linguistic families with their main subdivi- sions. This table is not exact, and it is far from complete. Nevertheless, it is imposing. Read it, but do not attempt to memorize it.

I __ INDO-EUROPEAN.

Location: nearly all of Europe; southwestern Asia as far as northeastern India, inclusive; the entire western hemisphere; Australia, New Zealand, Tasmania; South Africa; spoken in the form of superimposed languages of colonization (English, French, Dutch, Portuguese, Italian, Spanish) throughout Africa, India, southeastern Asia, the islands of the Pacific.

JVumber of speakers: nearly 1,000,000,000. Ar> ;"' ' < '

Structure: originally inflectional and synthetic; modified

to varying degrees in the direction of simplification (analysis;

cf. p. 20), with the loss of inflectional endings, and the use of

word-order to indicate grammatical relations.

Main branches:

a) Germanic:' Northern (or Scandinavian): Icelandic,

Dano-Norwegian, Swedish.

Western: English, High and Low German * Dutch-Flemish.

5. A third branch of Germanic, the Eastern, represented by ancient Gothic, has disappeared.

6. Yiddish, which has no national territory, is fourteenth-century German adopted by the northern Jews (Ashkenazim) in the course of their migrations; it is written with a modified Hebrew alphabet and mingled with words borrowed from Hebrew, Slavic, English, etc.

LANGUAGE TYPES AND LANGUAGE FAMILIES 27

b) Romance:7 Hispanic: Spanish,8 Portuguese, Catalan.

French: French, Provencal.

Italian.

Roumanian.

c) Celtic: Goidelic: Scots Gaelic, Irish Gaelic (Erse), Manx.

Brythonic: Welsh, Breton.

d) Balto-Slavic: Baltic: Lithuanian, Lettish.

Slavic: Eastern: Russian, Ukrainian, White

Russian.

Western: Polish, Czech, Slovak. Southern: Serbo-Croatian, Slovene, Bulgarian.

e) Greek.

f) Albanian.

g) Armenian.

h) Iranian: Persian, Kurdish, Balochi, Afghan (or Pushtu).

i) Indo-Aryan languages of northern India and southern Ceylon; among the better known are: Hindi, Urdu, Ben- gali, Panjabi, Rajasthani, Marathi, Gujarati, Singha- lese. The language of the Gypsies also belongs to this group.

7. Or Italic. Latin is the direct ancestor of all the languages of this branch; in ancient times, there was another Italic subdivision, the Oscan-Umbrian, which Latin absorbed. Additional minor Romance branches are the Rhetian (Rumansh, Ladin) of southeastern Switzer- land, the Italian Tyrol and Friuli, and the Logudorese-Campidanese of Sardinia.

8. Judaeo-Spanish, also called Sephardic, Sephardi or Ladino (do not confuse with Ladin, above), is the Romance counterpart of Ger- manic Yiddish; it is a medieval Spanish retained by migrating south- ern Jews (Sephardim) after their expulsion from Spain, and carried to various localities along the Mediterranean coast, notably Salonika, Monastir and Constantinople; its borrowed elements are mainly Turk- ish, Greek and Hebrew; it also is written with a modified Hebrew alphabet. Some doubt exists whether Catalan should be classed with the Hispanic languages or with Provencal.

28 LANGUAGE TYPES AND LANGUAGE FAMILIES

A glance at this chart shows us the varying practical im- portance of these branches and their languages, both from the standpoint of number of speakers and from that of political, economic and cultural worth. The total number of Armenian speakers does not exceed 4,000,000, that of Albanian speakers 2,000,000. Greek, despite its tremendous contribution to civil- ization in ancient times, has today perhaps 8,000,000 speakers. The Celtic languages taken together do not exceed 4,000,000 speakers, though an attempt is being made at the present time by the Irish Free State Government to reintroduce Irish Gaelic (Erse) as the spoken language of Eire. The Baltic tongues (Lithuanian and Lettish) count approximately 4,000,000 speakers, the Iranian tongues of Iran, Afghanistan and Bal- uchistan perhaps 30,000,000.

On the other hand, the Indo-Aryan vernaculars of India are estimated to be spoken by some 250,000,000 people, and their cultural background runs back to the Sanskrit of the sacred Vedic writings; but the colonial status of India, and the existence of an extremely large number of diverging dialects robs them of much of the importance to which their numerical strength would otherwise entitle them.

The Slavic languages number nearly 200,000,000 speak- ers, of whom nearly 150,000,000 are located on Soviet soil. The Romance languages with their Latin background and, ap- proximately, 100,000,000 Spanish speakers, 70,000,000 French speakers, 50,000,000 Portuguese speakers, 50,000,000 Italian speakers, share with the Germanic branch the distinction of being, par excellence, the tongues of modern culture, civiliza- tion, and political and economic expansion. Arnon^; the Ger- manic tongues, English, with over 200,000,000 speakers and vast colonial and commercial influence, and German, with ap- proximately 100,000,000 speakers, are the leaders, though Dutch, with its colonial empire of 60,000,000 and some 9.000,- 000 native speakers in Holland, is a tongue of considerable

LANGUAGE TYPES AND LANGUAGE FAMILIES 29

importance.'*' The total number of Scandinavian speakers is about 15,000,000.

II — SEMITO-HAMITIC.

Location: the peninsula of Arabia; Iraq, Palestine and Syria; northern Africa (Egypt, Libya, Algeria, Tunisia, Moroc- co, the Sahara); Ethiopia, Eritrea and Somaliland; Zanzibar and Madagascar; Malta.

Number of speakers: approximately 75,000,000.

Structure: the main characteristic of this family is the word-root consisting of three consonants, with shifting vowels to carry accessory meanings; e. g., Arabic root k-t-b, "write"; hataba, "he has written"; kutiba, "it has been written"; yak- tubu, "he will write"; yuktabu, "it will be written"; 'aktaba, "he has made someone write"; kitdbun, "writing", "book"; katibun, "write/5; katbun, "act of writing".

Main branches:

a) Semitic:10 Northern: Hebrew.

Southern: Arabic, Ethiopian (Tigre, Amharic, etc.).

b) Hamitic: Libyco-Berber (Kabyle, Shilh, Tuareg, etc.).

Kushitic (Somali, Galla, etc.). Coptic.11

9. Flemish, a variant of Dutch, is spoken in Belgium by perhaps 5,000,000 people, most of whom, however, can also be reached through French. Afrikaans, the language of the South African Boers, is a dia- lect of Dutch. It is still used by some 3,000,000 people.

10. An Eastern branch, represented by ancient Akkadian (Assyrian, Babylonian) has become extinct. The northern branch, of which Hebrew is the modern representative, formerly comprised several im- portant tongues which have disappeared in the course of history; among the better known are: Canaanite, Moabite, Phoenician (with a variant, Punic, spoken by the Carthaginians), Aramaic, Syriac (the last still spoken by about 100,000 people) . Phoenician speakers^ seem to have been the initiators of the alphabet which, with consider-; able modifications and in different forms, is in use among most Indo-European and Semitic languages today.

11. The ancestor of medieval Coptic, still used as a liturgical language in parts of Egypt, is the ancient Egyptian of the hieroglyphic inscrip- tions.

50 LANGUAGE TYPES AND LANGUAGE FAMILIES

Arabic, which spreads across northern Africa and the Arabian peninsula, is by far the most important of these lan- guages, both from the standpoint of number of speakers and that of expansional power and influence. As the sacred lan- guage of Muhammadanism, it influences, linguistically and psychologically, hundreds of millions. Palestinian Hebrew is in the nature of a rejuvenated artificial language, with perhaps 1,000,000 speakers. The other tongues of this group are re- latively unimportant and can, to varying degrees, be replaced by the languages of colonization (English in Egypt, Italian in Eritrea and Somaliland, etc.).

Ill — URAL-ALTAIC.

Location: Finland, Karelia, Estonia; northern Norway and Sweden; Hungary; eastern European Russia; Turkey; Soviet Asia, Mongolia, Chinese Turkestan, Manchukuo.

Number of speakers: about 60,000,000.

Structure: "agglutinative"; this means that the process of adding endings to a word-root, which appears in Indo-Eu- ropean, is carried on to a far greater degree, suffix upon suffix being attached to the root to carry a variety of meanings: Tur- kish at, "horse"; at-im, "my horse"; at-lar-im, "my horses"; sev, root carrying general meaning of "love"; sev-mek, "to love"; sev-dir-mek, "to make to love"; sev-me-mek, *£not to love"; sev-il-eme-mek, "to be impossible to be loved"; sev-il- dir-eme-mek, "to be impossible to be made to be loved". An- other interesting characteristic of this group is "vowel har- mony"; this means that if the root word contains a "front vow- el",12 all added suffixes must also contain front vowels; but if the root has a "back vowel",12 the suffixes must do likewise: Hungarian kez, "hand" (with the front vowel e) ; hdz, "house"

12. The "front vowels" are the ones pronounced in the front part of the mouth; in most languages of this group, e, i, a, o, u, are con- sidered front vowels; the "back vowels" are the ones pronounced in the back part of the mouth; they are a, o, u, and Turkish i.

LANGUAGE TYPES AND LANGUAGE FAMILIES } J

(with the back vowel a) ; "in the hand" is kez-ben (with the suf- fix ben containing the front vowel e) ; but "in the house" is hdz-ban (with suffix changed to contain the back vowel a). A third widespread feature of this group is the absence of the concept of gender (masculine, feminine, neuter).

Main branches:

a) Uralic (or Finno-Ugric) : Finnish (with Karelian and

Estonian).

Lapp (with some languages of northeastern European Russia, such as Mordvinian, Cheremiss, Votyak). Hungarian (or Magyar), Ostyak. Samoyecl.

M Altaic: Turkish (allied to Turkish are various languages of the Tatars, Turcomans, and Kirghiz). Mongol (Kalmuk, Buryat, etc.). Tungus (Manchu).

* * *

The geographical extent of this group is imposing, since it stretches from northern and central Europe, across northern Asia, to the shores of the Pacific. But its speakers are not numerous, nor do they have great cultural, political, or econom- ic importance. Finnish, Hungarian and Turkish are the only languages of this group to have attained statehood or cultural prestige. The Asiatic members of the group, being for the most part located on Soviet soil, are replaceable by Russian, while Manchu, the tongue of Manchukuo, is replaceable by Chinese and Japanese.

IV — JAPANESE-KOREAN.

Location: Japan, Korea. Japanese is also current in Formosa, Manchukuo, the Caroline and Marshall Islands, large sections of formerly occupied China, and, to a certain extent, in

J2 LANGUAGE TYPES AND LANGUAGE FAMILIES

those territories which Japan recently held (Dutch East Indies, French Indo-China, Thailand, Malaya, Burma, Philippines).

Number of speakers: over 100,000,000.

Structure: agglutinative (but to a lesser degree than the Ural-Altaic languages) ; no distinction of gender or number; "impersonal" verb, different terms being used in the same meaning to convey shades of respect, humility, etc. Despite similarities of structure, many linguists doubt the connection be- tween Japanese and Korean.

Main branches:

a) Japanese.

b) Korean.

* * *

The former military, political and economic status of Japan, added to the imposing number of Japanese speakers and the areas where Japanese is current, makes this language one of primary importance.

V - SINO-TIBETAN.

Location: China; Tibet; Burma; Thailand (Siam) ; north- ern Indo-China; Marichukuo; Sinkiang.

Number of speakers: nearly 500,000,000.

Structure: monosyllabic (words of one syllable, which are invariable and do not add on endings; grammatical relations are generally indicated by the position of the word in the sentence (cf. English "give me the jack", where **jack" is understood to be a noun; "we must jack up this car", where "jack" is understood as a verb; "this is a jack- knife", where "jack" is an adjective) ; in addition, these languages make use of tone (the pitch, or the rising and falling inflection of the voice) to distinguish among different meanings of what would otherwise be the same word: Chinese fu, pro- nounced with a high, even pitch, means "man"; with a slight and quickly rising pitch, "fortune"; with a slowly falling and

LANGUAGE TYPES AND LANGUAGE FAMILIES ))

then rising inflection, "prefecture"; with an abruptly falling inflection, "rich". Main branches:

a) Chinese.

b) Tibetan-Burmese.

c) Siamese (or Thai).

* * *

Chinese, with some 450,000,000 speakers and a rich back- ground of ancient civilization, is probably destined to become one of the world's most important languages. The difficulties that strew the path of the student of Chinese are: 1. the extremely large number of dialects, many of them mutually incomprehensible; 2. the tone system, which runs contrary to our linguistic habits; we are accustomed to using high, low, rising and falling inflections of the voice to express emphasis and different feelings ("/ have seen John"; "I have seen

ohn,

John"; "I have seen John"; "I have seen John9; "Jo-/ where are you?" "Jo- How could you?"), and find it

\ohn!

very difficult to use them otherwise; 3. the complicated sys- tem of writing, with no less than 3,000 commonly used charac- ters, which are combined to represent not sounds, but individual words. This system, with modifications, has been borrowed by the Japanese.

VI — DRAVIDIAN.

Location: southern India, northern Ceylon.

Number of speakers: nearly 100,000,000.

Structure: moderately agglutinative (e. g., noun-root, plus sign of plural, plus case-ending, which is the same for the plural as for the singular); gender not by sex, but by caste ("supe- rior" and "inferior" beings, with women, and even goddesses, often ranged among the latter, in the same classification with inanimate objects).

LANGl AGK TYPES AM) LANGUAGE FAMILIES

Main branches: a) Tamil.

b) Telugu.

c) Brahui.

d) Canarese.

e) Gond.

f) Bhil.

g) Malayalam (do not confuse with Malay) .

These languages, which share with the Indo-European tongues of northern India major control over the Peninsula's 390,000,000 speakers, are relatively unimportant. English is superimposed as a language of colonization.

VII — MALAYO-POLYNESIAN.

Location: Malay Peninsula; East Indies (Java, Sumatra, Borneo, Celebes, Bali, etc.); Philippines; Madagascar; New Zealand (Maori) ; Samoa, Hawaii, Tahiti, and, generally, the islands of the Pacific.

Number of speakers: about 90,000,000.

Structure: two-syllable root; no endings attached to nouns: concept of gender and number generally absent.

Main branches:

a) Indonesian: Dutch East Indies; Malaya; Madagascar; Philippines (Tagalog, Bisaya, etc.).

b) Melanesian: New Hebrides; Fiji Islands; Solomon Islands; etc.

c) Micronesian: Gilbert, Marshall, Caroline Islands, etc.

d) Polynesian: Samoa, New Zealand, Tahiti, Hawaii, etc.

* * *

The extremely large number of separate languages in this family makes any kind of systematic study for practical pur- poses difficult. Javanese, Malayan and Hawaiian can, to some

LANGUAGE TYPES 1!\r> LANGl AGE FAMILIES ?5

extent, be reduced to a systematic arrangement. The lan- guages of colonization (English, Dutch, Japanese, French, etc,) are everywhere superimposed.

VIII — AFRICAN NEGRO.

Location: Africa, south of the Sahara and west of Ethio- pia.

Number of speakers: about 100,000,000.

Structure: no definite classification can be given. Some of these languages are characterized by the placing of nouns into distinct classes (man, tree, water, etc.), each of which re- ceives a special distinguishing syllable or sound which is pre- fixed to nouns of that class and to adjectives associated with them, with a change of prefix to indicate the plural: Swahili m-thu m-zuri, "handsome man"; wa-thu wa-zuri, "handsome men"; n-iumba n-zuri, "pretty house"; ma-niumba ma-zuri, "pretty houses". Adverbs often take the same prefix as the verbs they modify: ku-fa ku-zuri, "to die beautifully".

Main groups:

a) Sudanese-Guinean (Nubian, Masai, Hausa, Yoruba, Mandingo, etc. .Many linguists reject Sudanese-Guinean unity).

b) Bantu (Ruanda, Swahili, Zulu, Herero, Umbundu, etc.).

c) Hottentot-Bushman.

* * *

Because of their great variety and low cultural, political and economic status, these tongues are relatively unimportant (though two of them, Swahili and Hausa, with 8,000,000 and 13,000,000 speakers, respectively, are worthy of some at- tention). They are everywhere in the process of being supersed- ed by the languages of colonization (English, French, Por- tuguese, etc.).

IX — AMERICAN INDIAN.

Location: Western Hemisphere.

Number of speakers: undetermined, but probably does not exceed 10,000,000 at the present time, many of whom are

36 LANGUAGE TYPES AND LANGUAGE FAMILIES

bilingual (English in Canada and U. S. A., Spanish or Portu- guese in Latin America).

Structure: enormous variations, but in the case of a large number of these languages it is characterized by "polysynthe- tism" ( "potysynthetic" ) ; thif means that words seldom have individual status, but become significant only when placed in a sentence; or, to put it another way, the entire sentence forms one word-unit, with none of its component parts enjoying true separate existence: Oneida g-nagla-sl-i-zak-s, "I am looking for a village"; g- carries the meaning of "I"; nagla conveys the idea of "living"; si is a suffix giving nagla the force of a noun (therefore, nagla plus s/ convey the idea of "village"); i is a verbal prefix, indicating that zak is to convey a verbal idea; zak carries the meaning of "looking for"; s is the sign of continued action. None of these parts would convey any very definite meaning if used by itself.

Main groups: classification is almost impossible; among the better known linguistic tribes of North America are the Eskimo, the Algonquian (Blackfoot, Cheyenne, Arapahoe, Cree, Ojibwa, Delaware, etc.), the Iroquois (Huron, Wyandot, Cher- okee, etc.), and the Uto-Aztec; Central America has, among others, the Mayan, Mixtec and Zapotec; South America, the Arawak, Araucanian, Carib, Chibcha, Quechua, Tupi-Guarani, etc.

* * *

The practical and cultural importance of the American Indian languages is small, and they are everywhere super- seded by Indo-European tongues of colonization which have bedome the national languages of the overwhelming majority of the inhabitants (English, Spanish, Portuguese, etc.).

X — OTHER GROUPS.

The Ainu of northern Japan (20,000 speakers, who be- long to a mysterious white race) ; the Hyperborean tongues of northeastern Siberia (a few thousand speakers); the Basque of northeastern Spain and southwestern France (less than

LANGUAGE TYPES AND LANGUAGE FAMILIES 37

1,000,000) ; the Caucasian group of the Caucasus region in the Soviet Union (Georgian, Lesghian, Avar, Circassian, etc.; per- haps 2,000,000) ; the Mon-Khmer, Annamese and Munda tongues of southeastern Asia (perhaps 20,000,000 or 30,000,- 000, most of them in eastern India and French Indo-China) ; the native tongues of Australia and New Guinea (Papuan), with a few hundred thousand apiece, all form separate linguistic groups, but have little practical importance.

Ainu has a curious duplication of the French-Celtic ex- pression for "eighty" ("four twenties"); Basque has a struc- ture somewhat reminiscent of the polysynthetism of some Am- erican Indian languages (ponet-ekila-ko-are-kin, "with the one who has the cap", literally: "cap-with-the-of-with") ; the Cau- casian tongues enjoy an unparalleled richness of consonant sounds and grammatical genders, together with a peculiar structure ("I make my father happy" has to be translated by "through me — contented — makes — - self — father") ; some native Australian tongues can count only up to three, with the result that "seven" has to be rendered by "pair-pair-pair-one", and "fifteen" by "hand-side-side-and-foot-half".

But while these tongues are an object of great curiosity to the scientist, their political, economic and cultural value is so small, and they are so encroached upon by neighboring and colonizing languages (Japanese for Ainu; Russian for the Hyperborean and Caucasian tongues; Spanish and French for Basque; English and French for Mon -Khmer, Annamese and Munda; English for Australian) that they can safely be disre- garded by the practical linguist.

SUMMARY

Our analysis of the world's linguistic picture for practical purposes has considerably narrowed down our search for the important languages. While it is conceivable that a situation may arise in which there is a need for Ainu, or a native Aus- tralian tongue, or an African Negro dialect, or an American Indian language, we find that the practically significant Ian-

jg LA \CUACE TYPES AMD LAKC.VAKE FAMILIES

guages can be determined and isolated. "Practical signif- icance" hinges on a number of factors; numerical strength is important, but only if accompanied by continued cultural and economic development and political unity, so that the language becomes standardized and assumes a definite current and liter- ary form; otherwise, the rise of infinite dialects renders the language difficult of access, while political instability leads to the superimposition of another conquering or colonizing tongue. Such is the case with India's Indo-Aryan and Dravidian lan- guages, and, to a far lesser degree, with Chinese. Culture, civilization, literature are of importance, but they must be ac- companied by expansive power in the political and economic fields, or the number of speakers will remain small, and the practical importance of the language low; Greek is a good ex- ample of this. Political unity and power, force of expansion and commercial and economic penetration, when accompanied by the numerical factor and a cultural background, lead to practical importance.

The languages that combine all these factors, though to varying degrees, in the Indo-European group, are "Germanic" English and German; "Romance" Spanish, French, Portuguese and Italian; "Slavic" Russian. In the Semitic group, Arabic is ihe only tongue that can at the present time lay claim to a first-class position; but the fact that it has been partly replaced by European languages of colonization robs it of the dominant position it has held in the past. Among the Asiatic groups, Japanese and Chinese combine the various factors that appear significant.

In a second division, we may place Dutch and, perhaps, Polish; while a third group might include, for Indo-European, the Scandinavian tongues (Dano-Norwegian, Swedish, Ice- landic), Roumanian, the minor Slavic languages (Czech, Serbo- Croatian, Bulgarian), Greek, and Lithuanian; for Ural-Altaic, Finnish, Hungarian and Turkish; for the languages of the Far East, Malay.

Tongues like Albanian, Armenian, the Celtic languages,

LANGUAGE TYPES AKD LANGUAGE FAMILIES 3P

Persian, a few vernaculars of India, Palestinian Hebrew, Sia- mese, Burmese, are linguistic stragglers from the standpoint of practical importance.

The key position of certain languages is now clear. Eng- lish, German, French, Spanish, Portuguese, Italian, Russian and Japanese occupy these key posts. Arabic, Chinese, Malay, and Dutch., even if acquired in the form of a smattering, help to fill the gaps. The ability to identify forty or fifty of the remaining languages, so that we can distinguish between Bulgarian and Serbian, Greek and Albanian, Turkish and Persian, at least in written form, completes all that is needed for a utilitarian linguistic education.

THE LANGUAGES OF NORTH AND CENTRAL AMERICA

ENGLISH SPANISH FRENCH

DANISH

GEOGRAPHY AND LANGUAGES

41

CHAPTER II

GEOGRAPHY AND LANGUAGES

So far we have grouped languages by family units. Geo- graphical distribution now claims our attention. What lan- guages are current in each of the political divisions of the various continents? What secondary, auxiliary or colonial languages may we expect to be able to use, -if a country's pri- mary national tongue is not available to us? In dealing with the geographical problem, we shall find it convenient to take the world's pre-war political arrangement, regardless of mili- tary occupations, even those that occurred prior to the actual outbreak of hostilities, such as Germany's seizure of Czecho- slovakia.

1. NORTH AMERICA

Country

Alaska

Bermudas

Canada (including Labrador and Newfoundland)

Greenland Mexico U. S. A.

Approximate Population

70,000

30,000

12,000,000

20,000

20,000,000

132,000,000

Language (s)

English.

English.

English, with perhaps 3,000,000 French speakers located primar- ily in the Province of Quebec, and to some extent in Ontario; many of them can be reached with English.

Danish.

Spanish.

English.

English serves the purpose practically everywhere in North America, save in Greenland (Danish), Mexico (Spanish),

42

GEOGRAPHY AND LANGUAGES

and French-speaking sections of Canada. Foreign-speech groups in the U. S. A. and Canada are picturesque and inter- esting, but inconsequential for practical purposes. English can to some extent be used in Mexico and Greenland, and large- ly in French-speaking Canada. For North America, as well as for Central and South America, little mention need be made of Eskimo or American Indian languages, the importance oi which is extremely limited.

2. CENTRAL AMERICA AND WEST INDIES.

Country	Approximate	Language (s)
	Population
Bahamas	70,000	English.
British Honduras	60,000	English and	Spanish.
Canal Zone	50,000	English and	Spanish.
Costa Rica	600,000	Spanish.
Cuba	4,200,000	Spanish.
Dominican Republic	1,600,000	Spanish.
Guadaloupe and
Martinique	600,000	French.
Guatemala	3,000,000	Spanish.
Haiti	3,200,000	French.
Honduras	1,000,000	Spanish.
Jamaica	1,200,000	English.
Leeward Islands	100,000	English.
Nicaragua	1,100,000	Spanish.
Panama	700,000	Spanish.
Puerto Rico	2,000,000	Spanish and	English.
Salvador	1,700,000	Spanish.
Virgin Islands	25,000	English and	Danish.
Windward Islands	300,000	English.

Spanish, English and French, in the order mentioned, are the essential languages in this area. English can to some ex- tent be used in all Spanish and French-speaking sections.

GEOGRAPHY AND LANGUAGES
3. SOUTH AMERICA.
Country	Approximate
	Population
Argentina	13,000,000
Bolivia	3,300,000
Brazil	44,000,000
Chile	4,600, 000
Colombia	8,700,000
Ecuador	3,000,000
Guiana, British	350, 000
Guiana, Dutch	200, 000
Guiana, French	50,000
Paraguay	1 ,000, 000
Peru	6,800, 000
Uruguay	2,100, 000
Venezuela	3,500, 000

Language(8)

Spanish

Spanish.

Portuguese.

Spanish.

Spanish.

Spanish.

English.

Dutch.

French.

Spanish.

Spanish.

Spanish.

Spanish.

* in *

The South American picture is one of division between Spanish (roughly 46,000,000 speakers) and Portuguese (44,- 000,000), with the latter concentrated in a single country, Bra- zil. The American Indian languages, which are on their way to complete extinction in North America, are perhaps a little more alive here (Quechua, for example, has nearly 4,000.000 speakers); but their extreme diversity and the fact that many of their speakers can be approached through the medium of the official tongue renders them of scant practical import- ance. English arid French are current among the higher ranks of society in all Latin-American countries; Italian and German are fairly current in some sections of Brazil (Sao Paulo, Rio Grande do Sul) ; Italian to some extent in Argentina.

* *

The Western Hemisphere as a whole shows a preponder- ance of English (about 145,000,000 speakers), followed by Spanish (83,000,000) and Portuguese (44,000,000). French

THE LANGUAGES OF SOUTH AMERICA

SPANISH

PORTUGUESE

ENGLISH

FRENCH

DUTCH

GEOGRAPHY AND LANGUAGES

45

(8,000,000), Dutch (about 200,000) and Danish (less than 50,000) constitute hemispheric linguistic minorities.

4. EUROPE

Country1

Albania Belgium

Bulgaria Czechoslovakia

Denmark

Estonia Finland France

Approximate Language (s)

Population

1,100,000 Albanian (with Italian, Greek, Turkish, Serbo-Croatian to some extent current).

8,500,000 French and Flemish (over one- half of the population has Flem- ish for its native tongue, but French is everywhere current).

6,500,000 Bulgarian (with Turkish along

Black Sea coast).

15,000,000 Czech (of which Slovak is a vari- ant; German everywhere cur- rent, particularly in Sudeten areas; Hungarian in southern section, and Ukrainian in ex- treme east).

4,000,000 Danish (German fairly current, especially in southern section, Schleswig) .

1,000,000 Estonian (with Russian and Ger- man fairly widespread).

4,000,000 Finnish (with Swedish, Russian

and German fairly current). 42,000,000 French (linguistic minorities, Bre- tons, Basques, Catalans, Alsa- tians, Italians, etc., normally speak French as well).

1. Such small political units as Andorra (6,000: Spanish, French, Catalan); Danzig (400,000: German and Polish); Gibraltar (21,000: Spanish and English) ; Liechtenstein (10,000: German) ; Monaco (24,000: French and Italian); San Marino (14,000: Italian), need not be discussed.

GEOGRAPHY AND LANGUAGES

47

Germany (including Austria)

Great Britain and Northern Ireland

Greece Hungary

Iceland Ireland (Eire)

Italy

Latvia Lithuania Luxembourg Netherlands

Norway Poland

76,000,000 German (small linguistic minorities in East Prussia, Silesia, etc., normally speak German as well).

47,000,000 English (Welsh and Gaelic speak- ers normally speak English as well). 7,500,000 Greek (small Turkish, Albanian,

Bulgarian minorities).

9,500,000 Hungarian (Slovak, German and Roumanian minorities; German quite current) . 120,000 Icelandic, Danish. 3,000,000 English, Erse (or Irish Gaelic; very few inhabitants of Eire fail to speak and understand Eng- lish).

45,000,000 Italian (linguistic minorities, Ger- mans in Alto Adige, Slovenes in Istria, Croatians in Zara, etc., normally speak Italian as well), 2,000,000 Latvian (or Lettish; Russian and

German fairly current).

3,000,000 Lithuanian (Russian, German, Po- lish current^

300,000 German, French (population fairly bilingual) .

9,000,000 Dutch (a large number of Hol- landers are equipped with Ger- man, French, or English) .

3,000,000 Norwegian (a variant of Danish) ; Lapp in the far north; German and English have some curren- cy).

35,000,000 Polish (linguistic minorities very large: German in Polish Corri- dor and western provinces; Lithuanian, White Russian and Ukrainian in eastern sections; German and Russian current among a good many Poles; about 3,000,000 Yiddish speakers).

48

GEOGRAPHY AND LANGUAGES

Portugal (including 8,000,000

Azores) Roumania 20,000,000

Soviet Union (in Europe)

no,ooo,ooo

Spain

Sweden

Switzerland

25,500,000

Yugoslavia2

Portuguese (Spanish generally un- derstood).

Roumanian (linguistic minorities very large: Hungarian and Ger- man in Transylvania; Ukrainian in Bessarabia; Bulgarian in Dobruja and Bessarabia, etc.).

Russian (linguistic minorities heavy, but scattered; Caucasian and Armenian in Caucasus; Ural- Altaic in Karelia, north and northeast, etc.; generally acces- sible through Russian; Russian's kindred tongues, Ukrainian and White Russian, number 28,000,- 000 and 5,000,000 speakers, respectively).

Spanish (Catalan speakers in east, Basques in northeast, normally accessible through Spanish; Gali- cians in northwest through Spa- nish or Portuguese) .

6,500,000 Swedish (Lapp in extreme north; German has a certain amount of currency) .

German, French, Italian, Rumansh (all four languages are of- ficial; over 3,000,000 Swiss speak German; French speakers number over 2,000,000, Italian and Rumansh speakers nearly 1,000,000).

Serbo-Croatian, Slovene (very large linguistic minorities, consisting of German, Bulgarian, Hunga- rian, Albanian, Turkish, Rouman- ian and Italian speakers; Ger- man is quite current in areas formerly forming part of Austro- Hungarian Empire) .

4,500,000

16,000,000

2. For Turkey, see Asia, p. 52.

GEOGRAPHY AND LANGUAGES 49

A linguistic survey of Europe shows English to be offi- cially current among some 50,000,000 speakers, and widely spoken and understood outside of its own territory. German includes over 80,000,000 native speakers, and gives access to at least 20,000,000 or 30,000,000 more, in addition to being a "cultural" language (though to a lesser degree than French). French, with some 50,000,000 speakers in France, Belgium and Switzerland, pervades the upper and middle classes of most European countries. Italian gives access to some 50,- 000,000 European speakers; Russian to over 100,000,000; Spanish to about 25,000,000; while perhaps 30,000,000 can be reached with Polish.

Among the minor European tongues that do not have much European currency outside of their own national terri- tory are Hungarian (13,000,000); Dutch-Flemish (13,000,- 000); Serbo-Croatian and Slovene (16,000,000); Roumanian (16,000,000); Czech and Slovak (12,000,000); Swedish (7,- 000,000) ; Dano-Norwegian, Portuguese, Bulgarian and Greek, with about 7,000,000 each; and Finnish (4,000,000). But some of these languages, notably Portuguese and Dutch, have vast non-European ramifications in colonial or former colonial territories.

Europe is one of the most polylingual of continents. Outside of the general knowledge of French, German, and/or English possessed by most people of culture, many border areas are bilingual, trilingual, even quadrilingual, while the everyday necessities of peoples living together in a crowded area have led to the speaking of one or two additional lan- guages by large segments even of uneducated people in many European countries. If you do not know the national language of the country you are in., don't give up hope; try the languages you do know; they very often work successfully.

GEOGRAPHY AND LANGUAGES

51

5. ASIA. Country

Afghanistan Burma

Ceylon

China

Approximate Population

12,000,000 16,000,000

6,000,000

425,000,000

Cyprus 400,000

Malaya (including 5,500,000 Straits Settlements)

French Indo-China 24,500,000 Hong Kong 1,500,000

India 390,000,000

Language (s)

Pushtu and Persian. Burmese (with English superim- posed).

Singhalese (Indo-Aryan) in south; Tamil (Dravidian) in north; English superimposed.

Chinese (Ural-Altaic dialects in Chinese Turkestan and Mongo- lia; Tibetan in Tibet; Thai dia- lects in southeastern sections and Hainan; Japanese to some ex- tent current in Japanese-seized territory; European languages, especially English, in foreign concessions and coastal cities) . The principal Chinese dialects (Mandarin, now the official tongue, or Kuo-yii: 280,000,000; Cantonese: 38,000,000; Wu o f Shanghai: 34,000,000; Min of Fukien: 30,000,000) are not mutually intelligible.

Greek (Turkish, English superim- posed) .

Malayan (Indonesian), Chinese, and Mon-Khmer dialects (English superimposed).

Annamese and Mon-Khmer dia- lects (French superimposed).

Chinese (English, Japanese super- imposed) .

fndo-Aryan tongues (Panjabi, Ben- gali, Hindi, Urdu, etc.) in north; Dravidian languages (Tamil, Telugu, Canarese, etc.) in south; scattered Munda groups, mostly in northeast; English superim- posed.

GEOGRAPHY AND LANGUAGES

Iran

Iraq

Japan ( including Karaf uto )

Korea Manchukuo

Nepal and Bhutan

Oman

Palestine

Portuguese Asia

Saudi Arabia (in- cluding Hejaz) Soviet Union in Asia 41,000,000

Syria and Lebanon 4,000,000

Taiwan (Formosa ) 5,500,000

Thailand (Siam) 16,500,000

Transjordan 500,000

Turkey (including 18,000,000 European Turkey)

Yemen3

15,000,000 Persian, Kurdish. French is current

among the upper classes. 4,500,000 Arabic, Kurdish, Turkish.

73,000,000 Japanese (Ainu in Yezo and Kara- futo, the southern part of Sakha- lin Island) .

25,000,000 Korean (Japanese superimposed).

43,000,000 Manchu (of the Ural-Altaic family;

less than 500,000) ; Chinese

(about 40,000,000) ; Japanese

superimposed.

6,000,000 Indo-Aryan and Tibetan dialects.

500,000 Arabic.

1,500,000 Arabic (Hebrew and English super- imposed) .

1,000,000 Indo-Aryan dialects in Goa. Damau and Diu; Chinese in Macau (Portuguese superim- posed).

5,500,000 Arabic.

Ural-Altaic and Hyperborean dia- lects (Ostyak, Samoyed, Tur- coman, Kirghiz, Mongol, Tungus, Yukagir, etc.; Russian every- where superimposed).

Arabic (French superimposed).

Indonesian dialects and Chinese (Japanese superimposed).

Siamese (Thai) and Mon-Khmer dialects.

Arabic (English superimposed).

Turkish (a Ural-Altaic language; Indo-European Armenian and Kurdish in the eastern sections).

3,500,000 Arabic.

3. British possessions in and near Arabia (Aden, Bahrein Island, Kuwait) have a total of some 300,000 Arabic speakers, with English superimposed.

GEOGRAPHY AND LANGUAGES 55

The linguistic picture of Asia is at least as involved as that of Europe. Northern Asia (Siberia, Union of Soviet Re- publics) is almost solidly Ural-Altaic, but with a strong Rus- sian infiltration which is particularly noticeable along the courses of the great rivers (Ob, Lena, Yenisei), and in the larger cities and towns. The Ural-Altaic tongues extend down into Chinese Turkestan, Mongolia and Manchuria.

Chinese, with its mighty mass of speakers, predominates in most of east central continental Asia. But politically Chi- nese territory is abundantly strewn with other linguistic groups ; the Ural-Altaic dialects mentioned above, and Chinese's kin- dred tongues, Tibetan and Thai, in southwestern and south- eastern China, respectively.

The Indo-Aryan and Dravidian languages of India and Ceylon account for most of India's 390,000,000 speakers, but colonizing English forms a strong super-layer, as it does also in Burma and Malaya.

Japanese, with over 70,000,000 native speakers, also permeates Korea, Formosa, Manchukuo and, to a lesser degree, other lands of former Japanese occupation.

Arabic is current in the entire Arabian Peninsula, Iraq, Syria, Palestine and Transjordan, with English in the last two countries, French in Syria, and Hebrew in Palestine as super- imposed tongues. The influence of Arabic is also strongly felt in Indo-European Afghanistan, Iran, and northern India, and, in fact, wherever the Muhammadan faith has followers.

Ural-Altaic Turkish, with Indo-European Armenian and Kurdish spoken on its national territory; Sino-Tibetan Thai, current in Siam and parts of southeastern China; Annamese in French Indo-China; Mon-Khmer dialects in Indo-China, Thai- land and Malaya; Munda dialects in India; Indonesian Malay- an in Malaya; Indo-European Persian and Pushtu, may be said to constitute a secondary group of Asiatic tongues.

Among the languages of colonization, first place belongs to English, which pervades India, Ceylon, Burma, Malaya, Cyprus, Hong Kong, Palestine, Transjordan and sections of

THE NATIVE LANGUAGES OF AFRICA

SUPANESE-6UIVEAN BANTU

HOTTENTOT INDO-EUROPEAN

GEOGRAPHY AND LANGUAGES

55

Arabia (Aden, Bahrein, Kuwait). French appears in Indo- China, Syria, and one or two cities of India (Pondichery) and China (Kwangchowan) ; Portuguese in Goa, Damau and Diu, on the western coast of India, and in Chinese Macau; Russian throughout the Asiatic territory of the Soviet Union, and, to some extent, in Mongolia.

6. AFRICA

Country Algeria Anglo-Egyptian Sudan 6,500,000

Approximate Population 8,000,000

Angola Basutoland Bechuanaland Belgian Congo

Cameroons Egypt

3,500,000

600,000

300,000

14,000,000

2,600,000 17,000,000

Ethiopia (including 12,000,000 Eritrea and Italian Somaliland)

French Equatorial Africa

3,500,000

French West Africa 16,000,000 (Dahomey, Fr. Sudan, Fr. Guinea, Ivory Coast, Niger, Togo, Senegal)

Gambia 200,000

Language (s)

Arabic and Berber (French super- imposed) .

Arabic, Kushitic (Beja, etc.), and Sudanese-Guinean dialects, es- pecially Nubian.

Bantu (Portuguese superimposed).

Bantu (English superimposed).

Bantu (English superimposed.

Bantu, Sudanese-Guinean (French superimposed) .

Sudanese-Guinean and Bantu dia lects (French superimposed).

Arabic and Kushitic dialects (Eng- lish, French, Greek, Italian super- imposed). Nubian (Sudanese- Guinean) in Upper Egypt.

Ethiopian (Amharic, Tigre, etc.) ; Kushitic dialects (Galla, Somali, etc.) ; Sudanese-Guinean dialects in extreme west; Italian super- imposed.

Sudanese-Guinean ; Arabic i n north; Bantu in extreme south (French superimposed).

Arabic, Berber, Sudanese-Guinean (French superimposed).

Sudanese-Guinean (English super- imposed) .

56

Gold Coast Guinea, Portuguese

Guinea, Spanish Ifni

Kenya Liberia

Libya

Madagascar Morocco

Mozambique Nigeria

Nyasaland Rhodesia

Rio de Oro

Sierra Leone

Somaliland, British Somaliland, French Southwest Africa

Spanish Morocco

Swaziland

Tanganyika

Tunisia

Uganda

Union of South Africa

GEOGRAPHY AND LANGUAGES

4,000,000 Sudanese-Guinean (English super- imposed).

400,000 Sudanese-Guinean (Portuguese su- perimposed) .

150,000 Bantu (Spanish superimposed). 20,000 Berber and Arabic (Spanish super- imposed) .

3,500,000 Bantu (English superimposed).

2,000,000 Sudanese-Guinean (English super- imposed).

1,000,000 Arabic, Berber (Italian superim- posed).

3,800,000 Malagasy (Indonesian); French superimposed.

7,000,000 Arabic, Berber (French superim- posed ) .

4,500,000 Bantu (Portuguese superimposed). 22,000,000 Sudanese-Guinean (English super- imposed) .

1,600,000 Bantu (English, Afrikaans, super- imposed) .

3,000,000 Bantu (English, Afrikaans, super- imposed) . 30,000 Arabic (Spanish superimposed).

2,000,000 Sudanese-Guinean (English super- imposed) .

350,000 Kushitic (English superimposed). 50,000 Kushitic (French superimposed).

300,000 Bantu, Hottentot-Bushman (Eng- lish. German superimposed). 800,000 Arabic, Berber (Spanish superim- posed ) .

150,000 Bantu (English superimposed). 5,300,000 Bantu (English. superimposed). 3,000,000 Arabic. Berber (French, Italian

superimposed) . 3,800,000 Sudanese-Guinean, Bantu (English

superimposed) .

10,700,000 Bantu, Hottentot-Bushman (Eng- lish, Afrikaans superimposed).

GEOGRAPHY AND LANGUAGES 5 7

Linguistically, northern Africa, as far as the Tropic of Cancer and beyond, is solidly Semito-Hamitic, with Semitic Arabic stretching from the Sinai Peninsula to the Atlantic coast, and Hamitic Berber intermingled with it in the interior, par- ticularly in the Sahara, in Algeria and Morocco. Hamitic Ku- shitic and Semitic Ethiopian languages appear in the area east of the Nile and extend down to the southern borders of Ethiopia and Italian Somaliland and beyond. The rest of the continent is divided between two great African Negro groups, the Suda- nese-Guinean and the Bantu, with the dividing line between them a little to the north of the Equator on the western coast and a little to the south of it on the eastern. Hottentot-Bushman appears only in a restricted section of Southwest Africa.

The languages of colonization are of particular importance in this continent. They are not everywhere equally widespread, however, ranging from the strong position which English holds in South Africa to the very thin veneer of French and Flemish in the Belgian Congo, and from the native-tongue status of French and Italian among a quarter of Tunisia's inhabitants to the military outpost and trading-post function of English in Uganda, Kenya and Tanganyika.

English appears in the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan, Gambia, the Gold Coast, Kenya, Liberia, Nigeria, Nyasaland, Sierra Leone, British Somaliland, Tanganyika, Uganda, and all of South Africa (the Union of South Africa, including the Trans- vaal, the Cape of Good Hope, the Orange Free State and Natal; Rhodesia, Swaziland, Bechuanaland, Basutoland, and South- west Africa). In South African territory, English shares with a variant of. Dutch (Afrikaans) the honor of having become a national language by virtue of white settlers who now number over one-fourth of the total population.

French is current in Algeria, the Cameroons, French Equa- torial and West Africa, Madagascar, French Morocco, French Somaliland and Tunisia; in the Belgian Congo, it forms, with Flemish, the language of colonization.

Italian appears in Libya, Eritrea, Italian Somaliland, and, to some extent, in Ethiopia and Tunisia.

THE COLONIAL LANGUAGES OF AFRICA

FORMER GERMAN

PRESENT ENGLISH INFLUENCE

FRENCH

ENGLISH

SPANISH

PORTUGUESE

ITALIAN

FORMER GERMAN

PRESENT FRENCH INFLUENCE FRENCH AND FLEMISH

ENGLISH AND AFRIKAANS

ENGLISH INFLUENCE

ITALIAN INFLUENCE

ENGLISH, FRENCH AND ITALIAN INFLUENCE

GEOGRAPHY AND LANGVAGES

59

Portuguese appears in Angola, Portuguese Guinea and Mozambique, and is the national language in the Cape Verde and Madeira Islands (about 250,000 inhabitants each).

Spanish is current in Spanish Morocco, the Canary Islands, Ifni, Rio de Oro and Spanish Guinea.

Lastly, German very occasionally appears in Germany's former colonial possessions of the days prior to the first world war: the Cameroons, Togoland (now divided between French West Africa and British Gold Coast), Southwest Africa, Nyasa- land and Tanganyika.

Egypt (predominantly Arabic in speech) is a land where English, French, Greek and Italian are fairly current.

7. OCEANIA. Country

Australia

Approximate Population 7,000,000

Bismarck Archipelago 250,000 British North Borneo 300,000

Brunei

Caroline Islands Cook Islands

40,000 40,000 15,000

Dutch East Indies 60,000,000 (Java, Sumatra, Borneo, Celebes, Neth. New Guinea, Bali, Madura, Flores, western Timor, Amboina, etc.)

Language (s)

English (with native Australian languages approaching extinc- tion) .

Melanesian (English and German superimposed) .

Indonesian (English superimpos- ed).

Indonesian (English superimpos- ed).

Micronesian (Japanese super- imposed) .

Polynesian (English superimpos- ed).

Indonesian languages and dialects (save for the interior of New Guinea, where Papuan is spok- en) ; the?e are Javanese (over 20,000,000) and Sundanese (6,- 000,000) in Java; Balinese (3,- 000,000) in Bali; Madurese (3,- 000,000) in Madura; Dayak in Borneo ; Atchin, Minangkabau and Batak in Sumatra; Macassar, etc., in Celebes; Dutch and Malay everywhere superimposed) .

60

GEOGRAPHY AND LANGUAGES

Fiji Islands

200,000

French Oceania Gilbert and Ellice Islands Guam	45,000 35,000 25,000
Hawaiian Islands	500,000
Lab u an	10,000
Marianas Islands	70,000
Marshall Islands	10,000
New Caledonia	65,000
New Guinea New Hebrides	750,000 45,000
New Zealand	1,600,000
Palau	6,000
Papua Philippine Islands	275,000 16,000,000

Samoa 13,000

West Samoa 60,000

Sarawak 450,000

Solomon Islands 140,000

Timor (Portuguese) 500,000

Tonga 35,000

Melanesian and Hindustani (Eng- lish superimposed).

Polynesian (French superimposed).

Micronesian and Polynesian (Eng- lish superimposed).

Micronesian (English superimpos- cd).

Polynesian (English, Japanese, Chinese, Korean superimposed).

Indonesian (English superimpos- ed).

Micronesian (Japanese superimpos- ed).

Micronesian (Japanese superimpos- ed).

Melanesian (French end English superimposed) .

Papuan (English superimposed).

Melanesian (English and French superimposed) .

English (Polynesian Maori on the way to extinction) .

Micronesian (Japanese and Ger- man superimposed).

Papuan (English superimposed).

Indonesian (about 50 different dialects: Bisaya - about 7,000,- 000; Tagalog - about 4,000,000; Ilocano - about 2,300,000; etc. English and Spanish superim- posed) .

Polynesian (English and German superimposed) .

Polynesian (French superimposed).

Indonesian (English superimpos- ed).

Melanesian (English superimpos- ed).

Indonesian (Portuguese superim- posed).

Polynesian (English superimpos- ed).

GEOGRAPHY AND LANGUAGES ft J

Oceania shows a predominance of Malayo-Polynesian, indigenous to all the Oceanic Islands with the exception of Australia (native Australian languages) and New Guinea (Pa- puan). The division of the Malayo-Polynesian tongues into Indonesian, Melanesian, Micronesian and Polynesian is some- what arbitrary (being to some extent geographical and racial rather than linguistic), and not very important, in view of the innumerable diverging dialects. Indonesian Javanese, ac- counting for some 20,000,000 people, is the most important of these languages.

Among the languages of colonization, English is by far the most widespread, having become the language of the major- ity of the inhabitants in Australia and New Zealand, where colonists originally from Britain and their descendants far outstrip the native populations in number. It also forms a superimposed layer in Hawaii, the Philippines, the northern sections of the island of Borneo (Sarawak, British North Bor- neo), eastern Papua (New Guinea and Papua Territories), and about half of the minor islands and groups.

Dutch, current in the Dutch East Indies (Java, Sumatra, Celebes, southern Borneo, western Papua, Bali, Madura, west- ern Timor, Amboina, etc.) is second only to English in im- portance.

Japanese, current in all the Japanese-mandated islands (Caroline, Marianas, Marshalls, etc.) and, to some extent, in seized territory, runs third.

French appears in Tahiti, New Caledonia, parts of the New Hebrides and Samoa, etc. ; Portuguese in the eastern sec- tion of Timor. Vestiges of former colonial occupations appear in the half million Spanish speakers of the Philippines and the occasional traces of German in former German colonial pos- sessions (Bismarck, Caroline, Marianas, Marshall Islands, Samoa, New Guinea, etc.).

LANGUAGES OF THE GERMANIC GROUP

CHAPTER III

LANGUAGES OF THE GERMANIC GROUP

Of the three leading Indo-European divisions (Germanic, Romance, Slavic), the Germanic holds first place in point of numbers and political and commercial importance, vying for cultural first honors with the Romance group. Its main modern subdivisions are English, German, Dutch-Flemish, Dano- Norwegian, Swedish and Icelandic. Of these^ the first three belong to the West Germanic family, while the others are of the Scandinavian, or North Germanic variety.

English, with over 200,000,000 native speakers, located principally on the North American continent, the British Isles, South Africa, Australia and New Zealand, is also by far the most important and far-reaching among the tongues of colonization in Asia, Africa and Oceania. It is, furthermore, the language of commercial intercourse par excellence. Dur- ing its past history, it differentiated itself from its sister Germanic tongues by the inclusion of larger numbers of borrowed words, especially from the Latin-Romance languages, and this mixture gives it a distinctive international flavor that makes it ideal for general use throughout the world.

German, with over 80,000,000 native speakers in the Reich arid Switzerland, serves also as a tongue of international exchange throughout Central Europe, being used as a second- ary language by large sections of the populations of countries that formerly formed part of the Austro-Hungarian Empire (Hungary, Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia), and, to a lesser degree, of Poland, the Netherlands, Denmark, Norway, Sweden, Finland, Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia, etc. As a "cultural" language, German is current among large segments

64 LANGUAGES OF THE GERMANIC GROUP

of the more learned classes of other European countries and of North and South America, while German emigration to the New World and former colonization of African and Oceanic territories account for additional millions of people who can be reached with German.

Dutch, with its Belgian variant, Flemish, is the native tongue of some 13,000,000 people in Europe, while the Dutch colonial empire and the Belgian Congo comprise some 80,000,000 people in part accessible through Dutch and Flemish. Afrikaans, the South African variety of Dutch, is still in fairly general use throughout the Union of South Africa, Rhodesia and neighboring territories, side by side with English.

As compared with the West Germanic languages, the tongues of the Scandinavian group have relatively few speak- ers. Swedish is the native tongue of about 6,500,000, and is used by considerable segments of the population of western and southern Finland and the Aaland Islands. Danish and Norwegian have a joint speaking population of some 7,000,- 000, and Danish is, in addition, used to some extent in Green- land, Iceland and the Virgin Islands. Icelandic is the tongue of only 100,000 people in Iceland. The Faroe Islands, north of Scotland, use a dialect intermediate between Danish and Icelandic.

ENGLISH — DISTRIBUTION AND VARIETIES

English, the mother-tongue of over 200,000,000 people scattered all over the six continents, displays local differences which, while not so radical as those appearing in other lan- guages concentrated in much smaller areas, nevertheless ren- der mutual understanding difficult at times. These differences appear, for the most part, in the fields of pronunciation and vocabulary, with grammar more generally standardized in countries settled by people of Anglo-Saxon blood. Gram- matical standardization does not hold, however, for lands where English has become a secondary tongue, acquired by the native populations in "Pidgin" forms.

LANGUAGES OF THE GERMANIC GROUP <j5

U. S. A.

For practical purposes, it may be said that American

Indian languages have disappeared from United States soiL

It is estimated that less than a quarter of a million American

Indians now exist in the U. S., and a considerable number of

them are acquainted only with English).

The English of America's 140,000,000 inhabitants, despite local features of intonation and pronunciation (South- ern "drawl"; New England "twang"; Middle Western strong- ly marked r; New York thoity-thoid for " thirty -third" ; "Bostonese"; "Brooklynite" ; etc.), and occasional vocabulary and semantic divergences,1 has become one of the world's most standardized tongues, by reason of generally high levels of communications, transportation and education. Many of its current slang expressions and colloquialisms are unintel- ligible or only semi-intelligible to inhabitants of other parts of the English-speaking world.2

1. E. g., Southern "to carry" for "to take" ("he carried me to the dance"; "carry me back to Old Virginny") ; "falling weather" for "rainy weather"; "you-all" for a plural "you"; East Texas "gallery" for "porch"; Mid-Western "get shut of" for "get rid of" and "to jin" for "to do odd jobs"; New England's "tonic" for "soft drink"; New York's "stoop" for "porch". Among rapidly disappearing local forms may be cited the picturesque expressions for "small portion" current in the Cumberlands, Great Smokies and Ozarks, respectively: smidgen, canch, tiddy-bit; while "cow" is cow-beast, cow-brute and she-cow. To lollygag for "to make love", bumbershoot for "umbrella" jrad schnicklejritz for "German" are reported from the Ohio Valley.

2. A few examples of words and expressions for which the average non-American English speaker needs a glossary are: ballyhoo, bell- hop, co-ed, bughouse, flivver, flop-house, four-flusher, go-getter, goo and gooey, hayseed, joint, lobbying, sissy, smart Aleck, sorehead, traffic jam, wisecrack, wiseguy; to be (two dollars) shy, to bump off, to discombobulate, to get a line on, to get a load of, to get next to, to get stuck with, to get the drop on, to gouge, to hornswoggle, to monkey with, to pitch woo, to shoot craps, to smooch, to soak (some- body), to spoof, to stay put, to whoop things up; fresh ("he's a fresh

00 LANGUAGES OF THE GERMANIC GROVP

GREAT BRITAIN

The population of Great Britain, including Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland, is about 47,000,000. Practical- ly all of these people, to whom may be added Eire's 3,000,000, speak English.3 However, on its far more limited territory, the English of Britain displays far greater local divergences than does the English of America. The English dialects are powerful realities, based on strong features of individual pronunciation, grammar and vocabulary divergence. The following are only a few scattered examples:

The Shetland Islands pronounce "shall" and "should" as sail and soud. The western part of Scotland has ba'el for "battle" and beer for "better". The Braid Scots dialect uses lippen for "believe", aboon for "above" and till for "to". Cornwall has dafter for "daughter". In Ulster, the demonstratives "that", "those" appear as yon, thon; in north- ern England, "these" and "those" are thee, thir, and in Wex- ford "this" or "that" is thik; the English Midlands use chill, ged, wod for "child", "get", "what"; Yorkshire has hoo for "she" and han, liven, shan for "have", "live", "shall"; Gloucestershire has her for "she" and thak for "that", while the southwest of England turns "parlor" into polder* The pronunciation of a Yorkshireman is normally totally in- comprehensible to the average American. We are somewhat more familiar with the Scottish "burr", the Irish "brogue", and the "Cockney" of London. From the standpoint of syntax, dialectal English occasionally produces a somewhat weird effect. The following signalled conversation between two Brit-

guy"), hard-boiled, no-account, ornery, pesky, rambunctious, swelegant.

3. Celtic speakers (Irish, Welsh and Scots) in the British Isles are normally bilingual, and to a majority of them, English is more familiar than their own Celtic tongues. See p. 446-450 for the Celtic languages of the British Isles.

LANGUAGES OF THE GERMANIC GROUP 67

ish naval officers, both from Somersetshire, as their ships were about to go into action, is reported from the Mediterra- nean: "I be relying on you". — "Doan 'ee worry; we got they in the bag."

Outside of dialectal forms and intonations, the "King's English" itself will occasionally disturb the American speaker of English. First and foremost, there is the matter of enuncia- tion, which in British English is normally more clipped, incisive and staccato than in its American counterpart, with far more modulation of tone and rise and fall in the pitch of the voice. The pronunciation of individual words and groups of sounds diverges (laugh, branch, bath, vase, etc., pronounced in Britain with the a of "father"). Note also the British pronunciation of "clerk" (dark), "Derby" (Darby), "schedule" (shedule), "lieutenant" (lef tenant; but a pronunciation similar to our own prevails for the rank in the British Navy), "figure" (jigger), etc. Many words are differently stressed (British necessry, papa, mamma, primarily, temporarily, financier). Many spelling divergences occur (British labour, favour, honour, connexion, inflexion, gaol, waggon, kerb, programme, jewellery, tyre, grey, cheque). In grammar, such expressions as "His Majesty's Government are in favour of this measure" occasionally come up to make us realize that there is a difference.

Of far greater interest and importance, however, are the numerous semantic4 differences between the two chief varieties of English. Most of these have fortunately been codified. Only a few of the most significant and important appear here.5

4. Semantic — pertaining to the meanings of words.

5. For a fairly complete discussion, cf. H. W. Horwell, An Anglo- American Interpreter, Oxford, 1939.

68

LANGUAGES OF THE GERMANIC GROUP

TRANSPORTATION

American

information bureau,

ticket agent,

conductor,

right of way,

freight car,

ties,

sleeper,

tracks,

all aboard!,

gangway!, one side!,

on time,

street-car,

subway,

underpass,

comfort station,

top (car),

hood,

fender,

gas, gasoline,

rumble seat,

spark plug,

storage battery,

windshield,

muffler,

gear shift,

sedan,

parking-place,

truck,

dirt road,

traffic jam,

British

inquiry office

booking clerk (pron. clark)

guard

permanent way

goods waggon

sleepers

sleeping car

metals

take your seats!

by your leave!

to time

tram

underground

subway

public convenience

hood

bonnet

wing

petrol

dickey

sparking plug

accumulator

windscreen

silencer

gear lever

saloon car

car-park

lorry

unmetalled road

traffic block

LANGUAGES OF THE GERMANIC GROUP

69

COMMUNICATIONS

information,

hello!,

line's busy,

hook-up,

are you through?,

you're connected,

inquiry

are you there?

number's engaged

relay

have you finished?

you are through

BUSINESS AND OCCUPATIONAL

employment bureau, white-collar job, to fire, to lay off, salary, wage, payroll, saloonkeeper,

financial editor, city editor, legal holiday, check,

instalment plan, billboard,

garters,

suspenders,

wash rag,

vest,

undershirt,

raincoat,

slacks,

run (stocking),

derby,

permanent,

nail polish,

registry office black-coat job to stand off

screw

wage sheet

publican, licensed victualler

(pron. vittler) city editor chief reporter bank holiday draft (or cheque) hire system hoarding

ATTIRE

sock suspenders

braces

face flannel

waistcoat (pron. weskit)

vest

mackintosh, mack

bags

ladder

bowlet

perm

nail varnish

70

LANGUAGES OF THE GERMANIC GROUP

radio,

tubes,

wrench,

ash can, junk heap,

overnight bag,

baby carriage,

hot water heater,

flashlight,

thumbtack,

chicken yard,

writing desk,

sideboard,

apartment,

single room,

apartment house,

transient,

room clerk,

to stand in line,

orchestra,

aisle,

to buy (ticket),

movies,

intermission,

dance-hall,

candy store, drug store, dime store, chain store, paper stand, hardware store, fruit store, dry goods store,

HOUSEHOLD

wireless set valves spanner dust bin attache case

pram

geyser (pron. geezah)

electric torch

drawing pin

fowl run

bureau

dresser

flat

apartment

block of flats

temporary guest

reception clerk (pron. dark)

AMUSEMENTS

to queue up

stalls

gangway

to book

cinema

interval

dancing saloon

SHOPS

sweet shop

chemist's

bazaar

multiple shop

kiosk

ironmonger's

fruiterer's

draper's

LANGUAGES OF THE GERMANIC GROUP 71

FOODS AND AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTS

string beans, French beans

beets, beet root

romaine, cos

lima beans, flat beans

egg-plant, aubergine

catnip. catmint

alfalfa, lucerne

roast, joint

fruit, dessert

dessert, sweet

pie, tart

muffins, crumpets

biscuits, scones (pron. scawns) — ,

muffins

crackers, biscuits

syrup, treacle

peanuts, monkey nuts

EDUCATIONAL, LEGAL AND POLITICAL

private school, non-provided (or public)

school

to flunk (active), to plough

to bone up on, to swot up

parole, ticket of leave

to mend fences, to nurse one's constituency

full dinner pail, big loaf

to run for, to stand for

soap-box, tub-thumping

NUMBERS

billion, milliard

trillion, billion

wad of bills, sheaf of notes

146 Ibs., 10 stone 6

72

LANGUAGES OF THE GERMANIC GROUP

SLANG AND COLLOQUIAL

to pick on,

roughhouse,

hick,

rubberneck,

easy mark,

dough,

to doll up,

cute,

shark, cracker jack,

beat it!,

hell!,

guy,

wallop the guy!,

dumb-bell,

to get results, to raise money,

to pull a boner,

magistrate, judge,

to bawl out,

to kick about,

to drop on

bear garden

chaw-bacon

nosy parker

mug

dibs

to dress up to the nines

dinky

dab

hop it!

'struth!

bloke, cove

biff the bloke!

silly coot

to work the oracle

to make a bloomer

beak

to tell off

to boggle about

MISCELLANEOUS

sidewalk,

mail box,

pack of cigarettes,

in the next block,

to mail,

to pry open,

pavement

pillar box

packet of cigarettes

beyond the next turning

to post

to prize open

AUSTRALIA

Australia's 7,000,000 people are almost completely of British stock and English speech (the native population is estimated at less than 100,000, and speaks a multitude of im- perfectly known Australian languages). In pronunciation, in- tonation and vocabulary, the English of Australia is distinctive-

LANGUAGES OF THE GERMANIC GROUP

73

ly individual, but comes closer to that of the British Isles than to that of America. An entire series of localisms, mainly of the slang variety, appears. Some of the interesting expressions from the "Land Down Under", recently codified in magazine and newspaper articles, are the following (where possible, the American slang equivalent is given) :

American frontier, wilderness,

bush-hut,

hobo,

hobo's bundle,

riverbed pool or offshoot,

food,

knapsack,

canned meat,

swimming-suit,

lamb, sheep,

"rookie",

inferior,

"babe", "gal", 'dame", "jane",

delectable femininity,

crazy about,

"to smooch",

high-powered lover, "yes- man",

jilted "jane",

party, "blowout",

"spread",

wine,

beer glass,

drunk, "plastered",

in the D. T.'s,

speakeasy,

to go on a spree,

Australian

outback, back-blocks^ never- never country humpy swagman

Waltzing Matilda, bluey billabong tucker tuckerbag tinned dog cossie jumbuck drogo sprog sheila^ diner, sninny

nice bit of skirt shook on to smooge smooger

battered bun

shivoo

beano

plonk

butcher

shikkered

in the rats

sly grog shop

to go on a larrikin

74

LANGUAGES OF THE GERMANIC GROUP

to go Dutch, "to treat", "Dutch treat",

barrel,

money,

ready cash,

copper penny,

threepence,

sixpence,

shilling,

pound (money),

to borrow, to beg,

rest period,

pal, "side-kick",

"good guy",

true blue,

nose, "beak",

hoodlum,

gang of hoodlums,

racket,

revolver, "gat",

to hit, to attack,

to steal,

"cops",

cattle-stealing,

kibitzer,

"lowdown", absolute truth,

hard work,

"stuffed shirt",

big boss,

horse,

tea-can,

the "blues",

"lip", "back-talk",

high-pressure talk,

to go whacks

to shout

Scotch shout

goog

flanagan

kiligan

oscar

rhino

brownie

triddlybit, traybit

zack, tanner

deener, bob

fiddlydid, quid

to hot

spello

cobber

fair stick

dinkie die

boko

Larrikin

push of larrikins

lurk

squirt

to stouch

to shake

Johns

duffing

nark

dinkum oil, the straight griffin

yakka

wowser

head serang

moke, brumby, gee-gee

billy

the joes

chivvy

spruik

LANGUAGES OF THE GERMANIC GROVP

75

"scram ,

"to shoot off one's mouth",

to get angry,

to tease,

to poke fun at,

teasing, badinage,

to take a mean advantage of,

all mixed up,

"got a nerve"

to look over,

to brood over something,

to give up,

hard hit,

stupid, "dumb",

half-wit,

had his day,

to go broke,

Holy Jiminy!,

great, "swell",

bad, "lousy", "rotten"

everything 0. K.,

yes, 0. K.,

thanks,

"yoohoo",

within hearing distance of,

Chinaman's chance,

Jap,

Italian, "Wop",

Englishman,

Scotchman,

Chinese,

Anzac,

New Zealander,

imshi

to mag

to get all wet

to poke borax at

to sling off

chiacking

to show a point on

humpty do

got a hide

to take a squiz

to chew the rag

to drop the bundle

stonkered

dill

sh ingle-short

done his dash

to go bung

God stone the crows!

ding (long, dinkum, bonzer,

bosker, boshter, slap-up cow, (fair cow, lousy cow] curling the moe, she's right ribuck ta

cooee

within cooee of Buckley's chance Nip

Dingbat Pommy Ceordie Chow Digger Enzedder

To all of this may be added a wealth of terms which Australia shares with Britain: bloke for "guy", dinkie for "cute," ta-ta for "bye-bye" are typical of these.

76

LANGUAGES OF THE GERMANIC CROUP

NEW ZEALAND

Of New Zealand's 1,600,000 inhabitants, less than 100,000 are of native (Maori) stock. Their speech belongs to the Polynesian variety of Malayo-Polynesian. The remaining million and a half are of British stock and English speech. Intonation and pronunciation, while distinctive, are closer to American than to British (dance, path, with the a of bat, not of father). The vocabulary often coincides with America's rather than with Britain's (radio, pack of cigarettes, to mail, in pre- ference to wireless, packet, to post). Localisms generally coincide with those of Australia (bosker and dinkum for "swell", cobber for "side-kick", wowser for "blue nose" or "stuffed shirt", cow for "lousy", etc.). The following list seems to have originated with New Zealand. Items marked with an asterisk are common to Australia as well, and subsequent research may reveal that this is also true of others of the terms listed:

American

hut,

lost, strayed,

to go native,

"atta boy!",

stranger,

prestige, "rep",

hello!,

"big chief,

gas, gasoline,

to argue,

farmer,

sharecropper,

large-scale sheep farmer,

ill, bad,

work,

man,

candy,

New Zealand

whare

bushed

to go back to nature

kapai!

paheka

mana

tenakoe!

rangitira

benzim

to argue the toss*

cocky*

sharemilker

squatter

crook (to feel crook)*

graft (hard graft)*

joker

lollies

LANGUAGES OF THE GERMANIC GROUP

77

position,

to boast, to brag,

ruined, upset over something,

sure!,

mid-morning tea,

English immigrant,

girl,

penny,

to move house,

half-baked,

food,

money,

to be good at,

good luck!,

G. L, doughboy,

pozzie

to skite

up the pole*

too right!

smoke-oh ( or smoko ) *

Homey

tart

brown

to up stick

half-pie

kai

hoot

to be pie on

kia oral

kiwi

SOUTH AFRICA

The South African racial and linguistic situation is not quite so favorable to English as is the case with the other British Dominions. Out of a total of nearly 11,000,000 inhabitants of the Union of South Africa, it is estimated that about 2,500,000 are whites, about equally divided between the descendants of the Dutch-speaking Boers, who still use Afrikaans, and settlers of British origin. Probably a majority of white South Africans are bilingual. Naturally enough, a great many words and expressions have crept into the English of South Africa from Afrikaans, Bantu and other sources. The following "Afrikan- derisms" are of interest:

American

there is a flood,

town-lots,

to steal,

I. 0. U.,

he threw a rock at me,

South African

the river is down

stands

to jump

good-for

he threw me with a rock

j% LANGUAGES OF THE GERMANIC GROUP

to run over, to tramp

in the house, by the house

snooper, stool-pigeon, trap

thief, goni*

loot, goniva

G. I., doughboy, springbok

(of Dutch origin) American South African

early dawn, schimmel day

farmyard, erf

armed camp, Lager

rascal, schelm, skelm

to travel, to trek

gulley, sloot, sluit

land measure, morgen

depression between hills, kloof

pound (for animals) schut, skit

open country, veld

boss, baas

precipice, kranz

3-bushel measure, muid

fenced-off field, camp, kraal

are you coming along?, are you going with?

bogus, counterfeit, snyde

conservative, dopper

(of Bantu origin)

army, impi

gully, arroyo, donga

council, pow-wow, indaba

sour milk, amasi

thanks, inkosi*

6. This Zulu word, meaning "chief, "bestower of benefits", ultimate- ly has become an acknowledgement of a benefit received.

LANGUAGES OF THE GERMANIC GROUP

79

nursemaid,

gH straw hat,

pickles, chutney, stamp, jacket,

all-leather whip, hut,

(of Portuguese origin) ayah

nooi sambriero

(of Malay origin)

atjar, blatjang

tjap, chop

baatje

sjambok

pondok, pondhock

CANADA

Of Canada's 12,000,000 people, some 3,000,000 are of French speech, and they are located for the most part in the provinces of Quebec and Ontario. Native American Indian and Eskimo languages account for a little over 100,000 speakers. The remaining population is of English speech, and the brand of English is so close to that of the United States that in a Brit- ish-compiled dictionaiy of Canadianisms containing approxi- mately one thousand terms, only some three dozen are found which are not common to both countries (subsequent research may reveal that even a few of these are) :

American

Canadian

commercial

mer, gin,

traveller, drum- bagman

pig's feet, Newfoundland, third-class coach, farmer, "hick", parson, "sky pilot", beer and gin mixed,

blue ruin Cincinnati olive Cincinnati oysters Codland colonist car corntossle devil-dodger dog's nose

80

LANGUAGES OF THE GERMANIC GROVP

church,

strong whiskey, spoon, fork, millionaire,

American flag, "Old Glory", Fourth of July, liquor dregs

English resident of long stand- ing,

day's work, half-breed, land, real estate, newcomer, "greenhorn",

in fine health,

egg yolk in whiskey,

teetotaler,

small-town mayor,

to stand treat,

carpenter,

drunk, "stewed",

iced liquor,

raisin pudding,

tramp,

to be under the influence of

liquor, dollar bill, colored man,

doxology works, gospel

factory forty-rod gob-stick gold-bug gridiron rebel picnic heel taps improved Britisher

metis

mud

new chum (appears in other

British Dominions, notably

Australia) out of sight prairie oyster pump-sucker reeve

to stand sam shavings slewed snow-broth spotted dog sundowner to have the sun in one9s eyes

toadskin

unbleached American

ANGLO-INDIAN (HOBSON-JOBSON)7

In the course of their long occupation of British India, British soldiers, officials and residents have developed a series

7. The origin of this term used to describe the slang of India is said to be the Muhammadan rallying-cry : Ya Hassan! Ya Hussein!

.ANGUAGES Of THE GERMANIC GROUP gj

if words and expressions, mostly drawn from the native lan- ;uages and dialects, a few of which have found their way into tie English of other lanols; among colloquial expressions claim- d to be of Indian origin are: cheese, in the expression "he's be big cheese" (the cheese represents Hindustani chiz, ; thing") ; dam in "I don't give a dam" (the dam is an Indian oin) ; grass widow, a term said to have been coined by British •fficers to designate those military wives who sojourned in the ool, grassy hill-country while their husbands sweltered in the lusty plains. Betel, bungalow, mango, cheroot, pariah, curry, if fin (lunch), griffin (newcomer, "greenhorn") are among he words which have passed from native languages or officers' lang into Anglo-Indian, and thence into common English.

Among expressions which have remained local are: to lumb-cow, "to browbeat" (Hindustani dam khdnd, "to eat me's breath", "to be silent", probably crossed with the Eng- ish "cow"); to foozilow, "to flatter"; to pucker ow, "to lay lold of"; bahadur, "stuffed shirt"; bobachu, "kitchen"; nort-de-chien, "cholera" (despite its French appearance, this omes from Portuguese mordexim, borrowed from Marathi riodwashi) ; outcry, "auction"; summer -heat, "hat" (borrow- d from Portuguese sombrero) ; goddess, "girl", (borrowed rom Malay gddls) ; gym-khana, "athletic meet"; country in he sense of "local".

Anglo-Indianisms are exceedingly numerous by reason >f the fact that they vary from locality to locality, as do the lative languages.

ENGLISH AS A COLONIAL, SECONDARY AND CULTURAL LANGUAGE

The total populations of American Western Hemisphere >ossessions outside of U. S. soil (Alaska, Canal Zone, Puerto lico, Virgin Islands) amount to over 2,000,000. Approxi- nately the same figure applies to British possessions in the Western Hemisphere outside of Canada and Newfoundland

g2 LANGUAGES OF THE GERMANIC GROUP

(Bahamas, Bermudas, British Guiana, British Honduras, Jamaica, Leeward and Windward Islands, etc.).

In Asia, the total populations of British dominions, colonies and dependencies run to about 430,000,000 (Burma, Ceylon, Cyprus, Malaya and Straits Settlements, Hong Kong, British India, Nepal, Bhutan, Palestine, etc.).

British African possessions and Egypt account for some 70,000,000, while in Oceania, exclusive of the white populations of Australia and New Zealand, there is a total of about 3,000,000. In our own Pacific possessions (Guam, Hawaii, Philippines. Samoa, etc.) there is a total population of about 17,000,000

This makes English by far the most widespread of the world's colonial languages, since it affects, by reason of their colonial or semi-colonial status, a total of some 520,000,000 people. How many of these people can actually be reached with English is a matter which varies widely according to locality. A large majority of the 4,000,000 people listed for the Western Hemisphere use English as a primary or second- ary language. In Cyprus, Honji Kong and Palestine, the use of English is widespread. In British India, Ceylon, Malaya and Burma, only a small fraction of the native populations has English even as a secondary tongue; but the point has been made that this small fraction includes practically all the people who are instrumental in determining their countries' policies, or who have any degree of international cultural, economic or political standing. The situation in Africa and Oceania is somewhat similar. A larger proportion of the native population in Egypt and the Union of South Africa can be reached with English than is the case in such colonies as Nigeria and Kenya. In our own Pacific possessions the use of English is quite widespread; this is particularly true of Hawaii.

For the use of English as a secondary or cultural language outside of British and American territory, no precise figures are available; but it is probable that English is at least on a

LANGUAGES OF THE GERMANIC GROUP S3

par with French and German. Considerable segments of the more cultured classes in the countries of continental Europe, Latin America and Asia are accessible by means of it.

"PIDGIN" ENGLISH

The word "pidgin" is a Cantonese corruption of the English "business", and the term seems to have originated in the South China trade ports, where a compromise language between the natives and the English-speaking traders was deem- ed necessary. Broadly speaking, Pidgin is English adapted to native habits of thought, syntax, and pronunciation ; but these are far from the same everywhere, and so, correspondingly, is Pidgin.8

Chinese-English Pidgin abounds in picturesque expres- sions, many of which reflect Chinese syntax as applied to English words; among them are: all-same, blongey (belong), catchee (to have), chin-chin (worship), numpa one first chop (super-

8. It may be noted that there are not only numerous varieties of Pidgin English, but also Pidgins of other tongues. The most im- portant of these is Pidgin Malay, called by the Dutch pasar (or bazaar) Malay, a compromise form of various Malayo-Polynesian dialects, which extends throughout British Malaya, the Dutch East Indies, and is understood as far as the Philippines. A petit negre (French pidgin) appears in the French West African colonies. Several forms of Portuguese Pidgin are in existence, in Senegambia, Sao Tome, Cochim, Diu, Mangalore, etc. A Tagalog-Spanish pidgin appears in the Philippines. The Negro-English of Dutch Guiana, interspersed with Dutch and Portuguese words, also falls under the Pidgin classification, as does a variety of English Pidgin current along the entire West African coast from the Union of South Africa to the Equator. (A few typical expressions from this area are: Who dat man? for "Who goes there?"; to dash for "to tip somebody"; chop-chop for "meal"; and one-time for "hurry up"). Papiamento is a picturesque Spanish Pidgin used by the native population of Curasao, Dutch West Indies. The French Creole of Haiti and Mauritius, the Dutch Creole of Georgetown and the former Danish West Indies, the Portuguese Creole of the Cape Verde Islands, may all be said to some extent to fall under the Pidgin classification.

84 LANGUAGES OF THE GERMANIC GROUP

fine), chop-chop (quickly), bull-chilo (boy), cow-chilo (girl), dlinkee (drink), j [ lower •- flag-man (American), fo what? (why), have got wata top-side (crazy), larn-pidgin (apprentice) ; long- side (with); one piecee (one, referring to objects); one fella (one, referring to persons); what side? (where?); top-side piecee Heaven-pidgin man (bishop); ah say (Englishman: "I say"); ah kee (Portuguese; "aqui", "here").

The Pidgin par excellence is the English variety current in the Melanesian Islands (Solomons, Fiji, New Hebrides, etc.). This linguistic form, which has in some localities become fully standardized and has even been reduced to rules of gram- mar and syntax, has forms fully as picturesque as those of China. A few of these are: put clothes belong-a table (set the table) ; water he kai-kai him (the water ate him up; he drown- ed); man belong bullamacow him stop (the butcher is here); this fellow hat belong you? (is this your hat?); what for you kinkenau knife belong me? (why did you swipe my knife?). A physician sent by the Rockefeller Foundation to the Me- lanesian Islands to eradicate the hookworm, quotes his own Pidgin description of his employer and mission as he gave it verbatim to the natives: "Master belong me him make im alto- gether kerosene, him make im altogether benzine. Now he old feller. He got im plenty too much belong money. Money belong him allesame dirt. Now he old feller, close up him he die finish. He look about. Him he tink, *Me like make im one feller something, he good feller belong altogether boy he buy im kerosene blonga me.' Now gubment he talk along master belonga me. Master belonga me him he talk, 'You, you go killim altogether senake (snake) belong bell' (belly) be- long boy belong island.' "

From New Guinea come other interesting samples: cut 9im grass belong head belong me (cut my hair) ; capsize 9im coffee 'long cup (pour the coffee) ; new fellow moon he come up (it's the first of the month) ; skin belong you 'im stink (you need a bath); make 'im die machine (stop the machine); two clock he go finish, three clock he no come up yet (it's half

LANGUAGES OF THE GERMANIC GROUP $5

past two); shoot 'im kaikai (serve the dinner); me cross too much along you (I'm very angry with you). Among quaint and suggestive individual expressions, we find: time belong lim-limbu (holiday); kiranki (irritable); cus-cus (office worker); dim-dim (white man); lap-lap (calico waistcloth) ; make 9im paper (contract); clothes-sleep (pajamas); long long along drink (drunk); machine belong talk (typewriter); cow oil (butter); turn 'im neck belong 'im (change one's mind); handkerchief (or pants) belong letter (envelope); screw belong leg (knee) ; pull pull (flower).

The Australian blackfellows use a variety of Pidgin that largely coincides with the Melanesian and New Guinea brands, but sometimes contributes its own special expressions: sing 'im longa dark fella (mosquito); paper-yabber longa big fella hawk (air-mail); kill 'im stink fella (disinfectant); think fella too much (intellectual) ; eat 'im wind cart (automobile) ; big fella fire snake (train) ; big fella talk talk watch 'im that one (high -pressure salesman).

Beche la Mer, or "Sandalwood English", is the form taken by Pidgin in the southern islands of Polynesia (Samoa, Tahiti, etc.). The addition of -um to verbs is characteristic (eatum9 callum, catchum). So are expressions such as: water belong stink (perfume); apple belong stink (onion); 'im fellow coconut 'im bad (he has a headache) ; belly belong me walk about too much (I have a stomach-ache).

One of the favorite processes of Pidgin is that of repeti- tion to express intensity or thoroughness: you go go go (keep on going); bamboo belong look-look (spyglass); wash-wash (to bathe, in contradistinction to wash) ; talk-talk (long palaver, as against mere talk). This is reminiscent of what goes on in many more cultured tongues (Italian gli ho parlato piano piano, "I spoke to him very softly"; un uomo alto alto, "a very tall man").

Other curious parallels appear: me- fellow, you-fellow9 9 em-all ("we", "you" plural, "they"; cf. Southern you-all, French nous autres, Spanish vosotros, etc. ) ; how much clock?

gfi LANGUAGES OF THE GERMANIC GROUP

("what time is it?"; cf. German wie viel Uhr?); the Pidgin use of bef (belly) to denote the seat of the emotions corre- sponds to the ancient Greek belief that the stomach was the place where emotions were born and bred; while the use of bone to indicate courage (9im got plenty bone), or the lack of it (bone belong 'im allesame water, "he's scared to death"), has a curious correspondence in our own use of backbone and spineless, as well as in slang tough guy.

The Islands, moreover, have received contributions to their Pidgin from non-English sources. A Frenchman is variously described as man-a-wiwi (man of "oui, oui"), montour ("bon- jour"), montwar ("bonsoir"); in Java, he is known as orang deedong (orang is Malay for "man", and deedong is the French dites done). Local variations of Pidgin include such different forms as kai-kai, chow-chow, kau>kau, fu-fu, used on different islands with the meaning of "to eat".

Hawaii supplies us with what may be described as our own American variety of Pidgin. The Hawaiian language does not permit two consonants to follow each other unless a vowel intervenes, and many consonants, including b, d, f, g, j, r, s, t, v, do not appear in the language. The result is that when a Hawaiian attempts to say "Merry* Christmas!" his rendition is Mele Kalikimaka. The names of the months, all of which are borrowed from English, appear as follows: lanuali, Pepeluali, Malaki, Apelila, Mei, lune, lulae, Aukake, Kemakemapa, Okakopa, Nowemapa, Kekemapa. Among native words and expressions that have crept into the English of American residents are the following:

bow are you?, pehea oe?

clever, smart, akamai

beautiful, rtani

old-timer, kamaaina

angry, huhu

greenhorn, malihini

trouble, pilikia

woman, wahlni

.ANGUAGES OF THE GERMANIC GROVP. gj

ian, kane

ome in and eat!, liele mai e ai!

lower, pua

ie, hoopunipuni

ot, wela

lanks, mahalo nui

ello!, good-bye!, aloha oe!

es, no

razy, papule

rreath, lei

erandah, lanai

east, spread, luau

>ig, puaa

ood, kaukau

tomach, opu

oy, keikikane

at, papale

uick, wikiwiki

IMMIGRANT DIALECTS

These partake of the nature of Pidgin, since they represent compromise between two ~ languages. The infiltration of rords generally runs, however, from English to the immigrant's ative tongue, which in the course of time becomes honey- ombed with English words and expressions. A few infil- rations run the other way,9 but they are comparatively insigni- icant. With the restriction of immigration, the immigrant dia- ects of the United States are in the process of extinction, since bey are for the most part a first-generation phenomenon. Similar unstable immigrant dialects appear in other countries a which large numbers of immigrants have gone in the past South America, particularly Argentina; France, etc.).

. Kibitzer, hamburger, frankfurter, spiel, hoosegow, pickaninny, paghetti, broccoli are a few examples. The infiltrations lead even to be coining of new words, as when English talk or gab is combined dth German Fest, or English tender with the suffix of Italian mac- heroni, already anglicized to macaroni (tenderoni) .

gft L-ANCVAGES OF THE GERMANIC CROUP

THE SCANDINAVIAN TONGUES DANISH, NORWEGIAN,10 SWEDISH, ICELANDIC

General Characteristics.

While the close relationship among these three languages is evident, considerable divergences appear between Icelandic, which is extremely archaic and conservative of ancient speech- forms, and the other three. To cite a few examples:

1. In the matter of gender, Swedish, Danish and Nor- wegian combine masculine, feminine and common nouns into a single "gender" form, which is opposed to "neuter" nouns;11 Icelandic preserves the three grammatical genders, masculine, feminine and neuter, and these fall into distinct declensional schemes, with appropriate endings.

2. In the matter of declension, Swedish, Danish and Norwegian have no true declensional scheme, save for the ad- dition of -5 for the possessive and of a plural ending (-or, -ar, -er, -n in Swedish; -r, -er, -e in Dano-Norwegian ; with or with- out "umlaut")12; Icelandic has a full-fledged declensional

10. Danish was at one time the official and literary language of Norway; but popular spoken Norwegian (Landsma*!) diverged considerably. The present day literary Norwegian language is largely a compromise between the former official Danish and the popular spoken tongue.

11. The distinction is based mainly on natural gender; but the "gender" class may include animals and things, such as "fish" or "book", while the "neuter" class sometimes includes persons and animals, such as "child" and "sheep". Modern Norwegian has re- established a separate feminine form, which had always been in popular use.

12. By "umlaut" is meant a change in the vowel of the root, such as appears i.i Eng. mouse, mice, or in German Hand, Hande, or in Swed. son, soner (son, sons), or in Danish Fod, Fodder (foot, feet), or in Icelandic hjarta, hjdrtu (heart, hearts). The umlaut change is said to be caused by the influence of a following front vowel, belonging to an inflectional ending or some other suffix (this vowel often disappears after causing the change of the root-vowel, as has occurred in Eng. foot, feet) ; it is also described as a phenomenon of "anticipa- tion", whereby the vocal organs begin to prepare themselves for the

LANGUAGES OF THE GERMANIC GROUP $9

system, with four cases (nominative, genitive, dative, accusa- tive) and separate endings; compare:

Swedish: dag, "day"; possessive dags; plural dagar; possessive pi. dagars; Danish: Dag; possessive Dags; plural Dage; posses- sive pi. Dages;

Icelandic: Singular Plural

Nominative dagur dagar

Genitive dags daga

Dative degi dogum

Accusative dag daga

On the other hand, all the Scandinavian languages agree in having a suffixed definite article, which in Swedish, Danish and Norwegian is -en (or -n) for "gender" nouns, -et (or -t) for "neuter" nouns in the singular; in the plural, -ena (or -na) in Swedish, -ene (or -ne) in Danish and Norwegian (e. g., Swed. stol, "chair"; stolen, "the chair"; bord, "table", bordet, "the table"). Icelandic has a fully inflected definite article, which is added on to the fully inflected noun; e. g.:

Singular

Nominative heimur-inn, "the world"

Genitive heims-ins, "of the world"

Dative heimi-num, "to the world"

Accusative heim-inn, "the world" (obj.)

Plural

Nominative heimar-nir, "the worlds"

Genitive heima-nna, "of the worlds"

Dative heimu-num, "to the worlds"

Accusative heima-na, "the worlds" (obj.)

Another general characteristic of the Scandinavian lan- guages is a passive voice formed by changing the -r of the active

sound of the vowel of the ending while they are still engaged in pro- nouncing the vowel of the root

p0 LANGUAGES OF THE GERMANIC GROUP

to -5 (-st in Icelandic): Swed. jag kallar, "I call"; jag hallos, "I am called"; Danish /eg kalder, "I call"; jeg kaldes, "I am called"; IceL elskar, "he loves"; elskast, "he is loved".

Accentuation generally on the initial syllable (save in borrowed words and in verbs compounded with a prefixed pre- position; but in Icelandic even the latter are stressed on the first syllable), and "strong" and "weak" verbs (as in Eng. break, broke, broken vs. love, loved, loved), being common to all the Germanic tongues, are also characteristic of the Scandi- navian group.

Other points of similarity and divergence will be noted in the discussion of the individual languages. Some idea of the resemblances and differences among these tongues, and of their relationship to other Germanic languages, may be noted from the following list:

LANGUAGES OF THE GERMANIC GROUP

91

English	Dutch	German	Dano-Nor.13	Swedish	Icelandic
friend	vriend	Freund	Yen (verm)	van	vinur
dog	hond	Hund	Hund	hund	hundur
girl	meisje	Mddchen	Pige (pike)	flicka	stulka
mother	moeder	Mutter	Moder (mor)	moder (mor)	modir
father	voder	Voter	Fader (far)	fader (far)	fadir
daughter	dochter	Tochter	Datter	dotter	dottir
foot	voet	Fuss	Fod (fot)	fot	fotur
night	nacht	Nacht	Nat (natt)	natt	nott
cold	koud	kalt	kold(kald)	kail	kaldur
large	groot	gross	stor	stor	stor
good	goed	gut	god	god	godur
break	breken	brechen	bryde (bryte)bryta	brjota
find	vinden	finden	finde (finne) jinno	finna
run	loopen	laufen	lobe (lope)	springa, lopa	hlaupa
fall	vallen	fallen	falde (falle)	falla	falla
die	sterven	sterben	do	do	deyja
one	een	ein	een (en)	en	einn
two	twee	zwei	to	tvd	tveir
three	drie	drei	ire	tre	]>rir
four	vier	vier	fire	fyra	fjorir
five	vijf	jiinf	fern	fern	fimm
six	zes	sechs	sex (seks)	sex	sex
seven	zeven	sieben	syv (sju)	sju	5/0
eight	acht	acht	otte (dtte)	otto	otto
nine	negen	neun	ni	nio	niu
ten	tien	zehn	ti	tio	tiu
eleven	elf	elf	elleve	elva	ellefw
twelve	tobaalj	zwolf	tolv	tolv	tolf
thirteen	dertien	dreizehn	tretten	tretton	frrettdn
twenty	twintig	zwanzig	tyve (tjue)	tjugo	tuttugu
hundred	honderd	hundert	hundrede	hundro	hundrod
			(hundre)
thousand	duizend tausend	tusind	tusen	pusund
			(tusen)
13. The Norwegian form	appears in parentheses only	where it

diverges from the Danish.

P2 LANGUAGES OF THE GERMAMC GROUP

SWEDISH

ALPHABETIC NOTATION — as in English, but with the following added symbols: a (= hope or oho); a (= care or bet) ; 6 (= French eu or German 6, long or short).

Notes on Sounds.

All Swedish vowels, including a, a, o, may be long (especially in stressed, open syllables) or short; o often = stool or wood; u often =• French nait. Swedish y — French u, long or short.

g before e, i, y, a, 6, and gj in all positions = Eng. y (gora, "do", pronounced "yora"; gjort, "done", pron. "yurt"). h is silent before j (hjul, "wheel", pron. "yul"). j — Eng. y.

k before e, i, y, a, o, and kj in all positions ~ t -(- German ich (kopa, "buy", pron. tchopa"; kjol "skirt", pron. "tdml"). r is trilled.

sk before e, i, y, a, 6, and sj, skj, stj in all positions = Eng. sh (skon, "beautiful", pron. "shon"; sju, "seven", pron. "shu"; skjuta, "shoot", pron. "shuta").

w appears only in proper names, where it is pronounced as v. z = Eng. 50.

ACCENTUATION — The stress is normally on the first syl- lable of the word, but in words of more than one syllable there is also a musical "pitch", with complicated rules; e. g., flicka,

cka. "girl", is pronounced fii /

V

GRAMMATICAL SURVEY Articles.

Indefinite (Eng. "a", "an") • en for "gender" nouns (masc., fern., common) ; ett for "neuter" nouns: en gosse, "a boy"; en flicka, "a girl"; en stol, "a chair"; ett barn, "a child"; ett fere;;, "a letter". Definite (Eng. "the") - add -en (or -n) for singular gender

LANGUAGES OF THE GERMANIC GROUP 93

nouns; -et (or -t) for singular neuter nouns; -na (-a, -ena, -en)

for plural nouns:

stolen (stol-en), "the chair"; gossen (gosse-n), "the boy";

flickan (flicka-n), "the girl";

barnet (barn-et), "the child"; arbetet (arbete-t), "the work";

stolarna (stolar-na), "the chairs"; flichorna (flickor-na), "the

girls".

If an adjective precedes the noun, use the "prepositive" form of the definite article (den, del, pi. de) before the adjec- tive, as well as the suffixed article after the noun: den ddliga gossen, "the bad boy"; det snalla barnet, "the good child".

Nouns.

The plural is formed generally by the addition of -or, -ar, -er, or -r.1* To this ending, -na is generally added to supply the article: flicka, "girl"; flickan, "the girl"; flickor, "girls"; flickorna, "the girls" ; gosse, "boy" ; gossen, "the boy" ; gossar, "boys"; gossarna, "the boys".

The possessive case is formed by adding -5 (no apostrophe) to the nouns, singular or plural: gossens syster, "the boy's sister"; flickornas moder, "the girls' mother".

Adjectives.

The adjective normally precedes the noun it modifies. When the definite article is not used, or when the adjective is a predicate adjective (i. e., follows the verb "to be"), it takes the following endings:

Singular Plural

"Gender" - -a

"Neuter" -t -a

en varm dag, "a warm day"; ett stort (stor-t) bord, "a big table"; varma dagar, "warm days"; stora bord, "big tables"; dagen ar varm, "the day is warm"; dagarna dro varma, "the days are warm';.

14. Neuter nouns ending in consonants and some gender nouns take no ending in the plural; bord, "table"; bord, "tables"; the suffixed article for these nouns is -en in the plural: bordet, "the table*'; borden, "the tables". A very limited number of nouns take -n.

94

LANGUAGES OF THE GERMANIC GROUP

When the noun has the definite article, the prepositive form of the article is also used before the adjective, and the adjective has an invariable form ending in -a: den varma dagen, "the warm day"; de varma dagarna, "the warm days".

The neuter form of the adjective, ending in -t, usually serves also as an adverb: ddlig, "bad", ddligt, "badly".

The comparative and superlative are generally formed by adding -are and -ast, respectively: rik, "rich"; rikare, "richer"; rikast, "richest"; mera, "more", and mest, "most", are also used: dlskad, "beloved"; mera alskad, "more beloved"; mest alskad, "most beloved".

Pronouns. Personal:

jag, "I" mig, "me"

du, "you" (sub.)15 dig, "you" (obj.j15

hany "he" honom, "him"

hon, "she" henne, "her" den, det, "it"16

vi, "we"

ni, "you" (sub. pi.)1

de, "the"

oss, "us"

er, "you" (obj. pi.)

dem, "them"

Possessive: Gender Sg. Neuter Sg. Plural Meaning

min mitt

din ditt

hans hans

hennes hennes

mina my

dina "your" (familiar sg.)

hans "his", "of him"

hennes "her", "hers", "of her"

15. The plural forms Ni, Er replace the singular du, dig in polite conversation. They may or may not be capitalized.

16. Use den for singular "gender" nouns referring to inanimate objects, del for singular neuter nouns; as in Eng., there is no distinc- tion between subject and object "it".

LANGUAGES OF THE GERMANIC GROUP 95

dess dess dess "its"

vdr vdrt vdra "our"

er (Eder) ert (Edert) era(Edra)"your", plur. and polite sing.

deras deras deras "their", "of them"

sin sitt sina "his", "her", "their"17

Demonstrative: denna (or den hdr), "this" (with gender nouns); delta (or

del hdr), with neuter nouns. dessa (or de hdr), "these". den (or den ddr), "that" (with gender nouns); det (or det

ddr), with neuters. de (or de ddr), "those".

Relative and Interrogative. 50/Ti, "who", "which", "that" vars, "whose", "of which" vad, "what", "that" vem?, "who?", "whom?" vems?, vilkas?, "whose?", "of whom?" vad?, "what?" vilken?, (neuter vilket?, plural

vilka?), "which?"

Verbs. "to be"-Present: jag, du (Ni), han dr, "I, you, he" "am, are, is".

vi, ni, de tiro, "we, you, they are". Past: jag, du (Ni)9 han var, "I, you, he" "was, were".

vi, ni, de voro, "we, you, they were", "to have" -Present: jag, du (Ni), han har, "I, you, he had".

vi, ni, de ha, "we, you, they had". Past: jag, du, han, vi, ni, de hade, "I, you, he, we, you, they had".

17. These forms appear only when the possessor is the subject of the clause, but cannot be used to modify die subject: hennes jar har gdtt ut, "her father has gone out"; hon har sett sin far, "she has seen her (own) father"; hon trdjfade hennes jar, "she met her (someone else's) father".

0£ LANGUAGES OF THE GERMANIC GROUP

The negative is expressed by using inte (or icke) after the simple verb (jag har inte, "I have not"; jag talar icke, "I do not speak") ; or after "to have" in a compound tense (jag har icke talat, "I have not spoken).

For the interrogative form, invert subject and verb: har jag?, "have I?", "do I have?", "am I having?".

The infinitive usually ends in -a; "to" is expressed by att: att tala, "to speak"; alt resa, "to travel".

The present indicative singular usually ends in -ar or -er; the plural in -a: jag, duy han talar, reser, "I, you, he speak(s), travel(s)"; vi, ni, de tala, resa, "we, you, they speak, travel". The use of the singular form of the verb with plural subject pronouns is frequent in the spoken tongue.

The past indicative usually ends in -ade, -de, or ~te:19 jag, da, han, vi, ni, de talade, horde, reste, "I, you, he, we, you, they spoke, heard, travelled".

The supine (roughly corresponding to Eng. past participle) usually ends in -at, -t, -tt:ig talat, rest, sett, "spoken", "travel- led", "seen".

Compound tenses are formed, as in Eng., by combining "to have" with the supine: jag har talat, "I have spoken"; jag hade talat, "I had spoken".

The future is formed by using komma att or skola follow- ed by the infinitive: jag kommer att tala, or jag skall tala, "I shall speak"; vi komma att resa, or vi skola resa, "we shall travel".

18. As in all Germanic languages, many verbs have a "strong" past; this means that instead of adding an ending, they change the vowel of the root; note Eng. take, took; write, wrote; hold, held; and compare the Swedish equivalents: taga, tog; skriva, skrev; hdlla, hdU.

19. The supine of "strong" verbs usually ends in -it: tagit, skrivit, hdllit, "taken", "written", "held"; such verbs, however, also have a past participle ending in -en (neuter -el; plural -wa) : tagen, shriven, hdllen; the supine, which is invariable, is mainly used to form com- pound tenses with att ha, "to have"; the past participle, which is declined and agrees with the subject, is mainly used with att bliva, "to become", to form the passive.

LANGUAGES OF THE GERMANIC GROUP 97

The imperative ends in -a, or has no ending: tala!< "speak!"; hor! "listen!"; lot oss tola, "let us speak".

To form the passive, add •$ to active forms, dropping the -r of the present: jag hollar, "I call"; jag kallas, "I am call- ed"; jag kallade, "I called"; jag kallades, "I was called"; jag kommer att kalla, "I shall call"; jag kommer alt kallas, "I shall be called".

The passive may also be formed by using att bliva, "to become", with the past participle, which agrees with the sub- ject: gossen blir funnen, "the boy is found"; barnet blev funnel, "the child was found".

Man with the active is often used in a passive sense: man talar svenska (or svenska tolas), "Swedish is spoken".

"By" with the passive is expressed by av : saken ordnas nu av honom, "the matter is now being arranged by him".

yg LANGUAGES OF THE GERMANIC GROUP

DANISH AND NORWEGIAN

ALPHABETIC NOTATION — as in Swedish, but with the following divergences:20 aa corresponds to Swedish a; ae corresponds to Swed. a; both 6 and 0 correspond to Swed. 6.

SOUNDS

For the vowels, cf. Swedish (p. 92). There are, however, numerous minor variations.

Among consonant groups, gj is generally pronounced as a hard g by the Danes, but as y (as it is in Swedish), by the Norwegians.

In the groups eg, egl, egn, the eg is usually pronounced ai.

skj = sk, not sh, in Danish (but '= sh in Norwegian). Danish often drops the j even in writing (Danish skcelde. "to scold", Nor. skjelle, pron. shelle).

kj usually = k, in Danish (but like German ich in Norwegian).

sj = sh, as in Swedish.

The musical pitch of Swedish appears also in Dano- Norwegian, to a greater extent in Norwegian than in Danish, where it has practically disappeared, save dialectally.

GRAMMATICAL SURVEY

Nouns and Articles.

The gender system and the articles are generally as in Swedish. Indefinite article - en for "gender" nouns; et for "neuter" nouns: en. Pige,21 "a girl"; et Bord, "a table".

20. Modern Norwegian regularly uses a, ae, 0, though aa and o may be found in earlier writings. Danish capitalizes common nouns, and is more prone than Norwegian to use Gothic instead of Roman script.

21. Forms given as examples are in Danish orthography. Norwegian does not capitalize nouns; en Pige would appear in Nor. as en pike, Flaade as ftdk, Tand as tann, Stole as stoler, etc.

LANGUAGES OF THE GERMANIC GROUP 99

Definite article (suffixed) - -en (-n) for "gender"; -et (-t) for "neuter" nouns; >ne (-ene) for plural nouns: Stolen, "the chair"; Stolene, "the chairs"; Brevet, "the letter"; Brevene, "the letters".

The plural is formed by the addition of -r, -er, -e (with or without umlaut), or by leaving the singular form unchang- ed: Flaade*1 "fleet"; F loader, "fleets"; Flaaden, "the fleet", Flaaderne, "the fleets"; Stol, "chair"; Stole, "chairs"; Stolen, "the chair"; Staler*, "the chairs"; Tand,21 "tooth"; Tcender, "teeth"; Tanden, "the tooth"; Tcenderne, "the teeth"; Orrf, "word"; Ord, "words"; Ordet, "the word"; Ordene, "the words".

The possessive is formed, as in Swedish, by adding -5: Hus9 "house", Huset, "the house"; Husets, "the house's"; Husene, "the houses"; Husenes, "of the houses" (Norwegian often dispenses with the possessive, replacing it by a preposi- tion: taket pa huset, "the roof of the house", rather than husets tak, "the house's roof").

Adjectives

Generally as in Swedish. When the article is not used, or when the adjective is a predicate adjective, the endings are:

Singular Plural

Gender • -e

Neuter -t -e

en long Dag, "a long day"; et langt Bord, "a long table"; lange Dage, "long days"; lange Borde, "long tables".

When the modified noun is to be used with the definite article, the prepositive form of the article (den, det, de) is used before the adjective, which is then invariable and ends in -e. In these cases, Danish prefers to omit the suffixed ar- ticle, while Norwegian prefers the Swedish custom of using a double article: Danish den store Mand; Norwegian den store mannen, "the big man".

Comparative and superlative are usually formed by the addition of -ere (-re) and -est (-st): s0d, "sweet"; s0dere,

700

LANGUAGES OF THE GERMANIC GROUP

"sweeter"; s0dest, "sweetest". The neuter form of the ad- jective in -t usually serves as an adverb: smuk, "beautiful"; smukt, "beautifully" (Norwegian pen, pent).

Pronouns. Personal.

' a **T"

du™ "you" (sub.) lian, "he" hun, "she" den, del, "it"

vi, "we"

/, "you" (sub. |»l.: IN. dere) de, 'khey"

mig, (N. meg) "me"

dig, (N. deg), "you" (obj.)

ham, "him"

hende, (N. henne) "her"

os, (N. oss), "us"

jer, "you" (obj. p.; N. dere)

dem, "them"

Possessive.
Gender Sg.	Neuter Sg.	Plural	Meaning
			it 99
min	mit	mine	my
	(N. mitt)
din	dit	dine	"your"
	(N.ditt)		(fam. sg.)
hans	hans	hans	"his", "of him"
hendes	hendes	hendes	"her", "hers",
(N, hennes)	(N. hsnnes)	(N. hennes}	"of her"
dens, dets	dens, dets	dens, dets	"its" (use dens
			for "gender",
			dets for "neuter'!
			possessor
vor	vort	vore	"our", "ours"
(N. vdr)	(N. vart)	(N. vdre)
jer	jeres	jeres	"your", "yours"

(N. deres) (N. deres) (N. deres) (fam. pi.)

22. In polite conversation, De, Dem (lit. "they", "them"), spelled with a capital and used with a singular verb, replace du9 dig, I, jer: toler De del danske Sprog?, "do you speak the Danish language?**.

LANGUAGES OF THE GERMANIC GROUP JQ1

deres deres deres "their", "theirs"',

"of them"

5m sit sine "his", "her",

"its", "their" (with varying usage)

Demonstrative.

denne dette disse "this", "these"

den del de "that", "those"

Relative and Interrogative.28

som, "who", "which", "that"

hvis, "whose", "of which"

hvad, "what", "that"

hvem?, "who?, "whom?"

hvis?, "whose?"

hvad?, "what?" hvilken?, (hvilket, hvilke) "which?"

Verbs.

"to be" — Present (all numbers and persons): er; Past (all numbers and persons) : var.

" to have" — Present: har; Past: havde (all persons and numbers; Nor. uses hadde instead of havde).

Negative — ikke after verb: jeg har ikke, "I have not**.

The infinitive usually ends in -e: at elske, "to love".

The present indicative usually ends in -er (-r) ; jeg, du, han elsker, "I, you, he love(s)"; vi, /, de elsker, "we, you they love".

The past usually ends in -ede (N, -et) :24 jeg, du, etc. elskede, "I, you, etc. loved".

23. In all forms beginning with hv-, the h- is silent. Norwegian prefers hva to hvad, and hva for en to hvilken.

24. "Strong" verbs usually change the root vowel and take no end- ing: synge, sang, "sing, sang"; drikkc, drak, "drink, drank"; give,

gav (N. git ga) "give, gave".

1Q2 LANGUAGES OF THE GERMANIC GROUP

The supine ends in -et: elsket, "loved'*.

Compound tenses are formed by using "to have" with the supine: jeg har elsket, "I have loved"; jeg havde elsket, "I Lad loved".

The future is formed by using skal (plural skal or skulle) or vil (plural vil or ville) with the infinitive: jeg skal elske, or jeg vil elske, "I shall love"

The imperative usually has no ending in the singular: tall, "speak!"

The passive adds -5 or -es to active forms, dropping -r of the present: jeg kaldes, "I am called"; jeg kaldedes, "I was called"; der skrives meget i vor Tid, "much is written in our time".

Or it may be formed by using bliver (N. blir; past blev), or vcere ("to be"), with the past participle: jeg bliver elsket, jeg er elsket, "I am loved". "By" is expressed by af: Brevet blev sendt af Soldaten, "the letter was sent by the soldier".

IDENTIFICATION OF SWEDISH, DANISH AND NORWEGIAN

Swedish is more apt to use a, a, o; Danish aa, ae, 0; a mixture of the two series of symbols (a, ae, 0) usually in- dicates a Norwegian written document.

Swedish often uses -a endings where Danish and Nor- wegian use -e; this is particularly the case with the plural of nouns and adjectives, and in many verb-forms; Swedish and Norwegian often use final double consonants which in Danish regularly appear as single consonants.

Musical patterns distinguishing otherwise identical words are found in Swedish and, to a lesser degree, in Norwegian, but not in Danish, which uses a glottal stop instead.

Note the different written form of these extremely com- mon words, with Swedish and Norwegian using a final double consonant where Danish uses a single:

LANGUAGES OF THE GERMANIC GROUP

103

English Swedish Danish Norwegian

(where it diverges from Danish)

and och	Og
a (neuter) ett	et ett
not icke	ikke
av	af av
up upp	op opp
to till	til
to att	at d
COMMON PHRASES
	Swedish	Norwegian
good morning good evening	god morgon god kvall, god afton	god morgen god often
good night	god natt	god natt
good-bye	adjo	adj0 (D. far vel)
how are you?	hur stdr det till?	hvordan stdr det til?
well, thank you	tackt bra	godt, takk
please	var sd god och	veer sa snill a
you're welcome	ingen orsak	ingen drsak
		(D. jeg beder)
perhaps	kanske	kanskje (D. maaske)
here is	hdr ar	her er
there is	ddr ar	der er
where is?	var ar?	hvor er?
how do I go to . . ?	hur kommer man till?	hvordan kommer jeg til?
yes	ia	ja
no	nej	nei
very	mycket	me get
how much is it?	hur mycket kostar det?	hvor meget koster deft
why?	var for?	hvor for?
when?	ndr?	ndr?
now	nu	nn
always	alltid	aUtifi
where?	var?	hvor?
because	ddrfor att	fordi
today	i dag	idag
yesterday	i gdr	igdr
tomorrow	i morgon	imorgen

104

LANGUAGES OF THE GERMANIC GROUP

tonight	i natt, i kvdll	i aften, i kvell
to the right	till hoger	tilhfyre
to the left	till vdnster	tilvenstre
what time is it?	vad dr klockan?	hva er klokken?
it is 7 o'clock	den (or klockan) ar sju	klokken er sju
I'm hungry	jag ar hungrig	jeg er sullen
I'm thirsty	jag ar torttig	jeg er t0rst
I'm cold	jag fryser	jeg fryser
I'm warm	jag ar varm	jeg er varm
I'm ill	jag ar sjuk	jeg er syk
do you speak Swedish?	talar Ni svenska?	snakker De svensk?
what is your name?	vad heter Ni?	hva heter De?
certainly	ja visst	sikkert, javisst
give me	giv mig	gi meg
show me	visa mig	vis meg
tell me	tola om for mig	jortell meg
do you understand?	forstdr Ni?	for star De?
I don't understand	jag forstdr inte	jeg forstdr ikke
do you know?	vet Ni?	vet De?
I don't know	jag vet inte	jeg vet ikke
very little	mycket litet	me get lite
excuse me!	forldt ! , u rsdkta !	unnskyld!
don't mention it	ingen orsak	ingen drsak
what do you want?	vad onskas?	hva pnsker De?
never mind	det gor ingenting	det gj0r ikke noe
I'm sorry!	sd trdkigt!	beklager!
too had!	det var synd!	det var synd!
what is the matter?	hur ar det fait?	hva er i veien?
it's fine weather	det (ir vackert voder	del er godt veer
at home	hem ma	hjemme
come in!	srig in!, kom in!	komm inn!
stop!	si anna!	stopp!
listen !	hor pa!	htr!
look out!	xe upp!	veer forsiktig!
		(D. pas paa!)
your health!	Ml!	skdl!

LANGUAGES OF THE GERMAMC GROLP IQ5

ICELANDIC

ALPHABETIC NOTATION — as in English, but c, q, w do not appear in native words. Additional symbols: a, e, i, 6, u, y, ae, 6, d, J?.

SOUNDS.

Vowels bearing the accent mark are often long, or pronounced

as diphthongs (e. g., a = Eng. COM;). Vowels not bearing the

accent mark may be long or short.

Long e = yes (it is often spelled je: mer or mjer).

Short u = (approximately) French ieu; long u = Eng. moon.

Y, y = Eng. pin, machine, not French u, as in Swedish.

ae = five; 6 as in German.

d = Eng. baJ/ie; J? — Eng. thin.

g after a vowel and before i or j = Eng. y (kragi, "collar",

pronounced "krayi").

g at the beginning of a word and followed by e or i = gy

(gefa, "to give", pronounced "gyefa").

j = Eng. y.

r is trilled.

z = Eng. son.

A noteworthy feature of Icelandic pronunciation is the "interrupted" vowel; before kk, pp, tt, kl, kn, vowels are follow- ed by an h-sound (rjetta, "to hand", pronounced "ryeh-ta"; uppi, "up", pron. "uh-pi").

GRAMMATICAL SURVEY

Articles and Nouns.

No indefinite article is used: bdtur, "boat", "a boat".

The definite article is fully declined, whether it precedes or is suffixed to the noun. The latter is also fully declined. The four cases are: nominative, genitive, dative, accusative. Masculine, feminine and neuter gender appears. For the declension of a noun with suffixed article, cf. p. 89. The full declension of the prefixed article used if an adjective precedes the noun, is as follows:

LANGUAGES OF THE GERMANIC GROUP

Singular Plural

Masc. Fern. Neut. Masc. Fern. Neuter

Nom. hinn kin hid hinir hinar hin

Gen. kins hinnar hins hinna hinna hinna

Dat. hinum hinni hinu hinum hinum hinutn

Ace. hinn hina hid hina hinar hin

If the article is suffixed, its initial h- invariably drops out; also the i if the noun ends in a vowel, or after the -r of a nominative or accusative plural. The article is prefixed when an adjective stands before the noun, suffixed otherwise: factir, "father"; fadirinn, "the father"; hinn riki fadir, "the rich father".

Nouns of the three genders fall into various declensional schemes, of which the following are typical (the endings are given in the following order: Singular: nom., gen., dat., ace.; Plural: tiom., gen., dat., ace.): Generally for nouns ending in vowels:

Masculine: tirni, "time" • tim-i, -a, -a, -a; tim-ar, -a, -urn, -a; Feminine: tunga, "tongue" - tung-a, -u, -u, -u; tung-ur, -na,

-um, -ur;

Neuter: auga, "eye" • aug-a, -a, -a, -a; aug-u, -na, -urn, -u. Generally for nouns ending in consonants: Masculine: heimur, "world" - heim-ur, -s, -i, •; heim-ar, -a, -urn, •a (but many such nouns have -ar in the genitive singular, -ir or ur in the nominative plural) ;

Feminine: tid, "time" - tid, -ar, -, -; tid-ir, -a, -um, -ir (many have -ar or -ur in the nominative plural) ; Neuter: skip, "ship" - skip, -s, -i, -; skip, -a, -um, -.

There are numerous deviations from these schemes.

Adjectives.

These normally precede and agree with the noun they modify. They have a "strong" and a "weak" declension, according as they are used without or with the article. The "strong" declension employs different series of endings some- what akin to those of the nouns, while the weak, which is more commonly used, generally follows this scheme:

LANGUAGES OF THE GERMANIC GROUP

107

Singular Mas.

Plural

Nom. -i

Gen. -a

Dat. -a

Ace. -a

Fern.

-u -u

Neut.

-a

-a ~u for all genders and -a cases.

The comparative is formed by the addition of -ri or -an* (~ra or -ara in the neuter singular) ; the superlative by the addition of -star or -astur, feminine ~st or -ust, neuter -st or -ast; rikur, "rich"; rikari (neuter singular rikara)> "richer"; rikastur (fem. rikust, neut. 'rikast; fully declined, with a "strong" and a "weak" scheme), "richest".

The adverb usually ends in -a: vfdur, "wide", viday "widely".

Pronouns.

Personal.

Nom. Gen. Dat. Ace.

First Person Second Person

Singular Dual25 Plural Singular Dual Plural

vid vjer fid frid frjer

okkar vor f>in ykkar ydar

okkur oss fyer ykkur ydur

okkur oss frig ykkur ydur

leg -nin mjei mig

Nom. Gen. Dat. Ace.

Third Person Masc. Fem. Neuter Masc.

Singular hann hurt frad freir

Neuter

hans hennar fress honum henni frvi hann hana

Fem. Plural

fraer

freirra freirra f>eirra

feeim freim feeim

frd fraer frau

frau

25. The "dual" number refers to two: "we two", "you two".

JQg LANGUAGES OF THE GERMANIC GROUP

Possessive.

mm/i,26 "my", "mine" okkar, "our", "ours"

/>w/i,28 "your", "yours" ykkar, ydar, "your", "yours" hans, "his"

hennar, "her", "hers" />eirra, "their", "theirs" />ess, "its"

sinn* "his", "her", "their" (own)

Demonstrative.

i, />essi, />e#a, "this"; plural: fiessir, }>essar, fressi, "these"; sd, su, J>ad, "that'*; plural: f>eir, fcaer, f>au, "those". These demonstratives are fully 'declined ; only the nominative forms are given here, in the masculine, feminine and neuter.

Relative.

sem (indeclinable), "who", "which", "that" Interrogative.

Aver?, or hvor?, "who?", "whom?" hvad? (indeclinable), "what?" hvada? (indeclinable), "which?"

Verbs.

"to be": Present - er, ert, er, erum, erud, eru.

Past • var, varst, var, vorum, vorud, voru. "to have": Present - hefi, hefir, hefir, hofum, hafid, hafa.

Past - hafdi, hafdir, hafdi, Iwfdum, hofdud, hofdu.

The infinitive usually ends in -a or -/a: elska, "to love":

Present: elsk-a, -ar, -ar, -am, -id, -a.

Past: elsk-adi, -adir, -adi, 'umpn- LZmnpn- 'pnpn-

26. Fully declined; only the nominative masculine singular form is given here. The other possessives are invariable.

27. Strong verbs change the root vowel and add no ending: /tun, /an/i, *'find, found"; gef, gaf, "give, gave". Note that there are many other patterns besides the conjugational scheme outlined above.

LANGUAGES OF THE GERMANIC GROUP

Compound tenses are formed by combining hafa, "to have", with the supine, which frequently ends in -ad: hefi kallad, "I have called"; hafdi elskad, "I had loved".

The future is formed by combining munu or skulu with the infinitive: mun holla or skal kalla, "I shall call".

The imperative singular adds -a or has no ending; the imperative plural adds -id.

The passive is formed by adding -st, dropping the -r of active forms; kallast, "I am called". It may also be formed by using vera, "to be", or verda, "to become", with the past participle.

IDENTIFICATION

Written Icelandic is easily identified by its symbols ct, J?, which do not appear in any other modern language; also by the typical -ur ending of many masculine nouns and adjectives.

SAMPLES OF THE WRITTEN SCANDINAVIAN LANGUAGES — John 3.16

Swedish: Ty sa alskade Gud varlden, att han utgav sin enfodde Son, pa det att var och en som tror pa honom skall icke forgas, utan hava evigt liv.

Danish: Thi saaledes elskede Gud Verden, at han gav sin S0n den enbaarne, for at hver den, som tror paa ham, ikke skal fortabes, men have et evigt Liv.

Norwegian: For sa har Gud elsket verden at han gav sin S0nn,

den enbarne, forat hver den som tror pa ham, ikke skal for-

tapes, men ha evig liv.

Icelandic: J?vi ad svo elskadi Gud heiminn, ad hann gaf son

sinn eingetinri, til j?ess ad hver, sem a hann truir, glatist ekki,

heldur hafi eilift lif.

("For God so loved the world that he gave his only-begotten

Son, that whosoever believeth in him may not perish, but may

have everlasting life.")

/ ]Q LANGUAGES OF THE GERMANIC GROUP

DUTCH

ALPHABETIC NOTATION — as in English; q, x, y appear only in foreign words. Vowel quality (not length) is indicated by doubled vowels (moan, "moon", vs. man, "man").

SOUNDS

All vowels are short, save occasionally before r.

aa and a28 = father (raad, "advice );

ee and e28 = fate (heel, "hot") ;

oo and o28 = over (over);

ie and i28 = machine (ziek, "ill");

uu and u28 = French iu (wren, "hours");

a29 = cot (kat, "cat").

e29 = neck (nek)30.

o29 = coffee (koffie).

i29 = pit (pit).

u29 = buck (stuk, "piece").

oe = book (boek).

eu = French eu or German o (deur, "door").

au, ou, auw, ouw — how (paws, "pope"; oad, "old"; garni,

"quick"; vrouw, "woman", ei, ij = pain (hi/ zei, "he said"), ui = Fr. deuil.

28. The double vowel always has the value described above. For the single vowel, the value described normally occurs when the vowel is followed by a consonant which is followed by another vowel (ra-men, gelo-ven). There is no difference of sound between the aa of raam and the a of ramen, or between the oo of kool and the o of kolen. See also spelling rules on p. 111.

29. The second value described for the single vowel normally occurs when the following consonant is final in the word (gek), or when the vowel is followed by a double consonant (gek-ken) or by two different consonants (straf-te).

30. e — bacon, in prefixes (be-, ge-, ver-} ; in suffixes and inflectional endings (-en, -de, -ten, etc.); and in- articles (de, het, een).

LANGUAGES OF THE GERMANIC GROUP / / /

ieuw = leeway (nieuw, "new").

eeuw = wayward (leeuw, "lion").

g and ch = German ach, but more quickly and energetically

pronounced (gebrac/tt, "brought"), sch = s -f- Dutch ch; (scAip, "ship"); but in final position,

= Eng. hiss (flescA, "bottle"), j = yes (/ullie, "you"). sj = sure (als/eblieft, "please"), th = t (only in foreign words and contractions: jAee, "tea":

f/tuis, contraction for te huis, "at home"). v = sound intermediate between v and f (wol, "full"), w = wine (wijn, "wine").

A double vowel before a final consonant is usually spelt single when an ending beginning with a vowel is added (roam, "window", plural ramen) ; this does not reflect any change of sound.

A single final consonant following a single vowel as de- scribed in n. 29 is spelt double when an ending beginning with a vowel is added (gek, "crazy", plural gekken) ; this does not reflect any change of sound.

Final f and s usually change to v and z, respectively, when an ending beginning with a vowel is added, and this change in spelling does reflect a change in sound (huis9 "house", plur. huizen; duif, "dove", plur. duiven). Final -6 and -d are sounded as -p and -t, respectively.

The stress is usually on the first syllable (save for words with the prefixes be-, ge-, er-, her-, on-, ont-, ver-, which are never stressed).

GRAMMATICAL SURVEY

Articles and Nouns.

There are three genders, masculine, feminine and neuter; but many inanimate objects are masculine or feminine. The spoken language makes no distinction between masculine and feminine, the definite article de being used for both and re- maining uninflected in speech. The written language displays

Ill

LANGUAGES OF THE GERMANIC GROUP

traces of a case-system similar to that of German, with so-called "nominative", "genitive", "dative" and "accusative"; the spoken tongue, however, has reduced these forms to a state very similar to that of English.

The definite article is de for masculine and feminine singular nouns and for all plural nouns, het (*t) for neuter singulars.

The indefinite article is een (pronounced the /iew) for all nouns.

Proper names and some other nouns denoting persons have a genitive (or possessive) form ending in -5 or -es; this is often replaced by the uninflected noun preceded by van (the father's daughter, the daughter of the father: de vaders dockter or de dochter van de vader (colloquially, a form like de man zn dochter, the man his daughter, is sometimes heard).

While the written language has traces of an old dative, the spoken tongue indicates the indirect object exactly as En- glish does, either by placing it before the direct object (I have written Uncle John a letter, ik heb Oom Jan een brief geschre- ven; note the position of the participle) ; or by using the pre- position aan (I have written a letter to Uncle John, ik heb een brief aan Oom Jan geschreven).

The plural is formed in most cases by the addition of -67i, less frequently by that of -5 (-5 appears in the plural of nouns ending in -/e31, -el, -em, -en, ~aar, -ier, -er, -erd, -aard).

Adjectives.

The only inflectional ending of the adjective is -e: good, goed; the good man, de goede man.

An adjective used with a neuter singular noun does not take the -e unless the definite article or a demonstrative precede: een groot huis, "a large house"; het groote huis, "the large house".

If the adjective is used as a predicate it takes no ending:

31. -je is a diminutive suffix, conferring neuter gender upon all words to which it is added. Note also that in the word-list (pp. 119-121) neuter nouns are indicated thus: (n.).

LANGUAGES OF THE GERMANIC GROLP

het huis is groot, "the house is large"; de huizen zijn groot, "the houses are large".

Comparative and superlative are formed by adding -r (or -er) and -st, respectively: warm, warmer, warmst, "warm, warmer, warmest"; meer ("more") and meest ("most") may also be used.

The adjective without an ending is often used as an adverb: zij is mooi, "she is beautiful"; zij zingt mooi, "she sings beauti- fully". Note • 200 • als, "as - as"; niet zoo - ah, "not so • as"; dan, "than". See page 91 for Numerals (note: 14 - — veertien; 40 — veertig; 80 — tachtig), and note the following: drie paar handschoenen, "three pairs of gloves" ; vijf en dertig huizen, "35 houses"; (lit. "five and thirty"); zes voet hoog, "six feet high"; (lit. "six foot"); hoe laat is het?, "what time is it?"; (lit. "how late is it?"); het is zes uur, "it is 6 o'clock"; (lit. "it is six hour") ; het is lien minuten voor (over] zeven, "it is ten to (past)

seven"; het is half zes, "it is 5:30"; (lit. "it is half six").

Pronouns* Personal.

ik, 9k, "I" mi], me, "me"

fib je, U, "you"32 jou, je, V, "you" (obj.)

hij, "he" hem, "him"

32. Where alternative forms in ~ij, -e appear (wij, we], the first is more, the second less emphatic. For the second person "you", jij, je are used as familiar forms in the singular (je bent, "you are"; a singular "you", familiarly addressed) ; jullie and jelui are plural familiar forms, and take the verb in the second or third person plural {jullie hebt or hebben, "you have"; more than one person addressed, familiarly) ; the polite form of address is V with the second or third person singular of the verb, and no distinction between singular and plural (U bent or U is, "you are"; one or more people, politely ad- dressed) ; if a distinction between singular and plural is desired, use (Je dame*, "the ladies" or de heeren, "the gentlemen", with the third plural verb: de heercii hebben, "you gentlemen have".

I 14 LANGUAGES OF THE GERMANIC GROUP

zij, ze, "she" haar, "her"

het. 't, "it" ket, \ "U"

wij9 we, "we" ons, "us"

jullie, jelui, U, "you" jullie, jeiui, je, U, "you" (obj.j

zij, ze, "they" hen, "them"; hurt, "to them"

Possessive.

mijn, "my", "mine" onze, ons, "our", "ours"

jouw, "your", "yours" uw, "your", "yours" (plural possessor)

zi/n, "his" hun, "their", "theirs"

hoar, "her", "hers"

These appear without the article if they are used as adjectives, with the article if they are used as pronouns: mijn zusters en de uwe, "my sisters and yours"; dit boek is het mijne, "this book is mine".

Demonstrative.

deze, (neut. sg. dit), "this", "these" die, (neut sing, dot), "that", "those"

Interrogative and Relative.

ivelke?, "which?" (neut. sg. welk?)

wat voor een?, "what kind of?"

wie?, "who?"

wiens?, "whose?"

wat?, "what?"

die, (neut. sg. dot), "which", "that", "who", "whom"

wiens, "whose" (fern, and plural wier)

wie, "he who"

wat, "that which"

Note that wat changes to waar when used with a preposi- tion, and that the latter is suffixed: waarin, "in which", "wherein".

Note also: elkander, "each other"; zelf, "self; dezelfde (neuter hetzelfde), "the same"; zulk or zoo een (often contract-

LANGUAGES OF THE GERMANIC GROLP 775

ed to zoo'n), "such", "such a"; zich, "himself Y "themselves" ; iemand, "somebody"; lets, "something"; niets, "nothing"; then, "one", "they"; elk, "each"; ieder, "every"; iedereen, "everybody"; niemand, "nobody".

Verbs.

zijn or wezen, "to be": Present: ik ben, "I am"; jij bent (fam.), U is (polite), "you are"; hij, zij, het is, "he, she, it is"; wij, jullie, zij zijn, "we, you, they are". Past: singular was, plural war en.

hebben, "to have": Present: ik heb, jij hebt (U heeft), hij (zij, het) heeft; wij, jullie, zij hebben. Past: singular had9 plural hadden.

The infinitive normally ends in -en: voeren, "to lead".

The present indicative normally has no ending in the first person singular, -t in the second and third singular, -en in the plural: ik voer, "I lead", U voert, "you lead", hij voert, "he leads"; wij, jullie, zij voeren, "we, you, they lead".

The past has the endings -de (sg.), -den (plural): ik voerde, hij voerde, wij voerden, "I", "he", "we" "led". The d of the past ending becomes t if the root of the verb ends in -ch, -/, -k, -p, -t, -s or -sch: straff en, "to punish"; ik strafte, "I punished".83

The past participle normally ends in -d or -t (see above; also note 33), with the prefix ge-: voeren, "to lead", gevoerd, "led"; straff en, "to punish", gestraft, "punished".

Compound tenses are formed, as in English, by combining the verb "to have" with the past participle: hij heeft gebroken, "he has broken". But many intransitive verbs use "to be" as an auxiliary: hij is gestorven, "he has died"; ik ben geweest, "I have been".

33. Strong verbs change the root vowel and add no ending in the singular of the past; they also add -en in the past participle instead of -d or -t: breken, "to break", brak, "broke", gebroken, "broken"; drinken, "to drink", dronk, "drank", gedronken, "drunk"; geven, "to give", gaf, "gave", gegeven, "given".

lift LANGUAGES OF THE GERMAMC GROUP

The future is formed by using zal (plural zullen) with the infinitive: ih zal voeren, "I shall lead". The conditional is formed by using zou (plural zouden) with the infinitive: ik zou voeren, "I should lead".

The imperative singular consists of the simple root of the verb: voer!, "lead!"; for the plural, add -t (voert!).

The passive is formed by using worden, "to become", with the past participle; the present of worden is word (plural worden); the past is werd (plural werden): ik word gestraft, "I am punished"; zij werden door mij gestraft, "they were punished by me".

The negative is formed by using niet after the verb. Note the position of niet in the following examples: ik leer mijn les niet9 "I do not leani my lesson"; ik heb mijn les niet geleerd, "I haven't learnt my lesson".

IDENTIFICATION

Written Dutch is easily identified by its use of certain vowel groups: aai, ooi9 oei, eeuw, uw, auw, ouw, teuw, ij. Note that no accent marks or diacritic signs appear in standard modern Dutch. In the spoken language, perhaps the most characteristic trait is the guttural sound of g and of ch in the sch group; the latter is similar to a quick clearing of the throat immediately following an s-sound.

SAMPLES OF WRITTEN DUTCH AND AFRIKAANS

Dutch: Want alzoo lief heeft God de wereld gehad, dat Hij zijn eengeboren Zoon gegeven heeft, opdat een ieder, die in hem gelooft, niet verloren ga, doch eeuwig leven hebbe. Afrikaans: Want so lief het God die wereld gehad, dat Hy sy eniggebore Seun gegee het, sodat elkeen wat in Horn glo, nie vcrlore niag gaan nie, maar die ewige lewe kan he.

LANGUAGES OF THE GERMANIC GROUP

117

WRITTEN AND SPOKEN DUTCH EXPRESSIONS AND WORDS

Dutch shows a veiy pronounced difference between "written language" and "spoken language".34 The latter is not to be confused with slang; it is perfectly legitimate Dutch, spoken by well-educated people, who would feel silly or pedantic expressing themselves in the words of the written tongue (to cite an example from English, the literary "the fire was extinguished" would normally appear in speech as "the fire was put out"). Similarly, Dutch has two expressions for each of thousands of meanings. A few striking ones follow:

English

good morning

good afternoon

good evening

good night

good-bye

thank you

you're welcome

please

very gladly

perhaps

here is

there is

where is?

how do I go to - ?

Written Dutch

goeden morgen

goeden middag

goeden avond

goede nacht

vaarwel

ik dank U

tot Uw dienst

a/5 het U belief*

zeer gaarne

wellicht

alhier is

aldaar w, er w

waar is?

hoe ga ik naar •

Spoken Dutch

goeiemorgen

goeiemiddag

goeienavend

goeienacht

dag

dank U tvel

met te danken

alsjeblieft

heel graag

misschien

hier is

daar is, er is

waar is?

hoe kom ik naar - ?

34. The root of this difference lies in the fact that the -written lan- guage has its roots in the Flemish of Flanders and Brabant, which, down to the sixteenth century, were economically and politically, as well as culturally, on a higher plane than the provinces that today constitute Holland; but it is the dialects of the latter that gave rise to spoken Dutch. Reference has already been made to the declensional scheme of written Dutch, which resembles German, while spoken Dutch has discarded it, and achieved a grammatical structure some- what similar to that of English. In vocabulary, the differences are even more glaring. The formal expressions of the written tongue are jokingly referred to as stadhuiswoorden, "city hall words", or what Americans would describe as "three-dollar word?".

118

LANGUAGES OF THE GERMANIC GROVP

yes	ja, jawel	y*
no	neen	nee
how are you?	hoe gaat het met U?	hoe gaat 't ermee?
very well	zeer wel	heel goed
how much is it?	wat is de prijs?	wat kost *t?
why?	waarom, wes halve?	waarom?
when?	ivanneer?	wanneer?
where?	waar?	waar?
because	daar	omdat
today	heden	vandaag
tomorrow	morgen	morgen (silent -TI)
yesterday	gisteren	gisteren (silent -n)
now	thans	nu, nou
on the right	aan de rechterzijde	aan de rechterkant
to the right	naar rechts	rechtsaf
on the left	aan de linkerzijde	aan de linkerkant
to the left	uaar links	linksaf
straight ahead	rechtuit	rechtuit
what time is it?	hoe laat is het?	hoe laat is 9t?
it is now - o'clock	hei is thans • uur	*l is nu - uur
'm hungry	ih heb honger	'k heb honger
'm thirsty	ik heb dorst	9k heb dorst
'in cold	ik ben koud	'k heb Jt koud
'm warm	ik ben warm	'k heb *t warm
'm ill	ik ben ziek (ongesteld)	'k ben ziek
what's your name?	hoe is Uw naam?	hoe heet U?
my name is -	mijn naam is -	'k heet -
do you speak - ?	spreekt U ~ ?	spreekt U • ?
certainly	welzeker, zeker	zeker, en of! (and
		how! )
give me	geef mi)	geef me
let me see	toon mij	laat me - zien
tell me	zeg mij	vertel me
do you understand?	verstaat U?	begrijpt V?
I don't understand	ik versta (het) niet	ik begrijp 't niet
do you know?	weet U?	weet U?
I don't know (it)	ik weet (het) niet	'k weet (9t) niet
very little	zeer gering	heel weinig
excuse me	verschoon mij	pardon, neem me niet
		kwalijk
don't mention it	het beteekent niets	'/ beteekent niets
what do you want?	wat is er van Uw	wat wilt U?,
	dienst? . wat wenschl	wat blieft V?
	U?

LANGUAGES OF THE GKRMAN1C GROUP

119

it's fine weather	het is schoon weder	lekker weertje
never mind	het komt er niet op aan	9t komt er niet op aan
I'm sorry	ik betreur het	't spijt me
I'm glad	het verheugt mij	'k ben blij
too bad!	ocharme!	o jee!, 't is me toch,
		waff, yt is zonde!
what's the matter?	wot is er aan de hand?	wot scheelt eraan?
already	reeds	al
home	ivoning	huis (n)
wheel	rad (n)	wiel (n)
kiss	kus	zoen
brother	broeder	broer
to turn	wenden	draaien
face	gelaat (n)	gezicht (n)
to think	jneenen	denken
you	&1	jij* je
to marry	huwen	trouwen
food	spijs	eten (n)
gladly	gaarne	graag
to die	sterven, overlijden	doodgaan
beautiful	schoon**	mooi
but	doch	maar
to throw	iverpen	gooien
entirely	geheel	heelemaal
to get	ontvangen	krijgen
quickly	snel, vlug	gauw
soon	weldra	gauw
to try	pogen	probeeren
to leave	vertrekken	weggaan
to fiend	zenden	sturen
profession	beroep (n)	vak (n)
to show	toonen	laten zien
often	vaak	dikwijls
to weep	iveenen	huilen
bicycle	rijwiel (n)	jiets

ADDITIONAL WORDS AND PHRASES

waiter!, aannemen!

there's a wind blowing, 9t waait

it's raining, het regent

a cup of coffee,

9n kop (kopje) koffie come in!, binnen!

35. In spoken Dutch, this word means "clean".

720

LANGUAGES OF THE GERMANIC GROUP

knife, mes (n.) spoon, lepel fork, vork napkin, servet (n.) dish, bord (n.) meat, vleesch (n.) bread, brood (n.) wine, wijn milk, melk breakfast, ontbijt (n.) dinner, middagtnaal,

middageten (n.) supper, avondmaal,

avondeten (n.) woman, vrouw child, /cwd (n.) girl, meisje (n.) boy, jongen family, gezin (n.) war, oorlog peace, vrede army, /eger (n.) navy, vloot rifle, geweer (n.) soldier, soldaat enemy, vijand eye, oog (n.) elbow, elleboog mouth, mond ear, oor (n.) leg, been (n.) head, hoojd (n.) arm, arm finger, vinger tooth, neck,

hat. hoed

coat, /as

handkerchief, zakdoek

shoe, schoen

brush, borstel

sign, teeken (n.)

place, ptaats

interpreter, to/A;

language,

trouble,

hath, bad (n.)

match, lucifer

fire, r//wr (n.)

paper, papier (n.)

tree, />OO/M

cow, /roe

horse, paard (n.)

animal, rf/er, beest (n.)

city, sJffr/

village, f/orp (n.)

street, straat

way. f^pg

train, frem

newspaper, A;r«/if

shop, store, winkel

office, kantoor (n.)

money, geld (n.)

guilder, gulden

^4 guilder, kwartje (n.)

1/10 guilder, dubbeltje (

1/20 guilder, stuiver

work, werA; (n.)

church, A;erA;

country, /fl/i^/ (n.)

people, nation, volk (n.)

police, politic

LANGUAGES OF THE GERMANIC GROUP

III

box, doos

bag, zak

pack, parcel, pak (n.)

to live, leven

to work, werken

to put, zetten

to make, maken

to want, willen

to write, schrijven (ee-e)

to take, nemen (a-o)

to look, kijken (ee-e)

to stand, stoa/i (stond, gestaan)

to go, gaarc (gmg, gegaan)

to come, komen (kwam, geko-

men)

to say, zeggerc (zei, gezegd) to do, doerc (deed, gedaan) to see, zierc (zag, gezien) to eat, eferc (at, gegeten) to buy, koopen (kocht, gekocht) to keep, houden (hield, ge-

houden) to ask, vragen (vroeg, ge-

vraagd)

nice, aardig, leuk awful, erg strong, sterk tired, moe true, waar, echt wet, nat dry, droog empty, leeg alone, alleen other, ander dear, //e/ high, /zoog

low, laag

dark, donker

dirty, fwi7

difficult, moeilijk

dead, rfood

enough, genoeg

bad, slecht

young, /o/zg

old, owd

small, A/em

white, wit

green, groen

red, rood

yellow, geel

black, zwart

blue, blauw

brown, bruin

still, nog

always,

again,

very, erg

so, 200

also, ook

or, o/

for, u/0raJ

if, als

without, zonder

with, near, met, bij

through, door

to, towards, naar

at, oo/i

for, before, voor

on, op

against, tegen

of, from,

after, na

GERMAN 123

CHAPTER IV

GERMAN

SPEAKERS AND LOCATION

(All population figures are approximate)

Europe — Germany (including Austria and Sudeten areas) — 80,000,000; Switzerland — 3,000,000; scattered groups in Luxembourg, Belgium (Eupen and Malmedy), France (Alsace-Lorraine), Italy (Alto Adige, Asiago), Polish Corridor, Danzig, Russia (Saratov region and Ukraine), Roumania (Transylvania), Hungary, Yugo- slavia — perhaps a total of 5,000,000.

Used widely as a secondary language in the Nether- lands, Denmark, Norway, Sweden, Finland, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Yugoslavia.

As a cultural and commercial language, widely spoken and understood throughout Europe.

Africa — Language of former colonization in Togol&nd, Cameroon, Southwest Africa, Tanganyika.

Oceania — Language of former colonization in Bismarck, Caroline, Marianas, Marshall, Solomon Islands, Palau, New Guinea, Samoa.

Western Hemisphere — Spoken by several millions of German immigrants and their descendants in North and South America, particularly the U. S. A., Brazil (Sao Paulo, Rio Grande do Sul), Argentina, Chile.

As a cultural language, spoken and understood by some millions of people in North and South America.

124

GERM Aft

ALPHABET AND SCRIPT

31, S3, <E, 2, ®, & ©, $, 3, 3, *, 2, SR, W, O, *, O, 31, 6, S,

U, 8, 28, 3E, gf 3, «, C, ft.

a, b, c, b, e, f, g, f>, i, j, f, I, m, n, o, p, q, r, f (*), i, u, D,

to, t t), 3, o, 8, w, 6, <$, *, t

a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i, j, k, 1, m, n, o, p, q, r, s, t, u, v,

w, x, y, z, a, 6, ii, ss (sz), ch, ck, tz.

a b c

d e f

X /t

*>*

^ ty

*

(J? /?

J k

m

n

o

s u

V

w

y

z

GERMAN 125

/7 /7 ••

0€ (A, -vt>

Notes on f, 3, ff, fe, fe.

£ is used at the end of a word or stem-syllable; f in all other cases: eg, ttmS, aitdfadjen, tyutaii Sgetyen: but Btft, fetyen, ttnfiiro, Nofc, ftc^cn.

fe is regularly used for ss; it is however, changed to ff inside the word after a short vowel when an ending beginning with a vowel is added: ©rfjfofi, castle, pi. ©differ (short B) ; but Sufi, foot, pi. gftge (long it); ftoftcn, to push (long o), but hfftn, to let (short a).

t and 5 are always joined together (ty) : jftyt, now; tto^bent, although.

SOUNDS

Vowel sounds: usually short when followed by a double consonant: SBaffer, 33ctt, jpanb; otherwise long, especial- ly if doubled or followed by I): SSater, Soot, footy. Long Short

a = father (Sater) = aha (Staffer)

e = they (3cl)n) — met (gcnftcr)1

i = machine (i^nen) = pin (Bin)

o = bore (loBen) = son (boll)

u = rale (g«t) = pat (Gutter)

a = there (n)SI)Ien) = met (Scanner)

6 = sound intermediate between German o and German e; like French eu

(£^le) (iffncn)

u = sound intermediate between German u and German i; like French u

1. Final unstressed e ~ bacon (C£cfe).

GERMAN

au, en = toil (fifiufcr, trcii) ei = mine (*in) ie = machine (iriel)

Consonant sounds: B, b, f, I), (, m, n, p, q, t, £, approximate- ly as in English. c: before a, o, u, or consonant, = k (Safe, Sterne) ,

before e, i, a, 8 = ts (ffiicero, Cafar). d): after a, o, u = Scots loc/t (9Zad)t, furfjen) ; harsh guttural

sound; after e, i, or consonant = sound intermediate be-

tween k and sh (nidjt, mantf)) ; the nearest English equi-

valent is /mge. fl: when final, especially after e or i, pronounce like German

rf) as above; otherwise, like Eng. go. }: = Eng. yet (ja).

t: guttural, as in French, or trilled, as in Italian. f: at beginning of words, or between vowels = zeal (fefyen,

^ofe) ; before t and p at beginning of syllable — Eng.

shore, sure (|M)en, fpredjen) ; elsewhere, = Eng. sit

fd^r = Eng. shore

ti before vowels, = Eng. tsy (Cation).

t): = Eng. f (Sogcl).

ID: = Eng. v (tt)ir).

5: = Eng. ts in hearts (fictj).

Sounds not appearing in native German words: all English vowel sounds outside of the above listed; chair, /est, plea- sure, thin, this, u>ater, American r. German sounds not appearing in English: o, ii, arf), id), German v.

CAPITALIZATION, SYLLABIFICATION, ACCENTUATION, PUNCTUATION.

Use capitals for all nouns, proper or common (ber ba« 8ett); also for <&it (polite "you") 3^r (polite "your"). Do not use capitals for ic^ ("I"), or for adjectives of nationali-

GERMAN 127

ty, unless used as nouns (eitt £>eutfd)er, "a German"'; ein bcutf^cr Shurie, "a German boy").

Divide compound words according to their component parts (fjm-au£, ^ten§4ag) ; otherwise, a single consonant sound between two vowels goes with the following vowel, not with the preceding ( Sii-d)**, ci-nen).

The accent regularly falls on the first syllable of the word, save in words having as a prefix &e-, etnp- ent-, et-, ge-, tmft-, toer-, jcr. (anfangen, arbeiten, 8ncf)ftabe; but befannt, gntttritflung, gefjflrt, aerfcredljen).

Use commas to set off subordinate clauses: ber 2Rantt, ber biefett Srief gcfrfjrie&en Ijat, tft angefommen, "the man who wrote this letter has arrived".

Use exclamation mark in imperative sentences and at the beginning of letters: Sommen ©te tyer!, "Come here"; »url!, "Dear Charles,".

SAMPLE OF WRITTEN GERMAN; USE FOR PRACTICE READING.

toirflidj fo. ®er ©enerol luufetc e§ bcnn audj bereit^ feit ga^ei Sagen: e£ luaren brei gcille t)on 3fafluenaa unter ben ©olbaten au^gebrod^en. 9Kan fjatte etft an ^pi^Iag gebadjt; bie Seute tcaren in einem a^anooer getue- fen, bie @onn« I)atte ^eife gebrannt, al^ fd)offe jie tntt mxirbet. ifd^eti $fei(en. 9lber nun f^iittelten bie State bie fatten fidj bie SerlS nut bie itranf^eit ge^olt? aufeerl^alb be§ 2ager§. 3)ie ftrengften SlbfperrungSmafetegeln rourben auf ber Stelle burcf)gefiil)rt. Urtaiib gab'£ uid)t mel)X; fein ©olbat burfte ba3 Sager t)erlaffen; bie $often luurben t>er. boppelt; f einem gremben toutbe e§> erlaubt, einen ©olbaten su befud^en. 3luf biefe 2Beife fud^te man, bie 9Serbreitung ber

J28 GERMAN

GRAMMATICAL SURVEY

1. Nouns and Articles.

German has three genders, masculine, feminine and neuter. Nouns denoting males are usually masculine, those denoting females feminine. Nouns which in English are neuter, however, may be masculine or feminine in German (ber SBfffI, "the spoon", masculine; btc Gtofcel, "the fork", feminine; bad "the knife", neuter). Nouns with the diminutive suffixes -c and -Icin must be neuter even if they indicate persons (bad 9ttabd)en, "the girl"; bag graulcm, "the miss", "the young lady", both neuter). Abstract nouns are usually feminine (bic Stebe, "love"; bic grctljctt, "freedom", both feminine). Learn nouns with their respective articles, bcr for masculines, bic for fern- inines, bad for neuters.

There are four cases in German, nominative, genitive, dative and accusative. The nominative and the accusative cor- respond, respectively, to the English subjective and objective; the genitive indicates possession and often translates the Eng- lish "of", while the dative translates "to" with verbs of saying, giving, etc.2

Definite Article ("the")

	Masc. Sg.	Fern. Sg.	Neut. Sg.	PL
Norn.	bcr	bie	bad	bic
Gen.	bed	bcr	bed	ber
Dat.	bent	bcr	bem	ben
Ace.	ben	bie	bad	bie

2. "To" indicating motion towards, however, is usually translated by a preposition (nad) with the dative, Qttf with the accusative, etc.), while "to" meaning "in order to" is translated by urn.... 511 : id) flef)e nttd) £aufe, in bic Sdjute, auf bad ficmb, "I am going home, to school, to the country"; id) bin ftcfommcn, urn ben Srtcf 3tt fdjmfcen, "I came to write the letter". Note also: mewed SaterS (**elb, "my father's money", or boS QJctb mcincS 93ater$, "the money of my father"; tdj gob bcm Shtafcen (dat.) etnen pfennig (ace.), " I gave the boy a penny".

GERMAN 129

Indefinite Article ("a", "an")

Masc. Fern. Neut.

Nom. cin cine ciit

Gen. cine£ cincr eined

Dat. cincm cincr cincm

Ace. cincn cine cin

Declension of Nouns.

In the genitive singular, most masculine and neuter nouns add -S (-e£ if monosyllabic; a few masculines ending in -t add •it), while feminine nouns remain unchanged: ber 33rnber, "the brother", be$ $rnber3, "of the brother", "the brother's"; ber Sttann, "the man", beg Cannes, "of the man", "the man's"; bet Stta&e, "the boy", be$ SnaBen, "of the boy", uthe boy's"; bte Sodjter, "the daughter"; ber Softer, "o* the daughter"; bte 3*ftti, "the woman", ber gran, "of the woman".

The dative and accusative singular usually have the same form as the nominative >3 i>em SBrubet, "to the brother", ben Sritber, "the brother" (obj.); bent TOann(e), "to the man", ben sJfltann, "the man" (obj.); ber Xod)ter, "to the daughter", bte Softer, "the daughter".

Plural endings are: nothing or -e (with or without umlaut) ; •er (with umlaut if the vowel permits); -en (without umlaut). Nouns that have the first three plural endings take on an ad- ditional -it in the dative plural: Stuber, plural nom. bte SJrilber, gen. ber Sritber, dat. ben Sriibern, ace. bte Sriiber; 3Wann, pi. nom. bte banner, gen. ber Stfoitner, dat. ben SWannern, ace. bte aWfinner; Xorfjter, plural i. m. bte ^djrer^etx. ber tiller, dat. ben toefjtern, ace. bte Xiidjrer; 2?an%«^lural Sa'nfe in nom., gen.

3. In nouns of one syllable, addition of -t is customary in the dative: bem ajJann or bem 9)Janne, "to the man". Nouns that add -n in the. genitive do so also in the dative and accusative: bem &na6en, "to the boy"; ben ftnoben, "the boy" (obj.).

GERMAN

and ace., $anfen in dat.; 23oot, plural SBootc, with Stouten in the dat.; gran, plural grauen; 23ctt, plural Eetten.4

2. Adjectives and Adverbs.

The adjective usually precedes the noun, and is declined. The ending of the adjective is determined by the presence or absence of a declensional ending on a preceding word, such as the definite or indefinite article, the demonstrative and possessive adjectives. If such preceding word has no ending, or if there is no preceding word, the adjective takes an ending in accordance with the following scheme:5

Masc. Sg. Fern. Sg. Neut. Sg. Plural (all genders)

Norn, -cr -e .e£ -e

Gen. -en -cr -en -cr

Dat. -cm -cr -cm -en

Ace. -en -c -eS -c

9Jtanrl) guter sJJJann, 'bmany a good man" (wand) is indeclin- able in this use, and has no ending; hence the adjective flttt takes on the masc. sg. -er ending); twelrf) flnteS Sinb! "what a good child!" (toelrf) has no ending, hence gut takes on the neuter sg. -e3) ; cin jnngeS SRibdjcn, "a young girl" (ehi, in the neuter singular form, has no ending; hence juitfled) ; bic @ibe

4. Nouns given in the vocabulary appear, with their article, in the nominative singular form; the genitive singular ending, if any, fol- lows; then the nominative plural ending, if any, with indication of umlaut where the latter occurs; from these key forms, the entire declension of the noun can be determined; thus bcr SBtltbct, -8, " — ; this indicates -9 in the genitive singular, no plural ending, save the universal -n in the dative plural, but umlaut throughout the plural; bic ttlfr, — , -en; this indi ates a single form throughout the singular, -en and no umlaut throughout the plural.

For practical purposes, don'i be too terrified about making a mistake in an ending or gender; the chances are you will still be understood, and probably corrected; the Germans themselves oc- casionally make a slip of this kind.

5. This set of endings, characteristic of adjectives and most pro- nouns, is worth memorizing.

GERMAN IJl

giitcr banner, "the oaths of good men" (there is no article or pronoun preceding gnter, which therefore takes the -er genitive plural ending).

If the preceding word has a declensional ending, the ending of the adjective is -e in the nominative singular mascu- line, feminine and neuter, and in the accusative singular femi- nine and neuter, -en in all other cases: ber gute 9Wann, "the good man" (ber has characteristic masc. sg. nom. ending, hence the weak -c instead of the strong -cr is used for 8«t) ; jebe$ beutfdje SSWabrfjen, "every German girl" (-e3 on jebeS; therefore only -c for the adjective); jcneg gttte Sltnb, "tliat good child"; meine£ gnten JBrnberS, "of my good brother" (-eS on the posses- sive, therefore -en on the adjective) ; enter frfjihten Strut, "of or "to a beautiful woman" (-cr of article causes the adjective to take weak -en instead of strong -cr ending) ; bit SBorte ber ta^feren Solbaten, "the words of the brave soldiers" (ber causes ''brave" to take on -Ctt; if the expression were "the words of brave soldiers", ber would disappear, and ta^fcren would change to tajjferer). Remember again that for practical purposes an error of ending is usually inconsequential.

The predicate adjective is invariable, and takes no ending: bte Wanner ftnb gnt, "the men are good"; bte 3Wabdjen finb fd)fln, "the girls are pretty".

The invariable adjective without any ending is generally used as an adverb: er ift flttt, "he is good"; cr lernt flitt, "he learns well".

The comparative and superlative are formed by adding -er (-r) and -eft (-ft), respectively, usually with umlaut: alt, "old", alter, "older", dlteft, "oldest"; fnra, "short"; Wr3er, "shorter"; fiirseft, "shortest"; fret, "free", fteter, "freer", freieft, "freest". Comparative and superlative adjectives are regularly declined: etn fiirjereS Snrfj, "a shorter book"; bed freieften StaateS, "of the freest state".6

6. When used after the verb "to be", without a clause or phrase following, the superlative is preceded by am instead of the definite article, and takes the ending -en: btefeS £a«§ tft am Jjfldjften, "this

GERMAN

3. Numerals.

a) Cardinal (indeclinable outside of cin (for which see p. 129), and

1 — ein (em3 when not 13 —

followed by noun) 14 — tticr£tfjtt

2__ atoet 15 — fiiitfac^

3 — brei 16 — fed)Selnt

4 — trier 17 — fi

5 — fihif 18 —

6 — fedjS 19 — neunjetjn

7 — fte&en 20 —

8 — ac^t 21 —

9 — ncitn 22 —

10 — ttfn 30 — brct^tg

11— df 40 —

12 — snJiJIf 50 —

60 — fecfoig 70 — fic 80 —

90 — ncunjtg 100 — fumbert 200 — srtietJiwtbert 1000 — taufenb 5000 — fiinftaitfenb 1,000,000 —cine 3,000,000 ~ brct

house is the highest"; but biefeS $nu$ ift bnS P^ftc tn bet @tabt, uthis house is the highest in the city".

Note: c&cnfo »ote, "as as"; aI8, "than"; btefe Slrbett ift

ebenfo fe^mcr n>ie bie beintge, "this work is as hard as yours"; mettte SHrfcett tft fr^werer nl§ bie betntge, "my work is harder than yours".

GERMAN ]33

b) Ordinal (add -tc to cardinal up to 20th, save for ex- ceptions below; -fte from 20th on; ordinal numerals are declined like adjectives).

1st — ber erfte 8th — ber arf)tc

2nd — ber jtoette 10th — ber

3rd _ ber brUte 12th — ber

4th — ber toterte 20th — ber

5th _ ber filnfte 100th — bev fjunberftc

c) Others.

btc £alftc (noun), fatf (adjective), "half: bic .fcfflftc bed Sue^eS, "half of the book"; cine ^alfce £eite, "half a page" ctnmal, "once"; Sttieimal, "twice"; bretmal, "three times"; Intrbcrtntrtl, "a hundred times"; ba£ crfte 9RaI, "the first time"; giitoetlcn, "sometimes"; nnbertfjalfc, "one and a half"; breieinijrilb, "three and a half".

cin Wa& Gaffer, "a glass of water"; cine £«ffe Saffec, "a cup of coffee"; fte&en $f«nb &IeiM», "seven pounds of meat"; jttJet ^)n^enb Gter, "two dozen eggs"; brei $«ft ^orf), "three feet high"; »oll ^nrtoffern, "full of potatoes".

4. Pronouns. a ) Personal.

Singular

Norn, id), "I"; bu, "you"7; er, "he"8; fte, "she"8; e§, "it"8 Dat.9 mtr, "to me"; bir, "to you"; t^m, "to him"; ifjr, "to her";

if)m, "to it" Ace. mtrf>, "me"; bir^, "you"; if)n, "him"; fte, "her"; e$, "it"

7. In polite address, singular or plural, use <5ic (nom. and ace.), 31)»cn (dat.), with the third person plural of the verb: bu &ift gut, "you are good", familiar singular; ifyr feib flitt, "you are good", fa- miliar plural; <Sie ftnb gut, "you are good", polite singular or plural.

8. The German pronoun must be of the same gender as the noun it stands for: trf) !)n&e ben &if# gegeffcn; er ift gut, "I have eaten the fish; it (lit. "he"; 3HW is masculine in German) is good.

9. The genitive is omitted, as it is usually supplied by the possessive ad j ective-pronoun.

GERMAN

Plural

Norn, twr, "we"; iijr, "you"7; fie, "they" (all genders) Dat. iinS, "to us"; cud), "to you"; itjnen, "to them" Ace. uitf, "us"; end), "you"; fie, "them"

An object pronoun, dative or accusative, follows the verb; in compound tenses, it is placed immediately after the auxi- liary; if two object pronouns are used together, the accusative conies before the dative: er 5eigt e£, 4'he shows it"; cr Ijat e£ mir nirijt flcseigt, "he did not show it to me".

If the pronoun in English is the object of a preposition and refers to things (not to persons), omit it altogether in German and use instead ba(r) combined with the preposition: barauf, "on it"; barauS, "out of it"; bamit, "with it"; but tnit iljm, "with him".

b) Possessive.

mem, "my", "mine" unfer,

bein, "your", "y°urs" eiier, "your"

fein, "his", "its" tjr, "their", "theirs"

i$r, "her", "hers" 3**, "your", "yours" (polite,

singular or plural)

When used as adjectives before the noun, these possessives are declined like cm (p. 129): id) Ijabc rncineu $ut niri)t, "I haven't my hat"; id) fja&e c« nteinem $ater gegeben, "I gave it to my father".

When used as pronouns, they usually take the definite article and are declined like adjectives in a "weak" position (p. 131); that is to say, they take -en throughout, save in the nominative singular of the three genders and in the accusative feminine and neuter, where the ending is -e. They may also insert -tg- before these endings: bicfc SMidjer imfc bie betncn (or bic beinigcn) "these books and yours"; fyer ift mem $ut, aber ben 3$tcn (or ben 3ftrtgcti) ^nn id) nic^t ftnben, "here's my hat, but I can't find yours".

GERMAN

c) Demonstrative.

biefer, "this", "these*'; jcncr, "that", "those". They are declined like the definite article ber (p. 128), save thai the neuter singular nominative and accusative has -Cd instead of -&$ (btcfe^ jeneS).

bcrfclbe, "the same", bcr^cntfic, "the one", are declined as though article and adjective were separate: bcmfddcn 9Jianne, "to the same man"; bicjentflcn nitf bem Xtfrijc, "the ones on the table". "The one" may also be expressed by bcr, bte, ba$, but in this meaning the genitive forms are bcffcn (masc. and neut. sg.), bcren (fern, sg.), bcrcr (plural), and the dative plural is bcncn. bcr or Uidd)cr, "who", "which", "that".

d) Relative.

The relative ber is declined like the definite article, but with a genitive beffen for masc. and neut. sg., and bcrcn for fem. sg. and all plurals, and a dat. plural bcncn. 38cld)cr is declined like the definite article, but with -c£ in neuter nom. and ace. (UicIrijeS) : bo§ £an§, &aS (or wdrijcS) iff) ncfauft fyabe, "the house I bought"; btc Rran, bte (or tteldjc) irf) faf), "the woman I saw"; bcr finnfcc, bcffcn ,<pnt id) fanb, "the boy whose hat I found"; bcr ,$elb? ben (or mc(d)cn) id) fcnnc, "the hero whom I know". Note that the relative pronoun must be used in German, even where it is understood in English. toa£, "what", "that" (the latter meaning only after neuter adjectives and pronouns): id) faJ), n)a£ bn gctan fyaft, "I saw what you did"; ba$ 23cfrc, uiaS td) t)abc, "the best I have". It is also used after ctnwS (something), nUc§ (everything), ntd)t3 (nothing) : allc§, ma§ bn fjafr, "all that you have".

When the English relative pronoun follows a preposition and refers to objects (not to persons), it is customary to omit the relative and use. instead roo(r), combining it with the preposition: ba§ ,$ait3, toorin id) twolntc, "the house in which I live" (ba£ #nit$? in bent id) nm()itc is permissible).

e) Interrogative.

nicr (gen. tticffcn, dat. nictn, ace. nicn), "who?", "whose?", "whom?"; nicr f)at c^ flctrtn?, "who did it?"; tucm Ijnft bn melticn

GERMAN

,$ut gegebeii?, "to whom did you give my hat?; n»en tyaft bu gefdjen?, "whom did you see?"; toeffen £ut ift bag?, "whose hat is that?"

nm£, "what": uwS Ijaft bu gefeften? "what did you see?" (as object of preposition, referring to things, use H)o(r); luontit fjaft bu e$ gctan?, "with what did you do it?")

(declined like the relative melrfjer), "which?": tueldjeS mcinen Sic?, "which book do you mean?" fiir cin, "what kind of?": nw$ ftir einen $ut trug cr? "what kind of a hat was he wearing?" (omit cin in the plural: tuaS fiir SBaffcn finb baS? "what kind of weapons are those?"

5. Verbs.

German verbs fall into two categories, "weak" and "strong". The weak verbs form their past tense by the addition of endings and effect no change in the root vowel, while the strong generally add no ending in the first and third persons singular, and regularly change the vowel of the root. In the past participle, weak verbs add -(c)t, strong verbs -en. Some strong verbs also effect a change in the root vowel of the present tense, in the second and third persons singular. Verbs appearing in the vocabulary are given only in the infinitive form if weak (e. g. Itcfcen) ; if strong, the third person singular of the present is given, if a root-vowel change appears in the second and third singular (remember that whatever root-vowel change appears in the third singular appears also in the second singular) ; also the past, first person singular, and the past participle (e. g. foremen, ftrirfjt, tyracf), fleftn*0d)en) ; if no root-vowel change occurs in the present, only the infinitive, past and past participle are given (e. g, fcrmgen, bradjte, gebraefjt; finbcn, fanb, gefunben).

The infinitive regularly ends in -nt: Iteben, "to love"; fefjen, "to see"; tyredjen, "to speak".

The present participle regularly ends in -enb; IteBenb. "loving"; gefyenb, "going". It is most frequently used as an adjective, and agrees with the noun it modifies: tin burd) bit etabt fliegenfcer glufi, "a river flowing through the city". It

GERMAN

is never used with the verb "to be", as in Eng. "I am going", "I was going"; translate such expressions by the ordinary present or past: id) cjcfjc, id) fling. The Eng. "do" of questions is likewise omitted: felje id)?, "do I see?"

1. Present Indicative (meaning: I love, am loving, do love)

Weak: Itcbcn, "to love" Strong: feljen, "to see"

id) lieb-c. 1 love id) fefy-e, I see

bn lieb-ft,10 you love (fam. sg.) bn ficfj-ft, you see

cr Iieb-t,10 he loves cr fiefj-t, he sees

tt)ir Iicb-cn? we love uiir fefj-en, we see

iljr Iteb-t,10 you love (fam. pi.) iljr fcf)-t, you see

fie lieb-cn, they love fie fetj-cn, they see

Ste Itcb-en, you love (pol. sg. or pi.) £ic fct)-en, you see (pol.

sg. or pi.).

Irregular:11 fein, "to be" fjabcn, "to have"

id) bin, I am id) fjabc, I have

bn bift, you are (fam. sg.) bn Ijaft, you have (fam. sg.)

cr ift, he is er Ijar, he has

niir finb, we are toir fjobcn, we have

ifjr feib, you are (fam. pi.) H)r Ijafit, you have (fam. pi.)

fie finb, they are fie Ijaben, they have

10. A few verbs the stem of which ends in a cluster of consonants require the insertion of -c- before the -ft of the second singular and the -t of the third singular and second plural: marten, bit tonrteft, er uwrtct, ilnr ttwrret.

11. The so-called modal auxiliaries (for the use of which see p. 142) biirfcn, "may", "be permitted"; Wnnen, "can", "be able"; mSgcu, "may", "like to"; miiffen, "must", "have to"; foHen, "shall", "to be to"; tuoHen, "will", "want to" are conjugated like regular weak verbs in the plural of the present indicative and throughout the past; in the singular of the present they take the following forms: bttrfen - barf, barfft, barf; fiinnen - fn mi, tonnfi, famt; tnflgen - man, tnaflft, mag; mftffen - mitf}, nnifit, mug; fatten - foil, fottft, foil; molten - mi H, tmttft, toUf.

2£erben, "to become", used as an auxiliary in the formation of the future and of the passive, has tuerbe, totrft, nrirb, with a past ttwrbe.

GERMAN

2. Past Indicative12 (meaning: I was seeing, used to see) Weak: iieben

id) lieb-te, I used to love

bu lieb-teft, you used to love

er lieb-te, he used to love

nrir lieb-ten, we used to love

tijr lieb-tet, you used to love

fie lieb-teu, they used to love

2ie lieb-ten, you used to love (polite)

Strong, fetjen

id) .fafy, I was seeing, used to see

Uu fa()ft, you were seeing

er fat), he was seeing

roir fafjen,, we were seeing

ifyr fafyt, you were seeing

fie faljen, they were seeing

Sie faljett, you were seeing (pol.)

Irregular: fcin I)aben

td) loar, I was, used to be td) Ijotte, I had, used to have

bu ttmrft, you were (fam. sg.) iw Ijatteft, you had

er ttmr, he was cr fyattc, he had

toir tuaren, we were toir fatten, we had

iljr mart, you were (fam. pi.) M)t fjattet, you had

fie toaren, they were ftc I)attett3 they had

3. Future (meaning: I shall speak) and Conditional (mean- ing: I should speak)

The future is formed by combining the present of luerben, "to become", with the infinitive; the conditional by the past

12. The German past (t# Hefcte, id) fnfc) generally indicates the sort of continued or repeated past action that English normally indicates by using "used to" or "was" with the present participle. The normal English past ("I loved", "I saw") is best translated by the German present perfect, which translates also the English present perfect: irtll fcafre fleliefct, "I loved" or "I have loved"; t# fabe flcfeljen, "I saw" or "I have seen".

GERMAN 139

subjunctive of toerbcn with the infinitive. The infinitive stands at the end of the clause: id) toerbe biefeS 23udj nidjt Jefen, "I shall not read this book"; id) tuilrbc Iteiitfd) tyredjett, toenn t& Ietrf)ter ttmre, "I should speak German if it were easier".

Future

id) toerbe foremen, I shall speak

bu toirft tyredjen, you will speak

cr totrb tyredjen, he will speak

roir toerben farcrijen, we shall speak

iljr tterbct tyrcdjcn, you will speak

fie ttJerben tyrcrijcn, ihey will speak

Conditional

id) twirbe fpredjcn, I should speak

bu toiirbeft f^rerijen, you would speak

cr luiirbe tyrcdjcit, lie would speak

roir ttiiirbcrt fprcrijcn, we should speak

itjr tnurbct f^rerijcn, you would speak

fie ttiiirbcn f|jreri)cu, they would speak

4. Compound Tenses (meaning: I have, had, shall have, should have spoken)

These are formed, as in English, by using the auxiliary ("to have") with the past participle; the latter stands at the end of the clause or sentence: tdj tyabc bcutcn SBruber ttirfjt flcfcfjen, "I didn't see your brother". Many intransitive verbs indicating motion (flefyen, "to go", fommen, "to come", etc.) and change of state (fter&en, "to die", luerben, "to become"), also fern, "to be" and BIctBcn, "to remain", use few, ("to be") as an auxiliary instead of Ija&eit: id) Bin flcgangen, "I went"; cr toar gefommen, uhe had come"; fie if* flcUwben, "she has become"; finb Sie gen)efcn?, "have you been?"; such verbs are indicated in the vocabulary thus: fummen, fam? rjcfommen

(fein)-

The past participle ends in -(e)t in the case of weak verbs, -en in the case of strong verbs; with gc- prefixed in both cases unless the accent fails to fall on the initial syllable (see page 127) : licfceu, p. p. (Ktte&r; (jaOcn. p. p. flefja&f ,• fcftcn. p. p.

140

GERMAN

gefefjtn; fein, p. p. geuicfen. The past participle used with an auxiliary is invariable, but if it is used as an adjective, it agrees with its noun: em gut gefdjriebeneS $ud), "a well written book". Present Perfect: id) fjabe geliebr, "I have loved", "I loved"; irf> fjabc gefcfjen, "I have seen", "I saw"; id) bin gegangen, "I have gone", "I went"; id) bin getocfen, "I have been", "I was". Past Perfect: id) fatte geforpdjen, "I had spoken"; id) fjotte gdobt, "I had praised"; id) mar fleluefen, "I had been"; id) W«r gcgangcn, "I had gone".

Future Perfect: id) tterbe fleltcbt f)aben, "I shall have loved"; id) mcrbc geroefen fein, "I shall have been". Perfect Conditional: id) tottrbe gcfetyen fjaben, "I should have seen"; id) tuftrbc gegangcn fein, "I should have gone".

5. Imperative (meaning: see!)

The second singular (familiar singular) normally is the same as the second singular of the present with the final -ft removed:13 $B«! or fjBr! (from pren), "listen!"; fte$!, "see!" (second singular present of feljcn is ftetyft).

The second plural (familiar plural), and the polite form with Sie have the same form as the corresponding persons in the present: liebt!, lieben Sic!, "love!", fetjt!, feljen @te!, "see!"

"Let us" is translated by lag (fam. sg.), tofjt (fam. pi.) or iaffen Sir, followed by «n§ and the infinitive: lag ttn* geljen, "let us go"; laffen @te nn§ f^rer^en, "let us speak".

6. Reflexive verbs.

The reflexive is more extensively used in German than in English.14 The reflexive pronouns are the same as the

13. Exceptional is fet!, "be!", from fein (2nd sg. present btft).

14. E. g., fid) frciteit, "to rejoice": idj freue nit ft, bit frettft btft, cr freut fift, etc. The reflexive is also generally used in expressions referring to parts of the body, which take the definite article instead of the possessive, and a dative reflexive pronoun with the verb; tft babe mir bad $ein flebroften, "I broke my leg" (lit. "I broke the leg to myself).

GERMAN

accusative pronouns (mirij, bid), unS, end)), save in tlie tliird person, where fid) is used for both numbers and all genders. The dative pronoun is occasionally called for by the sense of the expression (fid) benfcn, "to imagine"; literally, "to think to oneself"), and in this case the dative pronouns are used (roir, bir, un$, cud)), but fid) is still used in the third person.

7. Passive.

The passive voice is formed by using Werben ("to be- come") with the past participle;15 id) toerbe geliefct, "I am loved"; id) nwrbe flelteBt, "I was loved"; id) toerbe geliefct luerben, "I shall be loved"; id) bin geliefct roorben,16 "I have been loved"; id) fear gelie&t foorben, "I had been loved"; id) toerbe geliebt rtiorben fetn, "I shall have been loved".

"By" is normally translated in the passive by toon wjth the dative: id) toerbe toon meiner TOntter gelieftt, "I am loved by my mother".

Wan ("one", "somebody") with the active often replaces the passive when the doer of the action is not expressed: ntan fragte bid), you were asked"; l)ier ftmdjt man $)ent}d), "German is spoken here".

8. Subjunctive.

The German subjunctive has six tenses, one corresponding to each tense of the indicative. Its forms frequently coincide with those of the indicative; in the present tense and past tense the endings are normally -e, -eft, .c, -en, -et, -en, and in the past tense of strong verbs there is a tendency to take umlaut wher- ever possible (Pres. Subj. of fef)en: fefj-e, -eft, -e, -en, -et, -en; Past Subj. faf)-e -eft, -e, -en, -et, -en). The subjunctive is often

15. Distinguish carefully between the two uses of toerben as an auxiliary: with the infinitive to form the future (id) toetbe fcfcen, "I shall see"), and with the past participle to form the passive (td| tuerbe gefefjen, "I am seen"). In the future passive, both uses appear (i<$ merbe gefefjen merbeit, "I shall be seen").

16. The normal past participle of werfcen is geworben, but the form toorben is used instead in the formation of the passive.

GERMAN

used in subordinate clauses, especially after verbs of saying, thinking, asking, and the like: cr glaiibtc, bag tdj franf fci, "he thought I was ill"; cr foflte, baf? id) fein ®clb f)attc, "he said I had no money". Using the indicative instead of the subjunctive form is not an unforgivable crime.17

9. Modal Auxiliaries.

See note 11 for the conjugation of these verbs. In their compound tenses, these verbs use a form which resembles the infinitive instead of the past participle: id) toerbe tyredjett biitfcn (instead of flcbnrft), "I shall be allowed to speak"; id) Ijafcc frfjreiBen fihumt (instead of gcfomtt), "I have been able to write".

In translating the English "will", tuotten normally in- dicates willingness, tuerben simple futurity: cr totrb tnorgett fdjrdfcen, "he will write tomorrow"; but ttrittft bu ftir tnidj arfietten? "will you work for me?"; niollen ttrir jc^t ttadj ^atife gcfjctt?, "shall we go home now?"

3Ri)gen, especially with flcrn, has the meaning of "to be glad to, happy to": trf) ntafl octn ntit Sljuett (jeften, "I'll gladly go with you".

10. Prefixes.

Verbs compounded with the prefixes Bc-? ent£-? ent-, cr-, flc-, miff-, tier-, ^cr-, (the same ones that do not take the accent; see p. 127) normally do not take gc- before the past participle: uerftefjen, "to understand", past participle tocrftanbcn, "under- stood"; craaljleu, "to tell", p. p. craafjlt, "told".

Verbs compounded with all other prefixes separate the prefix from the verb in the simple tenses, and place it at the end of the clause; anfangen, "to begin": present, id) fange an,

17. Note that the ttnirbe used to form the conditional (id) nwrbr

felien, "I should see") is the past subjunctive of toerbett.

The present subjunctive of feitt is irregular: fei, fctcft, fet, feicit

fcict, feten. The past subjunctive is regular: toftre. £aben ha? hnb and tyatte, both regular.

GERKfAN

"I begin"; past, id) fing an, "I began"; id) fange Ijeitte btefe Sr&ett an, "I am beginning this work today".

In the past participle, these verbs insert -gc. between the prefix and the verb (angefanrjcn, "begun"), while if the infini- tive is used in a construction requiring jn, the latter is also in- serted between the prefix and the verb: cr toihtfrfjt Ijeutc , "he wishes to begin today".

11. Word Order.

If the subject does not begin the sentence, the subject and verb are usually inverted (save after abcr, unb, and relative pronouns): jc^t bin id) ferrifl, "now I am ready"; etnen ftitten .£nt f«d)e id), "I'm looking for a good hat".

In dependent clauses, the verb usually comes at the end of the clause: id) ttetfj ntrfjr, roo ©ie Sfjren $nt gcfanft tyafcen, "I don't know where you bought your hat".

If the dependent clause precedes the main clause, both the above rules normally apply: &l$ id) tljn fafy, fling er nad) .'paiife, "when I saw him, he was going home".

VOCABULARY

Nouns are given with their respective article (indicating gender) in their nominative singular form, followed by the genitive ending (if any), followed by the plural ending (if any), with indication of umlaut change where this occurs.

Verbs are given in the infinitive form alone, if they are "weak"; thus, to love, lieben, indicates a past liefote and a past participle geliefct. If the verb is "strong", the third person singular of the present indicat- ive appears (indicating that the same change takes place in the second singular), provided there is a change of root vowel in those two forms; the past and past participle are then given; if the verb is conjugated with fetn, the latter appears in parentheses at the close; thus, to fall, fatten, foilt, ftel, gcf alien (fcin).

1. World, Elements, Nature, Weather, Time.

world, Me 2Bett, -, -en light, ba§ fitrfjt, -eS, -et

earth, bte (Srbe, - sea, bci8 SDleer, -e3, -e

air, bie 2uft, -, *'-e sun, bte ©omte, -, -n

water, bo§ SBaffer, -8, - moon, bcr Sflonb, -e$, -e

fire, baS Sewer, -8, ,. star, bet etern, -e3, -e

144

GERMAN

sky, heaven, ber £tmmel, -8, - wind, ber 3Binb, -e8, -e weather, ba8 better, -8, . snow, ber <5djnee, -8 to snow, fdjneten rain, ber JRegen, -8, - to rain, regnen cloud, bte SBoKe, -, -n cloudy, fcetttflft fog, ber 9le*el, -8, - ice, ba8 <£t8, -e8 mud, ber <3rf)(nmm, -e8 time, bte Beit, ., -en year, ba8 Safjr, -e8, -e month, ber 9Wonat, -8, -e week, bte SBodje, -, -n day, ber $ag, -e8, -e hour, bte ©titnbe, -, -n minute, bte SWimite, -, -n morning, ber 9ttorgen, -8, - noon, ber Sfttttag, -e8, -e afternoon, ber 97a<f)tmttafj, -t$, -e evening, ber 9tfenb, -8, -e night, bte 9?adV, ., "-e midnight, bte 9ftttternadjt, -, "-e Sunday, ber @onntag Monday, ber 9H0ntag

"It is warm", "it is cold", etc. are literally translated: e$ tft warm, e8 tft fait.

(On) Monday we went home, (am) SDhmtag gtngen mtr na^ .^anfe; (on) the first of January, 1943, ben (or am) erften Satwar neunsel)nl)«nbertbretttnbirier5tg.

The genitive form of days of the week, ending in -8, indicates customary action: 9Wontaa8 fommt er fiterfjer, he comes here Mondays.

2. Family, Friendship, Love.

family, bte gotniHe, -, -n husband, ber Qtette, -n, -it; bet

wife, bte QJatttn. -, -nen; bte 3ftatt,

-, -en

parents, bte ©Item father, ber Sater, -8, ".

Tuesday, ber Wednesday, ber Thursday, ber $0ttner8ta0 Friday, ber Jrettag Saturday, ber 3am8tag,

ber <Sonnabenb January, ber janitor, -8 February, ber gebruor, -8 March, ber 2)Ja'ra, -e8 April, ber 3l|»rtl, -8 May, ber SOZot, -e8 June, ber 3»m, -8 July, ber 3wlt, -8 August, ber Slngnft, -8 September, ber ©e^tember, .8 October, ber Ofto&er, -8 November, ber 9lot>ember, .8 December, ber ^ejeutfcer, .8 Spring, ber grilling, -8, -e Summer, ber ©omttter, -8, - Fall, ber $erfcft, -e8, -e Winter, ber SStntcr, -8, - North, ber STCorben, -8 South, ber ©ilben, -8 East, ber Often, -8 West, ber SSeften, -8

mother, bic 9Jhitter, ., "- son, ber Softn, -e8, **-e daughter, bte ^o^ter, -, brother, ber SSrttber, -8, sister, bte ®o^ttiefter, -, -n uncle, ber Dnfe(, -8, . aunt, bic Xante, -, -n

GERMAN

145

nephew, ber $effe, -it, -it

niece, bit flttrfjte, -, -n

cousin, ber better, -8, -n; bte

(Jottfine, -, -n

grandfather, ber (JJrofttooter, -8, "• grandmother, bie Qfroftmutter, -, * ". grandson, ber (Snfel, -8, - granddaughter, bte (SnfeUn, -, -new father-in-law, ber ©djuneaertwter,

-8, "- mother-in-law, bie

mutter, -, "- son-in-law, ber

direct address, unless name

daughter-in-law, bte

ter, -, •'-

brother-in-law, ber (Bcfjttmger, -8, "- sister-in-law, bte ©dittmsertrt, %

-nen

man, ber 9ttnnn, -e$, *'-er woman, bte $ratt, ., -en; ba8

233ei&, .e§, -er child, ba§ SHnb, -e§, -er boy, ber $ttabe, -n, -n; ber ^unge,

-n, -n

girl, ba3 9«ob^en, -8, - sir, Mr., ber #crr, -n, -en (in

3. Speaking Activities.

word, ba§ SBort, -e3, *'-er (-e) language, bte <5*>radje, ., .n to speak, faretffen, f^rttftt,

to say, fo0ett

to tell, relate,

to inform, berttftten; fagen

to call, rufett, rtcf, geritfett

to be called, one's name is,

fttcfi, ge^et^ett (my name is William, trf) ^ct§c miWm) to greet, grii^en

to name, itennen, nnnnte, flennnnt to listen to. Siiflbrcn (fol. by

lady, Madam, Mrs., bte

-n; bte &rou, - ,-en (in direct

address, unless name follows,

guabtgc ftrau) Miss, young lady, ba§ Sftriufetn,

•S. - (in direct address, unless

name follows, gnabtgeS tyftu-

Icin ) friend, ber Steunb, -e§, -e; bte

3rrennbtn, -, -nen servant, ber $tener, -8, -; ber S5e-

bteitte, -n, -n; ba§ ^tenftmSbc^en,

-8, -

to introduce, twrftelfen to visit, fcefwrfjen love, bte Stefie, - to love, Ite&en to fall in love with, fttf) toerlteben

tn (ace.)

to marry, fjetraten sweetheart, darling, ber Srfjttfc,

-e§. "-e; ba8 fiteftc^en, -8, -;

ber fiteMtng, -8, -e kiss, ber ®n§, -e8, **-e to kiss, fitffen

dative)

to hear, ftorcn to understand, oerfteften, uerftanb,

toerftnnben

to mean, iitctuen, Oebcuten to ask (for something), bitten, bat,

jK&eten («m etnja8) to answer, nutruorten; ernttbern to thank, bnttren (I thank you for

that, trf) bnnfc ^nen bafftr) to complain (about), firfj BeFIanen

iitcr to crv. shout, frfjreten, fefcrte, ge-

frfiricii

146

GERMAN

4. Materials.

gold, bad Qtolb, -cd silver, bad <3U&er, -d iron, bad (Sifen, -d steel, bcr <Staf)I, -ed copper, bad ftiitfer, -3 lead, ba# 2$Iei, -ed tin, bcr $\nn, -co oil, bad 51, -e8 gasoline, bad 9en*in, -8 coal, bic ftoljte, -, -n fuel, bcr iBrcniiftoff, -ed, -e wood, bad £oU, -ed, "-cr

5. Animals.

animal, bad Xier, -ed, -e horse, bad ^ferb, -cd, -c dog, bee $unb, -ed, -e cat, bic Watje, -, -it bird, ber $ogef, -d, "- donkey, ber (gfel. -d, - mule, bad faultier, -ed, -

Wanlefcl, -d, - row, bie Jtuft, -, "-e <>x, bcr Orfifc, -it, -it pig, bad ®rf)H)cut, -ed, -e chicken, bad $ittw, -ed, **- hen, bic ^cttne, -, -n rooster, bcr $ftf)ti, -ed, "-e

ber

silk, bie Seibe, -, -n

cotton, bie gtaumiuoHe,

wool, bie 9B0((e9 -

doth, bad Xurfj, -ed, "-er

to cut, fdMteiben, ft^nttt, gef^ntt-

ten to dig, flraben, srabt, grub,

aegraben to sew, naftert to mend, flitfen to darn, ftopfett

sheep, bad ©djaf, -ed, -e

goat, bie 3iege, -, -it; bie QJeift,

-, -e

mouse, bie 9J*oud, -, *'-e snake, bie Sdjlange, -, -n fly, bic Sliefle, -, -n hue, bte 23tene, -, -n mosquito, gnat, bie odjitafe,

btc aniirfe, -, en; ber

-d, -d

spider, bie @)>tnne, -, -tt louse, bie ttaud, ., "-e flea, ber gtoft, -ed, "-e bedbug, bie ffrtnae, -, -n

6. Money, Buying and Selling.

money, bad (Uelb, -ed, -er

coin, btc sJ)iun$e, -, -n; bad QJelb-

ftiicf, -ed, -e

dollar, bcr $oUar, -d, - cent, ber (icnt, -d, - mark, bie 3)Jarf, -, - pfennig, ber pfennig, -d, -c bank, bic !^anf, -, -en check, ber Scfierf, -ed, -d; bie , -en

money order, bte ^oftanwetfung.

-, -en

to earn, Ucrbienen to gain, to win, gcttJtnnen, genmnn,

gemonnen

to lose, toerlieren, uerlor, oerlaren to spend, audgeben, gifct aud, gaD

aud, audgcgcben to lend, letSen, lie^, gelielien to owe, fdjulbeti; f^wtbtg fein

GERMAN

147

to pay,

to borrow, borgen (he borrowed

two marks from me, er foot an>ei

Hiiirf uon mtr ge&orgt) change, ba$ &(etngelb, -e8 to change, exchange, tdttfdjeit;

umtaufdjeit; toedjfcln to return, give back, aururfflefcen,

flifct jururf, gab jiiriirf, sitrfirf-

gegeben

price, ber *£rei$, -e#, -e expensive, dear, teuct; foftfoieUg cheap, MUtg store, shop, ber £oben, -8, **•;

boS ©efdwft, -eS, -e piece, ba$ <Sturf, -c$, -c (a piece

of bread, ctn Stitrf JBrot) slice, bic ©J^eibc, -, -tt; bol

©tiicf

pound, ba§ ^fuub, -e«, -c package, bad ^afct, -c8, -e; ba«

»unbcl, -», -; bog $ftrf*cn, .8, . bag, bcr 3arf, -c8, "-e

7. Eating and Drinking.

to eat, effen, iftt, o^, 0egeffeu breakfast, boS ^riiftftftrf, .§, -e to eat breakfast, frufjftfirfett lunch, dinner, ba§ 2)Httageffen,

-«, • to eat lunch, to dine, 3« 2ttttta0

cffen

supper, bnS 5(benbtrot, -e§, -c to eat supper, Mbcttb&rot effctt; 511

ftbenb cffen

meal, btc 9)Za^Uctt, ., -en dining-room, bag Glimmer, -3, -;

bcr Spetfefaal, -S, -fn(c menu, btc Spctfcfartc, -, -it waiter, bcr ftcllncr, -8, - waitress, btc ftettnertn, -, -ncn restaurant, bad iRcftaurant, -d, -f;

bad <»aft!jQUx5, -c§, "-er

box, bic 3d)(idjtel, -, -n; bic

-, -en

basket, bcr florfc, -c«, **-c goods, bic 28orc, -, -n to go shopping, einfciiifeti to sell, ticrfaufen to buy, inufcn ( - a ticket, etne

Sabrfartc I5fcn)

cost, bic Soften (pl.); bcr $ret* to cost, toftctt to be worth, wcrt fcin; fifltcn.

gilt, gait, (tcnoUcn to rent, hire, mtetcn, tjcrmietcu to choose, lofiljlcn thief, robber, bcr $tc&, -e8, -e;

ber *Rttw&cr, -8, - to steal, ftcWen, fttcftrt, fto^C,

police, bic

policeman, bcr *poltstft, -en, -en;

bcr 3d^it|)o, -8 honest, rcblttty; c()r(trft; 5utJcrIaffifl

dishonest,

bill, btc Kcd^nung, ., -en

to pass, reidjen

tip, boS Xrtnfgcfb, -c§, -cr

to drink, trtnfcn, tranf, gctrttnfcn

water, bti§ XBttffcr, -8, -

wine, bcr SBcin, .c«, -c

beer, ba§ 93icr, -cS, -c

coffee, bcr tfaffec, -8

tea, ber Xcc, -8, -c

milk, bic m\\$, .

bottle, btc ftlofdje, -, -n

spoon, ber Cflffel, -8, -

teaspoon, ber Xeclbffel, -8, -

knife, ba^ 9J!effer, -8, -

fork, bie Gtaftel, -, -n

glass, bo8 OJItt8, -c8, "-cr

cup, bte Xoffe, -, -n

napkin, bic Sertriette, -, -n

148

GERMAN

salt, bo$ 3al^, -etf, -e pepper, ber 'JSfeffer, -*, . plate, dish, ber Xcllcr, -$, . bread, baa JBrot, -e0, -e butter, bie Slitter, - roll, bad SBrfltdien, -2, • sugar, bet Surfer, -d, - soup, bie SiiWe, -, -it rice, beTTReld, -fed potato, bie ftortoffet, -, -tt vegetables, bad CJkmftfe, -d, - meat, bad %\t\\tf), >t$ beef, bad minbfleif*, -ed steak, bad JRumfcfft&cf, -ed, -e chicken, bod $tiftti, -ed, "-er chop, bad JWIett, .», -e mutton, bad £ammelfletfi$, -e« lamb, bad fiammfletfc^, -e* veal, bad £attfleif<*i, -e« pork, bad <Sdjtt>etnef(etfc$, .<* sausage, bte ffinrft, -, "-e ham, ber <5djtn!en, -d, bacon, ber @Derf, -ed egg, bad (£it -ed, -e»

8. Hygiene and Attire.

bath, bad S3ab, -ed, "-er

to bathe, Robert

shower, bad ©tura&ab, -c^, **-er;

bad »raufefeab, -ed, "-et; bt<

^)ufa1ie, -, -n to wash, (ft*) ttwfdjen, wafdjt,

touft^, qcttiafrf)cn (I wash my

hands, ttfy waf*e mir bie $a*nbe) to shave, (ft*) rofteren barber, ber Sfnfeur, -d, -e mirror, ber 6vieget, -d, . soap, bie <3eife, ., -n razor, bad IKafiermeffer, -d, - safety razor, ber SHofieraWarat, -$?

•e; bad 8i*erliettdraftermeffer,

fish, ber 5»f*, -ed, -e

fried, gefrratett

cooked, flefo*t

boiled, uebam^ft

roast, geraftet

baked, flebacfeit

sauce, bte Soge, -, -n (bte Sauce)

salad, ber 8atat, -t*, -e

cheese, ber ftafe, -d, •

fruit, baS Cbft, -ed

apple, ber s«?lpfel, -d, "-

pear, bte Sirite, -, -n

grapes, bie sX8emtrattteit

peach, ber s^firfi*, -ed, -e

strawberry, bie (?rbbecre, -, -n

nut, bte 9htfi, -, "-e

orange, bie Welfme, -, -n

lemon, bie 3ttrone, .? -tt

juire, ber Sftft, -ed, "-e

cherry, bte ®trf*C, ., -tt

dessert, ber 9ta*ttf*f -ed, -e; bte

pastry, bad OJefcatf, -ed; bad

to erf, -ed cake, ber &u*en, -d, -

towel, bad .^anbtu*, -ed, *"-et comb, ber ftamm, -ed, "-e brush, bte $iirfte, ., .n toothbrush, bte Bafttttitrfte, -, -n scissors, bie ^d^ere, -, -n to wear, traaen, tra^t, trti<»,

to take off, audjte^ett, joa aud, ( - one's hat, ben

to change, (ft*)tim*iefctt, **% urn, umae^onett

to put on, (ft*) onaie^ett, $ag an, ange^oflen (I was putting on my coat, i* 509 ben ftorf an)

clothes, bie £teiber

GERMAN

149

hat, ber £ut, -eS, **-e

suit, ber 5tnju0, -e$, **-e

coat, ber iftocf, -es, **-e

suspenders, bie ^ofentrfiger

vest, bie *Befte, -, -n

pants, btc £0fen

underwear, bic Utttcrtuafdje, .

glove, bcr £anbfdjitl), -c8, -e

socks, bie <3otfen

stocking, bcr ©trumuf, -e$, "-e

shirt, ba3 $emb, -c8, -en

collar, bcr tfrngen, -3, .

tie, btc ftrooattc, -, -it; bcr

BdjttpS, -eS, -c overcoat, bcr Sttotttel, -8, "*-; bet

u&erjieber, -a, .

raincoat, bcr SRcflcnmantcl, -«, ""• pocket, btc £afrf)e, -, -n

lnef. bad Xafrfjcutucb, .§,

purse, bic ^artbtaf^ic, -, -n button, bcr tfuopf, -cd, "-c shoe, bcr ®dju&, -c<J, -c hoot, bcr 3ticfcJ, -^, - pocket hook, btc ^rtcftoWc, ., -n pin, needle, btc WabeJ, -, -n tie-pin, bic ftratmttennabel, -, -n safety-pin, btc SitfjertjciiSnnbcI, -,

-n

umbrella, bcr !Hc0cnf#trm, -e«, -e watch, btc Uftr, ., -en chain, btc ftcttc, ., -n ring, bcr ffitttfl, -c§, -c eyeglasses, bic 9rtHe, -, -it slippers, btc .^mt^frfjufic; bic $att-

toffcln

bath robe, bcr ^nbcwnntcl, -^, **• dressing-gown, bcr Srfjfnfrorf, -e«,

"-c

9. Parts of the Body.

head, bcr ftopf, -e$, "-C forehead, btc Sttrrt, -, -cit face, bo3 OJcft^it, -cd, -cr mouth, bcr 9Jhtnb, -c^, -c hair, baS $aar, -ed, -c eye, baS Stugc, -S, -n ear, baS O^r, -cS, -ctt tooth, bcr 3afjn, -c^, **-c lip, btc fitypc, ., -n nose, btc 91afc, -, •« tongue, btc 3unae, ., .tt chin, baS 5?tun, -c§, -c cheek, btc 95?attflc, -, -tt mustache, ber <2d&rturr&art,

"-c

beard, bcr Sort, .c3, "-c neck, bcr £al§, -c^, **-c throat, bic OJurqct, -, -n ftomach, bcr

arm, bcr 9lrm, -c^, -c hand, bic .£anb, ., "-c elbow, bcr (?ll&0ftcit, -S, - wrist, baS ,0anbflc(cuf, -cd, -c . finger, ber Swflcr, -S, • nail, bcr ^Qfld, -§, **. shoulder, btc Srfjuttcr, -, -n leg, bad »cin, -c8, -c foot, bcr ftu$, -e«, "-c knee, bflS ,Qntc, -c§, -C back, bcr JWutfeu, -8, . chest, breast, btc 93ruft, -, "-e ankle, boS ^ru^flcfcnf, -C§, -C body, &er ,Qor<?cr. -«, -; bcr ficf>,

•c«, -er

blood, boS Sfitt, -c§ skin, bie £wut, ., ".c heart, fca3 .€»cr^, .cn«, -en bone, bcr Qn»<&en. -S, .

750

GERMAN

10. Medical

doctor, ber Xortor, -S, -cit; ber

&t5t, -ca, "-e

drug-store, bic Wpotfycfe, -, -n hospital, bntf Spital, .e3, "-er; bad

Siraitfetttynud, -e&, "-cr medicine, bic sJ0iebi<5tn, -, -cit; bic

ftr,}iiei, -, -en pill, bic <|$iUe, -, -n prescription, bad fteaept, -e$, -c bandage, bcr $crbanb, -e#, "-c nui>e*. bic Siranfeiifdjnjefter, -, -n ill, frnnf

fever, bn»? fticber, -8, - illness, bic Sirnnfljcit, -, -cu

1 1 . Military.

war, bcr Stricfl, -CO, -c

prart-, bcr ^ricbc(it), -nS, -n

ally, bcr ^crlnmbetc, -it, .n

enemy, bcr ftcinb, -c«5, -c

army, bic $lnncc, -, -it; bn8 ,l£>ccr,

-c^, -c

danger, bic Wcfnftr, -, .en dangerous, fiefftftrftdj to win, ftcftcit; n^uinnett, gcruann,

to surround, cinfmfcn;

uuirtcbcii, flibt inn, flnb urn.

uinncncbcit to arte t. Ucrtioftcn to kill, tatcn to escape, riitfoinmeii (with dat-

ive) to run away. fUeftcit, floft, ^cflo^en

(fciu); fid) rcttcit; bnoonrcitnert,

raitntc bauott. bnuonneraunt

(fcttt)

to lead, fiibrcn to follow, fofflcit (fcin) ; he follow-

ed me, cr ift mir flcfofgt

swollen, flefrf)»uoUcn

wound, bte s<h>unbe, -, -n

injury, bic $erlelmng, -, -en

wounded, oerwunbct

injured, Oerlc^t

head-ache, basJ Ko^fme^i, -e8; bte

itopff^meracn (pi.) tooth-ache, baS Ba^nwe^, -ed; bte

^(J^nfc^mcraen (pi.) cough, ber £nften, -S, . to cough, ^nften lame, laftm

burn, bie ^ranbnjnnbe, -, -n pain, bcr Srfjmetj, -ed, -en poison, bad QKft, -ed, -e

fear, bic Wuflft, -, "-C; bie prison, bntf OJcfdnfimd, .fed, -fe prisoner, bcr CMefangcne, -n, -n comrade, "buddy", ber ftamerab,

.cit, -en

battle, bic Srf|I«^t, -, -en to fight, ramfcfcti to take prisoner, flefonacn neftntcn

(nimmt, nnfjiii, genommcn) to capture, ciutte^mcn, ntmmt etn,

nnim ciu. etngenommcn to surrender, fid) etflcbcn,

fid), ernnb fid), fid)

fid) nufrtcbcit, ntbt fid) nuf, (job

fid) ouf, fid) aufncnebcn to retreat, fid) 3urit(f,itefjcn, ^09

fid) ^iii-itcf. fic^ (utriirffle5oqen soldier, ber (Solbai, -en, -en private, bcr OJemewc, .-en, -en corporal, ber (Wefreite, -n, -n sergeant, ber ftelbiucbel, -S, - lieutennnt. bcr SJeutncmt, .§, -S

list, . bcr Cbcrfcittnant^ captain, bcr ^auptmnnn, -e8, *"-er

GERMAN

151

major, ber Sttajor, -8, -e; ber

ftomntanbant, -en, .en colonel, bet Oberft, -en, -en general, ber General, -8, "-e (Lt.,

Maj., Col.-Gen., QJeneraUcut-

nant, (iJeneralmajor, (Heneral-

oberft) officer, ber Officer, -d, -e (staff-,

ber <Stab8offt5ier; non-com. -.

ber ttnteroff tster ) squad, bie fttotte, -, -it company, bte ^ompagnte, ., -n battalion, ba8 SBatatllon, -8, -e regiment, bod JRegtment, -8, -er brigade, bte 93rtflobe, -, -n division, bte ^ttrifion, -, -en troops, bte £riiWen reenforcements, bte 9Jerft8rhtngen infantry, bie ^nfonterte, - cavalry, bie $atwUerte, - artillery, bte Strtttlerie, - engineers, bte ^ioniere Alpine troops, bte @Jebtrs8tntWftt tank corps, bte ^anaerbttotftonen;

bte ^attseriruWen motorized, motortftert mounted, fcerttten fortress, bte Seftung, ., -en sentinel, bte (@rf>Ub)ttwdie, -, -It to stand guard, SBcirfje fatten ;nttf

(bent) ^often fte^en guard, bie SBndje, -, -n to be on duty, ben "Dtenft ^oben sign-post, ber @^tlb>»oftett, -8, -;

bo^ <Sr^Ub, -e§, -er; ber

vfi>efltoetfer, -8, - headquarters, baS ^p(ttH>t(|tlortiet.

•9. -t

staff, ber ©tab, -ed, **-e retreat, ber JRurf^Mg, -e8, "-e advance, ber Bormarfdj, -ed, **-e forced march, ber <£Hmorfdi, -e«,

*"-e to quarter, etnattartferen

to forage, ntauferit; ^rottiant

bef^offen

casualties, bte $erfiifte (pi.) wounded, bie Sertonnbeten missing, bte Sertnt^ten dead, bte militia, bte military police, bte

merte

truce, ber SBaffenftiHftanb, -e* navy, bie 9ftortne, •; bte Slotte, -,

-n sailor, ber 9)Jatrofe, -n, -n; bet

Seemann, -8, "*-er marine, ber 2Wartnefolbat, -en, -en naval officer, ber 3eeofft5ier, -3,

-e; ber Offt8ter-atir-<3ee engineer, ber Sngenteisr, •*, ~€ cadet, ber ^obett, S, -en lieutenant, ber £eutnant-sur-<3ee captain, ber ftntftftn, -S, "-e admiral, ber Slbmtrnl, -8, -e warship, ba§ ftrteflSfd&tff, -e8, -e battleship, ba8 ©djladjtfaiff, -t9,

-e

cruiser, ber ^reujer, -8, . aircraft carrier. bttS ^(it^eugntttt.

terfrfitff, -ed, -c destroyer, ber 3erft3rer, -8, - submarine, bad tt-93oot, -8, -e;

ba8 ttnterfeeboot transport, bn^ Xru^entran8)>ori-

f«iff, -ed, -e mine-sweeper, ber ^Itnenfui^er,

-8, -

auxiliary, bn8 $Uf8ffftiff, -e8, -e convoy, bn8 (JJelett, -e8, -e; baf

S^tff^fleJett; ber <Me(ett*ttfff -e8,

"•e

escort, bie Seglettitng, ., -en weapon, bie SBoffe, -, -n rifle, bn8 (Uetoe^r, -8, -e revolver, ber SHetooltoer, -8, - bayonet, bo$ (Settengenie^r, -8, -e;

152

GERMAN

bag $ajonett, -&, -e cannon, baS (AJefcfciifc, -e«, -e ammunition, bie Munition, -, -en supplies, bte JBorrate cartridge, btc ^otrone, ., -n bullet, bic Stufld, -, -n belt, bcr (ttfirtd, -3, - knapsack, ber JHurffocf, -S, "-t tent, baa ,Seit, -*&, -e map, btc (Xlcwbj forte, ., -n camp, baa iiager, -S, . rope, ber ©trirf, -e0, -e; bad 6eil,

-etf, -e

flag, bie &aljne, -, -n helmet, ber «£elm, -e$, -e uniform, bie Uniform, -, -en truck, ber ttafttrnftftwgen, -«, - shell, ba3 (Hefr^oe, -e«, -e tank, ber Xnuf, -d; ber

to load, laben, Ifibt, lub, gelaben to bomb, shell, bom&arbteren ;

bcfrfiief^cn, befd^ot, befdjoffen to fire, shoot, feuerti; f^iegen,

f<M, gefrfjoffen fire!, Belter! attention!, Hc&tuufl: forward!, ®orniiirt§! halt!, ^alt! bomb, bie JBombe, -, -n to shoot (military execution).

I) tit rid) ten

12. Travel.

customs, bntf ^oltnint, -e8, **-er passport, ber (Meife)pa^, -eS, "-e ship, bao ®rf)iff, -es, -e steamer, ber ^nutpfer, .«, - stateroom, bie .ffniutr, ., -n; bie

SJabiue, -, -it

berth, bie 6rf|lafftcUe, ., -ft to travel, reifcn (fetn) trip, voyage, bie JHetfe, ., .n to leave, depart, abfnfjreti,

sp\. bcr 3pioit, -d, -e help, aid, bie $Ufe, -, .n airplane, ba0 ^lujj^eug, -e&, -e fightei plane, bno 3nflbf(ua*eug bombing plane, btti3 dive-bomber, bn^

glider, bn

airport, ber Suftftafett, -S,

landing field, ber

-e^, *"-e emergency landing, bie

unft, -, -en gasoline, ber $rcnnftoff. -e§;

pilot, ber ^ilot, -en, -ett machine-gun, ba§ 2ftafcfjinen-

geme^r, -e§, -e machine gunner, ber 9Rafdjtnen.

gemeljrf^n^e, -en, -en parachute, ber ftaHfefcirm, -e§, -e paratroopers, bte ^allfdliirmtru^en to take off, abflteflcn, ftog a6, a&-

flefloaen (fein) to land, lanben anti-aircraft fire, bie air warden, bie

-. -n air-raid shelter, ber Cuftfrfjtttjraum,

-e*>, **-e; bic

•n

06, fitftr nb, nb^cfn^rett (fein) ;

weflfnljrcn (fcin) to arrive, onfommen, fam an,

nnnefontmen (fein) to ride (a conveyance), foftren.

fdftrt. fit^r, gcfa^rcn railroad, bte (£tfen&afjn, -, -en station, ber Saljnljof, -eS, "-e platform, ber SBn&nfreig, -e§, -t track, bie Srfjtene, -, -n; bo*

GERMAN

QJeleife, -d, - train, ber Sag, -ed, **-e ticket, bie galjrfarte, -, -it to buy a ticket, eine

Idfen

compartment, bod ftbtetl, -ed, -f all aboard!, (Jinfteigen! all out!, audfteigen! dining-car, ber <3t»eifett>agen, -d, - sleeper, ber erfjlafwagett, -d, - car, coach, ber SBagen, -d, -; bet

SBaggon, -d, -d

13. Reading and Writing.

to read, Ufen, lieft, lad, gelefen newspaper, bie 3eitung, -, -en magazine, bie Seitfefcrift, ,t .en book, bad 23ud>, -ed, "-er to write, fdjreiben, fajriefr, ge-

to translate, ttfcerfefcen pencil, ber ^leiftift, -e», -e chalk, bie Jlreibe, - blackboard, bie £of**, -, -n ink, bie ^inte, - pen, bie fteber, ., -n fountain pen, ber ftfillfeberijalter, -«, -; bie 3uUfeber, ., .it

14, Amusements.

to smoke, rau^en

cigar, bie 3ifl««e, -, -n

cigarette, bie 3t0arette, -, -n

tobacco, ber Xafwf, .$

match, bad ©tretdjiolj, -e«, "-er

give me a light, gefcen ®ie mtr

bttte Better

theatre, bad Xfceater, -*, - movies, bad £ino, -d, -d dance, ber $ana, -ed, "-e to dance, tattsen to have a good time, ftdf amu-

fteren, fietl gut unterfjalten

trunk, ber Coffer, -d, - valise, ber £anbtoffer, -d, - baggage, bad Q»e|wdf, -d porter, ber (iJejwrftra'ger, -d, - bus, ber Omntbiid, .ed, -e street-car, bie <3tro^enba^n, ., -en

bie (gleftrifrfje, -n, .n automobile, bad Slittomo&tt, -(e)l,

•e; ber ftrafttttagen, -d, - taxi, bie £aje, -, -n driver, ber S^offdr, -d, ^ to drive, ftettern; fa^ren

paper, bad $a*uer, -(e)d, -e writing paper, bad

-(e)d, -e post-card, bie Wttorte, ., -n envelope, ber Ertefumfdjlug, -ei,

**-e; bad (®rief) fubert, -d, .* letter, ber 58rief, -ed, -e post-office, bad $0ftamt, -ed, *'-et;

bie *Poft, - stamp, bie Sriefmorfe, -, -n; bie

^rreimarfe, -, -n

letter-box, ber »rieffaften, -d, . to mail, einfterfett; abfenbett address, bie fcbreffe, -, -n

ticket, bad »ilfet, -ted, -te; bie (Sin-

trittdlarte, -, -n pleasure, bod 8eranfiflen, -d, . to play, foielen

to sing, fingen, fang, gefungen song, bad fiieb, -ed, -er to take a walk, fmterengefcen,

ting f|iaaieren, f))a^ierengegangen

(ftta)

hall, ber SaU, -ed, ''-e beach, ber (Peered) ftranb, -ed,

"-e to swim, fdjroimmen, frfjroamm,

154

GERMAN

gefdjiuowmen (fein) game, ba* ©£iel, -S, -e sand, ber Sonb, -Cv refreshment, bte (£rfrifdjungett

(pl.) saloon, btc ftneipe, -, -tt; bad

15. Town and Country.

, -, -en -8; ba8

place, spot, bcr $laij, -e$, "-C; bet

Drt, -e8, -e city, bie ©tabt, -, "-e street, btc Strode, -, -n sidewalk, bcr SBiirgerfteig, -e£, -e;

bn$ Xrottoir, -8, -8 intersection, bic ^ren^nng block, bcr Jpaufer&Iorf, -e8,

(£aiifer)<»itabrat, -e8, -e school, bie @eft«le, -, -ft church, bte SHrdje, -, -n building, baS OJebftttbe, -8, - cathedral, ber ^om, -ed, -e corner, bte (£rfe, -, -n harbor, ber &nfen, -§, "- hotel, boS ^>orer, -8, -§; ber

office, bn -e§, "-er

16. House.

door, bic Xiir, -, -en

to open, Bffneit; aufnini^en

to close, fdjliefpen, f^toft, ge-

key, bcr

to go in, etntretett, trttt etn,

trot ein, cinnetreten (fein) house, bo§ ^0116, -e§, **-er (at

home, 5M ^prtttfe; he is going

home, er gefit nod) Jptwfe) to go out, fctnauSgeiien, ging

ijinau^, ^inau^gegangen (fein) cottage, bnS Cnnbftan§, -e8, **-er hut, btc ^fitte, -, -n

-e^, "-cr; bie ®ier- ftubc, -, -n

picnic, baS ^Sirfititf, -§, .g; bie fianb^nrtie, -, -n; bcr

river, bcr ^tu|, -e§, *'-e bridge, bic JBriirfe, -, -n country, bn§ Conb, -e8, "-er village, bn^ ^orf, -eS, "-er road, btc Snnbftrn^c, -. -n; bte

5lutobnl)it, -, -cit; bcr 2Beg, -e§, -e mountain, ber $ern, -e^, -e

( - range, bag (JJebirge, -8, •) grass, bo^ QJra§, -e3, "-er yard, ber Jpof, -e3, "-c hill, ber $figel, -8, - lake, bcr <£ec, -8, -n forest, wood, bcr SBufb, -e8, "-et field, bnsi ftcto, -e8, -er flower, bic 9(timc, -, -n tree, bcr SBaitm, -c§, "-c stone, bcr Stein, -e§, -c rock, bcr ftclfen, -8, -

to live (in), ttJO&rten

staircase, bie Xre0pc, -, -n

to go up. fctnaitffteigen, ftteg

f)innuf, liinaitfgefttegen (fein) to go down, fn'nnittcrftetgen, ftteg

Ijimi ntcr, ^innntergefttcgen

(fein) ; In'nwntergeijen (fetn) room, ba§ Simmer, -8, - toilet, ber $U>ort, -e8, -c; Me

toilette, -, -n kitchen, bie ^ftr^e, -, -n table, bcr Xifrf), -e§, -c chair, bcr (StiiM, -e8, "-e to sit down, firf) fefccn;

GERMAN

155

neJjmen, nttnntt, it at) in,

genommen

to stand, fteljen, ftanb, geftanben wall, bte SBanb, -, "-e lamp, bte Sampe, -, -n candle, btc ®er,5e, -, -tt; bad Sidjt,

-3, -er

closet, bcr ©d)rait3f, -e£, "-e window, baS ^enfter, -8, - to rest, ruijen; fidj anSrnljen roof, baS $adj, -eS, "-er to be sitting, fitjen, fa#, gefeffen bed, bod Sett, -8, -en (to or in bed,

SU Sett)

pillow, bag (®0j)f)fiffeit, -8, . blanket, btc $edfe, -, -n sheet, t»a$ Seiiititd), -e3, "-cr

mattress, bic 9)latrafce, -, -n bedroom, baS ©djlaf dimmer, -», - to go to bed, fdjlafeit ge^en, gtng,

fiegaitficn (fetn) to go to sleep, einfrfilafett, Wlftft

ctn, frfjlief cin, ctngefd)lafen

(fetn) to sleep, tdKafen, Wlaft, fijCief,

to wake up, aufttwdjen (fetn) to awaken (transitive), toerfen to get up, aufftcljcn, ftanb awf,

attfgcftanben (fctn) to dress, fir^ ansiefjen, jog fti^ on,

firf) anaepgen; ftrf) anlleiben clock, btc ttfjr, -, -en alarm clock, ber SBerfcr, .8, .

17. Miscellaneous Nouns.

people, btc ficutc (pi.) ; bic Wctt (people say so, tnan ed)

thing, bad X)ing, -cS, -C; bic -, -en

name, bcr sJlamc, -tt3, -it

number, btc Summer, -, -n; bte

18. Verbs — Coming and Going.

, -en

life, ba§ fieftcn, .«, - death, bcr 2:ob, -e£ work, bte 2lrfiett, -, -en luck, ba3 ©Tflcf, -e§ bad luck, bn£ ttngluif, -e

to come, fommen, font, gcfommcn (fctn)

to go, gdjett, gtng, gegangen (fetn)

to be going to (use present or future of following verb; I am going to speak to him to- morrow, morgcn foredje tdj mit Uim, or morgcn nierbc trft i^n f^rc^en)

to run, rcnnen, ranntc, gcrannt (fetn) ; taitfen, laitft, Uef, geraufen (fein)

to walk, fa«

to go away, furtgeljen, gtng fort,

fortgcgangcn (fetn) ; meggc^en

(fetn) to fall, fallen, ftiUt, fiel,

gefalfen (fetn) to stay, remain, bletben, 6(ic6.

geblteBen (fctn) to follow, folgen (dat.) to return, snritrffeijren (fetn) ;

(come back, auriteflfommett; go

back, auriicfge^en) (fein) to arrive, anfommen, fam an,

angefommen (fetn)

156

GERMAN

19. Verbs — Looking and Seeing.

to see, feljen, fteljt, fol), gefefcen

to look (at), onfeien (he is look- ing at me, er fteljt mtdj on) ; blicfen; fdjanen

to look for, fudjen (I am looking for him, td& fnrfje Ujn)

to look, seem, appear, fdjetttfn, fdjien, gefdjtenen ; anSfeften,

20. Fer&s — Mental.

to make a mistake, ftdj trren

to hope, ^offcn

to wait (for), niartcn (anf) ;

ernmrten to think (of), benFen, badjte, ge-

badjt (an with ace.) to believe, glanben (I believe him,

id) glau&e tfjrn; I believe it,

tdj glaube eS) to like, gern(e) Ijaben; gef alien,

gcfallt, gcftcl, flcfaffcn (I like

him, er aefallt mtr) to wish, miinWen to want, mollen, juill, oolite, nc-

mollt

to need, Braurfjeit to know (a person), Fennen,

Fonnte, geFannt to know (a fart), ttriffett,

fictit au$, fa^ au to recognize, erFennen, erFannte,

erFannt to take for, nefimen fiir, nimmt

fftr, naijm fur, fitr — genommer to laugh, lao^en to smile, ISdjefn to laugh at, anSfnefjcn

to understand, uerfte^en,

uerftnnben

to remember, firfl erinnern an to forget, uerfleffen, tiergi^t tier-

gag, tiergeffen to permit, allow, let, laffen.

He^, gelaffcn; crlauften

permitted me to do it. er

mtr erlanBt) to promise, toer fated) en,

(he

to know how to. Fonnen, Fann, Fonnte, geFonnt

21. Verbs — Miscellaneous.

to live, leben

to die, fterben, fttrbt, ftnrb, ge-

ftorben (fetn) to work, arbeiten to have just (use eben; I have

just read the book, id)

to forbid, Derfiieten, toerftoi, uer-

6oten

to learn, lernen to feel like, fiitft ^oben (t feel

like doing it, trf) ftabe finft, e§

jn tnn) to fear, be afraid, firf) fiircfjiren (I

am afraid of my brother,

fiirdjte mtifi tjor metnem to be right, rert^t ftaften to be wrong, ttnrerfjt

eben ba§ S3ucft gelefen) to give, geben, gtbt, gab. gepeben to take, ne^men, ntmmi, nalim,

genommen to begin, anfangen, fangt an,

ftng an, angefangen

GERMAN

157

to finish, beenbtgen; aitfpren

(he finished reading, cr Ptte

auf $u lefcn) to continue, keep on, fortfefcen;

toeitermadjen; (I kept on read-

ing, tdj fas immer welter) to help, Jjelfett, Jttft, jalf, ge&olfen

(he helps me, er JUft mir) to lose, toerlieren, &erfar, tier tot en to find, finben, fanb, gefunben to try, berfitdjen to leave (an object), la f fen, Iflfct,

Kef?, gefaffen to show, aetgen to meet, Bennett (dat.) ; tteffen,

trtfft, traf, getrotfen to do, titn, tot, getan to make, mad) en to have done, mad) en la f fen (he

had a letter written, er Dot elttett

Brief t#reiben Wen) to be able, can, fiJnnen, lann,

fonnte, gefonnt to put, ftellen; legeii; fe^en to carry, tragen, trSgt, tntg,

bcbnltcu to hold, ^alten, Salt, fcieft, §e-

to keep, Bejarten, be^It, 6ejielt,

22. Adjectives.1*

small, fletn large, tall, 0ro(

high, $0dj (use 6oHt, -e, -e» be- fore a noun; comp. WI)*r; sup.

short, fwrj (opposite of long) ;

fletn (opposite of tall) low, ntebrlg long, fang wide, broad, fcrett; toeit

to bring, bringen, bra«ite, ge-

to stop (self), ftefcen btetben,

Hie*, geblteften (fein) to stop (another) aitfljalten, ^8It

nnf, ftielt n»f, aufge^alten to stop doing, to cease, a«f$3ren to cover, bebecfen to get, obtain, befommen, befam

befommen to get, become, nterben, mirb,

tuttrbe, gemorben (fetn) to hide, toerfterfen; tjerbergen,

toerbtrgt, uerbarg, toerborgen to break, bredlett, bridjr, bracft, ge-

brod)en; ^erbre^en to hurry, etfen; firt^ beetfen to deliver, (tetern to catch, fangen, tSngt, pǤ,

gefangen

to belong, geftfren to lay. legen to send, tdjttfett; fenben, fanbte,

gefnnbt

narrow, eng

deep, tief

heavy, frfjwer

light (in weight), fei(f|t

clean, rein; fauber

dirty, fdjmufctg

fresh, frtW

cool, mi

cold, Fait warm, niarm

18. Note the tendency of adjectives to take umlaut in the comparative and superlative where the root vowel presents the umlaut possibility: g, griper, griiftt; fang, langer, langft; fnrj, fitrscr, fftrseft.

158

GERMAN

hot, 5eM|

damp, feueDt

wet, no§, feitdjt

dry, trodfen

full, twit (full of wine,

empty, (eer

dark, bttnfel

light, bright, clear, &eU; flat

fat, ftorf; btrf

thick, birf

thin, bfinn

round, nmb

square, toiererftg

flat, ftod)

soft, toetdj

hard, fart

quick,

slow, lattgfam

ordinary,

comfortable, be^item

uncomfortable, ttttbeflitem

near, nalj(e) (comp. nft^ct; sup.

nftcftft)

distant, etttfernt; weit right, ret^t left, Itnf poor, dtttt rich, ret* beautiful, W)3n pretty, W^W; nett; niebti* ugly, (ftfH4 sweet, ffif? bitter, bitter sour, fouer salty, falsifi young, Jung old, alt new, ueit good, flut better, beffer best, Beft bad, Wedjit worse, f^Itmmet

worst, ft^Iimmft

fine, "regular", fei«; er^t

first, erft

last, lefct

strong, ftorf; frafttg

weak, ft^ttio*

tired, miibe

alone, atteitt

same, berfelbe (btefel&e, baSfelbe,

pi. biefelben) true, tooftr; rtdjtig; treu false, wrong, foIW; ttttttwijr sure, ft^er easy, let^t

hard, difficult, fflwer; fcfttoieria happy, lucky, filfitfH^ (to be

lucky, ®HM $ttben) unhappy, unlucky, Utt0liicf(i(^ (to

be unlucky, ttnglfirf glad, merry, friiI)Urf) ; sad, traurtg free, fret stupid, bitmm silly, bl8bc; crazy, Uerrfirft drunk, betritttfen polite, ^bftt* good-natured, rude, itn^SfU* kind, UebenSttwrbtg pleasant, angene^nt; nett unpleasant, ttttttitaetteljtn lonesome, etttfam foreign, fremb; auStftttbifdj friendly, freunblt* hostile, uttfrewnbli*; fetnbU* charming, reijenb; ^otb afraid, ftngftlt* (to be -,

brtbett)

ready, berctt; ferttg hungry, fjunflrig (to be -,

fjnben) thirsty, burftig (to be -,

Haben)

GERMAN

funny, fomifefc; (a$crli$; amftfattt quiet, rul)ig

possible, tn8gUdj noisy, lout; flcroufdjtiod

impossible, until oglidj living, le&ettbig

brave, tflpfer dead, tot

cowardly, fetg

23. Colors.

white, nieif? yellow, gelo

black, fdjtoarg gray, fltau

red, rot brown, braun

green, grutt pink^ rofa

blue, Man purple, Jwrjwrrot, Ula

24. Nationalities.19

American, amerifanifrf); her ftmerif aner, -8, -; bie 2lmertfnnerin English, englifdj; bcr <£ttglanber, -8, -; bie ©ngtftttberin French, fransflfifdj ; ber Sranaofe, -tt, -n; btc Sranaflfin German, beutfaj; ber $>cutfa)e, -n, -n; bie ^eutfole, -n, -n Spanish, foaitifdl; ber Banter, -S, -; bie ©^anierin Russian, rufftfc^; ber ^Hiiffe, -n, -n; bte fWufftn Italian, itottcnifi; ber ^taltener, -d, .; bie StaUenerm Japanese, jn^ontfd); ber ^o|ioner, -8, -; bie Stajwtierin Chinese, d&ttteftftfc; ber Gfttnefe, -n, -n; bie GJjtneftn Dutch, ^oriftnbtf^; ber £0Uttnber, -8, .; bie Jponanberin Norwegian, tt0weflif#; ber ^orttie0er, -8, -; bie 97ortuegerin Swedish, fd^ttjebtfrfj ; ber Srfjnjcbe, -n, -n; bie ©rfjmebin Finnish, finnifol; ber ^innJanber, -8, -; bie ^innlonberin Belgian, 6el0ifdj; ber JBelgter, -8, -; bie JBelgierin Polish, nolnifa^; ber $oie, -ti, -n; bie ^Solin Danish, bSttifd); ber ^auc, -n, -n; bie ^ftnin Swiss, fd^rtieiaerif rfj ; ber Si^tueiacr, -8, -; bie (Sa)meMerin Portuguese, ^ortitflteftfc^; ber ^ortufliefe, -n, -n; bie ^ortugiefitt Yugoslav, jugoflanjtfe^; bcr ^ngoflawe, -n, -n; bie ^ugoflamin

19. The adjective is given first, then the noun, in masculine and feminine form (all feminines in -tit form their plural in -inneit). Note the difference in the use of these forms: the American Navy, bit ameriftwifdje Stfotte,- I am an American, id) Bin Slmerifaner. Note also the fact that the noun is capitalized, while the adjective is not. For names of languages, use the adjective form as a noun, capitalizing it save after the preposition ouf, "in": English (the English language), ba8 <£ng(ifdKe) ; to speak German, ^eittfo? fpretfcn; in German, anf fcetttfdj; into German, in§

GERMAN

Bulgarian, bit(gartfd); bcr $u(gare, -n, -u; bic

Czech, tftffcdjifrfj; bcr Xfdjcdje, -u, -n; bic £fdjed)iit

Greek, griec&iftfy; bcr ®riedje, -n, -n; bie <&ried)in

Turkish, tiirfifa; bcr £firfe, -it, -it; bie Surim

Roumanian, rumtinifd); bcr iHumtitte, -n, -it; bic JKumtiimt

Hungarian, ungarifd); bcr Ungar, -8, -en; bic ttngarin

Austrian, iifterreidjifdj; bcr t f terreidjer, -3, -; bic £fterreid&erin

Malay, ma(ot)ifd); bcr 2MaIalje, -n, -it; bic 9JlaIal)in

Persian, fcerfifd); ber vj$erfer, -tf, -; bte ^Scrferin

Arabian, Arab, Arabic, nrnbifc^; ber Slrnbcr, -«J, -; bic 2lraberin

Jewish, Hebrew, jiibifc^; ^ebrtttf^; ber 3iibe, -n, -tt; bie ^iibtit; bcr

^cbrdcr, -S, -; bic Jpe&roerin

Australian, aitftroltft^; bcr $tuftrolier, -8, •; bic Sdiftralicrtn African, ofrifantfdfj; ber Stfrtfaiter, -§, -; bic Slfrifoncrin Canadian, tonobifc^i; ber $cmabier, -S, -; bic 5?anabicrin Mexican, mejifauifc^; ber 9)Jcjifoner, -8, -; bie 9JJer.ifanerin Cuban, fubnntfd); ber .Uubaner, -§, -; bic .^itbnnertn Brazilian, &rofilianift^; ber SBrafiltaner, -8, -; bie Sraftlinnerin Argentinian, argentiuifdj; ber 2lr0entinier, .», •; bie 5Irfleutinierin Chilean, c^ilcmfc^; bcr (SfyUene, -n, -n; bie CnjUenin Peruvian, |ieruanif(^; ber ^eruoner, -8, -; bie ^critanertu Puerto Rican, ^ortorifnuif(^; bcr ^Sortorifaner, -d, -; bic vj$ortorifaneriit

25. Adverbs and Adverbial Expressions.

today, fjeute early, frfifc

yesterday, gcftern late, foftt

tomorrow, morgen already, fd^on

day before yesterday, ttorgeftctrn no longer, tttdjt me^r

day after tomorrow, fifcermorgen yet, still, noc^ (one more, nod) ettt;

tonight, lieute 9(ftenb; ^eute something more, nod) etttw8;

92acftt many more, nod) Uiele)

last night, geftern Sttenb (SRa*t) not yet, not) ntdit

this morning, Celtic 9Worgen now, iefct

in the morning, morgeitS; am then, bann; ba

3Rorgen afterwards, nat^^er

in the afternoon, nodjmtttagS; am just now, foefcen

9}af^mtttag before, earlier, toother

in the evening, tifcenbS; om ftbettb never, nie, niemald (never again, in the night, nofttS; in bet 9ladjt ntmmcrmc^t)

this afternoon, fcettte S«a<^mittag always, immer

tomorrow morning, morgen frftj forever, (nuf) etutg

tomorrow night, morgen 8Hienb soon, ittlb

(92ttftt) often, oft

GERMAN

161

sometimes, monrfjmal seldom, felten

usually, geroflljttUdj; meifteng from time to time,

Don 3eit *u Sett; ob stnb §ts occasionally, flelegentttdj fast, quickly, fdjnett slowly, tangfom long ago, fftngft here, Hier; jet there, ba

over there, bort; bo brfiben down there, brnnten here and there, flier «nb ba;

(in ttnb mtcbcr to and fro, Hut unb fler near by, in ber SRftlje; najj far away, in ber Seme;

entfernt

up (stairs), oben down (stairs), ttttten ahead, in front, tiotne behind, in back, Ht forward, fcotniclr back, backward, outside, braugen inside, brinrten everywhere, fibetolf also, too, ott(^ therefore, atfo; yes, }a no, nein not, ni^t very, much, felir little, not much, ttienig well, gnt badly, better, beffet

worse, fi^Hmmer

only, nut

more, nte&r

less, menifler

as - as, fo • tote

as much (many) • as, fo oief(e)

- tme

how much?, mtetoiel? how many? »te triefe? how?, tote?

too much (many), an toiel(e) really, truly, mtrfli* about, approximately, itngefft^t rather, aiemfid) somewhat, etttiad so much (many), fo toiet(e) as, like, ntte besides, oitterbem finally, in short, enblid); fur^ almost, faft; beinofl(e) quite, altogether, gftns gladly, 0ern(e) certainly, gewig; ft^er(H^) at once, fltettf; fofott at all, irgenb (anything at all,

trgenb ettonS; not at all, flat

ntdftt)

hardly, faum aloud, (nut of course, nnturli* suddenly, |)19^H<^ perhaps, maybe, tnettetdit a little, etn mentg together, aufommen again, ttitcbcr (again and again

repeatedly, tmmer niiebet) at least, menigften« for lack of, au8 Mangel an

162

GERMAN

26. Conjunctions.™

and, nnb but, aBer or, ober why?, ttiornm?

why!, nn! (bodj! to refute a nega- tive statement) because, ttjetl; ba if, toenn21 (as if, ol$ nienn, old oB) whether, oB22 before, elje; Betoor when. as. than. al$ as long as, fo lanne (n)te)

27. Indefinite Pronouns and

such, foldj (such a soldier, fold) ein ©olbat)

all kinds of, allerlet

all, everything, all; alle# (every- thing good, alleS ®nte)

all, whole, entire, flans (all the world, bte aanje SBelt)

everyone, alle (all the men, all bie fiente)

something, ettoaS (something bad, ctwaS (Sdjledjte$)

someone, jentanb

nothing, ntdjtS (nothing new, ntdjts 9JeneS)

no one, nientanb

no (adjective), fein

20. Note that in all dependent clauses the verb is placed at the end of the clause, and if a compound tense is used, the auxiliary follows the participle: he must come, because I'm going home, er mnf fommcit, loetl tdj nadj £anfe aelje; I came before he went home. tdj Bin anaefonimen, elje cr nadj ^anfe geganaen tft.

21. Usually takes the subjunctive when English uses "should" or "would": if I had time, I should do it, wenn tdj 3t\t ^atte, fo trite tali e$ (fo roitrbe t(f) ed tun).

22. Usually takes the subjunctive after verbs of saying, thinking, ask- ing: he thought that I was sick, cr alaubtc, bnfc tdj franf fet; he asked me whether 1 was sick, cr frafltc mtdj, oB to^ franf fet.

\vhere. wo (whence, roofer; whi- ther, ttjoljtn)

until, Bt£

although, ubnleirf); oBmo^l; oBfdion

unless, tuenn ntttlit; au§flenommen; e§ fet benn baft

while, inbent; roaljrenb

when?, mann?

that, baft22

lr,r, bcnn; metl

after, nad&bem

as soon as, foBolb

Adjectives.

either - or, cntttJCber - ober neither • nor, nieber - nodj each, every, jeber (iebe, jebeS) (an) other, (ein) anberer much, lots of, &tel (lots of good,

met @JuteS) some, einigf few, mentge many, Utele (many a soldier,

mandj ctn <Solbat) several, a few, ntellrere little, not much, toentg (not much

new. ttjentfl 9ltnt9) both, Betbe (both the men, bte

Betben banner) enough,

GERMAN

163

28. Prepositions.23

of (use the genitive case) ; Don is occasionally used: the streets of Paris, bie Straftcn toon ^SartS

from, out of, won (d.) ; au3 (d.)

to (use the dative case, unless motion is implied) ; 6U (d.) ; an (d. or a.) ; nadj (d.) : I go to him, id) gelje 311 H>m; I go to the window, id) gelje an baS Senfter; I go to Berlin, itf gefce nad) SBerJtn; I go home, id) gefie nadj £anfe; to school, in bie (Sdjule.

at, an (d. or a.) ; at the window, am ftettftcr; at school, in ber Sdjttle; at the post-office, auf ber ^oft; at home, <W ^>aufe.

with, mit (d.)

without, ofcne (a.)

in, in (d. or a.) ; in the country, auf bem fianbc ; in the streets, anf ben Strain; in German, auf beutftf)

on, upon, a«f (d. or a.) ; on Sunday, am Sonntag; on foot.

over, ahove, across, fiber (d. or

a.)

for, fur (a.) until, up to, as far as, bi$ fa.) ;

bt3 ju (d.) ; until four o'clock.

bi3 Dier Itijr; as far as the

school, bt§ i^w since, fctt fd.)

toward, 8"; on; fctS; biS an; bid

511; ttitber (a.) between, 5tt>tf(^cn (d. or a.) among, unter (d. or a.) near, nnlje (d.) ; bet (d.) ; he

stands near me,' er fteftt nolle

Dei mir by, tton (d.) ; it was done by him,

e£ mnrbe uou ifjm getau far from, n»eit bon before, in front of, &0r (d. or a.) after, na# (d.) opposite, gefleniiber; opposite me,

mir aeaenitber

back of, behind, ftintcr (d. or a.) under (neath), below, ttttter (d.

or a.)

instead of, (nn)ftatt (g.) beside, next to, neben (d. or a.) ;

bet (d.)

inside of, tnnerf)alb (g.) outside of, nnfierjialb (g.) at the house of, bet (d.) on account of, because of, wegen

(g.)

through, by means of, bntnj (a.) against, aegen (a.); tmber (a). on the other side of, JenfettS (g.) on this side of, bteSfeitS (g.) in spite of. troll (g.) about, around, ttltt (a.) concerning, toon (d.) ; itber (a.) in order to, lint • $n during, ttjftljrenb (g.)

23. The case required by each preposition (genitive, dative or accusa- tive) is indicated thus: fg.), (d.), (a.). Prepositions taking either the dative or the accusative are used with the former when place where, but no motion, is implied, the latter when there is motion: he stood in tbe room, er fttntb im Simmer; he was going into the room, er aing in ba$ dimmer. Note am for an bent, im for in bcm, in$ for in ba3, uuf$ for anf ba§, etc.; these combinations are optional.

GERMAN

29. Special Expressions and Idioms.

good morning, Bitten SRorgen!

good day, guten £ng!

good evening, fluten ftbenb!

good night, gute 9tarf)t!

good-bye, ouf iltfiebf rfcfjen !

I'll see you later, bte nuf tfSettereS!

I'll see you tomorrow, bt$ (ouf) SPlorgen!

I'll see you tonight, bit sum Hbenb!; bi& ftettte Slbenb!

just now, gerabe jefct

hello, ffnllo! (on the telephone - liter £err followed by speaker's name)

how are you?, ttiic fleljt'S?

I'm (very) well, etf gefjt mir (feljr; gona) gut

I'm (much) better. e£ gefit mir (tttel) beffer

what time is it?, ttiiemel ttftr tft e«?; wte fpiit ift e«?

it's six o'clock, e$ iff fer^S tt^r

at six o'clock, ttm fec^fg (tldr)

at about six, wtflefnf)r urn fedja (tt^r) ; uni fe^ tttyr itngcfnlir

at half past six, inn Ijnlb fteben

at a quarter to six, urn brciutertel fecf)^; urn uiertel uor fed)*

at a quarter past six, «m toiertel fteben; ttm titertet nnt^ fec^fi

last year, lefcteS ^afir

next year, nftt^fteS ftaftr

every day, jeben Xag; tfiflltd)

all (the whole) day, ben flnnaen $og

please, bttte!

tell me, fnflen Ste mtr!

bring me, brtngen ©ie mtr!

show me, aetflen <Ste mir!

thank you, bctttfc (fr^Sn)

don't mention it, bttte idjbtt; bttte fe^r; nti^t^ 5tt banfcii; qcrn gefdjefm

will you give me?, nioHen (ttiitrbeit) (Ste mtr .(bttte) geben?

pardon me, entfd)it!btgen ©ie (bttte)! ; »er5etbeu @te!

it doesn't matter, e$ mniftt nttfttS ew8

never mind, laffen <5te e$ flttt fetn!

I'm sorry, e$ tut mtr letb

I can't help it, trfj fnnn mtr nttft ^elfen (I can't help doing it, id) fann

nidjt uinljin e$ 511 tun) it's nothing, e^ tft ja totrfltd) gnr ntc^tS what a pity!, njte fr^rtbe! it's too bad, bn$ tft fn^nbe Tm glad, e$ frettt mtrf>; tc^ frette mid) I have to, td) mufc

GERMAN ]65

I agree (all right; 0. K.), bo* ift mir rc^t; (id) bin) eintocrftonben

where is (are)?, wo ift (finb) ?

there is (are) (pointing out), ba ift (finb)

there is (are) (stating), co gibt; e$ tft (ftnb)

where are you going?, luotjhi gcftcn ©ie?

which way? (direction) , wu?; iuot)tn?; (fashion), tt)ie?; ouf

this (that) way (direction), in bicfcr (jener) Middling; Berber; bo

britbeu

this (that) way (fashion), ouf biefc (jcnc) i&cifc; fo to the right, nod) ffiedjtg to the left, no rf) fitnfS straight ahead, gerobe ou$ come with me, fommen Sic nut (iitir) ! what can I do for you?, roomit fonit id) bicnen?; tuie fnnn id) 3ftnen

belli Jflidj fciu?

what is it?, what is the matter?, ttmS ift lod?; wn^ ftel)t bcnn bo ftdt? what is the matter with you?, ttiaS fefjlt Sftttcn? what do you want?, ttwS roiinf^en (wollcn) @tc? what are you talking about?, tuooon rcbcn Ste?; waft mn'blen ©ie

bcnu bo?: tuorum fynubeft c^ firf) ctgentliri)? what does that mean?, u>na ^eiftt bod?

what do you mean?, ttioo NJollen ®tc bomtt fflflcn? ; u»ic mcinni 2tc? how much is it?, wtetticl ( foftet cd) ? anything else?, what else?, norfj cttuoS?, luo§ nord? nothing else, ni^tS me^r do you speak German?, foremen Sic $eittfd)? a little, cin tucnig

do you understand, ticrftc^en <Stc? I don't understand, id| tocrftcljc nitt^t speak more slowly, foremen Sic loitgfomcr! do you know?, totffen @ic? I don't know, tfl^ wcig nic^t I can't, id) Inn it nicfct

what do you call this in German?, rtiie fociftt bod ouf bcittfd)? I'm an American, tr^ bin SJmerifoncr I'm (very) hungry, ieft btn(fc!)r)^Mngng; \fi ^abe(gropcn) Fm (very) thirsty, id| Oin(fc^r) burftig; ifl^ ^obc (grogcn) Tm sleepy, icft bin fo^rfifrig I'm warm, mir ift mnrm (I'm cold, mir ift folt) it's warm (cold, windy, sunny, fine weather, bad weather). f8 ifi

mornt (folt, luinbig, fonntg, fd)3ncd ^Better, frt^Icrf)tc§ better) it's forbidden, c$ ift Dcrftotcn (imtcrfoflt) ; no smoking, Wonifjcn

vcrbofen

GERMAN

luckily, fortunately, rtlitrfltrfjertucife

unfortunately, iitialiicflidjeruieife; letber

is it not so?, ttidjt itiafjr? (use this invariable expression wherever

English repeats the question: you are going, aren't you?; he is,

isn't he?)

not at all, flar uirfjt; mcfjt im gcriiigftcu how old are you?, rate nit futb 6ie? I'm twenty years old, id) bin snwnatg 3al)re alt

how long have you been here?, tute lattge finb <5te (fdjoit) filer? how long have you been waiting?, rote lange marten <Sie fdjon? as soon as possible, fu foalb rote miigltd) come here, foimtten ©te (ftter)^er! come in! eiittreten! ; herein! look!, fetjen ©te!

look out!, careful!, $urfttfjt!; ^l^tuttg! just a moment!, eittett ^Ittgenbltff ! darn it!, nerbamtiit!; t»erflu(^t! darn the luck!, s«nt Xeufel uodj mal! for heaven's sake!, itm ©otte^ SBiUen! gangway!; one side!, aufpaffen, ftitte!; Unffeu @ie auf ! ; 2t<f)tuug!;

as you please, nite e$ ^I)iicu beliebt

listen!, ftoren @ie mal!

look here!, say!, faflett @te mal!

may 1 introduce my friend?, barf id) inetitcu ^rcitnb tourftellen (6e!aitnt

ma die it? )

glad to meet you, e$ freut mitt^ (£ie fetuten 511 lerueit; fcl)r no admittance, feitt ^tnaana!; C?t«tritt tterboten! notice!, JBefanntmaajung! nonsense!, ttnftnn! to your health!, profit!; ^roft! I should like to, idj mfldjte (sent) as quickly as possible, fo fdjttell tute stop!, foalt!

keep right (left), reri)t<* (Htif^) fasten! entrance, (fingang exit, Slittfgang hurry!, beeilcu 6te ftai!

LANGUAGES OF THE ROMANCE GROUP

deu seu Filho unigenito, para que todo o que ere nele ndo perega, mas tenha a vida eterna.

Italian: Infatti Dio ha talmente amato il mondo da dare il suo Figliuolo unigenito, affinche chiunque crede in Lid non perisca, ma abbia la vita eterna.

Roumanian: Fiindcd atdt de mult a iubit Dumnezeu lumea, cd a dat pe singurul Lui Fiu, pentru cd oricine crede in El, sd nu piard, ci sd aibd via(a vecinicd.

Rumansh (Lower Engadine) : Perche cha Deis ha tant amd tl muond, ch'el ha dat seis wiigenit figl, ado cha scodiin chi craja in el non giaja a perder, ma haja la vita eterna* Among grammatical characteristics common to all the Romance languages may be mentioned: a) the reduction of grammatical genders to a masculine-feminine system, with the old Latin neuter gender generally discarded, and Latin neuter nouns becoming either masculine or feminine:1 b) the disappearance of the Latin inflectional system for nouns and adjectives, so that there are today no separate "cases" for nouns in the Romance languages, which indicate case-relations, even more exclusively than English, by means of word-order and prepositions;2 c) retention of the inflectional system for verbs, which are generally used (save in French) without the subject pronoun, since distinctive endings for persons and numbers still appear.

1. A few traces of the Latin neuter appear today, in some Italian and Roumanian irregular plurals (It. il braccio, le braccia; Roum. bratul, bratele) ; in the Spanish "neuter" article lo and the Spanish and Portuguese "neuter" demonstrative pronouns (esto, eso, aquello; isto, isso, aquilo) ; in a few French forms like ceci and cela; etc. But for practical purposes, it may be asserted that the neuter Bender has disappeared from the Romance tongues.

2. Roumanian is an exception to this, having retained a separate nominative-accusative and genitive-dative, as well as occasional vocative forms. Roumanian also distinguishes itself from its sister Romance tongues by using a definite article which is added on to the noun, instead of heing used before the noun. Considerable trace of the Latin inflectional system still appears in Romance per- sonal pronouns (e. g., French il, le, In, lui; Us, les, leur, eux, elles) .

; 72 LANGUAGES OF THE ROMANCE GROUP

In syntax, word-arrangement within the sentence, use of verb-tenses and moods, the Romance languages, possessing a common point of departure and having enjoyed veiy close cultural relations throughout their history (with the exception of Roumanian), are fairly close to one another, so that literal word-for-word translation from one to another is usually pos- sible; this applies more to the literary and cultivated than to the lower-class language.

Vocabulary resemblances are fairly common, as may be seen from the list of words in ordinary use given above. Strik- ing divergences also appear, however. 3 The vocabularies of Spanish and Portuguese have borrowed extensively from Arabic, those of French and Italian from Germanic, and that of Roumanian from Slavic.

Some degree of mutual comprehensibility, especially among the more cultured classes, is fairly general for Spanish, Portuguese and Italian, but does not extend to French and Roumanian without special study.

Distinctive of the written languages are the symbols g in Portuguese and French; n in Spanish; a, 6, Ih, nh in Portuguese; a, j, f in Roumanian.

Distinctive of the spoken tongues are the nasal sounds of French and Portuguese; the middle vowels (represented in writing by u, eu, oeu) of French; the a, i of Roumanian (a sound which Roumanian shares with Russian, and the closest English approximation to which is the y of "rhythm"); the clearly audible double consonant sounds of Italian; the guttural / of Spanish; the uvular r of Parisian French, in contrast to the trilled r of the other languages (the trilled r is quite common in provincial French).

3. The word for "bat", for instance, is chauve-souris in French, murcielago in Spanish, pipistrello in Italian; while negro may be used for "black" in Portuguese, the more common word is preto, which would be incomprehensible elsewhere save in Spanish (prieto), where it is far less commonly used.

LANGUAGES OF THE ROMANCE GROUP / / j

ROUMANIAN

ALPHABETIC NOTATION — as in English; k, q, w, y appear only in foreign words. Additional symbols: a, a, i, s, \.

SOUNDS

a = father; a = bacon; both a and i — sound somewhat similar

to Eng. rhythm; there is no difference between a and i;

i is used initially (in); a generally within the word ( cdnta ) . e initially often = yes; elsewhere, = met; i = machine; o

— or; u = food.

c before a, o, u or consonant (and also ch before e, i) = cold, c before e, i == chill.

g before a, o, u or consonant (and also gh before e, i) = go. g before e, i = gin. j = pleasure. s z^= $o, never rose. § .— sure. ^ = hearts.

There is no definite rule of accentuation; the accent generally falls on the last, second from last, or third from last syllable; words of two syllables are generally accented on the first; words ending in -ar, -at, -el, -esc, -et, -ent, -ez, -os, are generally stressed on the last syllable. The only written accent is \ used on the final vowel of verb-forms when no other diacritic mark appears (cdntd, "to sing").

GRAMMATICAL SURVEY Articles and nouns.

There are in Roumanian two cases, a nominative-accusa- tive and a genitive-dative (separate vocative forms also appear).

LANGUAGES OF THE ROMANCE GROUP

There are only two genders, masculine and feminine. 4 Outside of natural gender, nouns ending in consonants are generally masculine, those in -a generally feminine. The indefinite article is un (gen.-dat. unui) for the masculine; o (gen.-dat. unei) for the feminine: un amic, "a friend"; unui amic, "to, of a friend"; o mama, "a mother"; unei mame, ''to, of a mother".

The definite article is added on to the noun. Masculine nouns ending in -e add le (rege, "king"; regele, "the king"); masculine nouns ending in consonants add -ul (domn, "gentle-, man"; domnul, "the gentleman"; cal, "horse"; calul, "the horse"). Feminine nouns ending in -a change -a to -a (mama, "mother"; mama, "the mother"; sora, "sister"; sora, "the sister") ; feminine nouns ending in -e add -a (earns, "meat"; cornea, "the meat"; servitoare, "maid"; servitoarea, "the maid").

The genitive-dative case is indicated in the masculine by adding the article -lui if the noun ends in a vowel, -ului if it ends in a consonant (regelui, "of, to the king"; domnului, "of, to the gentleman"; calului, "of, to the horse") . In the feminine, it is indicated by changing -a or -e to ~ei (marnei, "of, to the mother"; sorei, "of, to the sister"; servitoarei, "of, to the maid").

In the plural, masculine nouns ending in -e change -e to -i, while those ending in consonants add -i (domn, pi. domni, "gentlemen"; rege, pi. regi, ''kings"). To this -i, another -i is added for the article (domnii, "the gentlemen"; regii, "the kings") ; hut to form the genitive-dative, the second -i i? re- placed by -lor (domnilor, "of, to the gentlemen"; regilor, "of, to the kings"). Feminine nouns in -a change to -e in the plural (mama, pi. mame, "mothers"; those in -e remain for the most part unchanged: serritoare, pi. servitoare) ; the definite article is then suffixed by adding -Ie (mamele, "the mothers"; servitoarele, "the maids"), or -lor if the genitive-dative form

4. But see end of n. 5.

LANGUAGES OF THE ROMANCE GROUP 7/5

is desired (mamelor, ''of, to the mothers"; servitoarelor, "of, to the maids".5

Adjectives.

These agree with their nouns, both in the attributive and in the predicate position (caii sunt buni, "the horses are good") . In the attributive position, the adjective may precede or follow the noun; if the adjective precedes, it takes the definite article instead of the noun: fratele bun or bunul frate, "the good broth- er" ; fratelui bun or bunului frate, "of or to the good brother" ; mama bund or buna mama, "the good mother"; mamelor bune or bunelor mame, "of or to the good mothers".

The comparative is formed by prefixing mai to the positive (mai bun, "more good", "better") ; the superlative by using eel (fern, cea, masc. pi. cei, fern. pi. cele) before the comparative: eel mai bun, "best".

a$a de. . . .ca, "as. . . .as": boul este tot a§a de tare ca §i calul, "the ox is as strong as the horse".

de cat, "than": boul este mai tare de cat calul, "the ox is strong- er than the horse".

The adjective without an ending is generally used as an adverb: el scrie grozav, "he writes horribly".

Numerals.

1 — un (fem. una) 5 — cinci

2 — doi (fem. doud) 6 — §ase

3 — trei 7 — $apte 4 — patru 8 — opt

5. There are many exceptions to the above rules (e. g., sord, "sister", pi. surori; came, "meat", pi. cdrnuri; cat, "horse", pi. cai) . The rules are further complicated in the case of many nouns by the change of final -t, -d, •$ to -f, -z, -s, respectively, before the plural -i (Jrttie, "brother", pi. frati; urs, "bear", pi. urj i) . Several nouns that are masculine in the singular become feminine in the plural (braful, "the arm"; bratele, "the arms"; and since these are derived mainly from Latin neuters, some Roumanian grammarians choose to describe them as forming a third, "arnbigen", or "neuter" gender.

77(5 LANGUAGES OF THE ROMANCE GROUP

9 — noud 30 — trei-zeci

10 — zece 40 — patru-zeci

11 — un-spre-zece 100 — o sutd

12 — doi-spre-zece 200 — doud sute 20 — doud-zeci 1000 — o mie

23 — doud-zeci §i trei 2000 — doud mii 1,000,000 — un milion

Pronouns
Personal.	Singular
First	Person	Second Person
Nom.	4(T99 eu, 1	ii 99 m, you
Dat.	mie, "to me"	fie, "to your
	(mi, imi)	(fi, ifi)
Ace.	mine, pe mine	Jme, pe Ji/ie
	(ma), "me"	(te), "you"
	Third Person
	el9 "he"	ea, "she"
	lui, "to him"	ei, "to her"

pe el, "him" pe ea, "her"

(il) (o)

Plural

First Person Second Person

Nom. noiy "we" voi, "you"

Dat. noud, "to us" voud, "to you"

Ace. pe noi, "us" pe voi, "you"

f/ie) (va)

Third Person

ei, "they", m. e/e, "they", f.

/or, "to them" lor, "to them"

pe ei, "them", m. pe e/e, "them" f.

(V, ii) (fe)

LANGUAGES OF THE ROMANCE GROUP

177

The subject pronouns may be omitted: el a auzit, or auzit, "he has heard". The forms given above in parentheses are used as direct or indirect objects with verb-forms, which they normally precede, save in the imperative. Often both the prepositive object pronoun and the longer form following the verb are used: Dumnea-V oastrd nu rnafi vdzut pe mine, "you didn't see me". Dumnea-V oastrd ("Your Lordship") with the second person plural of the verb is generally used in polite address. In writing, it is generally abbreviated to Dv. or Dvs.

Fem. PL

mele

tale

sale

noastre

voastre

lor

The article is used with the noun when the possessives are used as adjectives: amicul tdu, "your friend". When they are used as pronouns, prefix a/, a, ai, ale: calul vecinului vostru §i al meu, <4your neighbor's horse and mine".

Possessive.
	Mas. Sg.	Fem. Sg.	Mas. PI
"my", "mine"	rneu	mea	mei
"your", "yours"	tau	ta	tdi
"his", "her"	sdu	sa	sdi
"our", "ours"	nostru	noastrd	no$tri
"your", "yours"	vostru	voastrd	vo§tri
"their", "theirs"	lor	lor	lor

Demonstrative.

Mas. Sg. Fem. Sg. Mas. PL Fem. PL

"this", "these" acest aceastd "that", "those" acel acea

Relative and Interrogative.

ace§ti acei

aceste acele

care or ce, "who", which", "that"; cine?, "who?"; pe cine?, "whom?"; cui?9 "to whom?"; a cui? "whose?"; ce?, "what?"; care?, "which?".

178 LANGUAGES OF THE ROMANCE GROUP

Verbs.

a fi, "to be": Present: sunt, e$ti, este, suntem, suntefi, sunt Imperfect: eram, erai, era, eram, erafi, erau

a aved, "to have": Present: am, ai, a (or are), avem, ave(i, au. Imperfect: aveam, aveai, aved, aveam, aveafi, aveau.

There are four conjugations, ending respectively in -a, -I, -ed, -e: cdntd, "to sing"; dormi, "to sleep"; tdced, "to be silent"; vinde, "to sell".

The present indicative normally has no ending in the first singular and third plural (dorm, "I or they sleep"); -i in the second singular (dormi, tad) ; -a for -a verbs, -e for others in the third singular (cdntd, tace, vinde) ; -dm for -a verbs, -im for -I verbs, -em for others in the first plural (cdntdm, dormim, vindem) ; -a(i, ~i(i, -eft in the second plural (cdntafi, dormifi, vinde(i).

Other tenses include an imperfect; a past; a future (which is formed with "to want": voi, vei, va, vom, vefi, vor, followed by the infinitive: voi cdntd, "I shall sing"); compound tenses formed with aved, "to have", followed by the past participle (am cdntat, "I have sung"; am dormit, "I have slept"; am tdcut, "I have kept silent") ; subjunctives, regularly preceded by sd (sd aud, "that I hear") ; and conditionals (a§, ai, ar, am, afi, ar followed by the infinitive: a$ cdntd, "I should sing"). The passive is formed by ''to be" with the past par- ticiple (sunt Idudat, "I am praised"; fui Idudat, "I was prais- ed"). A reflexive conjugation appears, similar to that of other Romance languages, with dative or accusative pronouns (see pages 176-7) and se in the third person: se spald, "he washes himself"; pentru ce nu te speli?, "why don't you wash yourself?"; spald-te!, "wash yourself!"

IDENTIFICATION

The symbols a, s. ( are characteristic of Roumanian. Typical are also the -w/, -/MI, -lor endings of nouns.

LANGUAGES OF THE ROMANCE GROUP / 7p

SAMPLE OF WRITTEN ROUMANIAN

Limba Romdneasca The Roumanian Language

Mult e dulce si frumoasd Very sweet and beautiful is

Limba, ce vorbim! the language that we speak!

Altd limbd armonioasd Another harmonious language

Ca ea nu gdsim! like it we do not find!

Saltd inima 'n pldcere, The heart leaps up in pleasure

Cand o ascultdm, when we listen to it,

Si pe buze aduce miere, And to the mouths it brings honey,

Cand o cuvdntdm. when we speak it.

Romdnajul o iubeste The Roumanian loves it

Ca sufletul sdu, as his own breath (of life),

O! vorbifi, scriti romdnefte, Oh! speak, write Roumanian,

Pentru Dumnezeu! for (the love of) God!

VOCABULARY

(Mainly of Latin origin, but with strong Slavic infiltrations; note synonyms from two sources: fafd or obraz, "face"; timp or vreme, "time") .

si, "and" bine, "well"

cd, "that" acum, "now"

sauy "or" la dreapta, "to the right"

cand, "when" la stdnga, "to the left"

pentru ce?, "why?" Jos, "down"

pentru cd, "because" acasd, "at home"

despre, "about" apd, "water"

bucuros, "gladly" cutit, "knife"

astdzi, "today" ou, "egg"

ieri, "yesterday" vin, "wine"

mdine, "tomorrow" ceaiu, "tea"

acolo, "there" furculitd, "fork"

aproape, "near" pdine, "bread"

a da, "to give" poame, "fruit"

cat?, "how much?" here, "beer"

mult, "much" lingurd, "spoon"

foarte, "very" ceased, "cup"

da, "yes" unt, "butter"

nu, "not", "no" lapte, "milk"

nimic, "nothing" cafea, "coffee"

180

LANGUAGES OF THE ROMANCE GROUf

a sta, "to stand"

[toate, "perhaps"

cu, "with"

fdrd, "without11

iwf "in"

MI loc de, "instead of*

sub, "under"

rdu, "bad", "badly"

unde?, "where?"

aci, "here"

sus, "up"

afard, "out"

a mama, "to eat"

a se jucd, "to play"

mi place, "I like"

mi-tf frig, "I'm cold"

rnf-e coW, "I'm warm"

roi'-e jomrt, "I'm sleepy"

mi-€ &me, "I'm well"

mi-e foame, "I'm hungry"

va rog, "please"

cat e ceasul? "what time is it?"

ce seard frumoasd! "what a

beautiful evening!" totdeauna, "always" niciodatd, "never" inainte de, "before" In fafa, "in front of" in dosul, "behind" albastru, "blue" TOJU, "red" alb, "white" galben, "yellow"

dimineafa, "good morning" zittfl, "good day" bund sear a, "good evening",

"good night" la revedere, "good-bye"

ce mai jacefi?, "how are you?" multumesc, "thank you" noTod, "your health!", "good

luck!" .

scuzafi>md, "excuse me" cat costd?, "how much is it?" prea scump, "too much" vorbifi englezeste?, "do you speak

English?"

mi pare rdu, "I'm sorry" afi infeles?, uifelegefi?, "do

you understand?" nu infeleg, "I don't understand" vorbifi mai meet, "speak more

slowly" cum vd numifi?, "what is your

name?"

ma numesc — , "my name is — " adu-mi, "bring me" putefi sd-mi dafi?, "can you give

me?"

cat timp?, "how long?" la ?ase $i jumdtate, "at half past

six" la sase fdrd un sfert, "at a quarter

to six"

sunt bolnav, "I am ill" care este drumul spre — ?, "which

is the way to — ?" nu e asa?, "isn't it so?" unde este?, "where is?" pe aici, "this way" poftifi induntru!, "come in!" domnule, "sir" domnisoard, "miss", "young

lady" destul!, "enough!"

FRENCH 183

CHAPTER VI

FRENCH

SPEAKERS AND LOCATION

(All population figures are approximate)

Europe — France — 42,000,000; Belgium — 4,500,000; Switzerland — 2,000,000; scattered groups of French speakers in extreme northwestern Italy (Val d'Aosta, Pinerolo) ; spoken side by side with German, but not so extensively, in Luxembourg. Widely used as a secondary, cultural, diplomatic and commercial lan- guage throughout continental Europe, particularly in Italy, the Netherlands, Portugal, Spain, Poland, Russia.

Africa — Language of colonization in the following countries: Algeria (8,000,000); Belgian Congo (14,000,000); Cameroon (2,500,000); French Equatorial Africa (3,500,000); French West Africa (16,000,000); Ma- dagascar (4,000,000); Morocco (7,000,000); Tunisia (3,000,000); French Somaliland (50,000). Widely used as a secondary and cultural language in Egypt.

Asia — Tongue of colonization in French Indo-China (24,500,- 000); Syria and Lebanon (4,000,000); French cities on the coasts of India and China (Pondichery, Kwang- chowan, etc. — about 500,000). Used as cultural lan- guage *in other Asiatic countries', notably Turkey, Iran, Japan, China.

Oceania — Tongue of colonization in French Pacific posses- sions (French Oceania. New Caledonia, New Hebrides, West Samoa, etc. — about 250,000).

Western Hemisphere — Canada (Quebec and Ontario) —

184 FRENCH

3,000,000 (an additional 1,000,000 in New Eng- land) ; Haiti — 3,000,000. Tongue of colonization in French American possessions (Guadaloupe, Martinique, French Guiana — about 750,000). Widely used as a cultural, secondary and diplomatic tongue in all countries of Latin America, especially Argentina and Mexico, and as a cultural language in the U. S. A. and English-speaking Canada.

ALPHABET AND SOUNDS

a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i, j, 1, m, n, o, p, q, r, s, t, u, v, x, y, z (k and w appear only in a few words of foreign origin: kepi, kilo, wagon).

Vowel sounds: usually short (never as short as English short vowels), but occasionally prolonged in stressed syllable; length is to be learned by observation.

a = hat (this is the more usual value: la) ; or = father (this is less frequent: pas; but it is normal when the vowel bears the circumflex accent: age), e = met, when the vowel bears the grave or circumflex accent (pere, fenetre), also when it does not come at the end of the syllable (cf. Syllabification, p. 187: let-tre, interes-sant, aler-te, a-mer) ; = first part of a in Eng. gate when the vowel bears the acute accent (ferme) ; also in final -er and -ez of verb forms (aimer, aimez) ;

is completely silent in -e and -es endings of words of more than one syllable (amie, balle, portes); also in the third plural endings of verbs (portent) ; = the (with a slight projection of the lips) in most

other positions (le, remettre). i = machine (vie, il). o = bought (mode) ; or

= first part of o in Eng. go (nos; the latter value is rarer, but always appears when the vowel is the last sound in the word, or bears the circumflex accent:

FRENCH

notre, with closed sound, as opposed to notre, with open sound).

u = sound intermediate between feed and food (mar, tu). Place tongue in position for feed, lips in posi- tion for food.

ai, at the end of a verb-form = first part of gate (j'aurai).

ai, in other positions, and ei in all positions = met (fafre, avait, nefge).

au, eau — first part of go (aussi, beau).

ou = food (oi/blier).

eu, oeu = sounds intermediate between gate and go, or between met and mud; the first sound (gate, with projected lips) occurs more frequently when it is the final sound in a word (pen, voeu) ; the latter (met, with projected lips) when another sound follows in the same word (hewre, seul).

oi = wasp (moi) ; went if nasalized (moms).

Nasal Vowels: these occur, usually, when the vowel is followed by m or n in the same syllable (boa, w-teressartf; cf. Syllabification, p. 187) ; but not if the m or n is doubled (bonne, homme), in which cases the vowel is pronounced by itself, at the close of the syllable, and the double m or n is joined to the next vowel (bo-nne, ho-mme). To produce the nasal vowel sound, shut off partly the passage between nose and mouth as the vowel is uttered, and refrain completely from pronouncing the n or m: an, am, en, em = father, with nasal connection partly shut off

(a/i-glais, champ, en-core, em-beter).

on, orn = go, with nasal connection partly shut off (on, om- bre). in, im, ain, aim, ein = hat, with nasal connection partly shut

off ({in, mt-possible, mam, sew).

un, urn = met, with projected lips, and with nasal connection partly shut off [un, lura-di, par-fwm).

Consonant sounds: b, d, f, 1, m, n, p, s, t, v, x, y, z, approx-

]86 FRENCH

imately as in English;1 ( d and t, however, are pronounced with tip of tongue touching back of upper teeth, not the palate).

c: before a. o, u or consonant, = cold (comment), c: before e, i ^^ ice ( ici) ; c. always = ice (ca). ch: = sure (cAarbon).

g: before a, o, u or consonant, = go (gr ;on). g: before e or i, = pleasure (gilet). gn: = canyon (agrceau). h: is normally silent (Aomme). j: = pleasure (/eune).

ill, and final -il preceded by a vowel = machine quickly follow- ed by you (fi//e, travai/).2

r: is rolled, with the uvula vibrating toward the palate, like a gentle clearing of the throat in its upper part: rare.

q: as in English, but a following u is normally silent ( qid pron.

kee; quatre pron. katr) ; u is also generally silent

after g (gaerre). th: = tea (the).

1. The final consonant of a word is generally silent (finil, pron. fini), hut final c, f, 1, r are usually sounded (lac, neu/, te/, par); -r, however, is silent in the infinitive ending -er (parler, pron. parle) and in the ending -ier; the addition of -s does not change the sound of the final consonant (peti/ or petite, both pron. peti) ; but the addition of an -e does, causing an otherwise silent final consonant to be pronounc- ed (petite or petite*, both pron. petit) ; laid (ugly) and its masc. pL form laids are both pronounced le; but the fern. sg. and pi., laide, laides, are both pronounced led.

A final consonant, which would otherwise be silent in accordance with the above, is often carried over to the next word if the latter begins with a vowel or h and forms part of the same thought-unit; les hommes avaient pris cette enorme table is pronounced le zom zave pri se tenorme table. In such linking, final s and x are pronounced as z when carried over, d is pronounced as t, f occasionally as v (les by itself is le, but les hommes is le zom; grand by itself is gra, but grand homme is gra torn; neuf is nof; but neuf hommes is no vom).

2. Important exceptions, in which the ill is sounded like machine followed by /amb, are: mitte (one thousand); tranquille (quiet); viUe (city); village (village).

FRENCH IS7

CAPITALIZATION, SYLLABIFICATION, ACCENTUATION

Do not capitalize je (I), names of days and months (lundi, Janvier); adjectives of nationality (franqais), even if used as names of languages (le franqais; il parle franqais): but capitalize if the adjective of nationality refers to people: le Franqais, the Frenchman; les Franqais, the French.

In dividing a word into syllables, make sure that a single consonant between two vowels goes with the following, not with the preceding vowel (ge ne ral, as against Eng. gen er al) ; this rule, of great importance in all Romance languages, is doubly important in French, because upon it often depends the nasalization or non-nasalization of the preceding vowel: main, with nasalized ai, and silent n; but lai-ne, with no nasalization and n fully pronounced; in-te-res-sant, with nasalized i and a, and neither n pronounced, but i-nu-ti-le, with no nasalization of i and n fully pronounced with the following u.

French stresses all syllables of a word about equally; this means more emphasis on the final syllable than appears in English, and gives the impression that French stresses the last pronounced syllable in the word. The accent marks of French have already been described (acute: '; grave: *; circumflex: *). They do not indicate stress on the vowel over which they appear, but serve only to differentiate among the various possible sounds for that vowel. The circumflex may appear on any vowel, which is then often long. The acute and the grave usually appear over the vowel e; but the grave is also occasion- ally used on other vowels to distinguish between two words having the same pronunciation but different meanings: oil, where; ou, or; Id, there; la, the.

The cedilla (g) appears only with c and indicates that the c is sounded like s before a, o or u (requ) .

The diaeresis ( ") is used over a vowel to prevent it from combining with the preceding vowel (Noel, pron. No el, not Nol).

The apostrophe indicates that a vowel has been dropped

]88 FRENCH

before another vowel or an h (Fassiette for la assiette; Fhomme for le homme).

English sounds not appearing in French: all vowels save above; cAurch; gin; thin; this; American r.

French sounds not appearing in English: eu, oeu; u; nasalized vowels; French r.

SAMPLE OF WRITTEN FRENCH; USE FOR PRACTICE READING.

Coute que coute, il fallait donner le signal aux avions anglais, qui ne pouvaient pas tarder a apparaftre dans le ciel sombre et orageux de la nuit. Le tas de bois etait la, tel que 1'avait soigneusement arrange la mere Francois avant la tombee du soleil. Mais comment s'en approcher? Comment y mettre le feu avec ces precieuses allumettes qu'on avait si long- temps conservees pour la besogne? Cette sentinelle allemande, placee a cet endroit ou Ton n'avait jamais place de sentinelle auparavant, restait la, debout, immobile. Pierrot prit une resolution soudaine. La main droite dans la poche de son pantalon, les doigts crispes autour du manche du couteau, il se dirigea lentement, en sifflant, vers le Boche, qui, sans ouvrir la bouche, sans faire un mouvement, le regardait venir. — Bonsoir, monsieur, — lui dit Pierrot, — Est-ce qu'il me serait permis de ramasser quelques morceaux de ce bois? On a froid la-bas. — L'autre fit un vague geste de consentement, lui tourna le dos, et se mit a regarder attentivement du cote de la mer. On connaissait bien Pierrot, depuis les premiers jours de Foccupa- tion; et d'ailleurs, ce n'etait qu'un gargon de quinze ans.

GRAMMATICAL SURVEY

1. Nouns and articles.

French has only two genders, masculine and feminine. Nouns denoting males are normally masculine, those denoting females feminine. For nouns which in English are neuter, the

FRENCH

189

article, definite or indefinite, indicates the French gender. The definite article is le for masculine singular nouns, la for femi- nine singulars; both masculine and feminine singular nouns beginning with vowels and (usually) h take f ; the plural of the definite article is les, used without exception for all plural nouns.8 The indefinite article is un for masculine nouns, une for feminine nouns. Most French nouns form their plural by the addition of a silent -J.4

le livre, the book les livres, the books un livre, a book

la porte, the door les portes, the doors une porte, a door

I'homme, the man les hommes, the men un homme, a man

Peau, the water les eaux, the waters une eau9 a water

2. Adjectives and Adverbs.

French adjectives take the same gender and number as the nouns they modify, regardless of position. Normally, the adjective adds -e for the feminine singular (unless it already

3. Le and les (but not la or f ) combine with the prepositions de, "of", and a, "to", in the following forms: de le become du; de Us become des; a le become au; a les become aux (du pere, of the father; des hommes, of the men; de la mere, of the mother; des femmes, of the women; au colonel, to the colonel; aux officiers, to the officers).

Du, de la, de I', des are used with the meaning of "some", "any": donnez-moi de Veau, give me (some) water; avez-vous du vin?, have you (any) wine?; il a vu des hommes, he saw some men. If the sentence is negative, however, de alone, without the article, is used to express "some", "any": je nai pas de vin, I haven't any wine, I have no wine; nous navons pas de lait, we haven't any milk, we have no milk.

4. Nouns ending in -s, -x, -z remain unchanged in the plural (le nez, the nose; les nez, the noses; la voix, the voice, les voix, the voices). Most nouns ending in -al change ill to -aux: le cheval, the horse, les chevaux, the horses. Most nouns ending in -au, -eu, -out add •x instead of -s to form the plural: le bateau, the boat; les bateaux, the boats; le feu, the fire; les feux, the fires; le bijou, the jewel; les bijoux, the jewels.

FRENCH

ends in -e, like triste; fern, same); silent -s for the masculine

plural;11 >es for the feminine plural.

le grand homme, the great man

les grands hommes, the great men

la grande femme, the great woman

les grandes femmes, the great women

la femme est grande, the woman is great

les hommes sont grands, the men are great

Adjectives usually follow the noun, but a few commonly used ones precede (bon, good; mauvais, bad; petit, small, grand, large, great, tall).

The comparative is generally formed by placing plus (more) before the adjective; the superlative by using the definite article before the comparative: un gros livre, a big book; un plus gros livre, a bigger book; le plus gros livre, the biggest book; un garqon intelligent, an intelligent boy; un gar^on plus intelligent, a more intelligent boy; le garden le plus intelligent de la classe, the most intelligent boy in the class.6

The adverb is generally formed by adding -merit to the feminine singular form of the adjective: grand, great; fem. sg. grande; adverb grandement, greatly; facile, easy, fem. sg. the same; adverb facilement, easily.

3. Numerals. a) Cardinal.7

1 — un, une 3 — trois

2 — deux 4 — quatre

5. But the same rules that apply to the plural of nouns generally apply to the plural of adjectives (see note 4). Remember that the addition of -s does not change the sound of the preceding consonant, that of -e does: laid, laids, pron. le; laide, laides, pron. led.

6. Note the double use of the definite article, also the use of de for "in" after a superlative.

7. Use these in dates, save for "the first": le premier juin, June 1st; le vingt-cinq juin, June 25th.

FRENCH

191

5 — cinq*

6 — six* 1 — sept

8 — huit*

9 — neuf 10 — dix8 11—- onze

12 — douze

13 — treize

14 — quatorze

15 — quinze

16 — seize

72

80

81

90

91

92

100

101

200

205

1000

5000

1,000,000

1,000,000,000

17 — dtx-sept 18 — dix-huit*

19 — dix-neuf

20 — vingt

21 — vingt et uns

22 — vingt-deux 30 — trente

40 — quarante 50 — cinquante 60 — soixante

70 — soixante -dix8

71 — soixante et onze

— soixante-douze

— quatre-vingts*

— quatre-vingt-un*

— quatre-vingt-dix*

— quatre-vingt-onze

— qnatre-vingt-douze

— cent8

— cent un

— deux cents*

— deux cent cinq*

— mille (mil in dates)

— cinq mille

— un million (de)

— un milliard (de)

8. Et connects the two parts of 21, 31, 41, 51, 61, 71; hyphens connect the two parts of other compound numerals. Use -s in 80 and plural hundreds unless other numerals follow. The final -q of cinq and the final ~t of huit are usually sounded. The -x of six and dix is silent when a following noun begins with a consonant; sounded like -z when the following noun begins with vowel or h; sounded like hard -5 when there is no following noun.

l<)2 FRENCH

b) Ordinal.

1st — premier (fern, premiere) 9th — neuvieme 2nd — second or deuxieme 10th — dixieme 3rd — troisieme llth — onzieme

4th — quatrieme 19th — dix-neuvieme

5th — cinquieme 21st — w/ig/ e* unieme

7th — septieme 22nd — vingt-deuxieme

(Drop final vowel of cardinal and add -feme, changing / of neu/ to v, and g of cw</ to qu; use second for the second of two, deuxieme where more than two are involved).

c) Others.

half — la moitie (noun) : la moitie de ma classe, half of my

class;

half — demi (adjective) ; invariable before the noun, and

attached by a hyphen: une demi-heure, half an hour; adds -e

if it follows a feminine noun: une heure et demie, an hour and

a half.

a pair of — une paire de; a dozen eggs — une douzaine

d9oeufs; a score of men — une vingtaine d9hommes;

once — une fois; twice — deux fois; three times — trois fois;

the first (last) time — la premiere (derniere) fois.

4 Pronouns. a) Personal — Subject.

I, je we, nous

you, tu9 you, vous9

he, it, i/° they (masc.), Us

she, it, elleg they, (fern.), elles

These are regularly used with the verb: il parle9 he speaks.

9. Use tu with the second singular of the verb only in familiar conversation; vous with the second plural of the verb is the general polite way of addressing either one or more people. // translates "it" when the noun is masculine in French, elle when it is feminine ivoyez- vous le lime? 11 est sur la table, do you see the book? It is on the table; oil est la table? Elle est dans la sallet where is the table? It is in the room.

FRENCH

b) Personal; Direct and Indirect Object.

me, to me, me us, to us, nous

you, to you, te you, to you, vous

him, it, le them, les

her, it, la to them, leur to him, to her, lui

These precede the verb (je le vois, I see him; il me donne le livre, he gives me the book), save in the imperative affirma- tive, where the object pronouns are attached to the verb by a hyphen, and moi and toi replace me and te (prenez-le, take it; donnez-moi le livrc, give me the book). In the imperative negative, the general rule holds (ne le prenez pas, don't take it; ne me donnez pas le livre, don't give me the book). If the direct and indirect object pronoun are used together, put the indirect before the direct (il me le donne, he gives it to me; je vous les donne, I give them to you), unless both are third person (je le lui donne, I give it to him; vous les leur donnez, you give them to them), or the imperative affirmative is used (donnez-les-nous, give them to us; but ne nous les donnez pas, don't give them to us).

F, "there", "in that place", "to that place", and en "of it", "of them", "some", "any" (the latter meanings when the noun does not appear), follow the same rules of position, being placed after all other pronouns: je Fy ai vu, I saw him there; il men a donne, he gave me some. Y also means "to it", "to them", referring to inanimate objects: I am going to it, fy vais.

c) Personal (with prepositions or alone).

I, me, moi we, us, nous

you, toi you, vous

he, him, lui they, them (masc.), eux

she, her. elle they, them (fern.), elles

avec moi, with me; sans toi, without you; pour eux, for them; qui avez-vous vu? Eux, whom did you see? Them; qui est la? Moi, who is there? I.

194

d) Possessive.

1. With the noun (adjectives) : Masc. Sg. Fern. Sg. Plural

FRENCH

Singular Plural

their, leur leurs

my, mon ma mes our, notre nos

your, ton ta tes your, votre vos

his,

her, son sa ses

its,

mon frere, my brother; 565 soeurs, his sisters; nos parents, our parents; leurs livres, their books; leur soeur, their sister; ma mere., my mother.

2. Without the noun (pronouns) :

Masc. Sg. Fern. Sing. Masc. PI. Fern. PL

mine, le mien la mienne les miens les miennes

yours, le tien la tienne les tiens les tiennes

his,

hers, le sien la sienne les siens les siennes

its,

ours, le notre la notre les notres les notres

yours, le votre la votre les votres les votres

theirs, le leur la leur les leurs les leurs

mon frere et le tien, my brother and yours; ses livres et les votres, his books and yours.

e) Demonstrative.

1. With noun (adjectives)9.

this, that,10 ce, cet (both forms are masc. sg.; use ce before a consonant, cet before a vowel or (usually) h: ce livre, this or that book; cet homme, this or that man;

10. Differentiate between "this" and "that", "these" and "those", by using -ci (here) or -la (there) after the noun, if such differentiation is really required: ce livre-ci, this book; ce livre-la, that book.

FRENCH

cette (fern, sg.): cette femme, this woman, that woman ;

these, those,10 ces: ces hommes, these or those men; ces femmes, these or those women.

2. Without noun (pronouns) :

this, that, this one, that one, the one,n celui (masc.), celle (fern.);

these, those, the ones,11 ceux (masc.), celles (fern.).

mon livre et celui qui est sur la table, my book and the one which is on the table; tes soeurs et celles de ton ami, your sisters and those of your friend (your friend's).

this (referring not to a specific person or thing, but to a general situation or idea), ceci: ceci ne me plait pas, this does not please me;

that (general situation or idea), cela or ga: cela va bien, that's all right.

f) Relative.

who, which, that (subject), qui: I'homme qui est arrive, the man who came; le livre qui est sur la table, the book which is on the table.

whom, which, that (object), que: fhomme que vous avez vu, the man (whom) you saw; le livre que vous avez prisy the book (which) you took.12

whose, of which, of whom, dont: Vhomme dont vous avez parle9 the man of whom you spoke; Vhomme dont vous avez pris le livre, the man whose book you took (note that the word-order calls for a shift from "whose" to "of whom": the man of whom you took the book).

11. Append -ci or -Id to these forms unless a preposition or relative pronoun follows: tes livres et ceux~ci, your books and these.

12. Note that the relative pronoun cannot he omitted in French.

FRENCH

which (generally used after prepositions, referring to things; use qui after prepositions referring to persons), lequel, laquelle, lesquels, lesquelles: la maison dans laquelle je demeure, the house in which I live (observe that the le- and les- of these forms combine with a preceding de and a: duquel, desquels, auquel, auxquelles, etc.).

g) Interrogative.

who?, qui? or qui est-ce qui?: qui (est-ce qui) est arrive?, who arrived?

whom?, qui? or qui est-ce que?: qui avez-vous vu? or qui est-ce que vous avez vu?, whom did you see?

what? (subject), quest-ce qui?: quest-ce qui s'est passe?, what happened?

what? (object), que? or quest-ce que?: qu avez-vous vu? or qu'est-ce que vous avez vu?, what did you see?

which?, which one?, which ones?, lequel, laquelle, lesquels, lesquelles?: laquelle de ses soeurs connaissez-vous?, which one of his sisters do you know?

5. Verbs.

French verbs fall into four main classes, distinguished by the infinitive endings -er, -ir, -re, -oir, respectively (parler, jinir, vendre, recevoir). The infinitive is the form generally used after prepositions (pour parler, in order to speak; sans finir, without finishing). A present participle, ending in -ant (-issant for -ir verbs) is used after the preposition en with the meaning of "by", "while" (en vendant, by or while selling). This form cannot be used with "to be" in the English sense of "I am speaking", which is translated by the simple present (je parle). The subject pronoun is normally used in French.

1. Present Indicative (meaning: I speak, am speaking, do speak).

FRENCH

797

to speak, parler

I speak, je parl-e you speak, tu parl-es he speaks, il parl-e we speak, nous parl-ons you speak, vous parl-ez they speak, Us parl-ent

to sell, vend-re

I sell, ;e vend-s you sell, JM vend-s he sells, £/ ve/u£ we sell, 7iou5 vend-ons you sell, voas vend-ez they sell, 1/5 vend-ent

to finish, fin-ir

I finish, je fin-is you finish, tu fin-is he finishes, il fin-it we finish, nous fin-issons you finish, vous fin-issei they finish, 1/5 fin-issent

to receive, rec-ev-oir

I receive, /e reg-ois you receive, Ju reg-ois he receives, i/ req-oit we receive, HOMS rec-evons you receive, voas rec-evez they receive, i/s req-oivent

to be, eJre: /e swis, Jw e5, z7 e5f, now5 sommes, vous etes, Us sont. to have, avoir: fai, tu as, il a, nous avons, vous avez, Us ont. to go, oiler \ je vais, tu vas9 il va, nous allons, vous allez, Us vont. to know, mvoir: je sais, tu sals, il sait, nous savons, vous savez9 Us savent.

to say, dire: je dis, tu dis9 il dit, nous disons, vous dites, Us disent.

to do (make), /a ire: je fais, tu /ais, il fait, nous faisons, vous faites, Us font.

2. Negative and Interrogative Forms.

The negative is normally lormed by placing ne before the verb and pas after it: je ne parle pas, I don't speak. If a com- pound tense is used, pas is placed between the auxiliary and the past participle: je nai pas parle, I haven't spoken. Other negative particles (point, at all; jamais, never; personne, no- body; rien, nothing) may replace pas: je ne parle point. I'm not speaking at all; je ne Vai jamais vu, I have never seen him;

FRENCH

je nai rien vu, I have seen nothing; but personne follows the past participle: je nai vu personne, I have seen no one.

The interrogative may he formed by inverting subject and verb, if the subject is a pronoun: vous parlez, you are speaking; parlez-vous?, are you speaking ?!<i If the subject is a noun, this is usually isolated by a comma at the beginning of the sentence, and the question is then formed with the appropriate pronoun: votre frere, parle-t-il frarigais?, does your brother speak French? An alternative method, which works for both noun and pronoun subjects, is to prefix est-ce que (literally, "is it that?") to the declarative form: est-ce quil est id?, is he here (lit. is it that he is here?); est-ce que votre frere parle fran^ais?, does your brother speak French? (lit. is it that your brother speaks French?).

3. Imperfect (meaning: I was speaking, used to speak).

The endings, for all verbs, are -ais, -ais, -ait, -ions, -lez, -aient (je parl-ais, tu parl-ais, etc.; je vend-ais, tu vend-ais, etc.); -ir verbs insert -iss- throughout before the ending (je fin-iss-ais, tu fin-iss-ais, etc.); ~oir verbs use the full stem (je rec-ev-ais, tu rec-ev-ais, etc.). Eire has j'etais, etc.; dire has je dis-ais; fatre has fais-ais.

4. Past (meaning: I spoke).

This tense seldom appears save in books, being replaced in conversation by the present perfect. Its forms are: parl-er: je parl-ai, tu parl-as, il parl-a, nous parl-dmes, vous

parl-dtes, Us parl-erent. fin-ir: je fin-is, tu fin-is, fin-it, nous fin-imes, vous fin-ites,

Us fin-irent. vend-re: je vend-is, tu vend-is, il vend-it, nous vend-imes, vous

vend-ites, Us vend-irent.

13. Note the hyphen used in these cases of inversion, also the letter ~t-> inserted between the verb and the pronoun when the former ends and the latter begins with a vowel: a-t-il?, has he?; parle-t-il?, does he speak?

FRENCH

rec-ev-oir: je re^-us, tu reg~us, il reg~ut, nous reg-umes, vous refutes, Us reg-urent.

etre has je fus; avoir has feus; savoir has je sus; dire has je dis; faire has je fis; oiler is regular (fallai).

5. Future and Conditional (meaning: I shall speak, I should

speak).

The future endings are: -ai, -as, -a, -ons, -ez, -out. These are added not to the stem, but to the full infinitive (je parler-ai, I shall speak; tu fintr-as, you will finish) ; -re verbs, however, lose the final e (je vendr-ai, I shall sell), while -oir verbs lose' the oi (je recev-r-ai, I shall receive).

The conditional endings are precisely the same as those of the imperfect: -ais, -ais, -ait, -ions, -iez, -aient; but they are added to the full infinitive instead of to the stem, with loss of e for -re verbs and loss of oi for -oir verbs ; whatever irregular- ities appear in the future will also appear in the conditional: je parler-ais, I should speak; tu finir-ais, you would finish; il vendr-ait, he would sell; nous recev-r-ions, we should re- ceive.

The future and conditional of etre are je serai and je serais; of avoir, faurai and faurais; of aller, j'irai and j9irais; of savoir, je saurai and je saurais; of faire, je ferai and je ferais; of dire, je dirai and je dirais.

6. Compound Tenses.

These are formed, as in English, by using avoir, "to have", with the past participle. The latter ends in -e for -er verbs, (parl-e, spoken), in -i for -ir verbs (fin-i, finished), in -u for -re and -oir verbs (the latter, however, drop -ev-: vend-u, sold; repu, received).

A certain number of intransitive verbs denoting motion (aller, to go, venir, to come, etc.), change of state (devenir9 to become; mourir, to die, etc.), also rester, "to remain", "to

200 FRENCH

stay", and tomber, "to fall", (but not etre, "to be") take etre as an auxiliary instead of avoir.14

Present Perfect: I have spoken, I spoke, fai parle, tu as parle, il a parle, nous avons parle, vous avez parle, Us ont parley I have come, je suis venu, tu es venu, il est venu, nous sommes venus, vous etes venus, Us sont venus (and note elle est venue, elles sont venues; je suis venue if a woman is writing).

Past Perfect: I had spoken, f avals parle, etc.; I had come, fetais venu, etc.

Future Perfect: I shall have spoken, faurai parle; I shall have come, je serai venu.

Conditional Perfect: I should have spoken, faurais parle; I should have come, je serais venu.

7. Imperative.15 (meaning: speak!; let us speak).

Familiar Plural and

Singular Polite Sg. "fa us"

-er verbs: parl-e parl-ez parl-ons

-ir verbs: fin-is fin-issez fin-issons

-re verbs: vend-s vend-ez vend-ons

-oir verbs: re^-ois rec-ev-ez rec-ev-ons

14. The past participle conjugated with avoir is invariable if the direct object follows, but agrees with the direct object if the latter precedes: fai vu les hommes, I saw the men; but je les ai vus, I saw them; les hommes que fai vus, the men I saw. When etre is used, the past participle agrees with the subject: elle est arrivee, she arrived; Us sont sortis, they went out. Incorrect agreement of the past part- iciple is not an unforgivable crime, particularly since the agreement appears in writing, but not in speech, the endings being normally silent.

15. Remember: 1. that object pronouns follow the imperative af- firmative and are attached by hyphens, with moi and toi replacing me and te: parle-moi, speak to me; donnez-moi, give me; lave-toi, wash yourself; 2. that the direct object always precedes the indirect object pronoun in the imperative affirmative: vendez-le-moi, sell it to me; vendons-les-leur, let us sell them to them; 3. that in the negative im- perative object pronouns precede the verb in ,the more customary indirect-direct order (unless both are third person) : ne me le donnez pai, don't give it to me; ne le lui donnez pas, don't give it to him.

FRENCH 201

etre: sois soyez soyons

avoir-. aie ayez ayons

savoir: sache sachez sachons

alter: va allez allons

dire: dis dites disons

faire: fais faites faisons

8. Reflexive.

French uses many verbs reflexively which are not so used in English (je me suis leve ce matin, I got up this morning: se lever, to get up, lit. to get oneself up). The reflexive pro- nouns are:

myself, to myself, me yourself, to yourself, te ourselves, to ourselves, nous yourselves, to yourselves, vous

himself, herself, itself, themselves, to himself, to herself, to itself, to themselves, se

These pronouns may be direct or indirect: je me lave, I wash myself; but je me lave les mains, I wash to myself the hands (I wash my hands).

The auxiliary used with reflexive verbs is etre, but the past participle agrees as though avoir were used; that is, agreement is not with the subject, but with the preceding direct object, which may or may not be the reflexive pronoun: elle s'est lavee, she washed herself; elle s'est lave les mains, she washed her hands (no preceding direct object; se is indirect) ; les mains qu'elle sest lavees etaient convenes de sang, the hands she washed were covered with blood (agreement, not with elle, subject; nor with se, indirect object, but with que, direct object, which refers to "hands", feminine plural).

In the plural, reflexive forms may have a reciprocal meaning (each other, to each other, one another, to one an- other) : they saw each other, i7s se sont vus; they shook hands, Us se sont serre la main.

202 FRENCH

9. Passive.

This is formed, as in English, by etre, "to be" with the past participle. The latter agrees with the subject:!/ est puni, he is punished; elle sera purue, she will be punished; elles ont ete punies par leur pere, they have been punished by their father. The passive is often avoided, however, especially when "by" does not appear, by using: 1. on ("one", "man", "some- body") with the active: id on parle franqais, French is spoken here (lit. one speaks French here); 2. the reflexive: ces choses tie se font pas, these things aren't done (lit. these things don't do themselves).

10. Subjunctive.

The French subjunctive has four tenses, and is frequently used in subordinate clauses. For the present subjunctive, the endings are: -e, -es, ~e, -ions, -iez, -ent (-ir verbs insert -iss- throughout; -oir verbs have -oiv- in the singular and third plural, -eu- in first and second plural) : that I speak, que je parle, que tu paries, quil parle, que nous par lions , que vous parliez, quds parlent; that I finish, que je finisse; that I sell, que je vende; that I receive, que je regoive.

The present perfect subjunctive is formed with the present subjunctive of avoir (or etre) and the past participle: that I have spoken, que faie (tu aies, d ait, nous ayons, vous ayez, Us aient) parle; that I have come, que je sois (tu sois, il soitt nous sojons, vous soyez, Us sotent) venu (venue, venus, venues). The other two tenses are normally avoided in conversation and ordinary writing.

FRENCH 203

VOCABULARY ld

16. The gender of nouns is indicated by the article (le, la) ; nouns beginning with vowels or h and taking the article /" are masculine unless otherwise indicated.

Note that nouns and masculine adjectives ending in -5, ~x, -z, re- main unchanged in the plural (la voix, les voix) ; that most nouns and masculine adjectives ending in -au and -al change to ~aux in the plural (beau, beaux; le cheval, les chevaux) ; that nouns and masculine adjectives ending in -eu add -x in the plural (le feu, les feux).

Note that adjectives ending in -e remain unchanged in the feminine (tnste) ; that adjectives ending in -x change to -se in the feminine (heureux, heureuse) ; -en to -enne (italien, italienne) ; -el to -elle (jiaturel, naturelle] ; -ier to -iere (premier, premiere); -/ to -ve (neuf, ncuve). The plurals are then independently formed (heureux, plu. heureux; heureuse, plu. heureuses) .

Other exceptional irregularities in feminine and plural formation are separately given in the vocabulary.

Verbs ending in -er which have e-mute as the last vowel in the stem change it to e whenever another e-mute appears in the ending (mener; Pres. mene, menes, mene, menons, r^enez, menent; Fut. menerai) . Verbs ending in -eler and -eter, however, more generally double the / or t under the same circumstances (appeler: Pres. appelle, appelles, appelle, appelons, appelez, appellent; Fut. appellerai) .

Verbs ending in -er which have e as the last vowel in the stem also change it to e when e mute appears in the ending, but not in the future and conditional (esperer; Pres. espere, esperes, espere. esperons^ esperez. esperent; but Fut. espererai] .

Verbs ending in ~cer change c to c when a or o follows (avancer; 1st pi. nous avanqons; Impf. j'avangais; etc.).

Verbs ending in -ger insert ~e- when a or o follows (manger; 1st pi. nous mangeons; Impf. je mangeais; etc.).

Most verbs ending in -yer change y to i before e-mnte (ennuyer; Pres. ennuie, ennuies, ennuie, ennuyons, ennuyez, ennuient; etc.).

Other important verbal irregularities are given in the vocabulary; note that the conditional always follows the future, so that a future ferai for the verb faire implies a conditional ferais. There is never any irregularity in the endings of these two tenses.

If a verb is conjugated with etre, the latter appears in parentheses; thus, to stay, Tester (etre) . This indication is not given in the case of reflexive verbs, which are always conjugated with etre.

204

FRENCH

1. World, Elements, Xature, Weather, Time, Directions.

world, le monde

earth, la terre

air, Vair

water, I'eau (fern.)

fire, le feu

light, la lumiere

sea, la mer

sun, le soldi

moon, la lune

star, Vetoile (fem.)

sky, le del

wind, le vent

weather, time, le temp*

snow, la neige

to snow, neige r

rain, /a p/aie

to rain, pleuvoir (Pres. pleut;

Fut. pleuvra; P. p. p/a) cloud, /e nuage cloudy, nuageux, convert fog, le brouillard ice, /a g/ace mud, la boue

morning, le matin, la matinee noon, midi

afternoon, Vapres-midi evening, le soir night, la nuit midnight, minuit North, le nord South, le sud, le midi

East, I'est West, V ouest year, Van month, le mois week, la semaine day. le jour, la journee hour, Vheure (fem.) minute, la minute Sunday, le dimanche Monday, le lundi Tuesday, le mardi Wednesday, le mercredi Thursday, le jeudi Friday, le vendredi Saturday, le sarnedi January, Janvier February, fevrier March, mars April, avril May, mat June, juin July, juillet August, aout September, septembre October, octobre November, novembre December, decembre Spring, le printemps Summer, Vete Fall, Vautomne Winter, Vhiver

For "it is warm'', "it is cold", etc., see p. 224.

No capitals for seasons, months, days of week.

I shall see him on Monday, je le verrai lundi; last Monday, lundi dernier; next Monday, lundi prochain; every Monday, tous les lundis; on May 5th, 1943, le cinq mai dix-neuf cent quarante-trois.

2. Family, Friendship, Love.

family, la famille parents, les parents

husband, le mari father, le pere

wife, la femme mother, la mere

FRENCH

205

son, le fils

daughter, la fille

brother, le frere

sister, la soeur

uncle, Voncle

aunt, la tante

nephew, le neveu

niece, la niece

cousin, le cousin (fern, la cousine)

grandfather, le grand-pere

grandmother, la granJmere

grandson, le petit-fils

granddaughter, la petite-fille

father-in-law, le beau-pere

mother-in-law, la belle-mere

soii-in -law. le beau- fils, le gendre

daughter-in-law, la belle.fille, la

bru

brother-in-law, le beau-freie sister-in-law, la belle-soeur man, Fhomme woman, la femme child. I9 enfant boy. le (petit] garqon

3. Speaking Activities.

word, le mot, la parole

language, la langue

to speak, parler

to say, dire (Pres. dis, dis, dit,

disons, dites, disent; Impf.

disais; P. p. dit; Impv. dis,

dites) to tell, dire, raconter, conter (I

told him, je lui ai dit) to inform, communiquer a, rensei-

gner

to call, appeler to be called, one's name is, s'ap-

girl, la jeune fille, la (petite] jille

lady, la dame

young lady, la demoiselle

sir, Mr., gentleman, monsieur11

madam, Mrs., madame17

Miss, mademoiselle17

friend, I9 ami (fern, ramie)

servant, le or la domestique, la

servante, la bonne to introduce, presenter to visit, visiter, jaire une visile love. I'arnour to love, aimer to fall in love with, tomber

amour eux de (etre) to marry, epouser, se marier avec sweetheart, Vamoureux ( f e m.

amour ease], le fiance (la

fiancee), le bien-aime (la bien-

aimee] , Vami (I'amie) kiss, le baiser to kiss, embrasser beloved, darling, cheri (-e)

pelcr (my name is John, je

rnappelle Jean) to greet, saluer to name, nommer to cry, shout, s 'eerier to listen to, ecouter (T listen to

him, je I'ecoute) to hear, entendre to understand, comprendre (Pres.

comprends, comprends, com-

prend, comprenons, comprenez,

comprennent; Impf., compre-

nais,'P. p. compris)

17. These terms are abbreviated in writing to A/., Mme and Mite, respectively. In speaking directly, the name which in English normally follows is generally left out: Mr. Smith, have you a book? Monsieur, est-ce que vous avez un livre?

206

FRENCH

to mean, vouloir dire (Pres., veux

dire, veux . . , vent . . , voulons . . ,

voulez . . , veulent . .; P. p.

voulu) to ask (someone), demander (a) ;

to ask a question, poser une

question to ask for, demander (he asked

me for a pencil, il ma demande

un crayon)

4. Materials.

gold, I9 or

silver, Far gent

iron, le fer

steel, Fader

copper, le cuivre

tin, retain, le fer-blanc

lead, /<? plomb

oil, /'/wife (fern.)

gasoline, F essence (fern.)

coal, /e charbon

5. Animals.

animal, F animal horse, /e cheval dog, Je c/iicfi cat. /e chat bird, Foiseau donkey, fari<? mule, le mulct cow, /a vache ox. /e /JOCM/ pig, le cochon chicken, le poulet rooster, le coq

to answer, repondre (I answered

my brother, j'ai repondu a mon

frere) to thank, remercier (I thanked

him for the book, je Fai remer-

cie du livre) to complain, se plaindre (Pres.

plains, plains, plaint, plaignons,

plaignez, plaignent; Impf. plai-

gnais; P. p. plaint]

wood, le bois

silk, la sole

cotton, le colon

wool, la laine

cloth, Fetojfe (fern.), le drap

to cut, couper

to dig, creuser

to sew. coudre

to mend, raccornmoder

hen, la poule

sheep, le mouton, la brebis

goat, la chevre

mouse, la souri*

snake, le serpent

flv. la movche

bee, Faheitte (fem.)

mosquito, le moustique

spider, I'araignee (fem.)

louse, le pou

flea, la puce

bedbug, la pttRaise

6. Money, Buying and Selling.

money, Far gent

coin, la piece (de monnaie)

dollar, le dollar

cent, le sou

bank, la banque

check, le cheque

money order, le mand&t (de

poste] , le mandat-poste to earn, to gain, to win, gagner to lose, pordre

FRENCH

207

to spend, depenser

to lend, preter

to borrow, emprunter (I borrowed

10 francs from him, je lui ai

emprunte dix francs) to owe, devoir (Pres. dots, dois,

doit, devons, devez, doivent;

Impf., devais; P. p. du) to pay, payer to give back, rendre exchange, le change (exchange

office, bureau de change) to change, exchange, changer change, small change, la monnaie

(change me a dollar, faites-moi

la monnaie d*un dollar) honest, honnete dishonest, pas honnete, voleur price, cost, le prix to cost, couter expensive, cher cheap, bon marche store, le magasin, la boutique

(department store, grand

magasin)

7. Eating and Drinking.

to eat, manger

to eat breakfast, to eat lunch,

dejeuner

breakfast, le petit dejeuner lunch, le dejeuner supper, le souper to eat supper, souper dinner, le diner to dine, diner meal, le repas

dining-room, la salle a manger waiter, le gargon waitress, la servante, la serveuse restaurant, le restaurant menu, le menu bill, check, f 'addition (fern.) to pass (a dish), passer

piece, le morceau

slice, la tranche

pound, la livre

package, le paquet

basket, le panier

box, la boite

bag, le sac

goods, la marchandise

to go shopping, faire des achats

(emplettes) to sell, vendre to buy, acheter to rent, louer to be worth, valoir (Pres. vaux,

vaux, vaut, valons, valez, valent;

Impf. valais; Fut. vaudrai; (it

is worth while doing it, il vaut

la peine de le faire) to choose, choisir thief, robber, le voleur to steal, voler police, la police, la surete policeman, I'agent (de police), le

sergent de mile state trooper, le gendarme

tip, le pourboire

to drink, boire (Pres. bois, bois,

boit, buvons, buvez, boivent;

Impf. buvais; P. p. bu) water, Veau (fern • wine, le vin beer, la biere coffee, le cafe tea, le the milk, le lait bottle, la bouteitte spoon, la cuiller (pronounced

cuiller e)

teaspoon, la cuiller a the knife, le couteau fork, la fourchette glass, le verre

208

FRENCH

cup, la tasse

napkin, la serviette

salt, le set

pepper, le poivre

plate, dish, I'assiette (fern.), le

plat

bread, le pain roll, le petit pain butter, le beurre sugar, le sucre soup, le potage rice, le riz

potatoes, les pommes de terre vegetable, le legume meat, la viande beef, le boeuf steak, le bifteck chicken, le poulet chop, la cotelette veal, le veau lamb, Uagneau pork, le pore

sausage, le saucisson, la saucisse ham, le jambon bacon, le lard

8. Hygiene and Attire.

bathroom, la salle de bain

bath, le bain

to bathe, se baigner

shower, la douche

to wash, se laver

to shave, se raser, se faire la barbe

barber, le coiffeur, le barbier

mirror, le miroir

soap, le savon

razor, le rasoir

safety razor, le rasoir mecanique

(de surete)

towel, la serviette, Fessuie -mains comb, le peigne brush, la brosse scissors, les ciseaux

egg, I'oeuf (•/ pron. in sg., silent

in pi. les oeufs) fish, le poisson fried, frit boiled, bouilli roast, rod

roast beef, le rosbif baked, au four (baked apple, une

pomme cuite) broiled, grille sauce, la sauce salad, la salade cheese, le fromage fruit, le fruit apple, la pomme pear, la poire peach, la per.he grapes, le raisin strawberries, les (raises nut, la noix, la noisette orange, V orange (fern.) lemon, le citron juice, le jus cherries, les cerises dessert, le dessert pastry, le gateau, la patisserie

to wear, porter

to take off, oter

to change, changer de

to put on, mettre (Pres. mets, mets, met, mettons, mettez, met' tent; Impf. mettaist P. p. mis)

clothes, les habits, lei vetements

hat, le chapeau

suit, le complet

coat, la jaquette, le veston

vest, le gilet

pants, le pantalon

undershirt, la sous-chemise

drawers, le caleqon

glove, le gant

socks, les chaussette

FRENCH

209

stockings, les bos

shirt, la chemise

collar, le faux-col

tie, la cravate

overcoat, le pardessus

raincoat, L' impermeable

pocket, la poche

handkerchief, le mouchoir

button, le bouton

shoe, le soulier

boot, la botte

pocket-book, le porte-monnaie

9. Parts of the body.

head, la tete forehead, le front face, le visage, la figure mouth, la bouche hair, les cheveux eye, Foeil (pi. les yeux) ear, Foreille (fern.) tooth, la dent lip, la levre nose, le nez tongue, la langue chin, le menton cheek, la joue mustache, la moustache beard, la barbe neck, le cou throat, la gorge arm, le bras hand, la main

10. Medical.

doctor, le medecin, le docteur drug-store, la pharmacie hospital, Fhopital, la clinique first-aid station, le poste de secours medicine, le medicament pill, la pilule

prescription, I'ordonnance (fern.) bandage, la bande, le pansement

purse, la bourse

pin, Fepingle (fern.)

safety pin, I9epingle de surete

needle, V aiguille (fern.)

umbrella, le parapluie

watch, la montre

chain, la chaine

ring, la bague

eyeglasses, les lunettes, les

lorgnons

slippers, les pantoufles dressing-gown, la robe de chambre

elbow, le coude

wrist, le poignet

finger, le doigt

nail, Vongle

leg, la jambe

foot, le pied

knee, le genou

back, le dos

shoulder, Tepaule (fem.)

chest, la poitrine

ankle, la cheville

body, le corps

bone, I9 os (-s pron. in sg., silent

in pi. les os) skin, la peau heart, le coeur stomach, I'estomac blood, le sang

nurse, Vinjirmier, rinfirmiere, le

(la) garde-malade ill, malade illness, la maladie fever, la jievre swollen, enjle wound, la blessure wounded, blesse

210

FRENCH

head-ache, le mal de tete (I have a head-ache, fai mal a la tete) tooth- ache, le mal de dents cough, la toux

to cough, tousser

lame, crippled, boiteux, estropie

burn, la brulure

pain, la douleur, le mal

poison, le poison

11. Military.

war, la guerre

peace, la paix

ally, Vallie

enemy, Uennemi

army, I'armee (fern.)

danger, le danger

dangerous, danger eux

to win, triompher, gagner, r em- porter (la victoire)

to surround, entourer

to arrest, arreter

to kill, tuer

to escape, echapper, s'echapper. s 'evader

to run away, se sauver

to lead, mercer, conduire

to follow, suivre (Pres. suis, suis, suit., suivons, suivez, suivent; Impf. suivais; P. p. suivi)

to surrender, se rendre

to retreat, se retirer, battre en retraite

to bomb, shell, bombarder

fear, la peur

prison, la prison

prisoner, le prisonnier

to take prisoner, faire prisonnier (Pres. fais, fais, fait, faisons, faites, font; Impf, faisais; Fut. /erai; P. p. fait]

to capture, s'ernparer de, prendre

help, aid, /e secours

help!, au secours!

comrade, buddy, le copain, le camarade, le compagnon

battle, la bataille

to fight, combattre, se battre

soldier, le soldat

private, le (simple) soldat

corporal, le caporal

sergeant, le sergent

lieutenant, le lieutenant

captain, le capitaine

major, le commandant

colonel, le colonel

general, le general

officer, I'officier

company, la compagnie

battalion, le bataillon

regiment, le regiment

brigade, la brigade

division, la division

troops, les troupes (fern.)

rcenforcements, les ren forts

fortress, la forteresse

sentinel, la sentinelle

guard, la garde

to stand guard, to do sentry duty,

etre de garde, etre de faction to be on duty, etre de service sign-post, le poteau indicateur navy, la marine sailor, le marin marine, le soldat de marine., le

fusilier marin warship, le vaisseau (navire) at

guerre, le cuirasse cruiser, le croiseur destroyer, le (contre-) torpilleur convoy, le convoi

FRENCH

211

escort, Fescorte (fern.), le convoi

\veapon. I'arme (fera.)

rifle, le fusil

machine-gun, la mitrailleuse

cannon, le canon

ammunition, les munitions

supplies, les vivres, le ravitail- lenient (supply service, Fin- tendance, fern.)

cartridge, la cartouche

bullet, la balle

belt, la cartouchiere, la giberne

knapsack, le havresac

tent, la tente (put up a tent, dresser une tente)

camp, le camp

map. la carte, le plan (topogra- phique)

rope, la corde

flag, le drapeau (naval, le pavil- ion)

helmet, le casque

bayonet, la ba'ionnette

12. Travel.

customs, la douane

passport, le passeport

ship, le vaisseau, le navire, If

paquebot

steamer, le vapeur stateroom, la cabine berth, la couchette to travel, voyager trip, voyage, le voyage to leave, partir (Pres., pars, pars,

part, partons, partez, partent) ;

(etre)

to arrive, ar river; (etre) to ride (a conveyance), aller en

(Pres. vais, vas, va, allons,

attez, vont; Impf. allais; Fut.

irai); (etre) railroad, le chemin de fer

uniform, Vunijorme

airplane, Favion

bombing plane, Vavion de bom-

bardernent, le bombardier pursuit-plane, le chasseur , Favion

de pour suite (chasse) shell, Fobus bomb, la bombe truck, le camion tank, le tank, le char d'assaut to load, charger to shoot, to fire, faire feu, tirer,

decharger to shoot (military execution),

fusilier

fire!, feu!, faites feu! attention!, attention!, garde d

vous !

forward, en avant!, marche! halt!, hake!, halte-ld! air-raid shelter, Uabri spy, I'espion

station, la gare track, la voie, le rail train, le train platform, le quai ticket, le billet

compartment, le compartiment all aboard, en voiture! dining-car, le wagon-restaurant sleeper, le wagon-lit car, le wagon, la voiture trunk, la matte valise, la valise baggage, les bagages porter, le porteur bus, Fautobus, Vomnibus street-car, le tramway, le tram automobile, Fauto, V automobile (fem.)

272

FRENCH

taxi, le taxi

driver, le chauffeur, le conduc- ted

13. Reading and Writing.

to read, lire (Pres. Us, Us, lit.

lisons, lisez, lisent; Impf. lisais;

P. p. Lu)

newspaper, le journal magazine, la revue book, le livre to write, ecrire (Pres. ecris, ecris,

ecrit, ecrivons, ecrivez, ecrivent;

Impf. ecrivais; P. p. ecrit) to translate, traduire (Pres. tra>

duis, traduis, etc., like conduire

above) pencil, le crayon

14. Amusements

to smoke, jumer

cigar, le cigare

cigarette, la cigarette

tobacco, le tabac

match, I'attumette (fern.)

give me a ligbt, du /eu, s'il vous

plait

theatre, le theatre movies, le cinema dance, la danse, le bal to danse, danser to have a good time, s'arnuscr ticket, le billet pleasure, le plaisir to play (music), jouer de

1 5. Town and Country.

place, spot, le lieu, Vendroit city, la ville street, la rue sidewalk, le trottoir

to drive (car), conduire (Pres, conduis, conduis, conduit, con- duisons, conduisez, conduisent; Impf. conduisais; P. p. conduit)

chalk, la craie

blackboard, le tableau (noir)

ink, I'encre (fern.)

peri, la plume (fountain-, le stylo)

envelope, Venveloppe (fern.)

paper, le papier (writing — , le

papier a ecrire) letter, la lettre post-office, la poste stamp, le timbre, le timbre-poste letter-box, la boite aux lettres to mail, mettre a la poste address, Uadresse (fem.) post-card, la carte postale

to sing, chanter

song, la chanson

to play (a game), jouer a

game, le jeu, la par tie

ball, la balle

to take a walk, se promener, faire

une promenade beach, la plage to swim, nager sand, le sable

refreshment, le rafraichissement saloon, le bar, le bistro picnic, le pique-nique, V excursion

(fern.)

road, la route, le chemin intersection, le carrefour harbor, le port block, Pilot, le pate de maisons

FREMCH

21)

school, Uecole (fern.)

church, I'eglise (fern.)

cathedral, la cathedrale

building, Vedifice, le bailment

corner, le coin, I 'angle

hotel, I'hotel

office, le bureau

river, le fleuve, la riviere (small

stream)

bridge, le pont country, la campagne

16. House.

house, la maison (at home, d la maison; to go home, aller a la maison)

roof, le toil

door, la porte

key. la clef

to open, ouvnr (Pres. ouvre, ou- vres, ouvre, etc.; Impf. ouvrais; P. p. ouvert)

to close, fermer (to lock, /ermer d clef)

to go into, entrer dans (he enter- ed the room, il est entre dans la salle) ; (etre)

to go out, sortir (Pres. sors, sors, sort, sortons, etc.; Impf.. sortais) ; (etre)

to go home, rentrer; (etre)

to live in, habiter, demeurer dans

staircase, Tescalier

to go up, monter (to go up to,. . at (etre)

to go down, descendre; (etre)

cottage, la maisonnette

room, la piece

toilet, les cabinets, le W. C. (pro- nounce double ve ce)

wall, le mur

window, la fenetre

bedroom, la chambre a coucher

mountain, la rnontagne

grass, I'herbe (fern.)

yard, la ccur

hill, la colline

lake, le lac

forest, la foret, le bois

field, le champ

tree, I'arbre

flower, la fleur

rock, le rocher, le roc

stone, la pierre

bed, le lit

pillow, Voreiller

cover, blanket, la couverture

sheet, le drap

mattress, le matelas

clock, la pendule

alarm-clock, le reveille (-matin)

candle, la bougie, la chandelle

to stand, 56 tenir debout, etre de- bout

to rest, se reposer

to go to bed, to lie down, se cou- cher

to sleep, dormir (to fall asleep, s'endormir) Pres. dors, dors. dort, dormons, etc., Impf. dor- mais, etc.

to wake up, se reveiller

to get up, se lever

to get dressed, s'habiller

kitchen, la cuisine

table, la table

to sit down, s'asseoir (Pres. as- sieds, assieds, assied, asseyons, etc.; Impf. asseyais; Flit, as- sierai; P. p. ass is)

chair, la chaise

lamp, la lampe

closet, I'armoire (fern.)

214

FRENCH

17. Miscellaneous Nouns.

people, les gens, le monde, on

thing, la chose

name, le nom

luck, la (bonne) chance (to be

lucky, avoir de la chance) bad luck, la mauvaise fortune, la

guigne

number, le n ombre, le numero. le

chiffre life, la vie dealh. la mort work, le travail (pi. travaux)

18. Verbs— Coming and Going.

to come, venir (Pres. men 3, viens,

vient, venons, venez, viennent;

Impf. vennis; Fut. viendrai;

P. P. venu) ; (etre) to go, to be going to, aller (Pre8.

i'fl/s, vas, va, allons, allez, vont;

Impf. allau; Fut. iroi) ; (etre) to stay, rester; {etre) to return, rrtourner, rentrer, re-

venir; (etre for all three) to run. coitrir (Pres. court, cours,

court, cou f on s, courez, courent;

19. Looking and Seeing.

to see, voir (Pres. vois, vois, voit, voyons, voyez, voient; Impf. voyais; Fut. verrai; P. p. vu)

to look at, regarder (I am look ing a; him, je le regarde)

to look for, chercher (I am look- ing for her, ye la cherche)

to laugh, rire (Pros, ris, ris, rit, rious, riez, rient; Impf. rials;

20. Verbs—Mental.

to make a mistake, se t romper

to hope, esperer

to wait for. attendre

to think, penser ( — of, penser a;

I am thinking of him, je pense

a lui) to think of (have an opinion).

Impf. courais; Fut. courrai; P. p. couru) to walk, marcher , a/fer (e/re) a

to fall, tomber; (etre)

to follow, suivre (Pres. suis9 suit,

suit, suivons, suivez, suivent;

P. p. suivi)

to arrive, arriver; (etre) io go away, to leave, to set out,

partir (Pres. pars, pars, part.

parlous, etc.; Impf. partais) ;

(etre) sjen aller

p. P. «•)

to laugh at, se moquer de, (se)

rire de

to smile, sour ire (like rire) to look, seem, sembler, avoir Fair

(he looks ill, il a Fair malade) to recognize, reconnoitre (like

to take for, prendre pour

penser de (what do you think of him?, que pensez-vous de

to believe, croire (Pres. crow, crois. croit, croyons. croyez, croient; Impf. croyais; P. p. era)

FRENCH

215

to like, aimer (I like this hat, faime ce chapeau)

to wish, desirer (I should like, je voudrais)

to want, vouloir (Pres. veux, veux, veut, voulons, voulez, veulent; Fut. voudrai; P. p. voulu; Impv. veuillez, have the kindness to..)

to know (a fact), savoir (Pres. sais, sais, sait, savons, savez, savent; Fut. saurai; Impv. sache, sachez; P. p. su) . Use je savais for "I knew", j'ai su for "I found out"

to know how, savoir (plus infinit- ive) ; I know how to dance, je sais danser

to know (a person), connaitre (Pies, connais, connais, con- nait, connaissons, etc.; Impf. connaissais ; P. p. connu; use je connaissais for "I knew",

j'ai connu for "I met", socially) to remember, se souvenir de (like

venir), se rappeler (I remember

it, je men souviens) to forget, oublier to permit, allow, permettre (like

mettre} to forbid, defendre (I forbid him

to come, je lui defends de venir) to promise, promettre (like met-

tre)

to learn, apprendre (like prendre) to feel like, avoir envie de (I feel

like going, fai envie d* otter) to understand, comprendre (like

prendre) to be afraid, avoir peur (he is

afraid of it, il en a peur; he is

afraid of her, il a peur d*elle) to be right, avoir raison to be wrong, avoir tort to need, avoir besoin de

21. Verbs — Miscellaneous.

to live, vivre (Pres. vis, vis, vit, vivons, vivez, vivent; Impf. vivais; P. p. vecu)

to survive, survivre (like vivre)

to die, mourir (Pres. meurs, meurs, meurt, mourons, mourez, meurent; Impf. mourais; Fut. mourrai; P. p. mort) ; (etre)

to work, travailler

to give, donner

to take, prendre (Pres. prends. prends, prend, prenons9 prenez, prennent; Impf. prenais; P. p. pris)

to show, montrer

to begin, to start, commencer, se mettre a

to finish, finir, achever

to continue, to keep on, continuer

w

to help, aider

to hide, (se) cacher

to lose, perdre

to find, trouvert retrouver

to leave (a thing), laisser

(a place), quitter, partir de;

(etre)

to try, essayer de, chercher a to meet, rencontrer to put, place, mettre (Pres. meto,

raeJs, met, mettons, mettez, met'

tent; P. p. mis) to do, to make, faire (Pres. /aw,

fais, fait, faisons, faites, font;

Impf. faisais; Fut. ferai; P. p.

/aiV). Faire vc/iir, to send for

216

FRENCH

(send for the doctor, faites ve-

nir le medecin) to have done, faire faire (have

the letter written, faites ecrire

la lettre) can, to be able, pouvoir (Pres.

peux, peux, pent, pouvons,

pouvez, peuvent; Impf. pouvais;

Fut. pourrai; P. p. pu) to carry, porter to bring (things), apporter to bring (people), amener to stop, arreter (s* arreter for self;

to stop writing, cesser d' ecrire) to cover, couvrir (P. p. couvert)

22. Adjectives.

small, petit

big, large, tall, grand

short (stature), petit, bos

short (length), court (brief, bref,

fern, breve) low, has (fern, basse) heavy, lourd

light (weight) , /eger (fern, legere) long, Jong (fern, longue) fat, bulky, gros (fern, grosse) wide,

narrow,

clean, propre

dirty, $a/e

cool, frais (fem. fraiche)

cold, /row/

warm, chaud

damp, humide

wet, mouille

dry, 5ec (fem. seche)

full, p/em, rempli

empty, vkfe

dark, noir, obscur, sombre

light (color), c/ai>

(to grow light, faire jour) thick, epaw (fem. epaisse)

to get, obtain, obtenir

to hold, te/ur (Pres. /ie«5, tiens,

tient, tenons, tenez, tiennent;

Fut. tiendrai; P. p. /enu) to get. become, devenir (like . venir) ; (etre)

to break, rompre, casser, briser to hurry, se depecher to send, envoyer

to belong, appartenir (like tenir) to have just, venir Je (he has

just finished it, il vient de le

finir); (etre) to accept, accepter to refuse, refuser

thin, mince, maigret svelte

round, rond

square, carre

flat, plat

deep, profond

soft, mow (mo/ before vowel or h, fem. moUe)

hard, cfor

quick, lively, rapide, vif

slow, /e/i/

ordinary, ordinaire, communt quelconque

comfortable, confortable, com- mode (I am — , je suis bien)

uncomfortable, incommode, ge- nant

near, prochain

distant, lointain

right, droit

left, gauche

poor, pauvre

rich, ric/ie

beautiful, fceau (bel before vo- wel or h; fem. belle)

pretty, joli

ugly, laid

FRENCH

217

sweet, doux (fern, douce)

bitter, amer (fern, amere)

sour, aigre

salt, sale

young, jeune

old, vieux (vied before vowel or

h; fern, vieille) ; age new, «ew/ (fern, neuve) , nouveau

(nouvel bef. vowel or A; fern.

nouvelle) good, 6orc (fern, bonne)

better, meilleur (best, fe )

bad, mauvais

worse, p/re (worst, /e. . . .)

fine, excellent

first, premier (fern, premiere)

last, dernier (fern, derniere)

strong, /orf

weak, faible

tired, fatigue

alone, seu/

same, meme

easy, /aci/e

hard, difficult, difficile, penible

happy, lucky, heureux

sad,

merry,

free,

crazy, /ou (fem.

silly, sot (fem.

drunk, ivre, gris, grise, sou/

(jaoi2/) polite, poli

rude, impoli, grossier (fem. -ere)

pleasant, agreable

unpleasant, desagreable

lonesome, solitaire

upset, agite, emut bouleverse

true, vrai

false, faux (fem. fausse) , Ajpo-

crite

foreign, etranger (fem. -ere) friendly, amical kind, aimable hostile, hostile, ennemi unlucky, unhappy, malheureux charming, charmant afraid, timide, peureux ready, pret hungry, a/fame (to be hungry,

avoir (aim)

thirsty, (to be — , avoir soif) right, (to be — , avoir raison) wrong, (to be — , avoir tort) afraid, (to be — -, avoir peur) funny, drole, comique possible, possible impossible, impossible brave, courageux, hardi, brave cowardly, Idche, poltron quiet, calme, tranquille noisy, brujant living, vivant dead, mort suitable, convenable

23. Colors.

white, blanc (fem. blanche) black, noir red, rouge green, vert

blue, bleu (to feel blue, avoir le cafard)

yellow, jaune gray* gr"

brown, brun, mar r on rose (pink), rose purple, pourpre

218

FRENCH

24. Nationalities.

Use no capital for the adjective or for the language. Use capital for people.

Names of languages are used with the article unless they imme- diately follow the verh parler or the preposition en; he speaks English, il parle anglais; he speaks English well, il parle bien I' anglais; English is difficult, r anglais est difficile; he answered me in English, il ma repondu en anglais.

American, americain

English, anglais

French, fran$ais

German, allemand

Spanish, espagnol

Russian, russe

Italian, italien

Japanese, japonais

Chinese, chinois

Dutch, hollandais

Norwegian, norvegien

Swedish, suedois

Finnish, finnois, finlandais

Belgian, beige

Polish, polonais

Danish, danois

Swiss, suisse (fern, suissesse)

Portuguese, portugais

Yugoslav, yougoslave

Bulgarian, bulgare

Czech, tchecoslovaque

Greek, grec (fem. grecque)

Turkish, turc (fem. turque)

Roumanian, roumain

Hungarian, hongrois

Austrian, autrichien

Malay, malais

Persian, per.se

Arabian, Arabic, Arab, arabe

Jewish, Hebrew, juif. hebreu,

Israelite

Australian, australien Canadian, canadien Mexican, mexicain Brazilian, bresilien Argentinian, ar gen tin Chilean, chilien Peruvian, peruvien Cuban, cuhain Egyptian, egyptien Tunisian, tunisien Algerian, algerien Moroccan, marocain

25. Adverbs and Adverbial Expressions.

today, aujourd'hui

yesterday, hier

tomorrow, demain

day before yesterday, avant-hier

day after tomorrow, apres-demain

tonight, ce soir

last night, hier soir

this morning, ce matin

in the morning, le matin

all morning, toute la matinee

tomorrow morning, demain matin in the afternoon, rapres-midi tomorrow afternoon, demain

(dans r)apres-midi in the evening, le soir all evening, toute la soiree tomorrow evening, demain soir early (at an early hour), de bon- ne heure; (ahead of time), en avance

FRENCH

219

on time, a I'heure late (at a late hour), tard; (de- layed) , en retard already, dejd yet, still, encore no longer, ne....plus (he is no

longer working, il ne travaille

plus) not yet, pas encore (he hasn't

come yet, il nest pas encore

arrive)

now, maintenant, a present afterwards, then, puis, ahrs never, jamais (use ne before verb;

he is never here, il nest jamais

id)

always, toujours

forever, a jamais, pour toujours soon, bientot often, souvent seldom, rarement usually, d' ordinaire fast, vite, rapidement slowly, lentement here, id there, la

over there, la-bas near by, tout pres far away, loin, tres loin up, en haul down, en has ahead, en avant behind, en arriere forward!, en avant! back, en arriere outside, dehors inside, dedans opposite, en face here and there, ga et la, par-d,

par-la

this way, par id, de ce cote everywhere, partout where, ou also, aussi (but at beginning of

sentence means "therefore")

yes, oui

no, non

very, tres

much, very mucr* beaucoup (never use tres with it)

well, bien

badly, mal

better, mieux

worse, pis (so much the worse, tant pis!)

more, plus (with adjectives and adverbs)

more than, plus que (before numbers use plus de)

less, moins (less than, moins que; with numbers use moins de)

as • as, aussi - que (he is as strong as I, il est aussi fort que moi)

as much - as, as many - as, autant que (he has as much money as I, il a autant d* argent que moi)

how much?, how many?, combien (de), (how many soldiers?, combien de soldats?)

how?, comment?

too much, trop (de) , (he^has too much money, il a trop d'argent)

too many, trop (de) ; (she has too many friends, elle a trop da- mis)

so much, so many, tant (de)

as, like, comme

so, ainsi

besides, furthermore, d'ailleurs, de plus, en outre

finally, en fin

only, seulement

almost, presque (but when some- thing almost happened, man- quer; U a manque de tomber, he almost fell)

gladly, volontiers

220

FRENCH

certainly, certainement, .sans doute

at once, tout de suite, immediate- ment

at all, du tout

hardly, a peine

aloud, a haute voix, tout haul

of course, naturellement, bien en- tendu

suddenly, tout a coup

about, vers, a peu pres (with numerals: about ten, a pen pres dix; with time: about six o'clock, vers six heures)

perhaps, maybe, peut-etre

26. Conjunctions.

and, et

but, mais

if, si

or, ou

why, pourquoi

because, parce que

why! par exemplef, comment!

before, avant quelK

when, quand™, lorsque™

than, que (use de before numbers)

where, ouw

until, till, jusqua ce que*B

although, bien que,™ quoique1*

a little, un peu

again, encore (once again, encore

une fois)

really, truly, vrairnent together, ensemble at least, au moins for lack of, jaute de a long time ago, il y a lon^remps repeatedly, maintes fois therefore, par consequent, done farther away, plus loin occasionally, de temps en temps entirely, altogether, tout a fait

unices, a moins que1*

while, pendant quew

that, que

for. since, because, puisquc

after, fipres que™

as soon as. aussitot que}9 des

que1'* as lonir as, pendant que™ tandis

que1''*

provided that, pourvu qu&* so that, pour que,1* a fin que1* without, sans que***

27. Indefinite Pronouns and Adjectives.

such a, un tel all kinds of, toutes sortes de everything, tout everyone, tout le monde all, tout, tous

each, every, (adj. chaque, pron. chacun)

something, (quelque chose

( something interesting to read.

quelque chose d'interessant a

lire)

someone, quelqiiun some, quelques (plus noun: he

has some friends, il a quelques

18. The subjunctive is used after these conjunctions; before he comes, avant qu'il vienne.

19. When these conjunctions refer to future time, the future must be used: I shall «ee him when he comes, je le verrai quand il vicndra.

FRENCH

221

amis; in a partitive sense use de plus article: we bought some coffee, nous avons achete du cafe; when referring to a noun previously mentioned, use en: has he any money?; yes, he has (some), oui, il en a)

a few, quelques (adj.) ; quelques- uns (pron.)

enough, assez de

enough! assez!, $a suffit!

nothing, rien (like quelque chose) ; nothing good, rien de bon; nothing to do, rien a jaire

no one, personne (in sentence it is placed after verb, and the

28. Prepositions.

of, from, de (with mase. sing, article le contracts to du; il parle du gar^on, he speaks of the boy; with plural article les contracts to des: il parle des hommes, he speaks of the men)

to, at, a (with masc. sing, article le contracts to au: il va au musee, he goes to the museum; with plural article les contracts to aux: il parle aux femmes, he speaks to the women. — Must be used with noun indirect object: he gives John the money, il donne V argent a Jean)

to, at (meaning the home or place of business or store, or other occupancy) chez; il va chez Jean, he is going to John's house; elle va chez mon ami, she is going to my friend's; on parle librement chez les Americains, one speaks freely .among Americans.

with, avec

verb itself is preceded by ne: (je ne vois personne, I don't see anyone, I see no one)

neither, .nor, ne..ni..ni (he has seen neither my baggage nor my ticket, il n'a vu ni mes bagages ni mon billet)

another (additional) encore un (different one), un outre

much, many, lots of, beaucoup de

both, les deux, tous les deux

several, plusieurs

little, few, peu de (he has little money, il a peu d' 'argent; he has few friends, il a peu d'amis)

in (within), dans, en

on, sur

under, sous

above, au-dessus de

below, au-dessous de

for, in order to, pour (cest pour moi, it is for me; il travaille pour reussir, he works in order to succeed)

by, par

without, sans

until, jusqua

since, depuis

towards, vers

between, entre

among, parmi

near, pres de

far from, loin de

before, avant

in front of, opposite, devant

after, apres

back of, derriere

through, across, a trovers

against, centre

by means of, au moyen de

222 FRENCH

in spite of, en depit de, malgre next to, beside, a cote de about, around, autour de facing (opposite), en face de

because of, on account of, a cause instead of, an lieu de

de on the other side of, de 1'autre

during, pendant cote de

29. Special Idioms and Expressions.

good morning, good afternoon, good day, bonjour

good evening, good night, bonsoir (to one retiring, bonne nuit)

good-by, au revoir (to one whom you expect not to see for a long

time, or again, adieu) see you later, a bientot, a tout a Fheure see you to-morrow, a demain see you tonight, d ce soir

just now, tout a Vheure (just a moment ago, U y a un instant) hello!, hola! (on the telephone: allot)

how are you?, comment allez-vous?, comment vous portez-vous? how goes it?, comment $a va?, qa va? I'm well, je vais bien

Fm (much) better, je vais (beaucoup) mieux what time is it?, quelle heure est-il? it is two o'clock, il est deux heures it is twelve ( noon ) , il est midi it is twelve (midnight), il est minuit it is half past two, il est deux heures et demie it is a quarter past two, il est deux heures et quart it is ten past two, il est deux heures dix it is a quarter to two, il est deux heures moins le quart it is five to two, il est deux heures moins cinq at two o'clock, a deux heures at about two, vers deux heures last year, I'annee derniere next year, rannee prochaine every day, tous les jours the whole day, toute la journee

please, s9il vous plait (preceding or following any request) tell me, dites-moi, ayez la bonte de me dire bring (to) me, apportez-moi (will you give me?, voulez-vous me

donner?) show (to) me, montrez-moi, indiquez-moi (will you point out to me.

voulez-vous m9indiquer?) thank you, merci (. . . .very much, merci bien)

FRENCH 223

don't mention it, il ny a pas de quoi (usually shortened to pas de

quoi) , de rien

pardon me, pardon, pardonnez-moi, excusez~moi it doesn't matter, n'importe, cela ne fait rien (I don't care, ga m'est

egal, je men fiche, je m'en moque) I'm sorry, je le regrette, fen suis desole I can't help, je ne peux m'empecher de (infinitive) it's nothing, ce nest rien

what a pity!, too bad!, quel dommage! cest dommage! I'm glad, cela me fait plaisir, fen suis content I have to, il me jaut (I have to leave, il me faut partir) I agree (all right, 0. K.), d' 'accord, entendu where are you going?, oil allez-vous? where is?, oil est? where are?, oil sont? here is, here are, void

there is, there are, il y a ( use voila if pointing out) which way?, par ou?, par quel chemin?, de quel cote? to the right, a (la) droite to the left, d (la) gauche straight ahead, tout droit this way, (direction), par icit de ce cote this way, (manner), de cette fagon that way, (direction), par la come with me, venez avec moi, accompagnez-moi (follow me, suivcz-

moi)

what can I do for you?, que desirez-vous?, que puis-je faire pour vous? what is it?, quest-ce que cest? (what is the matter?, quest-ce qu'U

ya?)

what is the matter with you?, qu'avez-vous? what do you want?, que voulez-vous? , que desirez-vous? how much is it?, combien?

anything else?, rien d'autre?, encore quelque chose?, c'est tout? nothing else, rien d'autre, c'est tout do you speak French?, parlez-vous frangais? a little, un peu

speak (more) slowly, parlez (plus) lentement, s9il vous plait do you understand?, comprenez-vous? I don't understand, je ne comprends pas do you know?, savez-vous?

I can't, je ne peux pas (I don't know (how), je ne sais pas) what do you call this in French?, comment s'appelle ceci en Jranqais? how do you say ... .in French?, comment dit-on . .en frangais?

224 FRENCH

what does that mean?, quest-ce que ga veut dire?

what do you mean?, que voulez-vous dire?

what are you talking about?, de quoi parlez-vous?

I am an American, je suis Americain

I'm (very) hungry (thirsty, sleepy, warm, cold), 'fai (bien) faim

(soif, sommeil, chaud, froid) it's warm (cold, windy, sunny, fine weather, bad weather), il fait

chaud (froid, du vent, du soleil, beau temps, mauvais temps) it's forbidden, c'est (il est) defendu (no smoking, defense de fumer) luckily, heureusement unfortunately, malheureusement is it not FO?, ?i'est-ce pa.?? (use this invariable phrase wherever English

repeats the verb: you went, didn't you?; he is here, isn't he?) not at all, pas du tout how old are you?, quel age avez-vous? I'm twenty years old, fai vingt ans how long have you been here?, depuis quand (combien de temps)

etes-vous ici? how long have you been waiting? depuis combien de temps (quand)

attendez-vous ?

as soon (quickly) as possible, le phis tot possible, au plus tot come here!, venez ici! come in!, entrez! (stop!, arretez!) look!, regardez!

careful!, look out!, prenez garde!, attention!, gare! for heaven's sake!, par exemple! in any rase, en tout cas

let me hear from you, donnez-moi de vos nouvelles glad to meet you. enchante (de faire votre connaissance) no admittance! defense d'entrer! notice!, avis (au public) ! nonsense!, allons done! it was in fun, cetait pour rire I'm in a bath of perspiration, je suis en nage I have no change, je nai pas la (petite) monnaie what else?, quoi encore?

you don't say so!, pas possible!, sans blague! listen!, look here!, say!, dites done! just a second!, un instant!

gangway!, one side!, circule attention!, laissez passer! your health!, a votre sante! (reply: a la votre!) I should like to, je voudrais

FRENCH 225

hurry ! , depechez-v ous!

keep right (left), tenez la droite (gauche)

entrance, entree (exit, sortie}

30, Slang Words and Expressions.

fellow, "guy", type ("nice guy", bon type, ban zig; "awful guy",

sale type, sale zig; "what a guy!", quel type!) nerve, "crust", culot, toupet ("what a nerve!", quel culot!) scoundrel, "louse", canaille, salaud, saligaud greenhorn, "sucker", "dumb-bell", cornichon, veau old fogy, vieille momie

soldier, doughboy, poilu; pioupiou (infantry only) fatty, "greasebali , gros patapouf, boule-de-suif captain, "boss", "old man", vieux, capiston joint, "dump", cambuse, bolte ("what an awful dump!", quelU sale

bolte!)

drunkard, "boozehound", biberon, soulot, soulard to have a "swell" time, to "get plastered", faire la bombe substitute, "sub", bouche-trou "jalopy", bagnole, vieux clou "bike", becane "gadget", machin money, "dough", pognon, du pese tobacco, perlot

cigarette, "butt", seche, megot pay-day, sainte louche luck, veine, filon noise, quarrel, potin, tapage

coffee, cahoua (bad coffee, bain de pied, lavasse) smart, cale funny, rigolo

wonderful, "swell", epatant, formidable to have the blues, avoir le cafard (moon, la cafarde) don't bother me!, "scram!", fiche-moi la paix! get the devil out of here!, fiche le camp! it's all the same to me, c'est kif-kif to crack a smile, faire risette cheese it, the cops!, vingt-deux les flics! hell!, zut! gi\e me a ring. donnez-moi un coup de telephone

SPANISH 227

CHAPTER VII

SPANISH

SPEAKERS AND LOCATION (All population figures are approximate)

Europe — Spain (25,500,000) ,

Africa — Canary Islands (650,000); Rio de Oro (30,000);

Spanish Guinea (150,000); Spanish Morocco

(800,000).

North America — Mexico (20,000,000). Central America — C a n a 1 Zone (50,000); Costa Rica

(600,000); Guatemala (3,000,000); Honduras

(1,000,000); Nicaragua (1,100,000); Panama

(700,000); Salvador (1,700,000). West Indies — Cuba (4,200,000) ;Dominican Republic

(1,600,000); Puerto Rico (2,000,000). South America — Argentina (13,000,000); Bolivia

(3,300,000); Chile (4,600,000); Colombia

(8,700,000); Ecuador (3,000,000); Paraguay

(1,000,000) ; Peru (6,800,000) ; Uruguay (2,100,000) ;

Venezuela (3,500,000). Current to some degree in other areas, including Philippine

Islands and southwestern U. S. (New Mexico, Texas,

Arizona, California).

ALPHABET AND SOUNDS

a, b, c, ch, d, e, f, g, h, i, j, 1, 11, m, n, n, o, p, q, r, rr, s, t, u, v, x, y, z (k and w do not appear in native Spanish' words).

Vowel sounds: a=for; e~~first part of a in gate; i, y-r^ma- chme; o~or; u—iood.

228 SPANISH

Consonant sounds: ch, f, 1, m, n, p, x, y, approximately as in English.

b or v: at beginning of word (6ien, raca), or after a consonant (coriata, erifiar) "strongly pronounced 6; between vowels (ca^allo, bravo)— 1>, pronounced not by placing lower lip in contact with upper teeth, but by placing lips almost together, as for Eng. w; lips are held back, however, not protruded. Note that in words beginning with b or v, the sound may vary accordingly as the word is preceded or not by another word ending in vowel: vaca=6aca, but la vaca^lafaca.

c: before a, o, u or consonant,— k (caballo, cosa, criado) ; before e or i,— J/nn (cielo).

d: between vowels,— J/iis (ama^/o); elsewhere, as in Eng., but with tip of tongue touching back of upper teeth, not palate (bondad).

g: before a, o, u or consonant,— go (gaban, lago, gritar); before e or i, "strongly aspirated house (general, giro).

h: is always silent, as in Aonest (Aierro).

j: ^^Aouse, strongly aspirated (/inete, /oven).

11: =million (//erio, caba//o).

n: =o/uon (ano) .

q: as in Eng.; used only before ue, ui, in which groups the u is silent (que, gwien=ke, kyen), as it is also in the groups gue, gui fgwerra, gziisar).

r: trilled, as in British very (caro).

rr: more strongly trilled, as in Irish begorra (carro).

s: always as in this, never as in rose.

t: as in Eng., hut tip of tongue touches back of upper teeth, not palate (tengo, matar).

2: — thm.

Sounds not appearing in Spanish: all Eng. vowel sounds outside of five listed above; ,s7/ame. pleasure, /est, rose, rat, American r.

Spanish sounds not appearing in English: b or v between vowels; note differences between Sp. and Eng. t, d, r, rr.

SPANISH 229

SPELLING, SYLLABIFICATION, ACCENTUATION, PUNCTUATION

No double consonants appear in Sp., save 11, rr (spe- cial sounds); nn (rare), cc (first c~k, second c— th; accion

In dividing a word into syllables, a single consonant be- tween two vowels goes with the following vowel, not with the preceding; pronounce Sp. general as ge ne ral, not gen er al, as in Eng.

The only written accent of Sp. is the acute: '. If a word ends in a vowel, in n or in s, the stress is on the next to the last syllable, and the accent is not written: caballo, tienen, pesos. If a word ends in any consonant but n or 5, the stress is on the last syllable, and the accent is not written: azul, primer. If a word is stressed otherwise than in accordance with the above two rules, the accent is written: pidio, carbon, f ranees, dolar, cdrcel, ultimo, dolares.1

Punctuate as in Eng., save that Sp. uses inverted question and exclamation marks at beginning of interrogative or ex- clamatory sentences: fComo estd usted? ; jComo me gusta!

SAMPLE OF WRITTEN SPANISH; USE FOR PRACTICE READING

j Buenos dias, Don Jose! ^Como esta usted? — jHola, Manuel! ^Como estas? — Muy bien, gracias; £y su senora esposa? — Esta en Guatemala con mis dos hijos, pero escribe que todos, gracias a Dios, estan bien. <?Que tal en tu casa? — Bastante bien. Pero, digame, ^ha leido usted esto? Es un articulo en el periodico de hoy, la ultima edicion de esta ma-

1. The accent mark appears on a few words to distinguish them from other words similar in appearance and pronunciation, but differ- ent in meaning: se (I know), se (self); este (this, adjective), este (this one, pronoun) ; also to separate two vowels that would otherwise combine into a diphthong (vacio, empty, would without the accent mark be pronounced vacio = bathyo) .

230 SPANISH

fiana, anunciando que ha estallado la guerra en Europa. — Pero, <;tu crees2 todo lo que lees2 en los periodicos? — Esta vez pa- rece que dicen la verdad. Las tropas alemanas ya estan inva- diendo a Polonia. Francia e Inglaterra amenazan con decla- rarle la guerra a Alemania. Todavia no se sabe lo que van a hacer las demas naciones. — Pero, jparece mentira! ^Como es posible? <;Para esto van a servir los adelantos de nuestra ci- vilizacion? — Pues, jasi es! Ya no hay remedio.

GRAMMATICAL SURVEY

1. Nouns and Articles.

Sp. has only two genders, masculine arid feminine. Nouns denoting males are masculine, those denoting females fem- inine. For nouns which in Eng. are neuter, the Sp. ending often helps to determine the gender. Nouns ending in -o (plu- ral -os) are usually masculine, those in -a (plur. -as) feminine. The gender of nouns ending in -e (plur. -es), and of those ending in consonants (plural formed by adding -es to the final consonant) will be determined by observation.3

The definite article is el (plur. los ) for masculine nouns, la (plur. las) for feminines. The indefinite article is un (masc.), una (fern.), Unos, unas may be used to mean "some".

la casa, the house los libros, the books

el libro, the book las casas, the houses

el hijo, the son los hijos, the sons

la hija, the daughter las hijas, the daughters

el padre, the father los padres, the fathers

la madre, the mother las madres, the mothers

el general, the general los generales, the generals

la mujer, the woman las mujeres, the women

2. Pronounce both e's separately: ere es, le es.

3. Nouns ending in -ion, ~d or -2 are usually feminine. Nouns ending in -z change to -c before adding -cs for the plural: vez, plural, veces.

SPANISH 231

un libro, a book

una casa, a house

unos hijos, some sons

unas hijas, some daughters

un padre, a father

una madre, a mother

unos generates, some generals

unas mujeres, some women

2. Adjectives and Adverbs.

Adjectives agree with the nouns Uiey modify. Like nouns, they have the endings -o (fern, -a; masc. plur. -os; fern. plur. -as) ; or ~e (no difference between masc. and fern.; plur. -es) ; or consonant (plur. -es). Agreement with the noun does not necessarily mean identical endings; the adjective may be of the -e (plur. -es) type, while the noun is of the -o (plur. -os) type. Adjectives usually follow the noun, though a few com- mon ones precede:

el libro rojo ( red ) ; los libros rofos la casa roja; las casas rojas el libro verde (green); los libros verdes la casa azul (blue) ; las casas azulcs

To form the comparative degree, Sp. usually places mas (more) before the adjective; to form the superlative, the definite article is placed before the comparative; un libro claro (a clear book); un libro mas claro (a clearer book); el libro mds claro (the clearest book).

The adverb is generally formed by adding -mente to the feminine singular form of the adjective: claro; adverb: clara- mente (clearly). If two or more adverbs appear together, -mente is added only to the last one, while the others retain the form of the feminine singular adjective: he spoke clearly and distinctly, hablo clara y distintamente.

252

SPANISH

3. Numerals. a) Cardinal4.

1— uno* (fem. una)

2 — dos

3 — tres

4 — cuatro

5 — cinco

6 — seis

7 — siete

S—ocho

9 — nueve 10— diez 11 — once 12—doce 13 — trece 14 — catorce 15 — quince 16 — diez j seis

(or dieciseis] 17 — diez y siete 18 — diez j ocho 19 — diez y nueve 20 — veinte 21 — veinte y uno (or veintiuno)

22 — veinte y dos

(or veintidos) 30 — treinta 40 — cuarenta 50 — cincuenta 60 — sesenta 70 — setenta 80 — ochenta 90 — noventa 100 — cie/Uo* 200 — doscientos7 300 — trescientos 400 — cuatrocientos 500 — quinientos 600 — seiscientos 700 — setecientos 800—ochocientos 900 — novecientos 1000— mil 2000— dos mil 100,000— ci'en m*7 1,000,000— wrc mi//cw (de) '

4. Use these in dates, save for "the first": el primero de mayo, May first; el dos de mayo, May 2nd; also generally instead of ordinals beyond 10th: calle cincuenta y ires, fifty-third street.

5. Use un before a masc. sing, noun: tengo un libro, 1 have one book; there is no distinction between "one book" and "a book".

6. Cien if used immediately before the noun: den dolares, $100; but ciento sesenta dolares , $160.

7. Plural hundreds change -05 to -as if used with feminine nouns: doscientas mujeres.

8. Un millon de dolares, $1,000,000; dos millones de dolares, $2,000,- 000.

SPANISH 233

b) Ordinal.

1st — primer o9 5th — quinto 8th — octavo

2nd — segundo 6th — sexto 9lh—noveno

3rd — tercero9 7th — septimo 1 Oth — decimo 4th — cuarto

c) Others.

half — mitad (noun), or medio (adjective) : media naranja, half an orange; la mitad de mi clase, half of my class.

a pair of— un par de a dozen — una docena de

once — una vez twice — dos veces three times — tres teces the first time — la primera vez sometimes— algunas veces

next time — la proximo vez again — otra vez

4. Verbs.

Sp. verbs fall into three main classes, with the infinitive ending respectively in -ar, -er, -ir (to take, tornar; to sell, vender; to live, vivir).

Only the most frequently used tenses are given below. In the present indicative ("I take, am taking, do take"), present subjunctive ("I may take") and singular imperative ("Take!") of a large number of verbs, there is a change in the last vowel of the root10 whenever that vowel is stressed (this happens in the first, second and third persons singular and third person plural of the present indicative and present subjunctive, and in the singular imperative) ; such verbs are called radical-chang- ing. They are otherwise regular, save that a few of them effect a change in a few other forms (3rd sing, and 3rd plur. of the past tense, etc.). Radical-changing verbs appearing in the vocabulary are indicated by the changed vowel in parentheses: to count, contar (ue) ; this means that whenever the o is stressed,

9. Use primer, tercer, before masculine singular noun: el primer libro or el libro primero.

10. Root • what is left of the verb when the infinitive ending is removed; the root of sentir is sent-.

234

SPANISH

it changes to ue, and that the first singular present indicative, consequently, is cuento. Other important irregularities are also noted in the vocabulary.

1. Present Indicative (meaning: I take, am taking, do take)

Regular: to take, tomar I take, you take he, she takes, (you take) we take, you take, they ( you) take,

Regular:

Radical-Changing : to count, contar (ue)

tom-o11	I count,	cuent-o
tom-as1'	you count,	cuent-as
tom-a"	he, she counts,	cuent-a
	(you count)
tom-amos	we count,	cont-arnos
tom-dis'*	you count,	cont-dis

tom-an

they (you) count, cucnt-an

Radical-Changing :

to sell, vender

I sell (am selling) , vend-o

you (familiar) sell, vend-es

he, she sells, vend-e

you (polite) sell,

we sell, vend-emoswe lose, you ( plur. fam. ) sell, vend-eu you lose,

they, you sell, vend-en they, you lose,

to lose, perder (ie) I lose, am losing, you (fam.) lose he, she loses,

you (polite) lose,

pierd-o

pierd-es

pierd-e

perd-emos

perd-eis

pierd-en

11. Ordinarily Sp. makes no use of subject pronouns (cf. p. 241), since the endings supply the meaning "I", "he", etc. The pronouns may be used for stress (yo tomo, I am taking), or for clearness (ella tomct, "she is taking," as against "he is taking"). The Sp. present may have the meaning "I take", "I am taking", "I do take".

12. The second person singular is used in addressing intimate friends, relatives, children, inferiors, animals. The more normal way of ad- dressing people with whom one is not on an extremely familiar basis is to use the third singular of the verb with usted (abbreviated in writing to £'</., Vd.}. The same remark applies to the plural, where the second person is even more generally avoided: you (several persons) are taking, ustedes toman; in preference to tomdis.

SPANISH

235

Regular:	Radical-changing:
to live,	to feel,	to sleep,	to ask for,
vivir	sentir (ie)	dormir (ue)	pedir (i)
viv-o	sient-o	duerm-o	pid-o
viv-es	sient-es	duerm-es	pid-es
viv-e	sient-e	duerm-e	pid-e
viv-imos	sent-imos	dorm-imos	ped-imos
viv-is	sent-is	dorm-is	ped-is
viv-en	sient-en	duerm-en	pid-en
to be,	ser™ estar13	to have, tener™ ha her1
lam,	soy estoy	I have, tengo	he

you are, eres

he, she is, es

we are, somos

you are, sois

they are, son

estds you have, tienes has

estd he, she has, tiene ha

estamos we have, tenemos hemos

estdis you have, teneis habeis

estdn they have, tienen han

13. Ser must be used to translate "to be" whenever:

a) a predicate noun follows: he is a general, es general;

b) material or origin is indicated: the watch is of gold, el reloj es de oro;

c) time is expressed: it is one, it is two, es la una, son las dos. Estar must be used to translate "to be" whenever:

a) health is involved: he is well, estd bien;

b) location is expressed: he is here, estd aqui.

If a predicate adjective follows, ser expresses a more permanent or inherent, estar a more temporary or occasional quality; she is pretty, 65 bonita; she is young, es joven; she is merry, estd alegre; the milk is hot, la leche estd caliente. Hence, either verb may be used with certain adjectives: ice is cold, el hielo es jrio; the water is cold, el agua estd fria.

14. Haber is " to have" used as an auxiliary: I have slept, he dormido. Tener indicates possession: I have a book, tengo un libro; it also has a variety of idiomatic uses (cf. p. 266) : I am hungry, tengo hambre (literally, I have hunger) ; I am 20 years old, tengo veinte anos (literally, I have 20 years).

236

SPANISH

-ar verbs	-er and -ir verbs	ser1'
torn-aba	v end- or viv-ia	era ( I was,
		used to be)
torn-abas	vend- or viv-ias	eras

2. Imperfect Indicative15 (meaning: I was taking, I used

to take).

I was taking,

used to take, you were taking,

used to take, he, she was taking, torn-aba

used to take, we were taking, tom-dbamos vend- or viv-iamos eramos

used to take,

you used to take, tom-abais vend- or viv-iais erais they used to take, tom-aban vend- or viv-ian eran

vend- or viv-ia era

3. Past Indicative (meaning: I took).

I took, you took, he, she took, we took, you took, they took,

-ar verbs

tom-e

tom-aste

tom-6

tom-amos

tom-asteis

tom-aron

-er and -ir verbs vend- or viv-i vend- or viv-iste vend- or viv-io vend- or viv-imos vend- or viv-isteis vend- or viv-ieron

radical

changing17

ped-i

ped-iste

pid-io

ped-imos

ped-isteis

pid-ieron

15. In the imperfect, future and conditional, radical-changing verbs never have the radical change.

16. Estar, tener, haber are regular: estaba, tenia, habia. Only three verbs have irregular imperfects: ir, to go, iba; ser, to be, era; ver, to see, veia.

17. -ir radical-changing verbs which change e to ie when stressed also have i instead of e in the third singular and third plural of the past: send, but sintio, sintieron; -ir verbs which change o to ue have a in the same forms: dormi, but durmio, durmieron; -ar and *er radical-changing verbs are regular in the past tense.

SPAMSH

237

ser estar tener liaber

I was18 jui estuve" I had, tuve19 hube"

you were, fuiste estuviste you had, tuviste hubiste

he, she was, fue estuvo he, she had, tuvo hubo

we were, fuimos estuvimos we had, tuvimos hubimos

you were, fuisteis estuvisteis you had, tuvisteis hubisteis

they were, fueron estuvieron they had, tuvieron hubieron

4. Future (meaning: I shall take), and Conditional (mean- ing: I should take).20

Future Conditional

I shall take, tomar-e I should (would) take, tomar-ia

(sell, live), (vender) -e (sell, live), (vender) -fa

(vivir)-e (vivir)-ia

you will take, tomar-ds you would take, tomar-ias

he, she will take, tomar-d he, she would take, tomar-ia we shall take, tomar-emos we should ( would ) take, tomar-iamos

you will take, tomar-eis you would take, tomar-iais

they will take, tomar-dn tliey would take, tomar-ian

5. Compound Tenses (meaning: I have, had, shall have, should have taken).

Compound tenses are formed by using haber with the past participle of the verb (ending in -ado for -ar verbs, -ido for others: taken, tornado; sold, yendtdo; lived, vivido)\ thus:

Present Perfect: I have taken, he tornado; you have taken, has tornado, etc.

Past Perfect: I had taken, habia tornado; you had taken, ha bias tornado, etc.

18. For "I was" and "I had'', the imperfects era, estaba, tenia, which indicate continued action in the past, occur more frequently than the pasts /MI, estuve, tuve. Fui is also used as the past tense of ir, "to go".

19. Nearly all irregular pasts ending in unaccented -e have this set of endings: -e, -isle, -o, -imos, -isteis, -ieron.

20. Note that future and conditional endings are added to the entire infinitive, not to the stem alone. Radical-changing verbs are quite regular in these tenses. Ser and estar are regular (sere, estar e; seria, estaria] ; haber has habre, habria; tener has tendre, tendria.

238

SPANISH

Future Perfect: I shall have taken, habre tornado, etc. Conditional Past: I should (would) have taken, habria tornado, etc.

Many past participles are irregular; some will be given in the vocabulary; none of the verbs given so far has an irregular past participle.

6. Imperative (meaning: take!).

Familiar Singular Familiar Plural Polite Singular

Polite Plural

Regular

-ar	-er	-IT
— tom-a	vend-e	viv-e
—tom-ad	vend-ed	viv-id
— tom-e	vend-a	viv-a

( Polite imperative forms are normally followed by usted) - -torn-en vend-an viv-an

(Polite plural forms are normally followed by ustedes)

Radical-Changing

Familiar Singular Familiar Plural Polite Singular

Polite Plural

-ar ~er

cuent-a pierd-e

cont-ad perd-ed

cuent-e pierd-a

-ir

sient-e pid-e

sent-id ped-id

sient-a pid-a

(Polite singular forms are normally followed by usted) cuent-en pierd-an sient-an pid-an

(Polite plural forms are normally followed by ustedes)

7. Negative.

This is regularly formed by prefixing no (not) to the verb: tomo, I take; no tomo, I do not take; tome Ud.9 take (imperative); no tome Ud., do not take.

SPANISH 239

8. Reflexive verbs.

Eng. uses some verbs reflexively (I see myself, I speak to myself). In Sp., the number of reflexive verbs is much larger (Eng. I bathe, but Sp. me bano, lit. I bathe myself).

Reflexive forms, in the plural, are often used with a reciprocal meaning (each other, one another, to each other, to one another).

The reflexive pronouns are:

me, myself, to myself nos, ourselves, to ourselves

te, yourself, to yourself os, yourselves, to yourselves

se, himself, herself, themselves, yourself, yourselves (polite); to himself, etc.

Reflexive pronouns, like all object pronouns (cf. p. 241), come directly before the verb (I bathe, me bano), except in the infinitive (to bathe, banarse), gerund (bathing, bandndo- se)'1, and imperative affirmative, both familiar and polite (bathe!, bdnate, fam.; bdnese Ud.9 pol.); but not imperative negative (do not bathe! no te banes, no se bane Ud.).

I see myself, me veo

you see yourself, te ves

he (she) sees himself (herself), se ve

we see ourselves, or each other, 7105 vemos

you see yourselves, or each other, os veis

they see themselves, or each other, se ven

I do not speak to myself, no me hablo

you do not speak to yourself 710 te hablas

he (she) does not speak to himself (herself) no se habla

we do not speak to ourselves, or each other, no nos hablamos

you do not speak to yourselves, or each other, 710 os habldis

they do not speak to themselves, or each other, no se hablan

21. The gerund (or present participle) i8 formed by adding -ando to the root of -ar verbs, -iendo to that of -er and ~ir verbs: taking, toman- do; selling, vendiendo; living, viviendo. It may be used alone, with the meaning of "by" or "while" (by taking, while taking, tomando), or

240 SPANISH

9. Passive.

The reflexive is often used in Sp. where a passive would appear in Erig. This is particularly true when the subject of the Eng. passive verb is a thing: books are sold here, aqui se venden libros (lit. books sell themselves here). Otherwise, the passive is generally formed with the verb "to be" (ser), and the past participle, being used as a predicate adjective, agrees with the subject: my parents were killed by the robbers, mis padres fueron matados por los ladrones.

10. Subjunctive.

The Sp. subjunctive has four tenses, and is frequently used in subordinate clauses. For the present subjunctive, the ending are normally:

for -ar verbs: -e, -es, -e, -emos, -els, -en; I may take, tome, etc.22 for ~er and -ir verbs: -a, -as, -a, -amos, -ais, -an; I may sell, venda,

etc.

The imperfect subjunctive ends in -ase or -ara for ~ar verbs, -iese or -iera for the others: I might take, tomase or tomara. The present perfect subjunctive uses the present sub- junctive of haber (haya), with the past participle (haya to- rnado, I may have taken) ; the past perfect subjunctive has the imperfect subjunctive of haber (hubiese or hubiera) with the past participle (I might have taken, hubiese tornado or hubiera tornado).

with the verb estar to form a progressive conjugation (I am taking. estoy tomando) ; but the progressive meaning can also be rendered by the plain verb (tomo* I am taking).

22. Note that it is really the third person singular and plural of the present subjunctive that are used as polite imperatives: tome Ud., tomen Uds. The second person singular and plural of the subjunctive are nsed as familiar imperatives in the negative: do not take, no tomes.

SPANISH 241

5. Pronouns.

a) Personal Pronouns (Subject).

I, yo we, nosotros

you (fam.), tu you (fam. plur. ) , v05O*ros

he, el they (masc.), ellos

she, e//a they (fern.), ellas

you (pol.), usted you (pol, plur.), ustedes

These are generally used only for emphasis or clarification: I take, tomo; I take, yo tomo; she takes (in opposition to "he takes"), ella toma.

b) Personal Pronouns (Direct Object).

me, me us, nos

you (fam.), te you, (fam. plur.), 03

him, you (pol.), le them, you (pol.), les

her, la" them (fern.), las"

it, lo them (plural of lo ), los

Indirect object pronouns are the same as the direct (to me, me, etc.), save that le is generally used with the meanings of "to him", "to her", "to it", "to you" (pol.), and les with the meaning of "to them" in all connections and "to you'* (pol. plur.).

Direct and indirect object pronouns precede the verb, save in the infinitive, gerund and imperative affirmative: me ve, he sees me; lo tiene, he has it; le da el libro, he gives him the book; but quiero tomarlo, I wish to take it; jtomalo!, take it!; estoy tomdndolo, I am taking it. If a direct and an indirect object pronoun are used together, the indirect normally precedes the direct (he gives it to me, me lo da; he wishes to give it to me, quiere ddrmelo) ; and if the indirect is le or les, it is changed to se (he gives it to him. se lo da, instead of le lo da).

23. . Use la and las referring to nouns which in Sp. are feminine; I see it (the house), la veo; I see it (the book), lo veo.

242 SPANISH

c) Personal Pronouns with Prepositions.

These are the same as the subject pronouns, save that mi replaces yo, and ti replaces tu; for me, para mi; for you, para ti; for him, para el; for her, para ella; etc.

d) Possessive Adjectives and Pronouns. Adjectives.

my, mi, plur. mis: (mi libro, mi casa, mis libros, mis casas)

your (fam.), tu, plur. tus: (tu libro, tus casas)

his, her, your, their24: su, plur. sus

our, nuestro (nuestra, nuestros, nuestras): (nuestra casa)

your, vuestro (vuestra, etc.): (vuestras casas)

Pronouns.

mine, el mio, la mia, los mios, las mias: (your books and mine,

tus libros y los mios) yours, el tuyo, la tuya, los tuyos, las tuyas. his, hers, theirs, yours (pol.), el suyo, la suya, los suyos, las

suyas*5

ours, el nuestro, la nuestra, los nuestros, las nuestras yours, el vuestro, la vuestra, los vuestros, las vuestras

The article is usually omitted after the verb ser: el libro es mio.

e) Demonstrative Adjectives and Pronouns. Adjectives.

this, these, este, esta, estos, estas: (this book, este libro, these

houses, estas casas) that, those (near you), ese, esa9 esos, esas: (that house of yours,

that house near you, esa casa)

24. Distinguish by usin^ de el, de ella, de Ud., de ellos, de ellas, de Uds.j if necessary: her book, su libro or el libro de ella; their books, sus libros or los libros de ellos.

25. Distinguish by using de el, etc.; my books and hers, mis libros y los suyos or mis libros y los de ella.

SPANISH 243

that, those (yonder), aquel, aquella, aquellos, aquellas: (those men over there, aquellos hombres)

Pronouns.

this one, these, este, esta, estos, estas: (your book and this one,

tu libro y este) that one, those (near you), ese, esa, esos, esas: (my book and

that one by you, mi libro y ese) that one, those (yonder), aquel, aquella, aquellos, aquellas:

(our books and those over there, nuestros libros y aquellos)

"Neuter" pronouns, esto, eso, aquello are used to refer not to specific objects, but to a general situation or state of affairs: this pleases me, I like this, esto me gusta; I don't like that (what you have said), eso no me gusta.

To translate "the one", "the ones", Sp. generally uses the definite article (el, la, los, las) : my book and the one which is on the table, mi libro y el que estd en la mesa; my book and my brother's (the one of my brother), mi libro y el de mi hermano.

f ) Relative and Interrogative Pronouns.

who, whom, that, which, que*6 ; the man who is here, el hombre que estd aqui; the letter you wrote, la carta que Ud. escribio?1 whom (after prepositions), quien* the man to whom I spoke,

el hombre a quien hable. whose, cuyo, cuya, cuyos, cuyas: the man whose house I saw,

el hombre cuya casa he visto. who?, ^ quien? (plur. jquienes?) : who is here? ^Quien estd

aqui? ; who are those men? ^Quienes son aquellos hombres? whom?, da quien? (pi. <<a quienes?): whom did you see? ^A

quien vio Ud.? what?, <;que?: what did you write?, ^Que escribio Ud.?

26. El cual, la cual, los cuales, las cuales, or el que, la que, los que, las que, are occasionally used instead of que to refer to the more distant of two possible antecedents: I spoke to the boy's mother, who came to see me, hable con la madre del muchacho, la cual vino a verme.

27. Note that the relative pronoun cannot be omitted in Sp.

244 SPANISH

which?, which one?, which ones?, ^cudl? (plur. Beadles?): to which one of my friends did you give the book? ^A cudl de mis amigos dio Ud. el libro?

whose?, ^de quien?: whose house is that? (whose is that house?), ^De quien es aqaella casa?

AMERICAN VARIETIES OF SPANISH

The Spanish used in the various countries of Spanish America has local peculiarities of pronunciation, grammar and vocabulary. These differences, while interesting and striking, are not so fundamental as those found in some other languages (e.g., Italian, with its numerous dialects, many of which are mutually incomprehensible). Several of the Spanish-American peculiarities of pronunciation are current in Spain itself, notably the southern part of the country (Andalusia), and seem to have been imported by original Spanish settlers coming to America from various sections of Spain.28 Only a few major peculiarities of Spanish-American speech are listed, and many of them are common to the vulgar pronunciation of Spain as well.

PRONUNCIATION.

Spanish America generally discards the Castilian sound of th in thin (represented by z, or by c before e and i), and replaces it with the sound of 5 (cielo; Castilian zAyelo; Sp. Am. syelo). This leads to occasional confusion of words which in Castilian would be differentiated by sound (casa, "house"; caza, "hunt"), and to the replacement of one member of the pair by another word (Caceria, "hunt", in Sp. Am.)

28. In Spain, local dialects I Andalusian, Asturian, Aragonese, etc.) do not diverge from standard Castilian any more than do our southern, middle western or New England forms of speech from standard "American" English. Galician, Catalan and Basque are notable ex- ceptions; but Galician (spoken in the northwestern corner of Spain) is really a dialect of Portuguese, not of Spanish; Catalan (eastern Spain) is rated as a separate Romance language; Basque (north- eastern corner of Spain, southwestern corner of France) not only is not a Romance language, but does not even belong to the Indo- European family.

SPANISH 245

2. The Castilian sound of // is usually y in Sp. Am. (caba//o; Cast. kava//yo; Sp. Am. kavayo). In sections of Argentina, etc., this sound further changes to that of s in "pleasure", or even to that of g in "gin" (kavazho, kava/o).

3. The sound of g before e or i, or of /, which is in Castilian a harsher guttural than English h, is in most Spanish American countries pronounced more weakly, so as to be very similar to Eng. h (general: Cast. AAeneral, Sp. Am. General). The / of reloj ("watch", "clock") is often silent in Sp. Am., so that the word sounds as though spelled re/0.

4. At the end of a word, s, which is strongly pronounced in Castilian, either becomes h or disappears in most Sp. Am. countries (dos pesos sounds like doh pesos or doh pesoh).

5. Between vowels, d, which in Castilian sounds like th of "this", often disappears altogether in Sp. Am. and Spain (amado pronounced amao).

6. Pa for para (pa nada or pa naa instead of para nada) ; gweno for bueno; gwevo for huevo, etc. are occasionally heard in Sp. Am. as well as in Spain.

7. Sections of Argentina have a habit of stressing object pronouns which are added on to verbs: vamonos, digale for vdmonos ("let's go", "let's get out"), digale ("tell him").

Other sections of South America, and even of Spain, share this peculiarity.

GRAMMAR.

1. Considerable confusion appears in forms of addiess in various Sp. Am. countries. While vosotros with the second person plural of the verb is generally avoided, so that a mother who would address one of her children as tu (with the second singular verb) addresses more than one of them as ustedes (with the third plural), Argentina prefers vos in addressing one person, ustedes more than one.

2. Mosotros, /TIGS, are sometimes heard in the place of nosotros, nos ("we", "us"). The uneducated of Spain, however, often use these same forms.

246 SPANISH

3. Argentina tends to avoid the iuture (tomare, "1 shall take"), using in its place voy a tomar ("I am going to take"). Colombia prefers voy y tomo ("1 go and take"), or voy ir to- mando ("1 am going to go taking").

4. While Castilian uses the -se arid -ra forms of the pas! subjunctive (cf. p. 240) about equally, Sp. Am. normally prefers the -ra form.

VOCABULARY.

Local words (frequently of Indian origin) are current in one country and not in others; many of them designate local objects. Only a few examples can be given. An illiterate farm hand is a peon in Mexico, but a guaso or roto in Chile, a guajiro in Cuba, a jibaro in Puerto Rico. "Dairy" (Spain lecher ia) is tambo in Argentina. Chile uses donde ("where") in the sense of "at the house of", and goes so far as to combine, in the same meaning, donde estd, donde estaba (literally "where was") into ontd, ontaba. Colombia has desecho for senda ("jungle trail"). Cuba uses tabaco ("tobacco") in the sense of "cigar" (Spain cigarro), and cigarro in the sense of "cigar- ette" (Spain cigarrillo). Monte, which in Spain has rather the meaning of "mountain", is used in Sp. Am. in the sense of "jungle", "wild country", while Chile uses cerro (Spain "hill") for mountain (Spain montana, monte). Papa for potato, ("po- tato"), manteca (which in Spain would mean "fat", "grease") for mantequilla ("butter") are in general use. A la pampa, "in the open"; es muerto, es nacido, instead of ha muerto, ha nacido ("he died", "he was born"); achicar ("to kill", slang for matfir) ; coda nada ("every little trifle") ; hasta cada rato ("in a little while", instead of Castilian en un rato, dentro de un rato) ; par arse (literally "to stop") used for levantarse ("to get up") ; truje for tra/e ("I brought"; past tense of traer, "to bring"); vido for vio ("he saw"; third singular past tense of ver), are among forms frequently used in Spanish America. A few of them (cigarro, monte, papa, manteca, truje, vido, es nacido, ontaba) occasionally appear also in the speech of the illiterate in Spain.

SPANISH

247

VOCABULARY 29 1. World, Elements, Nature, Weather, Time, Directions.

world, el mundo

earth, la tierra

air, el aire

water, el agua (fern.; el used for

euphony before stressed a) fire, el fuego light, la luz (pi. luces) sea, el (la) mar (masc. or fern.) sun, el sol moon, la luna star, la estreUa sky, el cielo wind, el viento weather, time, el tiempo snow, la nieve to snow, nevar (ie) rain, la lluvia to rain, Hover (ue) cloud, la nube cloudy, nublado fog, la niebla ice, el hielo

mud, el barro, el fango, el lodo morning, la mafiana noon, el mediodia afternoon, evening, la tarde night, la noche midnight, la medianoche North, el norte South, el sur East, el este

West, el oeste

year, el ano

month, el mes

week, la semana

day, el dia (masc.)

hour, la hora

minute, el minuto

Sunday, el domingo

Monday, el lunes (pi. lo$ tunes)

Tuesday, el martes (lo$ - )

Wednesday, el mier coles (los - )

Thursday, el jueves (los • )

Friday, el viernes (los - )

Saturday, el sdbado

January, enero

February, febrero

March, marzo

April, abril

May, mayo

June, junio

July, julio

August, agosto

September, septiembre

October, octubre

November, noviembre

December, diciembre

Spring, la primavera

Summer, el verano

Fall, el otono

Winter, el invierno

29. Irregularities in the plural of nouns are indicated: la luz (pi. luces). Radical-changing verbs are indicated by (ue) , (ie), (i)t according to the nature of the change. Important verbal irregularities are given in parentheses.

Note that verbs ending in -car change c to qu before e-endings (buscar, Past 1st sg. busque, Polite Imperative busque) ; verbs ending in -gar insert u after g before c-endings (entregar, Past entregue, Pol. Impv. entregue) ; verbs ending in -zar change z to c before c~ endings (empezar, Past ei pece, Pol. Impv. empiece).

248

SPANISH

For "it is warm", "it is cold", etc., see p. 266.

No capitals for seasons, months, days of week.

I shall see him on Monday, le vere el lunes; last Monday, el lunes vasado; next Monday, el lunes que viene; Monday morning, el lunes por la manana; every Monday, todos los lunes; on May 5th, 1943, el cinco de mayo de mil novecientos cuarenta y Ires.

2. Family, Friendship, Love.

family, la jamilia

husband, el marido

wife, la mujer, la esposa

parents, los padres

father, el padre

mother, la madre

son, el hi jo

daughter, la hija

brother, el hermano

sister, la hermana

uncle, el tio

aunt, la tia

nephew, el sobrino

niece, la sobrina

cousin, el primo, la prima

grandfather, el abuelo

grandmother, la abuela

grandson, el nieto

granddaughter, la nieta

father-in-law, el suegro

mother-in-law, la suegra

son-in-law, el yerno

daughter-in-law, la nuera

brother-in-law, el cunado, el her-

mano politico sister-in-law, la cunada man. el hombre woman., la mujer child, el nino boy, el muchacho girl, la muchacha sir, Mr., el senior30 madam, Mrs., la senora30 Miss, young lady, la senorita30 friend, el amigo, la amiga servant, el criado, la criada to introduce, presentar to visit, visitor love, el amor to love, amar9 querer (ie) (Past,

guise; Fut. guerre)91 to fall in love with, enamorarse de to marry, ca5ar.se con (he married

her: se caso con ella) sweetheart, el novio, la novia kiss, el beso to kiss, besar dear, beloved, querido; amado

30. Use the definite article with senort senora, sefiorita, save in speak- ing directly to the person: Mr. Lopez has a book, el sehor Lopez tiene un libro; Mr. Lopez, have you a book? Senor Lopez, j tiene Ud. un libro?

31. Whenever there is an irregularity in the future, the same irregular- ity appears in the conditional: querer , Fut. guerre, Cond. querria.

SPANISH

249

3. Speaking Activities.

word, la palabra

language, la lengua; el idioma

to speak, hablar

to say, decir (Pres., digot dices,

dice, decimos, decis, dicen;

Past, dij-e, -iste, -o, -imos, -isteis,

-eron; Fut., dire; Impv., di,

diga)

to tell, decir, contar (ue) to inform, informar; comunicar

(see n. 29) to call, llamar to be called, one's name is, llamar'

se (my name is John, me llamo

Juan)

to greet, saludar to name, nombrar to cry, shout, gritar to listen to, escuchar (I listen to

her, la escucho)

4. Materials.

gold, el oro silver, la plata iron, el hierro steel, el acero copper, el cobre tin, el estano lead, e/ plomo oil, e/ aceite, el petroleo gasoline, la gasolina, la bencina, la nafta

5. Animals.

animal, el animal

horse, el caballo

dog, el perro

cat, el goto

bird, el pdjaro

donkey, el burro, el asno

mule, el mulo

to hear, oir (Pres., oigo, oyes, oye, oimos, ois, oyen; Impv.. oye, oiga)

to understand, comprender, en- tender (ie)

to mean, querer decir (see p. 257 for querer; I don't know what you mean, no se lo que Vd. quiere decir), significar (see note 29; do not use when the subject is a person)

to ask for, pedir (i) , (He asked me for a pencil, me pidio un Idpiz)

to ask (a question), preguntar

to answer, responder, contestar

to thank, dar las gracias (I thank- ed him for the book, le di las gracias por el libro)

to complain, lamentarse, quejarse

coal, el carbon

wood, la madera, la lena

silk, la seda

cotton, el algodon

wool, la lana

cloth, el pano

to cut, cortar

to dig, cavar

to sew, coser

to mend, remendar

cow, la vaca

ox, el buey

pig, el cerdo, el puercot el cochino

chicken, el polio

hen, la gallina

rooster, el gallo

sheep, la oveja

250

SPANISH

goat, la cabra mouse, el raton snake, la culebra fly, la mosca bee, la abeja

mosquito, el mosquito spider, la arana louse, el piojo flea, la pulga bedbug, la chinche

6. Money, Buying and Selling.

money, el dinero

coin, la moneda

dollar, el dolar, el peso, el duro

(Spain, 5 pesetas make 1 duro) cent, el centavo, el centime bank, el banco check, el cheque money order, el giro postal to earn, to gain, to win, ganar to lose, perder (ie) to spend, gastar to lend, prestar to borrow, pedir (i) prestado (he

borrowed $2 from me, me pi-

dio dos dolar es prestados) to owe, deber to pay, pagar (see n. 29) to give back, devolver (ue) ; P. p.

devuelto

change, la vuelta to change, exchange, cambiar honest, honrado, sincero dishonest, poco honrado, falso price, el precio cost, el coste, el costo to cost, costar, (ue)

7. Eating and Drinking.

to eat, comer

breakfast, el desayuno

to eat breakfast, desayunarse

lunch, el almuerzo

to eat lunch, almorzar (ue and

see n. 29) supper, la cena to eat supper, cenar

expensive, caro, costoso

cheap, barato

store, la tienda

piece, el pedazd, el trozo

slice, la tajada, la rebanada

pound, la libra

package, el paquete, el bulto

basket, la canasta, la cesta

box, la caja

bag, el saco

goods, las mercancias

to go shopping, ir de compras, ir

de tiendas to sell, vender to buy, comprar

to rent, to hire, alquilar, arrendar to be worth, valer (Pres. valgo,

vales, etc.; Fut. valdre) to choose, escoger (Pres. escojo,

escoges, etc.; Pol. Impv. esco-

AO

thief, robber, el ladron to steal, robar police, la policia policeman, el agente de policia. el policia, el guardia

dinner, la comida to dine, comer meal, la comida dining-room, el comedor waiter, el mozo.. el camarero waitress, la camarera restaurant, la fonda menu, la list a de platos

SPANISH

251

bill, la cuenta

to pass (a dish), alcanzar (note

29)

tip, la propina to drink, beber water, el agua (fern.) wine, el vino beer, la cerveza coffee, el cafe tea, el te milk, la leche bottle, la botella spoon, la cuchara teaspoon, la cucharitat la cucha-

ritta

knife, el cuchillo fork, el tenedor glass, el vaso cup, la taza napkin, la servilleta salt, la sal pepper, la pimienta plate, dish, el plato bread, el pan roll, el panecillo butter, la mantequilla sugar, el azucar soup, la sopa rice, el arroz

potatoes, las patatas, las papas vegetable, la legumbre meat, la came beef, la came de vaca steak, el bistec

8. Hygiene and Attire.

bath, el bano to bathe, banarse shower, la ducha to wash, lavarse to shave, afeitarse barber, el barber o mirror, el espejo

chicken, el polio

chop, la chuleta

veal, la ternera

lamb, el carnero

pork, el cerdo, el puerco

sausage, el chorizo, la salchicha

ham, el jamon

bacon, el tocino, la tocineta

egg, el huevo

fish, el pescado

fried, frito

to cook, cocinar, guisar

boiled, cocido

stewed, guisado

roast, asado

roast beef, el rosbif

baked, al homo

broiled, en parrillat a la parrilla

sauce, la salsa

salad, la ensalada

cheese, el queso

fruit, la fruta

apple, la manzana

pear, la per a

peach, el durazno, el melccoton

grapes, las uvas

strawberries, las fresas

nuts, las nueces

orange, la naranja

lemon, el limon

juice, el jugo, el zumo

cherries, las cerezas

dessert, el postre

pastry, las pastas, los pasteles

soap, el jabon

razor, la navaja (de afeitar)

safety razor, la mdquina de afeitar

towel, la toalla

comb, el peinef la peineta

brush, el cepillo

scissors, las tijeras

252

SPAMSH

to wear, llevar

to take off, quilarse:>>~

to change, mudarse, cambiarse

to put on, ponerse*- (Pres. me po/igo, te pones, etc.; Fut. me pondre; Past me puse; Impv.. pnnte, pongase).

clothes, /a ropa

hat, e/ sombrero

suit, e/ Jro/e

coat, /a chaqueta

vest, e/ chaleco

pants, /os pantalones

underwear, la ropa interior

undershirt, la camiseta

drawers, los canzoncillos

glove, el guante

socks, los calcetines

stockings, las medias

shirt, la camisa

collar, el cuello

9. Parts of the body.

head, la cabeza

forehead* la (rente

face, la car a

mouth, la boca

hair, el pelo

eye, el ojo

ear, la oreja

tooth, el dienle, la muela

lip, el labio

nose, la nariz (pi. narices)

tongue, la lengua

chin, la barba

cheek, la me.jilla, el carrillo

mustache, el bigote

heard, las barbas

neck, el cuello

throat, la garganta

arm, el brazo

tie. la corbata

overcoat, el sobretodo, el abrigo.

el gabdn

raincoat, el impermeable pocket, el bolsillo handkerchief, el panuelo button, el boton shoe, el zapato hoot, la bota

pocketbook, el portamonedas purse, la bolsa, la cartera pin, tie-pin, el alfiler needle, la aguja (de coser] umbrella, el paraguas (pi. los • ) watch, clock, el reloj chain, la cadena ring, la sortija eyeglasses, los anteojos slippers, las zapatillas dressing-gown, bathrobe, la bata (de I) a no]

hand. In nwnn

elbow, el code

wrist, la murieca

finger, el dedo

nail, la uua

leg. la pierna

foot, el pie

knee, la rod ilia

back, la espalda

chest, el pecho

ankle, el tobillo

body, el cuerpo

bone, el hueso

skin, la piel

heart, el corazon

stomach, el estomago

blood, la sangre

shoulder. la espalda, el hombro

32. Note: he put on (took off) his hat, se puso (se qullo) el sombrero.

SPANISH

253

10. Medical.

doctor, el medico, el doctor drug-store, la botica, la drogueria,

la farmacia hospital, el hospital medicine, la medicina, el medico-

mento

pill, la pildora prescription, la receta bandage, la venda, el vendaje nurse, la enfermera, el enfermero ill, enfermo illness, la enfermedad, el mal

11. Military.

war, la guerra

peace, la paz

ally, el aliado

enemy, el enemigo

army, el ejercito

danger, el peligro

dangerous, peligroso

to win, veneer (Pres. venzo, ven-

ces, etc.; Pol. Impv. venza) to surround, rodear to arrest, arrestar, detener (see

tener, p. 258) to kill, malar to escape, escaparse (de} , evadir-

se to run away, escapar, huir (Pres..

huyo, huyes, huye, huimos,

huis, huyen). to lead, guiar, ir a la cabeza de,

conducir (see p. 255) to follow, seguir (i) , Pres. 1st sg.

sigo, Pol. Impv. siga to surrender, rendirse (i) to retreat, retirarse, retroceder to bomb, shell, bombardear fear, el miedo prison, la prision, la cdrcel

fever, la jiebre

swollen, hinchado

wound, la herida

wounded, herido

head-ache, el dolor de cabeza

tooth-ache, el dolor de muelas

cough, la tos

to cough, toser

lame, cojo

burn, la quemadura

pain, el dolor

poison, el veneno

prisoner, el prisionero to take prisoner, hacer prisionero to capture, capturar, apresar help, la ayuda, el socorro comrade, buddy, el companero battle, la batalla, el combatc, la

lucha to fight, cornbatir, pelear, luchar

con

soldier, el soldado private, el soldado (raso} corporal, el cabo sergeant, el sargento lieutenant, el teniente captain, el capitdn major, el comandante colonel, el coronel general, el general officer, el o/icial company, la compania battalion, el batallon regiment, el regimiento brigade, la brigada division, la division troops, las tropas reenforcements, los refuerzos fortress, la fortaleza

254

SPANISH

sentinel, el centinela; (to do sentry duty, estar de centinela)

to be on duty, estar de guardia

guard, el guardia

sign-post, el letrero

navy, la marina (de guerra) , la armada

sailor, el marinero

marine, el soldado de marina

warship, el bucjue (el barco) de guerra

cruiser, el crucero

destroyer, el cazatorpedero, el des- tructor

convoy, el convoy

escort, la escolta, el convoy

weapon, el arma (fern.)

rifle, el rifle, el fusil

machine-gun, la ametralladora

cannon, el canon

ammunition', las munidones

supplies, las provisiones, los per- trechos

cartridge, el cartucho

bullet, la bala, el proyectil

belt, el cinturon (cartridge-belt. la canana )

knapsack, la mochila

tent, la tienda

12. Travel

passport, el pasaporte

customs, la aduana

ship, el buque, el vapor

steamer, el vapor

stateroom, el camarote

berth, la litera

to travel, viajar

trip, voyage, el viaje

to leave, depart, partir, salir (Pres.

salgo, sales, etc.; Fut. saldre,

Impv. sal, saiga) to arrive, llegar (note 29)

camp, el campo, el campamento map, el mapa, el piano topogrdfi-

CO

rope, la cuerda

flag, la bandera

helmet, el casco

bayonet, la bayoneta

uniform, el uniforme

airplane, el avion, el aeroplano

bombing plane, el avion de bom-

bardeo

pursuit plane, el avion de caza shell, la granada, la bomba bomb, la bomba truck, el camion, el autocamion,

la camioneta tank, el tanque, el camion blin-

dado

to load, car gar (note 29) to fire, to shoot, tirar to shoot (military execution),

fusilar spy, el espia fire!, \juego\

attention!, /atencion!, /firmes! forward!, \adelantel halt!, alto!, jalto a hi! air-raid shelter, el refugio anti-

aereo

to ride, (a conveyance), ir man- lad o en, ir en

railroad, el ferrocarril

station, la estacion

track, el carril, los rieles

train, el tren

platform, el anden

ticket, el billete

compartment, el compartimiento, el departamento

all aboard, \viajeros al trenl

dining-car, el cache comedor

SPANISH

255

sleeper, el vagon cama car, coach, el coche trunk, el haul valise, la maleta baggage, el equipaje porter, el mozo (de equipajes) bus, el autobus, el omnibus street-car, el tranvia

13. Reading and Writing.

to read, leer newspaper, el periodico magazine, la revista book, el libro

to write, escribir (P. p. escrito) to translate, traducir (for all verbs in -ducir, see conducir, above) pencil, el Idpiz (pi. Idpices) chalk, la tiza

blackboard, la pizarra, el tablero ink, la tinta

14. Amusements.

to smoke, fumar

cigar, el cigarro

cigarette, el pititto, el cigarrillo

tobacco, el tabaco

match, el fosforo, la ceritta

give me a light, deme Ud. lumbre

theatre, el teatro

movies, el cine

dance, el baile

to dance, bailor

to have a good time, divertirse

(ie) , pasar un buen rato ticket, el billete pleasure, el placer, el gusto to play (music), tocar (note 29)

15. Town and Country.

place, spot, el lugar, el sitio city, la ciudad street, la calle

automobile, el automovil taxi, el taxi (el taximetro) driver, el chofer, el conductor to drive (car), mane jar, guiar, conducir (Pres. 1st sg. conduz- co, Past conduje, Pol. Impv. conduzca)

pen, la pluma (fountain-pen, pli* mafuente, pluma estttogrdfica envelope, el sobre paper, el papel letter, la carta post-office, el correo stamp, el sello letter-box, el buzon to mail, echar al correo address, la direccion post-card, la tarjeta (postal)

to sing, cantar

song, la cancion

to play (a game), jugar (ue, and

see note 29) game, el juego, la partida ball, la pelota to take a walk, pasearse, dar un

paseo

beach, la playa to swim, nadar sand, la arena refreshment, el re fresco saloon, la cantina, el bar, la ta-

berna picnic, la escursion, la partida d*

campo

sidewalk, la acera

road, la carretera, el camino

intersection, la bocacalle

256

SPANISH

harbor, el puerto

block, la rnanzana, la cuadra

school, la escuela

church, la iglesia

cathedral, La catedral

building, el edificio

corner, la esquina

hotel, el hotel

office, la oficina, el despacho

river, el rio

bridge, el puente

country, el campo

16. House.

door, la puerta

roof, el tejado, el techo, la azotea

to open, abrir (P. p. abierto)

to close, cerrar (ie)

key, la Have

to go in, entrar en (he entered the

room, entro en el cuarto) to go out, salir de (Pres., salgo,

sales, etc.; Fut. saldre; Impv.

sal, saiga) house, la casa (at home, en casa,

to go home, ir a casa) cottage, la casita (de campo) hut, la ckoza, la cabana to live in, vivir en, habitar en staircase, la escalera to go up, subir to go down, bajar room, el cuarto, la habitacion toilet, el retrete kitchen, la cocina table, la mesa

17. Miscellaneous Nouns.

people, la gente (with sg. verb) thing, la cosa name, el nombrc luck, la suerte (bad luck, la mala suertc)

village, el pueblo

mountain, la montana

grass, la hierba

yard, el patio, el corral

hill, la colina

lake, el lago

forest, el bosque

field, el campo

flower, la flor

tree, el drbol

rock, stone, la piedra

jungle, la selva

chair, la silla

to sit down, sentarse, (ie)

to stand, be standing, estar de pie

wall, la pared

lamp, la lampara

candle, la bujia, la vela

closet, el armario, la alacena

window, la ventana

bed, la cama

bedroom, la alcoba

blanket, el cobertor

sheet, la sdbana

mattress, el colchon

alarm-clock, el despertador

pillow, la almohada

to rest, descansar

to go to bed, acostarse (ue)

to go to sleep, fall asleep, dormir-

se (ue)

to sleep, dormir (ue) to wake up, despertarse (ie) to dress, vestirse (i) to get up, levantarse

number, el numero life, la vida death, la muerte work, el trabajo

SPANISH

257

18. Verbs — Coming and Going.

to come, venir (Pres. vengo, vie- nes, viene, venimos, venis, vienen; Past, vine; Fut. vendre; Impv. ven, venga)

to go, ir (Pres. voy, vas, va, va- moSy vais, van; Impf. iba; Past fui, fuiste, fue, juimost fuisteis, fueron; Fut. ire; Impv. ve, vaya) ;

(ir a, to be going to: I am going to eat, voy a comer)

to go away, irse, marcharse

to stay, remain, quedarse, per- manecer (Pres. permanezco, Pol. Impv. permanezca)

to return, volver (ue) ; P. p. vuelto (volver a, to do again; he writes again, vuelve a escribir)

to run, correr

to walk, amiar, caminar, marchar, ir a pie

to fall, caer (Pres. caigo, caes, etc.)

to follow, seguir (i) ; Pres. 1st sg. sigo, Pol. Impv. siga

19. Verbs — Looking and Seeing.

to see. ver (Pres.veo, ves, etc.;

Irnpf. V6wi; P. p. visto) to look at, mirar (I am looking

at it, lo miro) to look for, buscar (see note 29;

I am looking for it, lo busco) to laugh, reir (Pres. rio, ries,

rie, reimos, reis, rieni Past 3rd

sg. rio. 3d pi. rieron; Impv.

rie, ria)

20. Verbs — Mental.

to make a mistake, equivocarse,

(not; 29) to hope, esperar to wait (for), esperar, aguardar

(I am waiting for her, la espe-

ro) to think, pensar (ie], -of, pensar

en < I am thinking of him, pien-

so en el) to believe, creer to like. (lit. to please), gus-tar

(I like this hook, esle libra m?

gusta? lit. this book please? me) to wish, desear querer (ie)

to laugh at, make fun of, reirse de,

burlarse de to smile, sonreir to look, seem, parecer (Pres. pa-

rezco, parcels, etc.; it seems to

me, me parece) to recognize, reconocer (Pres. re-

conozco, reconoces, etc.) to take for, tomar por

to want, querer (ie) ; Fut. querre, Past quise

to know (a person), conocer (Pres. conozco9 conoces, etc.; use conocia for "I knew", co- noci for "I met" (socially)

to know (a fact), saber (Pres. se, sabes, etc.; Past, supe; Fut. sabre; use sabia for "I knew", supe for "I found out"; I know how to write, se escribir)

to understand, comprender, en- tender (ie}

to remember, recordar (ue) ,

258

SPANISH

acordarse de (ue)

to forget, olvidar

to permit, allow, permitir

to forbid, prohibir, impedir (i)

to promise, prometer

to learn, aprender

to feel like, tener ganas de (I feel like sleeping, tengo ganas de dormir) (Pres. of tener: tengo,

21. Verbs — Miscellaneous

to live, vivir

to die, morir (ue) (P. p. muerto)

to work, trabajar

to give, dar (Pres., doy, das, etc.;

Past di) to take, tomar to show, mostrar (ue) , indicar

(note 29) to begin, to start, empezar (ie),

comenzar (ie) (note 29), po

nerse a to finish, acabar (acabar de, to

have just: I have just written,

acabo de escribir) to continue, continuar, seguir (i)

(he kept on reading, siguio

leyendo) to help, ayudar to hide, esconderse, ocultarse to lose, perder (ie) to find, hollar, encontrar (ue) ;

encontrar also means to meet,

casually, as in the street to leave, salir, partir ( use dejar for

leaving objects or people) to try, tratar de

to meet, encontrar (ue) , encon- trarse con; (use conocer for the

social sense: la conoci ayer,

I met her yesterday) to put, place, meter, poner (Pres.

pongo, pones, etc.: Past puse;

tienes, tiene, lenemos, tenets,

tienen; Past, tuve; Fut. tendre;

Impv. ten, tenga) to fear, be afraid, temer, tener

miedo (he's afraid of his uncle.

Ie tiene miedo a su tio) to be right, tener razon to be wrong, estar equivocado, no

tener razon

Fut. pondre; Impv. pon, pon~

ga; P. p. puesto) to do, to make, hacer (Pres. hago,

haces, etc.; Past hice; Fut

hare; Impv. haz, haga; P. p.

hecho ) to have done, mandar hacer (I

have the letter written, mando

escribir la carta) can, to be able, poder (ue) ; (Past

pude; Fut. podre} to carry, Uevar, transportar to stop, parar (par arse or dete~

nerse for self; use dejar de, or

cesar de for "to stop doing") to bring, traer (Pres. 1st sg.

traigo; Past traje, Pol. Impv.

traiga)

to cover, cubrir (P. p. cubierto) to get, obtain, conseguir (i),

obtener (like tener, below) to hold, tener (Pres. tengo, tienes,

tiene, tenemos, teneis, tienen;

Past tuve; Fut. tendre; Impv.

ten, tenga)

to get, become, poner se (he be- came pale, se puso palido] to break, quebrar, romper (P. p.

roto)

to hurry, apresurarse, darse prisa to deliver, entregar (note 29) to send, mandar, enviar, (Pres.

SPANISH

259

envio, envias, envia, enviamos, cer)

envidis, envian; Impv. envia, to accept, aceptar

envie) to refuse, recusar, rehusar to belong, pzrtenecer (like cono-

22. Adjectives.

small, pequerlo9 chiquUo, chico large, great, grande (gran before

a sg. noun, masc. or fern.) big (bulky), grueso tall, high, alto short, cono, breve low, short (stature), bajo heavy, pesado, grueso light, (weight) ligero long, tar go wide, ancho narrow, estrecho clean, limpio dirty, sucio cool, fresco cold, frio

warm, hot, caliente damp, humedo wet, rnojado empty, vacio dry, seco full, lleno

soft, blando, mueUe hard, duro

quirk, rapid o, veloz (pi. veloces) slow, lento

ordinary, ordinario, comun comfortable, comodo uncomfortable, incomodo,

gradable near, cercano distant, lejano, distante right, derecho left, izquierdo poor, pobre rich, rico beautiful, hermoso, bello

pretty, Undo, bonito

ugly, feo

sweet, dulce

bitter, amargo

sour, agrio, acre

salt, salado, salobre

young, joven

dark, obscuro

light, bright, clear, claro

fat, gordo

thick, espeso, grueso

thin, delgado

round, redondo

square, cuadrado

flat, p/a/io

deep, Hondo

strong, fuerte

weak, debil

tired, cansado

alone, ,so/o

t^ame, jnismo

easy,

hard, difficult, dijicil

happy, coiitentOy jeliz (pi. felices)

merry, alegre

sad, triste

free,

crazy,

silly, tonto, hobo, necio9 estupido

drunk, borracho

polite, cortes

rude, descortes, mat educado

pleasant, agradable, amable

unpleasant, desagradable

lonesome, solitario, triste

true, verdadero, ciertof exacto

false, faho, postizo

260

SPAMSH

unlucky, desdichado, desgraci<ido charming, encantador (fern, en-

canladora }

afraid, /emeroso, timido ready, lisio, preparado hungry, hambriento, (to be- tenet

hambre)

thirsty, sediento (to be- tener sed) funny, comico, curioso, gracioso possible, posible impossible, imposible brave, valient 'e cowardly, cobarde quiet, tranquilo noisy, ruidoso, estrepitoso living, vivo dead, muerto

foreign, extranjero, ajeno

old, vie jo

new, nuevo

good, bueno (buen before a masc. sg. noun)

better, me JOT (best, el -)

bad, rnalo (mal before masc. sg. noun)

worse, peor (worst, el - )

fine, optima, muy bueno (for health use muy bien)

first, primero

last, ultimo

friendly, arnigable, amistoso, ami- go

hostile, hostil, etiemigo

lueky, afortunado, dichoso

23. Colors.

white, bianco black, negro red, TO jo green, verde blue, azul

24. Nationalities.

Use no capital for the adjective or for the language.

Names of languages are used with the article unless they immediately follow the verb hablar or the preposition en: he speaks English, habla ingles; he speaks English well, habla bien el ingles; English is difficult, el ingles es dificil: he answered me in English, me contesto en ingles. (Adjectives of nationality ending in consonant add -a to form feminine: ingles, fern, inglesa, masc. pi. ingleses, fern. pi. inglesas}

Bellow, dinarillo gray, gris

bro\\n. pardo, castano rose. ro.V(i. color de roxa purple, m or ado

American, americano, noneameri*

cano, sudamericano F^nglish, ingles F'rench, f ranees German, alemdn Spanish, espanol Russian, ruso

Italian, italiano Japanese, japones Chinese, chino Dutch, liolandes Norwegian, noruego Swedish, sueco Finnish, finlandes

SPANISH

261

Belgian, belga

Polish, polaco

Danish, danes

Swiss, suizo

Portuguese, portugues

\ ugoslav, yugoeslavo

Bulgarian, bulgaro

Czech, checo

Greek, griego

Turkish, turco

Roumanian, rumano

Hungarian, hungaro

Austrian, austriaco

Malay, malayo

Persian, persa

Arabian, Arabic, Arab, drabe

Jewish. Hebrew, judio, hebreo

Australian, australiano

Canadian, canadiense

Mexican, mejicano (mexicano)

Brazilian, brasileno Argentinian, argentino Chilean, chileno Peruvian, peruano Cuban, cubano

Puerto Rican, puertomqueno Colombian, cohmbiano Venezuelan, venezolano Bolivian, boliviano Uruguayan, uruguayo Paraguayan, paraguayo Ecuadorian, ecuato:iano Costa Rican, costarriqueno,

costarricense Honduran, hondureno Salvadorean, Salvador eno Guatemalan, guatemalteco Dominican (of Santo Domingo).

dominicano

Panamanian, panameno Nicaraguan, nicaragiiense

25. Adverbs and Adverbial Expressions.

today, hoy

yesterday, ayer

tomorrow, manana

day before yesterday, antes de

ayer day after tomorrow, pasado ma-

nana

tonight, esta noche last night, anoche this morning, esta manana in the morning, por la manana in the afternoon, por la tarde in the evening, in the night, por

la noche tomorrow morning, manana por

la manana tomorrow afternoon, manana por

la tarde tomorrow evening, manana por

la noche early, temprano, pronto

on time, a tiempo

late, tarde

already, ya

no longer, ya no (he is no longer

here, ya no estd aqui) yet, still, todavia not yet. todavia no now, ahora afterwards, then, despues, enton-

ces never, nunca, jamas (use no be-

fore verb: he never comes, no

viene nunca) always, siempre forever, para siempre soon, pronto often, a menudo seldom, rara vez, rar amenta usually, comunmente, general-

mente fast, de prisa

261

SPANISH

slowly, despacio

here, aqui

there, alii, alia, ahi

over there, a//a, por alii, alia aba jo

near by, cerca (near here, aqui

cerca, cerca de aqui) far away, a lo lejos, lejos up, arnba down, aba jo

ahead, in front, por delante behind, in back, por detrds forward, adelante back, para atrds (go back, \vuelva

Ud. para atrdsl) outside, [uera, afuera inside, dentro opposite, en jrente here and there, aqui y alia everywhere, en todas partes, por

todas partes where?, jdonde?, ja donde?

(use "^a donde?" if there is

motion) where, donde, adonde, (use adon-

de for motion) also, tambien yes, si no, not, no very, muy much, mucho (very much, mii-

ch isimo ) well, bien badly, mat belter, mejor worse, peor more, mas (more than, mas que;

but use mds de before nume- rals)

less, menos as - as, tan — como as much • as, tanto — como as many — as, tantos — como how much?, ^cudnto?

ow many?

h

how?, ico

too much, demasiado

too many, demasiados

so much, tanto

so many, tantos

aa, like, como

so, asi

besides, furthermore, ademds

finally, finalmente, en jint por Jin

only, solamente, solo

almost, casi

gladly, de buena gana

certainly, seguramente, sin duda

at once, en seguida

at all, no por cierto, de ninguna

manera unfortunately, por desgracia, des-

grociadamente hardly, apenas aloud, en voz alta, alto suddenly, de repente, de pronto about, de, alrededor de perhaps, maybe, tal vez, quizd,

acaso (subjunctive; perhaps he

will write, tal vez escriba) a little, un poco again, otra vez, de nuevo really, truly, de veras, verdadera-

mente • together, juntamente, juntos (they

left together, salieron juntos] at least, por lo menos, al menos for lark of, por falta de a long time ago, hace mucho

tiempo repeatedly, again and again, re-

petidas veces

therefore, por eso9 por lo tanto further away, mas alia of course, por supuesto, claro, na-

tural (mente) occasionally, de vez en cuando

SPANISH

263

26. Conjunctions.

and, y

but, pero

if, 5i"

or, o

why?, ^por grue?

because, porque

why!, jcomol, \quel, pues

before, antes que33

when, cuando33

than, que (before number use de)

where, donde, adonde

until, till, hasta que33

although, aunque33

unless, a menos que33, a no ser

que33

nhile, mientras (que)** that, que for, since, pues after, despues de que33 as soon as, luego que93 as long as, mientras (que)*3 provided that, con tal que33 in order that, para que33 so that, de manera que3* without, sin que33

27. Indefinite Pronouns and Adjectives.

everything, todo

everyone, todos

all, todo

each, every, caa*a uno, todos

something, algo, alguna cosa

some, algunos, unos

little (not much), poco

few, pocos

a few, unos cuantos

enough, bastante, suficiente

enough!, \bastal, \no mds\

such a, tal

all kinds of, toda clase de

28. Prepositions.

of, from, de (with masc. sg. art- icle el contracts to del)

to, at, a (with masc. sg. article contracts to al; must be used with a noun indirect object: I

someone, alguien nothing, nada3*

no. . (adj), ninguno34 (ningun be-

fore masc. sg. noun) neither - nor, ni - ni3* (an) other, otro

much, (lots of), mucho, muchos many, muchos several, varios, diversos both, ambos, los dos (fern, leu

dos)

give John the book, doy el li> bro a Juan; also with a noun direct object if it is a person: I see John, veo a Juan; but not with tener: I have two brothers,

33. The subjunctive is used after these conjunctions if they express purpose, condition, supposition, concession or indefinite future time.

34. If these expressions appear after the verb, no is required before the verb: no one came, no vino nadie or nadie vino.

264 SPANISH

tengo dos hermanos) lar from, lejos de

with, cony (with me, conmigo; before, antes de

with you, contigo) after, despues de

in, on, at, en in front of, opposite, delante dt over, above, sobre jrente a

for, por, para (use para to in- in back of, behind, detrds de

dicate purpose or destination. under (neath), bajo

por for exchange: I paid $2 for through, across, por, a traves de

this book; it's for you, pague against, contra

dos pesos por este libra; es hy means of, por media de

para Ud.) in spite of, a pesar de, no obstanU

by, por about, around, alrededor de

without, 5m because of, on account of, por, until, up to, hasta a (or por) causa de

since, desde during, durante

toward, hacia instead of, en lugar de, en vez de

between, among, entre beside, al lado de, junto a

near, cerca de on the other side of, del otro lado

de

29. Special Expressions and Idioms.

good morning, good day, buenos dias

good afternoon, good evening, buenas tardes

good night, buenas noches

good-by, adios, hasta la vista

see you later, hasta luego

see you tomorrow, hasta mahana

just now, ahora mismo (just a moment ago, hace poco)

hello!, jhola! (on the telephone, <>que hay?, jdiga!, /a/ aparato!)

how are you?, ^como estd Ud.?

how goes it?, ique tall

I'm well, estoy bien

Fm (much) better, estoy (mucho) me/or

xvhat time is it?, ^f]ue hora es?

it's six o'clock, son las seis

at six o'clock, a las seis

at about six, a eso de las seis

at half past six, a las seis y media

at a quarter past (to) six, a las seis y (menos) cuarto

at ten minutes past (to) six, a las seis y (menos) diez

last year, el ano pasado

next year, el afio que viene, el ano proximo

every day, todos los dias

SPANISH 265

each day, coda dia

the whole day, todo el dia

please, will you?, hdgame Vd. el favor (de), sirvase, tenga la bonded

(de) f

tell me, digame (please tell me, hdgame Ud. el javor de decirme) will you give me?, ^quiere Vd. darme? bring (to) me, trdigame show (to) me, muestreme, indiqueme thank you, gracias

don't mention it, no hay de que, de nada pardon me, dispense Ud., per done Ud. it doesn't matter, never mind, no importa I'm sorry, lo siento I can't help, no puedo menos de (I can't help saying, no puedo rnenos

de decir)

it's nothing, no es nada

what a pity!, it's too bad!, \que Idstimal, \es Idstimal I'm glad, me alegro, tengo mucho gusto (to, en plus infinitive) I have to, tengo que

I agree (all right, 0. K.), (estoy) de acuerdo, estoy conjorme where are you going?, ^a donde va? here is (are), aqui tiene Ud.

there is, there are, hay (use ahi estd, ahi estdn, if pointing out) which way?, £por donde? where is?, ^donde estd?

this way, (direction), por aqui (that way, por alia) this way (in this fashion), de este modo, de esta manera to the right, a la derecha to the left, a la izquierda straight ahead, adelante come with me, venga conmigo what can I do for you?, len que puedo servirle? what is happening?, ^que pasa?9 ^que ocurre?, ^que sucede? what is it?, what is the matter?, <>que hay? 9 <>que pasa? what is the matter with you?, ique tiene Ud.?, ique le pasa a Ud.? what do you want?, ique desea Ud.? how much is it?, ^cudnto?, £cudnto cuestd? anything else?, ialgo ma3? nothing else, nada mas

do you speak Spanish?, ^habla Ud. espanol? a little, un poco*

speak (more) slowly, hable Ud. (mas) despacio do you understand?, ^comprende Ud.?

266 SPANISH

I don't understand, no comprendo, no entiendo

do you know?, ^sabe Ud.?

I don't know, no se

\ can't, no puedo

what do you call this in Spanish?, jcomo se llama eslo en espanol?

how do you say - in Spanish?, £c6mo se dice - en espanol?

what does that mean?, ^que quiere decir eso?

what do you mean?, ique quiere Ud. decir?

what are you talking about?, £de que habla Ud.?

Fm an American, soy norteamericano

Fm hungry (thirsty, sleepy, warm, cold), tengo hambre (sed, sue no t

color , /r£o)35 It's warm (cold, windy, fine weather, bad weather), hace color (frio,

viento, buen tiempo, mal tiempo)™

It's forbidden, prohibido (no smoking, prohibido fumar) luckily, afortunadamente, por jortuna, por suerte is it not so?, ^no es verdadly ^verdad? (use this invariable phrase

wherever English repeats the verb: you went, didn't you?; he i§

here, isnt he?) not at all, de nada

how old are you?, ^cudntos anos tiene Ud.? I'm twenty years old, tengo veinte anos

how long have you been waiting?, ^desde cudndo espera Ud.? how long have you been here?, ^desde cudndo estd Ud. aqui? as soon as possible, lo mas pronto posible, cuanto antes come here!, /venga acd (aqui)! come in!, ipase adelante!, jadelante!, jentre Ud.! look!, /mire/, /vea! careful!, /con cuidado! look out!, / cuidado!, jtenga cuidado! for heaven's sake!, jpor Dios! heck!, darn it!, jcaramba!

as you please, como Ud. quiera, como Ud. gustc listen!, look here!, say!, joiga! just a second!, \un momentol what kind of?, ique close de?

gangway!, by your leave!, /con permiso de Ud.!, {paso!, jalld voy! in any case, at any rate, en cualquier caso glad to meet you, /muchisimo gusto! you don't say so!, fparece mentira! notice!, / aviso!

35. With these expressions, translate "very" by mucho (mucha with hambre and serf, muy with buen tiempo and mal tiempo).

SPANISH 267

to your health!, /« su salud!

I should like, quisiera

stop!, I pare!

hurry!, japresurese (usted) !

keep to the right, guardar la derecha

entrance, entrada (exit, salida)

right now, ahora mismo

there it (he, she) goes!, jahi va!

good luck to you!, ique lo pose usted bien!t jbuena suerte!

he was successful, le salio bien, tuvo exito

of course!, you bet!, jclarol, jcomo no?, ;ya lo creo!

don't worry!, jpierda usted cuidado!

stop your fooling! quit your kidding!, idejese de bromas!

really?, honest?, jde veras?

what nonsense!, jque tonteria!

man, you don't say so!, jhombre! /no me diga!

it's all the same to me, lo mismo me da

what a disappointment!, what a break! (ironical), \que chasco!

there is no doubt, 770 cabe duda (I have no doubt, no me cabe duda)

what do you think?, £que le parece? (how do you like this, £qu-e I*

parece a usted esto?)

of course I did it!, you bet I did it!, jsi que lo hice! to get angry, enfadarse; Spanish America: ponerse bravo (he got

sore, se puso bravo)

30. Slang Words and Expressions.

to die, to "kick the bucket", espichar, estirar la pata

to kid one along, tomar el pelo a uno

to have pull, tener buenas aldabas

to get drunk, coger un tablon

to sleep like a log, dormir a-pierna suelta

pal, compinche policeman, "cop", guindilla

joint, dive, garito annoying person, "pest", cahmidad

fatty, gordiflon quack, matasanos

colored man, morenito money, parne

wishful thinker, ojalatero wild time, parranda

"dumb", pelmazo greenhorn, pipiolo

"sissy", marica nerve, "gall", tupe

face, "mug", jeta bully, maton

PORTUGUESE 269

CHAPTER VIII

PORTUGUESE

SPEAKERS AND LOCATION

(All population figures are approximate]

Europe — Portugal (including Azores) — 8,000,000; Galician, a dialect of northwestern Spain, spoken by some 3,000,000 people, is closer to Portuguese than it is to Spanish.

Asia — Goa? Damao and Din, on the western coast of India; Macau, in southeastern China — total population, 900,000.

Africa — Angola — 4,500,000; Portuguese Guinea — 400,000; Mozambique — 4,500,000; Cape Verde and Madeira Islands, Sao Tome and Principe, off the western coast of Africa — total population, 500,000.

Oceania --- Portuguese Timor — 500,000. South America - - Brazil — 44,000,000.

North America — nearly a quarter of a million Portuguese immigrants and their descendants in the U. S. A., located mainly in California and Massachusetts.

Portuguese is also spoken in "Pidgin" or "Creole" varie- ties in Zanzibar. Mombasa and Melinde, on the eastern coast of Africa; in Ceylon, Mangalore, Cochin, Coromandel and other localities, in India; a Malay-Portuguese pidgin appears in Java, Malaya and Singapore.

27Q PORTUGUESE

ALPHABET AND SOUNDS

a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i, j, 1, m, n, o, p, q, r, s, t, u, v, x, z, a,

6, g; (k, w and y do not appear in native Portuguese words).

Vowel sounds: there is a tendency, more noticeable in Portugal than in Brazil, to prolong stressed vowels somewhat and to pronounce unstressed vowels indistinctly.

a: = father (unstressed, it tends toward the e of the) (dgua) ;

e: = met (terra), or the first part of a in gate (mesa);

initial and followed by s plus consonant, it is almost silent (escudo, pron. 'shkudu); final, even though followed by s, = pin in Brazil, the in Portugal (dente, dentes); i: = machine (filho) ;

o: = cup (nove), or the first part of o in go (novo); final, even though followed by s, = look (amigo, amigos) ;

u: = pool (mwro) ;

a: = father, but followed immediately by closure of the pas- sage between nose and mouth (irmo) ;

6:= cap, but followed immediately by closure as above (botoes) ;

ou: = go; but in certain words it is pronounced and even spelt oi (dous or dozs) ;

ei: == late (leite);

Consonant sounds: b, d, f, 1, m, n, p, t, v, z, approximately as in English. (Note, however, that a final -m nasalizes a preceding vowel, and is not itself pronounced : bom, bem, fim, algu/n). c = before a, o, u, or consonant, = cat (casa) ;

before e, i, = lace (cidade) ; g = (used only before a, o, u) = lace (ca^ador) ; ch and x: usually = sure (cAamar, cai#a); g: = before a, o, u, or consonant, = go (gula, grande) ;

before e, i, = measure (geral) ; h: always silent (Aora, pronounced ora) ; j: = measure (/auela) ;

PORTUGUESE 271

lh: = mi//ion (iilho) ; nh: = onion (ninho) ;

q: appears only before u, and = Engl. q, but the u is silent if e or i follow; the same applies to the gue, gui groups (quadro, pron. kwadru, but querela pron. Aerela) ; r: trilled, as in British very; s: == sure when final or followed by a consonant (escala, pron.

's/ikala; dedos, pron. dedush) ;l = present when between two vowels (presente) j1 = sun elsewhere (sol).

Sounds not appearing in Portuguese: all English vowel sounds outside of the ones mentioned above; church; /est; Ameri- can r, thin, this (but d between vowels (dado) comes close to this). Portuguese sounds not appearing in English : a, o, Portuguese r.

SPELLING, SYLLABIFICATION, ACCENTUATION

The spelling of Portuguese is now fully standardized (at least in theory), both in Portugal and Brazil, by mutual agree- ment between the two countries (1943). Alternative spellings, however, occur in such words as quasi, qudse (almost), euro, oiro (gold), and especially in words containing eg (dire- (c)$do, address), where the first c (= k) is not pronounced, or its pronunciation is optional, depending on local variations. Older printed works deviate considerably from the 1943 rules, especially in the matter of accents and double consonants (sahir for sair; secco for the modern seco; janella for janela). The only double consonants permitted in the modern orthography are: -ss- between vowels, indicating the sound of sun (nosso), whereas single -s- = rose (desejo) ; -rr- and -Tin- (the latter only in a few compounds: connosco.

1. Note the double pronunciation of a final -s, according as a con- sonant or a vowel begins the next word: 35 casas, pron. ash kazash; but as amigas, pron. az amigash.

272 PORTUGUESE

A single consonant between two vowels goes with the following, not with the preceding vowel: pronounce geral as ge ral; reparar as re pa rar; primeiro as pri mei ro.

The accent regularly falls on the next to the last syllable in words ending in vowels (except -a, which is usually stressed when final: in/ia), -m or -s (awigo, viogem, mu/Aeres) ; otherwise, on the last syllable (jantor). Deviations from these rules require written accents. The acute (') is used if the vowel has an open sound (o = cup, e = met, etc.); the circumflex (") if the vowel has a closed sound (o = go, e = gate, etc. ) ; thus, in ca/e, the acute accent indicates not only that the stress falls on the last syllable, but also that the e has the sound of met; while in Voce, the circumflex ac- cent shows the place of the stress and also the fact that the e has the sound of the first part of gate. The accent marks, acute and circumflex, are also used to distinguish between two words that would otherwise have the same spelling (por, "to put"; por, "for", "by"; e, "and"; ey "is"). The grave accent (*) is always used on an unstressed syllable, serving merely to indicate that the open sound 0-f a vowel is kept in compound words in one of the main elements of which the acute accent appears (adverbs, augmentatives, diminutives, etc.): md, mazinha; cafe, cafezinho; pdlido, pdlidamente. It is also used to show the combination of the preposition a (to) with the definite article or a demonstrative pronoun (a, "to" plus as, feminine plural article, contract to as; a plus aquele, "that", contract to aquele.

The diaeresis is used to show that the u of the groups qu, gu before e or i is to be sounded, not silent (consequencia, tranqiiilo) ; it is also optionally used to separate two unstressed vowels that would otherwise form a diphthong (saiidar or saudar; proibido or proibido). If one of the two vowels that are to be separated is stressed, the acute accent must be used (saude, baia).

PORTUGUESE 273

SAMPLE OF WRITTEN PORTUGUESE; USE FOR PRACTICE READING.

"Senhor, pode dizer-me se esta rua conduz a praga do comercio?" — "Nao, senhor. 0 senhor afastou-se do verdadeiro caminho; a praga acha-se no centro da cidade, numa das ruas principals, e esta estrada, em que estamos, conduz numa direcgao inteiramente oposta." — "Que caminho e precise entao que eu tome?" — "Va todo direito ate a primeira ruazinha a esquerda, siga-a, ela o conduzira a uma grande praga; quando o senhor la tiver chegado, volte a direita e achar-se-a em face de uma grande rua ao fim da qual vera um magnifico edificio; este e o palacio da praga do comercio; o senhor nao pode errar." — "Que distancia pode haver daqui?" — "Pouco mais ou menos meia hora de marcha, pois eu indiquei-lhe o caminho mais curto.*' — **Fico-lhe muito obrigado, senhor." — "Nao ha de que."

PORTUGUESE

GRAMMATICAL SURVEY 1. Nouns and Articles.

There are only two genders in Portuguese, masculine and feminine. Nouns denoting males are masculine, those denoting females are feminine. For nouns which in English are neuter, the ending -o usually denotes masculine gender, -a feminine gender. The gender of nouns ending in -e or consonants must be determined by observation; learn these nouns with their definite articles. The plural of nouns is generally formed by adding -5 to the singular if the latter ends in a vowel, -es if it ends in a consonant2

The definite article is o (plural os) for masculine nouns, a (plural as) for feminine nouns.3 The indefinite article is urn for masculine nouns, uma for feminines.

2. Nouns ending in -/ usually change -Z to -s or -is: animal, pi. animals; fuzil ("rifle"), pi. juzis; nouns ending in -m generally change -m to -ns: homem, "man", pi. homens; noilns ending in -do usually change -do to -des or -oes: capitdo, pi. capitdes; coraqdo, pi. coraqoes; note in this connection that -do, pi. -des usually corresponds to a Spanish •an, pi. -ones, while -do, pi. -des normally corresponds to a Spanish -on, pi. -ones; the Spanish for "nation" being nacion (pi. naciones) , what is the plural of Portuguese na$do?

3. The definite article combines with certain prepositions: de (of, from) in combination with o, o, os, as, becomes do, da, dos, das; a (to) in the same combinations becomes ao, d, aos, as; em (in) be- comes no, na, nos, nas; por (for) becomes pelo, pela, pelos, pelas; the woman's house, the house of the woman, a casa da mulher; the women's houses, as casas das mulheres; I am speaking to the man's daughter, falo d filha do homem; he went into the house, entrou na casa; by the fruit one knows the tree, pelos frutos se conhece a drvore.

The indefinite article combines only with em (num, numa) : in a house, numa casa. This combination is optional (em uma casa) .

PORTUGUESE 275

o filho, the son o$ filhos, the sons

a filha, the daughter as filhas, the daughters

o capote, the overcoat 05 capotes, the overcoats

o rapaz, the boy 05 rapazes, the boys

a mulher, the woman 05 mulheres, the women

UTTC /f/Ao, a son UTTia /z//ia, a daughter um capote, an overcoat M/Ti rapaz, a boy

mulher, a woman

2. Adjectives and Adverbs.

The Portuguese adjective, whether attributive or predicate, agrees with the noun that it modifies; this does not necessarily mean identical endings (o homem cruel, the cruel man; 03 homens crueis, the cruel men; a mulher bonita, the pretty woman; as mulheres bonitas, the pretty women). Adjectives usually follow the nouns they modify.

Adjectives ending in -o change -o to -a in the feminine sing- ular, to -0$ in the masculine plural, to -as in the feminine plural (novo, nova, novos, novas) ; those ending in -do normally change to -a in the fern, sg., to -dos in the masc. pi., to -as in the fern. pi. (tempordo, tempord, tempordos, tempords) ; those ending in ~e or consonant usually remain unchanged in the feminine; in the plural, -e adjectives add -5 for both genders, consonant adjectives add -5 or -es (breve, breve, breves, breves; jovem, jovem, j ovens, jovens; feliz, feliz, felizes, felizes)*

4. Adjectives ending in -es, ~ol, -or, -urn, -u usually add -a in the feminine, especially if they denote nationality: portugues, portuguesa, Portugueses, portuguesas; espanhol, espanhola. Adjectives ending in -I normally change -/ to -5, -M, -es or -eis in the plural: fdcil, pi. facets; azul, pi. azues; civil, pi. civis; while adjectives ending in -m form their plural in -ns. Note the combination of these two exceptional formations in several adjectives: espanhol, espanhola, espanhois, espanholas; algum, alguma, alguns, algumas.

276

PORTUGUESE

The comparative is usually formed by prefixing mais (more) to the positive: esta rapariga e mais bonita que aquela, this girl is prettier than that one. The superlative is formed by using the definite article before the noun or before mais: e a mais bela, she is the most beautiful; ela e a moqa mais beta que eu conheqo, she is the most beautiful girl I know. tdo • como, as • as; tanto (tanta) • como, as much - as; tantos (tantas) - como, as many -as; menos que - less than.

The adverb is generally formed by adding -mente to the feminine singular form of the adjective: justo, just, fern, justa, adverb justamente, justly.

3. Numerals.

Cardinal5

1 — um, uma 15

2 — dous (dois), duas 16

3 — tres 17

4 — quatro 18

5 — cinco 19

6 — seis 20 -

7 — sete 21

8 — oito 22

9 — neve 23

10 — dez 30

11 — onze 40

1 2 — doze 50

13 — treze 60 14 — catorze (qua tor ze} 70

80 — oitenta 90 — no rent a

qutnze

dezasseis ( dezesseis )

dezassete (dezessete)

dezoito

dezanove (dezenove)

- vinte

- vinte-e-um(a)

- v inte-e-dois (duas)

- vinte-e-trcs

— trinta

— quarentn

- cinqiienta ( cincocnta )

- sessenta

— setenta

5. Use these in date?, save for "the first": o primeiro de maio, May 1st; o cinco de maio. Mav 5th.

PORTUGUESE 277

100 — cent (cento)*

200 — duzentos7

300 — trezentos

400 — quatrocentos

500 — quinhentos

600 — seiscentos

700 — setecentos

800 — oitocentos

900 — novecentos 1000 — mi/ 2000 — rfois mil 1,000,000 — urn milhao (de)

Ordinal.

1st • primeiro; 2nd • segundo; 3rd • terceiro; 4th - quarto; 5th • quinto; 6th • sexto; 7th - setimo; 8th • oitavo; 9th • nono; 10th - decimo; llth - decimo primeiro; 12th • decimo segundo; 20th - vigesimo; 30th • trigesimo; 40th - quadragesimo ; 50th - quinquagesimo ; 60th - sexagesimo; 70th • septuagesimo ; 80th - octogesimo; 90th • nonagesimo; 100th - centesimo; 1000th - milesirno.

Others.

half - a metade (noun), or u/n me/o (adjective): a metade da classe, half of the class; raeia Aora, half an hour, wm par rfe • a pair of; wma rfiizia rfe - a dozen; uma vez - once; duas vezes • twice; a primeira vez - the first time.

6. Use cem immediately before the noun, or if mil or milhao follows: cem homens, 100 men; cem mil, 100,000; use cento if a numeral smaller than 100 follows: cento e doze homens, 112 men.

7. Plural hundreds change -t>5 to -<M if used with feminine nouns: duzentas mulheres, 200 women.

278 PORTUGUESE

4. Pronouns-

a) Persona] (Subject)8

I, eu we, nos

you (fam.), tu? you (fam. pi.), vos"

he, ele they (masc.), eles

she, e/a they (fern.), elas

you (polite), Voce? you ( pol. pi.), Voces*

b) Personal (Direct and Indirect Object).

me, to me, me us, to us, 7105

you, to you, te you, to you, vos

him, it, o them (masc.), os

her, it, a them (fern.), 05

to him, to her, to it, to you to them, to you (pol. pi.), Ihes (pol.), Ihe

Thejte normally precede the verb:10 ele me conhece, he

8. These arc used especially for emphasis or clarification: I speak, falo; I speak, eu falo; I should speak, eu falaria; he would speak, ele falaria.

9. Tu and vos, with the second singular and second plural of the verb, respectively, are used only in familiar conversation. One polite form of address, especially in Brazil, is Voce, with the third singular of the verb, for a single person addressed, and Voces with the third plural, for more than one person. The written abbreviation for the singular form is V. An even more common form of address, especially in Portugal, is o senhor (a senhora, os senhores, as senhoras] like- wise with the third persons of the verb: o senhor tern o Jivro?, have you the book?; os senhores falam portugues?, do you (pi.) speak Portuguese?

10. But usage varies considerably in this respect: digo-lhe a verdade, I tell him the truth; Voce enganou-o, you deceived him. In the future and conditional tenses, the pronoun is often inserted between the infinitive root and the ending: chamarei, I shall call; chama-lo-ei, I shall call him. The negative always requires the pronoun before the verb: ndo se deve fazer, it must not be done. The use of the object pronoun at the very outset of the sentence is generally avoided: vendo-lho or eu Iho vendo, I sell it to him (not Iho vendo) .

PORTUGUESE 279

knows me; eu the falo, I am speaking to him. The negative ndo ("not") may appear before or after the object pronoun: ele ndo me quer pagar or ele me ndo quer pagar, he does not want to pay me. With the infinitive, the object pronoun regularly follows, and is attached by a hyphen: tenho uma graqa a pedir- Ihe, I have a favor to ask you; if the object pronoun is o, a, os, or as, the -r of the infinitive is dropped, •/ is prefixed to the pronoun, and the final vowel of the infinitive takes a circum- flex accent for -er verbs, an acute for -ar and -ir verbs: quero vender o livro, I want to sell the book; quero vende-lo, I want to sell it; quero comprd~lo, I want to buy it.

c) Compound (Direct and Indirect Combined; see p. 288, no. 3).

it to me, them to me, mo, ma, mos, mas: eles mo dardo, they

will give it to me. it to you, them to you, to, ta, tos, tas\ quern to prometeu? who

promised it to you? it to him, it to her, it to you (pol.), it to them,11 Iho, lha:

quero Iho dar, I want to give it to him. it to us, them to us, no-lo, no-la, no-los, no-las :eles no-las

dardo, they will give them to us. it to you, them to you, vo-lo, vo-la, vo-los, vo-las: posso vo-lo

escrever, I can write it to you. them to him, them to her, them to you (pol.), Ihos, lhas: quero

Ihos dar, I want to give them to him.11

While a single object pronoun normally follows the in- finitive (quero vende-lo), a compound one more usually pre- cedes: quer mo dar? Ndo, quero vo-lo emprestar, do you want to give it to me? No, I want to lend it to you.

d) Personal Pronouns with Prepositions.

11. Distinguish by adding a ele, a ela, a V., a eles, a elas: vendo-lho a V., or vendo-o a F., I sell it to you ; vendo-lho a ele or vendo-o a efe, I sell it to him. This is done only when Decenary.

280 PORTUGUESE

These are the same as the subject pronouns, save that mint replaces eu, and ti replaces tu: Jala de mini, he is speaking about me; lembravam-se de ti, they remembered you. With the preposition com (with), the forms migo, tigo, nosco, vosco are used instead of mini, ti, nos, vos: jala comigo, he is speaking with me; vai connosco* he is going with us.

e) Possessive.

my, mine, (o) meu, (a) minha, (os) meus, (as) minhas

your, yours, (o) tea, (a) tua, (os) tens, (as) tuas

his, her, hers, its, their, theirs, your, yours (pol.),12 (a) seu,

(a) sua, (os) seus, (as) suas

our, ours, (o) nosso, (a) nossa, (os) nossos9 (as) nossas your, yours, (o) vosso, (a) vossa, (os) vossos, (as) vossas

These forms are used both as adjectives and as pronouns. The definite article may be used, but is more often omitted, when the possessive is an adjective: (o) men relogio, my watch; it is regularly used when the possessive is a pronoun, save after the verb "to be": meu relogio e melhor que o vosso, my watch is better than yours; esta casa e minha, this house is mine.

f) Demonstrative.

this, these,este, esta, estes, estas: este livro, this book; que

flor e esta?, what flower is this?

that, those (near you), esse, essa, esses, essas: essa casa, that

house of yours; que casa e essa? what house is that?

that, those (yonder), aquele, aquela^ aqueles, aquelas: quer o

senhor aquele vinho? do you want that wine?

''Neuter" pronouns, isto, isso9 aquilo, refer to a general situation or state of affairs: isto nao e possivel, this is not possible; 1550 nao pode ser, that can't be.

"The one", "the ones" are usually translated by the de-

12. Clarify, if necessary, by adding de ele, de ela, de V., de eles, de elas: suas jilhas de ele, his daughters; suas filhas de V.9 your daughters; or as filhas de ele, as fUhas de V.

PORTUGUESE 281

finite article (o, a, os, as), referring to persons, by aquele referring to things: o qae /a/a e men tio, the one who is speak- ing is my uncle; este vinho e bom, mas aquele que Ike del ontem e melhor, this wine is good, but the one I gave you yesterday is better.

g) Relative and Interrogative.

who, whom, that, which, que1*: a mulher que canta, the woman

who is singing; a mulher que ele ama, the woman he loves;14

o navio que sai, the ship that is leaving; o navio que V.

comanda, the ship you command.

whom (after prepositions), quern: diz-me com quern andas9

tell me with whom you go.

whose, cujo (cuja, cujos, cujas): o rapaz cujo pai e capitdo,

the boy whose father is a captain.

who?, whom?, quern? ': quern jala portugues?, who speaks

Portuguese?; a quern havemos de falar?, to whom are we to

speak?

whose?, de quern?: de quern e este livro?, whose book is this?

what?, que?: que quer o senhor?, what do you want?; que

ligoes tern aprendido?, what lessons have you learned?

which? which one? which ones?, qual? quais?: qual dos irmdos

morreu? which of the brothers died?

5. Verbs.

Portuguese verbs fall into three main classes, with the infinitive ending respectively in -ar, -er, and ~ir (to love, amar; to yield, ceder; to leave, partir). A considerable number of -ir verbs undergo changes in the vowel of the root (u changing to o when the ending has an e: subir, 3rd sg. sobe; e changing

13. o qual, a qual, os quais, as quais, or o que, a que, os que, as que, are occasionally used to refer to the more distant of two possible antecedents: sdo os amigos de seu pai os quais saem para o Brasil, they are his father's friends, who are leaving for Brazil.

14. Note thai the relative pronoun cannot be omitted. 10

PORTUGUESE

to i when the ending has a or o: servir, 1st sg. sirvo; etc.). Numerous other irregularities appear, some of which are given in the vocabulary.

1. Present Indicative (meaning: I love, am loving, do love) to love, am-ar to yield, ced-er to leave, part-ir

I love, am-o I yield, ced-o I leave, part-o

you love, am-as you yield, ced-es you leave, part-es

he loves, am-a he yields, ced-e he leaves, part-e

we love, am-amos we yield, ced-emos we leave, part-imos

you love, am-ais you yield, ced-eis you leave, part-is

they love, am-am they yield, ced-em they leave, part-em

to be, ser15 to be, estar16 to have, rer16 to have, kaver1* I am, 50^ erfott I have, /erc/&0 Aei

you are, es esfcw you have, Jens A,as

he is, e esfa he has, tern ha

we are, somos estamos we have, temos havemos

(hemos) you are, sow estais you have, tendes haveis

(heis) they are, 5ao e^fao they have, tern hdo

15. Ser indicates a permanent or inherent quality, and must be used when a predicate noun follows; e homem, he is a man; e Brasileiro, he is a Brazilian. Estar indicates a temporary quality, location or state of health: estd triste, he is sad; estd cansado, he is tired; estd no Rio, he is in Rio. Ser is used with the past participle to form the passive: e louvado, he is praised; estar is used with the gerund to form the progressive: estd falando, he is speaking. Note that the ordinary present indicative also expresses the progressive idea, how- ever. The gerund is formed by adding -ando to the root of -ar verbs (amar, amando) ; -endo to the root of ~er verbs (ceder, cedendo) ; "indo to the root of -ir verbs (partir, partindo).

16. Ter is used with the past participle to form compound tenses; this applies to all verbs, including intransitive and reflexive forms,

PORTUGUESE 283

2. Imperfect (meaning: I was loving, used to love)

-ar verbs ~er verbs -ir verbs

I used to love,	am-ava	ced-ia	part-ia
you used to love,	am-avas	ced-ias	part-ias
he used to love,	am-ava	ced-ia	part-ia
we used to love,	am-dvamos	ced-iamos	part-iamos
you used to love,	am-dveis	ced-ieis	part-ieis
they used to love,	am-avam	ced-iam	part-iam

ser: era, eras, era, erarnos, ereis, eram;

estar: regular (estava, etc.) ;

ten tinha, tinhas, tinha, tinhamos, tinheis, tinham;

haver: regular (havia, etc.).

3. Past (meaning: I loved)

-ar verbs -er verbs -ir verbs

I loved, am-ei ced-i part-i

you loved, am-aste ced-este part-isle

he loved, am-ou ced-eu part-in

and the past participle so used is invariable: tenho sido, I have been; ele os lent tido, he has had them; ela tern chegado, she has arrived; temos falado, we have spoken; os meninos se tern divertido, the children have had a good time. Ter is also used to indicate possession (tenho um bom amigo, I have a good friend) ; with que and the infinitive to indicate necessity (have to) : tenho que sair, I have to go out; and in expressions of physical feelings (tenho fome e frio, I am hungry and cold).

Haver is restricted in use to haver de followed by the infinitive (hei de jalar, I am to speak), and impersonally in the sense of "there to be" or "ago": havia momentos terriveis, there were terrible mo- ments; haverd cem vapores no porto, there will be (or must be) a hundred steamers in the harbor; hd mats de quatro meses, more than four months ago.

284

we loved, am-dmos ced-emos part-imos

you loved, am-astes ced-estes part-istes

they loved, am-aram ced-eram part-Irani

ser: fui, foste, foi, fomos, fostes, foram;

estar: estive, estiveste, esteve, estivemos, estivestes, estiveram;

ter: tive, tiveste, teve, tivemos, tivestes, tiveram;

haver: houve, houveste* houve, houvemos, houvestes, houveram.

4. Future (meaning: I shall love), and Conditional (meaning: I should love).

The endings of these tenses are added to the entire infinit- ive, not to the stem:

amar- (ceder-, partir-) -ei, -as, -a, -emos, -eis, -do (amarei, I shall love) ;

amar- (ceder-, partir-) -ia, -ias, -ia, -iamos, -ieis, -iam (amaria, I should love).

ser, estar, ter and haver are regular in these tenses (serei9 estarei, I shall be; seria, estaria, I should be; terei, haverei, I shall have; teria, haveria, I should have).

5. "Personal" infinitive.

This is a form peculiar to Portuguese, and consists of the infinitive to which are added the following personal endings: nothing in the first and third singular, -es in the second sin- gular, -77105 in the first plural, -des in the second plural, -em in the third plural: ser, seres, ser, sermos, serdes, ser em; amar, amares, amar, amarmos, amardes. amarem. Its chief uses are: 1. in exclamations: sermos nos ricos!, for us to be rich! (if we only were rich!); 2. after prepositions where English would use a gerund: foram castigados por serem travessos, they were punished for being naughty; 3. after a conjunction, to replace a clause: parti depois de terem falado, I left after they had spoken.

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285

6. Compound Tenses.

These are formed by combining ter with the past par- ticiple of the verb (ending in -ado for -ar verbs, -ido for the others); the past participle is invariable.

Present Perfect: I have loved, tenho amado; I have arrived, tenho chegado;

Past Perfect: I had spoken, tinha falado; they had left, tinham partido;

Future Perfect: I shall have yielded, terei cedido; Conditional Perfect: they would have gone, teriam ido.

7. Imperative.

-ar verbs

Familiar Singular: am-a

First Person Plural (let us) am-emos

Familiar Plural: am-ai

Polite Singular: am-e V.

Polite Plural: am-em Faces

•er verbs-

ced-e ced-amos ced-ei ced-a V . ced-am Voces

Fam. Sg.: 1st PL: Fam. PL: Pol. Sg.: Pol. PL:

~ir verbs

part-e part-amos part-i part-a V. part-am Voces

In the negative, the familiar singular and familiar plural are replaced by corresponding present subjunctive forms: ndo ames, ndo cedas, ndo partas; ndo ameis, ndo cedais, ndo partais.

8. Reflexive verbs.

These are conjugated with ter; the participle is invari-

286 PORTUGUESE

able; the reflexive pronouns used are me, te, se, nos, vos, se: ele se queixa or queixa-se, he complains (queixar-se, to com- plain, lit. to bemoan oneself) ; os meninos se tern divertido, the children had a good time (amused themselves).

9. Passive.

The passive is formed with the verb ser combined with the past participle, which agrees with the subject. "By" is translated by de if the action is predominantly mental, by por if physical: o rapaz foi castigado de seu mestre e batido por seu pai, the boy was punished by his teacher and beaten by his father.

10. Subjunctive.

The Portuguese subjunctive has six tenses, and is fre- quently used in subordinate clauses. For the present sub- junctive, the endings normally are: for -ar verbs: -e, ~es, -e, -emos, -eis, -em: que eu ame, that I love; for -er and -ir verbs: -a, -as, -a, -amos, -ais, -am: que eu ceda, that I yield.

The imperfect subjunctive ends in -asse for -ar verbs, -esse for -er verbs, -isse for -ir verbs: que eu amasse, that I should love.

The present perfect subjunctive is formed by combining the present subjunctive of ter (tenha) with the past participle: que eu tenha amado, that I may have loved; the past perfect subjunctive combines the imperfect subjunctive of ter (tivesse) with the past participle: que eu tivesse chegado, that I might have arrived.

The future corresponds in form to the personal infinitive in regular verbs, and is formed by adding -r to the past in others; it is used for the most part after se (if) and quando (when), to refer to a future possibility: se eu partir, o diria, if I were to leave, I should say so.

PORTUGUESE 287

BRAZILIAN VARIETIES OF PORTUGUESE

The Portuguese of Brazil not only differs from that of Portugal in certain points of pronunciation, grammar and vocabulary, but has local varieties of its own. Two main Brazilian varieties are recognized, the Carioca (indigenous to Rio de Janeiro) and the Paulista, current in the south of the country. In the matter of pronunciation, Brazilian appears to be more conservative of older speech-forms than Portuguese, and is characterized by a clearer, slower, and more harmonious enunciation, due in large part to the con- servation of the timbre of unstressed vowels, which Portugal tends to slur and even drop (m'nino for menino; pont9 for ponte; ad'vinha for adivinha). In vocabulary, on the other hand, Brazilian is distinguished not merely by archaic words, but also by numerous words borrowed from the languages of the Tupi-Guarani Indians and the African slaves. Only a few of the major differences between Portuguese and Brazilian are listed.

PRONUNCIATION.

1. Brazilian retains the e in the diphthong ei and in the nasal diphthong em, while in Portugal ei tends toward ai and final em toward ai. Brazilian, however, tends to drop the i of the ei (beijo, pron. bdijo in Portugal, be jo in Brazil; tambem, pron. tambeim in Brazil, tambdi in Portugal)

2. Brazilian tends to add an i-sound to a final stressed vowel followed by -5 or -z (voz, pron. voiz; gas, pron. gdis).

3. The normal Portuguese diphthongs ai, ei, ou> tend to lose their final element in Brazilian pronunciation (baixo, pron. baxo; primeiro, pron. primero; tirou, pron. tiro).

4. In Portugal, a stressed e followed by nh, lh, /, ch, x tends to take the sound of a; this does not occur in Brazil (tenho, pron. tanho in Portugal; espelho, pron. espalho).

2SS PORTUGUESE

5. Brazilian tends to drop a final -r, while Portugal tends to add an -i, thus forming an extra syllable (falar, pron. f atari in Portugal, fald in Brazil; doutor, pron. doutori in Portugal, douto in Brazil).

6. In the Carioca (Rio), but not the Paulista pronunciation of Brazil, te, ti tend to be pronounced che, chi, and de, di tend to be pronounced je, ji (antes, pron. anches; tio, pron. chio; dia, pron. /fa).

GRAMMAR.

1. The position of the object pronoun is more flexible in Brazil than in Portugal, with a greater tendency on the part of Brazilian speakers to place the pronoun before the verb (Portugal o Senhor deve-me dinheiro, Brazil o Senhor me deve dinheiro).

2. Brazil uses ele, ela, eles, elas, Ihe, Ihes as direct object pronouns (vi ele, or eu o vi; eu Ihe vi ontem na avenida; conhego ela, or eu a conhego}.

3. The combination pronouns mo, to, Iho, etc. (it to me, it to you) are avoided in Brazil (eu Ihe del isso, or eu Iho del). The direct pronoun is often altogether omitted in these cases (quer dar-me a bola? Quero dar-lhe instead of quero dar-lha).

4. The preposition em is often colloquially used for a in Brazil with verbs of motion (eu ia na cidade, or eu ia a cidade) .

5. In several other cases, a is avoided by the use of other prepositions (consente com muita pena; pescavam de linha; tenho medo de pobreza; responda palavra por palavra). But many of these forms are common to Portugal as well.

6. The preposition para tends to govern an object pronoun instead of a subject pronoun as subject of a following infini- tive (e muito para mim fazer instead of e muito para eu fazer).

7. The progressive form with estar is more frequently used in Brazil than in Portugal, which prefers estar with a and the infinitive (estou lendo in Brazil, estou a ler in Portugal).

8. In Brazil, ter and haver are used interchangeably in the

PORTUGUESE 289

impersonal construction "there to be" (ndo tent alunos. or ndo hd alunos).

9. In Brazil, mais occasionally replaces jd in negative use (ndo quero mais, or jd ndo quero). Brazil also tends to double negatives (ndo tern nada ndo).

10. In a relative clause, Brazil often shifts the preposition to the end of the clause and adds a personal pronoun (o livro que falei dele, or o livro de que falei).

VOCABULARY.

1. Many words in common use in Brazil are of Tupi-Guarani origin. A few of the most common ones are: mandioca (a vegetable); abacaxi (pineapple); sabid, urubu (birds); ipe (a tree); jacd (basket); caipora (an unlucky person); caipira (a "hick"); carioca (pertaining to Rio); estar na pindaiba (to "be broke").

2. Words of African Negro origin are also numerous in the tongue of Brazil: senzala (slave quarters); quilombo (com- munities of Negroes); maxixe (a dance); samba (a dance); zumbi (ghost).

3. A few archaic Portuguese forms survive in Brazil: mas porem, or mas or porem; pro mo de, or por amor de; despots for depots.

4. Brazilian has a particular fondness for diminutive forms, especially the ones formed with the suffix -inhoi doentinho (sick); agorinha (right now); pertinho (quite close); ate loguinho (see you later) ; fique quietinho (keep quiet) ; estd dormidinho (he is asleep).

5. Among words which differ in Portugal and Brazil, the following are of interest:

English Portugal Brazil

girl rapariga mo$a

trolley carro eletrico bonde

motor-man guarda-freio motorneiro 10 ^

PORTVCUESE

police station esquadra delegacia

grocery store mercearia venda

The mo$o which means ''young man" in Brazil has rather the meaning of "waiter" in Portugal; while the fumo which in Portugal means "smoke" has in Brazil the meaning of "tobacco", and "smoke" is jumaqa.

It may be emphasized that a good many of the so-called "characteristics" of Brazilian appear also in Portugal, though locally and to a lesser degree.

PORTUGUESE

291

VOCABULARY 17

1. World, Elements, Nature, Weather, Time, Directions.

world, o mundo

earth, a terra

air, o ar

water, a dgua

fire, o fogo

light, a luz

sea, o mar

sun, o sol

moon, a l&a

star, a estrela

sky, o ceu

wind, o vento

weather, time, o tempo

snow, a neve

to snow, nevar

rain, a chuva

to rain, chover

cloud, a nuvem

cloudy, nublado

fog, o nevoeiro

ice, o gelo

mud, a lama

morning, a manhd

noon, o meio dia

afternoon, a tarde

evening, a tarde, a noite

night, a noite

midnight, a meia noite

North, o None

South, o Sul

East, o Leste (Este)

West, o Oeste year, o ano month, o mes week, a semana day, o dia hour, a hora minute, o minuto Sunday, o domingo Monday, a segunda-feira Tuesday, a terqa-jeira Wednesday, a quarta-feira Thursday, a quinta-feira Friday, a sexta-feira Saturday, o sdbado January, Janeiro February, fevereiro March, marqo April, abril May, maio June, junho July, julho August, agosto September, setembro October, outubro November, novembro December, dezembro Spring, a primavera Summer, o verao (pi. -oes) Fall, o outono Winter, o inverno

17. The gender of nouns is indicated by the article (o, a,). Note that nouns and masculine adjectives ending in -m regularly form their plural by changing -m to -ns (homem, man, pi. homens; via jemt trip, pi. viajens; algum, any, pi. masc. alguns, but fern. alguma, pi. algumas) ; nouns and adjectives ending in -/ preceded by a stressed vowel normally form their plural by changing -I to -M (animal, animais; papel, papeis; sol, sou; cruel, crueis] ; but those

292

PORTVCVESE

2. Family, Friendship, Love.

family, a familia

husband, o esposo, o marido

wife, a esposa, a mulher

parents, 05 pais

father, o pai

mother, a mde, a mdi

son, o filho

daughter, a filha

brother, o irmdo

sister, a irma

uncle, o do

aunt, a tia

nephew, o sobrinho

niece, a sobrinha

cousin, o primo, a prima

grandfather, o avo grandmother, a avo grandson, o neto granddaughter, a neta father-in-law, o sogro mother-in-law, a sogra son-in-lcw, o genro daughter-in-law, a nora brother-in-law, o cunhado sister-in-law, a cunhada man, o homem woman, a mulher child, a crianga boy. o rapaz (Port.), o (Brazil)

mogo

ending in •/ preceded by an unstressed vowel normally change -el or •il to -eis (automovel, automoveis; proje.ctil, projecteis; fdcil, facets). Other important irregularities in the formation of the plural are individually noted.

Important verbal irregularities are noted. Remember that the conditional always follows the future, so that a future farei for a verb fazer implies a conditional faria; there is never any irregularity in the endings of these two tenses.

Verbs ending in -car change c to qu before e (ficar, to remain; Past jiquei Pol. Impv. fique] . Verbs ending in -gar change g to gu before e (pagar, to pay; Past paguei, Pol. Impv. pague) . Verbs end- ing in -cer change c to g before a and o (conhecer, to know; Pres. 1st sg. conhego, Pol. Impv. conhega) . Verbs ending in -ear usually change e to ei when the stress falls upon it (cear, to dine; Pres. ceio, ceias, ceia, ceamos, ceais, ceiam; Impv. ceia (familiar), ceie (polite). Verbs ending in -ir which have u as the last vowel of the stem change u to o when there is an e in the ending (cubrir7 to cover; Pres. cubro, cobres, cobre, cubrimos, cubris, cobrem; Impv. cobre, cubra) . Verbs ending in -ir which have o as the last vowel in the stem change o to u when there is an a or an o in the ending (dormir. to sleep; Pres. durmo, dormes, dorme, etc.; Impv. dorme, durma) . Verbs ending in -ir which have e as the last vowel in the stem change e to i when there is an a or an o in the ending (seguir, to follow; Pres. sigo, segues, segue, etc. ; Impv. segue, siga) .

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293

girl, a rapariga (Port.), a moga

(Brazil)

sir, Mr., o senhor18 Madam, Mrs., a senhora18 Miss, young lady, a menina18, a

senhorinha18 (Brazil) friend, o amigo servant, o criado, a criada to introduce, apresentar to visit, visitor

3. Speaking Activities.

word, a palavra

language, a lingua

to speak, falar

to say, dizer (Pres. digo, dizes,

diz, dizemos, dizeis, dizem;

Past diss-e, -este, -e, -emos,

-estes, -eram; Fut. direi; Impv.

diz, diga; P. p. dito) to tell, relate, contar to inform, informar to call, chamar to be called, one's name is,

chamar -se (my name is John.

chamo-me Joao) to greet, saudar (Pres. saudo,

saudas, sauda, saudamos, sou-

dais, saudam; Impv. sauda,

saude)

to name, nomear to cry, shout, chorar, gritar

love, o amor

to love, amart querer

to fall in love with, apaixonar-se

por

to marry, casar, casar-se com sweetheart, o namorado, a namo-

rada

kiss, o beijo to kiss, beijar dear, beloved, querido

to listen to, escutar (escutar a only if one listens to a person)

to hear, ouvir (Pres. ouqo, ouves, etc.; Pol. Impv. ouca)

to understand, compreender, en- tender

to mean, significar, querer dizer (use latter for persons)

to ask (a question), preguntar9 perguntar

to ask for, pedir (Pres. pego, pe- des, etc.; Pol. Impv. peqa; he asked me for a pencil, pediu- me um lapis)

to answer, responder

to thank, agradecer, ficar agrade- cido (he thanked me for the book, agradeceu-me o livro)

to complain, queixar-se, lamentar

4. Materials.

gold, o ouro (oiro) silver, a prata iron, o ferro

steel, o a$o copper, o cobre lead, o chumbo

18. Regularly used with the article, save when a title follows; do you speak Portuguese?, o senhor fala portugues?; good morning, doctor, bans dias, senhor doutor.

294

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tin, a jolha oil, o oleo gasoline, a gasolina ooal, o carvdn wood, a madeira silk, a seda cotton, o algoddo

5. Animals.

animal, o animal

horse, o cavalo

dog, o cdo (pi. cdes) , o cachorro

cat, o gato

bird, a ave

donkey, o burro

mule, a mula

cow, a vaca

ox, o boi

pig, o porco

chicken, a galinha, a franga

hen, a galinha

6. Money. Buying, Selling.

money, o dinheiro

coin, a moeda

dollar, o dolar

cent, o centavo

bank, o banco

check, o cheque

money order, o vale postal

to earn, to gain, to win, ganhar

to lose, perder

to spend, gastar

to lend, emprestar

to owe, dever

to pay, pagar (note 17)

to borrow, pedir emprestado (he borrowed $2 from me, pediu- me dois dolar es emprestados)

to change, exchange, cambiar, trocar (note 17)

wool, a Id cloth, o pano to cut, cortar to dig, cavar to sew, coser to mend, remendar

rooster, o galo

sheep, a ovelha

goat, a cobra

mouse, o rato

snake, a cobra, a serpente

fly, a mosca

bee, a abelha

mosquito, o mosquito

spider, a aranha

louse, o piolho

flea, a pulga

bedbug, o percevejo

change, o troco

to give back, restituir

price, o preqo

expensive, dear, caro

cheap, barato

store, shop, a loja, a tenda

piece, o pedago

slice, a fatia, o pedago

pound, a libra

package, o pacote

basket, o cesto

box, a caixa

bag, a mala, a bolsa

goods, as mercadorias

to go shopping, fazer compras,

ir as compras to sell, vender to buy, comprar

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295

to rent, hire, alugar

to be worth, valer (Pres. valho,

vales, vale, valemos, etc.) cost, o custo to cost, custar to choose, escolher thief, robber, o ladrdo (pi. ~6es)

to steal, roubar police, a policia policeman, o policia, o guarda

civil (pi. civis) honest, honesto dishonest, deshonesto

7. Eating and Drinking.

to eat, comer

breakfast, o (primeiro) almogo

to eat breakfast, almoqar

lunch, o almogo, o lanche

to eat lunch, almogar, lanchar

supper, a ceia

to eat supper, cear

meal, a comida

dinner, o jantar

to eat dinner, jantar

dining-room, a sola de jantar

waiter, waitress, o criado, a criada

restaurant, o restaurants

menu, a lista, a ementa

bill, a conta

to pass, passar

tip, a gratificaqao (pl.-oe5)

to drink, beber

water, a dgua

wine, o vinho

beer, a cerveja

coffee, o cafe

tea, o chd

milk, o leite

bottle, a garrafa

spoon, a colher

teaspoon, a colher de cha

knife, a faca

fork, o gar/o

glass, o copo

cup, a chdvena, a chicara

napkin, o guardanapo

salt, o sal

pepper, a pimenta

plate, dish, o prato

bread, o pao (pi. paes, "loaves")

butter, a manteiga

roll, o pdozinho

sugar, o aczicar

soup, a so pa

rice, o arroz

potatoes, as batatas

vegetables, 05 legumes

meat, a carne

beef, a carne de vaca

steak, o bife

chicken, a galinha

chop, a costela

veal, a carne de vitela

lamb, a carne de cordeiro

pork, a carne de porco

sausage, a salsicha

ham, o presunto

bacon, o toucinho

egg, o ovo

fish, o peixe

fried, frito

cooked, cozido

boiled, fervido

roasted, roast, assado

baked, broiled, assado no for no

sauce, o molho

salad, a salada

cheese, o queijo

fruit, a fruta

apple, a maca

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PORTUGUESE

pear, a pera peach, o pessego grapes, as uvas strawberries, os morangos nuts, as nozes orange, a laranja

8. Hygiene and Attire.

bath, o banho

to bathe, tomar banho

shower, o chuveiro, o banho de chuva

to wash, lavar

to shave, barbear-se, fazer a barba

barber, o barbeiro

mirror, o espelho

soap, o sabdo

razor, a navalha de barba

safety-razor, o aparelho dt bar- bear

towel, a toalha

comb, o pente

brush, a escova

scissors, a tesoura (tesoira)

to wear, usar

to take off, tirar

to change, mudar

to put on, vestir (see n. 17), por (see p. 303) ; he put on his hat, ele pos o chapeu; he put on his coat, ele vestiu o casaco; he put on his gloves, ele calqou as lavas

clothes, a roupa

hat, o chapeu

suit, o fato

coat, o casaco

9, Parts of the Body.

head, a cabe$a forehead, a testa

lemon, o limdo (pi. -oes] cherries, as cerejas juice, o sumo dessert, a sobremesa pastry, os pasteis

vest, o colete pants, 05 cal^as underwear, a roupa de baixo gloves, as luvas socks, as peugas, as meias stockings, as meias shirt, a camisa collar, o colarinko overcoat, o sobretudo raincoat, a gabardina pocket, a algibeirat o bolso handkerchief, o lenqo button, o botdo (pi. -oes} shoes, os sapatos boot, a bota purse, a bolsa pocket-book, a carteira tie, a gravata pin, o al/inete tie-pin, alfinete de gravata safety-pin, aljinete de dama needle, a agulha umbrella, o guarda-chuva watch, o relogio (de algibeira] chain, a cadeia ring, o anel

eyeglasses, as lunetas, os oculos slippers, as chinelas dressing-gown, bath-robe, o cham- bre

face, a cara mouth, a boca

PORTUGUESE

297

hair, o cabelo

eye, o olho

ear, a orelha

tooth, o dente

'lip, o Idbio

nose, o nariz

tongue, a lingua

chin, o queixo

cheek, as faces

beard, a barba

mustache, o bigode

neck, o pescoqo

throat, a garganta

arm, o braqo

hand, a mdo (pi. <w maos)

elbow, o cotovelo

10. Medical.

doctor, o medico, o doutor

drug-store, a loja de droguista

hospital, o hospital

medicine, a medicina

pill, a pilula

prescription, a receita

bandage, a atadura

nurse, o enjermeiro, a enferm ira

ill, doente

illness, a doenqa

fever, a febre

11. Military.

war, a guerra

peace, a paz

ally, o aliado

enemy, o inimigo

army, o exercito

danger, o perigo

dangerous, perigoso

to win, ganhar

to surround, cercart rodear

to arrest, prender

wrist, o pulso

finger, o dedo

nail, a unha

shoulder, o ombro

leg, a perna

foot, o pe

knee, o joelho

back, as costas

chest, o peito

ankle, o tornozelo

body, o corpo

blood, o sangue

skin, a pele

heart, o coragdo (pi. -oes)

stomach, o estomago

bone, o osso

swollen, inchado

wound, a ferida

wounded, ferido

head-ache, a dor de cabe$a

tooth -ache, a dor de denies

cough, a tosse

to cough, tossir

lame, coxo

burn, a queimadura

pain, a dor

poison, o veneno

to escape, escapar

to run away, fugir (Pres. fujo.

foges, etc.; see note 17; Impv.

/oge, fuja) to lead, conduzir (3rd sg. Pres.

and Fam. Impv. conduz) to follow, seguir (see note 17) to surrender, render-se to retreat, retirar-se to bomb, to shell, bombardenr

298

PORTUGUESE

to kill, matar

fear, o medo

prison, a prisdo (pi.

prisoner, o prisioneiro

to take prisoner, fazer prisioneiro

to capture, capturar (caturar)

help, aid, o auxilio

comrade, buddy, o camarada

battle, a batalha

to fight, combater

soldier, private, o soldado

corporal, o cabo

sergeant, o sargento

lieutenant, o tenente

captain, o capitdo (pi. ~des)

major, o major

colonel, o coronet

general, o general

officer, o oficial

company, a companhia

battalion, o batalhdo (pi. -oes)

regiment, o regimento

brigade, a brigada

division, a divisdo (pi. -o^s)

troops, as tropas

reenforcements, os reforgos

fortress, a fortaleza, o forte

sentinel, a sentinela

guard, a guarda

to stand guard, to do sentry duty.

guardar

to be on cluty, estar de serviqo sign-post, a taboleta navy, a marinha sailor, o marinheiro marine, o soldado de marinha warship, o navio de guerra cruiser, o cruzador destroyer, o torpedeiro, o destro-

12. Travel.

customs, a aljandega passport, o passaporte

ier, o contra-torpedeiro convoy, o comboio escort, a escolta weapon, a arma rifle, a espingarda, o juzil (pi.

-is)

machine-gun, a metralhadora cannon, o canhdo (pi. -des) ammunition, as muniqoes supplies, os abastecimentos cartridge, o cartucho bell, o cinturdo (pi. -oes) knapsack, a mochila tent, a tenda

camp, o arraial (pi. -aw) map, o mapa rope, a cor da flag, a bandeira helmet, o capacete bayonet, a baioneta uniform, o uniforme airplane, o avido (pi. -oes) bombing-plane, o avido bombar-

deiro (de bombardeio) pursuit-plane, o avido de caqa shell, a granada bomb, a bomba truck, o camido (pi. -0es) tank, o tanque to load, carregar (note 17) to shoot, to fire, atirar, disparar to shoot (military execution),

fuzilar, executar fire!, fogo! attention!, sentido! forward!, avante!, em (rente! halt!, alto!

air-raid shelter, o abrigo spy, o espido (pi. -oes)

ship, o navio stateroom, o camarote

PORTUGUESE

299

berth, o beliche

to travel, viajar

trip, voyage, a viagem

to leave, partir (de)t sair de

to arrive, chegar (note 17)

to ride (conveyance), passear de

to ride, andar

railroad, o caminho de ferro (Pt.) .

a estrada de ferro (Br.) station, a estaqdo (pi. -6es) track, o carril, a calha, o trilho platform, a plataforma steamer, o vapor train, o comboio (Pt.), o trem

(Br.)

ticket, o bilhete compartment, o compartimento

13. Reading and Writing.

to read, ler (Pres. leio, les, le, lemos, ledes, leem; Past /i, leste, leu, lemos, lestes, ler am; Impv. le, leia)

newspaper, o jornal (pi. -aw)

magazine, a revista

to write, escrever (P. p. escrito)

to translate, traduzir19

pencil, o lapis (pi. os lapis)

ink, a tinta

pen, a pena

fountain-pen, a caneta-tinteiro

paper, o papel

14. Amusements.

to smoke, fumar

cigar, o charuto

cigarette, o cigarro

tobacco, o tabaco, o fumo (Br.)

all aboard!, partida!

dining-car, o tfagdo-restaurante

sleeper, o vagdo-leito

car, coach, o carro, o coche

trunk, a mala, o bad

valise, a mala de mdo

baggage, a bagagem

porter, o porteiro

bus, o omnibus

street-car, o carro ele(c)trico

(Pt.), o bonde (Br.) automobile, o automovel (note 17) taxi, o taxis (taxi) driver, o motorista, o conductor,

o chojer to drive (car), guwr, conduzir19

envelope, o sobrescrito

letter, a carta

post-office, o correio

stamp, o selo, a estam,pilha (de

correio)

letter-box, a caixa do correio to mail, mandar pelo correio address, a direcqao (direqdo), o

endereqo

post-card, o bilhete postal book, o livro chalk, o giz black-board, a pedra

match, o fosforo

give me a light, de-me lume

theatre, o teatro

movies, o cinema

19. Verbs ending in -uzir drop the -e in the 3rd sg. of the present and the familiar imperative: conduz, traduz.

300

PORTUGUESE

dance, a danqa, o baile

to dance, dan$ar

to have a good time, divertir-se

ticket, o bilhete

pleasure, o prazer

to play (music), tocar (n. 17)

to sing, cantar

song, a canqdo (pL *des)

to play (games), jogar (n. 17)

15. Town and Country.

place, spot, o sitio, o lugar

city, a cidade

intersection, o encruzamento

street, a rua

sidewalk, o passeio

block, a quadra, o quarteirdo

I'pL -oes) harbor, o pdrto school, a escola church, a igreja building, o edificio cathedral, a catedral corner, a esquina hotel, o hotel office, o escritorio river, o no

to take a walk, dar um passeio ball, a bola beach, a praia to swim, nadar game, o jogo sand, a areia refreshment, o refresco saloon, o bar, a taberna picnic, o piquenique

bridge, a ponte

country, o campo

village, a aldeia

road, a estrada, o caminho

mountain, a montariLa

grass, a erva

yard, o quintal

hill, a coliiia, o monte

lake, o lago

forest, wood, o bosque

field, o campo

flower, a flor

tree, a drvore

rock, stone, a pedra

jungle, a selva, o sertdo

16. House.

to (lose, fechcr

to open, abrir (P. p. aberto)

door, a porta

key. a chave

to go in, entrar (em]

to go out, 5aiV (de) ; Pres. saio,

saw, sai, saimos, saist saem;

Pol. Impv. saia house, a casa cottage, a casa de campo hut, a cabana to live (in), morar (em)

staircase, a escadaria

to go up, subir

to go down, descer (note 17)

room, o quarto

toilet, o retrete, a latrina

kitchen, a cozirtha

table, a mesa

chair, a cadeira

to sit down, sentar-se

to stand, estar de pe

wall, a parede, o muro

bedroom, o quarto de cama

PORTUGUESE

301

lamp, o candeeiro (candeiro), a

Idmpada candle, a vela closet, o compartimento window, a janela to rest, descansar bed, a cama

sheet, o Icriqol (pi. -ois] pillow, a almofada

17. Miscellaneous Nouns.

people, a genie (always singular) ;

how many people are coming?

quanta s pessoas vem? thing, a cousa (coisa] name, o nome; (family name, o

apelido )

cover, blanket, o cobertor, a co-

berta

to go to bed, deitar-se mattress, o colchdo (pi. >oes] to go to sleep, adormecer (n. 17) lo sleep, dormir (n. 17) to wake up, despertar to get up, levantar-se clock, o relogio (de parede] alarm-clock, o despertador

luck, a sorte

bad luck, a pouca (md) sorte

number, o ntimero

life, a vida

death, a morte

work, o trabalho

18. Verbs — Coming and Going.

to come, vir (Pres. venho, vens,

vem, vimos, vindes, vem;

Impf. vinha; Past vim, vieste,

veto, viemos, viestes, vieram;

Fut. virei; Impv. vem, venha;

P. p. vindo] to go, ir (Pres. vou, vais, vai,

vamos, ides, vdo; Impf. ia;

Past jui, foste, foi, fomos, fos-

tes, foram; Impv. vai, vd) to be going to, ir plus infinitive

(I am going to dine, vou

jantar) to run, correr

19. Verbs — Looking.

to see, ver (Pres. vejo, ves, ve, vemos, vedes, veem: Impf. via; Past vi; Fut. verei; Impv. v&, veja; P. p. visto)

to walk, andar

to go away, ir-se

to fall, cair (Pres. caio, cais, cai,

caimos, cais, caem; Impf. caia;

Past, cai; Impv. cai, caia; P. p.

caido)

to stay, remain, ficar (note 17) to follow, seguir (note 17; u falls

out before a and o; Pres. sigo,

segues, etc.; Pol. Impv. siga) to return, to come back, voltar to arrive, chegar (note 17) to go back, regressar, voltar

to look at, olhar

to look for, procurar, buscar

fn.17) fo look, seem, parecer (note 17)

302

PORTUGUESE

to recognize, reconhecer (note 17) to laugh, rir (Pres. rio, ris, ri,

rimos, rides, riem; Impv. ri.

ria; P. p. rido)

20. Verbs — Mental.

to make a mistake, enganar-se

to hope, esperar

to wait for, esperar

to think (of), pensar (em); use pensar de for "to have an opinion about"; I am thinking of him, eu penso nele; what do you think of him?, que pensa o senhor dele?

to believe, acreditar, crer (Pres. creio, cres, ere, cremos, credes, creem; Impf. cria; Past cri, creste, creu, cremos, crestes. crerarn; Tmpv. ere, creia)

to like, gostar de (I like this book, gosto deste livro)

to wish, desejar

to need, necessitar

to know (a person), to meet (socially), conhecer (note 17)

to know (a fact), saber (Pres. sei, sabes, sabe, etc. ; Past soube, soubeste, soube, etc.; Impv.

21. Verbs — Miscellaneous.

to live, viver

to die, morrer (P. p. morto, with

ser or estar, morrido with ter;

he is dead, ele estd mono; he

died, ele tern morrido) to work, trabalhar

to smile, sorrir-se (like rir) to laugh at, make fun of, rir de,

rir-se de to take for, confundir por

sabe, saiba) to know how, saber plus infinitive

(I know how to read, sei ler) to want, querer (Pres. 3rd sg.

quer; Past quis, quiseste, quis,

etc.; Impv. quer, queira) to remember, lembrar-se de to forget, esquecer de (note 17) to permit, allow, permitir to promise, prometer to understand, entender, com-

preender

to learn, aprender to feel like, ter vontade de (I feel

like eating, eu tenho vontade de

comer) to fear, be afraid, temer. recear

(note 17)

to be right, ter razao to be wrong, nao ter razao, estar

enganado, enganar-se to find out, descobrir (no. 17) to forbid, pro'ibir2**

to give, dar (Pres. dou, das, da, damos, dais, dao; Past del, deste, deu, etc.; Impv. da, de)

to take, tomar

to begin, comeqar, principiar (to begin doing, comeqar a fazer)

20. The diaeresis may be used to keep in two separate syllables two unstressed vowels; pro'ibir = pro i bir; if one of the two contiguous vowels is stressed, it takes the acute accent (saudo).

PORTUGUESE

303

to finish, terminar, acabar

to have just, acabar de (\ have

just written, acabo de escrever) to continue, keep on, continuar (I

kept on writing, continuei a

escrever or continuei escreven-

do)

to help, ajudar to lose, perder (Pres. perco, per-

des, etc.; Impv. perde, perca) to find, to meet (casually), en-

contrar

to try to, procurar to leave (a thing), deixar (use

sair de for a place; sair like

cair, p. 301) to show, mostrar to hold, confer (like ter) to do, to make, fazer (Pres. fa$o,

fazes, faz, fazemos, fazeis, fa-

zem, Past fiz, fizeste, fez, fize-

mos, fizestes, fizeram; Fut. fa-

rei; Impv. faz, faga, P. p. feito) to be able, can, poder (Pres.

posso, podes, etc.; Past pude,

pudeste, pode, pudemos, etc.;

Impv. pode, possa) to put, por (Pres. ponho, poes,

poe, pomos, pondes, poem;

Impf. punka; Past pus, puseste,

pos, pusemos, pusestes, puse-

ram; Impv. po£, ponha; P. p.

posto)

to carry, levar to bring, trazer (Pres. trago,

trazes, traz, trazemos, etc.; Fut.

trarei; Past trouxe, trouxeste.

trouxe, etc.; Impv. traz, traga) to stop (se^)f parar; (another).

/azer parar to cover, cobrir (n. 17; P. p.

coberto)

to get, obtain, obter (like ter) to get, become, tornar-se to hide, esconder to break, quebrar to hurry, apressar-se (a before an

infinitive)

to deliver, entregar (note 17) to catch, apanhar to belong, pertencer (note 17) to have something done, mandar

fazer (he had a letter written,

mandou escrever uma carta) to lay, por, colocar (n. 17) to send, mandar, enviar to accept, aceitar to refuse, recusar

22. Adjectives.

small, pequeno

large, big, great, grande (larger,

maior, largest, o maior) high, tall, alto long, comprido short (opp. of high) , low (person)

baixo

short (opp. of long), curto heavy, pesado light (weight), leve wide, /argo

narrow, estreito clean, limpo dirty, sujo cool, fresco cold, /n'o warm, tepido hot, quente damp, limido wet, molhado dry, seco full,

304

PORTUGUESE

empty, vazio

dark, moreno, escuro

light, bright, clear, limpido

fat. gordo

thick, grosso, espesso

thin, magro, delgado

round, redondo

square, quadrado

flat, piano

deep, j undo

soft, mole

hard, duro

quick, ligeiro

«low, vagaroso

ordinary, ordindrio

comfortable, comodo, confortdvel

(note 17)

uncomfortable, inconfortdvel near, proximo, cercante distant, distante right, direito left, esquerdo poor, pobre rich, rj'eo

beautiful, too, formoso pretty, JI'/H/O ugly, /eto sweet, doce bitter, amargo sour, acw/o salt, sal gad o young, new, novo old, velho, antigo jrood, 6om (fem. boa] better, melhor best, o melhor bad. m<m (fem. ma) worse, pior worst, o p/or

fine, "regular", otimo, bom first, primeiro last, ultimo strong, forte weak, /raco

tired, cansado

alone, so (fem. ^o)

same, mesmo

easy, /act/ (pi. -ew)

hard, difficult, dijicil (pi. -ns)

happy, glad, feliz

sad, /rw/e

free, lime

silly, simples, pateta, tolot hobo

crazy, louco, doido

drunk, embriagado

polite, cortes (fem. same)

rude, rude, grosseiro

pleasant, agraddvel (pi. -eis)

unpleasant, desagraddvel

lonesome, solitdrio

true, verdadeiro

false, /a/so

foreign, estrangeiro

friendly, arnigavel, amistoso, ami-

%°

hostile, hostil lucky, feliz unlucky, infeliz charming, encantador (fem. -a.

pi. -e5, -05 ) afraid, medroso ready, pronto hungry, esfomeado (to be — . ter

fome) thirsty, sequioso, sedento (to

be — , ter sede) right (to be), ter razdo wrong (to be) , ndo ter razao, estar

enganado funny, comico possible, possivel (pi. -cw) impossible, impossivel brave, corajoso cowardly, cobarde quiet, quieto, sossegaao noisy, ruidoso living, vivo dead, in or to

PORTUGUESE

305

23. Colors.

white, branco black, preto red. vermelho green, verde blue, azul (pi. azuis)

24. Nationalities.21

yellow, omarelo gray, cinzento brown, castanho pink, cor de rosa purple, roxo

American, americano

English, ingles

French, frances

German, alemao (fern, alema;

mas. pi. alemdes; fern. pi.

alemds) Spanish, espanhol (espanhola.

espanhois, espanholas) Russian, russo Italian, italiano Japanese, japones Chinese, chines Dutch, neerlandes, holandes Norwegian, noruego Swedish, sueco Finnish, finlandes Belgian, belga (fern, same; pi.

belgas)

Polish, polones, polaco Danish, dinamarques Swiss, suisso (suiqo) Portuguese, portugues Yugoslav, iugoslavo

Bulgarian, bdlgaro Czech, checo-eslovaco Greek, grego Turkish, turco Roumanian, rumeno Hungarian, hungaro Austrian, austriaco Malay, malaio Persian, persa

Arabian, Arab, Arabic, drabe Jewish, Hebrew, hebreu (fern, hebreia), judeu (fern, judia) Australian, australiano African, africano Canadian, canadiano Mexican, mexicano Cuban, cubano Brazilian, brasileiro Argentinian, argentine Porto Rican, portorriquenho Chilean, chileno Peruvian, peruano

21. Adjectives of nationality ending in a consonant add -a (-ea loses the accent) in the feminine: ingles, fern, inglesa, masc. plur. ingleses, fern. plur. inglesas. No capital is used, unless "Englishman" is meant. For names of languages, use no capital, and use the definite article except after em (in), and, usually, falar (to speak), entender (to understand), traduzir (to translate): o portugues e uma lingua jdcil; eu falo portugues; ele responde em portugues.

306

PORTUGUESE

25. Adverbs and Adverbial Expressions.

today, hoje

yesterday, ontem

tomorrow, amanhd

day before yesterday, ante-ontem

day after tomorrow, depoi$ de

amanhd

tonight, esta noite last night, a noite passada this morning, esta manhd in the morning, de manhd in the afternoon (evening) , de

tarde

in the night, de noite this afternoon, esta tarde tomorrow morning, amanhd de

manhd tomorrow afternoon, amanhd a

tarde

tomorrow night, amanhd a noite early, cedo late, tarde already, jd no longer, jd ndo (he is no longer

here, ele jd ndo esta aqui} yet, still, ainda not yet, ainda ndo now, agora then, entdo afterwards, depots never, nunca, jamais (he never

comes, nunca vem or ndo vem

nunca)

always, sempre forever, para sempre soon, em breve only, sbmente, so often, muitas vezes, a mitido usually, usualmente fast, depressa slowly, vagarosamente here, aqui

there, acold, Id

over (down) there, Id-baixo

near by, perto

far away, longe

up (stairs), para cima, em cima

down (stairs) , em baixo

ahead, in front, adiante

behind, in back, atrds

forward, para diante, em diante

back, backward, atrds, para trds

outside, fora, para fora

inside, dentro

opposite, in front, oposto, em

(rente

here and there, aqui e acold everywhere, em toda a parte where, onde also, too, tambem yes, sim no, not, ndo very, much, muito little, not much, pouco well, bem badly, mal better, melhor worse, pior- more, mais less, menos so, tdo

as - as, tdo • quanta (como, as much - as, tanto - como as many • as, tantos - como how much?, quanta? how many?, quantos? how?, como? too much, demasiado too many, demasiados so much, tanto so many, tantos as, like, como besides, alem disso

ORTUGUESE

307

nally, in short, jinalmente, em ]im, por Jim

[most, quasi (qudse)

ladly, de boa vontade

?rtainly, of course, certamente

nforturiately, infelizmente

t once, de repente, jd

l all, de todo, absolutamente

ardly, apenas

loud, em voz alia

Liddenly, repentinamente, de re- pen te

bout, acerca de, cerca de

erhaps, maybe, talvez, acaso

26. Conjunctions.

nd, e

ut, mas

r, ou

rhy?, porque? (porque? if not

followed by clause) rhy!, pois! ecause, porque lat, que rhere, onde lan, que, de que, de (before

numerals)

ince, pois que, desde o that, de maneira que :>r, pois [, provided that, se22

a little, urn pouco

again, outra vez

really, truly, realmente

together, juntos

at least, pelo menos

again and again, a miudo, repeti-

das vezes

occasionally, casualmente from time to time, de quando em

quando, de vez em quando therefore, portanto for lack of, por falta de long ago, hd muito tempo entirely, altogether, inteiramente

while, as long as, enquanto22 as soon as, logo que9 assim que2* when, quando22 unless, a menos que, a nao ser

que23 provided that, contanto que, desde

que23

without, sem que23 in order that, para que23 para24 until, ate que,23 ate24 although, ainda que,23 a pesar

de24

before, antes de24 after, depots de24

2. These call for the future subjunctive if future time is implied: : he doesn't come, I won't go, se ele nao vier eu nao irei; as long 5 he stays here, I shall stay, enquanto ele aqui estiver, tambem estarei; shall see him when he comes, hei-de ve-lo quando ele vier.

3. These normally take the subjunctive: although he may do it, I fiall not be angry, ainda que o faqa, nao ficarei zangado; unless he omes, I shall not go, a nao ser que ele venha eu nao irei; I did it > that he might read the letter, fi~lo para que ele pudesse ler a carta; e came without my seeing him, ele veto sem que eu o tivesse visto.

4. These are prepositions in Pt., and call for the personalized in- initive: I shall see him before they come, hei-de ve-lo antes de eles

308

PORTUGUESE

27. Indefinite Pronouns and Adjectives.

such,/a/ (pi. tais)

all kinds of, toda a qualidade de

everything, tudo

everyone, todo o mundo, toda a

gente, todos

something, qualquer coisa someone, alguem nothing, nada2* no one, ninguem25 no (adj.), nenhum25 neither - nor, nem - nem2* several, vdrios

28. Prepositions.

of, from, de (contracts with ar- ticles; see p. 274, n. 3)

out of, fora de

to, at, a (contracts with articles; see p. 274; must he used with a noun indirect object : I give John the book, dou o livro a Joao)

with, com

in, em (p. 274)

without, sem

on, sobre, em

over, em cima de

above, acima de

for, por (for the sake of, on account of, in exchange for; p. 274) ; para (purpose, destina- tion)

each, every, cad a, to do all, todo, todos (an) other, outro much, lots of, muito few, poucos, uns (fern, umas) many, muitos little (not much), pouco both, ambos

enough, bastante, suficiente some, algum (fern, alguma, pi. alguns, algumas)

until, up to, ate

since, desde

toward, para

between, among, entre

near, per to de

far from, longe de

before, antes de

by, por, de (por if action is

physical, de if mental) after, depots de

opposite, in front of, em (rente de in back of, behind, atrds de under (neath), debaixo de instead of, em vez de, em lugar de beside, alem de at the house of, em casa de through, atraves, por

chegarem; I saw him before they came, vi-o antes de eles virem; although he did it, I wasn't angry, a pesar de ele o fazer, ndo fiquei zangado; I saw him after we came, vi-o depois de chegarmos. Note cases where both subjunctive and infinitive may be used: I shall wait until he comes, esperarei ate que ele venha or esperarei ate ele vir.

25. If these are used after the verb, use ndo before the verb: I see nothing, nada vejo or ndo vejo nada.

PORTUGUESE

by means of, por meio de about, acerca det circa de

against, contra around, a (em) volta de, ao redor

across, atraves de

on the other side of, no outro lado during, durante

de because of, on account of, por

in spite of, a pesar de causa de

29. Special Expressions and Idioms.

good morning, bom dia, bons dias

good afternoon (evening), boa tarde

good night, boa noite, boas noites

good-bye, adeus

III see you later, ate logo, ate mais tarde

I'll see you tomorrow, ate amanhd

I'll see you tonight, ate esta noite

just now, agora mesmo

hello, aid (on telephone, a/6, esta la; the latter especially in Portugal)

how are you?, como esta?

I'm well, bem, estou bem

I'm (much) better, estou (muito) melhor

how goes it?, como vai tudo?

what time is it?, que horas sao?

it's six o'clock, sao seis horas

at six o'clock, as seis horas

at about six, perto das seis

at half past six, as seis e meia

at a quarter to (past) six, a um quarto para as (depots das) seis

at ten minutes to (past) six, a dez minutos para as (depois das} seis

last year, o ano passado

next year, o ano que vem

every day, todos os dias

the whole day, o dia ititeiro

please, jaz o obsequio, por favor, tenha a bondade

tell me, diga-me

bring me, traga-me

show me, mostre-me

thank you, obrigado, muito agradecido

don't mention it, ndo por isso

will you give me?, quer me dar?

pardon me, perddo

it doesn't matter, ndo faz diferenqa

never mind, ndo se incomode

I'm sorry, eu sinto muito, en lamento muito

PORTUGUESE

I can't help, ndo posso deixar de (infinitive) it's nothing, e nada

what a pity!, too bad!, que Idslima!, que pena! it's too bad, e pena I'm glad, estou contente (satisjeito) I have to, eu tenho que, eu tenho de I'm agreeable, estou de acordo where is (are)?, onde estd (estdo)? where are you going?, onde e que vai? here is (are), eis aqui (here it is, ei-lo) there is (are), hd (pointing out, eis all) which way?, para que lado? this (that) way (direction), por aqui (all) this way (fashion), desta maneira come with me, venha comigo

what can I do for you?, o que posso faze? para o senhor? what is it?, o que e?

what is the matter?, que e isso?, que hd? what is the matter with you?, que tern o senhor? what do you want?, o que quer o senhor?

what are you talking about?, em que estd falando?, que estd dizendo? what does that mean?, o que quer dizer isso? how much is it?, quanta custa? anything else?, mats alguma coisa? nothing else, nada mais

do you speak Portuguese?, fala o senhor portugues? a little, um pouco

how do you say - in Portuguese?, como se diz • em portugues? do you understand?, compreende o senhor? I don't understand, eu ndo compreendo do you know?, sabe o senhor? I don't know, eu ndo sei I can't, eu ndo posso

what do you call this in Portuguese?, como se chama isto em por fu- gues?

I am an American, sou norteamericano I'm (very) hungry, tenho (muita) fome I'm (very) thirsty, tenho (muita) sede I'm (very) sleepy, tenho < muito) sono I'm (very) warm, tenho (rnuito) color I'm (very) cold, tenho (muito) frio it's (very) warm, jaz (muito) calor it's (very) cold, jaz (muito) jrio

PORTUGUESE

it's windy, faz vento, estd ventando

it's sunny, faz sol, o sol brilha

it's fine (bad) weather, estd (or faz) bom (mau) tempo

it's forbidden, e proibido (no smoking, e proibido fumar)

luckily, fortunately, ajortunadamente

unfortunately, infortunadamente

is it not so?, ndo e verdade?, ndo e assim? (use where English repeats

the question: he is here, is he not?, you wrote, didnt you?) not at all, de nenhuma sorte, por nenhum modo how old are you?, que idade tern? I'm 30 years old, eu tenho trinta anos

how long have you been here?, hd quanto tempo estd o senhor aqui? how long have you been waiting?, hd quanto tempo espera o senhor? as soon as possible, tdo pronto quanto possivel, logo que seja possivel come here!, venha aqui!, venha cd! look!, veja!

look out!, careful!, cautela!, cuidado! come in!, entre!, venha para dentro! to the right, d direita to the left, a esquerda straight ahead, em (rente just a second!, um momento! what do you mean?, que quer dizer? as you please, como quizer

speak (more) slowly, fa^a favor de falar (mais) devagar listen!, oiqa! (ou$a!) look here!, say!, olhe!

gangway!, by your leave!, aten$do!t com sua licenqa! for Heaven's sake!, credo! darn it!, oh, diabo! darn the luck!, que md sorte! to your health!, d sua saude! I should like to — , eu quisera (eu desejaria) as quickly as possible, o mais depressa possivel stop!, pare! hurry!, depressa!

keep to the right (left), siga pela direita (esquerda) entrance, entrada exit, saida

ITALIAN 3 1 3

CHAPTER IX

ITALIAN

SPEAKERS AND LOCATION

(All population figures are approximate)

Europe — Italy (45,000,000); Switzerland (southern section: about 300,000) ; also spoken in Corsica and in extreme southeastern section of France, up to, but not including, Nice; widely spoken and understood, as a secondary and cultural language, along the eastern Adriatic coast (Yugoslavia, Albania, Greece), in Malta, and in the Dodecanese Islands.

Africa — colonial language of Libya (1,000,000) ; of Eritrea, Italian Somaliland, and, to a more limited extent, of Ethiopia ( total native populations about 12,000,000) ; widely spoken and understood, as a secondary and cultural language, in Tunisia, Egypt, and, generally, along the European, African and Asiatic Mediterranean coast.

Western Hemisphere — spoken by large Italian immigrant groups in United States, Argentina, Brazil and Chile, amounting, with their descendants, to a total of perhaps 10,000,000.

ALPHABET AND SOUNDS

a, b, c, d, e. f, g, h, i, 1, m, n, o, p, q, r, s, t, u, v, z. (The symbol j is very occasionally used with the value of y, and is generally replaced by i; the symbols k, w, x, y occur only in foreign words).

11

ITALIAN

Vowel sounds: Italian vowels have, whether stressed or unstressed, equal length. a: — father (padre, donna) e: = met (ferro, bene) ; or = initial part of a in Eng. gate

(freddo, bene)1 i: = machine (birra) o: — cap (forte, donna); or ~ initial part of o in Eng. go

(mondo) * u: — food (lana)

Consonant sounds: b, d, f, 1, m, n, p, q, s, t, v, approxi- mately as in English. o: before a, o, u or consonant, and ch before e, i — cat (caro,

credo, c/u). c: before e, i — church (in the groups cia, cie, cio, ciu, the i

is almost silent: ciascuno, pronounced c/iaskuno). g: before a, o, u or consonant, and gh before e, i ~ go (gusto,

lagrima, largAi) ; g: before e, i = gin (in the groups gia, gie, gio, giu, the i is

almost silent: gia, pronounced /a). gn: = onion (agnello, pronounced a/myello). gl : = mi//ion (meg/io, pronounced me//yo). h: is completely silent (Aanno, pronounced anno); but note its

uses in the ch and gh combinations above. r: is trilled as in British very. sc: before e, i = sure (in the groups scia, scio, sciu, the i is

almost silent: sciacallo, pronounced s/wzkallo). Before a, o,

u or consonant, sc — Eng. scone. z: = dz or ts (mezzo, pronounced meo'zo; pezzo, pronounced

petso). Learn by observation; the ts pronunciation general-

ly prevails in groups of zi followed by another vowel (giu-

stizia, pronounced justifsya).

1. The closed pronunciation (initial part of gate and of go) is always used for e and o, respectively, when unstressed. Either the open or the closed pronunciation may appear when the vowel is stressed. Learn by observation and remember that if an error is made, you will probably still be understood.

ITALIAN 3/5

Double consonants are more strongly pronounced than single consonants: note distinction between fato (pron. fa -to) and fatto (pron. tat-to) ; between aceto (pron. a-cAe-Jo) and accetto (pron. at-chet-to).

English sounds not appearing in Italian: all vowel sounds save the ones described above; h; pleasure; thin; this; w; American r.

Italian sounds not appearing in English: closed sounds of e and o; Italian r; all double consonants.

CAPITALIZATION, SYLLABIFICATION, ACCENTUATION

Do not capitalize io ("I"); capitalize Lei, Ella, Loro, when they mean "you" (polite), Suo and Loro when they mean "your" (polite). Do not capitalize adjectives of nationality (inglese, "English") even when used as the name of a language (parlo inglese, "I speak English") ; to indicate people, use your own choice (gli americani or gli Americani, "the Amer- icans") .

In dividing words into syllables, a single consonant be- tween two vowels goes with the following, not with the preceding vowel: generale is to be divided and pronunced ge ne ra le.

The only written accent is the grave ( ) ; this appears whenever a word of more than one syllable ending in a vowel is stressed on the final vowel: cittd, perche, tornero. The accent mark is also occasionally used on words of a single syllable to distinguish them from similar words having different mean- ings:' e, "and"; e, "is"; da, "from"; da, "gives". Otherwise, no written accent appears, and words are generally stressed on the next to the last or third from the last syllable; in these cases, the place of the accent is to be determined by observation. For the convenience of the student, the accent will be indicated when it falls elsewhere than on the second syllable from the end.

The apostrophe is used to indicate the fall of a vowel be- fore another vowel: I'uomo (for lo uomo) ; tamo (for ti amo).

316 ITALIAN

SAMPLE OF WRITTEN ITALIAN; USE FOR PRACTICE READING.

Dopo aver esaminato attentamente col canocchiale la co- sta della montagna, il tenente si rivolse al capitano. "Ci sono lassu almerio due posti d'osservazione nemici; poi, tra gli alberi, trincee e camminamenti. Non si nascondono troppo be- ne. Guardi Lei." II capitano prese il canocchiale, guardo, poi scosse la testa. "Ha ragione. Si vedono persino i reticolati. Telefoni subito al comando. Dica che ci mandino due compa- gnie di rincalzo e una batteria di artiglieria da montagna. In- tanto non possiamo muoverci. Di quante mitragliatrici dispo- niamo?" "Sei". "Son poche. Faccia distribuire le granate a mano, e mandi due plotoni d'esplorazione a rastrellare la vallata." In questo istante, un sibilo acuto fende 1'aria. La granata nemica esplose a cinquanta passi dai due ufficiali. "Accidenti! Ci hanno visti!" brontolo il capitano. Poi, vol- gendosi alia colonna, grido: "6rdine sparso!"

GRAMMATICAL SURVEY

1. Nouns and Articles.

Italian has only two genders, masculine and feminine. Nouns denoting males are usually masculine, those denoting females feminine. For nouns which in English are neuter, the ending often helps to determine the gender. Nouns ending in •o (plural changes -o to -i) are usually masculine;2 those ending in -a (plural changes -a to -e) normally feminine; the gender of nouns ending in -e (plural changes -e to -i) must be determin- ed by observation.

The indefinite article is un (uno before 5 followed by

2. A considerable number of nouns which in the singular arc masculine and end in -o become feminine in the plural, with change from -o to -a: il labbro, "the lip", pi. le labbra; il duo, "the finger", pi. le dtia; such nouns are indicated in the vocabulary thus: arm, U braccio (pi. le braccia) .

ITALIAN

consonant and before z) for the masculine; una (un9 before vowels) for the feminine:

a brother, un fratello; a man, un uomo; a father, un pa- dre; a mirror, uno specchio; an uncle, uno zio;

a woman, una donna; a mother, una madre; an idea, unidea.

The definite article takes the following forms:8 Masculine singular: /' before vowels: the man, I'uomo;

10 before 5 plus consonant, or z: the mirror,

lo specchio; the uncle, lo zio.

11 in all other cases: the brother, il fra-

tello; the father, il padre.

3. This system applies al?o to quello, 'that", "those", and to betto, "beautiful", "fine", when used as adjectives before the noun: that father, quel padre; those fathers, quei padri; that mirror, quello specchio; those mirrors, quegli specchi; that idea, queWidea; that man, queWuomo; a fine boy, un bel ragazzo; fine boys, bei ragazzi; fine men, begli udmini; a fine mirror, un bello specchio; fine idea, bell'idea; fine man, bcl* I'uomo.

It applies also to the article when combined with the prepositions di, "of"; a, "to"; da, "from", "by", "at the house of"; in (changed to tie- in combination), "in"; su, "on"; con (changed to co- in combina- tion), "with"; per (changed to pe- in combination), "for", "by". This combination is compulsory with the first five prepositions mentioned, optional with the last two:

of the father, del padre; of the man, deWuomo; of the uncle, detto zio; of the woman, della donna; of the idea, dell'idea; of the fathers, dei padri; of the men, degli udmini; of the women, delle donne;

to the brother, al fratello; to the mirror, olio specchio; to the mirrors, agli specchi; to the uncle, allo zio;

from the son, dal figlio; from the daughter, dalla figlia; from the sons, dai figli; from the men, dagli udmini;

in the wall, net muro; in the soul, neltanima; in the trees, negli alberi;

on the tree, sulValbero; on the trees, sugli alberi; on the walls, sulle mura;

with the relatives, coi parenti or con 'i parenti;

for the children, pei figli, or per i figli.

Del, della, dei, etc. also translate "some" or "any", save in negative sentences: I have some bread, ho del pane; I have no bread, non ho pane.

ITALIAN

Feminine singular: /' before vowels: the idea, Videa.

la before consonants: the woman, la don-

na; the mother, la madre. Masculine plural: gli before vowels, s plus consonant, or z: the

men, gli ubmini; the mirrors, gli spec-

chi; the uncles, gli zii. i in all other cases: the brothers, i fratelli;

the fathers, i padri. Feminine plural: le: the mothers, le madri; the women, le don-

ne; the ideas, le idee.

2. Adjectives and Adverbs.

Adjectives agree with the nouns they modify. Like nouns, they have the endings -o (feminine -a, masc. pi. -i, fern. pi. -e) ; or -e (no difference between masculine and feminine; plural -i) ; agreement with the noun does not necessarily mean identical endings; the noun may be of the -a (pi. -e) variety, while the adjective is of the -e (pi. -i) type: the strong woman, la donna forte; the strong women, le donne forti. Adjectives usually follow the noun, though a few common ones precede:

the red book, il libro rosso the red books, i libri rossi

the red house, la casa rossa the red houses, le case rosse

the green tree, I'albero verde the green trees, gli alberi verdi

the green house, la casa verde the green houses, le case verdi

The comparative degree is formed by prefixing piu, "more", to the positive; for the superlative, the definite article is placed before piii or the noun: an easy book, un libro facile; an easier book, un libro piu facile; the easiest book, il libro piu facile; the greatest general, il piu grande generale. "Than" is usually translated by di: an easier book than this, un libro piu facile di questo.

The adverb is generally formed by adding -mente to the feminine singular of the adjective: clear, chiaro; clearly, chiaramente ; strong, forte; strongly, fortemente.

ITALIAN

319

3. Numerals. a) Cardinal4

1 — uno, una 14

2 — due 15

3 — tre 16

4 — quattro 17

5 — cinque 18

6 — sei

7 — sette

8 — otto

9 — nove

10 — died

11 — undid 28

12 — dddici 29

13 — tredici 30

19

20-

21

22-

23

quattdrdid

qulndid

sedid

- didassette didotto

- didannove venti

- ventuno 5 ventidue

- venture ventotto 5

- ventinove trenta

40- 50- 60- 70- 80- 90- 100- 200 300 1000- 2000 1,000,000

quaranta

- dnquanta sessanta

- settanta

- ottanta

- novanta

- cent o

- duecento

- trecento

- mille

- duemila

- un milione

b) Ordinal.

1st — primo 2nd - — secondo 3rd — terzo 4th — quarto 5th — quinto 6th —

7th — settimo

8th — ottavo

9th — nono

10th — dedmo

llth — undedmo or undicesimo

20th — ventesimo

Beyond llth, ordinals are formed by dropping the final vowel of the cardinal and adding -esimo: 34th, trentaquattre- simo.

c) Others.

half -- la meta (noun), or mezzo (adjective): mezza mela, half an apple; la meta della compagnia, half the company.

4. Use these in dates, save for "the first": May first, U primo maggio; May 10th, il died maggio.

5. Note the fall of the final vowel of venti, trenta, etc. in ventuno, ventotto, trentuno, trentotto.

320 ITALIAN

a pair of — un paio di a dozen — una dozzina di

once - una volta twice - due volte three times • tre volte the first time - — - la prima volta sometimes — qualche volta

4. Pronouns.

a) Personal (Subject).6

I, io we, noi, noialtri

you (familiar), tu you (fam. pi,), voi, voialtri

he, egli or lui they (masc.), essi, loro

she, ella or essa or /ei they (fern.), esse, loro

you (polite), £7/a or Lei 1 you (pol. pi.), Loro 7

b) Personal (Direct Object)

me, mi us, ci

you (fam.), fi you (fam. pi.), vi

him, it (standing for an It. them (It. masc.), li

masc. noun), lo, /' them (It. fern.), le

her, it (It. fern, noun), /a, /' you (pol. pi.), Li. Le you (pol. sg.), La

c) Personal (Indirect Object)

to me, mi (me) 8 to us, ci (ce)

to you, ti (te) to you, vi (ve]

6. Generally used only for emphasis or clarification: you don't know how to do it, non sai farlo; you don't know how to do it, tu non sai farlo.

7. In polite address, use Ella or Lei with the third person singular of the verb for a single person, Loro with the third plural of the verb for more than one person: tu sei forte, you (fam. sg.) are strong; Lei e forte, you (pol. sg.) are strong; voi siete forti, you (fam. pi.) are strong; Loro sono foni, you (pol. pi.) are strong.

8. If two object pronouns appear together, the indirect pronoun precedes the direct, and the form in parentheses ending in -e is used for the indirect instead of the form ending in >i: he gives me the book, mi da il libro; but "he gives it to me", me lo da; give him the book, dagli il libro; give it to him, ddglielo.

ITALIAN 321

to him, gli (glie) 9 to them, loro in

to her, le (glie) 9 to you (pol. pi.) Loro 10

to you (pol.), Le (glie) :>

Direct and indirect object pronouns precede the verb (he sees me, mi vede; I give him the book, gli do il libro), save with the familiar affirmative forms of the imperative (take it!, prendilo!) ; the infinitive (I want to see him, voglio vederlo or lo voglio vedere) ; and the gerund (I am speaking to him, sto parldndogli or gli sto parlando), to all of which forms they are appended (note the double possibility when the infinitive or gerund depend on another verb). With the imperative polite or negative, the pronoun precedes: take it! (pol. ), lo prenda! ; don't take it! (fam.), non lo prendere! ; (pol.), non lo prenda!

"Of it", "of them", "some" or "any" as a pronoun are expressed by ne, which follows other object pronouns and conforms to all the above rules: he gives me two of them, me ne da due; I spoke to him of it, gliene ho parlato.

d) Personal (after a preposition)

me, me us, noi

you, te you, voi

him, lui them, loro, ess/, esse

her, lei you (pol. pi.), Loro

it, esso, essa

you (pol.), Lei

With me, con me; for him, per lui; before them, prima di loro.

9. Glie, in writing, is always joined to a following direct object pronoun: I give it to him, gUelo do.

10. Loro is an exception to all rules of position; it always follows the verb, and is never joined to anything else: I give them the book, do loro il libro; I give it to them, lo do loro.

11*

322 ITALIAN

e) Possessive.

my, mine, il mio; la mia; i miei; le mie

your, yours (fam. sg.), il tuo; la tua; i tuoi; le tue

his, her, hers, its, il suo; la sua; i suoi; le sue

our, ours, il nostro; la nostra; i nostri; le nostre

your, yours, il vostro; la vostra; i vostri; le vostre

their, theirs, il loro; la loro; i loro; le loro

your, yours (pol. sg.), il Suo; la Sua; i Suoi; le Sue

your, yours (pol. pi.), il Loro; la Loro; i Loro; le Loro

These agree with the noun they modify or replace, and regularly appear with the article, whether used as adjectives or pronouns: my book, il mio libro; I want mine, voglio il mio. The article is, however generally omitted after the verb "to be" (this book is mine, questo libro e mio} ; and before nouns of relationship in the singular, but not in the plural (my sister, mia sorella; my sisters, le mie sorelle) ; also in direct address (my friend!, amico mio!).

f) Demonstrative.

this, these, questo (-a, -i, -e) : this woman, questa donna; here are your books; I want these, ecco i Suoi libri; voglio questi.

that, those, the one, the ones, quello; see note 3 for its forms when used as an adjective (that book, quel libro; those books, quei libri; those mirrors, quegli specchi) ; when used as a pronoun, the scheme is regular (quello-a-i-e) : my books and the ones on the table, i miei libri e quelli sidla t Avoid.

g) Relative and Interrogative.

who, whom, which, that, che: the man I saw, Vuomo che ho visto (note that the relative cannot be omitted) ; the woman who came, la donna che e venuta. II quale (la quale, i quali, le quali)9 and cui are generally used after preposi- tions: the gentleman with whom I dined, il signore con cui (or col quale) ho pranzato.

ITALlAt\

whose, di cui; il (la, i, le) cui; del (delta] quale (pi. del or delle quali) : the man whose sister I saw yesterday, Cuomo di cui ho visto ieri la sorella; Vuomo la cui sorella ho visto ieri; Vuomo del quale ho visto ieri la sorella; Vuomo la sorella del quale ho visto ieri (note the different word- orders used with each expression).

who?, whom?, chi?: who came?, chi e venuto? ; whom did you see? chi hai visto?

what?, che? or che cosa?: what happened?, die (or che cosa) e successo? ; what did you do?, che (or che cosa) hai fatto?

which?, which one?, which ones?, quale (pi. quali)?: which books do you want?, quali libri vnoi?

whose?, di chi?: whose house is that?, di chi e quella casa?

5. Verbs.

Italian verbs fall into three main classes, with the infinitive ending respectively in -are, -ere, n and -ire tl.

1. Present Indicative.

to speak, parl-are

I speak (am speaking, do parl-o

speak),12 you speak, parl-i

11. -are and -ire verbs have the stress on the -a and -i, respectively; some -ere verbs have the stress on the first e of the ending (godere) , others have it on the preceding vowel of the stem (ricevere) , but no difference appears outside of the infinitive. A considerable number of -ire verbs have the following scheme of present indicative endings: fin-isco, -isci, -isce, -iamo, -ite, -iscono. The inserted -isc- reappears in the subjunctive and imperative singular and third plural. They are otherwise regular, and appear in the vocabulary thus: finire (-isc-).

12. A progressive conjugation, formed with stare, "to stand", "to be", followed by the gerund, corresponds in use to the English "I am speaking", "I was speaking", etc. The gerund is formed by adding •ando to the stem of -are verbs, ~endo to the stem of other verbs, and is

324

ITALIAN

he, she speaks, we speak, you speak, they speak,

parl-a parl'iamo parl-ate parl-ano

to receive,

I receive, you receive, he, she receives, we receive, you receive, they receive,

ricev~ere

ricev-o

ricev-i

ricev-e

ricev-iamo

ricev-ete

ricev-ono

to sleep,

I sleep, you sleep, he, she sleeps, we sleep, you sleep, they sleep,

dorm-ire

dorm-o

dorm-i

dorm-e

dorm-iamo

dorm-ite

dbrm-ono

to be, essere: sono, set, e, siamo, siete, sono. to have: avere: ho, hai, ha, abbiamo, avete, hanno. to know (a fact), to know how, sapere: so, sai, sa, sappiamo, sapete, sanno.

invariable; used by itself, it carries the meaning of "by", or "while" (by speaking, one learns, parlando, s'impara; while speaking, we left the house, parlando, siamo usciti datta casa). The present of stare is: sto, stai, sta, stiamo, state, stanno; imperfect, future and conditional are regular (stavo; starb; starei}. Parlo and sto parlan- do are interchangeable in the sense of "I am speaking"; parlavo «nd stavo parlando in the sense of "I was speaking**.

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325

to go, andare: vado, vai, va, andiamo, andate, vanno.

to give, dare: do, dai, da, diamo, date, ddnno.

to do, to make, fare: faccio, fai, fa, facciamo, fate, janno.

to come, venire: vengo, vieni, viene, veniamo, venite, vengono.

to want, volere: voglio, vuoi, vuole, vogliamo, volete, vogliono

2. Imperfect Indicative (meaning: I was speaking, used to speak) :

parl-avo, -avi, -ava, -avamo, -ovate, -dvano, I was speaking,

used to speak ricev-evo, -evi, -eva, -evamo, -evate, -evano, I was receiving,

used to receive dorm-ivo, ~ivi, -iva, -ivamo, -ivate, -ivano, I was sleeping, used

to sleep

"to be", essere: ero, eri, era, eravamo, eravate, erano, I was, etc. "to have", avere, is regular: av-evo, etc.; so are other verbs

with an irregular present: sapevo, andavo, davo, venivo,

volevo; but fare has fac-evo.

3. Past Indicative (meaning: I spoke):

parl-ai, parl-asti, parl-o, parl-ammo, parl-aste, parl-drono, 1

spoke, etc. ricev-ei, ricev-esti, ricev-e (or ricev-ette), ricev-emmo, ricev-este,

ricev-erono (or ricev-ettero) , I received, etc. dorm-ii, dorm-isti, dorm-i, dorm-immo, dorm-iste, dorm-irono,

I slept, etc.

essere: fui, fosti, fu, fummo, foste, fiirono, I was, etc. avere: ebbi, avesti, ebbe, avemmo, aveste, ebbero, I had, etc. 1S

13. Note carefully the irregular scheme of the past of avere; most verbs with an irregular past follow the same scheme; the irregular forms are the first singular, third singular and third plural, while the remaining three forms are quite regular; thus: to write, scriv-ere; I wrote, scrissi; he wrote, scrisse; they wrote, scrlssero; but you wrote (sg.) scriv-esti, (pi.) scriv-este; we wrote, scriv-emmo. Whenever a past is irregular according to this scheme, only the first singular appears in the vocabulary (to write, scrlvere; Past, scrissi).

326 ITALIAN

4. Future and Conditional (I shall write; I should write). parl-erd, -erai, -era, -eremo, -erete, -eranno, I shall speak, etc. ricev-ero, -erai, -era, -eremo, -erete, -eranno, I shall receive, etc. dorm-iro, -irai, -ird, -iremo, -irete, -iranno, I shall sleep, etc, essere: sard, sarai, sard, saremo, sarete, saranno, I shall be, etc. avere: avro, avrai, avrd, avremo, avrete, avranno, I shall

have, etc.

For the conditional of any verb, retain the form of the future down to the -r- and add: -ei, -esti, -ebbe, -emmo, -este, -ebbero; thus:

I should speak, parler-ei; he would speak, parler-ebbe; we would sleep, dor mir -emmo ; they would be, sar-ebbero. It being understood that the conditional invariably follows the future in any irregularity the latter may have, the first person of the future alone in the vocabulary indicates that both tenses are irregular; thus: to come, venire (Fut. verrd) ; this indicates that the conditional is verrei.

5. Compound Tenses.

These are formed as in English, by using the auxiliary "to have" (avere) with the past participle. 14 Many intransitive

14. The past participle ends in -ato for -are verbs, -uto for -ere verbs, -i/o for -ire verbs (spoken, parl-ato; received, ricev-uto; slept, dorm-i- to) . Many past participles are irregular, and individually given in the vocabulary. The past participle is normally invariable (we have spoken, abbiamo parlato) , but changes its endings like an adjective in the following cases:

1. when used as an adjective: the spoken tongue, la lingua parlata;

2. when used with the auxiliary "to be", in which case it must agree with the subject; this occurs: a) with intransitive verbs of motion, etc. as described above: the men have come, gli uomini sono venuti; b) in the passive: we are loved by our parents, not siamo amati dai nostri genitori; c) in the reflexive: they got up, si sono alzati;

3. when used with "to have", to agree with the direct object; this agreement is compulsory if the object is a personal direct object pronoun: I have seen them, li ho visti; optional in all other cases: the women we saw, le donne che abbiamo viste (or visto) ; we saw those women, abbiamo visto (or viste) quelle donne.

ITALIAN 327

verbs of motion (to go, andare; to come, venire) , change of state (to become, divenire; to die, morire) and essere itself use essere as an auxiliary instead of avere; in this case, the past participle changes its ending to agree with the subject, just as though it were an adjective: he went, e andato; she went, e andata; we went, siamo andati; the ladies went, le signore sono andate.

Present Perfect: ho parlato, hai parlato, etc., I have spoken, I spoke ;

50710 andato (-a), I went; siamo andati (-e), we went;

Past Perfect: avevo ricevuto, I had received; avevi dormito, you had slept; ero stato, I had been; eravamo tornati, we had come back;

Future Perfect: avrb scritto, I shall have written; sard partito, he will have left;

Past Conditional: avrei perduto> I would have lost; sarebbe andato, he would have gone.

6. Imperative, (meaning: speak!; let us speak)

Fam. PL

Pol. Sg.

Pol. P.

"let us'* parl'iamo ricev-iamo dorm-iamo siamo abbiamo

15. The familiar singular form is never used in the negative, being replaced by the infinitive: don't speak!, non parlare!; don't sleep, non dor mire! Object pronouns are attached to the familiar impera- tives in the a/jirmative (speak to him! parlagli!; parlategli!; let us speak to him, parliamogli) ; but precede the polite forms (speak to him!, gli parli; gli parlino) , and all negative forms, familiar or polite (don't speak to him!; non gli parlare; non gli parlate; non gli parli; non gli parlino!; let us not speak to him!, non gli parlia- mo!)

-are	-ere	•ire	essere	avere
parl-a	ricev-i	dorm-i	sii	abbi
parl-ate	ricev-ete	dorm-ite	siate	abbiate
parl-i	ricev-a	dorm-a	sia	abbia
pdrl-ino	ricev-ano	dorm-ano	siano	dbbiano

328 ITALIAN

7. Reflexive Verbs.

The reflexive is more extensively used in Italian than in English. Reflexive pronouns are: mi, ti, si, ci, vi, si. 16 The auxiliary used in compound tenses is essere, and the past participle agrees with the subject: they saw each other, si sono visti. 1T

I wash myself, mi lavo we wash ourselves, ci laviamo

you wash yourself, ti lavi you wash yourselves, vi lavate he washes himself, si lava they wash themselves, si Idvano

I washed myself, mi sono lavato (-a) ; we washed ourselves,

ci siamo lavati (-e) you washed yourself, ti sei lavato (-a) ; you washed yourselves,

vi siete lavati (-e) he washed himself, si e lavato; she washed herself, si e lavata;

they washed themselves, si sono lavati (-e)

8. Passive.

This is formed as in English, by using "to be" with the past participle; the latter agrees with the subject: we are loved by our parents, noi siamo amati dai nostri genitori; I was punished, fui punito.

A second passive form with venire instead of essere in- dicates more intensive and immediate action: the sentinels were killed, le sentinelle vennero uccise.

The reflexive often replaces the passive, especially when the subject is a thing: Italian is spoken here, qui si parla italiano; these books are sold at two dollars apiece, questi libri si vendono a due dollari funo.

16. Note that the -i of all these forms changes to -e if another object pronoun follows: se lo mette, he puts it on (himself).

17. Note that in the plural, the reflexive may mean not only "our- selves", "yourselves", "themselves", but also "each other", "one an- other".

ITALIAN 329

9. Subjunctive.

The Italian subjunctive has four tenses, and is frequently used in subordinate clauses. The endings of the present sub- junctive are:

-are verbs: parl-i, -i, -i, -iamo, -late, '4no •ere and -ire verbs: ricev- or dorm-a, -a, -a, -iamo, -late, '-uno.

The imperfect subjunctive ends in -551, -551, -sse, '-ssimo, -ste, '-ssero, with a preceding -a- for -are verbs (parl-assi) , -e- for -ere verbs (ricev-essi) , -i- for -ire verbs (dorm-issi) .

The present perfect subjunctive uses the present subjunct- ive of "to have" (abbia, abbia, abbia, abbiamo, abbiate, ah- biano) or "to be" (sia, sia, sia, siamo, siate, slano), with the past participle (abbia parlato, sia venuto) ; while the past per- fect subjunctive uses the imperfect subjunctive of avere (aves- si) or essere (fossi), with the past participle (avessi parlato, fossi venuto).

I think he is speaking (will speak), credo che parli; I think he spoke, credo che abbia parlato;

I thought he was speaking, (would speak), credevo che parlasse; I thought he had spoken, credevo che avesse parlato.

DIALECTS

Italian has an extremely large number of widely diverging dialects, many of them mutually incomprehensible. Generally speaking, however, the standard literary speech has currency everywhere, and can be used with reasonable assurance.

The northern Italian dialects are generally identifiable by their lack of the characteristic Italian double consonant sounds and by the fall of many vowel endings (fatto, for ex- ample, may appear as fato, fat, fait). A clear, staccato pro- nunciation is usually indicative of northern origin. Piedmontese, Genoese, Venetian and Emilian are among the best-known dialects of this group.

The dialects south of Rome, down to the heel and toe of the boot (Neapolitan, Abruzzese, etc.) are characterized by heavy stress and prolongation of accented vowels and a general

ITALIAN

deadening of final vowels to the sound of e in the (beetle for Italian bello, bella, belli, belle). A sing-song cadence is also fairly general.

Calabria and Sicily change most o-sounds to u, and most e-sounds to i (prufissuri for professore) ; and change // to a sound resembling Engl. drink (bet/ru for be//o), A sharp, explosive pronunciation is also fairly general.

The central section of the country (Florence, Rome, etc.) generally approaches the literary standard.

VOCABULARY 18 1. World, Elements, Nature, Weather, Time, Directions.

world, il mondo star, la Stella

earth, la terra sky, il cielo

air, I' aria wind, il vento

water, I'acqua weather, time, il tempo

fire, il fuoco (pi. fuochi) snow, la neve

light, la luce to snow, nevicare

sea, il mare rain, la pioggia

sun, il sole to rain, pibvere™ (Past piovve)

moon, la luna cloud, la nuvola, 19 la nube

18. Irregularities in the plural of nouns are indicated thus: il braccio (pi. le braccia) ; this means that the plural is feminine and takes an -a instead of an -i ending. Spelling changes are also noted: fuoco (pi. juochi}.

Verbs of the -ire type that take -we- between the root and the ending are indicated thus: to finish, /wire (-we-). Other' important irregularities are also noted in parentheses. An irregular first sin- gular in the past tense implies the same irregularity in the third sin- gular and third plural, with the other persons regular; thus scrlvere Past scrissi indicates the scheme: scrissi, scrivesti, scrisse, scrivemmo scriveste, scrlssero (cf. note 13). Verbs requiring essere as an active auxiliary appear thus: to become, divenire (essere). This indication ivS not given in the case of reflexive verbs, which are all conjugated with essere.

19. In words of more than two syllables, if the accent falls elsewhere than on the next to the last syllable, its place is indicated thus piovere, nuvola. A few other irregular accents are also indicated (polizia} . Note, however, that this is done only for the convenience of the student, and that Italian does not indicate the place of the accent in writing save when it falls on a final vowel (meta, citta).

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331

cloudy, nuvoloso, coperto

fog, la nebbia

ice, il ghiaccio

mud, il fango

morning, il mattino, la mattina

noon, il mezzogiorno

afternoon, il dopopranzo, il pome-

riggio

evening, la sera night, la notte midnight, la mezzanotte North, nord, settentrionc South, sud, mezzogiorno East, est, levanie, oriente West, ovest, ponente, occidente year, Vanno month, il mese week, la settimana day, il giorno hour, I'ora minute, il minuto Sunday, la domenica

Monday, il lunedi Tuesday, il martedi Wednesday, il mercoledi Thursday, il giovedi Friday, il venerdi Saturday, il sabato January, gennaio February, jebbraio March, marzo April, aprile May, maggio June, giugno July, luglio August, agosto September, settembre October, nttobre November, novembre December, dicembre Spring, la primavera Summer, restate (fcrr.) Fall, Vautunno Winter, Vinverno

For "it is warm", "it is cold", etc. cf. p. 350.

No capitals for seasons, months, days of week.

I shall see him on Monday, lo vedro lunedi; last Monday,

lunedi scorso; next Monday, lunedi prossimo; every Monday,

tutti i lunedi (nouns ending in stressed vowels usually do not

change in the plural: the city, la cittd; the cities, le cittd) ; on

May 5th, 1943, il cinque maggio mille novecento quarantatre.

2. Family, Friendship, Love.

family, la famiglia

husband, il marito

wife, la moglie (pi. mogli)

parents, i genitori

father, il padre

mother, la madre

son, il figlio (pi. figli)

daughter, la figlia

brother, il fratetto

sister, la soretta

uncle, lo zio aunt, la zia

nei '

lunt, la zia

icphew, grandson, il nipote niece, granddaughter, la nipote cousin, il cugino, la cugina grandfather, il nonno grandmother, la nonna father-in-law, il sudcero mother-in-law, la sudcera son-in-law, il genero

332

ITALIAN

daughter-in-law, la nuora brother-in-law, il cognato sister-in-law, la cognata man, I'uomo (pL gli uomini) woman, la donna child, il bambino, la bambina boy, il ragazzo, il fanciullo girl, la ragazza, la fanciulla sir, Mr., il signore 20 madam, Mrs., la signora Miss, young lady, la signorina friend, Vamico, V arnica (pi. gli

amid, le amiche) servant, il servo, la serva to introduce, presentare

3. Speaking Activities.

word, la parola

language, la lingua

to speak, par/are

to say, dire (Pres. dico, did, dice,

diciamo, dite, dlcono; Impf.

dicevo; Put. diro; Past dissi;

P. p. detto; Impv. dl, dite,

dica)

to tell, relate, dire, raccontare to inform, informare to call, chiamare to be called, one's name is, chia-

marsi (my name is John, mi

chiamo Giovanni) to greet, salutare to name, nominare to cry, shout, gridare to listen to, ascoltare (I listen *o

to visit, visitare

love, Vamore (masc.)

to love, amare, voler 21 6e/itf a

(she loves him, /o ama, gli vuol

bene) to fall in love with, innamorarsi

di

to marry, sposare to get married, sposarsi sweetheart, il fidanzato, la fidan-

zata

kiss, il bado (pi. 6aci) to kiss, baciare dear, beloved, caro

him, lo ascolto) to hear, sentire, udire (Pres. odo,

odi, ode, udiamo, udite, odono) to understand, capire (-isc-),

comprendere (Past compresi,

P. p. compreso) to mean, voler dire (cf. p. 342 for

voler e) to ask (for), domandare, chiede-

re (Past cAiesi, P. p. chiesto) ;

the person asked is an indirect

object, the thing asked for is

direct: I asked him for a pencil,

gli ho domandato (chiesto) un

lapis to answer, rispondere (Past rispo-

51, P. p. risposto) ; the person

20. Use the definite article with signore, signora, signorina, save in speaking directly to the person; signore usually becomes signor when the name follows: Mr. Bianchi has a book, il signor Bianchi ha un libro; Mr. Bianchi. have you a book?, signor Bianchi, ha un libro? : sir, have you a book?, signore, ha un libro?

21. Cf. p. 342 for volere.

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333

answered is an indirect object:

I answered him, gli ho risposto

to thank, ringraziare (I thanked

4. Materials.

gold, Voro silver, I'argento iron, il ferro steel, Uacciaio copper, il rarne tin, lo stagno9 la latta lead, il piombo oil, il petrolic gasoline, la benzina coal, il carbone

5. Animals.

animal, I'animale (masc.), la be-

stia

horse, U cavallo dog, il cane cat, il gatto bird, Fuccello donkey, I'asino mule, il mulo cow, /a vacca (pi. vacche) ox, i7 6iie (pi. 6aoi) pig, i7 porco, i/ maiale chicken, i7 potto hen, /a gallina

him /or the book, /'Ao ringra- ziato del libro) to complain, lagnarsi, lamentarsi

wood, U legno

silk, la seta

cotton, il coton e

wool, la lana

cloth, la tela, il panno

to cut, tagliare

to dig, scavare

to sew, cucire

to mend, rammendare

rooster, f7 ga/lo

sheep, la pecora

goat, /a copra

mouse, ft fopo

snake, i/ serpente

fly, /a mosca (pi. mosche)

bee, /'ape (fern.)

mosquito, /a zanzara

spider, i7 ragno

louse, i7 pidocchio (pi. pidocchi)

flea, /a puJce

bedbug, Za cimice

6. Money; Buying and Selling.

money, tf danaro coin, /a moneta dollar, t7 dollaro cent, *7 5oWo lira (ab. 1 cent), la lira

money order, il vaglia (pi. i va-

glia)

to earn, gain, guadagnare to win, vlncere (Past vinsi, P. p.

vinto )

centesimo (1-lOOth of a lira), il to lose, perdere (Past persi, P. p.

centesirno per so; or regular, perdei, per-

bank, la banca, il banco (pi. -che, duto)

-chi) to spend, spender e (Past check, I'assegno P. p. si

334

ITALIAN

to lend, prestare

to borrow, cfiiedere (prendere) in

prestito: J borrowed $2 from

him, gli ho preso in prestito

due dollari to owe, dovere (Pres. debbo or

devo, devi, deve, dobbiamot do-

vete, debbono or devono; Fut.

dovro)

to pay, pagare to give back, restituire (-we-)

render e (Past resi, P. p. reso) to change, exchange, cambiare (small) change, gli spiccioli change (of a bill), il resto honest, onesto dishonest, disonesto price, il prezzo cost, U costo to cost, co stare (essere) expensive, dear, caro cheap, ragionevole, a buon mer-

cato store, shop, negozio, bottega (pi.

-ghe) piece, il pezzo

7. Eating and Drinking.

to eat, mangiare

breakfast, lunch, la colazione

to eat breakfast, lunch, far cola-

zione (cf. p. 342 for fare) supper, la cena to eat supper, cenare dinner, il pranzo to dine, pranzare meal, il pasto

dining-room, la sola da pranzo waiter, U cameriere waitress, la cameriera, restaurant, il ristorante, la trattoria menu, la Usta dette vivande, U

menu

slice, la jetta pound, la libbra package, il pacco (pi. pacchi) basket, U canestro, U cesto box, la scatola bag, il sacchetto goods, la mercanzia, la merce to go shopping, andare a far com- pere (cf. p. 341 for andare),

far la spesa to sell, vendere to buy, comprare to rent, hire, affittare, prendere

in affitto (a conveyance, nolcg-

giare) to be worth, valere (Pres. 3rd pi.

valgono; Fut. 3rd sg. varra)

(essere) to choose, scegliere (Pres. 1st ag.

scelgo, 3rd pi. scelgono; Paal

scelsi; P. p. scelto; Pol. Impv.

scelga)

thief, robber, U ladro to steal, rubare police, la polizia policeman, I'agente di polizia, U

poliziotto, il carabiniere

bill, il conto

to pass (a dish), to hand, fa-

vorire (will you pass me the

bread?, mi viiol favorire U par

ne?) ' tip, la mancia to drink, bere (Pres. bev-o, -i, -et

-iamo, -ete '-ono; Fut. berrd;

Past bevvi; P. p. bevuto; Impv.

bev-i, >ete9 -a) water, Vacqua wine, il vino beer, la birr a coffee. U caffe tea, il te

ITALIAN

335

milk, il latte

bottle, la bottiglia

spoon, il cucchiaio

teaspoon, il cucchiaino

knife, il coltello

fork, la jorchctta

glass, il bicchiere

cup, la tazza

napkin, la salvietta, il tovagliuolo

salt, il sale

pepper, il pepe

plate, dish, il piatto

bread, il pane

roll, il panino

butter, il burro

sugar, lo zitcchero

soup, la zuppa, la minestra

rice, il riso

potatoes, le palate

vegetables, i legumi, le verdure

meat, la carne

beef, il manzo, la carne di bue

steak, la bistecca (pi. -cchc)

chicken, il polio

chop, la cotoletta

veal, il vilello

lamb, Uagnello

pork, il maiale

8. Hygiene and Attire.

bath, il bagno

shower, la doccia

to bathe, fare un bagno

to wash, lavarsi

to shave, rddersi (Past mi rasi,

P. p. rase) barber, il barbiere mirror, lo specchio (pi. specchi) soap, il sapone razor, il rasoio

sausage, la salsiccia

ham, il prosciutto (American-style

ham, prosciutto cotto) bacon, la ventresca egg, Vuovo (pi. le uoca) fish, i/ pe5ce cooked, cucinato, cotio fried, /riwo boiled, boUito roast, roasted, arrosto baked, al for no broiled, ai ferri sauce, la salsa salad, I'insalata cheese, il cacio, il formaggio fruit, la frutta apple, la mela pear, la pera

peach, la pesca (pi. -che) grapes, Vuva strawberries, le fragole nuts, le nod orange, Varancia lemon, il limone juice, il sugo cherries, le ciliege dessert, il dolce pastry, le paste

safety razor, rasoio di sicurezza

towel, I'asciugamano

comb, il pettine

brush, la spazzola

scissors, le fdrbici

to wear, portare, indossare

to take off, levarsi, togliersi (Pres. 1st sg. mi tolgo, 3rd pi. si tol* gono; Past mi tolsi; P. p. tol- to] 22

22. Note: he puts on his hat, si mette il cappello; I took off my over- coat, mi sono tolto il soprabuo.

336

ITALIAN

to change, mutarsi, cambiare di pocket, la tasca (pi. -che) to put on, indossure, mettersi handkerchief, il fazzoletto

(Past mi mm; P. p. mcsso)** clothes, i vestiti, gli abiti hat, il cappello suit, U vestito, Fabito coat, la giacca (pi. -cche) vest, il gilet, U panciotto pants, i calzoni, i pantaloni undershirt, la maglia drawers, le mutande glove, il guanto socks, i calzini stockings, le calze shirt, la camicia collar, il colletto tie, la cravatta overcoat, il soprabito raincoat, Fimpermeabile

button, U bottone

shoe, la scarpa

hoot, lo stivale

pocket-book, il portafogli (pi.

same)

purse, la borsa pin, tie-pin, la spitta safety pin, spitta di sicurezza needle, Fago (pi. gli aghi) umbrella, Vombrello watch, clock, Forologio chain, la catena ring, I'anello eyeglasses, gli occhiali slippers, le pantofole dressing-gown, la veste da camera bath-robe, Faccappatoio

9. Parts of the Body.

liead, U capo, la testa

forehead, la fronte

face, la faccia, il volto, U visa

mouth, la bocca (pi. le bocche)

hair, i capeUi

eye, I'occhio (pi. gli occhi)

ear, Forecchio

tooth, il dente

lip, il labbro (pi. le labbra\

nose, il naso

tongue, la lingua

chin, il mento

cheek, la guancia

mustache, * baffi

beard, la barba

neck, il cotto

throat, la gola

arm, il braccio (pi. le braccia)

hand, la mono (pi. le mani)

elbow, il gomito

wrist, il polso

finger, il dito (pi. le dita)

nail, Funghia

leg, la gamba

foot, il piede

knee, il ginocchio (pi. le ginoc-

chia)

back, il dor so, la schiena chest, il petto ankle, la caviglia body, U corpo bone, Fosso (pi. le ossa) skin, la pette neart, U cuore stomach, lo stbmaco (pi. gli sto-

machi)

blood, il sangue shoulder, /a spalla

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337

10. Medical.

doctor, U medico, U dottore drug-store, la farmacla hospital, I'ospedale medicine, la medicina pill, la plllola prescription, la ricetta bandage, la fas datura nurse, Vinfermiere, (-a) ill, malato illness, la malattia fever, la febbre swollen, gonfio, gonfiato

11. Military.

war, la guerra

peace, la pace

ally, I'alleato

enemy, U nemico (pi. i nemici)

army, Vesercito

danger, il pericolo

dangerous, pericoloso

to win, vincere (Past vinsi, P. p.

vinto)

to surround, circondare to arrest, arrestare to kill, uccldere (Past uccisi, P.

p. ucciso), ammazzare to escape, sfuggire (essere) to run away, fuggire (essere),

scappare (essere) to lead, condurre (Pres. condu-

c-o, -i, -e, -iamo, -ete, '-ono, Past

con-dussi, -ducesti, etc., Fut.

condurro; P. p. condotto) to follow, seguire to surrender, arrendersi (Past mi

arresi, P. p. arreso) to retreat, ritirarsi to bomb, shell, bombardare fear, /a paura, il timore prison, to prigione prisoner, il prigioniero

wound, la ferita wounded, ferito

head-ache, U mal di capo, il do- lor di testa

tooth-ache, il mal di denti cough, la tosse

to cough, tossire (reg. or -we-) lame, zoppo

burn, la bruciatura, la scottatura pain, il dolore poison, il veleno

to take prisorier, far (or prendf- re) prigioniero

to capture, catturare

help, Valuta, il soccorso

comrade, "buddy", U compagno

battle, la battaglia

to fight, combdttere, batter si

soldier, il soldato, il militare

private, il soldato semplice

corporal, il caporale

sergeant, il sergente

lieutenant, U tenente

captain, il capitano

major, U maggiore

colonel, U colonnello

general, il generale

officer, Fufficiale

companv, la compagnla

battalion, il battaglione

regiment, il reggimento

brigade, la brigata

division, la divisione

troops, le truppe

reenforcements, i rinforzi, le trup- pe di rincalzo

fortress, la fortezza

sentinel, la sentinella

338

ITALIAN

to stand guard, to do sentry duty,

far da sentinella, essere di fa-

zione (essere)

to be on duty, essere di servizio guard, la guardia sign-post, rinsegna (stradale) navy, la marina sailor, il marinaio marines, fanteria di marina, com-

pagnie da share o warship, la nave da guerra cruiser, Fincrociatore (masc.) destroyer, il cacciatorpediniere,

il caccia (pi. same) convoy, il convoglio escort, la scoria weapon, Farma (pi. le armi) rifle, il fucile

machine-gun, la mitragliatrice cannon, il cannone ammunition, le munizioni supplies, i rifornimenti cartridge, la cartuccia bullet, la pallbttola, la palla belt, la cintura knapsack, lo zaino tent, la tenda camp, Faccampamento, Fattenda-

mento

12. Travel.

passport, il passaporto

ship, la nave, il bastimento

steamer, il piroscafo, il vapore

stateroom, la cabina

berth, la cuccetta

to travel, viaggiare

trip, voyage, it viaggio

to leave, depart, par fire (essere)

to arrive, arrivare (essere)

to ride (a conveyance), andare in

(cf. p. 341 for andare) railroad, la ferrovia

map, la carta

rope, la corda

flag, la bandiera

helmet, Felmo, Velmetto

bayonet, la baionetta

uniform. Funiforme (fern.)

airplane, Faeroplano, Fapparec-

chio bombing-plane, Fapparecchio da

bombardamento pursuit plane, Fapparecchio da

caccia

shell, la granata bomb, la bomba truck, Fautomezzo, Fautoveicolo,

il camion

tank, il carro armato (corazzato) to load, caricare

to fire, shoot, sparare, far fuoco to shoot (military execution), fu-

cilare

fire!, fuoco! attention!, attenti! forward!, avanti! halt!, alt!, alto la! air-raid shelter, il ricbvero anti-

aereo spy, la spia

station, la stazione track, il binario train, il treno platform, il marciapiede ticket, il biglietto compartment, lo scompartimento all aboard!, partenza!, in vettura! dining-car, il vagone ristorante sleeper, il vagone letto car, coach, il vagone trunk, il baule valise, la valigia

ITALIAN

339

baggage, il bagaglio, i bagagli porter, il portabagagli (pi. same) bus, r auto bus (pi. same), il

torpedone sueet-car, il tranvia (pi. same)

13. Reading and Writing.

to read, leggere (Past lessi, P. p.

letto)

newspaper, il giornale magazine, la rivista book, il libro to write, scrivere (Past scrissi,

P. p. scritto) to translate, tradurre (cf. p. 337

for all verbs in -durre) pencil, il lapis (pi. same), la ma-

tita

chalk, il gesso blackboard, la lavagna

14. Amusements.

to smoke, fumare

cigar, il sigaro

cigarette, la sigaretta

tobacco, il tobacco

match, il fiammlfero

give me a light, mi fa accendere?

theatre, il teatro

movies, il cinema

dance, il hallo

to dance, ballare

to have a good time, divertirsi

ticket, il biglietto

pleasure, il piacere

to play (music), suonare

15. Town and Country.

place, spot, il luogo (pi. -ghi) il

posto, il sito city, la citta (pi. le citta)

automobile, ^automobile (masc.

or fem.)

taxi, la macchina da nolo driver, il conducente, Fautista

(pi. gli autisti) to drive (car), guidare, condurre

ink, I'inchiostro

pen, la penna (fountain -, penna

stilografica) envelope, la bust a paper, la carta (writing -, - t/3

scrivere, da lettere) letter, la letter a post-office, la posta, 1'ufficio po-

stale

stamp, il francobollo letter-box, la cassetta postalc to mail, impostare address, Findirizzo post-card, la cartolina (postale)

to sing, cantare

song, la canzone

to play (a game), giuocare a (in- sert h before -e and -i endings)

game, il giuoco (pi. i giuochi)

ball, la palla

to take a walk, fare una passeg- giata, andare (essere) a passeg- gio

beach, la spiaggia

to swim, nuotare

sand, la sabbia, I9arena

refreshment, il rinfresco

saloon, I'osteria, il bar, la mescita

picnic, la scampagnata

street, road, la strada, la via sidewalk, il marciapiede harbor, il porto

340

ITALIAN

block, Fisolato

intersection, Finer ocio

school, la scuola

church, la chiesa

cathedral, la catted rale, la basilica,

il duomo

building, Vedifizio corner, Vdngolo, il cantone hotel, I'albergo (pi. -ghi) office, Vufficio river, il jiume bridge, il ponte country, la campagna

16. House.

door, la porta

to open, aprire (P. p. aperto)

to close, chiudere (Past chiusi,

P. p, chiuso) key, la chiave to go in, entrare (he entered the

room, entrb nella stanza] (esse-

re) to go out, to leave, uscire (Pres.

esco, esci, esce, usciamo, usci-

te, escono; Impv. esci, uscite,

esca; he left the room, e uscito

dalla stanza) (essere) house, la casa roof, il tetto cottage, la casetta hut, la capanna to live in, abitare in staircase, la scala, le scale to go up, salire (Pres. 1st sg,

salgo, 3rd pi. salgono; Pol.

Impv. saiga) (essere) to go down, scendere (Past scesi,

P. p. sceso) (essere) room, la stanza, la camera bedroom, La stanza (camera] da

letto

toilet, il cesso, il gabinetto kitchen, la cucina

village, il villaggio, il paese

mountain, la montagna

grass, I'erba

yard, Faia, il cortile

hill, la collina

lake, il lago (pi. laghi)

forest, wood, la foresta, il bosco

(pi. -chi) field, il campo tree, Falbero flower, il fiore rock, stone, la pietra, il sasso

table, la tavola, il tavolo

chair, la sedia, la seggiola

to sit down, seder si (change sed-

to sied- whenever it is stressed),

metier si a seder e (Past mm,

P. p. messo) to stand, be standing, stare in pie^

di (Past stetti, stesti, stettet

stemmo, steste, stettero) wall, il muro (pi. i muri or le mu-

ra)

lamp, la lampada randle, la candela closet, Farmadio window, la jinestra bed, il letto

pillow, il cuscino, il guanciale blanket, la coperta sheet, il lenzuolo (pi. le lenzuola) mattress, *"/ mater azzo, la mater assa to rest, riposare, riposarsi to go to bed, andare a letto

(essere)

to go to sleep, addormentarsi to sleep, dor mire alarm-clock, la sveglia to wake up, svegliarsi, destarsi to get up, alzarsi, levarsi to get dressed, vestirsi

ITALIAN

341

17. Miscellaneous Nouns.

people, la gente (with sg. verb) thing, la cosa name, U nome luck, la for tuna

number, it numero life, la vita death, la morte work, il lavoro

18. Verbs — Coming and Going.

to come, venire (Pres. vengo, vie- ni, viene, veniamo, venite, ven- go no; Past venni; Fut. verro; P. p. venuto; Impv. vieni, ven- ga) (essere)

to go, andare (Pres. vado, vai, va, andiamo, andate, vanno; Fut. andro or andero; Impv. va, an- date, vada) (essere)

to be going to, use future of fol- lowing verb (I am going to do it tomorrow, lo faro domani)

to run, correre (Past corsi, P. p. cor so) (essere)

to return, to go back, ritornare (essere)

to walk, carnminare, andare a pic* di (essere)

to go away, andarsene (me ne va- do)

to fall, cadere (Past caddi, Fut. cadrd) (essere)

to stay, remain, stare (Pres. sto, stai, sta, stiamo, state, stanno; Past stetti, stesti, stette, stem" mo, steste, stettero), restore, rimanere (Pres. 1st sg. riman- go, 3rd pi. rimangono; Past rimasi, P. p. rimasto, Fut. ri- marro) (essere for all)

to follow, seguire

19. Verbs — Looking and Seeing.

to see, vedere (Past vidi, Fut. ve- dro, P. p. veduto or visto)

to look at, guardare (I am look- ing at him, lo guardo)

to look for, cercare (insert h be- fore e and i endings ; I am look- ing for it, lo cerco)

to laugh, rider e (Past risi, P. p. riso)

to laugh at, to make fun of, rider-

20. Verbs — Mental.

to make a mistake, sbaglicrsi, fa- re uno sbaglio

to hope, sperare

to wait (for), aspettare, attendere (Past attesi, P. p. atte**) : I

si di, burlarsi di to smile, sorridere (like ridere) to look, seem, sembrare^ parere

(Pres. 1st sg. paio, 3rd pi. pd-

iono, Fut. parrb, Past parvi,

P. p. parso) (essere) to recognize, riconbscere (Past

riconobbi, P. p. riconosciuto) to take for, prendere per (cf. p.

342 for prendere)

am waiting /or him, /o attendo to think, pensare (I am thinking

o/ him, pe/«o a lui) to believe, credere to like, piacere (the thing liked

342

ITALIAN

is the subject, the person who likes is the indirect object: I like this book, questo libro mi place; he likes me, gli piaccio; Pres. piaccio, piacl, place, piac- ciamo, placete, placclono; Past placqul; P. p. piaciuto) (essere)

to wish, deslderare

to want, volere (Pres. vogllo, vuol, vuole, vogliamo, volete, vbgllo- no; Past volli; Fut vorrb)

to know (a person), conbscere (Past conobbl, P. p. conosciu- to)

to know (a thing, to know how). sapere (Pres. so, sal, sa, sap- plamo, sapete, sanno; Past sep- pl; Fut. saprb; use sapevo for "I knew", seppl for "I fouiid out". " I learned")

to remember, ricordare, rlcordar-

21. Verbs — Miscellaneous.

to live, vivere (Past vissi, Fut. vlvrb, P. p. vlssuto) (essere)

to die, morlre (Pres. muolo, muo- rl, muore, morlamo, morite, mublono; Fut. morlrb or mor- rb; P. p. mor to) (essere)

to work, lavorare

to give, dare (Pres. do, dal, da, diamo, date, ddnno; Past die- di, destl, diede, demrno, deste, dledero; Impv. Pol. dla)

to take, prendere (Past presi, P. p. preso)

to show, mostrare, far vedere

to begin, to start, cominclare, ini- ziare

to finish, finire (-isc-)

to continue, keep on, contlnuare. seguitare (he kept on speaking. continub a par lore)

si di, ramnientarsi di to forget, dimenticare, scordarsi

di to permit, allow, permetlere (Past

perrnlsi, P. p. permesso) to forbid, proiblre, vietare to promise, promettere (Past pro

mis I, P. p. promesso) to learn, imparare, apprendere

(Past appresi, P. p. appreso) to feel like, aver voglla di, sen-

tirsl voglia di; I feel like sleep

ing, ho voglla di dormire to fear, be afraid, temere, aver

paura

to be right, aver ragione to be wrong, aver torto (you are

wrong, Lei ha torto) to need, aver blsogno di (1 need

you, ho bisogno di Lei; I need

it, ne ho bisogno)

to help, aiutare

to hide, nascbndere (Past nasco- sl, P. p. nascosto)

to lose, perdere (Past per si, P. p. per so, or both regular)

to find, trovare

to leave, lasciare

to try, provare

to meet, incontrare (use conbsce- re for the social sense)

to put, place, metier e (Past misi, P. p. messo)

to have done, jar fare (I have

the letter written, facclo scnvere la letter a)

to do, make, fare (Pres. faccio, fai, fa, facclamo, fate, fanno: Impf. facevo; Past fed, facesti. etc.; Fut. faro; Impv. fa, fate, faccia)

ITALIAN

343

to be able, can, potere (Pres. pos- so, puoi, pud, possiamo, pote- te, possono; Fut. potro)

to lay, posare

to carry, bring, portare

to stop, fermare (fermarsi for self), ar restore, arrestarsi (use cessare di fare for "to stop doing")

to cover, coprire (P. p. coperto)

to get, obtain, ottenere (like tcne- re, below)

to hold, tenere (Pres. tengo, tieni. tiene, teniamo, tenete, tengono;

22. Adjectives.

small, piccolo

large, great, grande (gran before

a sg. noun) big, grosso tall, high, alto short, cor to

low, short (stature), basso heavy, pesante light (in weight), kggero long, lungo (pi. -ghi, -ghe) wide, largo (pi. 'ghi, ~ghe) narrow, stretto clean, pulito

dirty, sporco (pi. ~chi, -che) cool, fresco (pi. -chi, ~che\ cold, freddo warm, hot, caldo damp, iimido wet, bagnato dry, secco (pi. ~chi, -che) , asciut-

to

full, pieno empty, vuoto dark, scuro, oscuro light, bright, clear, chiaro fat, grasso thick, spesso, grosso

Past fen/ii; Fut. ferro; "Here!

Take it!", fiem'/, tenga!) to get, become, diventare, dive-

nire (like venire, cf. p. 341)

(essere) to break, romper e (Past ruppi,

P. p. ro//0)

to hurry, affrettarsi, sbrigarsi to deliver, consegnare to send, mandare, spedire (-isc-) to belong, appar 'tenere (like te-

Tiere) (essere) to accept, accettare to refuse, rifiutare

thin, magro, fino, sottile

round, rotondo

square, quad r at o, quadro

flat, piatto

deep, profondo

soft, morbidoy soffice

hard, Jwro

quick, veloce

slow, /en^o

ordinary, ordinario

comfortable, cbmodo

uncomfortable, scbmodo

near, vicino

distant, lontano

right, destro

left, sinistro

poor, povero

rich, ricco (pi. -cAi, -cAe)

beautiful, 6*tfo (cf. p. 317)

pretty, grazioso, carino

ugly, 6rz^^o

sweet, rfo/ce

bitter, amaro

sour, aspro, acre

rait, salato

young, giovane

old, vecchio (pi. vecchi)

344

ITALIAN

new, nuovo

good, buono (buon before masc. sg. nouns unless they begin witL z or s -f- consonant; buon' be- fore fern. sg. nouns beginning with vowels)

better, migliore (best, il -)

bad, cattivo

worse, peggiore (worst, il -)

fine, "regular", ottimo

first, primo

last, ultimo

strong, forte

weak, debole

tired, stanco (pi. ~chi, -che)

alone, solo

same, stesw, medesimo

easy, facile

hard, difficult, difficile

happy, glad, contento, felice

merry, allegro

sad, triste, ad dolor afo

free, libero

crazy, pazzo, malto

silly, stupido, cretino, imbecille

drunk, ubriaco

polite, cortege, gentile

rude, scortese, villano, maleducato

pleasant, piacevole

23. Colors.

white, bianco (pi. -c/u, -cAe)

black, ;tero

red, rosso

green, vcrcte

blue, turchino, azzurro, celeste

24. Nationalities.

unpleasant, spiacevole

lonesome, solitario, solo

true, vero

false, /a/50

foreign, straniero

friendly, amichevole, amico (pi.

-ri, -cAc) hostile, ostile, nemico (pi. -ci,

•c/ie)

lucky, fortunate

unlucky, sfortunato, disgraziato charming, incantevole kind, gentile

afraid, pauroso, timoroso ready, pronto hungry, ajjamato thirsty, assetato

funny, buffo, comico (pi. -ci, -che) possible, posslbile impossible, impossibile brave, bravo, coraggioso cowardly, vigliacco (pi. -cAi,

-che ) , vile, codardo quiet, tranquillo, quieto noisy, chiassoro, rumoroso livinpr. vivo, vivente dead, morto suitable, adatto

yellow, giallo

gray, grigio, bigio

brown, marrone, briino

pink, rosa

purple, viola, violaceo

Use no capital for the adjective or for the language: the English army, Vesercito inglese; he speaks French, parla fran* cese. When used as a noun to indicate people, the capital may or may not be used: an American, un americano, un

ITALIAN

345

no; the Germans, i tedeschi, i Tedeschi. It is perhaps more usually not used.

Names of languages are used with the article unless they immediately follow the verb parlor e or the preposition in: he speaks English, parla inglese; he speaks English well, parla bene V inglese; English is a difficult language, V inglese e una lingua difficile; he answered me in English, mi rispose in in- glese.

American, amencano

English, inglese

French, francese

German, tedesco (pi. -c&i, -che)

Spanish, spagnuolo

Russian, russo

Italian, italiano

Japanese, giapponese

Chinese, cinese

Dutch, olandese

Norwegian, norvegese

Swedish, svedese

Finnish, finlandese

Belgian, belga (fern, -a, masc. pi.

-gi, fern. pi. -ghe) Polish, polacco (pi. -cAi, -che) Danish, danese Swiss, svizzero Portuguese, portoghese Yugoslav, jugoslavo

Bulgarian, bulgaro

Czech, ceco

Greek, greco (pi. -ci, -che)

Turkish, turco (pi. -cAi, -che)

Roumanian, rumeno

Hungarian, ungherese

Austrian, austriaco (pi. -ci, ~che)

Malay, malese

Persian, persiano

Arabian, Arab, Arabic, arabo

Jewish, Hebrew, ebreo, ebraico

(pi. -ci, '~che) Australian, australiano Canadian, canadese Mexican, messicano Brazilian, brasiliano, brasileno Argentinian, argentine Chilean, cileno Peruvian, peruviano Cuban, cubano

25. Adverbs and Adverbial Expressions.

today, oggi

yesterday, ieri

tomorrow, domani

day before yesterday, avantieri,

ieri Ualtro

day after tomorrow, dopodomani tonight, stasera, stanottc last night, ieri sera, ieri notte.

la notte scorsa

this morning, stamane, stamattina in the morning, di. mattina

12

in the alternoon, di dopopranzo

in the evening, di sera

in the night, di notte

this afternoon, oggi dopopranzo

tomorrow morning, domani mat- tina

tomorrow afternoon, domani do- popranzo

tomorrow night, domani sera

early, presto

on time, a tempo

346

ITALIAN

late, tardi already, gia no longer, non piu yet, still, ancora, tuttavla not yet, non ancora now, adesso, or a then, allora

afterwards, poi, in seguito, dopo never, mai (use non before verb: he is never here, non e mai qui) always, sempre forever, per sempre soon, presto often, spesso

seldom, di rado, raramente usually, di solito, per sblito fast, presto

slowly, piano, lentamente here, qui, qua there, fi, la

over (down) there, laggiu near by, vicino far awav, lontano up (stairs), su, sopra, di sopra down (stalirs) , giu, sotto, di sotto ahead, in front, davanti behind, in back, di dietro forward, avanti back, backward, indietro outside, di fuori, fuori inside, dentro, di dentro opposite, in front, di fronte here and there, qua e la everywhere, dapper tutto, dovun-

que

where, dove also, too, anche, pure yes, si no, no not, non very, much, molto (very much,

molfissimo) well, bene

badly, male better, meglio worse, peggio

only, 50/0, soltanto, solamente more, piu less, meno

as - as, tanto - quanto (come) as much - as, tanto - quanto as many • as, tanti - quanti how much?, quanto? how many?, quanti? how?, come? too much, troppo too many, troppi so much, tanto so many, tanti

as, like, come so. ro.si

besides, inoltre, per di piu

finally, in short, finalmen /e, infine

almost, quasi

gladly, volentieri

certainly, certo, certamenfe

at once, sitbito

at all. affatto

hardly, appena

aloud, forte

of course, naturalmente. ben inte- so

suddenly, d'improvviso

about, circa

perhaps, maybe, forse. chis&a

a little, un poco, un po

again, di nuovo, ancora, nuova- mente

really, truly, veramente

together, insieme

at least, almeno

for lack of, per mancanza di

a long time ago, molto tempo fa

again and again, ripetute volte

therefore, quindit percio

occasionally, di quando in quando

ITALIAN

347

26. Conjunctions.

and, e

but, ma, pero if, se or, o

why?, perche? because, perche why!, ma! before, prima eke ** when, quando

than, di (use che before an ad- jective) where, dove until, jinche

although, benche, quantunque M unless, a meno che (use non be- fore the verb)28 while, mentre that, che for, since, poiche after, dopo che as soon as, appena as long as, fin tanto che provided that, purche29 so that, affinche2* without, senza che~*

27. Indefinite Pronouns and Adjectives.

such a, un tale

all kinds of, ogni sorta di

everything, tut to, ogni cosa

everyone, tutti

all, tutto

each, every, ogni, ciascuno

something, qualche cosa (some- thing good, qualche cosa di buono)

someone, qualcuno

some, alcuni, qualche, (indef.)

enough, abbastanza

nothing, niente, nulla (nothing

28. Prepositions.

of, di

good, nulla di buono )24 no one, nessuno 24 no (adj.), nessun (-a), alcun

(-a)24

neither - nor, ne • ne 24 (an) other, (un) altro much, lots of, molto many, lots of, mohi several, parecchi, diversi little (not much), poco few, pochi both, entrambi, ambedue, tutti «

due

with, con

from, by, since, at the house (or without, senza 25

place of business) of, da in, in

out of, fuori di to, at, a

on, over, above,sw, sopra 25 for, per

23. These take the subjunctive.

24. If these expressions appear after the verb, non is required before the verb: nothing has been done, nulla si e fatto or non si e fatto nulla; no one came, nessuno e venuto or non e venuto nessuno.

348

ITALIAN

until, up to, jino a

toward, verso 25

between, among, tra, fra

near, vicino a

far from, lontano da

before, prima di

after, dopo di

under (neath), sotto 2B

instead of, invece di

beside, oltre a

through, across, attraverso 2B

against, contro 25

by means of, per mezzo di

on the other side of, dalFaUro lato di

in spite of, malgrado

about, around, attorno a

during, durante

because of, on account of, a cau- sa di, per causa di

opposite, in front of, davanti a, di fronte a

back of, behind, dietro26

29. Special Expressions and Idioms.

good morning, good afternoon, good day, buon giorno

good evening, buona sera

good night, buona nolle

good-bye, arrivederci, addio, ciao (the latter is also used for "hello!")

I'll see you later, a piu tardi

I'll see you tomorrow, a domani

I'll see you tonight, a stasera

just now, proprio adesso, proprio or a

hello! (on the telephone), pronto!

how are you?, come sta?

how goes it?, come va?

I'm well, sto bene

I'm (much) better, sto (molto) meglio

what time is it?, che or'e?, che ore sono?

It's six o'clock, sono le set

at six o'clock, alle sei

at about six, verso le sei

at half past six, alle sei e mezzo

at a quarter past (to) six, alle sei e (meno) un quarto

at ten minutes past (to) six, alle sei e (meno) died

last year, I' anno scorso (passato)

next year, Vanno venturo (prossimo. che viene]

every day, ogni giorno, tutti i giorni

the whole day, tutto il giorno, tutta la giornata

please, per favore, per piacere, La prego

tell me, mi dica

25. These require di after them if their object is a personal pronoun: without my brother, senza mio fratello; without him, senza di lui.

ITALIAN

bring me, mi porti

show me, mi faccia vedere

thank you, grazie

don't mention it, prego, non ce di che, niente

will you give me?, vuol darmi?

pardon me, scusi

it doesn't matter, never mind, non importa, non ja niente

I'm sorry, mi displace , mi rincresce

I can't help, non posso fare a meno di

it's nothing, non e niente

what a pity!, it's too bad!, che peccato!

I'm glad, mi fa piacere

I have to, debbo

I agree (all right, 0. K.), (sono) d'accordo; siamo intesi

where is (are)?, dove (dove sono)?

where are you going?, dove va?

there is (are), ecco (if pointing out), c'e (ci sono)

which way?, da che pane?

to the right, a destra

to the left, a sinistra

straight ahead, dritto

this (that) way (direction), di qua (la), da questa (qudla) parti

this (that) way (fashion), cost, in questo (quel) modo

come with me, venga con me

what can I do for you?, in che posso servirla?

what is it?, what is the matter?, che c'e?

what is the matter with you?, che ha?

what is happening?, che succede?

what do you want?, che (cosa] vuole (desldera) ?

what are you talking about?, di che parla?

what does that mean?, what do you mean?, cosa vuol dire?

how much is it?, quanto costa?

anything else?, altro?

nothing else, nient'altro

do you speak Italian?, parla italiano?

a little, un pb

speak (more) slowly, parli (piu) piano (lentamente)

do you understand?, capisce?, comprende?

I don't understand, non capisco (comprendo)

do you know?, sa?

I don't know, non so

I can't, non posso

what do you call this in Italian?, come si chiama questo in italiano?

J50 ITALIAN

how do you say — in Italian?, come si dice — in italiano?

I'm an American, sono americano

I'm hungry (thirsty, sleepy, warm, cold), ho fame (sete, sonno, caldo,

jreddo)™ it's warm (cold, sunny, fine weather, bad weather), fa caldo (freddo,

sole, bel tempo, cattivo tempo)2* \ it's windy, lira vento it's forbidden, e proibito (vietato) ; no smoking, vietato jumare luckily, per fortuna unfortunately, per disgrazia is it not so?, non e vero? (use this invariable phrase wherever English

repeats the verb: you went, didn't you?; he is here, isn't he?) not at all, niente affatto how old are you?, quanti anni ha? I'm twenty years old, ho vend anni

how long have you been here?, da quanto tempo si trova qui? how long have you been waiting?, da quanto tempo aspetta? as soon as possible, al piu presto come here!, venga qua! come in!, avanti! look!, guardi!

look out! careful!, attenzione!9 attento! for heaven's sake!, per carita!

darn it!, accidenti! (darn the luck!, accidenti alia fortuna!} gangway!, by your leave!, permesso? as you wish, come vuole

listen!, look here!, say!, senta! stia a sentire!, dica! just a minute!, un momento! in any case, at any rate, in ogni caso may I introduce?, permette che Le presenti? glad to meet you, fortunatlssimo, placer e no admittance!, vietato I'ingresso notice!, avvlso! you don't sav so!, posslbile? to your health!, salute! I should like to, vorrei as quickly as possible, al piu presto posslbile stop!, ferma!

hurry!, (faccia) presto, si sbrighi keep right (left), tenere la destra (sinistra) entrance, entrata exit, uscita

26. With all these expressions, translate "very" by molto, save with fame and sete (molta) : ho molta sete, ho molto sonno.

LANGUAGES OF THE SLAVIC GROUP 35 /

CHAPTER X

LANGUAGES OF THE SLAVIC GROUP

This imposing group, extending from the shores of the Baltic and the Adriatic, across central and eastern Europe and all of northern Asia, to Kamchatka, Behring Strait and Vladivostok on the Pacific coast, comprises Russian, with its kindred East Slavic tongues, Ukrainian and White Russian; a Northwestern group that takes in Polish, Czech, Slovak, and a few minor languages (Wend or Lusatian, Kashub) ; and a Southern division which includes Serbo-Croatian, Slovenian and Bulgarian. The distinction among the three Slavic groups (eastern, northwestern and southern) is perhaps more geo- graphical than linguistic.

Russian (or Great Russian) is the official and principal language of the Soviet Union, with its 130,000,000 inhabitants in Europe and 41,000,000 more in Asia. While not all of these 171,000,000 people speak Russian as a primary language, the majority of them can be reached with it. The actual num- ber of Great Russian speakers is estimated at over 100,000,000. Ukrainian (also called Ruthenian or Carpatho-Russian in its westernmost varieties) is the tongue of some 35,000,000 more people located in southeastern Poland (formerly Galicia), the Carpathian section of Czechoslovakia, and the Russian Ukraine, as far east as the Kuban Valley and the Caucasus. About 8,000,000 more, situated in west central Russia and eastern Poland, speak White Russian. The remaining populations of the Soviet Union speak a multitude of tongues, mostly of the Ural-Altaic variety, but Russian has imposed itself as a colonizing tongue across all of Siberia, particularly along the

LANGUAGES OF THE SLAVIC GROUP

upper courses of the great rivers and on the Pacific coast, in Transcaucasia, and in Turkestan.

Polish is the official tongue of Poland, with its 35,000,000 inhabitants, to about 25,000,000 of whom the Polish tongue is native and primary (the remainder of Poland's population speaks White Russian, Ukrainian, German, Yiddish, Lithuanian and Kashub). Some 3,000,000 Polish speakers and their descendants, incidentally, are located in the U. S. A., mostly in the mining and industrial districts of Pennsylvania, Ohio, Illinois and Michigan.

Czech, the official tongue of Czechoslovakia, is native to over 7,000,000 inhabitants of Bohemia and Moravia, while its variant, Slovak, is spoken by about 3,000,000 (the rest of Czechoslovakia's 15,000,000 inhabitants have German, Hungar- ian, Ruthenian and Yiddish as primary tongues). Nearly 2,000,000 Czechs and Slovaks have come to the U. S. A.

Wend (or Lusatian) is spoken by perhaps 150,000 people entirely surrounded by German speakers in the heart of the Reich, at Cottbus and Bautzen.

Approximately 12,000,000 of Yugoslavia's 16,000,000 people speak Serbo-Croatian, while 1,500,000 more use Slovene (or Slovenian), which appears also in the extreme northeast of Italy (Istria, Gorizia, Carso Plateau, Venetia northeast of Udine) and the border districts of Austria. Linguistic mi- norities in Yugoslavia consist of German, Hungarian, Albanian, Roumanian and Italian speakers.

Bulgarian is the language of Bulgaria's 6,500,000 in- habitants, and crosses the political borders into Yugoslav and Greek Macedonia, Roumanian Dobrudja and southern Bessarabia.

The distributional aspects of the Slavic tongues point to Russian as of primary importance, numerically, politically, economically and culturally. Polish is a somewhat distant second, while Czech and the South Slavic languages are of tertiary rank.

LANGUAGES OF THE SLAVIC GROUP 353

GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS, COMMON FEATURES, AND OUTSTANDING DIFFERENCES.

By comparison with the Germanic and Romance groups, the Slavic tongues present an archaic and conservative aspect, much closer than either of the other major groups to what must have been the original Indo-European state of affairs. Most of the Slavic languages are distinguished by a full-bodied richness of consonant sounds, with practically all consonants appearing in a double series, non-palatal and palatal (e. g., Polish I, I; Serbo-Croatian rc, nj; Czech t, i). Often the palatal series is used before front vowels, the non-palatal before back vowels or where no vowel follows (e. g., Czech druh, comrade, but druzi, comrades; vojdk, soldier, but vojdci, soldiers). In grammar, the Slavic languages, with one exception, Bulgarian, have retained almost all of the original Indo-European system of noun declension, which means that nouns must often be learn- ed in as many as seven cases (nominative, genitive, dative, accusative, instrumental, locative or prepositional, and vocat- ive). The three grammatical genders, masculine, feminine and neuter, appear, but the majority of inanimate objects are masculine or feminine. The verb-system is relatively simple, only three true tenses (present, past and future) appearing in most cases, but this apparent simplicity is counterbalanced by the fact that many verbs appear in complicated double "aspects", "imperfective", to denote the action as occurring repeatedly or continually, and "perfective", to indicate that it occurs only once (e. g., Russian CTynaTb ($tucat')> to knock repeatedly, continually; noCTyMaTb (postucat9), to knock once; to translate "he knocked on the door", the past of the compounded verb must be used; to translate "he was knocking when I came' in", the past of the uncompounded verb appears). The Slavic languages also make abundant use of gerunds and participles, active and passive, present and past, which are often used where Germanic or Romance languages would use clauses (e. g., "he resembled a man who was losing his last hope and had left everything behind" may be translated into Russian by

12*

LANGUAGES OF THE SLAVIC GROUP

changing the construction to "he resembled a man losing his last hope and having left everything behind").

In sounds, in grammatical structure, and especially in vocabulary, the Slavic languages are far closer to one another than are the tongues of the Germanic or Romance groups. This similarity, in the spoken languages, is often so striking that they are to a considerable degree mutually comprehensible, and that it takes a trained ear to tell them apart. Accentuation is perhaps the best norm of general distinction. While Czech and Slovak normally accentuate on the first syllable of the word, the Polish stress regularly falls on the next to the last; the other languages, notably Russian, have a free accent, which means that words may be stressed, more or less unpredictably, on any syllable, and that the place of the accent for every given word must be individually learned. Serbo-Croatian tends to avoid final accentuation, distinguishes between long and short vowels, and has a certain amount of musical pitch; Czech and Slovak distinguish with extreme care between long and short vowels, and it is perfectly possible to have a short accented vowel and a long unaccented vowel in the same word; Polish, Bulgarian and Russian make no particular distinction between long and short vowels, but in Russian unstressed vowels tend to have a slurred and indistinct pronunciation. Polish preserves nasal vowels ($, §) which the other Slavic languages have changed to non-nasal sounds. Polish and Czech have a palata- lized r (rz, f) which does not appear in the other tongues.

The comparative similarity of the spoken Slavic tongues is offset by striking differences in their written appearance. Those Slavic nations which received Christianity, directly or indirectly, from Byzantium (Russians, Ukrainians, Serbs, Bulgars) have adopted a modified form of the Greek alphabet called Cyrillic, while the others (Czechs, Slovaks, Poles, Croats, Slovenes), who became Roman Catholics, use the Roman alphabet. This leads to such anomalies as a single, fairly unified spoken tongue like Serbo-Croatian appearing in written form in two alphabets (Yugoslav railway stations and postage stamps bear the identical names and inscriptions, first in

LANGUAGES OF THE SLAVIC GROUP 555

Cyrillic, then in Roman characters). The situation is further complicated by the fact that the peoples using either set of characters have devised entirely different arrangements to represent identical sounds ; thus, the ch of church is represented by cz in Polish, by c in Czech and Croatian ; the ny of canyon is nj in Croatian, n in Czech, n in Polish. There is a little more uniformity among the nations using the Cyrillic characters, but here too striking discrepancies appear (Russian Hb, Serbian fb, to represent ny; Russian Tb, Serbian h, to represent a palatalized t; while m, appearing in both Russian and Bulga- rian, has the value of As/ic/mrch in the former, of Ashton in the latter).

THE CYRILLIC ALPHABETS

The letters R, S, B, in parentheses indicate that the charac- ter in question appears in Russian, Serbian, or Bulgarian; thus, B, 6 (RSB) indicates that all three languages make use of the symbol; H, H (RB) shows that the symbol is used in Russian and Bulgarian, but not in Serbian; Jb (S), that it appears only in Serbian. OR indicates that the symbol was in use in Russian prior to the Soviet orthographical reform, and that it may be encountered in pre-Soviet writings, or occasionally even today, in the writings of conservatives. Ukrainian uses Russian orthography, with C replacing 3, and i used to soften a preceding consonant. The values given are the more usual ones; other values will be presented under the headings of the in- dividual languages.

Symbol Languages

A using it Customarv Value

cl *

B 6 (RSB) father (R unstressed the)

B B (RSB) but

r r (RSB) ?;oice

£ fl (RSB) good

'B f> (RSB) dear

E e (S) did you?

(RSB) jet (R); met (SB)

LANGUAGES OF THE SLAVIC GROUP

£ e	(K)	yore
>K >K	(RSB)	pleasure
3 3	(KSB)	zealous
M H	( RSB)	machine
PI H	(KB)	boy
I i	(OR, Ukr)	machine
J j	(S)	young
K k	(RSB)	kiss
JI n	(RSB)	/eave
jb •*	(S)	mi//ion
M M	(RSB)	man
H H	(RSB)	not
tt> H>	(S)	canyon
O o	(RSB)	or (R unstressed the)
n n	(RSB)	peel
P p	(RSB)	British very
C c	(RSB)	soon
T T	(RSB)	take
Ti h	(S)	hit you
y y	(RSB)	pool
0 (j>	(RSB)	/ather
X x	(RSB)	German ac/i
U u	(RSB)	its
q M	(RSB)	f/wroh
M M	(S)	John
in in	(RSB)	.s-iire
mm	(RB)	As/jc7mrch (R); Asfoon	(B)
T> -b	(OR,B)	silent (R) ; but (B) ; silent when
		final
bi H	(R)	rhythm
b b	(RB)	silent, but palatalizes
		preceding consonant.
•b t	(OR, B)	yet ( R ) ; yet, met, yard	(B)
3 3	(R)	met
K) K>	(RB)	wse
H H	(RB)	yard

LANGUAGES OF THE SLAVIC GROUP

357

0 e V v

(B)

(OR)

(OR)

but

/ather

machine

It will be noted that Serbian uses the single characters t), Jb, H>, h, where Russian uses the combinations Ab, Jib, Hb, Tb. Croatian uses the following combinations dj, (or d), Ij, nj, c.

Points of similarity and divergence will be noted in the discussion of the individual languages. Some of the resem- blances and differences among the major national Slavic tongues may be gathered from the following list (Russian and Bulgar- ian are given in Cyrillic characters; Serbo-Croatian is given in the Croatian form (Roman alphabet) ; Polish and Czech appear in their respective Roman alphabets).

English Russian

bird	nTHna
black bread	He'pHbift x,ne6
bring brother bull	HOCHTb 6par 6bIK
clean	MHCTblfl
day death dog drink	ACHb CMCpTb nec HHTb
eagle	ope^
ear	yxo
earth	36MJIH
field	no^e
fire	oroHb
foot	Hora
free	CB06OA!
gold good	30JIOTO
grass	Tpasa

Serbo-

Polish	Czech	Croatian	iBulgar
ptak	ptak	plica	nTHiia
czarny	cerny	cm	MepehTb
Meb	Meb	hljeb	X^^6"b
no sic	nositi	nositi	HOCfl
brat	bratr	brat	6pan>
byk	byk	bik	6HKT,
czysty	cisty	cist	MHCTfc
dzien	den	dan	A6Hb
smierc	smrt	smrt	CMT>pTb
pies	pes	pas	xyne
pic	piti	piti	HUH
orzel	orel	orao	ope^T>
ucho	ucho	uho (uvo)	yxo
ziemia	zeme	zemlja	36MH
pole	pole	polje	no.rie
ogieri	ohen	oganj	orbHb
noga	noha	noga	Hora
swobodny	svobodny	Slobodan	CBOCOJII
zioto	zlato	zlato	3.13TO
dobry	dobry	dobar	flo6T>pi>
trawa	trava	trava	TptBa

358

LANGUAGES OF THE SLAVIC GKOi'P

green	3e/ie'HbiH	zielony	zeleny	zelen	3e;ieni>
hand	pyna	r$ka	ruka	ruka	p^Ka
hard	TBe'pAblH	twardy	tvrdy	tvrd	TB-bpflb
head	rojioea	glow a	hlava	glava	niaua
heart	cepAue	scree	srdce	srce	CLp;ute
horse	KOHb	koii	kim	konj	KOHb
hunger	10,1 0.H	&tud	hlad	glad^	rvuub
husband	Mync	inqz	muz	m uz	MA\>KTj
iron	wejieao	zelazo	zelczo	zeljezo	>Ke/lt30
king	KOpO/Ib	krol	knd	kralj	Kpa.Tb
knife	HO>K	noz	tuiz	noz	HOKTa
know	3Haib	ZIH1C	zndti	znati	3Han
leaf	.IHCT	Use	list	list	JHCTTj
learn	yHHTbCfl	uczyc sig	uciti se	uciti se	yiia ce
man	He/IOBCK	czlowiek	clovek	covjek	HOBEICb
meat	MHCO	migso	maso	meso	Me co
milk	MOJIOKO	rnleko	mleko	mlijeko	MJltKO
night	IIOHb	noc	noc	noc	HOIllb
nose	HOC	nos	nos	nos	HOC"b
old	crapbiH	stary	slary	stari	crap^
play	Hrparb	grac	hrdti	igrati	Hrpan
read	'IHfaTb	rzytac	risti	citati	Hera
rich	GoraTbift	bogaty	bohaty	bo gat	6orarb
sea	Mope	morze	more	more	Mope
see	BHACTb	widziec	videti	vidjeti
sister	eecrpa	siostra	sestra	sestra	cecjpa
sky	nefjo	niebo	nebe	ne bo	He6e
small	Majibift	maly	maly	mali	Ma.TbKT,
son	CL>IH	syn	syn	sin	CHHl,
tree	;iepeBO	drzewo	strom	drvo	AT^PBO
truth	iipae/ia	praivda	pravda	is tin a	HCTHHa
water	BOAa	ivoda	voda	voda	Bo^a
one	ozum	jeden	jeden	jedan	ennH"b
two	/IB a	diva	dva	dva	AB3
three	rpa	trzy	tfi	tri	TpH
four	'lerupe	cztery	ctyri	cetiri	UCTHpH
five	IlflTb	pigc	pet	pet	neTb
six	iiiecib	szesc	sest	sest	mecTb
seven	CCMb	siedem	sedm	sedam	ce^eMb
eight	BOCCMb	osiem	osrn	osam	OCCMb
nine	ACBHTb	dziewigc	deuet	devet	JieBCTb
ten	AeCHTb	dziesigc	deset	deset	jieceib
eleven	onHHHaauai	'b jedenascie	jeden act	jedanaesH	CAHHaziece

LANGUAGES OF THE SLAVIC GROUP 359

twenty Asa/marfe dwadziescia dvacet dvadeset hundred CTO sto sto sto CTO

thousand TUCHH tysiqc tisic hiljada XHJISUU

SAMPLES OF THE WRITTEN SLAVIC LANGUAGES (RUSSIAN, WHITE RUSSIAN, UKRAINIAN, BULGARIAN ARE GIVEN IN CYRILLIC CHARACTERS; SERBO-CROA- TIAN IS GIVEN IN THE CROATIAN VERSION, IN ROMAN CHARACTERS; POLISH, CZECH, SLOVAK, SLOVENIAN, WENDISH APPEAR IN THEIR RESPECTIVE ROMAN ORTHOGRAPHIES).

John 3.16: "For God so loved the world that He gave His only-

begotten Son, that whosoever believeth in Him may not perish,

but may have everlasting life"

RUSSIAN: M6o TaK BO3JiK)6HJi Bor MHp, MTO OTA&JI

Cbma Ceoero eAHHOpoAHoro, Aa6bi BCHKHH, eepy-

IOIUHH B Hero, He norH6, HO HMCJI >KH3Hb BeHHyio.

WHITE RUSSIAN* Bo THK naJiK)6iy Bor cbBeT, IUTO

aAAay Cbma CBaftro AAsinapoAHara, Ka6 ycfud, XTO

Bepye y flro, HH armyy, a;ie Mey Kbiubue BeMnae.

UKRAINIAN: TaK 60 no;iK)6HB Bor cbsiT, iuo CHHa

CBOFO GAHHOpOAHoro A^B, mo6 KO>KCH, sipyiOHHH B

Hero, ne norH6, a Mas MCHTTS Binne.

POLISH: Albowiem tak Bog umiiowai swiat, ze Syna swego

jednorodzonego dat, aby kazdy, kto wen wierzy, nie zgin§l, ale

miai zywot wieczny.

CZECH: Nebo tak Bull miloval svet, ze Syna sveho jedno-

rozeneho dal, aby kazdy, kdoz vefi v neho, nezahynul, ale m$l

zivot vecny.

SLOVAK: Lebo tak miloval Boh svet, ze svojho jednorodeneho

Syna dal, aby kazdy, kto veri v neho, nezahynul, ale mal

vecny zivot.

WEND (or LUSATIAN) : Pschetoz tak je Boh ton Sswjet lubo-

wal, so won sswojeho jeniczkeho narodzeneho Ssyna dal je, so

bychu schitzy, kiz do njeho wjerja, shubeni nebyli, ale

wjeczne ziwenje mjeli.

LANGUAGES OF THE SLAVIC GROUP

SERBO-CROATIAN (in Croatian orthography): Jer Bog

toliko ljubi svet, da je i Sina svoga jedinorodjenoga dao, da ni

jedan koji u njega veruje ne propadne, nego da ima zivot

vjecni.

SLOVENIAN: Kajti tako je Bog ljubil svet, da je dal Sina

svojega edinorojenega, da se ne pogubi, kdorkoli veruje vanj,

temuc da ima vecno zivljenje.

BULGARIAN: SaiuoTO Borb TOJiK03T> o6HKHa

ne OTAaAe CBOH EAHHOpoAem? CHH-B, xa

KOHTO B-fepea B-b Hero, Aa He norHne, a Aa HMa

LANGUAGES OF THE SLAVIC GROUP 361

POLISH

ALPHABETIC NOTATION — a, $, b, c, c, d, e, & f, g, h, i, j, k, 1, }, m, n, n, o, 6, p, r, B, s, t, u, w, y, z, z, z, ch, cz, dz, dz, dz, sz, rz, szcz.

NOTES ON SOUNDS — Vowels are of approximately equal length; a, e, i, o, u (6) = respectively father, met, machine, or, moon. § -- nasalized or; £ = nasalized met (shut passage between nose and mouth at the same time that vowel is pro- nounced), c = its;

c, ci, cz = church (there are differences; c/iurch is only an approximation) ;

g = g°;

j = yes;

1 = million;

I = milk; in sections of Poland, = war;

n = canyon;

w = vain;

y = pin;

z (zi), z = measure (two variants of approximately same

sound ) ;

ch = German acA, but less guttural ; dz (dzi), dz = jump (two variants of approximately same

sound) ;

rz = s in measure;

s (si), sz = ash (two variants of approximately same sound) ; szcz = AsAcAurch.

The Polish stress normally falls on the next to the last syllable.

GRAMMATICAL SURVEY.

Nouns.

As in all Slavic languages there are three genders, masculine, feminine and neuter; but many inanimate objects are masculine or feminine. There is no article, definite or

LANGUAGES OF THE SLAVIC GROUP

indefinite1: krol may mean "king", "a king", "the king". Generally, nouns ending in consonants are masculine, those ending in -a feminine, those ending in -o or -e neuter.

Polish has seven cases (nominative, genitive, dative, accusative, vocative, instrumental and locative). These cases appear in nouns, adjectives and pronouns, and there is no way of avoiding them. Polish nouns fall into several distinct declen- sional schemes, of which only a few samples can be given.2

Example of the declension of a masculine noun: wuj, "uncle": wuj, -a, -owi, -a, -u, -em, -a; plural: wuj~owie, -6w, -om, -6w, -owie, -ami, -ach?

1. ten (fern, la, neut. to) is sometimes used with the value of "the", but it is more often translated by "this".

2. The endings of the seven cases will be given in the following order : nominative (case of subject) : genitive (or possessive; translated into English by "of" or 's) ; dative (translated into English by "to"); accusative (case of the direct object) ; vocative (used in direct ad- dress: "Oh, my friend!") ; instrumental (used with a variety of pre- positions, especially "by", "by means of") ; locative (used to denote place where, "in", "at"). These seven cases appear in all Slavic languages, with the exception of Bulgarian. The vocative for the most part has the same form as the nominative, while the accusative normally has the same form as the genitive in the case of animate persons or animals, as the nominative in the case of inanimate things. Cases are very much alive in the Slavic languages, and while an occasional slip may be forgiven, complete ignorance of case-endings is not tolerated.

3. Note that in this noun, denoting an animate person, the accusative has the same form as thd genitive; if the noun denoted an inanimate object, even though masculine in gender, the accusative would have the same form as the nominative: e. g. piec (masc.) "stove", ace. piec, not pieca. Note also that in Polish, when case endings are added the accent may shift from the root to the ending: thus, wuj a, but wujowie (italics indicate syllable to be accented). This is due to the fact that the Polish rule of accentuation is to stress the next to the last syllable, regardless whether it is part of the root or of the ending.

LANGUAGES OF THE SLAVIC GROUP 363

Example ol the declension of a feminine noun: baba, "old

woman".

bab-a, -y> -ie, -£, -o, -q, -ie; plural: bab-y, - , -om, -y, -y, -ami, -ach.

Example of the declension of a neuter noun: pole, "field": pol-e, -a, -u, -e, -e, -em, -u; plural: pol-a, pol, pol-om, -a, -a, -ami,

Adjectives.

These agree in gender, number, and case with the noun to which they refer. They also fall into distinct declensional schemes, of which only one type can be given here: dobry, "good":

Animate Inanimate Masc. PL ; Masc. Sg. Fern. Sg. Neut. Sg. Masc. PL Fern, and Neut. PL

dobr-y *a -e -zy *e

-ego -ej -ego -ych -ych

-emu -ej -emu -ym -ym

-ego (-y) -q -e -ych -e

-y -a -e -zy -e

-ym -q -ym -ymi -ymi

-ym -ej -ym -ych -ych

Comparative and superlative forms of the adjectives are also fully declined. The comparative usually inserts -sz- be- tween the root and the ending, while the superlative normally prefixes naj- to the comparative: star-y, "old" ; star-sz-y, "older"; naj-star-sz-y, "oldest".

The adverb is generally formed by replacing the -y or -i of the masculine singular nominative adjective ending by -o 01 -e, respectively: wolny, "slow"; wolno, "slowly".

Pronouns.

These are all fully declined, in seven cases. Where th* declension i? given, the order of the cases is the same as for nouns

LANGUAGES OF THE SLAVIC GROUP

Personal.

"I", "of me", "to me", "me", etc.: ja, mnie, mnie, mi$ or

rnnie, - , mnq, mnie;

"we", "of us", etc.: my, nas, nam, nas, - , nami, nas; "you" (familiar singular): ty, ciebie, tobie, ciebie or cig, ty,

tobq, tobie; "you" (fam. pi. and polite sg.) : wy, was, warn, was, wy, wami,

was',

"he", "his", "to him", etc.: on, jego, jemu, /ego, • , nim9 nim; "she", "her", "to her", etc.: ona, jej, jej, jq, - , niq, niej; "it", "its", "to it", etc,: ono, jego, jemu, je, - , nim, nim; "they", "of them", etc. (masc. and fern.): oni, ich, im, ich, - ,

nimi, nich; "they", etc. (neuter) : one, ich, im, je, - , nimi, nich.

Possessive (fully declined, in seven cases).

"my": mo/, fern, mo/a, neut. moje;

"your" (fam. sg.) : twoj, twoja, twoje;

"his", "her", "its", "their": swoj, swoja, swoje;

"our": nasz, nasza, nasze;

"your" (plural and polite singular): wasz, wasza, wasze.

Demonstrative (fully declined, in seven cases).

"this", "these": ten, ta, lo\ plural: ci, te, te; "that", "those": tamten, tamta, tamto; plural: tamci, tamte, tamte.

Relative and Interrogative (fully declined).

"who", "whose", "whom": kto (gen. kogo, dat. komu, ace.

kogo, instr. and loc. kim) ; "what", "which", "that": co (gen. czego, dat. czemu, ace. co,

instr. and loc. czym).

Verbs.

These display the customary Slavic poverty of tenses, coupled with the complication of "aspects". The infinitive usually ends in -c: kochac, to love.

LANGUAGES OF THE SLAVIC GROUP

The present indicative generally adds the endings -mt -sz, - , -my, -tie, -(j)q to the root, which is found by dropping the -<5 of the infinitive: kocham, kochasz, kocha, kochamy, kochacie, kochajq, 1 love, you love, etc. The present of bye, "to be", is: jestem, jestes, jest, jestesmy, jestescie, sq.

The past participle is formed by adding to the stem the suffixes -I (masc.), Jo, (fern.), -lo (neut.), -H (masc. plural), -ty (fern, and neut. pi.): kochal, kochala, kochalo, kochali, kochaly, loved.

The past tense is formed by adding the suffixes -m, -J, - , ~smy, -scie, - , to the past participle in the appropriate form: thus, I loved (masculine "I"), kochalem; (feminine "I"), kochalam; he loved, kochal (past part, without ending); she loved, kochala; it loved, kochalo; we loved, kochalismy (fern. kochalysmy) ; they loved, kochali or kochaly.

The past tense of bye is: bylem (fern, bylam) ; byles (f. bylas); byl (f. byla, neut. bylo); bylismy (neut. bylys- my); byliscie (bylyscie); byli (byly).

A present perfect tense is formed by combining the past of the verb with the past of bye: kochalem byl (fern, kochalam byla), I have loved.

The future of bye is: bgdg, bgdziesz, bgdzie, bgdziemy, bgdziecie, bgdq. Other verbs form their future by combining this future of bye with their past participle or infinitive (both forms are current): I shall love, b$d$ kochal (kochala), or b$d$ kochac.

Other tenses include a present and a past conditional (the former is formed by inserting -by- between the participle and the personal ending: kochal-by-m, I should love; the latter by adding to the present conditional the past of bye: kochalbym byl, I should have loved) ; an imperative (kochaj, love thou!; kochajcie, love ye!, kochajmy9 let us love); and several part- iciples (kochajqc, loving; kochal, loved; kochawszy, having loved; kochany, being loved; majqc kochac, about to love); and a gerund (kochanie, loving).

A complete passive voice appears, formed by means of

LANGUAGES OF THE SLAVIC GROUP

the verb bye combined with the passive past participle, which ends in -ny or -ty : jestem kochany, I am loved; bylem bity, I was beaten; b$d$ chwalony, I shall be praised.

IDENTIFICATION

In spoken form, Polish can be isolated from its kindred Slavic languages by reason of its constant accent on the next to the last syllable, as well as by its nasal sounds ($, §), which appear in no other modern language of the group. In written form, Polish is distinguished: 1. by the fact that it uses the Roman alphabet; this distinguishes it at once from Russian, Ukrainian, Serbian, Bulgarian, and restricts the possibility of confusion to Czech, Slovak, Croatian or Slovenian; 2. by its distinctive characters, 3, £, 1, which appear in no other Slavic tongue; other fairly distinctive symbols of Polish are n, s, z, z; 3. by certain fairly distinctive consonant combinations: dz, dz, dz, rz, szcz. Polish alone, among the national Slavic tongues, uses w.

WORDS AND PHRASES

pan, pani, panna, "sir" (Mr.), "madam" (Mrs.), "Miss"

czy Pan mowi po polsku?, "do you speak Polish?"

rozumiem trochg, **I understand a little"

tah, "yes" me, "no", "not" prosz?, "please"

dzi$kuj& "thank you"

dzien dobry, "good morning"

dobranoc, "good night"

jak si$ Pan ma?, "how are you?"

j ok si$ Pan nazywa?, "what is your name?"

przepraszam, "excuse me"

dobry wieczor, "good evening"

do widzenia, "good-bye"

kto tarn jest? "who is there?"

ktora godzina teraz?, "what time is it?"

jest trzecia godzina, "it is three o'clock"

ANGUAGES OF THE SLAVIC GROUP

iema za co, "don't mention it"

zy pan rozumie?, "do you understand?"

ie rozumiem, "I don't understand"

le (to kosztuje) ?, "how much?"

> za drogo, "too much"

ardzo, "very much"

ik sig idzie do — ?, "which is the way to — ?"

dzie jest — ?, "where is — ?"

a zdrowie!, "to your health!"

rzynies mi, "bring me"

low powoli, laskawie mowic powoli, "speak more slowly"

obrze, "all right"

zstem chory, "I am ill"

SAMPLE OF WRITTEN POLISH; USE FOR PRACTICE READING

"Kelner, prosze mi dac kart£; jestem bardzo glodny."

— "'Zaraz j§ przynios£, prosz£ Pana." — "Prosz§ mi rzyniesc kapusniak i sztuke^ mi^sa; chc^ wolowin^ smazona."

— "Mi^so jest twarde dzisiaj, prosz$ Pana." — "Czy ma Pan >ieczon§ kur^?" — "Tak, Panie, mamy." — UA teraz przynies li Pan piwa." — "Prosz£ zrobic rachunek. He si§ nalezy?" — 'Dziewi^cdziesi^t centow." — "Tu jest cos dla was." —

Panu."

TRANSLATION

"Waiter, please give me the bill of fare; I am very lungry." — "I'll bring it at once, (please) Sir." — "Please >ring me some cabbage soup and boiled beef; I want the beef veil done." — "The meat is tough today, (please) Sir." — 'Have you roast chicken?" — "Yes, Sir, we have." — "And low bring me some beer." — "Please make out the bill. How nuch is it?" — "Ninety cents." — "Here is something for rou." — "Thank you, Sir."

LANGUAGES OF THE SLAVIC GROUP

CZECH

ALPHABETIC NOTATION — a, a, b, c, c, d, (T, e, e, f, g, h, ch, i, i, j, k, 1, m, n, n, o, 6, p, r, f, s, s, t, t, u, li, u, v, y, y, z, z.

NOTES ON SOUNDS — Vowels bearing the accent mark are definitely long; the others are definitely short. There is not much difference in quality between any long vowel and its corresponding short; sound a, e, i, o, u as father, met, machine, obey, pool, prolonged or shortened, according as they bear or do not bear the accent mark. c = its; c = cAurch ; (T = did you ; e = yes;

g = £°;

ch = German ac/i;

n = carayon;

r = r combined with s in measure;

s = jure;

t,v = hit you ;

u, u = food;

y = rhythm, long or short, according as it bears or does not

bear accent mark; z — measure.

The Czech accent is normally on the initial syllable of the word. The accent mark indicates length of a vowel, not the place where the stress falls.

GRAMMATICAL SURVEY.

The grammatical structure is very similar to that of Polish. The same seven cases appear, for nouns, adjectives and pro- nouns, and they very frequently correspond to the Polish forms. The same holds true for verb-forms.

HGVAGES OF THE SLAVIC GROUP

There is no article, definite or indefinite, ample of the declension of a masculine noun: had, "snake": d9 -a, -ovi (or -H), -a, -e, -em, -ovi (or -a); plural: had-i r -ove), -u9 -urn, -y, -i (or -ove), -y, -ech. ample of the declension of a feminine noun: ryfea, "fish": &-a, -y, -e, -u, -o, -OM, -e; plural: ry6-y, - , -am, -y, -y,

•ami, -acA.

ample of the declension of a neuter noun: mesto, "town": ?sf-o, -a, -u, -o, -o, -em, -a; plural: mest-a, - , -urn, -a, -a,

-y, -ecA. ample of the declension of an adjective: dobry, "good":

is. Sg. Fern. Sg. Neut. Sg. Mas. PL Fern. PL Neut. PL

frr-y •eho -emu -eho

•y

-ym -em

le verb byti, "to be":

esent: jsem, /si, jest (;e), /sme, jste, jsou;

ist Participle: byl (fern. 6y/a, neut. 6yZo; mas. pi. 6y/i, fern.

pi. fey/y); tst: 6y/ /5em, byl jsi, byl (by Ia9 bylo)\ byli jsme* byli jste,

byli (byly);

iture: budu, budes, bude, budeme, budete, budou; luviti, "to speak": esent: mluvi-m, -s, - , -me, -te, -; ist: mluvil jsem; Future: budu mluviti.

IDENTIFICATION

In spoken form, Czech is identified by its initial stress d by long but unaccented vowel-sounds. In written form, ;ech is distinguished: 1. by the fact that it uses the Roman

-d	-e	dobf-i	dobr-e	dobr-d
-e -e	-eho -emu	dobr-ych -ym	-ych -ym	-ych -ym
-ou	-e	-e	-e	•d
-d	-e	dobr-i	dobr-e	dobr-d
-ou -e	-ym -em	dobr-ymi -ych	-ymi -ych	-ymi -ych

LANGUAGES OF THE SLAVIC GROUP

alphabet; 2. by its distinctive characters e, u, f, which do not appear in Polish or Croatian; 3. by the large number of characters with hooks over them; Croatian shares this char- acteristic (c, s, £), but note that Czech has (T, n, f, while Croatian has dj (or d) nj, c. It is easy to distinguish Czech from Polish by the distinctive characters of the two languages (Polish q, g, I, z; Czech e, u, r) ; by the fact that Polish uses accents over consonants (c, n, s, z), while Czech uses hooks (c, n, s, z } ; by the fact that Polish uses consonant combina- tions (cz, dz, sz, rz, szcz] which never appear in Czech; and by the Polish use of w as against the Czech use of v.

WORDS AND PHRASES

dobry den, "good day"; dobre rdno, "good morning"

dobrou noc, "good night"; dobry vecer, "good evening"

nazdar, "to your health, good luck"

mam hlad> "I am hungry"

kolik je hodin?, "what time is it?"

jest sest hodin, "it is six o'clock"

dekuji, "thank you"; bu&te vitdn, "you're welcome"

prosim, "please"

pan, "sir"; pani, "madam"; slecna, "miss"

jak se mate?, "how are you?; velmi dobre, "very well"

sbohem, (or p Bohem) 4*good-bye"

dovolte, prominte, "excuse me"

rozumite?, "do you understand?"

nerozumim, "I don't understand"

ano, "yes" ne, "no"

kolik? 9 "how much?"

kudy se jde do — ?. "which is the way to — ?"

kde je — ?, "where is — ?"

mluvite anglicky?, "do you speak English?"

mluvte pomaleji, "speak more slowly"

LANGUAGES OF THE SLAVIC GROUP

SERBO-CROATIAN

ALPHABETIC NOTATION4 — a, b, v, g, d, dj (d), e, z, z, i, j, k, 1, Ij, m, n, nj, o, p, r, s, t, c, u, f, h, c, c, dz, I.

NOTES ON SOUNDS — Vowels in Serbo-Croatian are long or short, but the fact is not usually indicated in writing. The following accent marks are occasionally used to indicate two degrees of length plus a rising or falling intonation: v, \ ', '\ g — go; dj = did you; z = measure; j = yes; Ij = mi//ion; nj = onion; c — hit you; c = its; c = c/mrch; dz = John; s = sure.

There is no definite rule of accentuation in Serbo-Croatian, but in words of more than one syllable the stress never falls on the last, although the vowel of the last syllable may be quite long, especially in genitive plural endings and in certain verb-forms.

GRAMMATICAL SURVEY.

The general structure is similar to that indicated for Polish. The cases of nouns, adjectives and pronouns often correspond in form and use, as also do verb-forms.

Example of the declension of a masculine noun: jelen, "deer": jelen, -a9 -u, -a, -e, -om, -u; plural: jelen-i, -a, -ima, -e, -i, -i/Tia, -ima.

Example of the declension of a feminine noun : z ena, "woman" : zen-a, -e, -i, -u, -o, -om, -i; plural: zen-e, -a, -ama, -e, -e, -ama, -ama-

Example of the declension of a neuter noun: polje, "field": polj-e, -a, -u, -e, -e, -em, -u\ plural: polj-a, -a, -ima, -a, -0, -ima, -ima.

4. This is given in the Croatian version (Roman alphabet) ; Serbian uses Cyrillic characters, as follows: a, 6, B, r, fl, 1), e, 5K, 3, H, j, K, n, n>9 M, H, H>, o, n, p, c, T, h, y, $, x, u, H, v, 111.

-a	-o	-i	•e	•a
-e	-oga	-ih	•ih	•ih
-oj	•ome	•im	•im	•im
-u	•o	-e	-e	-a
-a	-o	•i	•e	-a
-om	-im	-im	-im	-im
-oj	-om	•im	•im	•im

LANGUAGES OF THE SLAVIC GROUP

Example of the declension of an adjective: dobri, "good": Mas. Sg. Fern. Sg. Neut. Sg. Mas. PI. Fern, PI. Neut. PL

dobr-i (dobar) -oga •ome -oga •i

•im -om

The verb biti, "to be":

Present: (je)sam, (je)si, je (or jest), (je)smo, (je)ste, (je)su.

Past: beh, bese, bese, besmo, beste, behu; or sam bio (bila),

si bio, etc.

Future: bicu, bices, bice, bicemo, bicete, bice. The verb citati, "to read": Present: cita-m, -s, • , -mo, >te, -ju. Past: cita-h, ~se, -se, -smo, -ste, ~hu. Present Perfect: sam, si, je citao (citala) ; smo, ste, su citali

(citale). Future: 6u9 cei, 6e, cemo, cete, ce citati; or citacu, citaces,

citace, etc.

IDENTIFICATION

A more melodious intonation than appears in other Slavic languages is noticeable in Serbo-Croatian. An accentuation which is never final, often (but not exclusively) initial, never exclusively penultimate, also serves to identify the spoken form. In writing, Croatian uses the Roman alphabet; it may be distinguished from Polish and Czech by its use of the combinations dj, Ij, nj. Serbian uses the Cyrillic alphabet, and can be distinguished from Russian and Bulgarian by its use of the symbols 1), h, H>, ;t», IJ, j.

INGUAGES OF THE SLAVIC GROUP

WORDS AND PHRASES

worite li srpski?, "do you speak Serbian?" >6ar dan, "good day"

govorite toko brzo, "don't speak so fast" >6ro jutroy "good morning"

iko ste, gospodjice?, "how are you, young lady?" lo dobro, "quite well" epo je vrijeme, "it's fine weather" >6ra vecer, "good evening"

tate li dobrog vina?, "have you some good wine?" ku noc, "good night" ,cak je gotov, "dinner is ready" vase zdravlje, "to your health" diko je sati?, "what time is it?" d je osam sati, -'it is 8 o'clock". vinite, "excuse me" Bogom, "good-bye" olim vas, "please" ;a/cr, "thank you" ima zasto, "don't mention it" )liko ovo iznosi?, "how much is this?"

je i suvise, "it's too much" izumete li?, "do you understand?" ? razumem, "I don't understand" i (ne), gospodine, "yes (no), sir" ula se ide ka — ?, "which is the way to — ?" le je —?, "where is — ?" mesite mi, "bring me" ir ne?, "isn't it so?" jvorite polako, "speak more slowly obodno, "come in'" 10 mi je, "I'm sorry" ozda, "maybe" jlestan sam, "I'm ill"

LA!\GUAGES OF THE SLAVIC GROUP

BULGARIAN

ALPHABETIC NOTATION (in Cyrillic script; see Cyrillic chart, p. 355-357) :

a, 6, B, r, A, e, >K, 3, H, H, K, ji, M, H, o, n, p, c, T, y, 4>f x, u, q, 111, in, -b, b, t, jo, a, K.

NOTES ON SOUNDS — Vowels have no distinctive length or

shortness.

r = go; >K — measure; e = there; U = ifs; H = church;

Ui nrr sure; IK, — Ashton', T> = bwt; however, it is

silent at tlie end of a word; b is always silent; t = yes

(occasionally yard); H = ycrrd; K) = you; & = but.

There is no special rule of accentuation, but, unlike Serbo- Croatian a word may have the accent on the last syllable. The syllable on which the accent falls is not indicated in writing, and must be learned for each separate word.

GRAMMATICAL SURVEY.

Bulgarian differs radically from all other Slawc tongues: 1. in having a full-fledged definite article; 2. in having reduced all case-forms to a single form (with, often, a separate vocative, and a few traces of other old cases).

The Bulgarian article is placed after the noun, and is attached to it. Its forms are: masc. sg., Tl>; fem. sg.? TB; neut. sg., TO; plural: masc., Tb; fem., rb; neut. Ta. npHHTCJIb, friend, a friend; npHHTeJIbTb, the friend; npHHTeJIH, friends; npHHTeJiHrfe, the friends; PJiaea, head, a head; TJiaeaTa, the head; FJiaBH, heads; FJiaBHTb, the heads;

CCJIO, village, a village; CCJIOTO, the village; CCJia, villages; ceJiaxa, the villages.

Adjectives follow these schemes, and if they precede the noun, the article is attached to them: AoSpHHTb fipaTb, the good brother; 6paTbTb e #o6'bp'b, the brother is good;

a Maflna, the good mother; MaflKara e Ao6pa,

LANGUAGES OF THE SLAl'IC GROiP

the mother is good; AoSpOTO BHHO, the good wine; BHHOTO e £C)6pO, the wine is good; in the plural a single form is used for all genders, even the article assuming a single form: Ao6pHTfe npHHTCJIH, the good friends; £o6pHrb MEHKH, the good mothers; #o6pHrb BHHH, the good wines.

The Bulgarian verb has all the complications that appear in other Slavic tongues, plus a number of tenses, both simple and compound, which no longer appear in the others (Imperfect, Pluperfect, Future Perfect, etc.). The verb "to be" has the following present tense: CbM-b, CH, C, CMC, CTC, CA The verb "to call" has the following present:

BHKaiVTb, BHKaillb, BHKa, BHKEMC, BHKaTC, BHKaTb

IDENTIFICATION

Bulgarian appears in Cyrillic characters. It may be distinguished from Russian by the presence of the symbols t>, t, which modern Russian has discarded, and, particularly, of the symbol &. The constant appearance of the endings -TT>, -Ta, -TO, -Tt, -Ta (suffixated definite articles) also serves to inform the reader or hearer that he is dealing with Bulgarian. In speech, the fairly frequent final stress of Bulgarian will serve to distinguish it from Polish, Czech and Serbo-Croatian, though not from Russian.

WORDS AND PHRASES

a3T> FOBOpH 6l>«7irapCKH, "I speak Bulgarian" Bee eflHO, "it's all the same to me" KOJIKO e MacbTb, "what is the time?"

e TpH, "it's 3 o'clock" #e, "tell me" BHHMaBafl!, "look out!" c6orOM'b, "good-bye"

ACHb, "good day" yTpO, "good morning" #o6pa BCHepb, "good evening** HOmb, "good night".

RUSSIAN 377

CHAPTER XI

RUSSIAN

SPEAKERS AND LOCATION

(All Population Figures Are Approximate)

Russian is the chief language of the Soviet Union, with a population of 171,000,000 (131,000,000 in Europe, 40,000,- 000 in Asia). Russian proper (or Great Russian) is spoken as a primary language by about 100,000,000, and if its kindred tongues, Ukrainian and White Russian, are included, by over 130,000,000. It is spoken as a secondary language by over half of the remaining population of the Soviet Union, and by large numbers of people in territories once subject to Russia (Finland, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Bessarabia). The liberal linguistic and cultural policy of the Soviet Union has made many lesser tongues of the Union co-official with Russian (Ukrainian, White Russian, Georgian, Armenian, etc.). Russian settlers have, however, spread the use of Russian throughout Asiatic Russia, particularly along central Siberia, to the far eastern provinces and Vladivostok. The number of nationalities in the Soviet Union is listed at 49 basic ones (over 20,000 members), and 100 smaller ones (less than 20,000). Ukrainian speakers account for some 28,000,000; White Russian speakers are about 5,000,000. Both these languages are at least partly comprehensible to Russian speakers. The number of Russian speakers outside of Europe and Asia is not considerable, though some millions of people of Russian origin have settled in the Western Hemisphere (they come, however, largely from territories where Great Russian is not the primary tongue).

13

RUSSIAN ALPHABET AND SOUNDS1

Aa E<5 BB Tr ZU Ee e

Jia $(TM & 3)* £**

0

>K>K 33 HH KK J\J\ MM

J^IMC us^ Uw Jin

/

HH

Yy

LUm

Oo Fin UO Jltls <	Pp Cc TT Jn/ Cc Jliiru
4>4> Xx $cp Xx i	Uu HH Him faVtWu,,
3s KDio ,&Mio	5\n b y H "b tSuSU b bi/ U/ u

1. The older Russian alphabet, used under the Tsars, contained also: the letter i, interchangeable in value, but not in use, with H; i was used regularly in connection with another vowel (Poccifl, today spelled POCCHH) ; the letter T>, which was silent, but served to indicate a "hard", or non-palatal pronunciation of the preceding consonant; it appeared for the most part at the end of words, very seldom within the word; in the latter position, which is exceedingly rare, it has been retained; the letter t, interchangeable in value, but not in use, with e; the letters v and e, interchangeable in value, respectively, with H and <j>» and used in religious words borrowed from the Greek (CVHOA. synod; pulpit). See also Cyrillic alphabet, p. 355-357.

RUSSIAN J7P

Vowel Sounds.

a = father (stressed); bacon, (unstressed):

pencil ; e — yes (more or less distinct, according as it is stressed or

unstressed): CCTb, to eat; CAS, food; C — Forick3: MCA, honey; H = machine: HMH, name; H — May (this character is never used after a consonant).

MaH, May;

O — or (stressed); bacon (unstressed): XOpOUIO, well: y — food: yxo, ear; bl = rhjthm (this sound has no exact equivalent in English;

it is best described as an attempt to pronounce feed with

the front part of the mouth and food with the back of the

tongue, at the same time): 6bIJI, was; 3 — met: 9TOT, this; b has no value of its own, but serves to palatalize the preced-

ing consonant: TOBOpHTb, to speak; K) — you: JIK)6jIK), I love; H = yard: HpMapKa, village fair; H3WK, tongue.

It is to be noted that all Russian vowels tend to have a less distinct enunciation when unstressed than when stressed; this is particularly noticeable in the case of a and O, which have practically the sound of the when unstressed (they are clearer in the syllable immediately preceding the stressed syllable).

2. The "position of the accent does not appear in written Russian; the stressed vowel, in words of more than one syllable, is indicated throughout this chapter, for the convenience of the reader, by the use of heavy type.

3. e is always stressed; the stress will therefore not be indicated on words containing e; written Russian (save in children's books) does not generally use the double dot on e, with the result that beginners arc often left in doubt whether e or e is indicated.

RUSSIAN

Consonant Sounds.

6, B, R, 3, K, JI, M, H, n, T, (J), approximately like English b, v, d, z, k, 1, m, n, p, t, f, respectively.4

F ™ go: MHOro, much, many;" >K — measure: >KeHH, wife; p = British very: POCCHH, Russia; C ~ 50, in all positions: COIO3, union, alliance; X = German ach: Xpa6pbIH, brave; xyjIOH, bad; U = its: uepKOBb, church; H = cAill: HCpHblH, black; UJ — sure: UieCTb, six;

IH = Ashchurdn; 6opm, beet soup; meKH, cheek; >KeHlUHHa, woman.

There is no rule for Russian accentuation, and the place of the accent is not ordinarily indicated in writing. The stress may fall on any syllable, and each word must be learned with its own stress; furthermore, the stress in the same word often changes position according to the case-form used (MyxCHK, peasant; bat My>KHKa, of the peasant), and from the singular

4. Russian consonants, however, tend to become palatalized when followed by vowels containing the y-sound as their first element (e, e, H, b, K), H). In many cases the palatalization is instinctive for an English speaker; thus, B followed by a "hard" vowel (a, o, y. hi. a) will naturally assume the sound of invoke, while if it is followed by a "soft" vowel (e, e, H, b, K), H) it will naturally assume the sound of view; 6 will be pronounced as in booty or as in beauty, respectively: n as in pat or in pure, etc. In the case of T, #. ji, H, the *4soft" pronuncia- tion, when one of the "soft" vowels follows, will go as far as hit you, did you, mi//r*on, owion, respectively denepb, now; .aejiaTb. to do: Jiio60Bb, love; flCHb, day).

5. Final voiced consonants (6, B, r. A, 3. >K) tend to assume the corresponding unvoiced pronounciation i p, f, k, t, s, sh) ; thus, 3y6, tooth, is pronounced zoop; POMHHOB la family name), Romano/; Apyr, friend, drook; ACfl, grandfather, tlyet; pa3, time, ras; My>K, husband, moosh.

VSSIAN

> the plural (BOAS, water, but BOAbI, waters). While a lisplaced accent is not an unforgivable crime, some care should e taken to avoid too many wrong accentuations,

SAMPLE OF WRITTEN RUSSIAN; USE FOR PRACTICE READING.

MaJIbMHK pHHO HEMaJI VHHTbCH H C pHHHHX J1CT OJIK)6HJI KHHFH, B KOTOpblX ODHCblBaJIHCb BOHHbl H

oxoAbi. FlHTHaAuaTH JICT MOJIOAOH CyBOpOB ocTynHji Ha BoeHHyK) aiy>K6y, H pocjiy>KHJi npocTbiM cojiAaxoM. He 6buio cnpaBHee ero: OH BCTasaji panbiue ApyrMx, caM HCTHJI ce6e canorH H njiaTbe H CTOUJI na qacax o BCHKyio noroAy. >KHJI OH BMCCTC c npocTWMH ojiAaraMH H eji cojiAaxcKHe IUH H Kaiiiy; 6biji cerAa CMe^ H BCCCJI H CMCIIIHJI CBOHX TOBapHiueft ecejibiMH myxKaMH H paccnasaMH. Bee JiK)6HjiH ro. KorAa OH cxaji o(J)HuepoM H oJiAaraMH, sciOAy na BOHHC OH no6e>KAaji ejiH. "Pe6flTa," rosopHji CysopOB cojiAaraivi, "B AHTC BnepeA Ha Bpara. He 6ecnoKOHTecb o TOM,

nepeA B3MH HenpHflreJieft. BH HX, a He

GRAMMATICAL SURVEY . — Nouns.

Russian has no article, definite or indefinite; Apyr means friend", "a friend", "the friend".

There are three genders, masculine, feminine and neuter; ut inanimate objects are often masculine or feminine. The nding generally helps to determine the gender of a noun. [ouns ending in consonants or -H are generally masculine, lose ending in -a or -H (and most of those ending in -b) jminine, those in -O, -e or -MH neuter.

382

RUSSIAN

Russian has six cases: nominative, genitive, dative, accusative, instrumental, and locative or prepositional (a separate vocative appears in a few words only, and need not be considered). These cases and their endings are alive, and have to be reckoned with; while an occasional error in case or ending is forgivable, too many such errors will make the language incomprehensible to the native.

There are numerous declensional schemes, but the follow- ing are the most common. The endings are given in the order indicated above.

Masculine Nouns.

Singular: — , -a, -y, -a or — ,° -OM, -e; Plural: -bl, -OB, -aM, -OB or -bl,6 -aMH, -ax.

(Decline thus: O(J)Huep, O(|)Huepa, etc., officer; CTOJI, CTOJia, etc., table; OTCU, OTU8, etc., father).

Singular: -ft, -H, -K), -H or -H, -CM, -e; Plural: -H, -CB, -HM, -CB or -H, -HMH, -HX.

(Decline thus: repOH, repOfl, etc., hero).

Singular: -b, -H, -K), -H or -b, -CM, -C; Plural: -H, -CH, -HM, -eft or -H, -HMH, -HX.

(Decline thus: npHHTCJIb, npHHTeJIH, etc., friend; py6;ib, pygjifl, etc., ruble).

Feminine Nouns.

Singular: -a, -bl, -e, -y, -OK) (-OH), -6; Plural: -bl, — , -aM, — or -bl, -aMH, -ax.

(Decline thus: ^KCHliJHHa, ^KCHIUHHbl, etc. woman; BOHHH, BOHHbl, etc.; plural BOHHbl, etc., war).

6. Masculine nouns in hoth singular and plural, and feminine nouns in the plural only make their accusative form coincide with the genitive if a living person or animal is denoted, with the nominative if an inan- imate object appears; thus, the accusative of 0(J3HU.ep and oieu is ocjwuepa and orna, respectively; but the accusative of CTO/I is ciXMt.

7SS/,4,V

ingular: -H, -H, -e, -K), -eiO (-eft), -6 (if nominative has H jfore H, dative and prepositional have -H instead of -e) ; lural: -H, -h, -HM, -b or -H, -HMH, -HX.

(Decline thus: nyCTblHH, nyCTMHH, etc., desert; OCCHH, Russia), ingular: -b, -H, -H, -b, -bK>, -H; lural: -H, -eft, -HM, -eft or -H, -HMH, -HX.

(Decline thus: FIOCTCJlb, FIQCTejlH, etc., bed; £BCpb, BCpH, etc.; plural ABCpH, but JlBepeft, ABepHM, etc., door).

euter Nouns.

ingular: -o, -a, -y, -O, -OM, -e;

lural: -a, — , -aM, -a, -aMH, -ax.

(Decline thus: MacJIO, Maoia, etc., butter; MCCTO, ecra, etc., plural MeCTa, etc., place; CCJIO, CCJia, etc., 'ural CCJia, etc., village).

ingular: -e, -H, -K), -e, -CM, -e (-H if nom. ends in -He); lural: -H, -eft (-HH if nom. sg. ends in -He), -HM, -H, -HMH, (X.

(Decline thus: MOpe, MOpH, etc., plural Mopfl, etc., sea; OJie, nOJIH, etc.; plural ROJIH, etc., field; SA^HHC, [^aHHH, etc., building), ingular: -MH, -M6HH, -MCHH, -MH, -MeHCM, -MCHH;

lural: -Mena, -Men, -MenaM, -Mena, -MenaMH, -Menax.

(Decline thus: BpCMH, BpeMCHH, etc.; plural BpeMCHa, peMCH, etc., time; HMH, HMCHH etc.; plural HMCHa, HMCH, c., name).

These schemes are perhaps less complicated than they jpear at first glance. Note that in neuter nouns, and in asculine nouns denoting inanimate objects, the accusative has e same form as the nominative, while in masculine nouns ^noting living things it has the same form as the genitive; >te also the almost invariable -OM, -CM of the instrumental ngular, the -e of the prepositional singular, the -aM or -HM f the dative plural, the -aMH or -HMH of the instrumental ural, and the -ax or -HX of the prepositional plural. Note

384 RUSSIAN

also that in neuter nouns the accent of the plural is usually on a different syllable from that of the singular.

2. — Adjectives and Adverbs.

Adjectives agree in number, gender and case with the nouns they modify. The following is the most common scheme of adjective declension:

Singular Plural

Masc. Fern. Neut. (all genders)

Nom. -HH -an -oe -bie

Gen. -oro7 -OH -oro -bix

Dat. -oiviy -OH -OMy -HM

Ace. -oro -yK) -oe Genitive or Nominative,

or -blft according as the noun is

living or inanimate

Instr. -bIM -OH (-OK)) -bIM -bIMH

Loc. -OM -OH -OM -blX

(Decline thus: CTapblH, old; Tpy^HblH, difficult).

Two common variants of this scheme are: -HH, -HH, -ee (the "hard" vowel changes to the corresponding "soft" one throughout: a becomes H, bl becomes H, O becomes 6, y becomes K); decline thus: paHHHH, early) ; and -OH, -3H, -Oe, genitive -OFO, -OH, -OFO, etc., like the -blft type, save that the stress is on the ending (decline thus: npOCTOH, simple).8

If the adjective is used after the verb "to be", it assumes the following forms: masc. sg., — ; fern. sg. -a; neut. sg., -0; plural (all genders), -bl: CTap, CTapa, CTapO, plural CTHpbl, old; TpyACH, TpyAHH, Tpy#HO, plural TpyflHM, difficult;

7. In the genitive endings -ro, -ero, -oro of adjectives and pronouns, the r is always pronounced as v.

8. If the adjective root ends in r, >K, K, x, M, w, m, the following replacements must be made: H for bi, a for H, y for K); if it ends in U, H and 10 must be replaced by a, y; if it ends in >K, u, H, ui, in, o must be replaced by e; thus, Be/iHKHft, Be^HKafl, BC^HKOC, great; ropHMHfi, ropsman, ropflnee, hot. These replacements appear not only in adjectives, but in nouns, pronouns and verbs as well.

RUSSIAN

npocr, npocra, npocro, plural npocrw, simple. The verb "to be" in the present tense is omitted: OHH — CTapa, she is old.

The comparative degree is generally formed by changing the ending of the adjective to -ee, which is not declined: KpaCHBblH, beautiful; KpaCHBCC, more beautiful; yMHblft, intelligent; yMHCC, more intelligent. "Than" is expressed by MCM with the nominative, or by the genitive without MCM: OH yMHCe HCM H, or OH yMHCC MCHH, he is more intelligent than I; flcejieso nojiesHce HCM cepe6po, or Hcejieao

nOJieanee cepe6pa, iron is more useful than silver. If the verb "to be" is not involved, the comparative is more usually formed by prefixing 6ojiee (more) to the positive: 6OJiee KpaCHBblH CTyjI, a more beautiful chair.

The superlative, both relative and absolute, is usually formed by prefixing CBMblH to the positive: caMblft yMHblft the most intelligent, extremely intelligent.

The adverb generally consists of the neuter predicate form of the adjective: XOpOllIHH; good; XOpOIiJO, well; yMHHH, intelligent; yMHO, intelligently; >KapKHH, warm; >KapKO, warmly.

3. — Numerals. a) — Cardinal.

Outside of OAHH, one, these are treated as nouns, aiy fully declined, and are followed by the genitive of the noun to which they refer (genitive singular after 2, 3, 4; genitive plural after all others): OftHH ^OM one house; ,OJBa two houses; nHTb AOMOB, five houses. OAHH, OAHa, plural OAHH (meaning "alone", "some"), is otherwise declined like 3TOT (see p. 388) , but with the accent on the ending. AB^, fern. ABC, has gen. AByx, dat. AByM, instr. AByMH, loc.

AByx; TPH has Tpex, rpeM, rpeMH, rpex; Merwpe has

•ex, -CM,. -bMH7 -ex. Numerals ending in -b are declined like feminine nouns in -b; others are declined like nouns of the corresponding classes, according to their endings.

13*

jgfi RUSSIAN

1 OAHH (OAHH, OAHO) 30 = TpHAUaTb

2 = ABa (ABC, Asa) 40 = copoK

3 = TpH 50 =

4 — nerbipe 60 =

5 = nHTb 70 =

6 = uiecTb 80 =

7 = CCMb 90 = AeBHHOCTO

8 = BOCCMb 100 = CTO

9 = ACBHTb 200 = ABCCTH

10 = AecHTb 300 = TpHera

11 = OAHHHaAUaTb 400= neTWpecra

12 = ABCHaAUaTb 500 = IlflTbCOT

13 = TpHH3AUaTb 600 = llieCTbCOT

14 = HCTWpHaAUaTb 1000 = TblCH^a

15 = RHTHHAUaTb 2000 = ABC THCHHH

16 = uiecTHHAuaTb 5000 = nHTb TWCHM

17 — ceMnaAuaTb 1,000,000 = MHJIJIHOH

18 = BoceMHaAUaTb 7635 = ceMb

19 = ACBHTHaAUaTb llieCTbCOT

20 :=== ABaA^aTb nHTb

Ol rr TjO rr 1 1 o np r ^TTMU

zi — Aod/md i b UAMM

b) — Ordinal (declined like ordinary adjectives).

1st = nepBbifi 20th = ,

2nd = BTOpOH 21st =

3rd = TpCTHH 30th = '

4th = HCTBepTblH 40th = COpOKOBOH

5th = IIHTblH 50th = RHTHAeCHTblH

6th = UieCTOH 60th =

7th = CCAbMOft 70th = i

8th = BOCbMOfi 80th = BOCbMHAeCHTblH

9th = AeBflTblfl 90th = AeBHHOCTHfi

10th = AeCMTblfl 100th = COTHH

llth = oAHHHaAuaTbifl 145th = CTO copon nflTbifi

Use these in dates, either in the genitive, or in the neuter nominative: ACCHTOro M3H or ACCHTOe MHfl, May 10th.

RUSSIAN }87

once • pa3 twice • ABa pE3a five times - IlHTb pa3 the first time - nepBblft pa3 every time • BCHKHH pas the last time - IIOCJieAHHH pa3

4. — Pronouns.

a) — Personal.

"I", "of me", "to me", etc. - H, MCHH, MHC, MCHfl, MHOK) or

MHOH, MHC. "you" (familiar), "of you", etc. • TbI, Tedfl, Te6e, Te6fl,

TOSOK) or T060H, TC6e.

"he", "his", etc. • OH, (H)ero, (H)eMy, (H)ero, (H)HM,

HCM.9 "she", "her", etc. • OHH, (H)Cfl, (H)CH, (H)ee, (H)CK), HCH.

"it", "its", etc. - OHO, (H)ero, (H)eMy, (H)ero, (H)HM,

HCM.

"we", "of us", "to us", etc. - MH, nac, HaM, nac, HaMH, Hac.

"you" (fam. pi. and polite sg. or pi.) - Bbl, Bac, BaM, BaC,

B3MH, Bac.

"they" - OHH, (H)HX, (H)HM, (H)HX, (H)HMH, (H)HX. "self", "oneself" - (no nom.), ce6H, ce6e, ce6H, co6OK)

or coSoH, ce6e.

b) — Possessive.

"my", "mine" (masc. and neut) - MOH (neut. MOC), MOerO, MOCMy, nom. or gen., MOHM, MOCM; (fem.) - MOH, MOCH, MOCH, MOK), MOCK) or MOCH, MOCH; (plural, all genders) - MOH, MOHX, MOHM, MOH or MOHX, MOHMH, MOHX.

TBOH, "your", "yours" (fam.), and CBOH, one's own, are declined in the same fashion. Haill (H3llia, Hailie), "6ur", "ours", and Bam (Baiua, Baiue), "your", "yours", are similarly declined, but with the accent always on the root. For "his", "her", "its", "their", use the genitive of the per-

9. The forms ero, Hero; e\ty, HeMy, etc., arc not interchangeable; use forms with H- when the pronoun is governed by a preposition: y Hero x;ie6, he has bread; but y ero oma x;ie6, his father has bread.

RVSS1AN

sonal pronoun: ero, of him (his) ; ee, of her (her, hers) ; erO, of it, (its); HX, of them (their, theirs).

c) — Demonstrative.

this, these • 3TOT (neut. 3TO), STOFO, STOMy, (gen. or nom.), 9THM, 3TOM; Fern. - 9Ta, 9TOH, 3TOH, 9Ty, 3TOH, 3TOH; Plural - 3TH, 3THX, 9THM, 9TH OF 3THX, 9THMH, 3THX.

that, those - TOT (neut. TO), TOFO, TOMy, (nom. or gen.), TCM, TOM; Fern. - Ta, TOH, TOH, Ty, TOH, TOH; Plural • TC, TCX, TCM, Te or TCX, TCMH, TCX.

d) — Relative and Interrogative.

who, which, that - KOTOpHH (fully declined as a regular adjective; may also be used as an interrogative);

who?, whose?, to whom?, whom? - KTO, KOPO, KOMy, KOFO, KCM, KOM (may also be used as a relative) ;

what?, which? - MTO, MerO, HCMy, HTO, MCM, HCM (may also be used as a relative) ;

whose? - Heft (fern. MbH; neut. Hbe; declined like MOH);

what sort of? - KaKOH (declined as a regular adjective).

NOTES ON THE USE OF THE CASES.

The nominative is the case of the subject; it is also used in the predicate nominative, after the verb "to be" (the latter is generally understood, not expressed, in the present tense) : Bail! CblH — HC MajieHbKHH MaJIbHHK, your son is not a young boy; r^e Baill OTCU?, where is your father?

The genitive expresses possession: AOM MOerO 6paTa, the house of my brother, my brother's house. To translate the English "to have" in the sense of "to own", Russian generally uses the preposition y with the genitive case: y MCHH - 6o;ibllIOH AOM, I have a large house (literally, to me (is) a large house) ; eCTb JIH y My)KHKa XJie6?, has the peasant the bread? (literally, is to the peasant the bread?; JIH is an untranslatable interrogative particle used in questions when

RUSSIAN

no other interrogative word appears). The genitive is regularly used in negative sentences, replacing the accusative: fl He SHaJI AOMa, I didn't know the house; y MCHfl - HCT XJie6a, I have no bread (literally, to me (is) not of bread). It is used to translate "some", "any" (Aaftte MHe XJie6a, give me bread, some bread; as against Aaftre MHe XJie6, give me the bread); and after adverbs of quantity (MHOFO XJie6a, lots of bread, literally, much of bread) . It appears with several prepositions, chief among them the y mentioned above; 6e3, without (6e3 KHHFH, without a book) ; A.7IH, for, for the sake of (RJltt MCHfl, for me, for my sake); H3, from, out of (H3 POCCHH, out of Russia) ; OT, away from (especially a person: OT MOerO Apyra, from my friend).

The dative indicates the indirect object after verbs of saying, giving, etc.: H R&JI My>KHKy XJie6, I gave the peasant the bread. It is also used after certain prepositions, chief among them K (KO before troublesome consonant groups), toward: K My>KHKy, toward the peasant; KO MHe, toward me, to my house.

The accusative is the case of the direct object. Note that a separate accusative form appears only in the feminine sin- gular; in the masculine and neuter singular, and in all plurals, the accusative takes the form of the nominative for inanimate objects, of the genitive for living persons and animals. It is also used with certain prepositions after verbs of motion, parti- cularly B (BO), in, into; H3, on, onto, upon; 33, behind. Note that several of these prepositions take the accusative if motion is involved, but the locative or instrumental if no idea of motion appears: OH noiliejl B oropOA, (ace.), he went into the garden; but OH 6bIJI B OFOpOAe (loc.), he was in the garden; OH ceJI Ha CTyjI, he sat down on the chair (ace.), but OH CHACJI Ha CTyjie, he was sitting on the chair (loc.).

The instrumental denotes means or instrument (with, by means of): OH nHCHJI KapaHAaillOM, he was writing with a pencil. It is used with several prepositions, notably C (CO), with, in company with: C O(|)HUepOM, with the officer; CO

590 RUSSIAN

MHO1O, with me; 3a, behind; nepeA, in front of. It also appears idiomatically in certain expressions of time: saBTpa yTpOM, tomorrow morning.

The locative or prepositional is always used with preposi- tions, and frequently denotes place where or in which (not place to which; the accusative denotes that): O (06, 060), about: O Te6e, about you; 06 O(})HH,epe, about the officer; 060 MHG, about me; Ha, on, upon: Ha CTOJIC, on. the table; B (BO), in: B rOpOAC, in the city; BO MHC, within me.

5. _ Verbs.

The Russian verb has only three tenses: present, past and future. On the other hand, most verbs have a double "aspect": the "imperfective", indicating an action that is, was, or will be going on, and the "perfective", denoting an action that happened once and was completed, or that will be begun and completed; the imperfective verb is usually a simple verb, the perfective verb often (but not always) has a preposition pre- fixed to it (IIHcaTb, to be writing; HanHcaxb, to write once). The perfective verb, by its nature, cannot have a present tense, but only a past (action that was begun and finished) and a future (action that will be begun and finished) ; and while the past of a perfective verb is quite similar in form to the past of an imperfective verb, the perfective future has a set of end- ings similar to those of the present of an imperfective verb; or, to word it differently, the present form of the perfective verb has a future meaning. Thus, IIHCaTb, to be writing, has a present, IIHLLiy (I am writing); a past, IlHCajI (I was writ- ing, I used to write) ; aftd a future, 6y#y RHcaTb (I shall be writing); but HariHCaTb, the perfective counterpart of the imperfective IlHCaTb, has only a past, HanHcaJI (I wrote once, and finished writing) ; and a future with present form, HanHUjy (I shall write once, and be finished).

The infinitive of Russian verbs usually ends in -Tb (a certain number of verbs have -Mb or -TH): ^CJiaTb, to do; TOBOpHTb, to speak; >KeHb. to burn; HeCTH, to carry. Its

RUSSIAN 39 j

use is similar to that of the English infinitive: fl XOM., FOBOpHTb, I wish to speak.

1. — Present Indicative.

The normal endings are: -y (or -K)), -eillb, -CT, -CM, •ere, -yj (or -IOT); or: -y (-K)), -Hiub, -HT, -MM, -HTC, •ax (-HT).

I do, AeJia-K) I speak, FOBOp-K)

you do, ACJia-eillb10 you speak, rOBOp-Hlllb10

he does, A^Jia-eT he speaks, FOBOp-HT

we do, ACJia-CM we speak, FOBOp-HM

you do, ACJia-CTe10 you speak, FOBOp-MTe10

they do, ACJia-K)T they speak, FOBOp-flT

There are many deviations from these two fundamental schemes; HCCTH and verbs of its type have: Hecy, HeceilJb, HCCeT, etc.; several verbs in -Tb, with stress on the last vowel, follow this scheme (>KHTb, to live, has >KHBy, >KHBeilJb, >KHBer, etc.).

Note carefully that the future of perfective verbs has precisely the same form and endings as the present of imperfec- tive verbs; thus, HariHCHTb to write (once, and be through writing), has no present, while its future (I shall write once, and be through) runs: HariHlliy, HanHLUeillb, HanHllieT, etc.

The verb "to be", 6bITb, has a present as follows: CCMb, COM, CCTb, eCMbl, ecre, cyTb. These forms, however, are generally understood, not expressed (H — 6OJICH, I am ill) ; the third person singular only is regularly used in interrogative sentences expressing possession: eCTb JIH y B3C py6jlb?, have you a ruble? (lit. is there to you a ruble?).

10. The second person singular is used only in intimate conversation; the second plural is regularly used in addressing a single person politely, and in addressing more than one person, familiarly or politely. The subject pronoun is generally used, but is sometimes omitted.

392

RUSSIAN

2. — Past Indicative.

This tense is formed by adding to the stem of the verb the endings -JI, -Jia, -JIO, according to the gender of the subject (-JIH in the plural, for all genders). This so-called past tense is really only a past participle, with predicate adjective endings, and agreement in gender and number with the subject.

I spoke, H rOBOpH-JI (fem. FOBOpH-Jia)

you spoke, TbI rOBOpM-JI (fem. FOBOpHJia)

he spoke, OH FOBOpHJI

she spoke, OHH FOBOpH-Jia

we spoke, Mbl FOBOpH-^H

you spoke, Bbl FOBOpM-JIH

they spoke, OHH FOBOpH-JIH

Note that this tense functions as an imperfect (I was doing, used to do) in the case of imperfective verbs; but as a past, present perfect or past perfect in the case of perfective verbs: H FIHCaJI, I was writing, used to write; H HanHcajl, I wrote, have written, had written.

The past tense of 6bITb is 6ujl (6bi;ia, 6bIJIO, plural 6bi;iH). It is regularly used, not omitted as is the case with the present: H SblJI 6OJICH, I was ill.

3. — Future.

For the future of perfective verbs, see under Present Tense. The future of imperfective verbs is formed by using the future of 6bITb (to be), followed by the infinitive:

I shall speak, H 6y£y FOBOpHTb you will speak, TbI SyAeiUb TOBOpHTb he will speak, OH 6yACT FOBOpHTb she will speak, OH3 6y^CT POBOpMTb we shall speak, Mbl 6y%£M FOBOpHTb you will speak, Bbl 6yAeie FOBOpHTb they will speak, OHH GyzjyT FOBOpHTb

The future of perfective verbs does service for our future perfect.

RVSSIAN 393

4. — Conditional and Subjunctive.

The conditional idea (should, would) is normally expres- sed by the past tense of the verb followed by the particle 6bl: OH #ejiaJI 6bl, he would do, he would have done.

The subjunctive idea is generally rendered by the past tense introduced by qro6bl: OH HailHCaJI, HTO6bI OH KynHJI caA, he wrote in order that he might buy the garden.

5. — Imperative.

The imperative generally ends in -H, -H, -b (singular), and -HTC, *HTC, -bTC (plural): CACJiaH, CAejiaHTe, do!; FOBOpH, rOBOpMTe, speak!; HCCH, HCCHTe, carry!; 6yAl>, 6y#bTe, be! 0. — Participles and Gerunds.

Russian has two indeclinable gerunds, present and past: TOBOpfl, by or while speaking; norOBOpHB, or HOFOBO- pHBIJLJH, having spoken.

There are four participles declined like adjectives: present active, rOBOpfllUHM, speaking; present passive, ACjiaeMblH, being done; past active, FOBOpHBlIJHH, having spoken; past passive, HHTaHHblH, having been read.

The use of gerunds and participles is quite complicated, and all the forms given above do not appear for all verbs. Generally speaking, they are very frequently used where other languages would use a subordinate clause (CK33aHHO6 CJIOBO, the word that was spoken).

7. — Passive and Reflexive.

There is no true passive in Russian, save for the participial forms above indicated. The passive concept is generally rendered: 1. by a passive participle; 2. by an indefinite third person plural active (MHC CKaaajIH, I was told; lit. they told me); 3. by the reflexive (9TO A^aeTCH, this is being done, lit. this does itself).

Reflexive verbs are quite numerous. They are formed,

RUSSIAN

for all persons, by the addition of -CH (an abbreviated form of Ce6fl; -Cb after vowels, except b) : yMHBaTbCH, to wash oneself: H yMblBBIOCb, TbI yMblBaeillbCH, OH yMblBaCTCH,

Mbi yMbisaeMCH, Bbi yMbiBaeTecb, OHH yMHBaiOTCH; past: H yMblBa^CH (fern. H yMblBajiaCb; pi. Mbi

; fut.: H 6y&y

VOCABULARY

Nouns are generally given in their nominative singular form, with the root11 separated from the ending (if any); the genitive singular ending follows, then the nominative plural ending (where a plural form is in common use) ; thus, H3WK, -a, -H, indicates a declensional scheme: • , -a, -y, • , •OM, -C; plural, H3MK-H, -OB, -3M, -H, -3MH, -aX; MOp-C, -H, -H indicates a declensional scheme MOp-e, -H, -K), -e, -CM, •e; plural, MOp-H, -eft, -HM, -fl, -HMH, -HX. See regular declensional tables, p. 382-383.

Adjectives are given only in their attributive nominative singular masculine form. For declensional schemes, see p. 384. For the formation of the predicate forms, where these are commonly used, ( 1 ) after the adjective indicates regular form- ation and accentuation (thus, 3/T,OpOBbIH (1), indicates the following predicate forms: 3AOpOB, 3AOpOBa, SAOpOBO, plural 3AOpOBbl) ; (2) after the adjective indicates shift of stress from the root of the attributive adjective to the ending of the predicate adjective (thus, AOSpblH (2) indicates the following predicate forms: £O6p, ^oCpa, £C)6pO, plural Ao6pbl); (3) after the adjective indicates stress on the root in the masculine singular, neuter singular, and plural predicate

11. The term "root" as applied to both nouns and verbs in this vocabulary, is practically, not scientifically used; the true etymolo- gical root of serep, for example, is BCTp-, not BCT-; but the latter supplies a convenient makeshift for appending genitive and plural endings -pa, -pw; the true root of the verb npHXOAHTb is npHXOfl-, not npHXO-; but the latter permits us to append the endings ->Ky, b, without entering into complicated explanations.

RUSSIAN JP5

forms, on the ending in the feminine singular predicate form (thus, HOBblH (3) indicates HOB, KOBE, HOBO, plural HOBbl; MOJIOAOH (3) indicates MOJIOA, MOJIOAa, MOJIOAO, plural MOJIOAH. Exceptional insertion of a vowel in the masculine singular predicate form is indicated thus: 6eAHbIH (-CH; 3); this means that the predicate forms aie

SeAen, 6eAHa, 6eAHo, plural 6eAHU.

Verbs are given, in a few cases, in whichever aspect (perfective or imperfective) better suits the English translation, or is in common use. For most verbs, however, both aspects are necessary to render the English meanings. In such cases, the imperfective aspect appears first, the perfective follows. Where the perfective aspect simply involves the addition of a prefix, with no difference in the conjugational forms of the two verbs, only the prefix is given; otherwise, all significant forms for both verbs appear. Remember that the imperfective infinitive normally means "to do something repeatedly, continually, or without reference to time"; the perfective infinitive "to do something once, at a given moment". The imperfective present is a true present, in meaning as well as in form; the perfective present has a future meaning, with reference to a particular point of future time; the imperfective future, formed by means of 6yAy with the infinitive, refers to future action without a definite point of time; the imperfective past is an imperfect, usually meaning "I was doing, used to do" something; the perfective past is an absolute past, meaning "I did, have done, had done" (see p. 392). The forms given are the infinitive, with the root11 indicated; and the first and second person singular present endings, which are to be attached to the root. Formation and accentuation of the other forms of the present normally follow those of the second singular, not those of the first singular (note that the third plural normally ends in -yT (-K)T), if the second singular ends in -eillb or -eiilb; in -aT (-HT), if the second singular ends in -HUJb) : thus, to come, npHXO-AHTb (.>Ky, '-AHlIJb) indicates that endings on the basis of '-AHUlb are to be attached to the working-root npHXO-,

396

RUSSIAN

and that the full present is: npHXO->Ky, npHXO-AHUIb, npHXO-AHT, npHXO-flHM, npHXO-AHTC, IIpHXO-AHT.

The accented vowel is indicated throughout by heavy type (H3BIK), save in cases where e appears (e is always stressed). Watch for shifting accents on different forms of the same word!

1. World, Elements, Nature, Weather, Time, Directions.

world, CBCT, -a; MMp, -a

earth, seMfl-H, -M, '-H

air, B03Ayx, -a

water, BOA-a, -M, '-bi

fire, or-OHb, -Hfl, -HH

light, CBCT, -a

sea, MOp-e, -H, -fl

sun, cojiHu-e, -a

moon, ;iyH-a, -M; MCCHU, -a

star, 3B63A-3, -bl, "-bl

sky, He6-o, -a (pi. He6-eca, -ec)

wind, BCT-ep, -pa, -pu

weather, norOA-a, -bi

snow, CHCF, -a, -a

it is snowing, CHCr

rain, AO>KA-b, -H, -M

it is raining, AOWb

cloud, o6^aK-o, -a, -a

cloudy, o6.rcaHHbift (it's cloudy

today, ofljiaHHO cero^HJi; fog, TyMaH, -a, -w

ice, ^CA (^bA3, JlbA-M) mud, rpH3-b, -H, -H morning, yip-o, -a, -a noon, nojiA-eHb, -HH, -HH evening, BCHCp, -a, -a afternoon, ACHb (AH«, AHH) (in the afternoon, AHCM; nono-

night, HOH-b, -H, -H midnight, nO^HOH-b, -H North, cesep, -a South, K>r, -a East, BOCTOK, -a West, sanaa, -a

time, BpeM-H, -CHH, -eHa year, rOA, -a, -w month, MCCHU, -a, -bi week, HCAC^-H, -H, -H day, ACHb (AHH, AHH) hour, Mac, -a, -M minute, MHHyr-a, -bl, -bi Sunday, BOCKpecCHb-e, -H, -H Monday, noHCAe^bHHK, -a, -H Tuesday, irropHHK, -a, -H Wednesday, cpeA-a, -bi, '-bi Thursday, neiBCpr, -a, -H Friday, nHTHHU-a, -bi, -bi Saturday, cy660T-a, -bi, -bi January, HHaap-b, -fl, February, (j)eBpa^-b, -H March, Mapx, -a April, anpe^-b, -H May, Ma-ti, -H June, MK)H-b, -H July, HK);i-b, -H August, asrycT, -a September, ceHTfl6p-b, •« October, OKTfl6p-b, -fl November, HOfl6p-b, -H December, ACKa6p-b, -fl Spring, BCCH-a, -bl, *" -bi Summer, ^CT-o, -a, -a Fall, oceHb, -H, -H Winter, 3HM-a, -bl, '-bi On Monday, B HOHCAC/ibHHK On Mondays, no Next Monday, B

RUSSIA.\

397

Last Monday, B npouuibift On Monday, May 10th, 1892, B 2. Family, Friendship, Love.

family, ceMb-fl, -M, '-H

husband, My>K, -a, -bfl

wife, >KCH-a, -u, " -bi

parents, pOAHie^-H, -eft

father, OT-eu, -ua, -UH

mother, M3T-b, -epH, -epH

son, CWH, -a, -OBbfl

daughter, AOq-b, -epH, -epw

brother, 6pax, -a, -bfl

sister, cecip-a, -bl, " -bi

uncle, AHA-H, -H, -H

aunt, TCT-H, -H, -H

grandfather, ACAyuJK-a, -H, -H

grandmother, 6ar3yujK-a, -H, -H

grandson, BHyK, -a, -H

granddaughter, BHyqK-a, -H, -H

grandchildren, BHyqax-a, -

nephew, nvieMflHHHK, -a, -H

niece, nvieMflHHHU-a, -bi, -w

cousin (masc.), 6par

cousin (fern.), cecipa

father-in-law (father of wife), recT-b. -H. -H; (father of husband ) , CBCK-Op, -pa, -pbl

mother-in-law (mother of wife), Te'm-a, -H, -M; (mother of husband ) , CBCKpOB-b, -H, -H

^on-in-law, 3flT-b, -fl, -bfl

daughter-in-law, HCBCCTK-a, -H, -M

brother-in-law, (sister's husband),

K, aecaroro Man,

TbICHHa BOCCMbCOT ACBHHOCTO

Bioporo

;jJ!T-b, -H, -bH; (husband's bro- ther) , Aeaep-b, -H, -H

sister-in-law (husband's sister), 30/iOBK-a, -H, -H; (brother's wife), neBCCTK-a, -H, -H

man (individual), My>K4HH-a, -bi, -bi; (human being), HCJ10BCK, -a (pi. .IIOA-H, -eft, people)

woman, >KeHtunH-a, -u, -bi

child, AHT-H, -HTH (pi. ACT-H, -Cft) ;

pe6e'H-OK, -Ka (pi. pe6flr-a, -) boy, Ma^bHHK, -a, -H girl (small), ACBOMK-a, -H, -H

(young), ACByniK-a, -H, -H;

ACBHu-a, -bi, -bi sir, Mr.,12 rocnoAHH, -a (pi.

rocnoAa)

Madam, Mrs.,12 rocno>K-a, -H, -H Miss, young lady,12 6apbiUJH-H,

-H, M; rocnowa friend (masc.), Apyr, -a (pi.

Apysb-a, -eft) ; (fern.), noApyr-

a, -H, -H servant (masc.), cnyr-a, -H, '-H;

(fern.), c/ry>KaHK-a, -H, -H to introduce, 3HaKOM-HTb (-AK),

-niiib) ; perfective, no-3HaKO-

MHTb

to visit, nocein-ari. f-aio, -aeiiib) ; perf., noce-THib (-my, -THUJB)

love, ^K)6-OBb, -BM, -BH

to love. ,nio6-HTb (-AK), '-HUib)

12. The abbreviations for rocnoAHH and rocno>Ka are f. or f-H, and P->Ka, respectively (there is no abbreviation foi 6apbiiijHH).

Under the Soviets, it is more customary to address a man as rpa>KAaHMH, -a (pi. rpa>KAaH-e, — citizen) ; or TOBapmu, -a, -H (comrade), and a woman as rpa>KAaHK-a, -H, -H (citizeness).

398

RUSSIAN

to fall in love with, B^K)6ji -fl (•juocb, -aeiubCH) ; perf., BflK>6-

•HTbCfl (-rtlOCb, '-HUJbCfl)

to marry, >KeH-HTbCfl (-K)cb,

'•HLUbCfl) Ha; BblXO-flHTb (->Ky,

'•AHLiib) saMvwsa; perf. BWH-TH (-ay, -Aeujb) 3aiuy>K 3*

3. Speaking Activities.

word, c-aoB-o, -a, -a language, H3MK, -a, -H to speak, roBOp-HTb (-K), -Hiiib) to say, cKa-aaib (-my, '->Keiiib) to tell, relate, paccKaabiB-aTb (-aio, -aeiiib) ; perf. paccKa-

to inform, coo6ma-Tb (-10, -euib) ;

perf. coo6m-HTb (-y, -Hiiib) to call, SBaib (sosy, soeeuib) ;

perf. no-3B3Tb to be called, one's name is,

3B3TbCfl (?OByCb, SOBCUJbCH) J

what is your name, K3K same HMH?; my name is John, MOC

HMH MB3H

to greet, 3AOpOBa-TbCH (-K)Cb,

-eiiibcn) ; perf. no - to name, HasbiB-arb (-aio, -aeuib) to cry, shout, KpHH-arb (-y,

-Hiiib) perf. no - to listen to, c^yiu-aib (-aio,

-aeuib) ; perf. no - to hear, c.ibi!ii-aTb (-y, -Hiiib) ;

4. Materials.

gold, so/ioT-o, -a

silver, cepe6p-o, -a

iron, wejies-o, -a

steel, cra/i-b, -H

copper, MC/i-b. -H

lead, CBHH-CU, -ua

tin, O/IOB-O, -a; >KCCT-b, -H

oil. H6(j)T-b, -H

kiss, noue^y-ft, -H, -H

to kiss, ue^-osaib (-yio, -yeuib)

perf. no-ueJioBarb dear, beloved, flOporofl(3) ;

sweetheart, (masc. } , MttJi-bifl, -oro, -we (fem. ), MH^-a«, -oft, -we

perf. y -

to understand. noHMM-arb (-aw, -aeiiib) ; perf. no-HHTb

to mean, O3HaH-aib (-aio, -aeuib) ; xo-reib (-qy, '-neiub) CKaaarb

to ask (question). cnpaiiJHBa-Tb (-K), -euib); perf. cnpo-CHTb l-uiy, '-CHLLib) ; I am asking you where Red Square is, fl Bac cnpaniHBajo, r,a

to ask for, npo-CHTb (-uiy,

'-CHiiib) ; perf. no-: he asked me for 3 books, OH nonpocHJi

V MCHfl TpH KHHPH

to answer, OTBCMa-Tb (-10, euJb) ;

perf. OTBC-THTb (-MV, -THUJb)

to thank, 6;iaro;iap-HTb (-10, -Hiiib) (for. sa with ace.) : perf. no •

to complin, waji-OBaibCfl

(-yiocb, -yeuibcfl) : perf. no -

gasoline, 6eH3HH, -a

coal, yr-ojib, -nx

wood, jepeB-o, -a

silk. me';iK, -a

cotton (raw), xjion-OK. -Ka;

(material), 6yMar-a. -H wool. mepcT-b, -H cloth. CVKH-O, -a

RUSSIAN

399

to cut, pe-3arb (->Ky, -weuib) ;

perl. Ha - to dig, Kon-aib (-arc, -aeuib) ;

perf. Ha - to sew, LU-HTb (-bio, -beiiJb) ;

perf. cuiMTb (couibK),

5. Animals.

animal, WHBOTH-OC, -oro, -we horse, ^oniaji-b, -H, -H; KOH-b,

-a, -H dog, co6aK-a, -H, -M; n-ec, -ca,

-Cbl

cat, KOUJK-a, -H, -H bird, flTHU-a, -bl, -bl donkey, oc-e;i, -Jia, -;ibi mule, My;i, -a, -bi

COW, KOpOB-a, -bL, -bl

ox, BO;I, -a, -hi; 6biK, -a, -H

pig, CBHHb-fl, -H, '-H

chicken, Ubimi-e'HOK, -e'HKa, -Hia

couibeuib) to darn, uiTOna-Tb (-10, -euib) ;

perf. no - to mend, HHH-HTB (-K), '-Htub) ;

perf. no -

hen, KypHU-a, -bi, Kypw rooster, neiyx, -a, -H sheep, OBU-a, -bl, '-bl goat, KO3-e";i, -^a, -JIM mouse, Mbim-b, -H, -H snake, 3MC-H, -H, '-H fly, Myx-a, -M, -H bee, nne^-a, -w, "-bi mosquito, KOMap, -a, -bl spider, nayK, -a, -H

louse, BOllI-b, -H, BI11H

flea, 6jiox-a, -H, '-H bedbug,. K^on, -a, -bi

6. Money, Buying and Selling.

money, ACHbPH, ACHer (pi.)

coin, MOHCT-a, -bi, -bi

dollar, AO/i/iap, -a, -bi

rent, HCHT, -a, -bl

national currency (large), py6;i-b,

-fl, -H (small), Kone^K-a, -H, -H bank, 6aHK, -a, -H check, MCK, -a, -H money order, noMTOBbift nepesOfl,

-a, -u to earn, 3apa6arbiBa-Tb (-10,

-eiiib) ; perf. 3apa6or-aTb (-aio,

-aeujb) to gain, Bbipyq-aTb (-aio, -aeiiib) ;

HMC-Tb (-10, -eiub) npH6bi;ib;

perf. BWpyq-HTb (-y, -HiiJb) to win, BbiHrpbiBa-ib (-K), -eiiib) ;

perf. BbiHrp-aTb (-aio, -aeuib) to lose, Tep-flTb (-»K>, -fleuib) ;

perf. no •

to spend, ipa-THTb (-My, -THiiib) ; perf. no -

to lend, Aa-BdTb (-K), -eiiJb) BsaftMbi; oAo^w-arb (-aio, -aeinb) ; perf. ojLOJDK-MTb (-y,

'•HUIb)

to owe, 6biib /io^>KHbiM (lit., to be indebted)

to pay, n^a-THTb (-qy, '-THiiib) ; perf. 33 •

to borrow, 33HHM-aib (-aw, -aeujb) ; perf. aa-Hflib (-flwy, -RMeiiib) ; he borrowed 3 rubles from me, OH saHfM y MCHJI TpM

change, MC^OM-b, -H

to change, exchange, MCH-flTb

(-UK), -»eiiJb) ; perf. pas - to give back, return,

(-K), -eiiib) ; perf.

400

RUSSIAN

(-M, -illb)

price, ueH-a, -bi, '-bi expensive, dear, AOporOH(3) cheap, Aeiue'Bbifl (#eiiieB, 3) store, shop, MaraaHH, -a, -u;

;iaBK-a, -H, -H piece, Kyc-OK, -Ka, -KM

slice, .flOM-OTb, -Tfl, '-TH

pound, (j)yHT, -a, -bl package, naKCT, -a, -bi basket, KOp3HH-a, -w, -w

box, HLIUIK, -3, -H

^oods, TOBap-bi, -OB (pi.)

to go shopping, H-TTH (-fly, -fleilib;

past nie'ji, nj;ia, UIJIH) aa

noKynKaMH; perf. noH-TH (-fly,

Aeujb) aa noKynKaMH to sell, npoAa-Baib (-K), -eiJJb) ;

perf. npo/ia-Tb (-M, -uib) to buy, noKyn-aib (-aio, -aeiiib) ;

perf. Kyn-HTb (-^K), '-Htiib)

7. Eating and Drinking.

to eat, ecib (CM, eulb) ; past efl,

e^a, e^w; perf. no -; Kyiua-Tb

(-K), -euib) ; perf. c- breakfast, yrpeHHH lunch, aaBTpaK, -a, -H to eat breakfast, lunch,

Tb (-10, -eiiib) ; perf. no - supper, y>KHH, -a, -bi to eat supper, y>KHHa-Tb (-10,

-eujb) ; perf. no - dinner, ofjefl, -a, -bi to eat dinner, to dine, o6CAa-Tb

(-K), -euib) ; perf. no • meal, ea-a, -w

dining-room, CTOJiOB-aa, -oft, -we waiter, c^yr-a, -H, '-H waitress, c^y>KaHK-a, -H, -H restaurant, pecropaH, -a, -u menu, Memo (invariable) bill, CMCT, -a, cnera

to rent, hire, HaHMM-arb (-aw, -aeuib) ; perf. Ha-HHTb

to be worth, CTO-HTb (-K), HUib) ; it is worth while writing to him, CTOHT eMy Han/icaxb

COSt, CTOHMOCT-b, -H, -H

to COSt, CTO-HTb (-K), -HlUb)

to choose, Bu6np-aTb (-aio,

-aeuib) ; perf. Bbi6-paTb (-epy,

-epeiub)

thief, robber, BOp, -a, -bi to steal, BOp-osaTb (-yio, yeuib) ;

perf. c - policeman, noJWueftcK-Hft, -oro,

-HC; MH^HUHOHep, -a, -bi police, no^HUH-H, -H; MH^HUH-JI,

•H

honest, HCCTHbiH (-TCH, 1) dishonest, HeHCCTHbift (-TCH, 1)

to pass, nepe^-aTb (-aw, -aenib)

tip, na-Ma-A

to drink, n-HTb (-bK), -beiiib) ;

perf. Bbin-HTb (-bio, -beuib) water, BOfl-a, -w, '-u wine, BHH-O, -a, '-a beer, nHB-o, -a coffee, K0(})-e, •« tea, na-fl, -H, -H milk, MO^OK-O, -a bottle, 6yTbijiK-a, -H, -H spoon, Jio>K-Ka, -KH, -KH (gen. pi.

teaspoon,

knife, HO)K, -a, -H

fork, BH^-Ka, -KH, -KH (gen. pi.

-OK)

glass, craKaH, -a, -u cup. Maui-Ka, -KH, -KH (gen. pi

-CK)

RUSSIAN

401

napkin, canfyeTK-a, -H, -H salt, coji-b, -H pepper, nep-eu, -ua plate, dish, 6;iK>ji-o, -a, -a bread, xjie6, -a, -a butter, Macji-o, -a, -a roll, 6yjiK-a, -H, -H sugar, caxap, -a soup, cyn, -a, -w rice, pHc, -a

potatoes, KapTO(})eJi-b, -« vegetables, OBOIH-H, -£ft (pi.) meat, MHC-O, -a beef, roBflflHH-a, -bi steak, 6H(J)uiTeKC, -a, -bi chicken, Ubinvi-eHOK, -eHKa, -flTa chop, oTfiHBHaa KOT/ier-a, -u, -bi lamb, 6apaHHH-a, -bi veal, re^HTHH-a, -bi pork, CBHHHH-a, -bi sausage, Ko;i6ac-a, -H, '-bi ham, BCTHHH-a, -bi bacon, caji-o, -a

8. Hygiene and Attire.

bath, B3HH-3, -bi, -bi

to bathe, Kyn-arbcn (-aiocb,

•aeiubCH) ; perf. BW - shower, flym, -a, -H

to Wash, M-blTbCH (-OlOCb,

-oeiubCH) ; perf. y - to shave, 6p-HTbCH (-eiocb,

-eembcn) ; perf. no - barber, hairdresser, napH(CMaxep,

-a, -bi

mirror, 36pKaJI-0, -a, -a razor, 6pHTB-a, -bi, -bi

(safety razor, 6e3onacHa$i

6pHTBa;

soap, Mbi/i-o, -a, -a towel, no;ioTeHu-e, -a, -a comb, rpe6-enb, -HH, '-HM brush, me'TK-a, -H, -H

Scissors, HOKHHU-bl, - (pi.)

egg, aflu-0, -a, '-a fish, pu6-a, -bi, -bi fried, >KapeHbiA cooked,

boiled, BapeHbift roasted, broiled, baked, neneHuft sauce, coyc, -a, -a salad, ca^ai, -a, -bi cheese, cwp, -a, -u fruit, 4>pyKT, -a, -bi; ruio,n, -a, -bl apple, fl6^OK-o, -a, -H pear, rpyui-a, -H, -H grapes, BMHorpa,a, -a peach, nepcHK, -a, -H strawberry, 3CM^JiHHK-a, -H, -H nut, opcx, -a, -H orange, aneJibCHH, -a, -bi lemon, JIHMOH, -a, -bi juice, COK, -a, -H cherry, BHLJJH-H, -H, -H dessert, c^a^K-oe, -oro pastry, rmpOMH-oe, -oro

to wear, HO-CMTb (-luy, '-CHUJb) to take off, CHHM-arb (-aio, •aeuib) ; perf. CH-HTb (-HMy, -HMeiub) ; I took off my coat,

H CHHJI nHJWHK

to change, MCH-HTb (-HK), -Heujb) ;

perf. nepeMCH-MTb (-10, -Hiiib) to put on, Ha/ies-aib (-aio,

-aeuib) ; perf. HaA-erb

-CHeiUb) ; I put on my coat

91 najieji riHA>KaK clothes, OflOK^-a, -w hat, iu^Jin-a, -w, -w suit, KOCTIOM, -a, -w coat, ntiiDKaK, -a, -H

VCSt, )KH/ieT, -3, -bi

pants, 6pK)K-H, - (pi.) underwear, HHMCHee 6e^b-e, •« glove, nepnaTK-a, -H, -M

402

RUSSIAN

socks, HOCK-H, -OB (pi.)

stockings, nyvi-KH, -OK (pi.) shirt, py6aiiiK-a, -M, -M collar, BOpOTHMK, -a, -M tie, ra^cryic, -a, -H overcoat, na^bio (invariable) raincoat, AOHCACBO pocket, KapMaH, -a, -u handkerchief, HOCOBOM

-K3

button, nyroBHU-a, -bi, -u shoe, 6amM3K, -a, -H boot, canor, -a, -H purse, cyMOMK-a, -H, -H

9. Parts of the Body.

head, ro;iOB-a, -bi, PO/IOBW

forehead, ;i-o6, -6a, -6u

face, /IHU-O, -a, '-a

mouth, p-OT, -ra, -TM

hair, BOJIOC, -a, -bi

eye, rviaa, -a, -a

ear, y-xo, -xa, -UIH (gen. pi. -inert y

tooth, ay6, -a, -i»i

lip, ry6-a, -M, '-bi

nose, HOC, -a, -bi

tongue, H3WK, -a, -H

chin, no^6opo,a-oK, -Ka, -KH

cheek, meK-a, -H, "-H

mustache, yc-w, -OB (pi.)

beard, 6opoji-a, -M, 6opoflbi

neck, uie-H, -u, -H

throat, rop^-o, -a, -a

stomach, we/iyA-QK, -Ka, -KH

10. Medical. doctor, flOKiop, -a, -a;

-H

drug-store, anTCK-a. -H, -H hospital, rocnHia^-b, -a, -»;

6o^bHHu-a, -bi, -bi medicine, .neKapCTB-o, -a, -a

pocket-book, aariHCHaa KHH>KK-a.

-H, -H

pin, 6y;iaBK-a, -H, -H tie-pin, 6y^aBKa fl^H ra/icryKa safety-pin, aHmHHCKaH needle, nro^K-a, -H, -H umbrella, 3OHTHK, -a, -H watch, nac-w, -OB (pi.) chain, uenOMK-a, -H, -H ring, KO^bu-o, -a, '-a (gen. pi.

eyeglasses, O4K-H, -OB (pi.) slippers, Tyc{)-;iH, -e^b (pi.) dressing-gown, bath-robe, -a, -bi

arm, hand, pyK-a, -H, '-H

elbow, /lOK-OTb, -Tfl, '-TM

wrist, KHCT-b (-H, -H) pyKH

finger, naji-eu, -bua, -bUbi

nail, Hor-OTb, -TH, -TH

shoulder, n^e4-o, -a, '-H

leg, foot, Hor-a, -Ht '-H

knee, KOJI6H-0, -a, -H

back, cnHH-a, -w, '-w

chest, rpyA-b, -H, -H

ankle, tuHKO/iK-a, -H, -H

body, re.i-o, -a, -a

blood, KpOB-b, -H

skin, KO>K-a, -H, -H

heart, cep^n-e, -a, -a (gen. pi.

bone, KOCT-b, -u, -H

pill, OH^IO^-H, -H, -H

prescription, peuemr, -a, -w bandage, 6HHT, -a, -bi nurse, cecrp-a (-w, *'-bi)

cep/uiH ill, 6o^bHOft (2; 6o-ieH)

RUSSIAN

403

fever, /iHXOpaflK-a, -n, -H illness, 6o;ie3H-b, -M, -H swollen, pacnyxuiHfl wound, pan-a, -w, -u wounded, paHCHbift (1)

cough, Kaui-ejib, -JIH

tO COUgh, KaiU^H-Tb (-K), -CLUb)

lame, xpOMOfl burn, o>Kor, -a, -H pain, 6o.i-b, -H, -H

head-ache, rojiOBHaa 6o;i-b, -H, -H poison, HA, -a, -bi tooth-ache, sytfHaa 6o;ib

11. Military.

war, BoftH-a, -bi, '-bi

peace, MHp, -a

ally, coK)3HHK, -a, -H

enemy, spar, -a, -M

army, apMH-fl, -H, -H

danger, onacHOCT-b, -H, -H

dangerous, onacHbift (-CCH, 1)

to win, no6e>K<a-arb (-aio, -aeiiib) ;

perf. norje-AHTb (->Ky, -AHiiib) to surround, OKpy>K-aTb (-aio,

-aeuib) ; perf. OKpy>K-HTb (-y,

-HlUb)

to arrest, apecT-OBarb (-yio,

-yeiub) to kill, y6HB-arb (-aio, -aeiiib) ;

perf. y6-HTb (-bK), -beiiib) to escape, H36er-arb (-aio, -aeiub) to run away, y6er-aib (-aio,

-aemb) ; perf. H36-e>KaTb (-ery,

-e>KHiiib) to lead, BC-CTH (-^y,

perf. no -; past Be';i,

BCJIH to follow, cjie^-oBaib (-yio,

-yeiiJb) ; perf. no - fear, cipax, -a, -H prison, TiopbM-a, -w, '-bi captivity, n^CH, -a prisoner, apecranT, -a, -w war prisoner, n/iCHH-bift, -oro, -we comrade, "buddy", TOBapnm,

-a, -H

fight, 6HTB-3, -bi, -bi battle, cpa>neHH-e -f!, •«

to fight, cpa>K-arbCH (-aiocb, •aeujbCfl); perf. cpa-3HTbCH (->nycb, -3Hiiibca)

to take prisoner, 6-paib (-epy, -epeiub) B n^en; perf. B3flTb

(B03bMy, BOSbMCIlIb)

to surrender, Cfla-BaTbCfl (-K)Cb, -eiUbCH) ; perf. CA-arbCH

(-3MCH, -ailJbCH)

to retreat, OTCTyn-aib (-aio, -aeiiib) ; perf. oiCTyn-HTb

(-^K), '-HUJb)

help, noMOiu-b, -H help!, noMorMTe! to help, noMor-aib (-aio, -aeiiJb) ;

perf. noM-OHb (-ory, -o/neujb) to rapture, saxoarbiB-aTb (-aio,

-aeiiJb) ; perf. aaxBa-THTb (-My,

'-THIIJb)

soldier, private, co/i/iar, -a, -bi corporal, Kanpa/i, -a, -bi sergeant, cepHOHT, -a, -bi lieutenant, JieHTenaHT, -a, -bi captain, KanMtan, -a, -bi major, Maftop, -a, -hi colonel, no^KOBHHK, -a, -H general, renepan, -a. -bi officer, o(})Huep, -a, -bi company, por-a, -LI, -bi battalion, fjarajibOH, -a, -w regiment, no;iK, -a, -H troops, BOHCK-a, - (pi.) brigade, 6pHra/i-a, -bi, -u division, AHBHSH-H, -H, -H

404

RUSSIAN

reenforcements, no;u<pen;ieHH-e,

•fl

fortress, KpenocT-b, -M, -H sentinel, qacoB-ort, -oro, -we to stand guard, to do sentry duty,

cio-flTb (-K), -Hiub) Ha Macax;

perf. no -

guard, crpa>K-a, -H, -H to be on duty, HC-CTH (-cy, -ceujb)

c;iy>K6y; perf. no -; past He'c,

sign-post, yKaaaTejibHbift ciO;i6

(-a, -bi)

navy, cJyiOT, -a, -bi sailor, Maxpoc, -a, -w marine, MOpflK, -a, -M warship, BOCHHOC cy^-HO, -Ha, -a cruiser, Kpeftcep, -a, -bi destroyer, HCTpe6Hie^-b, -H, -H;

MHHOHOCK-3, -H, -H ; MHHOHOC-

en, -ua, -ubi convoy, KOHBO-ft, -H, -H escort, oxpan-a, -u, -bi weapon, opy>KM-e, -fl, -H rifle, BHHTOBK-a, -H, -H; py>Kbe,

-H, '-H

machine-gun, ny^CMCT, -a, -bi cannon, nymK-a, -H, -H ammunition, BOOpy>KeHH-e, -H, -H

Supplies, CH3pH>KeHH-e, -H, -H cartridge, aapflfl, -a, -bi bullet, ny^-a, -H, -H belt, noac, -a, -a

12. Travel. passport, nacnopr, -a, -a

CUStOins, T3MO)KH-H, -H, -H

steamer, napoxoa, -a, -u ship, cyAH-o, -a, cy^a stateroom, KaiOT-a, -w, -w berth, KOfiK-a, -H, -H to travel, nyTeiuecTB-OBarb

(-yio, -yeuib) trip, voyage, nyreiuccTBH-e,

knapsack, pan-eu, -ua, -uw

tent, najiaiK-a, -H, -H

map, KapT-a, -bi, -bi

spy, lunMOH, -a, -bi

air-raid shelter, y6e>KHm-e, -a, -a

camp, Jiarep-b, -fl, -H

rope, KaHar, -a, -bi

flaj?, cfuiar, -a, -H

helmet, K3CK-a, -H, -H

bayonet, LJJTMK, -a, -H

uniform, MVH/iHp, -a, -bl

airplane, asponjian, -a, -w;

caMo^ei, -a, -bi

bombing plane, 6oM6oB03, -a, -bi pursuit plane, HCTpe6HTe^i-b,

-H, -H lo bomb, to shell, 6oM6ap,HHp-

OBaTb C-yio, '-yeiiib) trurk, rpyaoBHK, -a, -H shell, cnapflA, -a, -bi tank. T3HK, -a, -H to load, 3apjr>K-aTb (-aio, -aeiiib) ;

perf. aapH-AKTb (ony, -flHuib) bomb, 6oM6-a, -bi, -bi lo fire, to shoot, CTpe^-HTb (-HK),

-weujb) ; perf. BWCTpe^-HTb

(-K), -HUIb) (military execution^ paccipejtH-

Ba-ib (-10, -eiiib) fire!, orOHb!

attention!, BHHMaHHe!; CMHpHo! forward!, halt!, cioft!

-H, -H

to leave, depart, ye3)K-aTb (-af -aeiiib) ; perf. ye-xaib (-ay,

to arrive, npHC3>K-aTb (-aio, -aemb) ; perf. npne-xarb (-Ay,

to ride (conveyance) , C-xaib (-Ay, -Jieiiib)

RUSSIAN

405

railroad,

-H, -H

station, ciaHUH-H, -H, -H platform, n;iaT(})opM-a, -bi, -w track, Ko;ie-H, -H, -H; nyi-b, -H, -H train, noeaa, -a, -a ticket, 6H^er, -a, -bi to buy (a ticket), B-SHTB (-O3bMy,

-osbMeiub) Giuier; Kyn-HTb

(•-/IK), '-Hlilb) 6H/ICT

compartment, Kyn3 (indecl.) all aboard!, TpeTHft SBOHOK! car, coach, sarOH, -a, -bi

13. Reading and Writing.

to read, MHT-arb (-an), -aeuib) ;

perf. npo-

newspaper, raser-a, -bt, -bi magazine, jKypnaji, -a, -w book, KHHr-a, -H, -H to write, nn-carb (-iuy, '-meujb) ;

perf. Ha - to translate, nepeBO-AHTb (-nty,

'-AHiiib) ; perf. nepeBe-cTH

(->ay, -Ae'iiib) ; past nepee-e^,

-e/ia, -e^H

pencil, KapaH^am, -a, -H chalk, MC/I, -a

blackboard, MepHaa ^ocK-a, -H, -H ink, HepHH/i-a, - (pi.) pen, nep-o, -a, x-bn

14. Amusements.

to smoke, Kyp-MTb (-K), '-Hiub) ;

perf. no -

cigar, cnrap-a, -bf, -bi cigarette, nannpoc-a, -w, -bi tobacco, Ta6aK, -a, -H match, cnMHK-a, -H, -H give me a light, j^afiie MHC orHfl theatre, reaip, -a, -bi movies, KHHO (indecl.)

dining-car, BaroH-peciopaH, -a sleeper, cnarcbHbifl earOH trunk, cyHjiyK, -a, -M valise, HeMOflaH, -a, -bi baggage, 6ara>K, -a porter, HocwibiUHK, -a, -H taxi, T3KCH (indecl.) bus, aBTo6yc, -a, -w street-csr, rpaMsa-ft, -H, -H automobile, anTOMo6Hji-b, -a, -M driver, uiO(j)ep, -a, -bi to drive (car), 63-AHTb (-}Ky, -AHLlJb)

fountain-pen, caMonHuiymee

nepo

paper, 6y\iar-a, -H, -H writing-paper, nHcna

6yMara

envelope, KOHBCpT, -a, -bi letter, rwcbM-o, -a, '-a post-office, nOHT-a, -bi stamp, (noHTOBaji) tMapK-a, -H, -H letter-box, noHTOiiwfl HIUHK, -a, -H to mail, nochi^-arb (-aio, -aeiiib;

perf. no-c;iarb (-iiuiio, -ujjiemb)

no nome; ornpas-HTb (-^K),

-Hiiib) no nome address, a^pec, -a. -a post-card, OTKpbiTK-a, -H, -H; KapioMK-a, -H, -H

dance, raH-eu, -ua, -ubi to dance, TaHU>oBaib (-yio.

-yeiiib) to have a good time, Beceji-HTbca

(-K)Cb, -HUJbCfl) ; perf. no - ticket, 6n/ieT, -a, -bi pleasure, VAOBO^bCTBH-e, -51, -« ball, MUM, -a, -M to play (music), Hrp-aib (-an),

406

RUSSIAN

-aeiiib) na with prepositional

case; perf. no -

(games), Hrp-aTb B with accusa-

tive case; perf. no - to sing, n-eib (-OK), -oeiub) song, necH-H, -H, -H to take a walk, ry;i-HTb (-HK), ) ; perf. no -

15. Town and Country.

place, spot, MCCT-o, -a, -a

city, ropofl, -a, -a

street, y^nu-a, -bi, -w; nepey/i-oK,

-K3, KH

sidewalk, rporyap, -a, -bi harbor, raaaH-b, -H, -H intersection, nepeKpecT-OK, -Ka,

•KH

block, KBaprai, -a, -M school, niKOji-a, -M, -bi church, uepK-OBb, -BH, -BH building, 3flaHH-e, -H, -H cathedral, co6op, -a, -bi corner, yr-OJlx -Jia, -Jlbl

(at the corner, na yniy) hotel, rocTHHHHU-a, -br, -u office, KOHTOp-a, -M, -w river, peK-a, -H, '-H

16. House-

door, ABCp-b, -H, -H

to open, OTKpbiB-aTb (-aio,

-aenib) ; perf. OTKp-blTb (-OK),

-oeiub) to close, aaicpbiB arb (-aio,

-aeiiib) ; perf. 3aKp-biTb (-OK),

•oeiub/

key, KJIIOH, -a, -M to go in, Bxo-AHTb (-my, '-AHiiib) ;

perf. Boft-TH (-.ay, -Aeiiib) ; past

BOLUeJI, BOLUJia, BOllJ^H to go Ollt, BblXO-flHTb (->Ky,

* ; perf. BM-fiTH (-ft^y,

beach, B3MOpb-e, -H; 6eper, -a, -a to swim, n;iaBa-Tb f-io, -eiiib) game, Hrp-a, -w, '-bi sand, nec-OK, -Ka, -KH refreshment, yroiMCHH-e, -H, -fl saloon, TpaKTHp, -a, -w; nHBH-aa,

-ofl, -we; Ka6aK, -a, -H picnic, riHKHHK, -a, -H

bridge, MOCT, -a, -w

(on the bridge, Ha Mocry) country, #epeBH-H, -H village, ce^-o, -a, **-a road, ^opor-a, -H, -H /nountain, rop-a, -w, '-bi grass, rpaB-a, -w, '-bi yard, flBOp, -a, -bi hill, XO^M, -a, -M lake, oaep-o, -a, "-a forest, wood, ;iec, -a, -a field, novi-e, -H, -fl flower, U.BCT-OK, -Ka, -w tree, flepeB-o, -a, ^epeBbfi rock, CKa^-a, -bi, '-bi stone, K3M-eHb, -HH, -HH jungle, A>KyHr^-H, -eft (pi.)

; past BbfuieJi,

BblUIJIH

house, JIOM, -a, -a

cottage, flan-a, -H, -H

hut, H36-a, -w, '-bi

to live (in), )KH-Tb (-By, -Beuib) ;

perf. npo - staircase, JieciHHU-a, -M, -w

to go Up, IKXHHHM-aTbCH (-aiOCb,

-aeuibcn) ; perf, nojiH-HTbCH (-Hwycb, -HMeiiibca) to go down, cnycK-aibCfl

(-aiocb, -aeiiibCH) ; perf. cny-

RUSSIAN

407

CTHTbCH (-LUyCb, '-CTHUJbCfl)

room, KOMH3T-a, -bi, -bi toilet, ydopH-an, -oft, -bie kitchen, K>'XH-H, -H, -H (gen. pi.

KyxoHb)

table, CTOrt, -a, -bi chair, CTy;i, -a, -bH to sit down, c-ajuiTbCfl (-awycb , I ; perf. c-ecTb (-flay, past cert, certa, ce;w

to be sitting, CH-ACTb (->Ky,

-AHLUb) roof, KpbILU-a, -H, -H

to stand, be standing, CTO-flTb

(-K), -Hiub) ; perf. no - to stand up, BCT-aib (-any,

-aHeujb)

wall, CTCH-a, -M, '-bi lamp, ^aMn-a, -w, -bi candle, CBCH-a, -H '-H; CBCHK-a,

-H, -H

closet, HJKac}), -a, -bi window, OKH-O, -a, '-a to rest, OTAbix-aTb (-aio, -aeiijb) ;

perf. oT^oxH-yTb (-y, -euib)

17. Nouns — Miscellaneous.

people, /tlOA-n, -eft (pi.) thing, BCm-b, -H, -H name, HM-H, -CHH, -ena luck, c'lacTb-e, -H bad luck, HecnacTb-e, -H

bed, Kposat-b, -H, -H; nocica-b, -H, -H

bedroom, cna^bH-H, -H, -H

blanket, OAen^-o, -a, -a

sheet, npocTbiH-a, -H, '-H

mattress, Maipau, -a, -hi

pillow, noayujK-a, -H, -H

to go to bed, Jio>K-HTbCH (-ycb, -HiiibCfl) cnarb; perf. rt-cqb {-wry, -jDKeujb), past rtert

to go to sleep, H-TTH (-/xy,

-^eiiJb)1:{ cnaib; sacwn-arb

(-aio, -aeuib) to sleep, cn-arb (-rtK), -Miub) ;

perf. no - to wake up, npocbiTi-aibCH (-aiocb,

•aeiubca) ; perf. npocH-yibCH

(-ycb, -euibCH) to get up, BCTa-Barb (-K), -eiiib) ;

perf. Bcr-arb (-any, -aHeiiib) to dress, o^eB-aibcn ( -aiocb,

clock, nac-bi, OB (pi.) alarm-clock, 6yflHJibHHK, -a, -H

number, HHC/I-O, -a, '-a; HOwep. -a, -a

life, >KH3H-b, -H, -H death, CMCpr-b, -H, -H work, pa6or-a, -bi, -bi; (labor), -a, -w

18. Verbs — Coming and Going.

to come, npHXO-AHTb (->Ky, ; perf. npH-ATH (

to go, xo-AHTb (.>Ky, '-

H-TTH (-ay, -aeiiib) ;13 perf.

nofi-TH (-.ay to be going to, (use future at

perfective verb; we are going

to win, Mbi no6eAHM) to walk, ry;i-flTb (-HIO, -neuib) ;

13. The past of HTTH, to go, and all its compounds (which normally appear as -ftTH or -HTH) is irregular: lueji, iiua,

408

RUSStAN

-yeuib) ; - somebody, aa with instrumental: follow me,

aa MHOH; perf. no

perf. no - to go away, yxo-AHTb (->Ky,

'-flHLUb) ; perf. yflTH to fall, nafla-Tb (-10, -eiub) ; perf. to return, come back, BOSBpam-

yna-cib (-#y, -Aeuub) ; past arbCH (-aiocb, -aeuibcn) ; perf.

B03Bpa-THTbCH -TMllIbCH)

ynarc to run, 6era-Tb (-K), -eiiib) ; perf.

y6e-5Karb (-ry, ->KMiiib) to stay, remain, ocra-BarbCH

(-iccb, -euibcfl) ; perf. ocia-

TbCH (-HyCb, -HCllIbCH)

to follow, c;re,a-oBaTb (-yio,

to arrive, npHC3>K-aTb (-aio, -aeujb) ; perf. npHC-xarb (-ay,

to depart, yesHc-axb (-aio, -aeiiib) ; perf. ye-xarb (-,ay, -A

19. Verbs - — Looking and Seeing.

to see, BH-ACTb (*>Ky,

perf. y - to look (at), CMorp-erb (-K)

'-HLUb) ; perf. no - to look for, H-cKarb (-my,

'-mewb) ; perf. no • to look, seem,

to take for, npHHHM-aib (-aio, -aeiiib) aa with ace.; perf. npH- -My, '-Meuib) ; past

tO laugh, CMC-flTbCH (-K>Cb,

-eujbCfl) ; perf. no - or 33- (oicy, to smile, y;ibi6-aTbCH (-aiocb,

-aeuibcfl)

to recognize, y3Ha-Barb (-10, to laugh at, CMe-flTbCfl, nocMe-

•euib) ; perf. y3Ha-Tb (-K), nibCH (-K)Cb, cuibcn) Ha/i with

•euib), with added meaning of instrumental "to find out".

20. Verbs — Mental.

to make a mistake, omn6-aTbCH to like, JiK)6-HTb (-JiK). '-Hiiib) ;

(-aiocb, -aeuibcn) ; perf. oiiJH6- perf. no -

HTbc« (-ycb, -eiiibCH) to wish, >Ke^-aTb (-aio, -aeuib) , to hope, Haae-HTbCH (-iocb, perf. no -

•eiiibCfl) to want. xo-TCTb (-ny, '-neiub) ; to wait (for), >KA-aib (-y, -euib) ; perf. 33 -

perf. noAO - to need, ny>K,n-fcTbcsi (-aiocb, to think (of), Aywa-Tb (-10, -aeiiibca) ; I need help, H

-eiub) ; pf. no- ny>K,aaiocb B

(I am thinking of him, ayMaio Hy>KHa

o HC'M; what do you think of to know (person or fact), 3H-aib him?, HTO Bbi ayMaere o HCM?; (-aio, -aeiiib)

KaKoro Bbi o HCM MHCHHH?) to understand, noHHM-aib (-ftK). to believe, BCp-HTb (-K), -Hiiib) ; -aeiiib) ; perf. no-HflTb (-flMy, perf. no -

RUSSIAN

409

to know how to, yMC-Tb (-10,

-ewb) to remember, nOMH-HTb (-K>,

-Miiib) ; perf. 3a - to forget, 3a6biB-arb (-aio,

-aeuib) ; perf. 3a6-WTb (-y

to permit, allow, no3Bo;i-flTb (-mo, -fleiub; dative of person allowed) ; perf. no3BOji-HTb

(-K), -HLUb)

to promise, o6em-3Tb (-aio, -aeuib; dative of person pro- mised)

to forbid, sanpem-arb (-aio, -aeuib; dative of person for-

21. Verbs — Miscellaneous.

to live, >KH-Tb (-By, -Beuib)

to die, yMHp-arb (-aio, -aeuib) ;

perf. yMepeib (yMpy,

yMpeuib) ; past yinep, yMepJia,

yMep;iH

to work, pa6oTa-Tb (-10, -euib) to give, Aa-eaib (-10, -euib) ;

perf. aa-Tb (-M, -uib) to take, 6-paib, (-epy, -epeuib) ;

perf. B3flTb (B03bMy, BO3b-

Meuib) to begin, HaMHH-aTb (-aio, -aeuib) ;

perf. Ha4-arb (-Hy, -Heuib)

(I began reading, H Haia;i

HHiaib) to finish, KOHH-axb (-aio, -aeuib) ;

perf. KOHH-HTb (-y, -Hlllb)

(he finished writing, OH KOHHHA nncarb)

to continue, keep on, npOAO/DK- aib (-aio, -aeuib) (he kept on writing, OH

to help, noMor-aib (-aio, -aeiub) dat. of person) ; perf. nOMO-Hb

bidden) ; perf. sanpe-THTb (-my, -THuib)

to learn, yq-HTbCH (-ycb, x-niubCJi) ; perf. Ha -

to feel like, xOTCTbCH

(I feel like working, MHC XOHCTCH pa6oT3Tb; lit., it feels to me like working)

to fear, be afraid, 6o-flTbCH

(-K)Cb, -HUJbCfl)

to be right, 6biTb npHBbiM (I am right, H npas; make the predicate adjective agree in gender and number with the subject)

to be wrong, 6biTb HenpasbiM (she is wrong, ona Henpasa)

(-ry, '->Keuib) ; past, nowor,

noMor^a, -M to lose, Tep-flTb (-HIO, -neuib) ;

perf. no - to find, Haxo-flHTb (->Ky, f-w\ub) ;

perf. HaftTH to try, npo6-OB3Tb (-yio, -yeiub) ;

perf. no - to leave (something), ocraB/i-HTb

(-HIO, -neuib) ; perf. ociaB-HTb

(-JIK), -HUIb)

to show, nonasbiBa-Tb (-10, -eiub) ;

perf. noKa-saxb (-xcy, - '->Keiub) to meet, Bcrpeqa-Tb (-K), -eiub) ;

perf. Bcrpe-THTb (-ny, -THiub) to do, make, flejia-Tb (-10, -euib) ;

perf. c - to be able, can, MO-Hb (-ry,

'-Hceuib) ; perf. c -; past MOF,

Monia, MOPJIH to put, lay, Kjia-CTb (-n

porf. no^o>K-HTb (-y, '- to carry, Hec-TH (-y, -eiub) ; perf.

no -; past Hec, Hecjia, HCC to briig, npHHO-CHTb (-my,

14

410

RUSSIAN

-CHiub); perf. npHHecxH to stop (another), ocraHaBJiHBa- Tfc (-K), -euib) ; perf. OCTaHOB- HTb (-^K), '-HUJb)

to stop (self), ocraHaBJiHBa-TbCfl (•K)Cb, -eiiibCfl) ; perf. ocraHO-

BHTbCfl

to cover, noKpbiB-arb (-aio, •aeiub) ; perf. noKp-WTb (-010, -oeiiib)

to get, obtain, nojiyM-arb (-aio. -aeiub) ; perf. no/iyn-HTb (-y,

'-HLUb)

to get, become, craHOB-HTbCH (-Jiiocb, '-HUibca; generally followed by instrumental; to become obstinate, CTaHOBHTbCfl ynpflMHM) ; perf. CTa-tb (-Hy,

•HCIllb)

to hide, npn-raib (-qy, -nenjb) ;

perf. c - to break, ^OM-aib (-aio, -aeujb) ;

perf. c -

22. Adjectives.

small, MajieHbKHft; Ma^bift (2)

large, 6o/ibiiiOH

great, Be;iHKnfi (3)

tall, high, BbicOKHtf (2)

short (opp. of tall), Ma^eHbKHfi

low, HH3KHH (-OK, 3)

heavy, Tflwejiwfl (2)

light (weight), ;ierKn8 (-OK, 2)

long, A/IHHHblH (-HHCH, 3) J

AOJirHfi (-or, 3) short (opp. of long), KOpOTKHft

(KOpOTOK, 2)

wide, iuHpOKH# (2) narrow, ysKHft (-OK, 3) clean, MHCTbift (3) dirty, rpHSHbift (-en, 3) fresh, CBOKHfl (2) cool, npoxjiajiHbifi ('-CH, 1)

to send, nocbw-aib (-aio, -aeiiib) ;

perf. no-cviaTb (-LU^K), -uuieuib) to hurry, cneiu-HTb (-y, -Hiiib) ;

perf. no- to deliver, AOCiaBJi-flTb (-nio,

-fieiiib) ; perf.

(-.7IK), -Hlllb)

to catch, JiOB-HTb (-^K), '-H perf. noflM-aib (-aio, -aeuib) ;

C^OBHTb

to belong, npHHazuiOK-arb (-y,

•Hlllb)

to have (something) done,

aacraBJi-siTb (-HK), -fleuib) ;

perf. aacxaB-HTb (-^K), -Hiiib) to hold, Aep>K-aTb (-y, '-Hiub) to have just (I have just written,

a TOJibKo MTO HanHca^) to accept, npHHHM-3Tb (-aio,

-aeiiib) to refuse, OTKaauBa-ibca (-iocb.

•eiiibCH; followed by OT with

genitive)

cold, xo/ioviHbifi (xo.noA-eH, -Ha,

'-o, '-bi) warm, Ten.ibin (-ne;i. 3)

(warm day, >KapKHft ^6Hb) hot, ropflMMH (2) ; >napKnft

(-OK, 3) damp, Cbipofl wet, MOKpbift (3) dry, cyxoft (3) full, no/iHbift (-OH, 3) empty, nycrotf (3) dark, TCMHW^ (-en, 2) light, bright, clear, CBer/Jbifi

(•eji, 2) fat, >KHpHbift (-CH, 3)

(person, TO^CTbift, 2) thick, nJiOTHbifi

thin. TOHKHtt (-OK, 2) ; xyflOft (3) round,

RUSSIAN

411

square, KB

flat, ruiocKHft (-OK, 3)

deep, rviy6oKHft (2)

Soft, MHFKHft (-OK, 2)

hard, TBe'pflbift (3)

quick, 6biCTpuft (3), CKOpwft (1)

slow, MeflJieHHbift (-CH, 1)

ordinary, o6biKHOBCHHbift

comfortable, yflOtfHbitf (-<5ep, 1)

uncomfortable, Hey;U>6Hbitt

near, 6;iH3KHft (-3OK, 2)

distant, na;ieKHft (2)

right (direction), npasbitt (3)

left, /iCBbift

poor, 6c(HHbift (-CH, 3)

rich, 6oraibift (1)

beautiful, KpacHEbift (1)

ugly, HeKpacHBbift (1)

pretty, xopOtueHbKHft

sweet, cjiaflKHft (-ZIOK, 3)

bitter, ropbKHft (-pen, 3)

sour, KHc/ibift (-ceji, 3)

salty, coJie'Hbift (-;IOH, 3)

young, MOJIOAOH (MO^OA, 3)

old, crap bi ft (3)

new, HOBbift (3)

good, xopotiiHft (2) ; ,ao6pbift (2)

better, jiymimft

best, caMbifl ^ymiiHft

bad, n^oxofl (3) ; xy^oft (3)

worse,

worst, c

fine, "regular", xopoiiinft (2)

first, nepBbift

last, nocjie^HHft

strong, CHJibHbift (2)

weak, c^a6wri (3)

tired, ycranbift (1) '

alone, o^MH (OflHa,

same, caMbitt

true, npaeAHBbift (1)

(-6H, 3) ;

JIOWHblft

easy, ^e'rKHtt (-OK, 2)

hard, difficult, Tpy^Hbift (-CH, 3)

happy, glad, AOBO^bHbifl (-en, 1)

sad, rpyciHbifi (-TCH, 3)

free, CBo6oAHbitt (-ACH, 1)

silly, rviynbift (3)

crazy, noMCiiiaHHbift (1)

brave, xpa6pbift (3)

cowardly, Tpyc/iHBbifl (1)

quiet, THXHft (3)

noisy, iiiyMHbift

kind, ^K)6e3HbiH (-CH, 1)

drunk, nbHHbiH (2)

polite, BOKJIHBblft (1)

impolite, riulo, rpy6bitt (3) pleasar.t, npHHTHbitt (-CH, 1) unpleasant, HenpHflTHbift (-CH, 1) lonesome, OAHHOKHfl (1) foreign, MHOCTpaHHbiM friendly, npHBCiviHBbift (1) ; Apy>KecTBeHHbiH (-HCH, 1) hostile, Bpa>KAe6Hbift (1) ;

(1)

lucky, cnacTJiHBbifl (1) unlucky, charming, oM afraid, 6oH3^HBbift

(I am afraid, MHe cipauJHO) ready, roiOBbift (1) hungry, ro^OAHbitt (-CH, 3) thirsty (I am), MHC xOMCTCfl nHTb funny, CMeuiHOft (-OH, 2)

possible, B03MO>KHbIH (->KeH, 1)

impossible, HeBO3MO>KHbift (1)

living, MCHBOft (3)

dead, Me'pTBbitt (2)

right (correct), npaBbift (3)

(Fm right, a npaB) wrong, HenpaBbift (3)

(I'm wrong, a Henpae)

412 RUSSIAN

23. Co/or*.

white, 6e;ibiti (3) yellow, >Ke;iTbift (2»

black, HepHbift (-CH, 3) gray> cepbift (3)

red, KpacHbitt (-CH, 2) brown.

green, 3e;ieHbift (3) pink, posctBuft

blue, CHHH# purple, nypnypOBbifl; (light blue, ro;iy6oft)

24. Nationalities.14

American, aMepHKHHCKHft; aMepHKaH-eu, -Ka, -uu

English, amviHHCKHH; aHr;iH4aH-HH, -Ka. -e

French, (J)paHuy3CKHft; ({jpamiy-s, -weHKa, -sw

German, HCMCUKHM; HCM-CU, -Ka, -iibi

Spanish, HcnaHCKHfi; HcnaH-eu, -Ka, -Ubi

Russian, pyccKMM; pyccK-HH, -an, -HC; COBCTCKHA (pertaining to the

Soviet Union; not interchangeable with pycCKHfl, and never

applied to the language) Italian, majibHHCKHft ; maJibHH-eii, -Ka, uw Japanese, nnOHCKMM; jinoH-eu, -Ka, -Ubi Chinese, KHiaHCKHH; KHia-eu, -«HKa, -HUU Dutch, roji^aH^cKHfi; ro^jiaHA-eu, -na, -uu Norwegian, HopBOKCKH^; HopBe>K-eu, -Ka. -iibi Swedish, iHBe^CKHft; niBe,a, -Ka, -bi Finnish, (j)HHCKHvi; IJDHHH, -Ka, -bi Belgian, 6e;ibrMMCKHvi; 6e^brH-eu, -flKa, -flubi Polish, no^bCKHii; OOJI-HK, '-bKa, -HKH Danish, jiaxcKHft; AarnaH-HH, -Ka, -e Swiss, LUBefluapcKHft ; iLiBeHuap-eu, -Ka, -uw Portuguese, nopryra^bCKnii; nopryraji-en, -Ka, -bnw Yugoslav, loroc^aBflHCKHfi; K)roc^aBHH-HH, '-Ka, -e

14. The first form given is the adjective, to be declined as such, and to be used in connection with a noun: the American Navy, aMepHKaHCKHH (JxnOT. Thi second form is the noun, meaning a person of the stated nationality: he is an American, OH — aMepHKaneu; she is an American, OHa — aMepHK3HKa; they are Americans, OHH — aMepHKaHUbi. The name of the language is indicated by the adjective with H3biK: the Russian language, pyccKHft H3BIK; after the verb ktto speak ', however, the masculine singular form of the adjective, preceded by no and minus the -fi of the ending, is used: I speak Russian, a roBOpK) nopyccKn; do you speak French? roBOpHie JIH Bu no-(J)paHiiy3CKH? Nouns and adjectives of nationality are not usually capitalized, though names of countries are.

RVSSIAN

413

Bulgarian, 6o;irapCKHtf; 6o;irap-HH, -Ka, -bi

Czech, HemcKHtf; qe-x, -iiiKa, -XH

Greek, rpenecKHft; rpe-K, -naHKa, '-KM

Turkish, rypeuKHft; ryp-OK, -qaHKa, '-KH

Roumanian, pyMblHCKHft; pyMblH, -Ka, -bi

Hungarian, BCHrepcKHfl; Benrep-eu, -Ka, -iiu

Austrian, aBCipHftcKHft; aBcipH-eu, -HHKa, -uw

Malay, MajiaftcKHti; Majia-eu, -ftKa, -LIU

Persian, nepCHflCKHfi; nepc, -HfiHKa, -bi

Arabian, Arab, Arabic, apa6cKHft; apa6. -Ka, -u

Jewish, Hebrew, eBpeftcKHft; eBpe-ft, -ftKa, -H

Australian, aBCTpajiHftcKHft; aBcrpa^H-eu, -ftKa, -ftuu

African, a^puKaHCKHH; ac()pHKaH-eu, -Ka, -Ubi

Canadian, KaHa^cKHH; Kana^-eu, -Ka, -Ubi

Mexican, MCKCHKancKHft; MCKCHKan-eu, -Ka, -Ubi

Cuban, Ky6aHCKHft; Ky6an-eu, -na, -u.bi

Brazilian, 6pa3mibflHCKHft; 6pa3H^b$iH-en, -Ka, -uw

Argentinian, apreHTHHCKHft; apreHTMH-eu, -Ka, -uw

Porto Rican, nopTOpHKaHCKHtt; nopTOpHKaH-en, -Ka, -nw

25. Adverbs and Adverbial today, ceroAHH .yesterday, BHepa tomorrow, aasrpa day before yesterday, Tpeibero

AHfl

day after tomorrow, noc^esaBTpa tonight, cerOflHH BenepOM last night, B^epa seqepoM this morning, cero,HHH yxpOM in the morning, yrpoM in the afternoon, ^HCM in the evening, BCHepOM in the night, HOHbK) this afternoon, cerOAHH flHCM tomorrow morning, aaBTpa yipOM tomorrow afternoon, aaBTpa AHCM tomorrow night, saBTpa seqepOM all day, secb ACHb all morning, Bee yrpo all night, BCK> HOHb every day, Ka>K;u>ift /iCHb every morning, BCHKOC (K3)KAoe)

yrpo

Expressions.

every night, KajKflyio HOHb

early, p3HO

late, HO3JIHO

already, y>KC

yet, still, eme

no longer, fjovibilie He

not yet. HCT eme

now, Tenepb

then, xor^a

afterwards, nocjie

never, HHKorna

always, Bcenia

forever, Hascer^a

soon, CKOpo

often, Macro

seldom, pe^KO

Usually, o6blKHOBCHHO

fast. 6bicrpo slowly, Me^eHHO here, s^ecb there, xaM near by, 6;iH3KO far away, A3JI6KO

414

RUSSIAN

up (stairs), naeepxy; Haeepx

(motion) down (stairs), BHHay; BHH3

(motion) ahead, in front, snepeAH; Bnepe'A

(motion) forward, snepe'A behind, in back, C33AH back, backward, HaaaA (motion) outside, cHapy>KH; Hapywy

(motion)

inside, BHyrpH; BHyrpb (motion) opposite, in front, HanpOTHB here and there, TyT H TEM everywhere, BCK>Ay, B63AC where, r^e; KyAa (motion) also, too, THK>Ke; TOHCC yes, Aa no, HCT not, He

very, much, OHCHb little, not much, MHJTO; He OMCHB well, xopoiuo badly, nvioxo better, jiymiie worse, xy>Ke only, TOflbKo more (than), 6ojiee (HCM),

6ojibiue

less, MCHee, MCHbiue as - as, T3K - KaK as much - as, CTOJibKO xce -

CKO^bKO (with genitive sg.) as many - as, crojibKO Hce •

CKO^bKo (with gen. pi.) how much?, CKOJibKO (with gen.

sg.)? how many?, CKOJIWCO (with gen.

26. Conjunctions.

and, H

but, HO; a

if, provided that, ecflH

(if with conditional usually —

how?, K3K?

too much, C-rtHLLIKOM MHOFO

(with gen. sg.) too many, CJIHLUKOM MHOPO

(with gen. pi.)

really, truly, AeftcTBHTe/ibHO so much, CTOJibKO (with gen. sg.) so many, CTOJibKO (with gen. pi.) as, like, KaK besides, KpOMe roro finally, in short, H3KOHCU;

B KOHUC KOHUOB

almost, IIOHTH

gladly, c yAOBO^bCTBHCM

certainly, HenpeMCHHO

at once, cpaay

at all, BOBCC

hardly, c TpyAOM, eAB3 He

aloud, Bc^yx

of course, KOHCMHO

suddenly, BHesanno; BApyr

about, OKO^O

perhaps, maybe, MO>KeT-6biTb

a little, HCMHO>KKO; HCMHOPO

(with gen.) again, onnrb together, BMCCTC at least, no Kpa^Heft MCpe for lack of, aa

(with gen.) long ago, AaBHMM repeatedly, nacTo; HBOAHO-

KpaiHo; noBTOpno therefore, no9TOMy occasionally, entirely, altogether, c^HUJKOM;

COBC6M

6bi with past) or, HJIH

why?, noneiviy? why!, ny MTO!; HV Aa!; MTO

RUSSIAN

415

because, for, noTOMy HTO before, npoitae HCM; ao roro K3K when, when?, while, Koraa than, HCM; JiyHiiie HCM; genitive

case where, where?, r^e; Ky.ua

(motion)

whence, whence?, OTKyfla until, noKa He; no Tex nop notca

He

although,

unless, CC;IH

that, HTO

after, noc^e TOFO K3K

as soon as, KHK TO/ibKO

as long as, nona He

without, 6ea TOFO Hio6bi (more often, He with gerund: without knowing this, He snaa sroro)

27. Indefinite pronouns and Adjectives.

a few, several, HCCKOJibKO with

gen.

neither - nor, HH - HH each, every, Ka>KAbiH; BCflKHft all, Becb (BCH, BCC, pi. Bee) (an) other, .apyroft much, lots of, MHOFO (with gen.) few, HCMHOro (with gen. pi.) many, MHOro (with gen. pi.) little, not much, Ma^o (with gen.) both, o6a(o6e, o6a) with gen. sg.

(with gen.)

not enough, He/iocraToqHO (with gen.)

28. Prepositions (the cases taken by each preposition are indicated).

such,

of all kinds, BCflKoro pO/i,a

everything, Bee

everyone, BCC

something, HTO-TO

someone, KTO-TO

nothing, HMMTO

no one, HHKTO

no (adj.), Hex (with gen.; I have no bread, y MCHH Her xjie6a)

some, HeKOTOpue or gen.: give me some bread, aaflre MHC xjie6a ; some men, HCKoropbie

of, H3 (gen.) ; or genitive alone from, away from, or (gen.) outside of, BHC (gen.) to, dative; B (ace.) ; K (dat.) ; Ha

(ace.) ; AO (gen.) at, y (gen.) with, c (instr.)

as far as, until, up to, AO (gen.) without, 6es (gen.) in, B (prep.) into, B (ace.) on, Ha (ace. or prep.) over, above, Baa (instr.)

for, for the sake of, jyifl (gen.)

since, c (gen.)

toward, K (dat.)

between, among, cpe^H; nocpe/Uf

(gen.) near, next to, 6;iH3 (gen.) ;

pfl,nOM c (instr.) below, beneath, nofl f instr.) ;

HH>Ke (gen.) by, (instrumental case) far from, #a;ieKO or (gen.) before, 40 (gen.) after, nocjie (gen.)

RUSSIAN

opposite, in front of, BnepeAH across, qepea (ace.)

(gen.) on the other side of, Ha Apyroi*

back of, behind, nosaflH (gen.) ciopOHe (with gen.)

under (neath),no# (instr.) in spite of, HecMOipH Ha (ace. )

instead of, BMCCTO (gen.) about, OKO/IO (gen.)

beside, KpOMe (gen.) around, KpyrOM (gen.)

at the house of, B flOMe (with during, BO epCMfl (gen.)

gen.) ; y (gen.) because of, on account of, H3 33

through, CKB03B (ace.) (gen.) ; Ha OCHOBSHHH roro

by means of, instr,; nocpe^CTBOM HTO

(gen.) in order to (inf.), flJifl TOro

against, npOTHB (gen.) HT06bi (past)

29. Special Expressions and Idioms. good morning, ^o6poe yrpo; 3.apaBCTByftTe (often pronounced

good afternoon, good day, <ao6pbiH good evening, ao6pbift BCMep good night, cnoKOHHoft HO^M

food-bye, AO cBH^aHba; npouiaftre 11 see you later, £0 cKOporo CBHA3HHH I'll see you tomorrow, AO sasipa I'll see you tonight, ao Benepa

jUSt nOW, TOJIbKO - HTO

hello! (on telephone), c/iyuiaio! ;

how are you?, Kan Bbi noKHBaere?

I'm well, xopoiiio; MHC xopoiuo

I'm (much) better, MHC (ropaszio)

how goes it?, KaK ^ejia?

what time is it?, KOTOpuft nac?

it's six o'clock, uiecib nacOB

at six o'clock, B niecTb nacos

at about six, OKO^O iiiecTM; qacOB B uiecib

at half past six, B no^OBHHa ce;ibMOro

at a quarter to six, 6es HCTBepTH luecib

at a quarter past six, B MCTBepTb ceflbMOro

at ten minutes to six, 6es ACCHTH uiecTb

at ten minutes past six, B ACCHTb MHHYT

last year, B npoiiMOM ro,ay

next year, B 6yAymeM ro^y; na 6y^yiUHH ro/i (for next year)

every day, KawAHft .neHb

the whole day, eecb .aeHb

please, noKajiyftcra (pronounce

tell me, CKawnre MHC

RUSSIAN 41J

bring me, npHHecMTe MHC

show me, noKa>KHTe MHC

thank you, cnacn6o; 6-narojiapio (Bac)

don't mention it, He sa HTO; no

will you give me?, .nafiTe MHC,

pardon me, HSBHHHTC; npocTHie

it doesn't matter, never mind, HMHCPO

I'm sorry, BHHOBar

I can't help, HHHero He Mory I with inf.)

it's nothing, »TO HHHero

what a pity!, KaK >Kajib!

it's too bad, y^KacHo!

I'm glad, H paa

I have to, MHC Ha.no; MHC Hy>KHo; a

I agree (all right, O. K.) , H corjiaceH

here is (are), EOT

there is (are), EOT; TaM

where is (are) ?, r^e?

where are you going?, Ky^a Bbi H^ere?

which way?, no KaKOH aopore?; B KaKyio ciopony?

this (that) way (fashion), 3THM nyreM

this (that) way (direction), B 3TOM HanpaBflCHHH; no STOtt CTOpOHC;

B 3iy CTOpony to the right, nanpaso to the left, H3JI6BO straight ahead, npflMO come with me, HAHTC co MHOfi what can I do for you?, HTO a Mory ;yiH Bac caejiaib?; HCM H Mory

noMOHb?; HTO BaM yro^HO? what is it?, HTO STO TaKoe? what is the matter?, B HCM ,ae;io? what is the matter with you?, HTO c BaMH? what do you want?, HTO Bbi XOTHTC? what are you talking about?, o new Bbi rosoplire? what does that mean?, HTO 3TO snaHHT? what do you mean?, HTO Bbi nojipasyMCBaeTe?; HTO Bbi XOTHTC

3THM CKasaTb?

how much (is it)?, CKO^bKO (STO CTOHT) ?

anything else?, HTO eme?; HTO 6o^biue?

nothing else, 6ojibiue HHHero

do you speak Russian?, roBOpHTe ^H Bbi no-pyccKH?

a little, HCMHO>KKO; HCMHoro

sj>eak more slowly, roBOpHTe MC^eHHee

do you understand?, noHHMaeTe /IH Bbi?

14*

RUSSIAN

I don't understand, a He iiOHHwaio; « He HOHH;I do you know?, anaeie JIH Bbi? don't know, « He 3H3io can't, a He Mory

what do you call this in Russian?, nan 9io HasbmaeTCH no-pyccKH? low do you say - in Russian?, KHK roBOpmcfl • no-pyccKH?

*m an American, a — aMepHKaHeu. (awepHKaHica, fern.) ! 'm (very) hungry, H (oneHb) rojiOACH

'm thirsty, H xony nHTb

'm sleepy, a xony cnaib

'm warm, MHC xenvio

'ra cold, MHC XOJIOAHO it's warm, >K3pKO it's cold, XOJIOAHO it's windy, BCTpeHO it's sunny, COJIHCHHO it's fine weather, xopoiuafl noro^a it's bad weather, njioxaa noro^a

it's forbidden, aanpemeno (no smoking, KypHTb Bocnpemaercfl) luckily, fortunately, K CMacTbK) unfortunately, K HecnacTbio is it not so?, don't you?, aren't you? (etc.), He T3K (JIM)?; He

not at all, COBCCM HCT; COBCCM He how old are you?, cKO/ibKo BaM ^ I'm — years old, MHe — ^er (replace JICT with ro^ for *4one" and

compounds of "one", with rofla for 2, 3, 4, and compounds) how long have you been here?, flaBHO JIH Bbi SACCb?, Bbi A3BHO

how long have you been waiting?, CKOjibKO BpewieHH Bbi as soon as possible, BOSMOKHO CKOpee; nocKOpee come here!, H^HTC

come n ! ,"

look!, nocMOTpHie!

look out!, careful!, 6yAbTe ocTopo>KHbi ! ; ocxopOKHo!

darn it!, Mopr BO3bMH!; 3TO — BO3MyrHTejibHo!

for heaven's sake!, pa^H Bora!

glad to meet you!, oneHb npHflTHo!; H oneHb pa^!

no admittance, BXOA sanpemeH!: BXO^HTb BOcnpemaeicH!

notice!, o6i>flBJiCHHe!

nonsense !t nycTsuoi!; epyH.ua !

listen!, look here!, say!, nocJiyiiiaHTe! ; CKa)KMTe!

just a second!, oflny MHHyry!

gangway!, one side!, nocropoHHTecb!

OTHER EUROPEAN TONGUES

CHAPTER XII

OTHER EUROPEAN TONGUES

The languages of Europe that do not belong to die three major branches of Indo-European (Germanic, Romance, Slavic) are fairly numerous, but relatively unimportant, from a practical standpoint. Greek and Albanian form two separate branches of Indo-European. The former is the national tongue of some 7,000,000 people in Greece and of perhaps one or two million more, located on Turkish, Bulgarian and Albanian territory, and in the politically Italian Dodecanese Islands, while the latter is spoken by over 1,000,000 people in Alba- nia and by scattered minorities in Yugoslavia, Greece, and even in .southern Italy and Sicily. Finnish, Hungarian, Turk- ish and Estonian belong to the great Ural-Altaic family of northern Asia, and bear some resemblance to one another in structure, though they have so diverged in vocabulary as to be mutually incomprehensible (save in the case of Finnish and Estonian). Finnish is spoken by some 4,000,000 people in Finland and by scattered minorities in Russian Karelia; Estonian by about 1,000,000 in Estonia; Hungarian, or Magyar, by over 13,000,000 people, located in Hungary and in countries bordering on Hungary (Czechoslovakia, Rouma- nia, Yugoslavia) ; while Turkish is the national tongue of Turkey's 18,000,000 inhabitants, located mainly in Asia Minor, but also in European Turkey and adjacent territories (Bulgaria and Greece; Turkish linguistic minorities are to be found as far west as Albania, and as far north as Roumanian Dobrudja). The Celtic group of Indo-European appears in Ireland (Eire), where Irish (occasionally called "Erse", but not by the Irish themselves) is the official tongue, though more English than

OTHER EVROPEAN TONCVES

Irish is spoken among Eire's 3,000,000 inhabitants; in the highlands of Scotland; in Wales; and in French Brittany; the number of people speaking Scots Gaelic does not exceed a hundred thousand; Welsh speakers may run up to 1,000,000, but English is current among them; Breton is spoken by over 1,000,000 people in Brittany, but most of them use French as well. Lithuanian and Lettish are the national tongues of two countries having populations of about 3,000,000 and 2,000,000, respectively; they belong to the Baltic branch of Indo-European, which is frequently joined to the Slavic in a Balto-Slavic classification. Basque, a language with no known affiliations, is spoken by perhaps half a million people in the extreme northeastern corner of Spain and the extreme south- western corner of France, astride the Pyrenees; most Basque speakers can be approached with either Spanish or French.

From a practical standpoint, the majority of speakers of all these languages may be reached with other tongues. French and Italian are fairly current in Greece; Italian and Serbo- Croatian in Albania. Large numbers of Finns are acquainted with Russian, German and Swedish. Estonians, Latvians and Lithuanians are generally acquainted with Russian, German or Polish. Most Hungarians speak German. Celts and Basques can generally be reached with English, French and Spanish. Even in Turkey, the educated classes are generally acquainted with French, English and Italian.

OTHER EUROPEAN TONGUES 42 J

GREEK

From a cultural standpoint, the most important of these minor European tongues is Greek, which has behind it a glo- rious past of civilization and tremendous contributions made to the world's progress. From a linguistic standpoint, Greek has made an equally vast contribution to all other civilized languages, whose scientific and literary vocabularies are re- plete with words borrowed from Greek. ' The modern Greek language differs far less from the ancient Greek of classical times than modern Italian differs from Latin, so that it is quite possible for one trained in ancient Greek to read modern Greek. Most of the innovations have been in the fields of pro- nunciation and vocabulary; but while the modern tongue has borrowed considerably from Turkish, Italian and other sources, the bulk of the Greek vocabulary still remains what it was in the days of Homer and Aristotle, and the student of modern Greek finds himself constantly faced with words in current popular use which have given rise to cultural terms in his own tongue (e.g. otQatevna, pron. strdtevma, army; compare "strat- egy" ;jk?iftua>, pron. arithmo, to count; compare "arithmetic"). There is a certain divergence between literary modern Greek, which consciously and proudly adheres to traditional forms, and the colloquial or "Demotic" variety, which introduces for- eign (particularly Turkish) words, and displays a relaxation of grammatical standards and a simplification of grammatical forms (e. g. literary jtotrj^iov oivov vs. popular jroTf|(>i "glass of wine").

ALPHABET AND SOUNDS

Symbol Value

A a = father (dvd, pr. ana, "by", "over"; cf. analyze). B p = vase (6Xejio>, pr. vtepo, "I see"). F Y = longer, before y» *» 1» 71 (EYYOVOC, pr. engonos, "grand- son").

422 OTHER EUROPEAN TONGUES

= yes, before £, ij, i, v, ai, ei, 01, vi; (YTJ, pr. yee, "earth";

cf . geography) ; = voiced German ich in all other positions; (ydia, pr.

ghata, "cat").

A 5 = this, (I6d>, pr. edho, "here"). E E = met (eta, pr. ela, "come!"). Z £ = zinc (Ceovrj, pr. zonee, "belt"; cf. zone;. H T] = me (fpepa, pr. eemera, "day"). 6 •» = think (fl-sAco, pr. thelo, "I want").

1 i = me (oifico, pr. dheedho, "I give").

K x = king (xaxog, pr. kakos, "bad"; cf. cacophony).

A A = low (xcdog, pr. kalos, "good"; cf. calisthenics).

M u == moon (jiovo;, pr. monos, "alone"; cf. monosyllabic).

N v = new (vojiog, pr. nomos, "law").

E ? == fix (e§o), pr. ekso, "out").

O o = obey (jrotepog, pr. polemos, "war"; cf. polemic).

IT K = pat (jroht, pr. podhee, "foot"; cf. tripod).

P o = British very (jtapd, pr. para, "than"; cf. parallel).

2 a = us (00410, pr. so ma, "body"; cf. somatic). (g final)

T t = tall (jtotapiog, pr. pot am 6s, "river"; cf. hippopotamus).

Y v = very, in diphthongs (au, 8i>, ryu), when a vowel or a voiced consonant follows (avpiov, pr. avrion, "to- morrow") ; = father, in diphthongs (av, EU, TJU), when an unvoiced

consonant follows (oirrog, pr. aftos, "this") ; = me, in all other positions (vXi), pr. eelee, "material").

$ <p == father (cpcovri, pr. fonee, "voice"; cf. telephone).

X x — German ach, before a, o, a>, or consonant (ydvco, pr.

khano, "I loose") ;

— German ich, before e? ^ i, v; (xeoi, pr. cheree, "hand"; chiropractor).

V ^ = perhaps (ilruxn, pr. pseechee, "spirit"; cf. psycho- logy).

Q u> ™ obey ('aor'i, pr. zoee, "lift1"; cf. zoology).

Special Groups:

ai = met (nr\yaivw, pr. peeyeno, "1 go").

F(, 01, w = me (give, pr. eene, "is"; olvog, pr. eenos, "wine":

mog, pr. eeos, "son"), ou = food. (6o\)v6. pr. voond. "mountain").

OTHER EUROPEAN TONGUES 423

IITI = bend or ember (njruonjieoj)c;, pr. barberees, ''barber":

HJIOUJTU, pron. bomba, "bomb"). >t = do or undo (VTOUIVO, pr. domino, "domino"; f'vnuoc;. pr.

endeemos, "honored").

Special characters, called breathings (' , '), appearing over the initial vowel of a word, have no value in modern Greek (note, however, that the second symbol had the value of h in the ancient language, and that English words derived from Greek words beginning with a vowel that has this symbol over it appear with an h: {'woe, pr. eepnos, "sleep"; cf. Ajpnotism). Three accents appear in Greek, the acute ('), the grave ( *) and the circumflex ("). All three of them indicate the position of the stress, but there is no difference among them in the modern tongue.1 A semicolon ( ;) is the Greek equivalent of a question mark: Five xuxov;, is it bad?

GRAMMATICAL SURVEY.

Nouns and Articles.

Greek has three genders, masculine, feminine and neuter (but inanimate objects are often masculine or feminine); and five cases: nominative, genitive, dative, accusative and voca- tive. There is no indefinite article, so that uvftofoirocmay mean "man" or "a man". The definite article is:

Singular Plural

Masc. Fern. Neut. Masc. Fern. Neut.

Nom.	6	11	TO	o'l	(ti	TO.
Gen.	TOli	Trj;	TOP	TO)V	TOiV	T<1'V
Dat.	T(p	"HI	TO)	TO!;	TuTc	TO!:
Ace.	TOV	T>|V	TO	TOl'C	Ta"	TU

1. In the ancient tongue, only a long vowel could bear the circumflex accent; the latter may therefore appear on r) and co (Invariably long vowels in ancient Greek), but not on E and o (invariably short vowels) ; in modern Greek there is no difference of length in vowels, all vowel sounds being of medium length and clearly enunciated, whether stressed or unstressed.

424

OTHER EUROPEAN TONGUES

There is a large number of declensional schemes, of which the following three are samples:

Masculine: Xaog, "people": Xa-6g, -ou, -<x>, -6v, -E; plural: i, -ajv, -olg, -ovg, -oi.

Feminine: x«Qd, "joy": /ao-d, -05, -a, -dv, -a; plural: xaQ-cu, -o>v, -atg, -dg, -at.

Neuter; 5^-ov, "wood"; ^uA-ov, -ov, -a>, -ov, -ov; plural: t.vh-a, -oxv, -oig, -a, -a.

The nominative case is primarily the case of the subject or of the predicate nominative; the accusative the case of the direct object; the genitive indicates possession. The dative is the case of the indirect object, but there is a tendency in the spoken tongue to replace it by using the preposition etg ("to") with the accusative; this preposition tends to lose its initial vowel sound and to combine its final s-sound with a following definite article: Si5co OTOV (for E'IC; TOV) avftoomov, I give to the man, in substitution for a more literary ftiftco TO) dv{H>u>jtq>.

Adjectives and Adverbs.

Adjectives agree in gender, number and case with the nouns they modify, and follow complex declensional schemes similar to those of the nouns: 6 aocpog rxvftgoojio;, the wise man; TOU aocpov dv^Qcoitov, of the wise man; TCP oocpo) dvftgamo) (col- loquial: OTOV aocpov avftoawtov), to the wise man; etc.; fi aocpti qnXevaSa, the wise girl friend: TTJC; ocxp% qpitavdSag, etc.

The comparative is generally formed by replacing the ending of the positive with -Tepog or -coTepo^; the superlative by replacing the ending of the positive with -Tcnrog (-cotarog) ; or by prefixing the article to the comparative: cNxpos, witfe; oocpcoTEoog, wiser; cKxparcaTog or 6 ocKpcarspos, wisest. In colloquial Greek, jrci6 and jrei6 preceded by the definite article are also used for the comparative and superlative, respectively; jcei6 USYC&OC;, larger; 6 jieto xodoq, the best.

The adverb is usually derived from the adjective by changing the ending of the latter to -cog: ooqpog, wise; acxpcag, wisely. A few Adjectives change -og to -a: xaX6g, good; xaXd, well

Numerals.

"One", "three" and "four", their compounds and plural hundreds are declined. The others are invariable.

OTHER EUROPEAN TONGUES 425

1 — Evag (fern. M-ia, neut. £va) 13 — SExaTpeTc (-ia)

2 — 8-uo 20 — EIXOOI

3 — Tpelg (neut. tola) 21 — elxoaievas

4 — tsaaageg (neut. -a) 30 — Tpicxvra

5 — JIEVTC 40 — aapdvra

6 — e£i (e§) 50 — JiEvrjvra

7 — ecptd (£jtrd) 60 — ££r|vta

8 — 6xT(b 70 — E66oM/nvta 9— ewY)d (£vv£a) 100 — fcxcao

10 — SEXO, 200 — Siaxoaioi (-ai, -a)

11— £vS£xa 1000— x&ia

1 2 — Scb6£xa 2000 — 8vo 1,000,000 — §v

Pronouns. Personal.

I, §yw; me, to me, £{i£va (nov) ; we, FM^C; us, to us, Ejiag (fide;). you, av ; you, to you, £a£va (ao\J); plural nom. <rEig, ace. looli;

(o«g). he, she, it, avrog (TOU), aurri (rfi;), a-uto (regularly declined).

(Forms in parentheses are used before a verb as direct or indirect objects; but TOY, TT|V, TO are more commonly used as direct objects).

Possessive (follow a noun or adjective, and are unaccented).

my, mine, M*>U; our, ours, nag. your, yours (sg.) , aov; (pi.) oaq. his, her, hers, its, their, theirs, TOD, Trig, TCOV. (my brother, 6 afcEAqpog nmr, his father, 6

Interrogative and Relative.

who?, Tig; jtotog; what?, T(; jtoio; whom?, Tiva; JTOIOV; whose ?, of whom ?, Tivog ;

As a relative pronoun, JK>\> is generally used in all con- nections: 6 ftvdpcojrog JWHJ £t$a, the man whom I saw.

Verbs.

The Greek verb appears in a complicated scheme of tenses and moods, with a present, an imperfect, several possible fu- ture formations, an aorist (or past), a perfect (or present perfect), and a pluperfect; the conditional is treated as a

OTHER EUROPEAN TONGUES

mood rather than a tense, and appears in four possible forms ; there are two forms of the subjunctive, and various forms of the imperative, infinitive and participle. A full-fledged pas- sive appears, formed in most of its tenses by the addition of endings (TIJIO), I honor; ritual, I am honored). In a verb such as Xuo>, loose, the present indicative assumes the fol- lowing" forms: Xv-co, -Etg, -ei, -Q^IEV, -ere, -ow. The imperfect is eXvov; the future (I shall be writing) is \>d taxo, or (I shall write, at some specified time), dd Moo; the aorist is i'Xuoa; the per- fect EXCO Maet; the pluperfect efyov Maet.

IDENTIFICATION

In written form, Greek is very easily identified by means of its distinctive alphabet. In spoken form, the distinctive sound of the Greek s, which is almost a sharp hiss, is of help. Distinctive words, similar to English words known to be of Greek origin, frequently appear in speech.

SAMPLE OF WRITTEN GREEK

AIOTI tooov f|Y<xjtT](yev 6 Oeog TOV xoojiov, wore I'Scoxe TOY Ylov av- TOU TOV fiovoysvfj, Sid va y.i] djtoXEoftfj jtdc; 6 TUCFTEIKOV zi^ aviov, vd EXD t(*>T)v aitoviov.

WORDS AND PHRASES

good morning,

good evening, naki\ EOJtEpa

how are you? jtwg ela^e; TI xdvete; very well, jtoXu xa/.d

much better, jtoXu xub'itEyd good night, xaJtri v\jxt(t

please, jtagaxo^ and, xai yes, val no, not, o^

thank you very much, Evxapioico Jtapd jioXv

I am very glad, x<uQd> jtapd jtoA-v

I am hungry, JCEIVW I am thirsty, fiu^o

I am sorry, Xvjtoi5|iai to your health!, £ig uyeiav aa^!

where are you going?, ;to\3 jtdtE;

do you speak Greek?, 6|ndEiTE 'E^nvixd;

very little, jtoki) oXiyov

I understand, ^vvooj I have not, bkv syw

what time is it?, ii fiya E!VF; it is 3 o'clock, E!VE TOEI; i| woa

it is bad weather, £!VE xaxog xaipoi;

it is warm, XUIIVEI ^EOTTI it is cold, xd|.ivFi xoro

it is a fine night, slvE obpata virxra

give me. ftocrETE UOD come here, ^XdrE ISco

so long (lit. health to you!), yeid oov.

OTHER EUROPEAN TONGUES 427

ALBANIAN

ALPHABET AND SOUNDS — There is little uniformity in the orthography of the various Albanian dialects, of which the principal two are Gheg, spoken in northern Albania, and Tosk, spoken in the south. In a form of standardized orthography adopted by the Albanian Committee in 1908, Roman charac- ters are used, with an alphabet lacking the letter w. The seven vowels are: a, e, e, i, o, u, y; these have approximately the sound of father, met, French few, machine, obey, food, and French sur, respectively. Consonants and consonant groups are approximately as in English, with the following modifications: dh = this; gj = hog-yard; j — yes; nj = onion: q = dock- yard. The accent of Albanian usually falls on the next to the last syllable, but there are numerous words in which it falls on the last or third from the last.

GRAMMATICAL STRUCTURE — Albanian has two genders, masculine and feminine, with traces of a former neuter appear- ing only in the plural. The indefinite article is nje, "a" or "an" : nje shtepi, a house. The definite article is suffixed to the noun: mik, friend, miku, the friend. The case-system of Alba- nian includes a nominative, a genitive-dative, and an accusa- tive: mik, friend; miku, the friend; mikut, of or to the friend; mikun or mikne, the friend (object).

The adjective is normally not declined, but requires a prefixed form of the article: nje njeri i mire, a good man (lit. a man the good). The adjective often serves as an adverb: une jam mire, I am well.

The numerals are as follows: nje, dy, tre, kater, pese, gjashte, shtate, tete, nente, dhjete; nje-mbe-dhjete (11); njezet (20); nje-qint (100); nje-mije (1000).

The verb shows considerable complexity of tenses and moods. The present indicative of a regular verb such as hap, to open, is as follows: hap, hap, hap, hapim, hapni, hapin. The verb "to be" has: jam, je, eshte, jemi, jini, jane. The verb "to have" has: kam, ke, ka, kemi, kini, kane.

428 OTHER EUROPEAN TONGUES

The interrogative form of the verb is formed by prefixing a: a jam?, am I?; a ishin, are they? The negative is formed by prefixing s' or nuk: s'/am, I am not; nuk do te jem, I shall not be.

The vocabulary of Albanian indicates considerable borrow- ing from neighboring tongues (Latin, Italian, Greek, Serbo- Croatian, Turkish). "Gold", for example, is ar, and "silver" ergjent; "dog" is qen, and "meat" mish (Slavic myaso) ; "bad" is i keg (Greek kakos), along with a more indigenous i lig; "body" is trup (Slavic); "cup" is fildxhdn (Turkish filjdn), or kupe (Latin cuppa).

SAMPLE OF WRITTEN ALBANIAN (John 3.16)

Sepse Perendia kaq e deshi boten, sa dha Birin9 e tij te-vetemlindurin, qe te mos humbase kushdo qe t'i besoje atij, po te kete fete te-perjeteshme.

WORDS AND PHRASES

greetings, hello, t'u ngjat jeta

good day, mire dita

good evening, mire mbrema

good night, naten e mire

good-bye, lamtumire, diten e mire

thank you, ju falem nderit

excuse me, me falni

please, ju lutem

do you understand?, a me kuptoni?, a mer vesh?

I don't understand, une s'kuptoj, une nuk kuptoj

do you speak English?, a flisni inglisht?

yes, po

no, jo

how much?, sd ben?, sd kushton?

OTHER EUROPEAN TONGUES

429

EUROPEAN LANGUAGES OF THE URAL-ALTAIC GROUP

Finnish, Hungarian and Turkish form the three western- most European spearheads of the great Ural-Altaic family of northern and central Asia. Other languages of this group are spoken in northern and eastern Europe (Lapp, Estonian, Livonian, Permian, Mordvinian, Cheremiss, etc.), but they have few speakers and scant cultural or commercial importance.

While a fairly close bond exists between Finnish, Estonian and Livonian, the unity among the other members of the family is more a matter of certain pecularities in sound and grammatical structure than of vocabulary. Indeed, some linguists reject the fundamental unity of the Ural-Altaic family, and prefer to classify the Finno-Ugric languages separately from the Altaic. Illustrative of the vocabulary differences among the three main European tongues of the group are the following:

Turkish

elma

kol

ates

bir

iki

ug

dort

be$

alti

yedi

sekiz

dokuz

on

on-bir

on-iki

yirmi

yiiz

bin

English	Finnish	Hungarian
apple arm	omena kdsivarsi	alma kar
fire	tuli	tiiz
one two	yksi kaksi	egy ketto
three	kolme	hdrom
four five	neljd viisi	negy ot
six	kuusi	hat
seven	seitsemdn	het
eight nine ten eleven twelve	kahdeksan yhdeksdn kymmenen yksitoista kaksitoista	nyolc kilenc tiz tizenegy tizenketto
twenty one hundred	kaksikymmentd sata	husz szdz
one thousand	tuhal	ezer

430 OTHER EUROPEAN TONGUES

(Languages of this group generally agree in using the singular after any numeral: Finnish kolme poikaa, three boys; Hungarian ot fa, five trees).

In the matter of sounds, the languages of this group generally agree in having some measure of "vowel harmony". This means that the vowel sounds are divided into two or three classes (front, pronounced in the front part of the mouth, such as 0 or il: back, pronounced in the back part of the mouth, such as a, o, u; and neutral, pronounced in the middle part of the mouth, such as e) ; if the root of the word has a "back" vowel, added suffixes must also contain back vowels; if a front vowel appears in the root, the vowel of the suffix must be changed so as to conform; the "middle" or "neutral" vowels, where they exist, may work with either front or back vowels. This in turn means that practically all suffixes appear in double form, with a front or neutral vowel to conform with a front vowel of the root, and with a back or neutral vowel to conform with a back vowel of the root.

In grammatical structure, these languages generally agree in rejecting the concept of gender, and in indicating noun and verb relations by the piling on of suffix upon suffix (the so- called "agglutinative" process), to a far greater degree than is the case in the Indo- European tongues.

The following is a sample of the same Biblical passage (John 3.16) in the three main Ural-Altaic tongues, with a few minor European languages of the group added for purposes of comparison:

Finnish: Silld niin Jumala on rakastanut maailmaa, ettd hdn antoi ainokaisen Poikansa, jotta kuka ikind hdneen uskoo, se ei hukkuisi, vaan saisi iankaikkisen eldmtin*

Estonian: Sest nonda on Jumal maailma armastanud^ et tema oma ainusundinud Poja on annud, et iikski, kes tema sisse usub, ei pea hukka saama, waid et igawene elu temal peab olema.

OTHER EUROPEAN TONGUES 43 /

Livonian: Slepierast hu Jumal um nei mdilmo drmaston, ku urn andon dinagisyndon Puoga, algo amsti, kis uskobod tarn pdl7 milyks ukko lago, aga amadou volgo igani jelami.

Lapp: Tastko nu rakisti Ibmil mailmi, atti son addi aidnu riegadam Parnis, amas oktage, kutte sudnji osku, kadutussi saddat, friuttu vai son ozusi agalas aellim.

Hungarian: Mert ugy szerete Isten e vildgot, hogy az 5 egyetlenegy sziilott Fijdt adnd, hogy minden, valaki hiszen 8 benne, el ne veszszen, hanem orok eletet vegyen.

Turkish: Zira Allah diinyayi dyle sevdi ki biricik Oglunu verdi, ta ki ona her iman eden heldk olmayip ancak ebedi hayata malik olsun.

OTHER EUROPEAN TONCUES

FINNISH

ALPHABET AND SOUNDS: a, d, e, g, h, i, j, k, 1, m, n, o. p, r, s, t, u, v(w),y, a, 6.

Vowels are short unless doubled.

a = hut; aa = father; e = met; ee = first part of late; i — bit; ii — machine; o = obey; oo = first part of hope; u = bull; uu = boot; y = Fr. tu; yy = Fr. swr; a == hat; aa = had (prolonged) ; 6 = Fr. feu; 66 = Fr. peur. Conso- nants are approximately as in English; j = yes; h = Germ. ach. All double consonants must be sounded double, as in Italian.

The Finnish stress is always on the first syllable of the word.

By the process of vowel harmony, the vowels are divided into: back (a, o, u) ; neutral (e, i) ; front (a, 6, y). If the first syllable of the word has a back vowel, all other syllables must have back or neutral vowels; if a front vowel appears in the first syllable, the others must have front or neutral vowels. This means two forms to practically all endings; the ablative termination, for example is -/to or -Ud9 the first reserved for words having a, o, u in their roots, the latter for words having o, a, y: maa, land; ablative maalta; but tyo, work; ablative tyoltd.

GRAMMATICAL STRUCTURE.

Finnish has two numbers, but no gender distinction. Fifteen cases appear; nominative (subject); partitive (denot- ing "some"); genitive-accusative (denoting possession or the direct object); inessive (denoting "in"); elative (denoting "from"); illative (denoting place to which); adessive (denot- ing place on which, or means by which) ; ablative (denoting motion 'from) ; allative (denoting motion towards) ; abessive (denoting absence of, "without"); prolative (denoting motion along) ; translative (denoting a change of state) ; essive ( denot-

OTHER EUROPEAN TONGUES

ing a continued state of being) ; comitative (denoting accom- paniment, "with"); instructive (denoting means by which). Each case has its own ending, which is the same in the singular and in the plural. The latter is formed in the nominative by adding -t to the root, but in all other cases by adding -i to the root, then adding the same ending as in the corresponding cases in the singular; thus puu, "tree", has a nominative plural puut, but in all other plural cases pui-, followed by the ending of the particular case; while the ablative singular is puu-lta, the ablative plural is pui-lta. The complete declension of puu, is as follows, with the cases appearing in the order outlined above:

puu, -ta, ~n, -ssa, ~sta, -hurt, -lla, -Ita, -lie, -tta, (pui)-tse, *ksi, -na, (pui)-ne, -n; plural: nominative, puut; other cases: pui-ta, -tten, -ssa, -sia, >hin, -//a, -Ita, -lie, -tta, -tse, >ksi, -na, -ne, ~n.

The Finnish adjective is completely declined, by a process similar to that of the noun. The comparative stem is formed by adding -mpa (-mpti) to the positive; the superlative stem by adding -impa (-impa) ; huono, bad; huonompa-, worse; huonoimpa-, worst. These comparatives and superlatives are fully declined, as are also the numerals (see p. 429).

The personal pronouns, also fully declined, are: mind, I; me, we; sina, you (singular); te, you (plural); hdny he, she, it; he, they.

The possessive is usually expressed by suffixes added to the inflected noun; these suffixes are: -ni, my, mine; -mme, our, ours; -si', your, yours; -nne, your, yours (pi.) ; -nsa (-rasa), his, her, its, their; e. g. puu, tree; partitive plural puita, of the trees; puitamme, of our trees.

Demonstratives are tamti (pi. ndmdt, nditd, etc.; fully inflected), this, these; tuo (pL nuot, noita, etc.), that, those; se (partitive sitd; plural ne, niitd, etc.), that, those.

Interrogatives are kuka and ken, "who?", mikd, "what?", and kumpi, "which?". The chief relative is joka, who, which, that; all are fully inflected.

434 OTHER EUROPEAN TONGUES

The Finnish verb has several moods and tenses, with a passive which is used only impersonally, and a negative conjugation which differs completely from the affirmative (saavat, they receive; but eivdt saa, they-do-not receive). The personal endings are usually as follows: -n, •«, -, -mme, -tie, -vat (-vat). Saa, to receive, has, in the present indicative: saan, saat, saa, saamme, saatte, saavat; with a negative: en saa, et saa, ei saa* emme saa, ette saa, eivdt saa.

IDENTIFICATION

Finnish is identified in written form by its double vowels and double consonants, by its umlauted vowels d and o, by its frequent -en endings, and by the absence of certain letters (b, c, f, q, x, z).

SPECIAL EXPRESSIONS

good morning, hyvdd huomenta

how are you?, kuinka voitte?

very well, thank you, vallan hyvin, kiitoksia kysymdstd

good bye, hyvdsti

do you understand me?, ymmdrrdtteko minua?

what did you say?, mitd te sanoitte?

what do you want?, mitd te tahdotte?

I beg your pardon, mind pyyddn anteeksi

excuse me, suokaa anteeksi

don't mention it, ei ansaitse

never mind, se ei tee mitddn

I am glad, se ilahduttaa minua

I am sorry, se pahoittaa minua

can you tell me?, voitteko sanoa minulle?

no, ei

yes, kylld

now, nyt

at once, heti (soon, plan)

always, aina

enough, riittdd

OTHER EUROPEAN TONGUES 43$

yet, viela

the weather is fine, ilma on kaunis

it is very cold, on kovin kylma

what time is it?, mitd kello on?

it is five o'clock, kello on viisi

thank you, kiitoksia

which is the shortest way, mikd on lyhin tie?

go straight, suoraan eteenpdin

to the right, oikeaan

to the left, vasempaan

please, olkaa hyvd

good day, hyvdd pdivdd

good evening, hyvdd iltau

good night, hyvdd yotd

I don't understand, en ymmdrrd

how much?, kuinka paljon?

it's too much, se on liikaa

which is the way to — ?. mitd tietd pddsen — ?

where is — ?, missd on — - ?

bring me, tuokaa

your health!, terveydeksenne!

I should like, tahtoisin (I want, tahdon)

this way, tola tietd

speak more slowly, puhukaa vdhdn hitaammin

do you speak English?, puhutteko englantia?

all right, hyvd on

I am ill, olen sairas

stop!, seis!

hurry ! , kiirehtikdd!

careful!, varokaa!

listen!, kuulkaa!

keep to the right, oikealle

entrance, sisddnkdytdvd

exit, uloskdytdvd

perhaps, ehkd

never, ei koskaan

OTHER EUROPEAN TOKGUES

HUNGARIAN

ALPHABET AND SOUNDS — a, a, b, c, d, e, e, f, g, h, i, i, j, k, 1, ra, n, o, 6, 6, 6, p, r, s, t, u, u, ii, ii, v, x, y, z, cs, cz

(tz), ds (dzs), gy, ly, ny, sz, ty, zs.

Vowels bearing the accent mark are long; other vowels are short.

a = not; a = father; e = met; e = fate; i = pin; i — machine; o — obey; 6 — go; 6 = Fr. ieu; 6 = Fr. peur; u = bull; u = food; ii = Fr. in; ii = Fr. s#r. c, cz, tz = its; g = good; s = sure; cs — church; ds, dzs = gin; gy = did you; ly = mi //ion, or, more commonly, yard; ny = onion; sz = 50; ty = hit you; zs — measure.

Double consonants must be pronounced double, as in Ital- ian. Long vowels must be pronounced long, even though unstres- sed. The Hungarian stress is always on the first syllable of the word. Accent marks do not indicate stress, but vowel-length.

For purposes of vowel-harmony, a, a, o, 6, u, ii, are con- sidered back vowels; e, i, i neutral; and e, 6, o, ii, ii front. The vowel of the root determines the nature of the vowel of the suffix: hdzf house; hdz-ban, in the house; but kert, garden; kerf-ben, in the garden.

GRAMMATICAL STRUCTURE.

Hungarian has two numbers and no concept of gender. Unlike Finnish and Turkish, however, Hungarian has both a definite and an indefinite article; the former is a (before consonants), az (before vowels), for all nouns, singular or plural: a hdz, the house; a hdzak, the houses. The indefinite article is egy, which also means "one".

The plural is generally formed by the suffix ~k, preceded by various vowels (-ak, -ok, -ek, -ok). Officially, Hungarian has four "cases", nominative, genitive, dative, and accusative: in reality, since all ideas of place where, to which, from which, etc. are indicated not by prepositions, but by suffixes, or post- positions, the actual number of possible case-forms in Hunga-

OTHER EUROPEAN TONGUES

rian equals or surpasses that of Finnish; as in Finnish, these case-endings or postpositions are added on to the plural suffix: a hdz, the house; a hdz-ak, the houses; a hdz-ak-nak, to the houses; a hdz-ak-ban, in the houses; a hdz-ak-bol, from the houses; etc.

The adjective is invariable, unless used predicatively, in which case it takes the plural suffix, but no case-suffix: a nagy asztal-ok, the large tables; az asztalok iiagyok, the tables are large. The comparative is formed by the suffix -bb (-abb, -ebb), added to the positive; the superlative by prefixing leg- to the comparative: jo, good; jobb, better; legjobb, best.

Personal pronouns are as follows: en, I; nekem, to me; engem, me; mi, we; nekiink, to us; minket, us; te, you (sg.) ; neked, to you; teged, you (ace.) ; ti, you (pi.) ; nektek, to you; titeket, you (ace.) ; o, he or she; neki, to him or her; dt, him, her; ok, they; nekik, to them; oket, them.

The possessive pronoun consists of a series of suffixated endings: konyv, book; konyv-em, my book; konyv-iink, our book; konyv-eim, my books; konyv-eink, our books.

The chief demonstratives (used with the article when they are adjectives) are ez (pronoun: emez), this, and az (pronoun: aniaz) that: ez az ember > this man; az az ember, that man; ezek az emberek, these men.

Interrogative pronouns are: ki, who?; mely, which?, what?; melyik, which?; mi, what? These are turned into relatives by prefixing a: aki, who; amely, which, that, etc.

The Hungarian verb appears in numerous tenses and moods, with the object pronoun normally incorporated in the verb: thus, verni, to beat, has the following present indicative it no definite object pronoun is implied: verek, versz, ver, veriink, vertek, vernek, I beat, you beat, etc.; but if the mean- ing is "I beat it", "you beat it", etc., the forms become: verem, vered, veri, verjiik, veritek, verik. Furthermore, the Hungarian verb may assume a variety of aspects: ir, he writes; irat, he causes to write; irogat* he writes (repeatedly); irkdL he scrib-

438 OTHER EUROPEAN TONGUES

bles, plays at writing; irhat, he may write, etc. The negative is formed by prefixing /?em, not, to the verb: nem irt he does not write.

IDENTIFICATION

Hungarian is readily identified in written form by its long and short umlauted vowels (6, 6, ii, ii), and, to a lesser degree, by certain consonant groups (cs, gy, zs, dzs). In spoken form, stress on the first syllable, together with long vowels further on in the word, and the abundance of middle vowel sounds (6, ii), as well as the frequent endings in -ah, -o/c, -unk, -e/c, -ik, and the relative length of Hungarian words, caused by the piling on of suffixes, give clues to the nature of .the language.

SPECIAL EXPRESSIONS

please, legyen szives, kerem; thank you, koszonom

you're welcome, szivesen; herein szepen

don't mention it. szii^esen: nine* mit: nem jelent semmit;

nem baj

yes, igen; no, nem

excuse me, bocsdnat. bocsdrwtot kerek., bocsdsson meg give me, adjon kerem tell rne, mondja kerem

do you speak Hungarian?, beszel on magyarul? a little, egy keveset

what is the mailer?, mi a baj?, mi tortent?; nothing, semmi pleased to meet you, orvendek I am sorry, sajndlom; I am glad, drulok how are you?, hogyan erzi magdt?, hogy van? very well, thanks, and you?, kdszonom, nagyon /o/, es on? I am ill, beteg vagyok good morning, jo reggeh good afternoon, jo napot good evening, jo estet good night, jo ejszakat

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439

good-bye, viszontldtdsra, Isten vele

how much is il?, mennyibe her ill?

that is too much, az drdga, tul drdga

it is late, keso van

what time is it?, hdny or a van?

it is ten o'clock, tiz or a van

what a beautiful day!, milyen gyonyorii nap!

perhaps, taldn

here is, (here are), itt van (itt vannak)

there is, (there are), oil van (ott vannak)

how do I go to...?, hogy juthatok. . . .re(ra)?

straight ahead, egyenesen elore

to the right, jobbra; to the left, balra

why?, miert?

when?, mikor?

where?, hoi? (where is?, hoi van?)

because, inert

today, ma

yesterday, tegnap

tomorrow, holnap

I'm hungry, ehes vagyok

I'm thirsty, szomjas vagyok

I'm cold, fdzom; it's cold, hideg van

it's warm, meleg van; I'm warm, melegem van

what is your name?, mi az on neve?

certainly, persze

show me, mutassa nekern

do you understand?, erti on?

I don't understand, nem ertem

do you know?, tudja on?

I don't know, nem tudom

very little, nagyon keves, nagyon keveset

what do you want?, mil kivdn on? ; mil parancsol? ; mi tetszik?

too bad!, kdr; igazdn sajnos; igazdn sajndlom

it's fine weather, szep ido

your health!, egeszsegere!

440 OTHER EUROPEAN TONGUES

TURKISH

ALPHABET AND SOUNDS — a, b, c, 5, d, e, f, g, g, h, i, i,

j, k, 1, m, n, o, d, p, r, s, s, t, u, ii, v, y, z.1

a = father; e = met or hand; i = machine; i = Russian bl; o = obey; 6 = Fr. ieu; u = food; ii = Fr. mur; c = /ohn; $ = cAurch; g == good; g is the voiced counterpart of the unvoiced German acA; h = hot or German ach; j = measure; s = son; 9 = sure; y = yes.

A circumflex accent is occasionally used on a vowel, usual* ly to indicate palatalization of a preceding ft or g (in Arabic and Persian loan-words) : kdmtl, pron. kjamil, "complete". The stress of Turkish is usually on the /as* syllable of the word.

GRAMMATICAL STRUCTURE

Turkish has no article, definite or indefinite, and no concept of gender. For purposes of vowel-harmony, a, o, I, u are considered back vowels; e, i, 6, ii front vowels.

The plural suffix is -lar if the preceding syllable contains a back vowel, -ler if it contains a front vowel; baba, father; babalar, fathers; gun, day; giinler, days. Officially, Turkish has six "cases" (nominative, genitive, dative, accusative, ablative, locative) ; but since postpositions, instead of prepositions, are used to indicate all sorts of relations (up to, with, on, without, instead of, about, etc.), and since many of these are added on to the noun in the plural as well as in the singular, it may almost be said that Turkish has as many separate cases as it has post- positions. Like Finnish and Hungarian, Turkish has identical suffixes in the singular and in the plural for its six official cases : -n preceded by whatever vowel may be required by vowel harmony is fairly universal in the genitive of both numbers;

1. This is the modern romanized Turkish alphabet, devised by Mustafa Kcmal in 1928; before his time, Turkish was written in a modified version of the Arabic alphabet.

OTHER EUROPEAN TONGUES 44 /

the dative has -a or -e, according to the nature of the root-vowel; the accusative usually ends in i, i, u, ii; while -dan or -den is universal in the ablative, and -da or -de in the locative. A typical Turkish noun, dil, language, has the following scheme: Singular: dil, -in, -e, -i, -den, -de. Plural: dil-ler, -ler-in, -ler-e, -ler-i, -ler-den, -ler-de.

The adjective is completely indeclinable: giizel at, a fine horse, giizel atlar, fine horses; giizel atlara, to the fine horses. The comparative is formed by placing daha, the superlative by placing en, before the positive: giizel, fine; daha giizel, finer; en giizel, finest.

Personal pronouns, which are declined by the same system of endings as nouns, are: ben, I; biz, we; sen, you (fam. sg.) ; siz, you (pi.) ; o, he, she, it; onlar, they.

The possessive is indicated, as customary in Ural-Altaic languages, by a suffix: baba, father; babam, my father; baban, thy father; babasi, his (her) father; babamiz, our father; babaniz, your father; babalan, their father. These forms are then completely declined (babam, my father; babamin, of my father; babama, to my father; babalanm, my fathers; baba- lanmin, of my fathers; babalanma, to my fathers, etc.).

The chief demonstrative pronoun is bu (bunun, buna, bunu, etc.), this, that, these, those. The chief relative is /ci, who, which, that; the chief interrogatives are kirn, who?; ne, what?; hangi, which?

The Turkish verb has an infinitive ending in -mek or -mafc. The passive is formed by means of the suffix -Z-, the negative by means of -ma- or -me- (sevmek, to love; sevilmek, to be loved; sevmemek, not to love; sevilmemek, not to be loved ) . Reciprocal, causative, reflexive, and many other forms of conjugations appear, including the "impossible" one (sevememek, to be unable to love). Numerous tenses and other forms appear, corresponding roughly to the various tenses, and to the indicatives, optatives and subjunctives of the Indo- European languages. A typical "present", that of sevmek, runs as follows: sev-erim, -ersin, -er, -eriz, -ersiniz, -erler.

15

442 OTHER EUROPEAN TONGVES

IDENTIFICATION

Turkish, in its modern written form, may be identified by its two distinctive characters, i and g. The characteristic plural in -lar and ~ler, and ablatives in -dan, -den are also useful.

SPECIAL EXPRESSIONS

good morning, good afternoon, giin aydin

good evening, tun ay din

good night, geceniz hayir olsun, allah rahathk versin

how are you?, nasilsimz?; certainly, elbet, tabii, §upesiz

well, thank you, iyiyim, te§ekkur ederim

please, lutfen; you're welcome, bir §ey degil

here is, here are, iste burada (here is the book — isle kitap

burada) ; there is, there are, vardir where is?, nerededir?; what is the matter?, ne var? how do I go to Istambul?, Istanbul9 a nasil gidilir? yes, evet; no, hayir, yok how much is it?, ka$a? fiyati ka^a?

why?, nigin? neden? ; when?, ne zaman?; where, nerede? today, bugtin; yesterday, dun; tomorrow, yann to the right, saga; to the left, sola straight ahead, dos dogrn, dogru

what time is it?, saat kaqtir? ; it is 6 oVlock, soat nltidir Fm hungry, agini, aciktim, karnim ag I'm thirsty, susadim; I'm ill, hastayim do you speak Turkish?, Turkic konusurmusunuz? a little, biraz; very little, fo/c az, pek az tell me, bana soyleyiniz; show me, bana gosteriniz do you understand?, anliyormusunuz? I don't understand, anlamiyorum

do you know?, biliyormusunuz? '; I don't know, bilmiyorum excuse me, afedersiniz; don't mention it, bir§ey degil what do you want?, ne istiyorsunuz? ; never mind, zarar yok too bad!, qok fena, qok yazik; I'm sorry, miiteesirim give me, bana veriniz; I want, istiyorum good, bye, allaha ismarladik; (reply) giile giile

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443

THE BALTIC LANGUAGES — LITHUANIAN, LETTISH

From a practical standpoint, these tongues are of little importance, being spoken by about 3,000,000 and 2,000,000 people, respectively. They are often linked to the Slavic tongues, from which, however, they diverge to a considerable degree. Their relationship to each other and to the languages of the Slavic group may be inferred from the following examples:

English

brother

house

mother

father

fish

heart

land

fire

man

one

two

three

four

five

six

seven

eight

nine

ten

eleven

twelve

twenty

hundred

Lithuanian

brolis

ndmas

motina

tevas

zuvis

sirdis

zcme

ugnls

vyras

vienas

dii

trys

keturl

penkl

sesl

septynl

astuonl

devyrii

desimt

vienuolika

dvylika

dvldesimt

simtas

Lettish

(Russian)

brdlis	(brat)
nams	(dom)
mate	(mat9)
tevs	( otets )
zivs	(ryba)
sirds	(serdtse)
zeme	(zemlyd)
uguns	(ogon)
vl rs	(muzcina)
viens	(odin)
divi	( dva )
trls	(tri)
cetri	(cetyre)
pied	( pyaf )
sesi	(test9)
septini	( sera )
(istoni	( voseni )
devini	(devyat9)
desmit	(desyat9)
vienpadsmit	( odinnadtsat9 )
divpadsmit	( dvenddtsaf )
divdesmit	(dvddtsat9)
sirnts	(sto)

Both languages are heavily inflected, with a declensional system for nouns which in Lettish includes nominative, genitive, dative, accusative and locative, and which in Lithuanian in-

444 OTHER EUROPEAN TONGUES

eludes the same five cases with the addition of vocative and instrumental. A sample of the declensional system of the two languages is as follows:

Lithuanian: sirdis, heart: Singular: Nom. sirdis; Gen. sirdies\ Dat. slrdziai; Ace. slrdj; Voc. sirdie; Instr. sirdimi; Loc. sirdy/e; Plural: Nom. & Voc. sirdys; Gen. sirdziy; Dat. sirdlms; Ace. sirdis; Instr. sirdimls; Loc. sirdyse. Lettish: sirds, heart: Singular: Nom. sirds; Gen. sirds; Dat. sirdij; Ace. sirdi; Loc. sirdl; Plural: Nom. sirdis; Gen. sirzu; Dat. sirdlm ; Ace. sirdis; Loc. sirdis.

The verb system is fully developed in both languages, with a wealth of tenses and moods, and copious participles, gerunds, and other verbal forms.

IDENTIFICATION

Distinctive of Lithuanian are the following characters: a, c, £, e, j, s, ij, u, z, in addition to the letters of the English alphabet outside of q, w. Lithuanian uses three accent marks to indicate an accentuation which is not merely stress, but also intonation: the grave accent (?) is used only over short vowels; the acute (') indicates a long vowel with a falling tone of the voice; the circumflex (") indicates a long vowel with a rising tone of the voice. If a short vowel is followed in the same syllable by n, m, 1 or r, it is customary for the consonant to bear the circumflex accent: dviem pirstam, with two fingers. While these accent marks do not usually appear in the written lan- guage, they are fully characteristic; so are the four vowels with the hook beneath, indicating a former nasalization which today no longer exists (§, e, j, i|; Polish has only two such symbols:

a, ?)•

Distinctive of Lettish is the fact that four vowels, if long, bear the mark of length (a, e, T, u). The following symbols appear: c, dz dz, g, k, 1, n, r, s, z. The spoken accent of Lettish is invariably on the first syllable of the word, unlike that of Lithuanian, which may fall anywhere.

OTHER EUROPEAN TONGUES

SAMPLES OF THE WRITTEN LANGUAGES

Lithuanian (without accent marks) : Taip Dievas mylejo pasaulj, kad savo viengimusjji sumj dave, kad visi j jj tikintieji neprazutu,, bet turetu. amzinajj gyvenima. Lettish: Juo tik Juoti Dievs pasauli milejis, ka vins savn vienpiedzimusuo delu devis, lai neviens, kas vinam tic, nepazustu, bet dabutu muziguo dzivibu.

Lithuanian

Lettish

good day, miss	labd diend, panele	labdien, jaunkundz
good morning	Id has rytas	labrlt
good evening	Idbas vdkaras	labvakar
good night	labdnaktis	ar labunakti
good-bye	su Dievu	ar Dievu
please	prasau	ludzu
thank you	dciu labai	pateicos
don't mention it	ner uz kq	nav par ko
excuse me	dovanokite,	ludzu atvainot, \oti
	dtsiprasau	atvainojos
yes, sir	taip, Tdmsta	ja9 kungs
no, madam	ne, ponia	ne, kundze
how much?	kiek?	cik?
it's too much	tai per daiig	las ir par daudz
give me	diiokit man	dodat man
bring me	atneskit	atnesat
do you understand? ar Tdmsta supranti?	vai Jus saprotiet?
I don't understand	nesuprantu	es nesaprotu
do you speak	ar Tdmsta kalbi	vai rundjiet ang\u?
English?	dngliskai?
all right	gerai	labi
which is the way to	kuris kelias i — ?	kd es varu noklut uz
where is — ?	kur — ?	kur ir — ?
speak more slowly	kalbekit leciau	rundjiet lendk
careful!	atsargiai!	uzmanatics!

446 OTHER EUROPEAN TONGUES

THE CELTIC LANGUAGES

These consist of Irish, the official language of Eire, with its approximately 3,000,000 inhabitants, most of whom, how- ever, speak English as well; Scottish Gaelic, spoken by perhaps a hundred thousand people in the Highland region of Scotland; Manx, the dialect of the Isle of Man; Welsh, spoken by perhaps 1,000,000 people in Wales, who also normally speak English; and Breton, spoken in French Brittany by probably not more than 1,000,000 people most of whom also speak French. Cor- nish, the former Celtic tongue of Cornwall, is extinct.

While these tongues all belong to the Celtic division of Indo-European, Irish, Gaelic and Manx form part of the Goidelic group of Celtic, while Welsh, Breton, and Cornish belong to the Brythonic group. The divergences between Irish and Scottish Gaelic are less pronounced; those between Welsh and Breton more striking. In all the Celtic languages, without exception, the student is faced with exceedingly intricate rules of pronunciation, which in the Goidelic group are complicated by an orthography which is archaic and no longer corresponds to the actual pronunciation. Goidelic consonants frequently assume a double sound (described as "broad" and "slender"), according to the nature of the following vowel; all this means is that before the front vowels, e, i, there is a tendency for the consonant to assume a palatalized sound (Irish cailin, girl, pronounced kolyin). But in addition to this, the Celtic tongues often undergo aspiration or mutation ("eclipsis" or "lenition") of initial consonants in accordance with the final sound of the preceding word (Scots Gaelic tarbh geal, white bull, but bo gheal, white cow; teine, fire, but ar dteine, pronounced or deine, our fire; Irish full, blood, but ar bhfuil, pronounced ar wily our blood; Welsh pen, head, but fy mhen, my head; Breton kalon, heart, but me halon, my heart, e galon, his heart; these are only a few easy examples of an extremely complicated system ) .

The Celtic languages share with the Romance group the feature of having only two genders, masculine and feminine,

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447

and of having the adjective more frequently after than before the noun. But while Irish and Scots Gaelic have four distinct cases (nominative, genitive, dative, vocative), Welsh and Breton have practically reduced the noun to a single case. The verb system is elaborate, with abundant tenses and moods. The Brythonic tongues favor accentuation on the next to the last syllable, save for one dialect of Breton, which prefers final accentuation. The Irish accent is initial.

The relationship of the three major Celtic tongues to one another and to the other languages of the Indo-European family may be inferred from the following list of common words, and from the translations of John 3.16 which follow:

English	Irish	Welsh	Breton
arm	brae	braich	breach
big	mor	mawr	meur
black	dubh	du	du
brother	brdthair	brawd	breur
family	teaghlach	teulu	tiegez
fire	teine	tan	tan
friend	cara	car	kdr
full	Ian	11 awn	leun
one	aon	un	un, an, eunn
two	do (or da-)	dau	daou
three	tri	tri	tri
four	ceathair	pedwar	peder
five	cuig	pump	pemp
six	se	chwech	choueach
seven	seacht	saith	seic'h (seiz)
eight	ocht	wjth	eiz
nine	naoi	naw	nao
ten	deich	deg	deg (dek)
eleven	aondeag	un-ar-ddeg	unnek
twelve	dodheag	deuddeg	deuzek
twenty	fiche	ugain	ugent
eighty	ceithre fichid	pedwar ugain	peder ugent
hundred	cead	cant	kant

448 OTHER EUROPEAN TONGUES

Irish (in transcription): oir do ghrddhuigh Dia an saoghal

chomh mor sin, go dtug se a Aon-Mhac fein, ionnas, gach duine

creidfeadh arm, nach gcaillfidhe e, acht go mbeadh an bheatha

shiorraidhe aige.

Scots Gaelic: Oir is ann mar sin a ghrddhaich Dia an saoghal,

gun d'thug e 'aon-ghin Mhic fein, chum as ge Ve neach a

chreideas ann, nach sgriosar e, ach gu'm hi a bheatha shlorruidh

aige.

Manx: Son Iheid j ghraih shen hug Jee dan theihll, dy dug eh

e ynrycan Vac ver ny gheddyn, nagh jinnagh quoi-erbee

chredjagh aynsyn cherraghtyn, agh yn vea ta dy bragh

farraghtyn y chosney.

Welsh: Canys felly y car odd Duw y byd fel y rhoddodd efe ei

unig-anedig Fab, fel na choller pwy bynnag a gredo ynddo ef,

ond caffael ohono fywyd tragwyddol.

Breton: Rag Doue hen deuz karet kement ar bed, ma hen deuz

roet he Vab-unik, abalamour da biou benag a gredo ennhan na

vezo ket kollet, mes ma hen devezo ar vue.z eternel.

SAMPLE OF PRINTED IRISH

"Do St^-OuiS T)iA An fAO$Al Cdtfi m6p fin, 50 f6 A Aon-ttlAC p4m, icnti^f , SAC -ouine c-peno- peAt) Ann, nAC scAillf it>e 6, ACc ^o mb^At) An OeAtA fiO|\ttAv6e Ai^e. Off ni Cum bfeiteAttinAf -oo

-tAftAlfC Af An f AOgAt V)O Cuijt T)lA A ttlAC tJAI'O ;

ACc Cum 50 f AOfpAi-Oe An fAO$Al cpit). An c£ Cf ei-oeAf Ann ni CUSCA^ bpeit Aip : An c£ nAC 50^ eit)- eAnn ACA Dj\eiC CADA|\CA A1|\ CeAnA f^m, coifC n^ i n-Ainm xVon-ttlic T)^. -A^uf if I feo An , 50 t>CAini5 An ^olAf A|\ An fAO$At, ^guf AnnfA teif nA t)Aotnt^ An "oofCACc 'nA An ; coifc A n^nlottiAftA Oeit 50 ti-olc. Oif £AC •oume CteACCAf An c-olc bionn fUAt Atge "oo'n f , A5tif ni tij; f6 Cum An cf otAtf, Aft CA^IA 50 $n1otfiAftA.

(Courtesy of American Bible Society)

OTHER EUROPEAN TONGUES 449

IRISH ALPHABET — a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i, 1, m, n, o, p, r, s, t, u.

An accent mark over a vowel indicates length: mor, big. A dot over a consonant indicates aspiration; this aspiration never corresponds to the sound of the original consonant followed by h; an aspirated J, for example, has the sound of ordinary h: teine, fire; but mo theine (pronounced mo heine), my fire; an aspirated m, due to the loss of the nasal, has the sound of v: mo mhdthair (pronounced mo vaher, my mother). The difficulties of Irish pronunciation, with its aspirated and eclipsed consonants and broad and slender vowels, are illustrated by the Lord's Prayer, with a guide to pronunciation:

Ar n-Athair9 aid ar neamh, (go) naomhthar t'ainm;

(Ar nahir, etah er nav, gu naev-har th-an-am;)

(go)tigidh do rioghacht;

(gu dig-ee dhu riachth;)

(go) n deantar do thoil ar an talamh mar do-ghnithear ar

neamh.

(gu naenthar dhu hel er an tholav mor nihar er nav.) Tabhair dhuinn a niugh ar n-ardn laetheamhail, (Thouar ghoon inyoo ar naraun laehooil) agus maith dhuinn ar bh-fiacha (ogus mah ghoon or viacha) mar mhaithmid-ne dar bh-feicheamhnaibh fein; (mor wahamid dhar vaehooniv faen;) agus na leig sinn a gathughadh, (ogus nau laeg shin a gohoo) achd saor sinn 6 olc. Amen. (ochth saer shinn o ulk. Omaen.)

GRAMMATICAL NOTES — The definite article in Irish is an in the singular, na in the plural. The plural of nouns is often formed by the addition of -a, -ta, -e. Four cases (nominative, genitive, dative, vocative) are still in use. 15*

450 OTHER EUROPEAN TONGUES

WELSH

ALPHABET — a, b, c, ch, d, dd, e, f, ff, g, ng, h, i, 1, 11, m, n, o, p, ph, r, rh, s, t, th, u, w, y.

Vowels may be long or short. Welsh u = basy or me; w — good or boon; y = fur or curl; both u and y often = Fr. u. Among the consonants, c = cat; ch = German ach; dd = this; { — eve; ff = /ire; = go; 11 = emphatic 1; rh = aspirated r; s = so.

The accent of Welsh is generally on the next to the last syllable.

GRAMMATICAL NOTES — There is no indefinite article. The definite article is yr before vowels, y before consonants, for both genders and both numbers. The most common plural endings are -au, -on, -aid, -ydd. There are no cases in Welsh.

SPECIAL EXPRESSIONS

please, os gwelwch yn dda (lit., if it seems good to you)

thank you, diolch i chwi'(chi}; diolch

you're welcome, croeso i chi

yes, ie ,do, oes

no, na, nage, nac oes

excuse me, esgusodwch fi

do you understand?, a ddeollwch chwi?. a ydych yn deal I?

I don't understand, ni ddeallaj, nid wyf yn deaU

do you speak Welsh?, n siureihcch Gymraeg?, a ydych yn

siarad Cymraeg? a little, ychydig tell me, dywedwch imi give me, rhoddwch imi, rhowch imi too bad!, rhy ddrwg!, gresyn! how much?, faint?

how are you?, sitt hwyl?. shwd y'ch chi?, sut *dach chi? very well, da lawn, o'r goreu

OTHER EUROPEAN TONGUES 4$ /

I am ill, yr wjf jn sal, nid wyf yn dda good morning, bore da good day, dydd da

good afternoon, prynhawn da, p'nawn da good evening, dywetydd da good night, nos da; nos dawch

what time is it?, beth yw'r amser?; faint or gloch yw hi? it is five o'clock, y mae hin bump o'r gloch, pump or gloch yw hi

BRETON

ALPHABET — a, b, d, e, f, g, h, i, j, k, 1, m, n, n, o, p, r, s, t, u, u, v, z, ch. The sounds are generally as in French (e. g. j = measure). But g = go; n = nasal sound of n; s = so; u = sound intermediate between u and v.

The Breton accent is usually on the last syllable.

GRAMMATICAL NOTES — The definite article is en, (in Vannes; ar in other dialects), for both numbers and genders. The most common plural endings are -ez, -en, -el. There are no cases in Breton.

IDENTIFICATION OF THE CELTIC LANGUAGES.

Irish is very easily identified by its distinctive alphabet. Welsh is identified by its use of w and y as vowels and by some of its consonant groups (ch, 11, dd). Breton may be distinguish- ed from its sister Celtic tongues by its frequent -ek ending, and by the fact that its aspirated consonants are not marked in writing by such combinations as mh, bh, th, etc.

452 OTHER EUROPEAN TONGVES

BASQUE

This mysterious language of northeastern Spain and south- western France, totally unrelated to any other European tongue, appears in several dialects, spoken by perhaps 1,000,000 people on both sides of the Pyrenees.

ALPHABET AND SOUNDS — There is a standardized alphabet for Spanish Basque, now used also by the French Basques. Roman characters are used, with the five vowels pronounced approximately as in Spanish (the Soule French Basques have a tendency to give u its French value) ; g = go; z — so; tx — church; j = harsh guttural h in Spain, yes in France; k ~~ cat; h is generally silent in Spain, pro- nounced like hoi in France. The Basque accent is extremely indefinite, and best described as evenly distributed on all syllables of the word.

GRAMMATICAL NOTES.

The definite article of Basque is a, suffixated to the noun: etxe, house; etxea, the house. Suffixes indicating case-relations are added on to the noun with its article: gizon, man; gizona, the man; gizonagandik, for the man.

The concept of gender is wanting in Basque. The plural number is generally indicated by the suffix -k: gizonak, the men.

Case relations are indicated by a large variety of suffixes, which are added on to the noun, forming a single word with it: zaldia, the horse; zaldiaren, of the horse; zaldika, on horse- back; gizojiakaz, with the men; etxeetan, in the houses.

The adjective is invariable, and follows the noun: gizon eder bat, a fine man (lit. man fine a). The comparative is formed by the suffix -go plus the preposition bano, the super- lative by the genitive plural ending -en followed by the article -a; handia, great; zu handiago ba.no (zu bano handiago), greater than you; handiena, greatest.

OTHER EUROPEAN TONGUES 453

The Basque numerals from one to thirteen are a? follows: bat, hi, hirur, laur, bortz, sei, zazpi, zortzi, bederatzi, hamar, hamaika, hamabi, hamahirur. "Twenty" is hogei, "thirty" hogei ta hamar, "forty" berrogei, "hundred" ehun.

The Basque verb, despite the fact that it has only rwo true tenses, present and past, is somewhat complicated by reason of the fact that it incorporates both subject and object pronoun: thus, ekarri, to bear, present d-akar-t, I bear it (lit. it bear I), d-akar-k, you bear it; n-akar-zu, you bear me.

A sample of Basque syntax will appear from the following literal translation of Luke 1.62 ("Then they made signs to his father how he would have him called") :

Orduan keinu egin ziezoten haren aitari,

Then sign making they were of him to the father,

nola nahi luen hura del ledin.

how wish he would have he named he should be.

Two additional samples of Basque, one from the Spanish side of the Pyrenees (Guipuzcoa), the other from the French side (Labourdin) illustrate the nature of the language: (John 3.16):

Guipuzcoan: Zergatik ain. maite izan du Jaungoikoak mundua* non eman duen here Seme Bakarra beragan fedea duan guzia galdu ez dedin, baizik izan dezan betiko bizia.

Labourdin: Ezen hala lainkoak onhctsi ukan du mundua, non here Seme bakoitza eman ukan baitu, hura baithan sinhesten duenik gal eztadin, baina bizitze eternala duenzdt.

IDENTIFICATION

The frequent recurrence of z and tz is characteristic of Basque.

454 LANGUAGES OF THE MIDDLE AND FAR EAST

CHAPTER XIII

LANGUAGES OF THE MIDDLE AND FAR EAST1

Asia is a vast linguistic world in its own right. The tongues of this great continent are as varied and picturesque as are their speakers, and run into the number of several hundreds, distributed among most of the world's great language families: Indo-European, Semitic, Ural-Altaic, Sino-Tibetan, Japanese-Korean, Dravidian, Malayo-Polynesian, Caucasian, Mon-Khmer, Hyperborean, Ainu.

Fortunately for the practical linguist, not all of these numerous tongues are of equal importance. The linguistic ex- plorer in the Asiatic continent finds himself indeed faced with tongues of primary rank, numerically, commercially, political- ly and culturally. He also finds himself face to face with a myriad minor languages whose speakers are comparatively few in number, and which have never attained a very lofty cultural status.

Such is the case, for example, with the Ural-Altaic tongues

1. Limitations of time- and space make it impossible at the present time to give the languages of Asia the treatment which the growing practical importance of many of them warrants. It is planned in the near future to offer, in separate booklets of the "World Languages Series'7, a presentation of Chinese, Hindustani, Arabic and Malay which will be in all respects as thorough as is that of Japanese in the present volume. A second volume of "Languages for War and Peace*' is in preparation, in which will appear a more comprehensive outline of several of the Asiatir tongues cursorily treated in this chapter (notably Palestinian Hebrew, Persian, Hindustani, Bengali, Tamil, Telugu, Siamese, Burmese and Korean), as well as of certain native African tongues of strategic and commercial importance (Amharic, Swahili, Hausa, Fanti) .

LANGUAGES OF THE MIDDLE AND FAR EAST 455

of Asiatic Russia, Mongolia and Manchukuo (Bashkir. Uzbeg, Turkoman, Mongol, .Buryat, Yakut, Kalmuk, Manchu, Tungus, etc.). These tongues, which are members of the Altaic branch of the family, cover a tremendous extent of territory; but their speakers are relatively few, and they are divided into such a vast number of diverging and mutually incomprehensible dialects that the study of any one of them can repay only the specialist interested in their linguistic structure or in the part- icular area where they are spoken. Their speakers, further- more, are partly accessible through other tongues which may be termed languages of colonization (Russian in the Soviet Union in Asia, Chinese in Mongolia and Manchukuo, Japanese in Manchukuo). Turkish, the only Asiatic tongue of this group to present a solid body of speakers and a certain amount of cultural, political and commercial importance, has already been discussed under a European heading (see p. 440).

Even less important are the mysterious Hyperborean tongues of Kamchatka and northeastern Siberia, with a few thousand speakers, and the Ainu of Japan's northern islands (Yezo and Karafuto). Here again, Russian and Japanese, respectively, supply most practical needs.

The Caucasian tongues of the Caucasus, between the Black Sea and the Caspian, are extremely picturesque and interesting from a linguistic point of view, including such languages as Georgian, Avar, Lesghian, Circassian, Mingrelian, Laz, etc. Little practical advantage is to be derived from their study, however, in view of the limited number of their speakers, their numerous dialects, and the fact that Russian may be used with comparative ease in their area.

The Mon-Khmer, Annamese and Munda groups of south- eastern Asia are imperfectly known; their speakers are relative- ly few, while their dialectal divisions are numerous. It is even doubtful that they are related, and various linguistic affiliations are claimed for them.

Two of Asia's tongues belong to the Semitic branch of the Semito-Hamitic group, which also stretches across northern

LANGUAGES OF THE MIDDLE AND FAR EAST

Africa almost to the Equator on the west, slightly below it on the east. They are Hebrew, which has a rejuvenated Palestinian variety, and Arabic. Palestinian Hebrew is the ancient tongue of the Scriptures and the Mishnah, to which the status of a living and official language has been restored by the various Jewish groups participating in the Zionist experiment, with a modernization of vocabulary, and the inclusion of such non- Biblical terms as "telephone" and "telegraph" Palestinian Hebrew is the official tongue of less than a million Jewish settlers in Palestine, and as such its practical importance is limited, particularly as many of these Jews are accessible through European tongues. It is also, however, the key to the vast treasure-house of Hebrew tradition and learning, and it may be used as a secondary cultural tongue in all Jewish communities throughout the world, particularly among the more cultured elements.

Of far greater practical importance in the Semitic group is Arabic, the sacred tongue of Islam, and the popular tongue of Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Libya, Egypt, Syria, Iraq and Arabia. As a religious and written language, Arabic i& unified and traditional, and extends far beyond the confines of the spoken tongue, being used wherever the Muhammadan faith has followers, in the Balkans, Turkey, Iran, India, China, central and eastern Africa, Malaya and the Dutch East Indies, and even in the Philippines. As a popular spoken tongue, in the countries where it is so used, Arabic shows a series of fairly strong dialectal divergences. The spoken Arabic of Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia and Libya may be described as a western variety; Egypt and the Egyptian Sudan may be said to form a central group of spoken Arabic dialects; while Syria and Palestine, Iraq, and Arabia constitute three diverging eastern groups.

The Indo-European tongues of Asia (outside of tongues of colonization, such as Russian in Asiatic Russia, English in India, Burma and Malaya, French in Indo-China and Syria, etc.) include: 1. Armenian, the ancient and highly cultivated

LANGUAGES OF THE MIDDLE AND FAR EAST 457

language of a relatively small group of speakers located astride the Russo-Turkish frontier; 2. modern Persian, the language of some 15,000,000 speakers in Iran and Afghanistan; 3. the so-called Indo-Aryan* languages of Afghanistan (Pushtu; about 10,000,000), southern Ceylon (Singhalese, about 4,000,000), and northern and central India (Hindustani, Bengali, Punjabi, Rajasthani, Marathi, etc.). Indo-Aryan speakers are very numerous, comprising over two-thirds of India's 390,000,000 inhabitants. It is estimated, however, that India's approximate- ly 290,000,000 Indo-Aryan speakers are divided among seven- teen major languages, not to mention numerous minor dialects.

The chief of these languages, with their approximate number of speakers, are: Hindustani (including both Hindi and Urdu; north

central India) — 130,000,000

Bengali (northeastern India: Bengal and the

Calcutta region ) — 60,000,000

Bihari (northeastern India, west of Bengal) —30,000,000 Marathi (western India: the Bombay region) — 20,000,000 Punjabi (northern India: Punjab region) — 20,000,000

Rajasthani (northwestern India, south of Punjab;

Ra jputana ) — 1 5,000,000

Gujarati (western India, north of Bombay) — 13,000,000 Oriya (eastern India, southwest of Calcutta;

Orissa) — 10,000,000

The Dravidian speakers of southern India and northern Ceylon are estimated at nearly 100,000,000, apportioned among sixteen major languages. Chief among these are:

Tamil (southeastern India, northern Ceylon) —22,000,000 Telugu (southeastern InSia, north of Tamil; region

of Madras) — 27,000,000

2. Because of the disagreeable connotations with which "Aryan" has been invested by certain racial theories which have nothing to do with language, "Indo-Iranian" is perhaps a better term; "Indo- Irariian", however, also includes the Iranian, or Persian branch of Indo-European.

LANGUAGES OF THE MIDDLE AND FAR EAST

Canarese (southwestern India, south of the Bombay

region) — 13,000,000

Malayalam (southwestern India, south of

Canarese) — 10,000,000

The vast Sino-Tibetan linguistic world includes Chinese, Siamese (or Thai), Burmese, Tibetan and, according to some scholars, Annamese and Cambodian. Of these languages, Chinese, with its vast mass of perhaps 450,000,000 speakers (subdivided, however, into several often mutually incom- prehensible dialects), its ancient culture, and its growing commercial and political worth, is by far the most important. The Tibeto-Burmese and Thai members of the family may be estimated to have some 20,000,000 to 30,000,000 speakers each. Political, economic and cultural factors all point to Chinese, in its expanding standardized national form (Kuo-yii), as a tongue of coming primary importance.

The Japanese-Korean group (assuming that there is a connection between Japanese and Korean, which many scholars deny) is represented by Korean, the tongue of some 25,000,000 people in Korea, who are for the most part accessible by means of Japanese; and the latter language, which has some 75,000,- 000 native speakers and has recently been to some degree current in territories having a total population of over 400,000,000. The future of Japanese as a world language is at present in considerable doubt; however restricted its use may be outside of Japan proper, it will still remain the tongue of a large population which has displayed great ingenuity and adaptability in assimilating the mechanical aspects of western civilization.

The Malayo-Polynesian group, subdivided into an im- pressive number of languages and an almost infinite variety of dialects, is represented by the Malay-speaking portion of the population of British Malaya, and by the* entire vast island world that stretches from Madagascar across the Indian and Pacific Oceans to Easter Island, and from Formosa on the north toi New Zealand on the south (exclusive, however, of

LANGUAGES OF THE MIDDLE AND FAR EAST

459

Australia, Tasmania, and the interior of New Guinea). The trade language known as Pidgin (or Bazaar) Malay is general- ly current throughout Malaya, the Dutch East Indies and, to some extent, the Philippines, and this fairly standardized lingua franca, which gives access to a total population of perhaps 80,000,000 (many of whom are also accessible through tongues of colonization, such as Dutch, English and Spanish) is of great practical importance in the reconquest of this section of the world from the Japanese and in the eventual reconstruction of the entire Pacific area.

In the complex linguistic picture of the Middle and Far East, four tongues stand out as of primary practical importance at the present moment: Japanese, Chinese, Arabic and Malay.

The following comparative table of a few fundamental words in some of the major Asiatic languages will be of interest in its indications of similarities and differences among and within the various groups.

three

ten

hundred foot

(Indo-European)
Sanskrit	ekah	trayah	dasa	satam	jtddah
Hindustani	ek '	tin	das	sau	ftanw
Bengali	ek	tin	das	so	i*
Persian	yak	sih	dah	sad	pdi
(Semitic)
Arabic	a had	thalath	lasr	mi' ah	qadam
(Dravidian)
Tamil	ondm	mundru	pattu	nu.ru	pddam
Telugu	okatl	mudu	padi	nu.ru	kalu
(Sino-Tibetan)
Chinese	•i	"san	/shi	vW	~chiao
Siamese	-nung	/sam	"sip	\r&i	\t'do
Burmese	ta	\thoun	ta s'a	fa yo	-chi
Tibetan	chik	sum	chu	gya	kang-pa
(Mon-Khmer)
Khmer	muy	bei	dap	roy	choh
( Japanese-Korean )
Japanese	hitotsu	mitsu	to	hyaku	as hi
Korean	han	sell	yel	pdik	pal

(Malayo-Polynesian) Malay

tiga sa-puloh sa-ratus kaki

460

LANGUAGES OF THE MIDDLE AND FAR EAST

tooth father

mother brother3 sister3

(Indo-European)
Sanskrit	dantah	pita	maid	bhrdtd	svasd
Hindustani	da fit	bdp	md	bhd'l	bah in
Bengali	ddht	bdp	md	bhdi	bain
Persian	danddn	pidar	mddar	birddar	khdhar
(Semitic)
Arabic	sinn	ab	umm	akh	ukht
(Dravidiari)
Tamil	pallu	tagappandr	tdydr	annan	akkdl
Telugu	pallu	tandrl	talll	anna	akkd
(Sino-Tibetan)
Chinese	/ch'i	\iu	/mu	-hsiun	/chie
Siamese	'fan	\ba	\md	\p'i-ch'ai	\bl /sdo
Burmese	\thwd	a p'e	a me	a ko	a\mao
Tibetan	so	a-pa	a-ma	a-jo	srin-mo
(Mon-Khmer)
Khmer	t'men	apuk	mdai	ban	ban srey
(Japanese-Korean)
Japanese	ha	chichi	haha	kyddai	shimai
Korean	I	api	emi	hyen	nudi
( Malayo-Polvnesian )
Malay	gi&	bapa	amak	saadara	saudara

3. It is of interest to note that in all these languages, outside of the Indo-European and Semitic ones (Sanskrit, Hindustani, Bengali, Per- sian, Arabic) an entirely different word is used for "brother" and "sister" according as it is an older or a younger brother or sister that is being referred to. The forms given above under Dravidian, Sino- Tibetan, Khmer, Japanese, Korean and Malay headings all indicate an older brother or sister.

LANGUAGES OF THE MIDDLE AND FAR EAST

THE NATIVE SCRIPTS

Asia is a land of many tongues and many writings. The two Semitic languages, Hebrew and Arabic, employ types of script which, although derived from the same original source as ours, the Phoenician alphabet, now differ widely both from ours and from each other. They both have, however, certain characteristics in common, being written from right to left and consisting of consonants only, with the vowel sounds mostly indicated by separate markings above or below the line.

The Hebrew characters, with which a good many Ameri- can Jews are familiar because they are also used in printed Yiddish, are of a square type. A few letters (k, m, n, etc.) assume a different form if they occur in the final position in the word, but for the most part each letter remains uniform, while "vowel points" are optionally placed below, above, or to the left of the consonants. In Yiddish (used by Central and East European Jews, and derived for the most from medieval German), and in Ladino (used by southern or Sephardic Jews and derived from medieval Spanish) certain of the original consonants (though not the same ones in both languages) have changed their function to act as vowels, and the number of vowel-points in use has accordingly been reduced.

The Arabic script may have four separate forms for each consonant, according as it comes at the beginning, the middle or the end of a word, or is used by itself. Vowel-sounds are indicated by short oblique bars and hooks above or below the consonants, but are very frequently left out altogether, and the vowel-values are left to be supplied by the reader (this practice is also current in Hebrew texts, and is an indication of the secondary function of vowels in the Semitic languages). The Arabic script, with certain modifications, is used by a number of other tongues, and generally appears where the speakers are members of the Muhammadan faith. Among the languages often appearing in Arabic characters are the Fula, Hausa and Swahili of Central Africa; the Malay, Javanese and Sundanese of the Dutch East Indies; the Moro of the Philippines; the Urdu

462 LANGUAGES OF THE MIDDLE AND FAR EAST

variety of Hindustani; other languages of India, such as Malayalam, Brahui, Tamil and Punjabi; the Persian of Iran; the Balochi of Balochistan; and several of the Turkic (Altaic) tongues of Asiatic Russia. Turkish formerly used a modified Arabic script, but discarded it in favor of Roman characters under Mustapha Kemal Ataturk.

The languages of India make use for the most part of alphabets derived from the ancient Devanagari (or Nagari) in which Sanskrit was written. Many of these languages, in fact, still use the unmodified Devanagari characters today (Hindi, to cite one example, is the Hindu version of Hindustani, while Urdu is the Moslem version; Hindi uses Devanagari in writing, rejects Arabic and Persian loan-words and retains the more ancient Sanskrit terms, but the language is fundamentally one and the same). Bengali is not only the closest numerical rival of Hindustani, but also the language whose script, while differing, diverges least from the Devanagari. In the alphabets of southern India (Tamil, Telugu, Canarese, etc.), and even of tongues outside of India, like Siamese and Burmese, descent from the Nagari characters is largely disguised. Devanagari is read from left to right. Each consonant- carries inherently with it the following sound of a short a, while other vowel-values are indicated by separate symbols above or below the line, or by separate characters within the line.

The Chinese characters are of the ideographic variety, and are separately described under the heading of Chinese (see p. 489-492). They have been adopted, with modifications, by the Japanese, who have in part adapted the borrowed characters to a syllabic instead of an ideographic system (see p. 526-530).

Samples of some of the languages of Asia in their own characters are presented (see pp. 463, 478, 479, 480, 481, 485, 486, 490, 504, 505, 506, 529).

LANGUAGES OF THE MIDDLE AND FAR EAST 46}

THE SEMITIC LANGUAGES — ARABIC, HEBREW

The two modern Semitic languages display the typical Semitic arrangement of three-consonant roots, with the vowels relegated to an internal flexional role (see p. 29) ; two genders, masculine and feminine, with inanimate objects distributed between them; a dual number, indicating two objects, especial- ly ones that naturally go in pairs (hands, feet, etc.). The verb is fully inflected, with numerous separate masculine and feminine forms, especially in the third person.

SAMPLE ^

*», V I* I" ' fc i ^5CV U jLl'U O jl»> Vl Jrl *f^i OF -LT^ -^> U cr T. ^ -

a.|'_ %^| ^ . PRINTED

ARABIC

J" JP

SAMPLE OF PRINTED HEBREW

arm rpr*? : cnpSw TI rtrroK -5 13 •rf? IS07 trrrnK ttsrns jn; -n^p?

]ti} -CD 13 x?

j ?fe-2 -2 : D7'p? :orrf?K5

(Courtesy of American Bible Society)

464

LANGUAGES OF THE MIDDLE AND FAR EAST

The following comparative table will serve to give an indication of the resemblances and differences between spoken Egyptian Arabic and spoken Palestinian Hebrew.

English

Arabic

Hebrew

air	hawa	avlr
all	hull	kol
apple ask	tuffahah saal	tappuakh saal
bone brother	'ozm 'akh	'etsem 9dkh
cut death	qata (coll. 9ata') mawt	gadat mdvet
deep do dog dream	'amiq (coll. 'am?) fa 'al kalb hulm	'dmoq paal kelev khdlom
ear eat	9uzn 9akal	'ozen 'dkhal
eye father	'ayn 'ab	layin 'dv
full	maVdn	male9
great one	kibir wdhid	kabblr 'ekhdd
1wo three	'itnen taldta	snayim sldsdh
four	'arbaa	9arbd'dh
five	khamsa	khdmlsdh
six	sitta	sissdh
seven	saba'a	siv'dh
eight nine	tamanya tis'a	smondh tis'dh
ten	'asara	'dsdrdh
hundred thousand	miyya 'alt	me ah 'elef

LANGUAGES OF THE MIDDLE AND FAR EAST

ARABIC4 SOUNDS AND TRANSCRIPTIONS

Vowel Sounds.

a = father (this sound is of comparatively rare occurrence: khalis, "pure") ; or, much more commonly, = mad (mat, "he died").

a = cat (malh, "salt").

e = first part of a in late (fen, "where").

e = the man (menaggim, "astrologer"); or = met (betna, "our house").

I = machine (nun, "who?").

i = tin (bint, "daughter").

6 = all (Arora, "ball"); or = obey (oda, "room").

o = going (odtna, "our room"); or = got (bottal, "evil").

u = food (ifif, "look").

u^good ('wit, "I said").

Consonant Sounds.

Approximately as in English: b, t, g (go in Egypt; general in other localities), h, z, r, s, d, f, k, 1, m, n, y, w.

t =rr t vigorously uttered, with blade of tongue pressed against

palate (tin, "mud"), g! = d, as above (def, "guest"). s = s, as above (suf, "wool"), z = z, as above (zahr, "dice").

4. The form of Arabic here given is not the literary language (stan- dardized throughout the entire Arabic world and strongly conserva- tive), but the Egyptian spoken tongue, comprehensible, but with dif- ficulty, in the countries to the east (Palestine, Transjordan, Iraq, Arabia) and to the west (Libya, Tunisia, Algeria, Morocco). This form has been selected because of its central position, which gives it the nature of a compromise between the eastern and the western dialects, and also because it gives direct access to more Arabic speakers than any other spoken dialect. The Arabic script, in which the literary tongue is written, is discussed elsewhere (see p. 461-462).

466 LANGUAGES OF THE MIDDLE AND FAR EAST

s = $ure (sekh, "sheik").

t = h, stronger and more emphatic than h, but not rasped

(£usan, "horse").

' = like h, but with vibration of vocal cords ('id, "feast"). kh = guttural German acA-sound, or Spanish / (Mer, "good"), gh = like kli, but with vibration of vocal cords; somewhat

similar to French uvular r (g/&arb, "west"). ' = catch in voice, as between the two o's of English cooperate,

or between the article and the noun in German die Eier

(su'dl, question).

Many Arabic consonants are emphatic, or guttural, or both. No precise English equivalent appears for t, d, §, z, all of which call for an unfamiliar position of the tongue coupled with energy of articulation. Note the three guttural gradation* in h (English h) ; h (the same, but with greater force, and yet no rasping of the throat) ; and kh (vigorous and rasping) ; as well as in the voiced g (English go) ; ' (the voiced counterpart of t) ; and gh (a gargling sound, with vibration of the vocal cords).

Long vowels must be pronounced long. Double consonants must be pronounced double ('izzayyak?, how are you?, pro- nounced ' iz-zay-yak) .

The accent of Arabic tends to be on the next to the last syllable; but a long vowel elsewhere in the word tends to draw accentuation to itself.

GRAMMATICAL SURVEY. Nouns and Articles.

There are only two genders in Arabic, masculine and feminine. Nouns denoting males are usually masculine, those denoting females feminine (man, ragil, masc.; girl, hint, fern.). Nouns denoting inanimate objects are in part masculine, in part feminine; the ending -a usually denotes a noun of feminine gender (table, torobeza; watch, sd'a).

There are three numbers, singular, plural and dual (the latter denotes two objects, and is especially used for things

LANGUAGES OF THE MIDDLE AND FAR EAST

that normally occur in pairs, such as hands, feet, etc. The dual ending is -en: hand, id; two hands, iden. Feminine nouns ending in -a change -a to -ten to form the dual: table, torobeza; two tables, tordbezten.

Feminine nouns in -a form their plural by changing -a to -at: table, torobeza; tables, torobezdt; watch, saa; watches, sa'at.

Masculine nouns have so-called "broken plurals", which means that the plural form is irregular, and follows no set rules that can be easily codified; they are therefore best learned in their double form, singular and plural; there is, however, very frequent change of the internal vowels: book, kitdb; books, kutub; boy, walad; boys, 'awldd; dog, kalb; dogs, kildb.

The definite article for all nouns, masculine and feminine, singular, dual and plural, is il: the book, il kitdb; the girl, il bint; the books, il kutub; the girls, il banal.

The / of il is assimilated to a following s, s, s, z, z, t, \, d, d, n, r; so that il saa, "the watch", becomes is sd'a; il duldb, "the cup-board", becomes id duldb.

A noun used with the definite article and placed im- mediately after another noun often indicates the possessor: the man's house, bet ir rdgil.

There is no indefinite article, although wdhid, "one", may be used with the sense of "a certain".

Adjectives and Adverbs.

The adjective follows the noun, and agrees with it in gender and number: a nice book, kitdb gamll; a nice watch, sd'a gamlla. If the noun has the definite article, this is repeated before the adjective: the nice book, il kitdb ig gamll; the nice watch, is saa ig gamlla.

The feminine singular of the adjective is formed by adding -a: large, great, kiblr; fern, singular kiblra. The dual does not appear in adjectives, being replaced by the plural: two good men, rdgilen kuwayyisln. The plural is formed by adding -m, for both genders: good boys, 'awldd kuwayyisln; good girls, banal kuwayyisln. But if the noun denotes an

468 LANGUAGES OF THE MIDDLE AND FAR EAST

inanimate object, the feminine singular form of the adjective, ending in -a, is used with it: big books, kutub kiblra (or kutub kubdr; a few adjectives, kiblr among them, also have broken plurals).

A predicate adjective follows the noun just like an attributive adjective, and the verb "to be" is generally under- stood; but in this case, only the noun has the definite article: the great man, ir rdgil il kiblr; the man (is) great, ir rdgil kiblr.

The comparative of the adjective resembles a noun plural of the "broken" type; for most adjectives, the following scheme will work: kiblr , big; akbar, bigger; saghlr, small; asghar, smaller; tawll, long, tall; atwal, longer, taller; the superlative is formed by placing the article before the comparative: great, kiblr; greater, akbar; greatest, il akbar; nice, gamll; nicer, agmal; nicest, il agmal. The superlative form is seldom used colloquially, being replaced by the comparative, or by the positive with khdlis, "pure", or 'awi, "very".

"Than" is expressed by using either the positive with 'an (a preposition meaning "about", "over"); or the comparative with min (a preposition meaning "of") : greater than, kiblr 'an or akbar min.

There is no true adverb in Arabic. Adverbial expressions are usually formed by a preposition with a noun: easily, bir- rdha; hardly, biz-zur; quickly, bil 'agal.

Numerals. Cardinal5

1 = wdhid 5 = khamsa

2 = 'itnen 6 = sitta

3 = taldta 7 = saba'a

4 = 'arba'a 8 = tamanya

5. The singular form of the noun is used with "one": one book, kitab wdhid (or, more commonly, simply kitdb) . The dual is used with "two**: two books, kitdben 'itnen (or, more commonly, simply kitdben). The plural appears with numbers from 3 to 10: three books,

LANGUAGES OF THE MIDDLE AND FAR EAST

9 = tis'a 40 = 'arbi'ln

10 = 'asara 50 = khamsin

11 — hiddser 60 = sittin

12 = itndser 70 = saVln

13 = talatdser 100 = miyya

14 = 'arba' laser (etc.) 200 = mifen

20 = 'isrln 300 = tultu miyya

21 — wdhid we 'isrin 400 = rwt'u miyya

22 = 'in'en we 'ilrrn 1000 = 'alf 30 = talatin 2000 = 'a//e«

3000 = taldt 'dlaf

Ordinal.

1st = i7 'awwal 6th = w

2nd = ii tdni 7th = w

3rd — it tdlit 8th = it tdmin

4th — ir rdbi' 9th = U tdsi'

5th = // khdmis 10th = i/ '05 ir

Others.

half = nuss

one-fourth = rub'a

once = marra wdhda

twice = marraten

three times = taldt marrdt

the first time = il marra il 9ula, or 'awwil marra

the last time = il marra il 'dkhlra, or 'dkhir marra

Pronouns. Personal, Subject.

I, ana

you (masc. sg.), inta, enta

taldt (a) kutub; but the singular form of the noun is used with numbers above 10: twenty books, 'isrln kitdb. The final -a of numerals from 3 to 10 is often dropped, especially before feminine nouns and nouns beginning with vowels.

470 LANGUAGES OF THE MIDDLE AND FAR EAST

you (fern, sg.), inti, enti

he, it, huwwa

she, it, hiyya

we, ihna, ehna

you (plural), intum, entum

they, humma, hum

These are used alone, or as subjects of verbs. The verb is generally used without the subject pronoun, however, unless emphasis is desired.

Direct Object.

me, -ni

you, (masc. sg.), -ok (-k after vowels)

you, (fern, sg.), -ik (-ki after vowels)

him, it, -u (-h after vowels)

her, it, -ha

us, -na

you, (pi.)? -kum

them, -hum

These forms are attached to verbs: he beat, darab: he beat me, darab-ni.

Possessive.

These are the same as the direct object pronoun forms given above, save that (l)rthey are attached to nouns; (2) -i, "my", replaces -TU, "me"; (3) attached to the preposition li, "to", they serve as indirect objects: lik, "to you"; lihum, "to them".

After consonants After vowels

my, -i -ya

your (masc. sg. possessor), -o/e -k

your (fern. sg. possessor), -ik -ki

his, -u -h

her, -ha -ha

our, -na -na

your (plural possessor), -kum -hum

their, -hum -hum

LANGUAGES OF THE MIDDLE AND FAR EAST 471

Book, kitdb; my book, kitdb-i; your book, kitdb-ak; his book, kitdb-u.

Father, db (in combination, abu) ; my father, abu-ya; your father, abu-k; her father, abu-ha.

These possessive forms are also used as object pronouns after prepositions: with, ma'a; with me, ma'dya; with you, ma'-ak. When combined with the prepositions li, ma'a or 'and, the possessive forms acquire the meaning of "I have", "y°u have", etc.: I have a book, 'andi kitdb (lit. a book(is) at me') ; I have a house, ll bet; have you a match?, ma'ak kabrit?; she has an umbrella, 'andaha samsiyya (li is generally used for big, precious or important objects, ma'a for small objects).

Some common prepositions are:"

df, from, min for, 'alasdn

to, for, li in, fi

with, ma'a, 'and, wayya over, on, 'ala without, min gher

Demonstrative.

this, these, da (masc. sg.) ; di (fern, sg.) ; dol (pi.)

that, those, dukha (masc. sg.) ; dikha (fern, sg.) ; dukham (pi.)

These normally follow the noun if used as adjectives: this house, il bet da. If they precede, they are pronouns, and the verb "to be" is understood: this (is) a house, da bet.

Relative.

The general relative pronoun is illi; the house which I saw, il bet illi suftu (lit. the house which I saw it: suftu = suft, I saw -f- -u, it).

If the antecedent has no definite article, illi is omitted: a house which I saw, bet suftu (lit. house I saw it) . Illi may also mean "the one who": the man I saw yesterday was ill, illi suftu embdrih kdn 'ayydn.

472 LANGUAGES OF THE MIDDLE AND FAR EAST

Interrogative.

who?, whom?, whose?, mm: whom did you see?, suft mm?

(lit. you saw whom?); whose book?, kitdb mm? (lit.

book whose?)

what?, eh?: what (is) this?, eh da?; what did you say?, 'ult eh? which?, anho (masc. sg.) ; anhe (fern, sg.) ; anhum (pi.)

Verbs.

The Arabic verb is a root consisting of three consonants (K-T-B, write). Internal vowels, and prefixed and suffixed vowels and consonants provide the conjugational scheme. This three-consonant root is sometimes disguised by the fact that one of the three consonants is a "weak" consonant, such as w or y, which is absorbed by neighboring vowels. The verb is then called "weak", in contrast with the "strong" verb, in which the original three consonants stand out clearly.

The basic form of the verb, selected by Arabic gram- marians to designate the verb itself (as we designate the infini- tive, "to write") is not the infinitive, but the third singular of the past tense; thus, the verb "to write" would be designated by katab, "he wrote".

The three basic forms are the "imperfect" (usually trans- lated by a present or future) ; the "perfect" (usually translated by a past), and the imperative. A more specific future may be formed by using the imperfect with a prefixed ha-.

Strong Conjugation: "to write", katab (lit. "he wrote").

Perfect (Past) Imperfect (Pres.) Imperative Future

I

you (masc. sg.)

you (fern, sg.)

he

she

we

you (plural)

they

katab-t katab-t katab-ti katab katab-it katab-na katab-tu katab-u

'a-ktib ti-ktib ti-ktib-i yi-ktib ti-ktib ni-ktib ti-ktib-u yi-ktib-u

'i-ktib 9i-ktib-i 'i'ktib-u

ha-'aktib ha-tiktib ha-tiktibi etc.

LANGUAGES OF THE MIDDLE AND FAR EAST 473

An active participle, "writing"; a passive participle, "written"; and a verbal noun, "act of writing", also appear. The participles are declined like adjectives. Active participle, "writing": masc. sg. kdtib; fern. sg. katb-a;

pi. katb-ln. Passive participle, "written": masc. sg. ma-ktub; fern. sg. .ma-

ktub-a; pi. ma-ktub-ln.

Verbal noun, "act of writing": kit ah- a.

Weak Conjugation: "to see", sdf (lit. "he saw")

Perfect (Past) Imperfect (Pres.) Imperative Future

I

you (masc. sg.)

you (fern, sg.)

he

she

we

you (plural)

they

Active participle, "seeing": masc. sg. sdyif; fern. sg. say fa; pi. say fin.

Passive participle, "seen": none appears in this verb. Verbal noun, "act of seeing": sdf.

The role played by shifting internal vowels in the conjuga- tion of the Arabic verb is obvious. Note the difference between the strong and the weak verb appearing in the third singular and third plural of the past, where the weak verb changes the internal vowel, while the strong verb does not.

Subject pronouns are normally omitted, but may be used for emphasis or clarity: I saw, ana suft; you (masc. sg.) saw, inta suft; he saw, sdf; he saw, huwwa sdf»

Object pronouns are added on to the verb (see p. 470): he saw me, sdf-ni; I saw him, suft-u; I saw you, suft-ak (suft-ik, if "you" is feminine) ; he saw us, sdf-na; we saw them, suf net-hum.

16

suf-t	9a-suf		ha-asuj
suf-t	ti-suf	suf	ha-tisiif
suf-ti	ti-suf-i	suf-i	etc.
sdf	yi-suf
sdf-it	ti-suf
suf-na	ni-suf
suf-tu	ti-suf-u	suf-u
sdf-u	yi-suf-u

474

LANGUAGES OF THE MIDDLE AND FAR EAST

Negative and Interrogative.

To form the negative, use ma before the verb and -5 as a suffix: he did not write, ma katab-s; I do not see, ma 9asuf-s. With the active and passive participles, a single word, mus, is placed before the participle: not writing, mus kdtib; not written, mus maktub.

Interrogation is usually conveyed by the tone of the voice, or by an interrogative word: where is the city?, il balad fen? (lit., the city where?).

"To Be"

In simple sentences, "to be" is generally understood: this (is) a book, da kitdb; the man (is) great, ir rdgil kiblr. This is particularly the case with the participles: it (is) written, maktub; I (am) not writing, ana mus katib.

"To be" is also expressed, however, particularly in tenses other than the present, by the verb kdn (lit. "was"; note the contraction of ha- with the present in the future of this verb) :

Past Present Imperative Future

I	kun-t	9a-kun		ha-kiln
you (masc. sg.)	kun-t	ti~kun	kiln	ha-tkiln
you (fern, sg.)	kun-ti	ti-kun-i	kun-i	ha-tkuni
he	kdn	yi-kun		ha-ykun
she	kdn-it	ti'kun		ha-tkiln
we	kun-na	ni-kun		ha-nkun
you (plural)	kun-tu	li-kun-u	kun-u	hortkunu
they	kdn-u	yi-kun-u		ha-ykunu

"To Have".

This is generally expressed by "to be" (kdn) with the prepositions 'and, li or ma(a (see p. 471 ) , followed by a pronoun indicating the possessor (cf. French un livre est a moi): he had a book, kdn fandu kitdb (lit. "there was with him a book") ; I had a house, kdn li bet; I had a match, kdn ma'dya kabrit.

LANGUAGES OF THE MIDDLE AND FAR EAST

Progressive.

The imperfect (present) with the prefix 6- conveys a progressive meaning: I am writing, b-aktib.

WORDS AND PHRASES

good morning, $abah il kher

good afternoon, nahdrak sa'ld (to a woman, nahdrik said)

good evening, good night, leltak sa'lda (to a woman, leltik sa-

'Ida)

good-bye, ma6 a is saldma thank you, kattar kherak you're welcome, 'ahlan wa sahlan; marhaba please, min fadlak very gladly, hi hull surur perhaps, yimkin

here, here is, hina, 9aho (here is the book, il kitdb aho) there, there is, hindk where?, where is?, fen? how do I go to..., 'izzdy 'aruh IL,. yes, naam; aiwa no, la

how are you?, 'izzayyak? (to fern, 'izzayyik?; to pi. 'izzaykum?) very well, kuwayyis how much is it?, bi kdm da? why?, leh? when?, emta because, 'alasdn today, in naharda tomorrow, bukra yesterday, 'imbdrih to the right, 6al yimln to the left, 'as simdl straight ahead, 6ala tul; dughri what time is it?, is sd'a kdm? it is now six o'clock, dilwo'ti is sd'a sitta

476 LANGUAGES OF THE MIDDLE AND FAR EAST

I'm hungry, ana ga'dn

I'm thirsty, ana 'otsdn

I'm cold, ana bar dan

I'm warm, ana harrdn

I'm ill, ana 'ayydn

what is your name?, 'ismak eh? (to fern. 9ismik eh?)

my name is..., 'ismi...

how old are you?, kdm sana 'umrak? (to fern, kdm sana

'umrik?)

do you speak Arabic?, 'inta bititkallim (il) 'arabi? certainly, tab6 an; malnm very little, suwayya give me, 'iddini show me, warrini tell me, 'ulli

do you understand?, ('inta) fdhim? I don't understand, ana mus fdhim do you know?, (9inta) 'drif? I don't know, ana mus 'drif excuse me, wala mu'akhza; matakhiznis don't mention it, il 'afw what do you want?, 'inta (dwiz eh? it's fine weather, il gaiv gamll never mind, ma'les I'm sorry, ana mutaassif; ana 'dsif I'm glad, ana mabsut

too bad!, zayy iz zift!; ya saldm!; ya khsdra! what is the matter?, gdra eh?; hasal eh? come in!, khus!; 'itfoddal! get out!, imsi!; itla banal (fern, itla'i barra!; pi itla'u

barra!); 'ukhrug barra! gangway!, riglak!; *iw'a!

LANGUAGES OF THE MIDDLE AND FAR EAST 4^^

PERSIAN

Persian normally makes no distinction of gender. The plural is formed by adding -ha to the singular (man, mard; men, mardhd) . A special suffix >ra is used to indicate a definite direct object (the man, object, mardra). Possession is indicated by placing the possessor (noun or pronoun) after the thing possessed, with -e- or -ye- between (my money, pul-e-man, lit. money-of-I). The same arrangement is generally used for attributive adjectives (the left hand, dast-e-chap9 lit. hand- left). The comparative and superlative are usually formed by adding to the adjective the suffixes -tar and -tarin (cold, sard; colder, sardtar; coldest, sardtarin).

The Persian verb is relatively simple, the common endings being: -am, -£, -ad, -im, -id, -and. These are added to the two roots of the verb, present and past: to take, gereft-an; present root, gir (with a prefix mi-); past root, gereft; present, mi- gir-am, //u-gir-i, mi-gir-ad, mi-gir-im, mi-gir-id, mi-gir-and; past, gereft~am, gereft-i, gereft (-ad normally omitted), gereft- im, gereft-id, gereft-and. The prefix mi- used with the past turns it into an imperfect: I was taking, used to take, mi-gereft- am. The negative is formed by prefixing na (I did not take, na gereftam) ; the past participle, which is used in compound tenses, is formed by adding -e to the past root (taken, gerejt-e). The verb usually comes at the end of the sentence.

WORDS AND PHRASES

good night, shab be-khair

what is the matter?, che khabar ast?

where is?, kujdst?; there is, dnjdst; here is, injdst

how much?, chagadr?, how many?, chand?

I want, mikhdham; gangway!, bi-zahmat rdh bedehid!

give, bedeh; water, db; bread, nan; bring, biavar; and, va

hot, garm; one, yak; two, do; three, sih; four, chahar; five, panj

six, shesh; seven, haft; eight, hasht; nine, noh; ten, dah

LANGUAGES OF THE MIDDLE AND FAR EAST

SAMPLE OF PRINTED PERSIAN UY

(Courtesy of American Bible Society)

LANGUAGES OF THE MIDDLE AND FAR EAST

THE INDO-EUROPEAN LANGUAGES OF INDIA

Numerically, the most important of these are Hindustani and Bengali, spoken in northern and northeastern India, re- spectively. Hindustani is subdivided into Urdu and Hindi, but the differences are more a matter of script and certain sections of the vocabulary than of geographical location.

SAMPLE OF PRINTED HINDI

(Nagari characters)

^ ^ fcrr % <sft ^

^e % SCRT ^5[K

t «r? ^Ht

flit %

(Courtesy of American Bible Society)

Generally speaking, the Indo-Aryan tongues of India display a tendency to reduce the ancient Indo-European cases to a single, or at most a double form (nominative and oblique), to use prepositions to replace the older case-endings, and to

480 LANGUAGES OF THE MIDDLE AND FAR EAST

merge the old grammatical genders. Similar tendencies, to an even greater degree, are displayed by Persian.

The following table is of interest as indicating a few vocabulary divergences between the Hindi and the Urdu forms of Hindustani, along with the Sanskrit forms to which Hindi is partial and the Persian and Arabic forms from which Urdu

SAMPLE OF PRINTED BENGALI

fwto

SfalGRI

(Courtesy of American Bible Society)

has borrowed. It must be understood, however, that both Urdu and Hindi forms are generally comprehensible to all Hindu- stani speakers and are often interchangeably used. Sanskrit is the ancient sacred tongue of northern India, from which all Indo-Aryan tongues are at least partially derived. The Persian and Arabic elements in Urdu are due to the religious factor of Muhammadanism. Persian itself, though strictly an Indo- European tongue, is a very heavy borrower from Arabic.

LANL.HAC.E* OF THt. IHIDDLK ANT) FAR EAST

481

English Sanskrit Hindi

arm bdhu bdhh

brother bhrdtd bhd"l

death mrtyuh mrityu

deep gambliirah gambhlr

ear karnah kdn

eye na variant navan

fire agnih agni

foot pad ah paniv

friend mitram mitra

fruit phalarn phai

Urdu	Persian
bdhh birddar	bdzfiy *a birddar
maut	marg
gosh dhkh	'arnlq gdsh chashm
dtash	dtash
qadam dost	pdi dust
bar	bar

Arabic

sd'id 'akh mmvt 'arniq

'a yn nar

qadam hab'ib fa kih a

SAMPLE OF PRINTED URDU

( Persian • A rabic characters)

^pj<~^\. ^^^

j>s^<j£> J

(jU/il/-

ut>x-#»

ic t

(Courtesy of American Bible Society)

LANGUAGES OF THE MIDDLE AND FAR EAST

HINDUSTANI

Hindustani (including both Urdu and Hindi) is the native language of some 65,000,000, but is used as a sort of lingua franca throughout India, particularly in the north; it has been estimated thai nearly 140,000,000 can be more or less sat- isfactorily reached with it.

Hindustani has only two genders. Nouns denoting males are masculine, those denoting females feminine; names of inanimate objects are usually feminine if they end in -I, ~sh, or -/, otherwise masculine. The plural is regularly indicated by the suffix -on,1 in all cases save the nominative plural; the latter is the same as the nominative singular for masculine nouns ending in consonants (mard, man; mard, men) ; changes -d or -a to -e in the case of masculines ending in -a or -a (beta, son; bete, sons) ; adds -ah for feminine nouns ending in -I or •u (betl, loaf; betldn, loaves); adds -en for other feminine nouns (bat, word; bdten, words).

Suffixes, or postpositions, to indicate case-relations are added on to both the singular and the plural form of the noun, as follows: agent case ("by") or instrumental ("with"): -m; genitive ("of"): -kd, -ke, -kl; dative ("to"): -ko; accusative (direct object): -ko or same as nom.; ablative ("from"): -se; locative: -men ("in") or -par ("on").2 The declension of mard, "man", is as follows: Singular - Nom., mard: Agent or Instr., mard-ne; Gen., mard-kd (mard-ke, mard-ki)3; Dat.,

1. Masculines in -a or -a drop this vowel before adding the -on plural oblique suffix (beta, son; bet-oh-ne, by the sons).

2. Masculine nouns in -a or -a change this ending to -e before ad- ding the case-suffixes in the singular (beta, son; but bete-ko, to the son).

3. The noun in the genitive is treated like an adjective and must, like the adjective, precede and agree in gender and number with the noun it modifies; -kd is therefore used before masculine nouns in the nom. sg. (mard-kd beta, the man's son ) ; -ke before all other masculine noun-forms, singular or plural (mard-ke bete, the man's sons; mard-ke

LANGUAGES OF THE MIDDLE AND FAR EAST

mard-ko; Ace., mard-ko or mard; Abl., mard-se; Loc., mard- men, mard-par; Plural • Norn., mard; Agent or Instr., mard- on-ne; Gen., mard-oh-kd (-ke, -hi)*; Dat., mard-oh-ko ; Ace., mard'On-ko or mard; Abl., mard-on-se; Loc., mard-on-men, mard-oh-par \

Adjectives immediately precede the noun modified, and are uninflected, unless they end in -a, which then changes to •e and -i under the same circumstances as the genitive ending -kd (see note 3): khub kitdb (fern. nom. sg.), a fine book; khub kitdbeh (fern. nom. pi.), fine books; khub larkd (masc. nom. sg.), a fine boy; khub larke (masc. nom. pi.), fine boys; bard mard (masc. nom. sg.), a great man; bare mard-kd (masc, gen. sg.), of a great man; bare mard (masc. nom. pi.), great men; bari kitdbeh (fern. nom. pi.), great books. There is no change in form to express degrees of comparison, but the comparative is expressed by putting the word with which the comparison is made in the ablative ( by adding the postposition -se) : wuh bard hai, he is great (lit., he great is) ; wuh sultdn-se bard hai, he is greater than a king (lit., he king-than great is). The superlative is formed by prefixing to the adjective ex- pressions like sab-se, "than all": wuh sab-se bard hai, he is the greatest of all flit., he all-than great is).

Verbs have only one conjugation. The infinitive always ends in -nd (girnd, to fall; root: gir-) ; the present participle in ~td (girtd, falling); the past participle in -d (gird, fallen). An "indefinite" present (I fall, I may fall) is formed by using the present participle with the subject pronouns4: I may fail, main girtd (gi'm)5; you may fall, tu girtd (girti) ;

bete-se, from the man's son) ; -kl before all feminine nouns, singular Dr plural (mard-kl betl, the man's daughter; mard-kl betldh, the man's daughters) .

4. These are: I, main; you (sg.) fu; he, she, it, wuh; we, ham; you (pi.), turn; they, wuh.

5. Participles agree with the subject in gender and number: masc. sg., -d; fern, sg., -1; masc. pi., -e; fern, pi., -In; they (masc.) may fall, wuh girte; they (fern.) may fall, wuh girtlh.

484 LANGUAGES OF THE MIDDLE AND FAR EAST

etc. A more definite present (I am falling) is formed by adding to the participle the present of the verb hona, "to be":6 main girtd huh, I am falling. The imperfect is formed by adding thd (fern. sg. thl; masc. pi. the; fern. pi. thm) to the present participle: main girtd thd, I was falling. The past is formed by using the subject pronoun with the past participle (main gird or main girl, I fell ) ; the pluperfect by adding thd to the past participle (main gird thd9 I had fallen). The. future has the following forms: gir-ungd, gir-egd, gir-egd, gir-ehge, gir- oge, gir-enge (change -d to -I, -e to -i/i for the feminine). The imperative has the endings: -uh, -, -e. -en, -o, -en. The verb usually comes last in the sentence, with the subject or agent first, followed by the object, each immediately preceded by its modifiers.

The numerals from one to ten are: ek, do, tin, char, pdhch, chha, sat, dth, nau, das. 100 is sau or sai, 1000 is hazdr.

COMMON WORDS AND EXPRESSIONS

what is your name?, tumhdrd kyd ndm hai?

what is the matter?, kyd hai? what else?., aur kyd?

do you speak Hindustani?, turn Hindustani bolte ho?

a little, wdjibl do you understand?, turn samajhte ho?

to the right, da eh to the left, baeh

darn it!, bald se! I'm hungry, mujhe bhuk lagl hai

please tell me, mihrbdnl kar-ke bolo thank you, tasllm

what do you call this in Hindustani?, is-ko Hindustani-men

kyd kahte ho?

it's raining, pdnl partd hai here, yahdh

who?, kaun? what?, kyd? where?, kahdh?, kidhar?

when?, kab?

today, dj yesterday, kal always, hamesha

quickly, turant, jald no. nahin not, na enough., has more, ziydda how much?, kitnd?

6. I am, huh; you are, hai; he, she, it is, hai; we are, haih; you are, ho; they are, haih.

LANGUAGES OF THE MIDDLE AND FAR EAST

THE DRAVIDIAN LANGUAGES OF INDIA

These languages, which predominate in southern India. with a total speaking population of approximately 100.000,000, are numerous. Chief among them are Tamil, Telugu, Canarese and Malayalam. It is believed that they are the descendants of the original languages of India, spoken throughout the Peninsula before the coming of Indo-Aryan-speaking invaders.

They are written in native alphabets which, while related to the Devanagari of the Iiido-Aryan tongues, are so modified as to appear at first glance totally different.

SAMPLE OF PRINTED TELVCU

16 *&*, .tewtf sresb; i

17

18

19 Ofco^a.

20 21

(Courtesy of American Bible Society)

LANGUAGES OF THE MIDDLE AND FAR EAST SAMPLE OF PRINTED TAMIL

16

ersu

LD QauJSuGurrGrruseo Ssoru QujptLDutj. jqsusnsp ^^

b 17

18

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&<zar. HL-<SWT 21

Q & lL

(Courtesy of American Bible Society)

LANGUAGES OF THE MIDDLE AND FAR EAST

A few of their distinctive features are: reluctance lo permit consonants to appear in groups within the word (a group such as skr or str, for example, will not occur) ; double consonants, on the other hand, are frequent, but consonant sounds at the end of word;- are rare. The accent is not very well defined, but mostly initial. The root of a word normally remains unchanged, and suffixes (postpositions and detached particles) are added at the end. Distinction among the various parts of speech (nouns, adjectives, verbs) is not very well defined. Something corresponding to gender appears, but it is based on caste rather than sex, with rational beings in a "high- caste" classification and irrational beings ynd inanimate objects in a "casteless" one (women are sometimes regarded as irrational beings and placed in the casteless classification). Distinction between masculine and feminine appears only in third person pronouns. The plural is usually undetermined in the case of "casteless" objects. The adjective is undeclined. The pronoun displays a difference between "we" including the person addressed (Tamil ndm) and "we" which excludes the person addressed (ndngal). The verb has an affirmative and a negative voice (Canarese, I did, madid-enu: I did not, mad-enu) . Great use is made of participles, which normally take care of all subordinate clause functions.

LANGUAGES OF THE SINO-TIBETAN GROUP

CHINESE, THAI (SIAMESE), BURMESE, TIBETAN,

ANNAMESE.

The languages of the Sino-Tibetan group are said to be monosyllabic (consisting of one-syllable words). Recent re- search, particularly in the Tibetan and Burmese fields, casts some doubt upon monosyllabism as the original state of these languages (there seem to be remnants of former inflectional prefixes and suffixes in both Tibetan and Burmese).

In a monosyllabic tongue, the number of possible sound- combinations is limited. If the language is rich in varied

LANGUAGES OF THE MIDDLE AND FAR EAST

sounds, and consonant as well as vowel-sounds are allowed to appear at the end of the word, the combinations may run into the thousands.

If the language is relatively poor in consonant sounds, and the majority of these are excluded from the final position in the word, the number of possible combinations gets to be quite limited: such is the case with North Mandarin, the dialect on which the official Chinese language is based. Only about 420 combinations of sounds are possible in monosyllabic Mandarin, with the result that the same combination must do service for many different ideas, expressed in writing by total- ly different characters.

Tones, however, add diversification to these combinations. The fact that North Mandarin has four possible tones for each of its 420 sound-combinations immediately raises the number of possible spoken "words" to 420 x 4.

The additional fact that the monosyllabic tendency of these languages does not preclude them from putting together two or more monosyllabic words to form a "compound" which carries a different meaning from those of its constituent parts1 adds greatly to the vocabulary.

Lastly, since the same word, in the same tone, may acquire several different meanings according to its position and use in the sentence, this process of multiplication of meanings is carried on to a point where the language has an adequate supply of words to express all necessary concepts.

Chinese being by far the most important of the Sino- Tibetan languages, and its tone system and grammatical arrangement being to some extent typical of the entire group, further clarification of these tongues will appear from the outline of Chinese.

1. E. g., Chinese \hsia (under) + V^w (noon) = "afternoon"; note the identical process in the structure of the English word (after -f- noon).

LANGUAGES OF THE MIDDLE AND FAR EAST

CHINESE2

THE WRITTEN LANGUAGE

Chinese writing is largely pictographic and ideographic, with symbols representing complete objects, words and ideas, rather than sounds. In their origin, the Chinese characters appear to have been pure picture-writing.3 The symbols for "sun" and "moon", for instance, were pictured representations of the objects in question ("sun" was originally a circle with a straight line in its center; "moon" was the picture of a crescent with or without a line running through it). In rapid brush-

2. Requirements of space and time preclude our giving, in this volume, the treatment that this extremely important language calls for. In the forthcoming "World Languages Series" it is planned to extend to Chinese the identical treatment that is here given to German, French, Spanish, Italian, Portuguese, Russian and Japanese.

3. The same picture-writing, though with different forms, gave rise to the ancient Egyptian hieroglyphs, the Babylonian cuneiform in- scriptions, and even the Phoenician system of writing from which our own alphabet is derived, as well as to the picture-writing of the Mayas and Aztecs, which never got beyond the picture stage. People at first convey their ideas in pictorial representations of objects, and the association of a picture-symbol with the spoken sounds representing the identical object is unconscious and not at all deliberate. It is only as a certain picture-symbol gets to be constantly associated with a certain sound or set of sounds that it gets to acquire a phonetic value. In the ancient Egyptian system, for instance, the symbol for "sun" (the spoken word for "sun" was ra] got to be associated with the value of the initial r of ra, until ultimately it came to be employed whenever the sound r was to be represented. In Phoenician, the symbol for a house (the word for "house" was beth) ultimately came to have the value of the initial b of beth, and the symbol for camel (the spoken word was gimel) got to have the value of the initial § of gime/. The process frequently runs from a pictorial symbol represent- ing a word to the value of a syllable (usually the initial) in that word, then to the value of the consonant in that syllable. Chinese has not advanced very far along this road, though many characters are used with a phonetic value to clarify the pronunciation of another character which might itself be ambiguous.

490 Xff

LANGUAGES OF THE MIDDLE AND FAR EAST

SAMPLE OF PRINTED CHINESE (KUO-YV)

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(Courtesy of American Bible Society)

LANGUAGES OF THE MIDDLE AND FAR EAST 4Q J

writing, these symbols became conventionalized in shape, "sun" assuming the form of an upended oblong with a horizontal line through it, "moon" that of the same oblong, but open at the bottom with two horizontal lines inside. The combination of these two symbols ("sun" followed by "moon") convention- ally stands for the adjective "bright", which has a pronuncia- tion totally unrelated to that of either "sun" or "moon", while "sun" shining through "tree" gives, conventionally, the character for "east", which in the spoken language has no pronunciation connection with either "sun" or "tree".

The drawbacks of such a system of writing, largely unconnected with pronunciation, are enormous. It is estimated that to read an ordinary Chinese newspaper one must be acquainted with at least 3000 separate characters, while for works of literature and philosophy the characters run into several additional thousand.

There are corresponding advantages. The written lan- guage (especially literary) is standardized throughout China, regardless of spoken dialectal variations. A document written in literary Wen-li can be read anywhere, though if it is read aloud, local pronunciations may differ to the point of being mutually incomprehensible. The symbol for "man" is the same throughout China, though it is variously pronounced jen, nyin, nen, len, yen in different provinces. It is as though the western nations were to generalize their own limited system of numerical and other symbols: "1000" is "one thousand" to the English-speaker, "tysyach" to the Russian, "mille" to the Frenchman; -"$10" is "ten dollars" to the American, "diez dolares" to the Spanish speaker; "Ib." is "pound" to the American, "livre" to the Frenchman; "Nad is "sodium chloride" to the American chemist, "cloruro di sodio" to the Italian; all who know the symbols in question understand their meaning, even though the spoken renditions of them diverge radically.

Wen-li, China's standardized, petrified literary language (which may be said to be an unspoken tongue, since its symbols carry no definite phonetic value, but only ideographic connota-

492 LANGUAGES OF THE MIDDLE AND FAR EAST

tions, differently rendered in sound in different parts of the country) is in process of replacement by Kuo-yii, the "National Tongue", which uses the written symbols of Wen-li, but assigns to each of them a definite spoken value.

KUO-YU AND THE DIALECTS — SPEAKERS AND LOCATION

Kuo-yii is to some extent an artificial national tongue, based primarily upon the spoken North Mandarin dialect in its Peiping variety (North Mandarin, with comparatively slight local variations, was the language of the majority of China's population even before the advent of Kuo-yii). It is now estimated to be the language of common use of some 280,000,- 000 of China's 425,000,000 inhabitants, and tends to encroach more and more upon the local dialects as the tendency toward national unity grows stronger.

The main Chinese dialects which diverge to such an extent from Kuo-yii as to be practically unintelligible are: Wu, around the Yang-tze delta (Shanghai, Soochow), about 34,000,000; Yiieh of Kwang-tung (Cantonese)4, about 38,000,000; Min of Fu-kien province, about 30,000,000. The Miao and Hakka of southern China, with several million speakers apiece, are rated as separate dialects of the Sino-Tibetan group. Sub-dialects (Swatow, Amoy, Ning-po, etc.) are extremely numerous, but they are declining in use and importance. For practical purposes, a,t least two-thirds of China's population can be reached with Kuo-yii0.

Chinese speakers abroad are estimated at about 8,000,- 000, of whom about 6,500,000 (largely Min speakers) are in

4. Cantonese is of special interest to Americans because the majority of Chinese residents in the U. S. A. are from the Cantonese-speaking region. It distinguishes itself from Mandarin especially by its use of a larger number of tones, and by permitting such consonant sounds as -/ and -p to stand at the end of a word.

5. The term "Chinese" as used henceforth is to be understood as re- ferring to Kuo-yii.

LNGUAGES OF THE MIDDLE AND FAR EAST

493

other countries of Asia and in the islands of Oceania (notably Thailand, Malaya, Indo-Chiria and the Dutch East Indies), and some 250,000 in the Western Hemisphere.

SOUNDS.8

Vowel sounds.

a = father e = met e = us i = machine I = pin o = more u = rude ii = French u

Diphthongs.

ai = aisle ao = ho 10 ei = eight ia = yard ie = yes iu = you ou = toe ua = quantity

u = the; is often completely ui = we silent uo = war

iao = yowl uei = way

Consonants.

ch = Italian cielo

ch' = cAurch

f = four

h = house

hs = house quickly followed by house

j = pleasure, with a strong mixture of r

k = sky

k' = cat

1 = /ow

m = moon

n = new7

ng — king7

6. In Chine«e to an even greater extent than in other tongues, the English equivalents given are only approximations to the native sounds, which can accurately be acquired only from a speaker.

494 LANGUAGES OF THE MIDDLE AND FAR EAST

p = spin p' = pin

S rur soul

sh.= shore

sz = loss quickly followed by zeal

t = stem

t' = tele

ts = tha^s all

ts' = its

tz = store quickly followed by zeal

tz' = tale quickly followed by zeal

English consonant sounds not appearing in Chinese: b, d, g, r, v, z, thing, this (a sound approximating r appears in \erft, and in words containing j). Note:. where consonants and com- binations appear with and without the accent (ch, ch'; k, k'; p, p'; t, t', etc.), the consonant with the accent is aspirated; that is, it is given the slight puff after it which i» characteristic in English when the consonant begins the word (pin = p -f- kin; tale ==• t + hale). Where the accent does not appear, the puff is missing, as is the case in English when the consonant follows an s (spin, state). Or, to put it another way, the consonants without the accent have the sounds they normally would have in Romance languages, like French or Italian (It. cielo vs. En. church; Sp. perro vs. En. pet); this softened pronunciation of the unaspirated unvoiced consonants (ch, k, p, t, ts) occasionally makes them sound to the English ear somewhat like the corresponding voiced consonants (j, g, b, d, dz).

The fact that Chinese writing has only partial phonetic value deprives spoken Chinese of a good deal of the visual support and stabilizing influence which western tongues nor- mally derive from their written counterparts, with the result that Chinese pronunciation with respect to many consonant- sounds is somewhat vague and fluctuating. There is confusion.

7. -a and -ng are the only consonant-sounds permitted at the end of a word, save in the word \erh (two).

LANGUAGES OF THE MIDDLE AND FAR EAST 49$

for example, among the ch, k and ts sounds, with k tending toward the sound of ch, and ch' toward the sound of ts (Chung King may be heard pronounced Tsung Ching).

TONES.

Chinese has four distinct tones. They are indicated by symbols used in front of each word:

""indicates that the vocable is to be pronounced on a fairly high, level note: ~shi, "to lose"; / indicates a rising inflection: /shi, "ten"; V indicates a slight fall followed by an immediate rise: ^/shi,

"history";

\ indicates an abrupt fall: \shi9 "city", "market". (The vocable shi has been selected because it has all four tones; but note that in addition to the meanings given, there are several other totally unrelated meanings for this same word in each one of the four tones, depending upon special use, position in the sentence, etc.).

Of interest is the fact that a few words in very common use change their tone if they precede another word having the same tone: the word for "I", for example, is\/W; but "I write" is /wo \/hsie, with \/wo shifting its tone because the following word has the same tone.

Tones are, of course, best learned by contact with native speakers. Limited comprehensibility may be achieved by a foreigner even without a mastery of tones, provided there is mastery of word-order and the use of certain syntactical make- shifts, such as noun-classifiers (see p. 499).

GRAMMATICAL SURVEY.

In outlining Chinese grammar, it is necessary to eject from one's mind, to some extent, the Indo-European grammatical classifications (nouns, adjectives, adverbs, verbs, prepositions, etc.). The same Chinese word, according to its position and use, may translate an English noun, adjective, verb, or preposi-

496 LANGUAGES OF THE MIDDLE AXD FAR LAST

lion; \hsia, for instance, may mean "under" (preposition), "to descend" (verb), "bottom" (noun); the "down" concept, it will be noted, is common to all the translations. There is a striking similarity to the English process whereby "mail" can, according to its position and use, be a verb ( "to mail a letter" ) , a noun ("by mail"), or an adjective ("mail-clerk"). In Chinese, as in English, words acquire their full significance only by reference to their position and function in the sentence.

An interesting theory advanced by some linguists is that at one time Chinese was a fully inflected, polysyllabic tongue, but that prehistorically it went through the same process that English has undergone during the last fifteen centuries and is still undergoing at present, the falling off of inflectional end- ings, the tendency to use one-syllable words (as evidenced by some of our popular newspaper headlines), and the conse- quent reliance upon word-order to clarify meanings. Whether this theory be true or not, the fact remains that there are remarkable points of contact between modern Chinese and modern American newspaper-headline English.

Word-order is of paramount importance in Chinese, and must be strictly observed. The modifier regularly precedes the modified word (adjective before noun; adverb before verb). The subject-verb-object order is rigidly adhered to.

Chinese compounds are numerous and varied; as many as four monosyllabic words sometimes go into the rendering of one idea. Two-word compounds are extremely frequent: \k'an \chien, literally "look-see", for "to see" ; "chin ~lfien, "now-day" for "today" (note the similarity of formation in English; "yester-day" is "past-day" in Chinese, and "to- morrow" is "next-day").

Nouns and Articles.

Chinese has no definite article; the demonstrative \/tzu however, often approaches the value of "the" rather than "this".

The numeral "i ("one") may be used with the value of "a", "an".

The Chinese noun has no distinction of gender, number

LANGUAGES OF THE MIDDLE AND FAR EAST

or case; //jen may mean "man'" or "men", according to the context.

The fact that a noun is in plural use may, if necessary, be indicated by (a) the use of a numeral: (h) the use of a plural demonstrative; (c) the use of an indefinite' adjective, such as "many**, "some"; (d) the plural suffix 'men, //men: eight men, "pa //Jen; these men, \c/ie 'hsie //Jen; many men, 'to //Jen; men, /Jen 'men. The last form, however, is nor- mally avoided (except in general statements), "men being pre- ferably reserved for personal pronouns.

~ti, placed after the noun, indicates a genitive or possessive function, and may be said to correspond to English 's, -s': the man's house(s), the men's house(s), //Jen "ti //fang \/tzu.

The fact that the noun is the subject of the sentence is indicated by its position before the verb; the fact that it is the object of the verb is indicated by its position after the verb: this man sees the child, \che //Jen \k'an \chien //hai \/tzu (this man look see boy the) ; this boy sees the man, \che /hai \/tzu \Jtan \chien /jen.

Other case-relations are indicated by separate words serv- ing as prepositions or postpositions, placed before or after the noun they govern: to the man, \/kei //Jen; under the bridge, /ctiiao \Jisia (lit. bridge under).

Adjectives and Adverbs.

The position of a word used as an attributive adjective is before the noun it modifies: the good man, \/hao /jen.

If the adjective appears after the noun, it has the value of a predicate adjective: the man (is) good, /jen \/hao. The verb "to be" is normally omitted in this construction.

The position of a word used as an adverb is usually before the verb: to write well, \/hao \/hsie (lit., well, or good, to write). The same form is normally used for both adjective and adverb: slow, slowly, \man.

To form the comparative of adjectives and adverbs, the prefix \keng is used: slower, more slowly, \keng \rnan.

498 LANGUAGES OF THE MIDDLE AND FAR EAST

To form the superlative the prefix \tsui is used: slowest, most slowly, \tsui \man*

Pronouns. Personal.

I, ^/wo (before verb) me, \/wo (after verb)

you (sg., subj.), \/ni (bef. verb) you (sg., object), \/ni (after

verb)

he, she, "t'a (bef. verb) him, her, "t'a (after verb)

we, VW "men (bef. verb) us, ^/wo "men (after verb) you (pi. subj.), \/ni "men (bef. you (pi. obj.), \/m "men

verb) (after verb)

they, "t'a "men (bef. verb) them, "t'a "men (after verb)

Possessive.

Add "ti to personal pronoun: our, ours, \/wo "men ~ti. Demonstrative.

this, \che these, \che ~hsie

that, \na those, \na "hsie

Interrogative.

who?, whom?, /shui whose?, /shui "ti which?, \/na which one?, \/na "i "ko

Relative.

There is no true relative pronoun in Chinese; an ex- pression such as "the mountain which is at the center of the country" is rendered by "at country's center mountain", \tsai /kuo "chung "hsin "ti "shan.

Numerals. ,

1 "i 5 \/wu

2 \erh 6 \liu

3 "san 7 ~ch'i

4 \szii 8 "pa

LANGUAGES OF THE MIDDLE AND FAR EAST

9 \/chiu 20 \erh /shl

10 /shl 100 VP<"

11 /shi 'I 1000 "Mien

12 /shi\erh 10,000 \wan

A digit before "ten" multiplies it, after "ten" is added to it: "14" is "ten four"; "40" is "four ten"; "45" is "four ten five"; "565" is "five hundred six ten five".

An ordinal numeral is, usually formed by prefixing \ti to the cardinal: fourth, \a \szii.

Classifiers.

Classifying words are often prefixed to certain classes of nouns in Chinese, particularly after numerals. The classifier indicates that the noun specifically belongs to a certain class of objects, and removes whatever doubt might be caused by phonetic similarities; the entire expression is thereby made more definite (compare the English "five head of cattle"). In Pidgin English, the native tendency to use classifiers tran- spires in the constant use of such words as "fellow", "piecee" ("two fella man"; "five piecee shirt"). A few examples of classifiers are:

\/ce or \fco (for human beings) : three men, "san \fco \jen. ~chi (for animals, hands, feet, etc.): five hands, \/wu "chl \/shou.

\chien (for things, clothes, etc.) : four coats, \szii \chien "i.

If an adjective is used with the noun, it goes between the

classifier and the noun: five large hands, \/wu ~chi \ta

Somewhat similar in nature, but not in position, to the classifier is \Jtzu, which follows the noun and is an indication of a concrete object: house, /fang, or /fang ^/tzu. This "concretizer" has been compared to a definite article.

Verbs.

The Chinese verb has no tense, mood, person or number, and simply indicates the action: to write, \/hsie.

500 LANGUAGES OF THE MIDDLE AND FAR EAST

Present.

"I write", "you write", "he writes", etc. are formed by prefixing the personal pronoun to the verb: /wo \/hsie; /ni \/hsie; etc.

Past.

The force of a past is often given to a verb by adding \/liao (lit. "finish"; compare Pidgin "he die finish" for "he died", "he is dead") : I wrote, /wo \Jhsie \/fao.

A secondary past, corresponding in value to the present perfect, is sometimes formed by adding \kuo (experience): I have written, /wo \/hsie \kuo. (I have had the experience of writing).

Note, however, that even without \/liao or \kuo, a verb may receive past force from the appearance in the sentence of a word indicating past time, such as "yesterday" or "last year". The adverbial expression of time in such cases must, in accor- dance with the rule for the position of adverbs, immediately precede the verb: "I wrote yesterday" becomes "I past day write", \/wo /tso ~t'ien \/h$ie.

Future.

There is no specific future form, future force being given to the verb by the use in the sentence of some expression in- dicating future time: "I shall write tomorrow" becomes "I next day write", \/wo /ming 't'ien \Asie.

Conditional.

/ju or \/o, "if", or /ju \/kuo, "if really" are the nearest approximation to a conditional; if no subject appears, /ju or \Jo comes first in the sentence; otherwise, the subject precedes: if he does not come, Ya \jo \pu /lai.

Negative.

The negative form of the verb is produced by prefixing /mei or /pu to the verb: I do not eat, \/wo /pu ~ch'i.

LANGUAGES OF THE MIDDLE AND FAR EAST

/mei is especially used with the verb Vxu> "to have'1, "there to be": /mei \/yu9 there is not, there are not. /Pu is never used in the past.

Interrogative.

No change in word-order occurs in an interrogative sen- tence, but the interrogative particle "ma (less frequently ~ni) appears at the end: do you see?, \/ni \k'an \chien "ma.

A question may also be formed, however, by stating the verb first in the affirmative, then in the negative: \/ni \k'an \chien \k'an /pu \chien, lit. "you see not see" (do you see or don't you see?).

Reflexive.

A reflexive pronoun is formed by adding \tzii \/chi to the personal pronoun: I see myself, \/wo \k'an \chien V wo \tzu \/chi.

WORDS AND PHRASES

good morning, /ni \/hao; \/tsao "an good afternoon, /ni \/hao; \hsia \/wu /ping "an good evening, good night, /ni ^/hao; \fwan "an good-bye, \tsai \chien; \tsai \Jiui; (au revoir) \hui

~t'ou \chien thank you, \hsie \hsie you're welcome, \pu \yao \Jc'e \ch'i please, \/ch'ing

very gladly, /hen \/hsi ~huan; \/hen "kao \hsing "ti perhaps, /ye \/hsii here is, \che \li \/ru

there is, \na \/li \/yu (pointing out); \/yu (stating) where?, where is?, (subject) \tsai /na \/li how do I go to...?, \/ivo \/tsen "mo \tao...? yes, \shl (in reply to "is" questions); \/ra (in reply to

"have" questions)

502 LANGUAGES OF THE MIDDLE AND FAR EAST

no, /pu \shl (in reply to "is" questions); /mei \/ju (in

reply to "have" questions) how are you?, /ni \/hao \pu \/hao very well, /hen \/hao

how much is it?, \che \ke "to \/shao /ch'ien why?, \wei /shen "mo when?, /shen "mo /shl \hou because, ~yin \wei today, 'chin "t'ien tomorrow, /Anting 't'ien yesterday, /tso "t'ien to the right, \yu \pien to the left, \/tso \pien straight ahead, "i /chi ~ti

what time is it?, /chi \/tien ~chung; /shen "mo /shl \hou it is now six o'clock, \hsien \tsai \Jw ^/tien

'm hungry, \/wo \e "la

*m thirsty, /wo \/k'e "la

'm cold, /wo \/leng

'm warm, /wo \/nuan "ho

'm ill, ^/wo \ping "la; /wo \/yu \ping what is your name?, \/ni \kuei \hsing (very polite) ; \/7ii \hsing /shen "mo; \/ni \chiao \shen "mo /ming "tzu my name is..., \/wo \hsing...; \/wo \pi \Jising; \/wo

/ming "tzu \shl

do you speak...?, \/ni \hui ~shuo... "mo certainly, izii /jan very little, /hen \/hsiao give me, /kei \/wo show me, /kei \/wo \k'an tell me, \kao \su \/wo do you understand?, /ni \/tung "pu \/tung I don't understand, ^/wo \pu do you know?, \/ni "chi "tao 'mo 1 don't know, \/u>o "pu "chi "tao

LANGUAGES OF THE MIDDLE AND FAR EAST 50 J

excuse me, \tui ~pu \A7Ti

don't mention it, "pa \yao /l'i

what do you want?, \/m \yao /shen "mo

it's fine weather, "t'ien ~ch'i \fhao

never mind, "pu \yao \/chin

I'm glad, \/wo \/hsi ~huan / chi ~lo

too bad!, \t'ai \/k'e ~hsi

what is the matter?, \/tsen ~mo "la

504 LANGUAGES OF THE MIDDLE AND FAR EAST

OTHER LANGUAGES OF THE SINO-TIBETAN GROUP SIAMESE. TIBETAN, BURMESE

Siamese is a monosyllabic tongue and has five tones. Its system of writing is derived from the Devanagari of India and is quite complicated, with 44 consonants, 32 vowels, and the five tones mentioned above (the tones and some of the vowel-values are indicated above or below the written line.)

SAMPLE Or PRINTED SIAMESE

iwit yi mtm vin fn Ian, w IffiJjsvnw

«^-* J 4 4 « a

t iflen 1)9$ msa^n, twa vin nu vi w B w

ifu 1)2; ij leTvnnrf , an xj 5i 9) in imjfl? . iwnt 11 mt-

wsean m wi lulan

wmntn Inn, n^1 mo as IvTlan

^wfolviwsijm Ixi WID^ nn^vnnin, nw

* V

w ID n wo^ nn wvnnm t)t[ ntn, imit inn ij

U1JJ V«5S:lJ^l B4fl 1^01 *U94 mSitll.

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There is no gender or inflection. Possession is generally indicated by the simple expedient of placing the possessor immediately after the thing possessed (my ring, wen k'ha, lit. ring-me; this device appears also in Malay; see p. 511). Deter- minatives or classifiers are abundantly used, especially after numerals ("tiger two head" for "two tigers"; "knife three blade" for "three knives"). The adjective, which is invariable, as are all parts of speech, usually follows the noun. The numerals from one to ten are: nung, sang, sam, si, ha, hoh, chet, pet, kau, sip. Verbs have no tense or mood, such accessory

LANGUAGES OF THE MIDDLE AND FAR EAST

SAMPLE OF PRINTED BURMESE

505

(Courtesy of American Bible Society)

ideas being conveyed by adverbial expressions. Samples of

Siamese sentence-structure are:

Rao dek-chai sam kon cha pai chap pla

we boy three person future go catch fish

sam-rap hai paw kin.

for-to give father eat (We three boys will go and catch

fish in order to feed our father). Me tan yu ti nai. Mother you live place where (Where does your mother

live?).

Me pai ta-lat leao. Mother go bazaar finish (Mother went to the bazaar).

A very similar structure appears in Burmese and Tibetan, which are monosyllabic and make use of word -order and tones to distinguish meanings. Traces of ancient prefixes, dropped by the modern tongues, are said to be in evidence. There is in these tongues no gender ( save for an added "male" or "female"

506

LANGUAGES OF THE MIDDLE AND FAR EAST

where necessary); no number (save for the use of words like "many", "heap", with the single form of the noun) ; and no distinction among the various parts of speech ("I go" is translated by "my going").

m $ggi

SAMPLE OF PRINTED KOREAN

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(Courtesy of American Bible Society)

LANGUAGES OF THE MIDDLE AND FAR EAST 507

MALAY

by Rev. William E. Lowther, Litt. D.1

The Malay language is understood over a wider geo- graphical extent in the Eastern Archipelago than any other language. It is used in the whole of the Malay Peninsula; Siam, in some of the southern parts; IndoChina, along some coasts and in some river valleys; the Straits Settlements; Sumatra; Java, in considerable part; Borneo; Celebes; Flores; Timor; and in islands too numerous to mention.

Whatever variations there may be in these regions, the Malay speaker masters in a short time. Some of the languages that bear othei names are so nearly akin to Malay that the task of learning them is like the task of a Spaniard who under- takes to study Portuguese.

When the Malays became Muhammadans, in the thirteenth century, they adopted the Arabic alphabet with some modifi* cations, and use it to this day, though there is an increasing amount of teaching and writing done with the Roman alphabet. The Arabic writing is such a poor guide to pronunciation that the student should not undertake it till he is using the language with some comfort.

The loan words of Malay are chiefly from Sanskrit and Arabic. The Malay language is dissyllabic. Monosyllables are few. Words of more than two syllables are also rare. A glance at a page of Malay will show many words that look as though they were polysyllables, but in the overwhelming majority of cases they are dissyllables with affixes. Malay is among the "easier" languages. The verb has few irregularities; there are no conjugations or declensions.

1. Forms in parentheses, preceded by the letters D. M., are Malay variants current ' in the Dutch East Indies which diverge from the Malay of British Malaya. They have been supplied by Mrs. Claire Holt, of Columbia University.

LANGVAGES OF THE MIDDLE AND FAR EAST

ACCENT.

The accent ordinarily falls on the syllable next to the last, but if that syllable is open and contains the vowel e the accent generally falls on the last syllable. Accent is lighter in Malay than in English:

makan, eat: pronounce ma-kan;

besar, great: (e in open syllable) ; pronounce be-sdr :

dendam, longings: (e in closed syllable) ; pronounce den-d-am.

As a rule the addition of affixes to a word does not change the place of the accent:

makan, eat; makannn. food;

besdr, great; kebesaran; greatness.

PRONUNCIATION.

Vowel Sounds.

a = father e = they i = police o = hope u = crude ua = wad

e represents a sound such as the one between the k and the n in German Knabe, Knecht (besdr, pronounced bsdr; dendam, pron. dh-dam; betul, pron. btul).

Consonant Sounds.

Generally as in English. Final A is a glottal stop. G is always hard. R is trilled more than in English. S in always hissed, never like Z. Ng as in singer; ngg as in finger.

We shall now proceed to a study of the Malay language by using the Lord's Prayer as our textbook. From the fifty- nine words in it. we shall develop by far the greater part of the Malay grammar.

LAKCL'AGES OF THE MIDDLE AND FAR EAST 509

PERMINTAAN TUHAN PRAYER LORD'S

1 2

1. Ya Bap a kami yang di-shurga, 0 Father our who in heaven, 345678

2. terhormat'lah kira-nya nama-mu. be hallowed we pray name your.

99 10 11 12 13

3. Datang-lah kerajaan-mu. Come kingdom your.

14 15

4. Jadi-lah kehendak-mu, di-atas bumi seperti di-shurg<r Become will your, at on earth as in heaven.

16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24

5. Beri'lah akan kami pada hari ini makanan yang Give to us at day this food which

25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 sa-hari-harian. one day (after) day. 33 34 35

6. Maka atnpunkan-lah hutang-hutang kami ( ) forgive debt-debt our

36 37 38 39

7. seperti kami sudah mengampuni orang yang her hutting

as we have forgiven men who owing 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 pada kami.

to us.

47 48

8. Jangan-lah membawa kami masok penchobaan,

Don't bring us enter temptation,

49 50 51 52 53

9. melainkan lepaskan-lah kami dari-pada yang jahat- but deliver us from who evil.

54 55 56 57 58 59

5/0 LANGUAGES OF THE MIDDLE AND FAR EAST

NOUNS.

Malay words do not always fit into our English gram- matical classifications. The noun does not change form to denote number, gender or case. (44) Orang means man, men, people. Like our word "sheep," it depends upon the context to reveal its number. When it is necessary to indicate plurality with more exactness, the words segala and semua, all, and banyak, many, may be added to the word: semua orang, segala orang (compare French tout le monde).

Some nouns have the faculty of indicating plurality, and

also variety, by reduplication: (44) Orang, man; orang-orang, men, mankind. (38) Hutang, debt; hutang-hutang, debts. (34) Hari, day; sa-hari-hari, every day, daily. Kuda, horse; kuda-kuda, horses. Budak, child; budak-budak, children. Only observation of Malay usage will guide the student in learning the nouns that can be reduplicated. There is no rule that is fixed, other than to say that the names of living creatures may be reduplicated, and that undefined nouns stand- ing alone may be treated as plural.

DERIVATIVE NOUNS.

The Malay system of prefixes and suffixes can change verbs and other parts of speech into nouns.

Prefix P, often with a "bridge letter," usually indicates an agent. When used with the suffix an, an abstract noun is formed:

Bunoh, kill; Pembunoh, murderer; Pembunohan, murder. Ajar, teach; Pengajar, teacher; Pengajaran, teaching,

doctrine.

(53) Choba, attempt; Penchoba, tempter; Penchobaan, temp- tation.

The suffix an generally denotes the thing that is affected by the action expressed by the verb: (31) Makan, eat; Makanan, thing eaten, food.

Minum, drink; Minuman, thing drunk, beverage.

LANGUAGES OF THE MIDDLE AND FAR EAST 5 / /

The Prefix K forms nouns from verbs: (17) Hendak, wish; Kehendak, will, desire.

The prefix k with the suffix an forms nouns, generally abstract, from other nouns and from other parts of speech: (15) Raja, king; kerajaan, kingdom. (59) Jahat, wicked; kejahatan, wickedness.

The suffix OTI with reduplication may express multiplicity: (34,35) Hari, day; (sa-) hari-harian, daily.

When two nouns stand together, the second is in the possessive case: (31, 44) Makanan orang, man's food (also orang punya

makanan).

(5, 31 ) Makanan kami, our food (also kami punya makanan) . The word punya makes any noun a possessive. The punya possessive must stand before its object.

PERSONAL PRONOUNS.

There is no variation in the form of the pronouns to indicate case:

sahaya, saya, aku, J, me, my (5, 27, 41, 51, 56)

engkau, thou, thee, thine

dia, he, she, it,

him, her, his, its.

kita, kami, we, us, our

kamu, you, your

dia, dia-orang, they, them, their

The personal pronouns are often shortened or changed in the possessive case.

(12, 13) Nama kamu, or nama-mu, your name. (15) Kerajaan kamu, or kerajaan-mu, your kingdom. (17, 18) Kehendak kamu, or kehendak-mu9 your will.

Nama aku9 or nama-ku, my name; (11) Dia becomes nya;

Nama dia, or nama-nya, his, her, its or their name. Kira-nya (pray, prithee), changes an imperative to a request or prayer.

572 LANGUAGES OF THE MIDDLE AXD FAR EAST

RELATIVE PRONOUN.

There is only one, yang. It means who, which, that. what. (6, 32, 45, 58)

DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS.

(30) Ini, this, these; itu, that, those.

There are no articles, a, an, or the. The demonstratives substitute for them.

INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS.

Siapa, who? (44, 30) : Siapa orang ini?9 who is this man?

Apa macham, what kind of? (31, 30): Apa macham makanan ini?, what kind of food is this?

Mana, where? (interrogative adverb) : (15) Di-mana raja itu?9 where is the king?

By adding the suffix -hah, we make any word interroga- tive: Datang-kah orang itu?, is that man coming?

ADJECTIVES.

The adjective normally follows the noun it qualifies* (44, 59) Orang jahat, the wicked man.

Orang yang jahat, the man who (is) wicked. For reasons of emphasis it may stand elsewhere. Comparison of adjectives:

lebeh, lagi, more; kurang, less; dari-pada, than, from; sama .... dengan, seperti, equally .... with, as .... as ; sa-kali (one time, i. e. uniquely), most, superlative degree, frequently used with the relative yang. (59,44,15.)

Lebeh jahat orang ini dari-pada raja. More evil man this than (the) king. Kurang jahat orang ini dari-pada raja.

Less evil man this than (the) king. (30, 44, 58, 59)

Ini-lah orang yang jahat sa-kali. This (is the) man who(is) evil most.

LANGUAGES OF THE MIDDLE AND FAR EAST 5/5

Orang ini sama jahat dengan raja.

Man this equally evil with (the) king.

Orang ini sama jahat seperti raja.

Man this as evil as (the) king.

ADVERBS.

Pula, again; pun, also; juga, likewise, nevertheless. Time: sekarang, now; tadi, just now; kelmarin, yester- day; ini hari, today; besok, tomorrow. Place: sini, here; sana, situ, there; luar, outside; dalam, inside; (20) atas, on, above; bawah, below, under.

PREPOSITIONS.

(7) di-, at, in; (20) atas, on, on top of; di-atas, upon; (26) akan, to; (47) pada, to; (28) pada, to (time); (57) dari-pada, from (.persons); dari, from (places), ka-f to (motion).

CONJUNCTIONS.

(54) melainkan, but (German sondern); tetapi, but (German aber) ; dan, and; atau, or; kalau, if; sebab. because; supaya, in order that.

PUNCTUATION WORDS.

In Malay, when written in the Arabic characters, there are no punctuation marks. Certain words help with the work of punctuation, introducing new sentences and paragraphs, and breaking into sentences themselves. They need not be transla- ted. Yet they are carried over bodily into Romanized editions of Malay works and do double duty alongside the modern punctuation system. (36) maka, may be translated, if at all, by the word "and".

bahwa introduces narration.

ada pun, introduces a parenthetical clause, or calls the reader back to the main story after a digression.

bermula, takes up a new subject, paragraph, chapter.

dan lagi, continues the same subject.

These and others will become familiar in reading.

LANGUAGES OF THE MIDDLE AND FAR EAST

INTERJECTIONS.

There are many as in all languages.

(3) Ya, 0!9 from the Arabic, used in prayer and in addressing holy persons.

NUMERALS.

(33) Sa- is a shortened form of the numeral satu meaning one.

1 — satu, or so- 6 — enam

2 — dua 7 — tujoh

3 — tiga g — delapan

4 — empat 9 — sembilan

5 — lima 10 — sa-puloh (satu puloh, one ten)

Betas is another word for puloh

11 — sa-belas (satu added tb fee/as)

12 — dua-belas9 and so on up to 19, when puloh returns.

With puloh the first number is a multiplier.

20 — dua-puloh 100 — sa-ratus (satu ratus)

21 — dua-puloh-satu 101 — sa-ratus satu 32 — tiga-puloh-dua 200 — dua-ratus 43 — empat-puloh-tiga 1000 — sa-ribu

54 — lima-puloh-empat 2000 — dua-ribu

And so on to 99.

ORDINAL NUMBERS.

Ordinal numbers are formed by adding the prefix ke to the cardinal numbers, and putting the relative pronoun be- fore the new word.

3 — tiga 3rd — yang ketiga

1st — yang pertama (irregular)

2nd — yang kedua

4th — yang keempat

5th — yang kelima

Without the yang9 groups are meant. Collectives: kedua, both; ketiga, all three; kelima, all five, etc.

LANGUAGES OF THE MIDDLE AND FAR EAST 5/5

FRACTIONS.

The prefix per added to the cardinal numbers gives the corresponding fractions. Note following the two exceptions, tengah and suku.

1/2 — sa-tengah (tengah means "a half)

2/3 — dua pertiga

3/4 — tiga perempat, or commonly tiga-suku (suku means a "quarter" in Malaya, l/2 guilder or 35 cents in Java; D. M. 1A — sa p$rapat; % — tiga perapat) .

4/5 — empat perlima

6/10 — enam perpuloh

VERBS.

The verb is not inflected. It cannot show number, person, or tense.

Verbs are either primitive or derivative. The primitives are verbs in their original signification (14, 16, 25, 52). The derivative verbs are made from primitive verbs, nouns and adjectives and adverbs by the application of particles (37, 43, 50, 55). Transitive verbs are formed from all other parts of speech by the addition of -kan and -i. (37) Ampun, pardon (noun); ampunkan, pardon (verb) (55) Lepas, after (preposition), free, loose; lepaskan, deliver

(verb) (43) Ampun, pardon (noun); meng-ampun-i, pardon (verb)

Jalan, walk; jalankan, cause to walk.

THE PREFIX M

The Malays use the prefix M (with a bridge letter where needed) with transitive verbs in the active voice. Exception is made when the verb is in the imperative mood, in which case the particle of intensity lah is added. In communication bet- ween Malays and foreigners the prefix M is largely left unemployed. (50) Membawa, bring; bawa-lah, bring (imperative; 14, 16,

25, 37, 49, 55)

LANGUAGES OF THE MIDDLE AND FAR EAST

BRIDGE LETTERS WITH THE PREFIX M

None before 1, m, n, r, w, y:

Lihat, see; melihat, see Makan, eat; memakan, eat, etc. M before b and p; but the p drops out: Bunoh, kill; membunoh, kill Padam, extinguish; memadam, extinguish N before t, d, j, ch; but t drops out: Dapat, mendapat, find. Churi, menchuri, steal Tar oh, menaroh, put. Tidor, menidor, sleep.

Ng before k, g, h, or any vowel; but k drops out: (43) Mengampuni, from ampun, pardon

kepit, mengepit, to carry under the arm gigit, menggigit, to bite. Ny before s; but s drops out:

Suroh, menyuroh, order

Note: it is the unvoiced consonant that is dropped. Exceptions are extremely rare.

THE PASSIVE VOICE.

The passive is formed by the prefix di-\

(25) Beri, give; di-beri, is given.

The preposition oleh governs the agent:

(31, 25, 44, 26, 15) Makanan di-beri oleh orang akan

Food was given by the man to the

raja.

king.

A passive may also be formed by using the verb kena before another verb. It also translates the English word gel. Dia kena bunoh, he was (got) killed. Dia kena hukum, he was (got) punished. Dia kena sakit, he got sick. Kena standing alone means "hit the mark".

LANGUAGES OF THE MIDDLE AND FAR EAST 5/7

THE PREFIX TRR

This prefix provides a past participle, but its various uses cannot be gathered up in a single term. (9) Hormat-lah, honor (imperative) Terhormat-lah, may be called a past participle, yet in

this case it is used in the imperative mood.

Hence, honored be, or hallowed be. Buka, open; terbuka, opened.

THE PREFIX B£R

We call the forms with fee r present participles, but they do not direct the thought so much to the action itself as to the state of the persons who perform the actions.

A verb with this prefix can be expressed by our present participle : (44) Orang berlari, the man is running.

Lari, run; berlari, running.

A noun with this prefix has in it the idea of possession: (44, 45, 46) Orang yang berhutang pada kami, the man who is having a debt toward us. Hutang, debt; berhutang, having a debt. (44, 15) Orang her raja, a man who has a king.

Verbs with this prefix may be reflexive or reciprocal.

AUXILIARIES.

(42) Sudah. This word indicates past time. To translate it into English, the context must tell whether to use was, did, has, or had.

The verb habis: Sudah expresses completed action in the past. Habis expresses more emphatically that the action is finished, utterly, entirely, once for all.

Orang sudah makan, the man has eaten.

Orang sudah habis makan, the man has completely finish- ed eating.

Following is a list of auxiliaries with a list of English

$18 LANGUAGES OF THE MIDDLE AND FAR EAST

words that will translate them. The context must guide in the choice.

Ada, is, are, was, were, possess. Tiada, is not, will not Akan, will, shall, would, should (17) Hendak, will, shall, would, should A/flu, will, shall, would, should Boleh, can, could, may, might Dapat, can, could, may, might Patut, ought Mesti, must Nanti, will, shall

Raja ini boleh beri makanan pada kami, this king can 15 30 25 31 47 48

give food to us.

Orang ini mau datang pada bapa, this man will come to 44 30 14 47 4

father.

Kami patut mengampuni hutang-hutang, we ought to for- 5 43 38

give debts.

The Verb ADA, "to be"

Ada, to be, existence in time or place.

It asserts presence or existence:

Ada orang di-atas bumi, there are people on the earth.

44 19 20

Ada may be used as the equivalent of "to be" when adverbs of place follow or are understood. It is never the equivalent of "to be" followed by adjectives. The Malays join their adjectives to nouns without a copula.

It expresses progressive action when joined to another verb: Orang ada makan, people are eating. 44 31

It asserts possession in the form that we call the Dative of

Possession:

LANGUAGES OF THE MIDDLE AND FAR EAST 5/9

Pada orang ada makanan, the man has food 47 44 31. (to the man is food).

Colloquially this pada is usually suppressed, and the sentence becomes: Orang ada makanan, the man has food.

Ada in conversation expresses our verb to have, (to possess). Thus the object of a preposition becomes the subject of the sentence, and the real subject becomes the object. In good writing the verb ada is seldom the equiva- lent of the English to have; the pada is not omitted. Ada may serve as a "Punctuation Word", introducing sentences without being necessary to their meaning. It may then be ignored in translation, or translated by some English introduc- tory word such as "now", "there", etc.

Ada-lah nama raja itu, Raja Da ltd, now the name of

that king (was) Raja Da'ud.

Ada pun pada masa itu datang-lah raja itu dari Hindi, now at that time came the king from India.

Ada may be used to round off and close a sentence with em- phasis, expressing some sentiment like, "And this is the truth", or, "And this is a fact". In this case the syllable nya is added, ada-nya.

Segala perbuatan-nya baik ada-nya. All works his good (and that is a fact).

NEGATIVE AUXILIARIES.

Tidak: Kami tidak boleh makan, we cannot eat. Bukan: Orang ini bukan raja kami, this man is not our king.

Belum: Not yet. Very frequently used. In a multitude of cases where we give a direct negative answer, the Malays say "not yet". Is he married? English answer: No. Malay answer, Belum, not yet.

520 LANGUAGES OF THE MIDDLE AND FAR EAST

WORDS AND PHRASES.

Good morning, good evening, good-by, farewell, (a general

greeting), tabek. How do you do, how are you, how goes it, etc., apa khabar?

(literally, what's the news?)

I arn well, khabar baik (literally, the news is good). What time is it?, pukul berapa? (literally, how many strikes?). It is two o'clock, pukul dua (literally, it has struck twice), half past two o'clock, pukul dua sa-tengah (lit., strikes two and

a half; D. M., sa-tengah tiga). Noon (midday), tengah hari. Midnight, tengah malam.

It is five minutes to six, kurang lima minit pukul anam. It is a quarter to five, kurang suku pukul lima (D. M., pukul

lima kurang sa-perapat). Next year, tahun datang. Last year, tahun lain. Next month, bulan datang. Last month, bulan lalu. Every day, daily, sa-hari-hari. The whole day, all day long, sa-panjang hari. Please (try), choba; minta (more polite). Tell me, bilang pada sahaya (D. M., kasih (or beri) tahu

pada say a). Bring, bawa. Show, tunjok. Thank you, terima kaseh.

Pardon me, sahaya minta ampun (D. M., maap; maaf). I am glad, sahaya bersuka. I have to, I must, sahaya mesti. Where are you going?, pergi mana? (D. M., ka-mana?; pergi

ka-mana?).

Which way?, jalan mana? To the right, ka-sebelah kanan. On the right, di-sebelah kanan. To the left, ka-sebelah kiri.

LAXCUACES OF THE MIDDLE AIVD fAR EAST $21

Straight ahead, maju; terus.

Here, di-sini.

There, di-situ*

In that way (manner), bagitu.

In this way (manner), bagini.

Come with me, datang-lah sama sahaya (D. M., ikut saya;

turut sama saya).

What do you wish?, apa tuan man? What is that?, apa itu? What is the matter with you?, apa sal ah? What is the price?, berapa harga? Do you speak Malay?, tuan talm chahap Melayu? A little, sedikit. Speak slowly, chakap pelan-pelan (D. M., minta bichara

pelahan-pelahan) .

Do you understand?, mengerti-kah? ( D. M., apa mengerti?). I do not understand, sahaya tidak mengerti. Do you know?, tahu-kah? (D. M., apa tahu?). I cannot, sahaya tidak boleh (D. M., saya tida bisa) . I can, sahaya boleh (D. M., saya bisa). What is the name of that in Malay?, apa nama itu dengan

bahasa Melayu?

I am an American, sahaya orang Merican. I am thirsty, sahaya dahaga, sahaya haus. 1 am hungry, sahaya lapar. How old are you?, berapa 'umur? I am twenty years old, 'umur sahaya dua-puloh tahun. How long have you lived here?, berapa lama-kah tuan dudok

di-sini?

Come here, mari sini. Come in, masok. Look!, tengok!

Look out!, Be careful!, jaga baik-baik! (D. M., awas!; ati-ati!). Don't, jangan. Don't forget, jangan lupa. Don't run, jangan lari.

522 LANGUAGES OF THE MIDDLE AND FAR EAST

Go, pergi.

Go away, pergi sana (D. M., pergi-lah).

Go quickly, pergi lekas.

That is correct, itu betul.

There is no more, tiada lagi.

Where is there a restaurant?, di-mana rumah makan?

I do not know, sahaya kurang pereksa (D. M., tidak tahu;

belum tahu; kurang terang). Call on me when you pass, singgah sambil lalu. They are all alike, sa-rupa sahaja semua-nya. What does it contain?, apa isi-nya? Have you a room vacant?, ada bilek kosong? (D. M.; apa ada

kamar kosong?).

Where does this road lead?, jalan ini sampai ka-mcna? I feel ill, sahaya sakit (D. M., say a rasa sakit). What are you looking for?, apa tuan chari? I think it is going to rain, sahaya fikir mau hujan. Close the windows and the door, tutup jendela dan pintu. I do not want to get wet, sahaya tamau kena hujan. You ought to, patut engkau (D. M., patut kamu). What is your occupation?, pekerjaan tua/t? (D. M., pekerjaan

tuan apa?; tuan pekerjaannya apa?).

He has never seen a tiger, dia belum pernah melihat harimau. I shall remove to Singapore next month, sahaya mau berpindah

ka-Singapura lain bulan. He is writing (continuous), dia ada tulis, dia tengah tulis.

to day, ini hari tonight, ini malam

tomorrow, besok tomorrow morning, besok last night, malam tadi, pagi

semalam late, lambat

early, siang afterwards, lepas

now, sekarang slowly, pelan-pelan

fast, lekas no, tidak

yes, ya how much, how many?, very much, banyak berapa?

yesterday, kelmarin too much, too many, terlam-

LANCVAGES OF THE MIDDLE AND FAR EAST

523

pau

small, kechil poor, miskin beautiful, elok young, muda good, baik strong, kuat white, puteh red, merah blue, biru house, rumah cigarette, rokok army, tenter a head, kepala mouth, mulut ear, telinga arm, lengan foot, leg, kaki blood, darah to drink, minum money, wang expensive, mahal to sell, jual horse, kada ox, lembu to speak, chakap to ask, tanya man, orang child, a/ioA; to come, datang to see, lihat to want, tfww to live, hidup to give, 6eri to lose, hilang to do, to make, buai

at once, sekarang ini

large, besar

rich, kaya

ugly, o</o/t

old, JMO

bad, jahat

weak, lemah

black, hitam

green, hijau

yellow, kuning

door, pintu

cigar, cherutu

enemy, musoh

face,

eye,

tooth, gigi

hand, tangan

bone, tulang

to eat, makan

meat, daging

to pay, 6ayar

cheap, murah

to buy, fee/f

dog,

chicken,

to say,

to answer, jawab

woman, perempuan

water, ayer

to go, pergi

to like, 5wfai

to know, tahu

to die, /Tia/i*

to take, ambit

to find, dapat

to carry,

JAPANESE 525

CHAPTER XIV

JAPANESE

BY RALPH WALKER SCOTT, PH. D.

Professor of Romance Languages at Trinity College, Hartford, Conn.

Former Professor of Occidental Languages at Rikkyo University,

Tokyo, Japan.

SPEAKERS AND LOCATION. (All population figures are approximate)

Asia and Oceania — The population of the Japanese Empire prior to the seizure of Manchukuo was estimated at about 100,000,000, distributed as follows: Japan proper, 72,000,000; Korea, 25,000,000; Taiwan (Formosa), 5,500,- 000; Karafuto (the southern part of the island of Sakhalin), 500,000. It is fairly safe to assume that practically all of these populations may be reached with Japanese. To these may be added the mandated Bismarck, Caroline, Marianas, Gilbert and Marshall Islands, with a total population of slightly over 500,000.

The Manchukuo conquest brought about 43,000,000 people, mostly of Chinese stock and speech, under Japanese domination. The areas of China overrun and dominated by Japan (including the important cities of Peiping, Tientsin, Nanking, Hankow, Shanghai, Hangchow, Wenchow, Foochow, Amoy, Swatow, and Canton) may be estimated to have well over 100,000,000 inhabitants. Japanese was to some extent current in all this territory.

With Japan's entry into the war, Nippon's temporary territorial acquisitions included Thailand (16,000,000) ; French In<io-Chma (24,500,000); British Malaya (5,500,000);

525 JAPANESE

Burma (16,000,000); Hong Kong (1,500,000); the Nether- lands East Indies (60,000,000) ; the Philippines (16,000,000) ; British possessions on the islands of Borneo and New Guinea (about 2,000,000); Portuguese Timor (500,000); and various South Pacific islands (Guam, New Hebrides, northern Solomons, etc. — about 250,000). To what extent the Japanese language has penetrated these now liberated populations total- ling nearly 140,000,000 is a matter of conjecture.

Japanese speakers are fairly numerous in Hawaii, while small Japanese communities exist in various parts of North and South America. Exact figures are not available, but it is unlikely that the total number of Japanese speakers outside of Japanese-held territory exceeds 2,000.000.

THE WRITTEN LANGUAGE

The Japanese language proper has no relation whatever to Chinese. They are as far apart as English and Japanese. However, many Chinese words have entered into the Japanese, just as Norman French words came into English.

Chinese literature was introduced into Japan about 300 A.D. and the Japanese adopted the Chinese system of writ- ing. In Chinese, the written characters are symbols of ideas, or of things. In other words, the Chinese and Japanese use ideograms, or picture-words, to express ideas or concepts. There are many thousands of these ideograms, and in order to read a newspaper or non-technical book, the student must learn three or four thousand ideograms, at least. To read literature, he will need six or seven thousand ideograms. Now Japanese is an inflected language and phonetic symbols are necessary to indicate the inflections. Hence at a very early date the Japanese began to use some ideograms phonetically. These few phonetic characters are simplified forms of the ideograms from which they evolved and are known as kana. These kana characters, although phonetic, are not alphabetic, but syllabic. That is, each kana character represents a syllable, such as TU, ju, mu, fu, etc. There are two sets of these kana

JAPANESE

527

characters, one known as the kata-kana and the other as the hira-gana. Each set has 48 syllabic characters in common use. The /cat a- If ana is written in a square style and is now used chiefly in formal documents, in transliterating foreign names and in writing telegrams. The hira-gana syllabary is written cursively and is more complicated than the kata-kana, but is nevertheless the syllabary most commonly used by the Japanese.

The hira-gana syllabary is used in two ways. First, it serves to express the inflections, that is, the changing portions of Japanese parts of speech, such as verb endings. Again, in popular publications., such as newspapers and magazines, it is printed alongside of and to the right of the Chinese ideo- grams, in order to aid the less educated reader in making out the pronunciation of the Chinese ideogram. An example may make this clearer.

As we have just said, the Chinese ideogram is the symbol of an idea, a word picture. For example, the character ){\ means river. It was originally the picture of a river, the currents of water being pictured thus ({X* . Now the ideogram is read as "river" in English and as hawa in Japanese. There is no way of indicating the genitive case, "of the river" (kawa no in Jap.) or the accusative case (kawa wo in Jap.). Hence we use the hira-gana syllabic character O to denote "of* (no in Jap.) and " ^ " to denote wo the Japanese sign of the accusative case or direct object. Thus kawa no Jft Q ; kawa wo)\\\^» In modern, written Japanese, these hira-gana characters are found interspersed among the Chinese ideograms in order to indicate particles, modifiers and syntactical termina- tions.

As we have indicated above, the hira-gana may also be printed to the immediate right of a more difficult Chinese ideogram in order to indicate its correct pronunciation. Thus, we may take this same ideogram /If , although it is not a difficult one, and write the hira-gana to the right of it,/l| JJ : f» , ka and ft wa, both spelling out the word kawa.

river.

528 JAPANESE

In writing Japanese, the ideograms and accompanying kana symbols begin at the upper right-hand corner and run down the page. The next vertical line of writing begins to the left of the first line and runs down, and so on. Japanese is thus read from top to bottom, and from right to left.

Japanese can of course be written in the Latin alphabet. The Japanese themselves have been interested in giving up the difficult and cumbersome Chinese characters and in adopting the Latin alphabet of the west. A society known as the Romajikwai (Roman Letter Society) was organized in 1885 to encourage the use of our alphabet in the place of the Chinese characters. However, the influence of custom and history have so far proved too strong, and Japan is still far from accepting our alphabet. The military defeat of Japan may well hasten the movement, however.

JAPANESE

529

SAMPLE OF PRINTED JAPANESE

(in Kana-Majiri characters: mixed Chinese characters and Hiragana)

• « * * A a ;•»

** °ft° ''tt'K* L

*- fcl *: *>** x ' <>i

is. J&** L /c Kl*1"^

~rr>^/L,' ^ •-«.•••«

*?*'* ®u

* ^ -fc±*l -y.to

tt D 15

©V *) L ..AVfcs

o 3tj^ fsksis *

e?± «» -^ ta^-

"i ~j c flc^

/C. CD £,'

.V " lit, 12 /^-*- »

•f^tc -tf -4 L tr

^i»H: -f /z -C

t i)'1*^ 3rfc^ 8 L t a?f

»»

-< 4 tt ^:

•c L ^ -5 5> *

-*£ ~ I ». AJL.tt JL,

"j H yj^ JjC^ 30* ^

?.. ^, ^9*^1 ^.

£ (C ^ 5&* r. -C

U -t: ° irt t W*

tt ^ai

»t"ttg

tt

(Courtesy of American Bible Society)

550 JAPANESE

THE JAPANESE SYLLABARIES

Hiragana Katakana Hiragana Katakana

I, Yi i-

Ro r>

Ha li

Ni l~-

Ho li He

To =•'

Chi t}

Ri *>

Nu «

Ru *

Wo fr

Wa r,

Ka „,

Y' 1

Ta ,,

Re ft,

So 3

Tsu -j

Ne 4j

Na li

Ra f, ? Je * *

Mu if A SU -$- y,

U, wu 5

This arrangement of the Japanese syllabaries is the work of a ninth-century Buddhist priest, and spells out a complete poem on the frailty of human affairs.

In the Hiragana syllabary, no distinction in common usage is made between syllables beginning with k and those beginning with g, so that the symbols given above for ka, ke, ki, ko, ku

J	Wi	&
0	No	to
^ v	0	ft
.=.	Ku	<
Tfc	Ya
-,	Ma	i
},	Ke	ft
^	Fu	&
y	Ko	-
^	E, Ye	h
1*	Te	~C
	A	fo
7	Sa	^
	Ki
^	Yu	^
3	Me	wp
*	Mi	^^
IX	Shi	-^
y	We	L
^	Hi	^
*	Mo	?
r	Se
y		*ti
A	Su	-r
*	N	/i

JAPANESE

may represent also the sounds ga, ge, gi, go, gu; the same lack of distinction appears between the s and the z-sounds, the t and the {/-sounds, the h9 b and p-sounds, and between the syllables chi and ji, ski and zhi, tsu and dzu, fu, bu and pu.

The Katakana syllabary distinguishes between unvoiced and voiced consonants by placing a double stroke, somewhat like our ", above and to the right of the character if this is meant to designate a voiced consonant, so that the symbols for ka, ke, ki, ko, ku, when accompanied by this double stroke, represent ga> ge> gi> g°> gu> etc« Furthermore, in the Katakana, the symbols for ha, he, hi, ho, fu, if accompanied by a small circle above and to the right, stand for pa, pe, pi, po, pu, respectively. With a double stroke instead of a circle, the h and /-symbols represent 6-sounds.

PRONUNCIATION.

Vowel Sounds. a = cot; a = far; e = met; e (ei) =± eight; i = big (short i has a feeble sound, and tends to disappear,

most frequently within the word, seldom at the end of the

word; Yamashita is pronounced Yamash'ta); I (ii) = machine; o = obey; 6 = holy; u = push (short u has a feeble sound, and tends to disappear,

both within and at the end of a word (kusa, "grass", pron.

k'sa; desu, pron. des* ; it does not disappear, however, in

•ru verb-endings) ; u = rude.

Distinguish carefully between short and long vowels; many words are alike, save for long or short vowels (compare: tori, "bird"; tori, "street"; toki, "time"; toki" registration"; yuki, "snow"; yuki, "courage"). The most frequently recurring long vowels are 6 and u. Pronounce the former like holy in an

JAPANESE

exclamation (Holy Jiminy!); the latter like food, likewise in an exclamation (We want food!).

If two vowels appear together, pronounce them separately (ataeru, "to give", pron. a-ta-e-ru).

Consonant Sounds.

d = debt;

f = /ood, produced, however, by bringing the lower lip against

the upper lip, not against the upper teeth, as in English; g = gave; often sing h=he; this sound in the Tokyo dialect approaches she (hito,

"human being", pron. shito or sh'to) ; j =/oy; k = keep ; m — man;

n = raame; before g, — finger; before k, = banker; p = pen; r = British very; the trill is so slight that the listener is often

in doubt whether the sound is r or 1; s = see; t = ta\e; w = wave; y — yard ; z = zeal; ch = church; sh = shore; ts = its; dz — adze.

Double consonants (kk, nn, pp, mm, ss, ssh, tch, tt, tts) are fully pronounced.

In compound words, the first consonant of the second half of the compound often undergoes a change, as follows:

h, f become b (sakuro, "cherry", plus "hana, "blossom'*, to sakurabana, "cherry blossom"; te, "hand", plus fukuro, "bag", to tebukuro, "glove") ;

JAPANESE 555

k becomes g (ko9 "small", plus katana, "sword", to

kogatana, "pen-knife"); s, ts become z (kan, "can", plus tsume "packed", to

kanzume, "canned goods");

sh, ch become j (chika-chika, "soon-soon", to chikajika); t becomes d (Benten plus tori, "street", to Bentenddri,

Benten Street").

Accent.

The strong tonic accent of English is not found in Japanese, all the syllables of a word being stressed about equally, thus not "Yokohama", as in English, but Yokohama, every syllable having equal stress.

Long vowels and vowels before double consonants tend to be stressed, thus; (jochu "maidservant" (the u being long is emphasized); jodan "joke" (the 6 being long is slightly stressed) ; mdppira "earnestly" (the syllable ma is stressed as it precedes a double consonant).

When the vowels i or u, which are by nature weak, drop out entirely from a word, in pronunciation, which very fre- quently happens, the preceding or following vowel is stressed, in compensation for the lost vowel; thus, General Yamashita's name is pronounced Yamdshta, (not Yamashita) the preceding a being stressed in compensation for the lost i. Taksdn "much" for takusan, the san being stressed in compensation for lost u.

Within the sentence, case particles (postpositions) are especially stressed: Watakushi wd hon wo motte imasu, I have a book.

GRAMMATICAL SURVEY

1. — Nouns. a) — Number.

The Japanese mind is not so much interested in number or quantity as ours; consequently the Japanese seldom make a distinction between singular and plural. Hana means "flower"

JAPANESE

or "flowers". If a distinction must be made, it is done, especial- ly in the case of human beings, by adding domo, tachi or gata to the word, by repeating the noun, or by adding an auxiliary numeral to the noun, thus: ko, child; kodomo, children; watakushi, I; watakushidomo, we; donna, master; dannagata, masters; hito, man, hitobito, people, hito sannin, three persons.

b) — Gender.

There is no grammatical gender in Japanese, such as is found in French and German. The gender of Japanese words is determined by sex, as in English. Sex can be distinguished in three ways: by a sex prefix; by prefixing another word indicating gender; by using a quite different word, as in English.

The masculine prefix is o- (sometimes on-) thus:

ushi, "cow** o-ushi, "bull"

inu, "dog" o-inu, "male dog**

tori, "bird** ondori, "cock"

The female prefix is me- (sometimes men-) thus: tori, "bird** mendori, "hen**

inu, "dog** me-inu, "bitch"

One may prefix the word otoko no, "male" (lit., man-of), or onna no, "female" (lit. woman-of): ko, "child"; otoko no ko, "boy"; onna no ko, "girl**.

Generally a different word is used as in English; thus:

otoko, "man" onna, "woman**

musuko, "son" musume, "daughter**

chichi, "father** haha, "mother**

oji, "uncle" oba, "aunt**

shinshi, "gentleman** shukujo, "lady**

otto, "husband** tsuma, "wife**

c) — Articles.

The Japanese language has neither a definite nor an in- definite article. Hon means "the book**, "a book*', "book", "the books", "books**.

JAPANESE 535

d) — Case.

Japanese may be said to have five "cases".1 These are not indicated by real declensional endings, but by particles placed after the noun. They are as follows: absolute: niwa wa, "the garden", "gardens" nominative: niwa ga, "garden", "gardens" (as subject of verb) genitive: niwa no, "of garden", "of gardens" dative: niwa ni, "to", "for garden", "gardens" accusative: niwa o, (often written wo, but always pronounced o), "garden", "gardens" (object of a verb)

The case particles call for some comment. Wa and ga both may be used after the subject of a verb. Wa is frequently used when the verb is negative, ga when it is affirmative: hon ga arimasu, there are books, (literally, books there-are) ; hon wa arimasen, there are no books (literally, books there- are-not) .

Wa emphasizes the predicate and ga emphasizes the sub- ject. Doko e ikimasu ka?, where are you going? (doko = "where"; G = "to"; ikimasu = "go"; ka is an interrogative particle, the sign of a question; note that "you" is left to the hearer's understanding). Watakushi wa Yokohama e iku, I am going to Yokohama, not to some other city. That is, the particle wa after watakushi emphasizes the predicate "to Yoko- hama". Dare ga ikimasu ka?, who is going? (dare = "who"). Watakushi ga iku, I am going. That is, I, not some one else, am going.

Wa may also be used when the Japanese wish to isolate the subject and then ask a question about it. Ano hito wa, dare desu ka? As for that man, who is he? (cf. French, cet homme- la, qui est-il?).

No is the usual particle used to express possession, and

1. The word "case" is not scientifically used, since Japanese could be said to have as many "cases" as there are separate postpositions, and these are numerous; it is employed merely as a practical make- shift, designed to clarify unfamiliar Japanese syntax through familiar Indo-European terminology.

536 JAPANESE

as such is often attached to a proper noun or a pronoun: Brown San no, Mr. Brown's (San, "Mr.") ; dannasan no, "of the master", "master's"; watakushi no, "my", "mine" (literal- ly, "of me")

Nt is the case particle used to indicate the indirect object: Hon wo Suzuki san ni yarimasu, I give the book to Mr. Suzuki. (hon = "book"; yarimasu = "give")

The dative case may denote possession. Watakushi ni oji ga arimasu, I have an uncle (literally, to me uncle there-is; cf. French, ce livre est a moi).

With verbs of existence it denotes the locative. Tokyo ni takusan arimasu, there are many at Tokyo. Tsukue no ue ni hon ga takusan arimasu, there are many books on the top of the table (ue = "top"; tsukue = "table"; hon = "books"; takusan = "many")

Some Japanese verbs govern the indirect object, while these same verbs in English would call for some other con- struction, thus — Itsu Tanaka San ni aimashita ka?, when did you meet Mr. Tanaka? (itsu = "when"; aimashita = past of verb au). li or I (long i) o tenki ni narimasu, the weather is turning fine (ii = "fine"; o = "honorable"; tenki = "weather"; narimasu = "is becoming").

2. — Personal Pronouns.

There are no real personal pronouns in Japanese, but certain expressions may be used as pronouns. Even these pro- nominal expressions are but little used, since Japanese is an impersonal language. The meaning is made clear by the use of humble or honorific words, or by the context. Expressions which are used as personal pronouns are as follows:

Watakushi or watashi = I

Anata = you (singular)

Ano o kata (that honorable person); ano hito (that person) ; ano onna (that woman) ; ano otoko (that man) may all be used for "he" or "she".

Are = it, of a thing far off.

JAPANESE

Watakushi-domo or watashi-domo = we

Anata-gata = you (plural)

Ano hito-tachi (of persons) ; are (of things) = they.

3. — Postpositions.

Japanese has no prepositions, but instead employs post- positions, that is, it uses particles placed AFTER the noun or pronoun. In speaking, these postpositions are commonly stressed or accentuated. Some common postpositions are — De — denotes means, instrument, measure, value, rime.

yubin de, by post (literally, mail by).

takushi de, by taxi

pen de kaku, to write with a pen.

ddsu de kau, to buy by the dozen (ddsu • dozen)

go sen de katta, I bought it for five cents: (go = "five"; sen = "cents"; katta = past tense of kau, to buy)

ni fun de hachi ji, two minutes to eight (ni = "two"; fun = "minute"; hachi = "eight", fi = "hour" or "o'clock"; hence, literally, two minute by eight o'clock). Kara — denotes "from", "after", and, with the gerund of the verb, "since".

kuni kara, from home

sore kara, after that

kore kara, after this, henceforth

Yokohama kara, from Yokohama

Tokyo e kite kara, since coming to Tokyo (kite = "com- ing", gerund of verb kuru, to come) E — denotes "to", "towards", "into"

hoteru e ikimasu, I am going to the hotel.

doko e ikimasu ka, where are you going? (literally "where to", "whither") Made — denotes "up to", "as far as".

Yokohama kara Tokyo made, from Yokohama to Tokyo.

doyobi made, till Saturday

suteishon made, as far as the station To — denotes, among other things, "with", "in company with",

ano hito to sampo ni ikimasu, I am going for a walk with

18

JAPANESE

that per&on (sampo = "walk"; ano — "that"; to = "with",

"in the company of; ni — "for" or "on")

Ni — denotes "in", "into", "for" of purpose or end.

uchi ni, in the house, at home

sampo ni, for a walk

Chicago ni, in or at Chicago. Cf. Chicago e, to or into Chicago.

Eigo ni yakusuru, to translate into English.

Kono mono wa nani ni tsukaimasu ka?9 what do you use this thing for? (Literally, as for this thing, what for do you use it? Mono = thing; nani = what; ni = for; tsukaimasu = use)

4. — Verbs*

The Japanese verb is completely "impersonal". It does not indicate person or number, but only tense and mood; it does, however, include the notion of familiarity, politeness, or extreme (honorific) politeness. A so-called present indicative, such as kakimasu, may be translated by "I, you, he, she, we, they write or writes" (the real meaning is "there is an action of writing going on"). It is possible to "personalize" it by using a subject pronoun (watakushi wa kakimasu, lit. "so far as I am concerned, there is a writing") ; but subject pronouns are seldom employed, it being left to the hearer or reader to figure out who does the writing from the trend of the conversation or the context. On the other hand, the use of the form kakimasu implies a certain amount of politeness toward the hearer; the form kaku has precisely the same meaning as kakimasu, but implies familiarity. The honorific form is seldom used (at least by foreigners), and often consists of an entirely different verb (taberu, "to eat'*, familiar; tabemasu, "to eat", polite; meshiagaru, "to eat", honorific). The familiar form would

2. The Japanese verb system is exceedingly intricate, and an extensive treatment is outside the scope of this chapter. Only those verbal forms are presented which are essential to an elementary and practical knowledge of the language.

JAPANESE 5)9

seldom be used by a foreigner, save for the fact that it normally appears in dependent clauses, even though the verb of the main clause is polite. There is, no verb form in Japanese that really corresponds to our infinitive, although for convenience's sake we shall occasionally translate the familiar present as an English infinitive.

1. — Present Tense (familiar form).

The familiar present form ends in -u or -ru. Verbs ending in -u have stems ending in consonants: yob-u, calls (stem yob); ka(f)~u3, buys; kak-u, writes; nar-u, becomes; hanas-u, speaks; nutfs-u*, waits. Most, but not all, present tense forms ending in -eru and -iru have vowel stems, the e or the i of the endings -era, -iru, forming the vowel-stem: mi-ru, sees; de-ru, goes out; shirase-ni, informs. Since these forms indicate tense only, not person, they may refer to any person: hanasu, I, you, he, she, we, they, speaks or speak.

This familiar form is used only between members of a family or between close friends. It is given here because this familiar form of the present is the one that will always be used in a subordinate clause, even in polite conversation.

2. — Present Indicative (polite, but not honorific).

This is formed by adding -imasu to the stem: kak-imasu, I, you, we, they, write; he, she writes (in polite, but not honor- ific speech). If subject pronouns are really needed, they may be used, with wa or ga: watakushi wa kakimasu^ I write; anata wa kakimasu, you (sg.) write; ano hito wa kakimasu, he writes; watakushi -domo wa kakimasu, we write; anata -gat a wa kakimasu, you (pi.) write; ano hito-tachi wa kakimasu, they write. It must again be stressed, however, that this is not the customary practice in Japanese. If the verb-stem ends in a vowel, only -masu is added: mi-masu, I, you, etc. see. If the

3. The final •/ of verb stems is no longer pronounced, and is gener- ally omitted in writing.

4. The real stem is mat-; t before u is regularly changed to ts.

JAPANESE

stem of the verb ends in t-9 this is changed to ch- before the i of •imasu: matsu, to wait (stem mat-), present mach-imasu. If the stem of the verb ends in s-9 this is changed to sh- before the i of -imasu: hanasu, to speak (stem hanas-), present hanash-

imasu?

3. — Past Indicative (polite, but not honorific).

This is formed by adding -imashita (-mashita if the stem ends in a vowel): kaku, to write; past kak-imashita; ka(f)u, to buy; past ka-imashita; yob-imashita, called; nar-imashita, became; hanash-imashita, spoke; mach-imashita, waited; mi-mashita, saw; de-mashita, went out.

4. — Future.

There is no true future tense in Japanese, the present being used with a future meaning as well: kakimasu., I, you, etc. write or will write.

A "future of probability" is formed by adding desho to the familiar present: kaku deshd, I, you, etc. will probably write; ashita hon wo kau desho, tomorrow he will probably buy the book (books).

Another future of probability may be formed by adding -d (-yd if the stem ends in a vowel) to the stem: kak-d, will probably write; ka-o9 will probably buy; mi-yo, will probably see.

5. — Conditional.

A "present conditional" is formed by adding -imasureba (-masureba if the stem ends in a vowel), or -eba (~reba if the stem ends in a vowel). It is used with the meaning of "if or "when" in the dependent clause, but never in the main clause: watakushi ga kakimasureba (kakeba), if (when) I write (shall write); ano hito-tachi ga hanashimasureba (hanaseba), if

5. These changes of t to ch and s to sh before i are general, and apply to all tenses and, indeed, to all words. The same is true of the change of / to ts before u. See KaJakana, p. 530-531.

JAPANESE

(when) they speak (will speak). The main clause in these cases takes whatever tense is called for by the meaning: Tokyo e ikimasureba, hoteru ni tomaru, if (when) I go to Tokyo, I shall put up at a hotel (tomaru is the familiar present-future, the conversation here being between intimate friends; note the complete lack of subject pronouns; the sentence could mean not only "I", but also "you", "he", "she", "we", "they'); Tdkyo e ikimasureba (ikeba), o miyage wo motte kitte kudasai, when you go to Tokyo, please bring me a present (motte kitte kudasai being the polite imperative of motte kuru, "to bring'*, the subject here is obviously "you").

A "past conditional" is formed by adding -imashitara (-mashitara if the verb-stem ends in a vowel), and conveys the meaning of "if or "when" with reference to the past: anata ga kaimashitara, when you bought; anata ga machimashitara, when (if) you waited. The past indicative usually appears in the main clause.

A more specific "if may be formed by using the present or past with moshi before the verb and nara after it: moshi watakushi ga kakimasu nara, if I write, were I to write; moshi anata ga ikimashita nara, if you went, if you had gone.

6. — Participle.

A familiar present participle is formed by adding -tie (•te if the verb-stem ends in a vowel): hanasu, to speak; hanash-ite, speaking; miru, to see; mi-te, seeing. This familiar participle is of importance in polite conversation because it has two important polite uses: 1. with the present and past of various verbs meaning "to be", to form progressive present and past tenses: hanashite orimam (oru, to be), am, is, are speak- ing; mite orimashita, was, were seeing; 2. with kudasai, "please", to form a polite imperative: hanashite kudasai, please speak (lit. speaking, please).6

6. The following contractions take place in the formation of the participle :

If the verb-stem ends in (/)-, r- or t-, -tte replaces -tie, -rite, -chite:

JAPANESE

7. — Imperative.

The ordinary way to express a polite command is by using the familiar participle with kudasai, "please", as described above: yonde kudasai, please call (lit. calling, please); katte kudasai, please buy (buying, please).

"Let us" is expressed by adding -imasho (-masho if the verb-stem ends in a vowel) : yob-imashd, let us call; ka~imash69 let us buy; kak-imasho, let us write. With the addition of the interrogative particle ka, this form serves also as a first person future interrogative, singular or plural: yobimasho ka?, shall I (we) call?; ikimashd ka?, shall I (we) go?

8. — Conjugation with suru, "to do".

Chinese words, which have entered the Japanese language from the fifth century on, are generally conjugated with the irregular verb suru, to do (make), which has the following forms:

Present, shimasu; Past, shimashita; Pres. Cond., shimasureba; Past Cond., shimashitara; Participle, shite.

Kenkyu suru, to study (lit. study to do) ; jodan suru, to jest (lit. joke to make) ; shuzen suru, to repair (lit. repair to make) ; soji suru, to clean: Pres. soji shimasu, I, you, etc. clean; Past soji shimashita, I, you, etc. cleaned; Pres. Cond. soji shimasu- reba, if (when) I, you, etc. clean; Participle, soji shite, clean- ing; Imperative, soji shite kudasai, please clean.

9. — Familiar Forms.

The polite forms so far described are the ones most com- monly used. When used with reference to the first person, they

to buy; katte (for kaite), buying; naru, to become, natte (for narite), becoming; matsu, to wait; matte (for machite), waiting. If the verb-stem ends in &-, -nde replaces -bite: yobu, to call; yonde (for yobite), calling.

If the verb-stem ends in k-, -ite replaces -kite-, kaku, to write; kaite (for kakitc}, writing.

JAPANESE

do not cast honor upon the speaker, but upon the person spoken to.

The familiar form of the verb is used within the family circle or among intimate friends and children, or to inferiors. Its present and past tenses, however, are also used in polite conversation in dependent clauses.

The familiar present has been described (verb-stem plus -u or -ru), while the familiar past is obtained by changing the -e of the participle to -a:

Familiar Present Familiar Past

yobu, to call ka(f)u, to buy kaku, to write naru, to become hanasu, to speak matsu, to wait miru, to see deru, to go out

yobu, call, calls kau, buy, buys kaku, write, writes naru, become, becomes hanasu, speak, speaks matsu, wait, waits miru, see, sees deru, go out, goes out

yonda, called katta, bought kaita, wrote natta, became hanashita, spoke matta, waited mita, saw deta, went out

Outside of their use in familiar conversation, these two familiar tenses are used in polite speech to replace relative clauses. Japanese has no relative pronoun, and no true relative clause. The present or past of the familiar is used instead like an adjective before the antecedent: kind mita hito, the man I saw yesterday (lit. yesterday saw man; compare Eng. "the shipwrecked man" for "the man who was shipwrecked") ; kaita tegami, the letter I (you, he, etc.) wrote (lit. wrote letter).7

Familiar forms are used whenever the verb is subordinate to the principal verb, especially in temporal or causal clauses: ii o tenki ni natta kara, ikimasho, since the weather has turned fine, let us go (ii, fine; o, honorable; tenki, weather; ni natta, familiar past of ni naru, to become; kara, since (conjunction) ; ikimasho, let us go, from iku, to go. See Imperative, p. 542) ;

7. This use of the past familiar could perhaps be compared to that oi a past participle used as an adjective, and the expressions above be translated as "the yesterday seen man", "the written letter".

JAPANESE

hon wo katta kara, since I (you, etc.) bought the book; chichi ga matte imasu kara, since my father is waiting; sore ga okotta toki, when that happened (sore ga, that, demonstrative pronoun in the nominative case; okotta, familiar past of okoru, to happen; toki, when, conjunction of time).

10. — The verb "to be".

There are three verbs meaning "to be": aru, oru, iru. The latter two are generally used when there is an animate subject (person or animal), aru when the subject is inanimate. The stem of iru is i-, that of oru is or-; both verbs are used with the familiar participle to form a progressive present and past: yonde imasu, I (you, etc.) am calling (yonde, fam. part, of yobu; imasu, present of iru) ; matte imashita, I (you, etc.) was waiting (matte, fam. part, of matsu; imashita, past of iru) ; katte orimasu, I (you, etc.) am writing (kaite, fam. part, of kaku; orimasu9 present of oru) ; hanashite or imashita, I (you, etc.) was speaking (hanashite, fam. part, of hanasu; orimashita, past of oru).

The verb aru, used for inanimate subjects, means "to be" when a predicate noun appears; all predicate nouns used with aru must be followed by the postposition de: kore wa hon de aru, this is a book. The meaning "to have" is implied when only the subject appears, without a predicate noun: pen ga aru, I (you, etc.) have a pen (pens) ; the literal meaning, however, is "there is (are) a pen (pens)"; tsukue no ue ni pen ga aru, there is (are) a pen (pens) on top of the table (lit. table-of top-on pen is; compare the use of French avoir in il y a une plume sur la table) . In the sense of "to have", aru may.be used even with animate subjects: I have many friends, tomodachi ga takusan arimasu; I have children, kodomo ga arimasu.

The postposition de which must accompany predicate nouns contracts with some of the forms of aru. The conjugation of aru, with and without a preceding de, is:

JAPANESE

Polite Pres. Familiar Pres.

Polite Past Familiar Past

Probable Future Probable Past Present Cond. Past Cond. Participle

arimasu desu is, are

aru da is, are

(which is, are)

arimashita deshita was, were

atta datta was, were

(which was, were) arimashd desho will probably

be arimashita desho deshita desho probably was,

were desureba

arimasureba

arimashitara deshitara

atte

de (datte)

if (when) is, are, will be

if (when) was, were

being

11. — Interrogative.

A question is indicated by the use of ka following the verb: hon ga arimasu ka?, are there books?; doko desu ka?, where is it?; ikimasu ka?, are you going?

Ne instead of ka is used if an affirmative answer is ex- pected (cf. English "isn't it?", "aren't you?", or French n'est- ce pas?) : ii o tenki, desu ne?, lovely weather, isn't it?

12. — Negative.

All Japanese verbs have special negative forms. The negative forms of aru, "to be", and de aru, "to be" with a predicate noun, are:

de wa arimasen is, are not de wa nai (which) is,

are not de wa arimasen was, were not

deshita

de wa nakatta (which) was, were not

Polite Pres. arimasen Familiar Pres. nai

Polite Past Fam. Past

18*

arimasen deshita nakatta

546

JAPANESE

Probable Fut. (Polite) Probable Past Present Cond.

nai desho arimasen desho nakatta desho nakereba

de wa nai desho

probably won't be

de wa

arimasumai de wa nakatta

desho de (wa) nake-

reba de (wa) nakat-

tara de (wa) nakute

The negative of the polite forms of other verbs is formed by adding the following suffixes to the stem (with i if the stem ends in a consonant, without i if the stem ends in a vowel) :

Past Cond.

nakattara

Participle nakute

probably was,

were not if (when) is

(are) not if (when) was

(were) not not being

Present

Past

Probable Future

Probable Past

-(£) masen -(i)masen deshita •(i) masen desho * •(i) masen deshitaro

Yobimasen, does not call; machimasen deshita, did not wait; kakimasen desho, probably will not write; mimasen, does not see.

The negative of the familiar forms of these verbs is made by adding the familiar negative forms of aru, "to be", given above, with a prefixed a, if the stem ends in a consonant, to the stem of the verb: yob-a-nai, is (are) not calling; kak-a-nai, does (do) not write; mi-nai, does (do) not see; yob-a-nakatta, did not call; kak-a-nakatta, did not write; mi-nakatta, did not see.

The familiar negative participle is the familiar present negative plus de (the participle of de aru) : yob-a-nai de, not calling. Another familiar negative participle is formed by adding -(a) nakute to the stem: yob-a-nakute.

13. — Passive.

The suffix -areru (-rareru if the stem ends in a vowel) forms the passive: korosu> to kill; korosareru, to be killed;

JAPANESE 54 J

miru, to see; mirareru, to be seen. These passive forms are then conjugated throughout: taberu, to eat; taberareru, to be eaten, it is eaten \miraremashita, was (were) seen. The passive is not so frequently used in Japanese as in English.

14. — Desiderative.

The suffix -itai (-tai for verbs whose stem ends in a vowel) denotes a wish, particularly of the first person: kakitai, I want to write; tegami wo kakitai, I want to write a letter; kaitai, I want to buy; mitai, I want to see. For the negative forms, change -(i)tai to -(i)taku nai.

15. — Honorifics.

Some nouns and verbs are humble or plain in themselves, while others are honorific. In speaking of your own (and therefore humble) mother, you would use the word haha, but in speaking of your friend's (and therefore honorable) mother, you would use okdsama.

Humble Honorific8

father chichi otosama

mother haha okdsama

husband shujin dannasan

wife kanai okusan

son segare, musuko musukosan

daughter musume ojdsan

In like manner, some verbs are honorific, such as meshiagaru for the usual taberu, to eat; itadaku, to receive (from honorable you), for the usual morau. Gozaru is the honorific verb meaning "to be" and takes the place of the usual aru- It is a combination of go9 honorable, and aru, to be. This verb is often preceded by the particle de, as is the case with its more usual form aru, (de aru, desu, etc.) : ikaga de gozaimasu

8. Observe the suffix -son or sama (sir, Mr., Madam, Mrs., Miss) in these words, and compare with Spanish su senor padre , or French madarne votre mere.

$48

JAPANESE

ka?9 how are you? ; bdshi wa doko de gozaimasu ka?, where is your hat? (note that in both these sentences, "you" and "your" are to be inferred from the honorific nature of the verb).

5. — Adjectives.

In Japanese the adjective partakes of the nature of a verb; consequently all true adjectives can be conjugated. This is because the signification of "to be" or "being" is inherent in every adjective form.

Real adjectives end in -ai, -if, -oi and ~ui: takai, expensive; yoroshii (ii, yoi), good; kuroi, black; samui, cold.

These adjectives are used as attributives, just as in Eng- lish: takai uchi, an expensive house; yoi hito, a good person; kuroi hon, a black book.

When used in the predicate with the honorific verb gozaru, "to be", such adjectives take the following forms: tako; yoroshiu; kuro\ samu: samu gozcdmasu, it is cold or it is a cold day; tako gozaimasen, it is not expensive.

True adjectives when used as simple predicates partake of the nature of a verb and can be conjugated. The attributive form of the adjective is the present tense. Thus, kuroi = is black; hana wa shiroi = the flowers are white. Other tenses are formed by adding the following suffixes to the stem of the adjective (when one removes the final -i of a real adjective, one has the stem: shiroi, white; stem shiro; samui, cold; stem samu) :

Tense

Past

Probable Future

Suffix Example -katta takakatta, was expensive -kard takakaro, will probably

be expensive Probable Past -kattaro kurokattaro, was probably

black

Present Cond. -kereba kurokereba, if it is black Past Cond. -kattara yoroshikattara, if it was good

Adverbs are formed from adjectives by adding the ad- verbial suffix -ku to the stem of the adjective:

JAPANESE $49

Adjective Adverb

takai takaku

yoroshii yoroshiku

kuroi kuroku

samui samuku

The negative forms of the adjectival conjugation are made by combining the adverb formed from the adjective with the familiar negative forms of the verb aru, "to be", producing such forms as takaku nai, it is not expensive; shiroku nai, it is not white; yoroshiku nakatta, was not good; samuku nai deshd, it will probably not be cold; kind samuku nakatta, it was not cold yesterday, yesterday was not a cold day.

Many nouns take the suffix na or no to form an adjectival phrase: gin no, of silver; kin no, of gold, golden; ki no9 wooden; kirei na, of beauty, beautiful.

These phrases may be used as attributive adjectives: gin no tokei, a silver watch; kirei na uchi, a beautiful house; ki no hako, a wooden box.

6. — Numerals. a) — Cardinal.

For the first ten numbers there are two sets of cardinal numerals (the short forms, ichi, ni, etc., are originally Chinese, the longer ones, hitotsu, futatsu, etc., are Japanese) :

1 ichi hitotsu 12 ju-ni

2 ni futatsu 20 ni-ju

3 san mitsu 21 ni-ju-ichi

4 shi yotsu 22 ni-ju-ni

5 go itsutsu 30 san-ju

6 roku mutsu 40 shi-ju (yon-ju)

7 shichi nanatsu 50 go-ju

8 hachi yatsu 60 roku-ju

9 ku kokonotsu 70 shichi-ju

10 ju to 100 hyaku

11 ju-ichi 200 nihyaku

550 JAPANESE

300 sambyaku, 2000 ni-sen

600 roppyaku 3000 san-zen

800 happyaku 10,000 ichi-man

1000 se/i 1,000,000 hyaku-man

Japanese has an elaborate set of auxiliary numerals in addition to the cardinal numerals. Most nouns need the first set of cardinals plus the auxiliary numeral. The order is, noun, cardinal numeral, auxiliary numeral. There are many auxiliary numerals, of which a few of the most common are given here:

Hon, for round things, such as trees, cigars, pens:

\4ppon; 2-nihon; 3-sambon; 4,-shihon; 5-gohon; 6-roppon;

7-shichihon; 8-hachihon; 9-kyuhon; IQ-jippon, etc. Hamaki

sambon = three cigars; pen ippon = one pen. Mai9 for flat things such as letters, tickets, rugs, etc.:

\-ichimai; 2-nimai; 3-sammai, etc. Kippu nimai = two

tickets. Nin, for persons: 1-htiori; 2-futari; 3-sannin; 4>-yottari;

5-gonin; 6-rokunin; 1-shichinin, etc. Hito gonin = five

men or persons. Hiki, for animals, except birds: 1-ippiki; 2-nihiki; 3-sambiki;

4i-shihiki; 5-gohiki; 6-roppiki; 7-shichihiki, etc. Inu sam-

biki = three dogs. JFfl, for birds: l-ichiwa; 2-niwa; 3-samba; 4>-shiwa; 5~gowa,

etc. Tori niwa = two birds. Soku, for pairs of shoes, boots, socks, etc.: 1-issoku; 2-nisoku;

3-sanzoku; 4rshisoku; 5-gosoku, etc. Kutsu sanzoku =

three pairs of shoes.

Fuku, for sips of tea, coffee, whiffs of tobacco, doses of med- icine, etc.: l-ippuku; 2-nifuku; 3-sambuku; 4s-shifuku;

5-gofuku9 etc. Tabako sambuku = three whiffs of tobacco. Dai, for carriages, rikishas, taxis, automobiles, etc.: l-ichidai;

2-nidai; 3-sandai, etc. Takushi niddi = two taxis; /mri-

kisha ichidai = one jinrikisha.

JAPANESE 55 /

Hai, for cupfuls, glassfuls, etc.: 1-ippai; 2-nihai; 3-sambai;

4rshihai9 etc. Chawan nihai = two tea-cupfuls. Satsu, for books: I-issatsu; 2-nisatsu; 3-sansatsu, etc. Hon

sansatsu — three books.

b) — Ordinal.

Use dai before the Chinese cardinal numeral, or me after the Japanese cardinal numeral: first, dai ichi or hitotsu me; second, dai ni or futatsu me; etc. The cardinals are often used instead of the ordinals.

c) — Fractional.

hambun, a half

sambun no ichi, a third (literally, one of three parts: sam = 3; bun = part; no = of ; ichi = one.) shibun no ichiy a quarter shibun no son, three quarters.

7. — Demonstrative Pronouns

this, kore; that (by you), sore; that (far away), are

Demonstrative Adjectives this, kono; that (by you), sono; that (far away) ano

Interrogative Pronouns who, donata? which, dore?

Interrogative Adjectives what kind of?, donna? which?, dono?

8. — Adverbs of Place

here, koko; there (near you), soko; there (far), asoko where?, doko?9 dochira?

552

JAPANESE

VOCABULARY9

1. World, Elements, Nature, Weather, Time, Directions

world, se/cai

earth, land, tsuchi, riku

air, kuki

water, mizu

fire, hi

light, hikari

sea, umi

sun, taiyo

moon, tsuki

star, hoshi

sky, sora

wind, kaze

weather, tenki

snow, yuki

to snow, yuki ga furu

rain, ame

to rain, ame ga furu

cloud, kumo

cloudy, kumotta

fog, kin

ice, kdri

mud, doro

morning, asa

noon, him

afternoon, gogo

evening, yugata

night, yoru, ban

midnight, yonaka

North, kita

South, minami

East, higashi

West,

time, /'i&an (o'clock, ji) year, lojAi, ne/i (in combination) month, tsuki, gatsu (in combina- tion)

week, shukan

day, hi, nichi (in combination) hour, jikan minute, fun Sunday, nichiyobi Monday, getsuyobi Tuesday, kayobi Wednesday, suiyobi Thursday, mokuyobi Friday, kinyobi Saturday, doyobi January, shogatsu, ichigatsu February, nigatsu March, sangatsu April, shigatsu May, gogatsu June, rokugatsu July, shichigatsu August, hachigatsu September, kugatsu October, jugatsu November, juichigatsu December, junigatsu Spring, ham Summer, natsu Fall, aki Winter, fuyu

9. Most, but not all, verbs ending in -em, -i'ru are vowel-stems, and tall for die shorter endings described on p. 539. In the vocabulary, these vowel-stem verbs are indicated thus: to inform, shirasem (v. s.) ; verbs not thus marked (e. g. to relate, kataru) are consonant-stems, and take the longer endings.

JAPANESE

553

2. Family, Friendship, Love

family, kazoku

husband, shujin (humble) ; go-

shujin (polite) wife, tsuma, kanai (humble) ;

okusama (polite) brother, niisan (elder, polite) sister, nesan (elder, polite) ; your

brother, your sister (polite), go

kyodai father, chichi (fam.) ; otosama

(pol.) mother, ha ha (fam.) ; okasama

(pol.) son, musuko (humble) ; musuko

san (polite) daughter, musume (humble) ;

ojosan (polite) parents, oyatachi uncle, ojisan aunt, obasan grandfather, ojisan grandmother, obasan nephew, oi niece, mei cousin, itoko grandson, mago granddaughter, mago-musume father-in-law, yofu mother-in-law, yobo son-in-law, muko daughter-in-law, yome

3. Speaking Activities

language, kotoba, gen-go, -go (in compounds) ; English lan- guage, eifgo; Japanese lan- guage, nihon-go

to speak, hanasu

to say, yu

to tell, relate, hanasu, kataru

to inform, shiraseru (v. s.)

brother-in-law, gi-kyodai; gi-kci (older) ; gi-tei (younger)

sister-in-law, gi-kyodai; gi-shi (older), gi-mai (younger)

man, otoko

woman, onna

child, kodomo

boy, otoko no ko

girl, onna no ko

sir, Mr., sama, san; Mr. Tanaka* Tanaka san

Madam, Mrs., sama, san; Mrs. Tanaka, Tanaka san no oku- sama.

Miss, young lady, sama, san; Mis* Hanako, Hanako san

friend, tomodachi

maid-servant, jochu

to introduce, shokai sum

to visit, homon suru

love, ai

to love, ai suru

to fall in love with, ai suru

to marry, kekkon suru

sweetheart, koibito

kiss, seppun

to kiss, seppun suru

dear, beloved, sai ai no followed by name of speaker; ai suru followed by name; chan (after name)

to call, yobu

to be called, one's name is, mdshimasu (my name is Suzu- ki, watakushi tva Suzuki to mdshimasu; watakushi no no wa Suzuki desu)

to greet, aisatsu suru

to give a name to, nazukeru (v. s.)

554

JAPANESE

to name, to indicate, nazukeru,

shimesu

to cry, shout, sakebu, donaru to listen to, kiku to hear, kiku to understand, wakaru, ryokai

suru to mean, imi suru

4. Materials

gold, kin

silver, gin

iron, tetsu

steel, hagane

copper, akagane, dd

lead, namari

tin, suzu

oil, sekiyu

gasoline, gasorin, kihatsuyu

coal, sekitan

5. Animals

animal, dobutsu

horse, uma

dog, inu

niule, rafca

cat, ne&o

bird, tori

donkey, roba

monkey, saru

chicken, niwatori, hiyoko

hen, niwatori, men-dori

rooster, niwatori, on-dori

sheep, hitsuji

mouse, nezumi

6. Money, Buying, Selling

money, kane coin, kahei dollar, doru, dara Mtt,

to ask (question), kiite miru

to ask for, motomeru (v. s.)

tazuneru (v. s.) to answer, kotaeru (v. s.), Aen/i

u?o suru

to thank, orei u;o yu, kansha suru to complain, fuhei wo yu, kujo wo

yfi

wood, ki silk, A;mu cotton, wata wool, yomo, ke cloth, fo're, nuno to cut, kiru to dig, Aorw to sew, nuu to mend, naosu

snake, hebi

goat, yagi

bee, hachi

cow, me-ushi

ox, o-ushi

pig, &n*a

insect, mushi

fly, Aai

mosquito, A;a

spider, A;umo

louse, shir ami

flea, norni

bedbug, nankin mushi

(national currency; large), yen (national currency; small), 5en bank, ginko check, kogitte

JAPANESE

555

money order, kawase

to earn, kasegu, mokeru (v. 8.)

to gain, to win, mokeru (v. s.)

eru (v. s.)» uru

to lose, nakusu9 maker u (v. s.) to spend money, kane wo tsuiyasu

(tsukau) to lend, kasu to owe, kari ga aru to pay money, kane wo harau to borrow, kariru (v. s.) to change, exchange, torikaeru

(v. s.)

to give back, kaesu price, nedan expensive, dear, takai cheap, yasui change, tsurisen store, shop, mise piece, kire, kake slice, kire pound, ei-kin, pondo

7. Eating and Drinking

to eat, taberu (v. s.)

breakfast, asa no shokuji, asa no

meshi, asa no han to- eat breakfast, asa no shokuji

wo suru, asa-han wo taberu lunch, hiru no shokuji, hiru-han to eat lunch, hiru no shokuji wo

suru

supper, ban-meshi, yu-han to eat supper, ban-meshi wo

taberu, yu-han wo suru dinner ( in the evening), yu-meshi,

enkai to eat dinner, yu-meshi wo suru

(taberu) meal, shokuji, meshi, han (in

combination) dining-room, shokudo menu, kondate

package, tsutsumi

basket, kago

box, hako

goods, shinamono

to go shopping, kaimono ni ikii

to sell, uru

to buy, kau

to buy (a ticket), kippu wo kau

to rent, hire, yatou9 kariru (v. s.)

to be worth, neuchi ga aru

cost, nedan, genka

to cost, kakaru; suru (it cost $30,

sanju doru kakarimashita, sanju

doru shimashita) to choose, erabu thief, robber, dorobo to steal, nusumu policeman, junsa police, keisatsu honest, shojiki dishonest, fushojiki

waiter, kyujinin, waitress, jokyu

restaurant, ryori-ya

bill, kanjo

to pass something, mawasu (please

pass the bread, pan wo mawa~

shite kudasai tip, kokorozuke, chippu to drink, nomu water, mizu wine, budoshu, sake beer, biru coffee, kohl tea, cha milk, gyunyu bottle, bin spoon, 5a/£ teaspoon, cha-saji knife, naifu fork, joku

JAPANESE

glass, koppu

chop-sticks, hashi

cup (teacup) , chawan

napkin, nafukin

salt, shio

pepper, kosho

plate, dish, sara

bread, pan

butter, bata

roll, chiisai pan

sugar, sato

soup, soppu, suimono, shim

rice, home (raw), gohan, meshi

potatoes, imo, jagaimo

vegetables, yasai

meat, niku

beef, gyuniku

steak, hi j ute hi

chicken, tori

chop, choppu

lamb, ko-hitsuji no niku

veal, koushi no niku

pork, tonniku, buta-niku

sausage, chozume, soseiji

ham, Aomu

bacon, beikon

8. Hygiene and Attire

bath, /ziro

shower, shawa

to bathe, yu ni hairu, furo ni

hairu

to wash, arau

to shave, soru, hige wo soru barber, toko-ya mirror, kagami soap, shabon, sekken razor, kamisori safety razor, anzen-kamisori towel, tenugui comb, kushi brush, burashi scissors, hasami

egg, tamago

fish, sakana

to fry, /urai ni ^ttrw, ogeru

fried, a6ura Je agera, /uroi sfuta

cooked, ryori shita

boiled, yudeta

broiled, yaita

roasted, roast, yaita, rosu

baked, yaita

sauce, sdsu

salad, sarada

cheese, chizu, kanraku

fruit, kudamono

apple, ringo

pear, nashi

grapes, budo

peach, momo

strawberries, ichigo

walnuts, kurumi

orange, mikan

lemon, remon

juice, shiru, tsuyu

cherries, sakurambd

dessert, dezdto

pastry, seiyo-gashi

cake, hashi

to wear (a hat), kaburu

to wear (a coat), kiru

to wear (trousers, shoes), haku

to take off, nugu

to change (clothes), kikaeru

(v. s.)

to put on (a hat), kaburu to put on (a coat), kiru clothes, yofuku (western), ifuku

(Japanese) hat, bos hi

suit, mitsu zoroi no yofuku coat, uwagi vest, chokki trousers, zubon

JAPANESE

557

underwear, sfiitagi

glove, tebukuro

socks, kutsu-shita

stockings, naga-kutsu-shita

shirt, shatsu

collar, kara

tie, nekutai, erikazari

overcoat, gaito

raincoat, amagappa, ame no gaito

pocket, poketto, kakushi

purse, saifu, kane-ire, kin-chaku

handkerchief, hankechi

button, botan

shoe, kutsu

hoot, naga-gutsu

9, Parts of the Body

head, alamo,

forehead, hitai

face, kao

mouth, kuchi

hair, Are, kami

eye, me

ear, mime

tooth, Aa

lip, kuchibiru

nose, Aana

tongue, shita

chin, ago

cheek, fo

mustache, kuchi-hige

beard, hige, ago-hige

neck, kubi

throat, nodo

stomach, i, hara (colloquial)

10. Medical

doctor, isha drug-store, kusuri-ya hospital, by din medicine, kusuri pill, ganyaku

pocket-hook, satsu-ire tie-pin, nekkutai pin pin, pin, tome-bari safety pin, anzen-pin needle, hari parasol, higasa umbrella, komori-gasa watch, kaichu-dokei wrist watch, ude-dokei chain, kusari ring, yubiwa eyeglasses, megane slippers, uwa-gutsu, surippa dressing-gown, dotera bath-robe, yukata kimono, kimono

arm, iide hand, te elbow, hiji wrist, te-kubi finger, yubi nail, yubi no tsume shoulder, kata leg, ashi foot, ashi knee, hiza back, senaka chest, mune ankle, ashi-kubi body, karada blood, chi skin, hifu heart, shinzo bone, Ao/u;

prescription, shohosen bandage, hotai nurse, kangofu, kanbyoj'i ill, 6yoA^' fever, netsu

55*

JAPANESE

illness, bydki

swollen, hareta

wound, kizu, kega

wounded, kizu shita, kega shita

head-ache, zutsu

tooth-ache, ha no itami

cough, $eki

11. Military

war, senso

peace, heiwa

ally, domei-koku (nation),

domei-gun (army) enemy, teki, teki-gun army, guntai danger, kiken

dangerous, abunai, ayaui, kiken-na to win, katsu, short wo eru (v. s.) to surround, kakomu, torimaku to arrest, kdin suru, tsukamaeru

(V. 8.)

to kill, korosu

to escape, to run away, nigeru

(V. 8.)

to lead, michibiku, annai suru

to follow, tsuite kuru, shitagau

fear, O5ore

prison, kangoku, keimusho

prisoner, horyo

comrade, buddy, gun-yu, tornado-

chi, doryo, nakama battle, ikusa, sentd to fight, tatakau, sento suru to take prisoner, toriko ni suru,

horyo ni suru to surrender, kosan suru, kofuku

suru

to retreat, taikyaku suru to capture, bundori suru (booty),

tsukamaeru, (v. s.), hokaku

suru (gun, tank, etc.), senryo

saru (city, fort) to bomb, shell, bakudan wo toka

to cough, seki wo suru, seki ga

deru (v. s.) lame, bikko burn, yakedo pain, kutsu, itami poison, doku

suru, bakugeki suru, hdgeki

suru

sailor, suifu, suihei marines, kaihei warship, gunkan battleship, sento-kan cruiser, jun-yo-kan destroyer, kuchiku-kan convoy, goso escort, keibo weapon, buki rifle, raifuruju machine-gun, kikajiju cannon, taihd ammunition, danyaku provisions, hydro cartridge, jitsudan bullet, dangan belt, obi knapsack, haino soldier, private, heitai, heisotsu corporal, gocho sergeant, gunso lieutenant, sho-i captain, taicho, tai-i, sencho major, shosa colonel, taisa general, taisho officer, shikan company, chutai battalion, daitai regiment, rental troops, heitai brigade, ryodan

JAPANESE

559

division, shidan

reinforcements, enpei, zoentai

fortress, shiro, yogai

sentinel, bampei, b sho

to stand guard, hosho ni tatsu,

shohei ni tatsu guard, mamoru, shugo suru to be on duty, toban de aru sign post, michishirube navy, kaigun spy, kancho, spai help (noun), kyuyen tent, tento

military supplies, gunjuhin map, chizu camp, yaei rope, tsuna flag, hata helmet, kabuto

12. Travel

passport, ryoken

ship, June

steamer, kisen

stateroom, semhitsu

berth, shindai

to travel, ryoko suru

trip, voyage, ryokd, kokai

t6 leave, dekakeru (v. s.), deru

(v. s.), shuppatsu suru to arrive, tsuku to ride (conveyance), noru railroad, tetsudd station, teishajo, suteishon platform, purattohdmu track, senro train, kisha ticket, kippu to buy (a ticket), kippu wo kau

13. Reading and Writing

to read, yomu newspaper, shimbun

bayonet, juken

uniform, gunpuku

airplane, hikoki

bombing plane, bakugeki-ki

pursuit plane, tsuigeki-ki

bomb, bakudan

truck, kamotsu-jidosha

shell, ryudan

tank, tanku9 sensha

to load, (tama wo) soten suru

to fire, shoot, hassha suru

to shoot (military execution),

jusatsu suru fire!, utte! attention!, kiotsuke! forward!, mae e!, susume! halt!, tomare! air raid shelter, bokugo

compartment, kyakusha no shikv-

tta-seki tokubetsu-seki all abord!, ohayaku negaimMU dining-car, shokudo-sha sleeper, shindai-sha custom-house, zeikan car, coach, kyakusha trunk, toranku valise, kaban baggage, nimotsu taxi, takushi porter, akabd bus, basu street-car, densha automobile, jiddsha driver, untenshu to drive, unten suru

magazine, zasshi book, hon, shomotsu

560

JAPANESE

to write, kaku

to translate, honyaku suru

pencil, empitsu

chalk, hakuboku

blackboard, kokuban

ink, inki

pen, pen

fountain pen, mannenhitsu

paper, kami

14. Amusements

to smoke, kitsuen suru, tabako wo

nomu

cigar, hamaki cigarette, maki-tabako tobacco, tabako match, matchi

give me a light, hi wo kudasai theatre, gekijd

movies, katsudo shashin, eiga dance, odori, dansu to dance, odoru

to have a good time, tanoshimu ticket, kippu

15. Town and Country

place, spot, tokoro, basho city, $hi

street, machi, cho (in combina- tion)

harbor, minato block, cho sidewalk, jindo intersection, yotsukado school, gakko church, kyokai

building, tatemono, birujingu cathedral, dai-kaidd corner, kado hotel, hoteru, ryokan office, jimusho river, kawa

writing paper, hakushi, te garni no

kami

envelope, futd letter, tegami post-office, yubin kyoku stamp, kitte letter-box, yubin-bako to mail, yubin wo dasu address, banchi, jusho, atena post-card, hagaki

pleasure, tanoshimi

to play (music), hiku

to play (games), asobu

to sing, utau

song, uta

to take a walk, sampo suru

ball, tama

beach, kaigan

to swim, oyogu

game, yugi, asobi

sand, suna

refreshment, inshoku-motsut chaka

saloon, sakaba, sakaya

picnic, pikunikku, noasobi

bridge, hashi

country, inaka

village, mura

road, doro, michi

mountain, yama

grass, kusa

yard, naka-niwa

hill, oka, ko-yama

lake, mizuumi, ko (in comb.)

forest, wood, hayashi, mori

field, hatake, nohara, hara

flower, hana

tree, ki

rock, stone, iwa, ishi

jungle, miUurin, yabubayashi

JAPANESE

561

16. House

door, to

to open, akeru (v. s.)

to close, shimeru (v. s.)

key, kagi

to go in, hairu

to go out, deru (v. s.), dekakeru

(V. 8.)

house, ie, wc/«

cottage, inaka-ya

hut, A;oya

to live (in), sumu

staircase, kaidan, hashigodan

to go up, noboru, agaru

to go down, kudaru, oriru (v. s.)

room, heya

bed-room, nema, shinshitsu

toilet, benjo

kitchen, daidokoro

table, teiburu, tsukuye

clock, hashira-dokei

alarm-clock, mezamashi-dokei

to get dressed, kimono wo kiru

17. Miscellaneous Nouns

people, hito, hitobito

thing, mono

name, na, namae

luck, un

bad luck, aku-un, fu-un, fu-kd

chair, isu

to be sitting, suwatte iru (v. 8.)

to sit down, kakeru (v. s.), suwaru

to stand, Jateu

wall, kabe

lamp, rampu

light, a&ari

candle, rosoku

closet, oshiire, todana

win do v/, /ncwfo

to rest, yasumu

bed, ^oA;o

pillow, makura

to go to bed, fieru (v. 8.)

to be asleep, neiru (v. s.)

to sleep, nemuru

to wake up, me ga sameru (v. s.j

to get up, okiru (v. s.)

blanket, mofu

sheet, shikiju, shltsu

mattress, maloresu

number, ban, kazu life, inochi, seimei death, 5/ii

work, shigoto, hataraki good luck, ko-un, saiwai

18. Kerfcs — Coming and Going

to come, kuru

to go, iA;u, yuAji*

to be going to, shite iru (I am

going to write, kaku, kako to

shite iru)

to run, hashiru, kakeru (v. 8.) to walk, aruku to go away, tachisaru, itte shimau

to fall, korobu

to stay, remain, tomaru, todomdru

to follow, shitagau

to return, kaeru, modoru

to go back, kaette yuku

to come back, kaette kuru

to arrive, tsuku, tochaku suru

562

JAPANESE

19. Verbs — Looking

to see, miru (v. s.)

to look (at), miru, go ran nasaru

to look for, sagasu

to look, seem, kao wo suru9 mieru

(v. s.) to recognize, mitomeru (v. s.).

20. Verbs — Mental

to make a mistake, machigai wo

suru, machigaeru (v. s.) to hope, nozomu, kibo suru to wait (for), matsu to think (of), omou, kangaeru

(v. s.) to believe, shinjiru (v. s.), shinkd

suru

to like, suku, suki de aru to wish, "(i)tai added to stem of

verb - see p. 547. to want, hossuru, hoshigaru to want (lack), kaku, kaite iru

(v. s.) ; tarinai (negative verb;

money is lacking, he lacks

money, kane ga tarinai) to need, iru (with thing needed

21. Verbs — Miscellaneous

to live, ikiru (to have life; v. s.) ;

ikite ITU

to die, shinu, nakunaru to work, hataraku, shigoto wo

suru to give, ataeru (v. s.), ageru

(v. s.)

to take, toru to begin, hajimeru (v. s.; trans.;

began to write, kaki hajimeta) to begin, hajimaru (intr.) to finish, to end, shimau, owaru

(finished writing, kaki owaita) to continue, keep on, tsuzukeru

mioboeru (v. s.)

to take for, kangaeru (v. s.) , omou to laugh, warau

to smile, hohoemu, nikkori warau to laugh at, make fun of, azawa-

rau, baka ni suru

as subject)

to know (person), shitte iru to know (fact), shiru to know how to, dekiru (v. s.) to remember, oboeru (v. s.) to forget, wasureru (v. s.) to permit, allow, yurusu, saseru to promise, yakusoku suru to forbid, kinzuru to learn, narau to feel like, kanzuru to fear, be afraid, osoreru (v. s.),

kowagaru to be right, tadashii desu, tadashi-

ku aru to be wrong, machigatte iru,

machigai desu

(v. s.; trans.; kept on writing,

kaki tsuzuketa) to continue, tsuzuku (intr.) to help, tetsudau to lose, nakusu to lose, to be beaten, makeru

(v. s.)

to find, mitsukeru (v. s.) to try, yatte miru (v. s.) ; koko-

romiru (v. s.) to leave (something), oku to show, miseru (v. s.) to meet, au to do, suru

JAPANESE

563

to make, koshiraeru (v. Sw)

to be able, can, dekiru (v. s.)

to put, oku

to carry, hakobu, motte iku

to forbid, kinzuru

to understand, rikai sum, tvakaru

to bring, motte kuru

to stop, tomeru (trans.; v. s.)

to stop, tomaru (intrans.)

to cover, kabuseru (v. s.), 6u

to get, obtain, morau, eru (v. s.)

to get, become, naru

to hide, kakureru (intrans.; v. s.)

to hide, kakusu (trans.)

to hold, motsu, tamotsu

22. Adjectives

small, chiisai, chiisana

big, large, okii, okina,

great, idai na, okina

tall, high, takai

short (opp. of tall), low, hikui

heavy, omoi

light (weight), karui

long, nagai

short (opp. of long), mijikai

wide, hiroi

narrow, semai

clean, kirei na

dirty, kitanai

cool, suzushii

cold, samui, tsumetai

warm, atatakai

hot, atsui

damp, shimeppoi

wet, nureta

dry, kawaita

full, ippai

empty,

dark, &wrai

light, bright, clear, akafai, hareta

fat, /a*o«o

thick, atsui

to break, kowasu (trans.) ; kowa-

reru (intr., v. s.) to hurry, isogu (intrans.) to deliver (hand over), todokeru

(V. 8.)

to belong (use possessive form with verb "to be"; kore wa watakushi no desu, it belongs to me)

to have (something) done, suru yd ni natte iru

to lay, deposit, oku

to end, owaru (intrans.)

to end, shimau (trans.)

thin, yaseta (of persons) ; usui

(of flat things) round, marui square, shikakui flat, hiratai, taira na deep, fukai soft, yawarakai hard, katai quick, hayai slow, osoi

ordinary, futsu no, atarimac no comfortable, rdku na, kimochi yoi uncomfortable, kokochi yoku nai,

kimochi warui kind, shinsetsu na right, tadashii wrong, machigatta near, chikai distant, toi right, migi left, hidari

poor, bimbo na, mazushu rich, kane-mochi na, yutakana,

tonda

beautiful, utsukuthii pretty, kirei na

564

JAPANESE

ugly, minikui, iyana sweet, amai bitter, nigai sour, suppai salty, shio-karai young, wakai

old, toshiyori na, toshitotta (per- sons) ; furui (things) new, atarashii good, yoi, ii Letter, motto ii, isso yoi, motto

y°i

best, ichi-ban ii, ichi-ban yoit

mottomo yoi bad, warui

worse, isso warui, motto warui worst, mottomo warui, ichi-ban

warui

fine, "regular", yoi, ii first, hajime no, daiichi no last, owari no, saigo no strong, tsuyoi weak, yowai tired, tsukareta alone, hitori same, onaji true, makoto no false, itsuwari no, uso no easy, yasashii

hard, difficult, muzukashii happy, glad, saiwai na, yoroko-

bashii, ureshU

sad, kanashii

free, jiyu na

silly, baka na

crazy, kichigai no

drunk, yopparatta

polite, teinei na

rude, burei na

pleasant, yukai na, tanoshii

unpleasant, fu yukai na

lonesome, samushii, sabishU

foreign, gaikoku no

friendly, shitashii, yujo aru

hostile, tekii aru

lucky, koun na

unlucky, fuun na

charming, kawaii

afraid, kowai

ready, yoi no dekita

hungry, himojii, kufuku na (to

be hungry, hara ga hetta) thirsty, nodo ga kawaita funny, okashii, kokkei na possible, deki uru, dekiru, kand

na,

impossible, deki nai, fukano na brave, yukan na cowardly, okubyo na, hikyo na noisy, yakamashii, sozoshii quiet, shizuka na living, ikita dead, shinda

23. Colors

white, shiroi black, kuroi red, akai green, midori no blue, aoi

yellow, ki iro no

gray, nezumi iro no, hai iro no

brown, cha iro no

pink, momo iro no

purple, murasaki iro no

JAPANESE

565

24. Nationalities"

American, Beikoku no English, Eikoku no French, Furansu no German, Doitsu no Spanish, Supein no Russian, Roshia no Italian, I tar I no Japanese, Nippon no Chinese, Shina no Dutch, Oranda no Norwegian, Noruwei no Swedish, Sueiden no Finnish, Finrando no Belgian, Berugl no Polish, Porando no Danish, Demmdku no Swiss, Suisu no Portuguese, Porutogaru no Chilean, Chirl no Peruvian, Peru no Yugoslav, Yugdsurabia no

Bulgarian, Burugaria no

Czech, Chekku no

Greek, Girisha no

Turkish, Toruko no

Roumanian, Rumania no

Hungarian, Hangarii no

Austrian, Osutoriya no

Malay, Marei no

Persian, Perusha no

Arabian, Arab, Arabic, Arabiya

no

Jewish, Hebrew, Yudaya no Australian, Goshu no African, Afurika no Canadian, Kanada no Mexican, Mekishiko no Cuban, Kyuba no Brazilian, Buraziru no Argentinian, Arujentina no Puerto Rican, Poruto Riko no Indian (Hindu), Indo no

25. Adverbs and Adverbial Expressions

today, kyo, konnichi yesterday, kind, sakujitsu tomorrow, asu, myonichi day before yesterday, ototoi day after tomorrow, asatte tonight, konban last night, sakuban this morning, kesa in the morning, asa no uchi ni in the afternoon, gogo ni in the evening, yugata ni

in the night, ban ni, yachu ni this afternoon, kyo no gogo tomorrow morning, asu no asa tomorrow afternoon, asu no gogo tomorrow night, asu no ban early, hayaku late, osoku already, mo no longer, mo (followed by neg.

verb, p. 545) yet, still, ima-motte, nao

10. The forms piven, with no, literally mean "of America" "of Eng- land", etc. (Furansu no budoshu, wine of France, French wine). The suffix -koku denotes "country"; for languages, drop -koku, if it appears, and add -go (shina-go, the Chinese language) ; for people, add -/in, "'man": Beikoku- jin, an American; Itarl*jin9 an Italian; if hito is used, retain no: Beikoku no hito.

566

JAPANESE

not yet, mada

now, ima

then, sono-toki

afterwards, atokara

never, kesshite

always, itsu de mo, tsune id

forever, eikyu ni, itsu made mo

soon, sugu ni

often, shiba shiba, tabi tabi

seldom, metta ni, mare ni

not, rial (see negative form of verb, p, 545)

very much, taihen ni, takusan

little, not much, sukoshi, chotto

well, yoku

badly, waruku

better, issd yoku

worse, issd waruku

only, wazuka ni, tada, dake

more, motto

less, issd sukunaku

as - as, he is as tall as I, ono hito wa watakushi to onaji gurai sei ga takai:

literally, that man (ano hito), and (to), I (watakushi), same (onaji), about (gurai), height (sei ga), high are (takai)

as much - as (as many - as) possible, dekiru-dake takusan

how much?, ikura

how many?, ikutsn

how?, donna fu ni shite, do shite

too much, amrnari, osugiru

too many, ammari takusan

really, truly, honto ni

usually, futsu ni, taitei

fast, hayai, hayaku

slowly, osoku, noroku

here, koko ni

there, asoko ni

over (down) there, muko ni

near by, chikaku ni

far away, tdi. toku ni

up (stairs), nikai ni

down (stairs), kaika ni, shita ni

ahead, in front, mae ni, saki ni

behind, in back, ushiro ni, ato ni

forward, zenpo e, mae ni

back, backward, ushiro e, koho e

outside, soto ni

inside, naka ni

opposite, in front, mae ni, han

tai ni

here and there, koko kashi-ko everywhere, dokoni mo where, doko ni also, too, mata, yahari yes, sayd, hai no, iie for lack of, (something) ga noi

node

occasionally, toki doki all day, ichinichi-ju all morning, gozen chu all afternoon, gogo ju* maru han

nichi

all night, yo ju why?, doshite very much, taihen like, no gotoki, no ydna besides, sono hoka ni finally, saigo ni in short, yosuru ni almost, taitei, hotondo gladly, yorokonde certainly (it is so), tashika ni at once, sugu ni, tadachi ni at all, sukoshi mo hardly, hotondo . , . . de nai aloud, fakagoe ni of course, mochiron suddenly, kyu ni, totsw-zen ni perhaps, maybe, tabun. osoraku a little, sukoshi again, mata, futatabi together, issho ni

JAPANESE

567

at least, sukunaku tomo long ago, zutto mae, mukashi again and again, ikudo mo,

26. Conjunctions

and, (between nouns) to

but, ga

if, moshi (also see conditional of

verb, p. 540) or, ha why, naze

because, kara, yue ni before, izen niy mae ni when, toki, sono toko ni than, yori where, doko ni, doko

shiba shiba

from time to time, tokidoki therefore, yue ni, dakara

whither, doko e

until, made

although, tatoe — to iedomo, kere-

domo

unless, de nakereba while, aida ni, uchi ni when, itsu that, to yu koto, to after, ato ni as soon as, ya ina ya, suru to

sugu ni as long as, no aida, kagiri

27. Indefinite Pronouns and Adjectives

such (adj.), so yu yd no, sono

yd na such (pron.), konna mono, sonna

hito

all kinds of, iroiro na everything, nan de mo everyone, dare de mo something, nani ka, aru mono someone, dare ka, aru hito nothing, nani mo (with neg.) no one, dare mo (with neg.) no (adj.), sukoshi mo — nai, nani

mo — nai

some (pron.)", sukoshi, ikuraka neither — nor, — mo — mo dochira-

mo nai (I have neither fish nor

rice, sakana mo kome mo do-

chiramo nai) some (adj.), aru, nani ka all, mina(n), mina no (adj.) other, another, hoka no much, takusan no (adj.) much, takusan (pron.) few (adj.), sukunai, sho-su no many, takusan several, iro-iro no little (not much), sukoshi both, dochi mo, ryoho tomo neither, dochi mo (with neg.) enough, jubun each, every, onoono no, subete no

28. Postpositive particles and Expressions

of, no from, kara out of, kara to, toward, e

on, — no ue ni

over, — no ue ni

above, — no ue ni

for (the sake of) — no tame ni

568

JAPANESE

for (of price), de

until, up to, made

since, kara

toward, — no ho e

between, — no aida ni

among, — no naka ni

near. — no chikaku ni

before, — no mae ni (of place)

after, — no ato ni

opposite, in front of, — no

mukai ni

back of, behind, — no ushiro ni under (neath), below, — no shita

ni

at, de, — no tokoro ni with, de (means) ; issho ni (in

company with)

without, — no soto ni, — nashi ni in, ni

instead of. no kawari ni beside, — no soba ni

at the house of, — no uchi ni

through, — wo toshite; -ju

next to, — no tsugi ni, — no tonari

ni

by means of, — ni yotte, de against, — ni taishite across, — no muko ni in spite of, — ni mo kakawarazu in order to, — no tame ni, — suru

tame ni

about, concerning, — ni tsuite about, round about, — no mawari

ni

around, — no shui ni during, — no aida, -/u because of, on account of. — no

tame ni

by (agent), — ni yotte by (place), — no soba ni by (means), de

29. Special Expressions and Idioms

good morning, ohayd

good day, good afternoon, konnichi wa

good evening, komban wa

good night, oyasumi nasai

good-bye, sayonara

I'll see you later, ato de o me ni kakarimasho

I'll see you tomorrow, mydnichi o me ni kakarimasho

I'll see you tonight, komban o me ni kakarimashd

just now, tadaima

how are you?, ikaga desu ka?

I'm well, watakushiwa jobu desu, genki desu.

I'm (much) better, taihen yoku narimashita

how goes it?, do desu ka?

what time is it?, ima nanji desu ka?

it's six o'clock, roku-ji desu

at six o'clock, roku-ji ni

at about six, roku-ji goro ni

at half past six, roku-ji han ni

at a quarter to six, roku-ji ju-go-fun mae ni

at a quarter past six, roku-ji ju-go-fun sugi ni

JAPANESE

at ten minutes to six, roku-ji jippun mae ni

at ten minutes past six, roku-ji jippun sugi ni

last year, sakunen, kyonen

next year, rainen, myonen

every day, mai-nichi

the whole day, ichi-nichi-ju

please, dozo, kudasai (following participle of verb)

bring me, motte kite kudasai

show me, misete kudasai

thank you, arigato

don't mention it, do itashimashite

will you give me?, kudasaimasu ka?

pardon me, gomen nasai

it doesn't matter, kamaimasen

never mind, kamaimasen

I'm sorry for you, okinodoku desu

I can't help it, watakushi wa do suru koto mo deki masen, shikataga-nai

it's nothing, nan de mo nai

what a pity!, oshii koto desu

it's too bad, oshii koto desu

I'm glad to hear it, sore wa nani yori de gozaimasu

I have to, (neg. present conditional of verb followed by nara-nai)

I must (have to) go, ika nakereba nara-nai

I'm agreeable, shdchi shimashita, y or oshii

where is (are) ?, doko desu ka, doko ni arimasu ka?

where are you going?, doko e yukimasu (or mairimasu) ka?

there is (are), arimasu (of inanimate things), orimasu (of living

things)

there is (are), with noun or pronoun as predicate, ga aru which way (to a place) ?, (place) e iku michi wa dochira desu ka? this1 (that) way (fashion), ko yu yarikata de, ko this direction, kochira e that direction, achira e what can I do for you?, nani ka hoshii (onozomi) desu ka? nani ka

itashimasho ka?

what is it?, do shita no desu ka?, nan desu ka? what is the matter?, nani ga okotta no t*esu ka?, nanigoto desu ka?,

do shita no desu ka? what do you want?, nan no goyo desu ka? what are you talking about?, nani wo hanashite iru (irassharu) no

desu ka? what do you mean?, what does that mean?, sore wa do iu wake

desu ka? 19

570 JAPANESE

how much is it?, ikura desu ka?

anything else?, hoka ni nanika iriyd desu ka?

nothing else, mo nai, mo hoka ni nani mo arimasen

do you speak English?, eigo ga dekimasu ka?, eigo wo hanashimasu ka?

a little, sukoshi dake

do you understand?, wakarimasu ka?

I don't understand, wakarimasen

do you know, shitte imasu ka?

I don't know, shirimasen

I can't, dekimasen

what is your name?, anata wa nan to osshaimasu ka? ; anata no o

namae wa? what do you call this in Japanese?, kore wa nihon-go de nan to

iimasu ka?

I'm an American, watakushi wa Beikoku-jin desu I'm hungry, hara ga hette iru I'm thirsty, nodo ga kawakimashita

I'm sleepy, nemutai, nemuku nari mashita (I want to sleep, nemuritai) I'm warm, watakushi wa aiatakai I'm cold, watakushi wa samui it's warm, atsui, aiatakai it's cold, samui it's windy, kaze ga juiteiru it's sunny, hi ga tetteiru it's fine weather, ii o tenki desu it's bad weather, warui (iyana] o tenki desu it's forbidden, dekimasen no smoking, please, tabako goenryo kudasai luckily, fortunately, un yoku, saiwai ni unfortunately, ainiku, un waruku

is it not so?, don't you?, aren't you?, desu ne?9 desho? not at all, by no means, sukoshi mo (with negative), chitto mo (with

negative)

how old are you?, o toshi wa ikutsu desu ka? I'm eight years old, toshi wa yattsu desu (use second set of numerals:

hitotsu, futatsu, mittsu, etc.) how long have you been here?, dono-gurai nagaku koko ni orimashita

(oide deshita] ka? how long have you been waiting?, dono-gurai nagaku matte imashita

ka?

as soon as possible, dekiru-dake hayaku come here!, koko e oide nasai come in!, o hairi nasai

JAPANESE 57/

look!, goran nasai

look out!, abunai!

for heaven's sake!, sore wa taihen da!

what is the matter with you?, do shita no desu ka?

how do you say - in Japanese?, . . . .nihon-go de nan to iimasu ka?

gangway!, by your leave!, o doki nasai! , gomen nasai! dotie kudasai

as you please, anata no ii yd ni, gojiyu ni

listen!, look here!, say!, ano ne!, chotto!

hello! (at telephone), moshi-moshi

just a second!, chotto matte kure (kudasai)

to the right, migi e

to the left, hidari e

straight ahead, massugu ni

what do you mean by this?, kore wa do iu wake desu ka?

speak (more) slowly, dozo yukkuri hanashite kudasai

just right, chodo yoi

here is (are) , koko ni — aru

there is (are), asoko ni — aru

no admittance!, iru bekarazu!

notice!, chui

nonsense!, baka na, detarame

what else?, sore kara, sono hoka

glad to meet you, o meni kakarete saiwai (ureshii) desu

stop!, tomare!, mate!

572

JAPANESE

SAMPLE JAPANESE SENTENCES AND PHRASES ILLUSTRATING THE STRUCTURE OF THE JAPANESE LANGUAGE.

1. Anata wa ikaga de gozaimasu ka?

1. How are you? or How do you do? Anata wa • you; ikaga • how; de - a particle used in conjunction with the verb gozai- masu, (see page 547) ; gozaimasu = present tense of polite verb gozaru, to }>e; ka = interrogative particle.

2. Okusan wa ikaga de gozaimasu ka?

2. How is your wife? Okusan (polite) = your wife, (hanai humble = my wife) ; wa = a postposition meaning "as for". As for your wife, how is she?

3. Taihen yoku narimashita.

3. I feel very much better. Taihen = very; yoku = well (adv.); narimashita, past tense of naru, to become; literally: I have become very well.

4. Eigo ga dekimasu ka? Sukoshi dake.

4. Do you speak English? A little only. Ei = English; go = language; ga postposition, sign of subject; dekimasu = present of dekiru, to know how, to be able. Literally: Is there a know- ing-how (to speak) English? Sukoshi = little; dake = only.

5. Wakarimam ka? W akarimasen.

5. Do you understand? I don't understand. Wakarimasu = present of wakaru, to understand. W akarimasen = present negative of same verb.

6. Eigo ga wakaru hito.

6. A man who understand English, (lit. English understand- ing man). On this use of the plain present see pg. 544. The postposition ga, sign of subject, is used, since wakaru is not transitive in Japanese.

7. Eigo ka Fransugo ga wakaru hito wa imasen ka?

7. Is there anyone here who understands English or French? Ei = English; go = language; ka = either; Fransu = French; ga == sign of subject; wakaru hito = understanding perton (a person who understands). See pg. 543 for the

lAPAfiESE $73

use of the plain or familiar form of a verb as the equivalent of a relative clause in English. Imasen = present negative of verb iru, to be; ka = sign of interrogation; imasen ka = is there not present? The sentence, word for word goes thus = English language or, French language, subject sign, under- standing person, as for, is there not? 8. Eigo wa sukoshi dekimasu ga Fransugo wa dekimasen.

8. I speak a little English, but I don't speak French. Literally = English language as for, little I speak, but (ga) French language as for, I speak not

9. Nihongo benkyo shite imasu.

9. I am studying Japanese. Nihon = Japanese; go = lang- uage; benkyo = a studying; shite = doing; imasu = I am. Shite is the present participle of sum, to do. Imasu is present of iru, to be. The two words together form a progressive present, I am doing. Benkyo suru forms a so called Chinese conjugation, (see pg. 542).

10. Ano hito wa san-nen Nihongo benkyo shimashita.

10. He studied Japanese three years. Ano = that; hito = person; son = three; nen = years.

11. Ano hito wa Nihon- jin desu ka?

11. Is he a Japanese? Jin = man; desu = is. Desu is one of the combinations of de aru (see pg. 544).

12. Hawaii ni ni-nen sunde imashita, sorekara kochira e ' kimashita.

12. I lived in Hawaii for two years and then I came here. Ni = in; ni-nen = two years; sunde = present participle of sumu, to live; imashita = past of iru, to be; sorekara = after- wards (sore = that; kara = after) ; kochira = here, this place; e = to, toward; kimashita = past of kuru, to come.

13. Anata wa dare desu ka?

13. Who are you? Anata = you; wa = as for; dare = who; desu = are; ka = question. A more polite word for "who" is donata.

14. Anata no namae wa?

14. What is your name? Literally = You of name as for? o namae would be a more polite word.

574 JAPA9SSE

15. 0 toshi wa ikutsu desu ka?

15. What is your age? 0 = honorable; toshi = age; ikutsu = how many (years).

16. Koko ni o kake kudasai.

16. Please sit down here. Koko = here; ni = at; o = honor- able; kake = sitting (stem of kakeru) ; kudasai = please (polite). On the use of kudasai9 see pg. 541.

17, Kore wo setsumei shite kudasai.

17. Please explain this. Kore = this; wo = sign of object; setsumei = explanation; shite = making (prea. participle of suru, to make) ; kudasai = please (polite). The verb setsumei' sum means "to explain".

18. Mado wo akete kudasai.

18. Please open the window. Mado = window; wo = sign of object of verb; akete = pres. part, of akeru, to open.

19. Mado wo akenaide kudasai.

19. Please don't open the window. Akenai de = pres. part- iciple negative. Akenai de kudasai = please do not open.

20. Nodo ga kawakimashita.

20. I am thirsty. Nodo = throat; ga = sign of subject of verb; kawakimashita = past of verb kawaku, to become dry.

21. Kdhi ga aru ka?

21. Have you any coffee? Kdhi = coffee; ga = sign of subject; aru = plain verb "to be" (polite verb is gozaru). Literally: Is there any coffee? (Addressed to a servant).

22. Ocha ga aru ka?

22. Have you any tea? ocha = tea.

23. Motte kite kudasai.

23. Please bring. Motte = pres. part, of motsu, to have in the hand; kite = pres. part, of kuru = to come. Literally: Please come bringing.

24. Mizu wo motte kite kudasai.

24. Please bring some water. Mizu = water

25. Ano hito wa nani wo motte imasu ka?

25. What has that person for he, or she) got? Nani = what. Literally: That person as for, what (sign of object of verb)

JAPANESE

575

having, is he? Motte imasu is the present progressive form of the verb motsu, to have in the hand. See "Participles" pg. 541. 26. Sandwich wo motte kimashita ka?

26. Did you or he or she bring a sandwich? Kimashita = past of kuru, to come. Literally: Sandwich having (or bringing) came he?

27. Kore wa Nihongo de nan to iimasu ka?

27. What do you call this in Japanese? Kore = this; wa = as for; Nihongo = Japanese language; de = in, by; nan = what; to = as; iimasu ka = pres. tense of iu, to call.

28. Kore wa nan de koshiraete arimasu ka?

28. Of what is this made? Nan = what; de = of, from; koshiraete = pres. part, of koshiraeru, to make, prepare; arimasu ka = pres. of ara, to be. Literally: This as for, what of, making, is it?

29. Motto okii ho ga arimashitara, motte kite kudasai.

29. If there should be a larger one, please bring it. Motto = more; okii = big; no = one; ga = sign of subject; arimashi- tara = past conditional of verb aru, to be (should there be); motte = bringing; toe kudasai = come please.

30. £0/10 tegami wo yakushite kudasaimasen ka?

30. Won't you please translate this letter for me? Kono = this; tegami = letter; yakushite = pres. part, of yakust

to translate; kudasaimasen ka = couldn't you favor me, (•present tense negative, of verb kudasaru). Kudasaru, to favor me by doing, is an honorific verb used politely of the 2nd person.

31. Dono gurai nagaku koko ni orimashita ka?

31. About how long have you been here? Dono = how; gurai = about; nagaku = long (adverb formed from adjective nagai, long) ; koko — here; ni = at; orimashita ka = have you been? (past tense of oru, to be).

32. Tenisu wo nasaimasu ka?

32. Do you play tennis? Nasaimasu = do you do, that is, do you play? (present of honorific verb nasaru).

33. Hanako san wa piano wo nasaimasu ka?

33. Does Hanako play the piano? Hana = flower; ko =

JAPANESE

sign of feminine gender; son = Miss; Hanako son = Miss

Flower (girl's name).

34. Koto wo shite irasshaimasu ka?

34. Do you play the koto (a Japanese stringed instrument)? Shite = pres. part, of suru, to do; irasshaimasu, present of irassharu, polite verb, to be. The two verb forms together mean "are you doing or playing?"

35. Mae ni shite imashita ga ima wa shite imasen.

35. Formerly I played it, but now I do not play it. Mae ni = formerly; ga = but; ima wa = as for now; shite imasen = present negative of shite iru, to be doing. Literally = Formerly I was doing it, but now I am not doing (it).

36. Kono hen wa tori ga orimasu ka?

36. Are there not birds around here? Kono = this; hen = region; wa = as for; tori = birds; ga = sign of subject; orimasen ka = are there not (present negative of oru, to be.

37. Kono hon wo agemasho.

37. I shall give you this book. Hon = book; agemasho = future of ageru, a polite verb meaning humbly to present on my part, to you, an honorable person.

38. Ikitai desu.

38. I want to go. Ikitai = a wanting to go, the desiderative form of iku, to go (see page 547) ; desu = there is. Literally: There is a wanting to go.

39. Mitai desu.

39. I want to see. Mitai = I want to see, desiderative of verb miru9 to see.

40. Dare ka yonde kudasai.

40. Please call somebody. Dare ka = somebody; yonde kudasai = please call, imperative of yobu, to call.

41. Yubin-kyoku wa doko ni arimasu ka?

41. Where is the post-office? Yubin-kyoku = post-office; doko ni = where; arimasu — is there, present tense of aru, to be.

42. Takushi wo yonde kite kure.

42. Go and call a taxi. Takushi = taxi; wo — sign of object of verb; yonde = calling, pres. part, of yobu; kite = coming,

JAPANESE 577

pres. part, of kuru, to come ; kure = please, imperative of verb kureru. (Kure is used only to one's inferiors; cf. kudosed, please, the polite verb.) The combination yonde kite kure = to go and call (spoken to a servant). 43. Muko no jiddsha wa dare no desu ka?

43. Whose automobile is that over there? Muko = over there; no = of ; desu ka = is it. Literally: Yonder of, auto as for, whom of, is it?

44. Koko kara suteishon made densha ga arimasen ka?

44. Is there not a tram-car from here to the station? Koko = here; kara = .from; suteishon = station; made = toward; densha = tram-car (den = electricity, sha = carriage).

45. A no hito wa mada Kanada ni imasu ka?

45. Is he still in Canada? Ano == that; hito = man; mada = still; Kanada = Canada; ni = in; imasu = is he; ka = sign of question.

46. li o tenki desu ka? Warui o tenki desu.

46. Is the weather fine? The weather is bad. li = fine; o = honorable; tenki = weather; desu ka = is it; warui = bad.

47. Ante ga futte imashita kara9 ikimasen deshita.

47. Since it was raining, he did not go. Ame = rain; ga = sign of subject; futte = coming down, pres. part, of furu, to come down; imashita = was, past tense of iru9 to be; kara = since; ikimasen deshita = he did not go, past tense negative of ika, to go.

48. Myonichi o uchi ni irasshaimasu ka?

48. Will you be at home tomorrow? Myonichi = tomorrow; o = honorable; uchi = house; ni = in; irasshaimasu ka = will you be. The verb is the present (used as the future) of the honorific verb irassharu, to be.

49. Niwa ni hana ga arimasu ka? Arimasen.

49. Have you flowers in your garden? I have none. Niwa == garden; ni = in; hana = flowers; ga — sign of subject; arimasu ka = are there, polite present of aru, to be.

50. Motto ar imashita ka?

50. Was there any more? Motto = more; ar imashita = was there, past of aru.

19*

57$

51. Mo arimasen deshita.

51. There was no more. Mo = more; arimasen deshita = past negative of aru.

52. Misete kudasai.

52. Show it to me. Misete kudasai = polite imperative of miseru, to show.

53. Kore ikura desu ka?

53. How much is this? Kore = this; ikura — how much.

54. Pen wa teburu no ue ni arimasu.

54. There is a pen on the table. Literally, Pen as for, table of, top on, there is. Ue — top.

55. Pen ga sambon arimasu.

55. There are three pens. Sambon == three (san is three, bon is for hon, the auxiliary numeral for long, cylindrical things; (see page 550).

56. Kippu ga ikurnai arimasu?

56. How many tickets are there? Kippu = tickets; ikumai = how many (iku means "how many" and mai is the auxiliary numeral for flat things; see page 550).

57. Hyakusho wa warui kodomo wo shikar imashita.

57. The farmer scolded the bad boy. Hyakashd = fanner; warui = bad; kodomo = boy; wo = object sign: shikari- mashita = scolded, past of shikaru, to scold.

58. Warui kodomo wa hyakushd ni shikararemashito .

58. The bad boy was scolded by the farmer. Ni = by, to denote agent; shikararemashita = was scolded, past tense passive of shikaru.

59. Tokyo ni Smith san no ie ga arimasu.

59. Mr. Smith's house is in Tokyo. No = of, possessive; i> = house.

60. Kesa Suzuki san ga irasshaimashita ka?

60. Did Mr. Suzuki come this morning? Kesa = this morn- ing; irasshaimashita = past of irassharu, polite verb, to come.

61. Hon wo mi-ni ikimashita.

61. He went to see the books. Hon = books; mi-ni = to see. Mi is the stem of the verb miru, to see. Ni is a postposition that denotes purpose when used as a suffix to a verb stem.

JAPANESE 579

62. Shitte imasu ka?

62. Do you know? Shitte = pres. part, of shiru, to know. Literally: Knowing are you?

63. Okinodoku desu.

63. I am sorry. 0 — honorable; ki = spirit; no = of; doku = poison. Literally: It is honorable poison of spirit.

64. Kamaimasen.

64. It doesn't matter. Kamaimasen = pres. negative of kamau, to matter.

580

ESPERANTO

APPENDIX A - ESPERANTO1

by G. Alan Connor, Director of the Esperanto Inter- language Institute in New York, and Doris Tappan Connor, Teacher of the International Cseh Institute of Esperanto, the Hague, Netherlands.

1 AUTHOR'S NOTE — In addition to the national languages, it was thought appropriate to offer the readers of the second edition of "Languages for War and Peace" a description of one fully constructed international language (not a national tongue adapted for international use, like Basic English). Esperanto was selected because of all the languages answering that description, it is the only one having today a world-wide body of living speakers and a world-wide press, and the only one to have been widely used in international congresses. Attention may be called to other constructed languages, such as Schleyer's Volapiik, Peano's Inter lingua (or Latino sine Flexione) , Jespersen's Novial, and the latest comer in this field, Hogben's hiterglossa; but with the exception of Volapuk, which for practical purposes came to its end before the close of the last century, none of them has advanced very far beyond the blue-print stage.

Inclusion of Esperanto in this work is not to be interpreted as signifying advocacy or endorsement by the author of its principles or method of construction, but simply as an effort on his part to introduce his readers to the entrancing field of interlanguage construction and planning for the adoption of a universal means of communication for international use, as well as to supply them with the elements of a tongue which occasionally proves of very direct, practical use under the most unexpected circumstances.

Mario A. Pci.

ESPERANTO

SPEAKERS AND LOCATION

Esperanto is spoken and understood by some few millions who are scattered widely throughout the entire civilized world. Accurate estimates are extremely difficult to obtain because no census is possible in the usual sense of the term. The Esperanto movement is divided into many international, national and local groups. The two largest international organizations are the International Esperanto League, with headquarters in London, and the Universal Esperanto Association, with head- quarters in Geneva, Switzerland. Besides these two general bodies, there are many sectional groups organized for special applications of the language, such as science, medicine, art, literature, religion, labor, teaching, etc. Then there are the national organizations with their metropolitan and local groups.

An estimate of speakers and users of Esperanto, based upon the best available authorities from all these organizations, places the number of Esperantists more or less accurately at anywhere from 6,000,000 to 8,000,000, although some esti- mates would place it at considerably higher figures.

The outstanding fact about the use of Esperanto throughout the world today, in comparison with the many international language projects which have claimed consideration in the past, is that Esperanto has steadily progressed since its construction in 1887, to where it is practically the only international lan- guage used and spoken in the world today. It is active and growing, with some millions of speakers, and has a consider- able literature and press, whereas other projects remain in the realm of academic discussion, without a comparable literature or body of speakers.

Esperanto is described as an international auxiliary lan- guage, or more briefly as an inter language. It does not aim to

ESPERANTO

replace the national tongues, but only to serve as a bridge- language between language-groups, for international inter- change such as commerce, tourism, short-wave radio, export films, international conferences, world government, and the like. It presents a new concept of easy, neutral inter- communication, on a basis of equal participation. Europe — Esperanto was constructed in Poland in 1887, by Dr. L. L. Zamenhof, "from the fittest elements of occi- dental tongues, and with an agglutinative grammatical structure". It is chiefly a Latin-Germanic language. From Poland and Russia it spread abroad by way of Upsala University, Sweden, first throughout Europe, then to the rest of the world.

By far the largest number of Esperanto speakers are found in Europe today. And it is the small nations, more conscious of the language barriers, which have the greatest number. The Netherlands, Czechoslovakia, Denmark, Sweden, Austria, Switzerland, Hungary, Yugoslavia, and Italy show largest percentages. Then France, Germany and Great Britain.

Greatest growth during the present war is shown in Great Britain, Sweden, Switzerland and Portugal. It is interesting to note that with the recent proposal that "Basic English" be adopted as the "international language", Esperanto has made considerable progress in Great Britain itself, as a result of the discussion of the problem. Africa — Esperanto comparatively little used, except in parts of South Africa and in the northern tier of Mediterranean countries.

Asia — Most remarkable development in Japan and China, where universities spread the movement, and a consider- able literature and press existed before the war. Chinese Esperantists continue to use Esperanto in new ways in the war against Japan, and a Chinese Esperanto journal is regularly published in Chungking.

FSPERANTO 583

Australia, Oceania, etc. — Australia and the Dutch East Indies developed Esperanto movements of some importance be- fore the war. Various south sea islands have isolated groups, and several British officials have issued small journals from these island outposts.

Western Hemisphere — By far the largest group of Esperantists are found in Brazil, and one nation-wide governmental department uses Esperanto officially. Other countries with good showings are Uruguay, Argentina, Chile and Cuba. Development to a lesser extent in the United States, Canada and Mexico.

ALPHABET AND SOUNDS

a, b, c, c, d, e, f, g, g, h, i, j, j, k, 1, m, n, o, p, r, s, s, t, u, u, v, z. (The symbol h is also used infrequently, with the value of Scottish ch in loch. It is being generally replaced by the symbol and sound of k. For example: arhitekturo becomes arkitekturo, etc.) There is no q, w, x, or y in Esperanto.

Vowel sounds: a, e, i, o, u, have the vowel sounds heard in bar, bear, bier, bore, boor. They are like the sounds of English ah, eh, ee, oh, oo, (the eh like the first part of a in gate).

Consonant sounds: Pronounced as in English, except the following:

c: is not sounded like s or k, but like ts in bits. j: has the international phonetic sound of y in yes. r: is slightly rolled, being stronger and clearer than in English. c» g> J, s, and u: are heard immediately following the ee sounds in Ieech9 liege, leisure, leash, and leeway. They are like the sounds of English ch, j, zh, sh, and w.

SPELLING, SYLLABICATION, ACCENTUATION

Esperanto is scientifically phonetic — one letter, one sound (approximating the basic symbols of the Internationa] Phonetic

ESPERANTO

Alphabet). Every word is pronounced as it is spelled. To name the letters, simply add o to the consonants.

There are no double consonants and no double vowels (save in compound words, where they are separately pro- nounced).

Each vowel constitutes a syllable, even if two or three of them are placed together. In dividing a word into syllables, a single consonant between two vowels goes with the following, not the preceding vowel. A consonant followed by / or r goes with the / or r. Otherwise, the syllable division is made before the last consonant of the group. Examples: a-e-ro, his-to-ri-o, a-ta-ki, an-gla, fin-gro, sank-ta.

The accent or stress is always on the next to the last syllable. Here, as in all other rules for Esperanto, there are no irregularities and no exceptions.

SAMPLE OF WRITTEN ESPERANTO; USE FOR PRACTICE READING

Facila Paragrafo

La inteligenla persono lernas la interlingvon Esperanto rapide kaj facile. Esperanto estas la moderna, kultura, neutrala lingvo por generala interkomunikado. La interlingvo estas simpla, fleksebla, praktika solvo de la problemo de globa interkompreno.

Anekdoto pri Profesoro kaj Studento

La telefono de la lernejo. sonoris. La profesoro iris al la telefono. (Profesoro) "Jen, Profesoro Martelo." (Telefonanto) "Mi deziras informi vin, ke Karlo ne povas viziti la lernejon hodiau, car li estas malsana." (Profesoro) 'Tion mi tre bedauras, mi deziras bonan resanigon! — Kiu estas ce la telefono?" (Telefonanto) "Mia patro."

ESPERANTO

GRAMMATICAL SURVEY

The grammar of Esperanto has only sixteen fundamental rules, which have no irregularities and no exceptions.

(1) There is no indefinite article; there is only a Definite article, la, alike for all sexes, cases, and numbers.

libro = book or a book la libro = the book

porno = apple or an apple la libroj = the books frato = brother, a brother la fratinoj = the sisters la frato j amas la fratinon = the brothers love the sister.

(2) The Noun ends in o* To form the plural / is added. There are only two cases: nominative and accusative; the latter is obtained from the nominative by simply adding n.

tablo = table tabloj = tables la tabloj = the tables

ideo = idea ideoj = ideas La ideoj = the ideas

La lernanto havas krajonon kaj plumon en la poso. The pupil has a pencil and a pen in his (the) pocket.

(3) The Adjective ends in a. It agrees in case and number with the noun. The comparative is made by the word pli; the superlative by la plej; with the comparative the conjunction ol is used.

bona = good bela — beautiful dolca = sweet

La inteligenta studento legas bonajn librojn.

The intelligent student reads good books.

La etaj infanoj havas belan patrinon.

The little children have a beautiful mother.

La pordo estas a/la, la fenestro estas pli alta ol la pordo, kaj la

muro estas la plej alta. The door is high, the window is higher than the door, and the

wall is the highest.

(4) The fundamental Numerals (not declined) are: unu, du, tri, kvar, kvin, ses, sep, ok, nau, dek, cent, mil. Tens and

586 ESPSR4NTO

hundreds are formed by simple junction of the numerals. To mark the ordinal a is added; for the multiple, obi; for the fractional, on; for the collective, op.

1 = unu 1st = unua

2=du 2nd = dua

3 = tri 3rd = tria

10 = dek 15th = dek-kvina

14 = dek-kvar 36th = tridek-sesa

15 = dek-kvin 127th = cent-dudek-sepa 20 = dudek 1000th = mila

26 = dudek ses 2x2 = 4 — duoble du estas kvar

37 = tridek sep 3 times = trioble

100 = cent many times = multoble

108 = cen/ oA 1/2 = duono 149 = cen/ kvardek nau 1/12 = dekduono

1000 = mi/ 1/1000 = milono

5000 = kvinmil by two's = duope

100,000 = centmil by 6's = sesope

1,000,000 = miliono in pairs = duope

(5) Personal Pronouns: mi, I; t;i, you; /i, he; Si, she; |i, it (thing or animal); si, (reflexive pronoun of third person); ni, we; vi, you (plural); Hi, they; oni, one, people, they, we (indefinite pronoun of the third person) ; possessives are form- ed by adding a. Declensions as for nouns.

Li amas sin. He loves her. Si amas lin. She loves him.

mio libro, my book nia patro, our father

Lia patro portis liajn paperojn en sia poso.

His father carried his (son's) papers in his (father's) pocket.

(6) The Verb undergoes no change with regard to person or number. Forms of the verb: time being (Present) takes the termination -as; time been (Past) -is; time about-to-be (Future) -05; Conditional -us; Imperative -u; Infinitive -i. Active Part- iciples, -an/, -inf, -on/. Passive Participles, -at, -it, -ot.

ESPERANTO 5$ 7

estas = is, are, am estas amanta = is (am, are)

estis = was, were loving

estos = will be estas aminta = was (were)

estus = should or would be loving

estu = be estas amonta = is (am, are)

esti = to be about to love

amas = loves, is loving amata = (being) loved

amis = loved amita = having been loved

omo5 = will love amota = about to be loved

amus = should or would love estas amata = is (am, are)

amu = love (being) loved

ami = to love estas amita = has, (have)

amanta = loving been, was (were) loved

aminta = having loved estas amota = is (am, are)

amonta = about to love about to be loved

The negative is formed by placing ne before the verb: mi nc komprenas, I don't understand.

The interrogative is formed by prefixing the interrogative par- ticle cu to the affirmative statement (do not invert the subject and the verb), unless another interrogative word (such as "who?", "when?", "why?") appears: cu vi komprenas?, do you understand?; but kion gi signifas?, what does this mean?

(7) The Adverb ends in e; comparison as for adjectives.

rapide = rapidly; bele = beautifully; bone = well; persone — personally, in person; plezure — with pleasure. Mi kantas bone. Li kantas pli bone ol mi. §i kantas la plej bone. I sing well. He sings better than I. She sings the best.

(8) All Prepositions govern the nominative.

sur la arbo en la gardeno apud la domo

on the tree in the garden beside the house

(9) Every word is pronounced as it is spelled.

unu Iitero9 unu sono = oo-noo lee-teh-ro, oo-noo so-no

ESPERANTO

(10) The Accent or Stress is always on the next to the last syllable.

universo = oo-nee-VEHR-so historic = hees-toh- REE-o

(11) The Compound Words are formed by simple junction of the words; the chief word stands at the end. Grammatical terminations are also regarded as independent words.

bonintenca — bon-intenc-a = well-meaning remalsano = re-mal-san-o = a return of illness, a

relapse

katidineto = kat-id-in-et-o = a tiny female kitten koto, cat; ido, offspring; ino, female; eta, tiny; o, substantive ending.

(12) When another Negative Word is present the word ne is left out.

Li ne havas ian sperton. = He has not any ex- perience. Li havas nenian sperton. — He has no experience.

(13) In order to show Direction towards, words take the termination of the accusative.

Li mar sis en la cambro. He walked (about) in the

room.

Li marsis en la cambron. . He walked into the room. Mi iras Parizon, or al Parizo. I am going to Paris.

(14) Each Preposition has a definite meaning; but if the direct sense does not indicate which it should be, we use the preposition je, which has no meaning of its own. Instead of je we may use the accusative without a preposition.

al la domo = to the house en la taso = in the cup

apud la pordo = by the door dum la tago = during the day

de la urbo = from the city kun amiko == with a friend

ESPERANTO

je la dua de Majo = May 2nd la duan de Majo = May 2nd longa je tri futoj = 3 ft. long longa tri futojn = 3 ft. long dum unu horo = during 1 hour unu horon = during 1 hour

(15) The so-called Foreign Words, those which the major- ity of languages have taken from one source, undergo no change in Esperanto, beyond conforming to its orthography.

teatro = theatre cambro* =• chamber

geografio = geography kemio = chemistry

ekonomio = economy kvanto = quantity

(16) The Final Vowel of the noun and of the article may sometimes be dropped and be replaced by an apostrophe.

Kiel ofte al stel9, en la nokta ciel9,

Sub la briV de V brilanta trezor9.

How oft at a star, in the night sky,

'Neath the brillance of the glittering treasure.

PREFIXES AND SUFFIXES

The prefixes and suffixes provide great richness and flex- ibility in Esperanto. They are regarded as independent words, and they are combined with roots and other word -elements by simple junction. Try combining them with roots in the various lists of this section. They will augment your vocabulary and facility in Esperanto.

dis- separation, dispersal: doni, to give; disdoni, to distribute.

ek- beginning, brief action: krii, to cry, shout; ekkrii9 to exclaim.

eks- ex-, former: prezidanto, president; eksprezidanto, ex- president.

ge- both sexes together: patro, father; gepatroj, parents.

mal- opposite ideas: alta, high; malalta, low.

500 ESPERANTO

re- back, again: sendi, to send; resendi, to send back.

•ac contempt, disgust: hundo, a dog; hundaco, a cur.

•ad continuation of action: kanto, a song; kantado, singing.

•a; concrete ideas: heredi, to inherit; heredajo, heritage.

-an inhabitant, member, adherent: Parizo, Paris; Pcarizano, Parisian.

-ar a collection of things: libra, a book; libraro, a library.

•ebl possibility, -able, -ible: vidi, to see; videbla, visible.

•ec abstract ideas: libera, free; libereco, liberty.

-eg enlargement, intensity: domo, a house; domego, a man- sion.

-ej place specially used for: lerni, to learn; lernejo, a school.

-e/Ti inclination, disposition: kredi, to believe; kredema, credulous.

-er unit, one of a collection: sablo, sand; sablero, grain of sand.

•estr chief, leader, ruler: sipo, ship; sipestro, captain (of ship).

-et diminution of degree: monto, mountain; monteto, a hill.

•id descendant, young of: koto, cat; katido, a kitten.

-ig causing something to be: blanka, white; blankigi, to whiten.

-ig action of becoming: pala, pale; paligi, to turn pale.

•il tool, instrument: razi, to shave; razilo, a razor.

-in feminine gender: Ao/co, a rooster; kokino, a hen.

-ind worthy of: admiri, to admire; admirinda, worthy of admiration.

•ing holder of one object: glavo, sword; glavingo, a scabbard.

•ism "ism", theory, system: idealo, an ideal; idealismo, ideal- ism.

•ist trade, profession, occupation: dento, tooth; dentisto, dentist.

•uj that which contains: mono, money; monujo, a purse.

•ul person characterized by: saga, wise; sagulo, a sage.

•urn general suffix: kruco, a cross; krucumi, to crucify

ESPERANTO

591

VOCABULARY

1. World, Elements, Nature, Weather, Time, Directions.

world, mondo

earth, tero

air, aero

water, akvo

fire, fajro

light, lumo

sea, maro

sun, suno

moon, luno

star, stelo

sky, cielo

wind, venta

weather, vetero

time, tempo

snow, nego

to snow, ne$i

rain, pluvo

to ram, pluw

cloud, nw6o

cloudy, nuba

fog, nebulo

ice, glacio

mud, fcoto

morning, mate/to

noon, tagmezo

afternoon, posttagmezo

night, noArfo

midnight, noktmezo

North, fum/o

South, Jitt/o

East, onento

West, okcidento

year, yoro month, monato week, semajno day, tago hour, Aoro minute, minuto Sunday, dimanco Monday, lundo Tuesday, mardo Wednesday, merkredo Thursday, jaudo Friday, vendredo Saturday, sabato January, januaro February, februaro March, marto April, aprilo May, TTio/o June, junio July, Julio August, augusto September, septembro October, oktobro November, novembro December, decembro Spring, printempo Summer, somero Fall, autuno Winter, vintro it is warm, estas varme it is cold, estas malvarme

I shall see him on Monday, Mi vidos lin lunde; last Monday, pasintan lundon; next Monday, sekvontan lundon; Monday morning, lunde matene; every Monday, ciulunde; on May 5th, 1943, la kvinan de ma/o, mil naucent kvardek tri.

592

ESPERANTO

2. Family, Friendship, Love.

family, jamilio husband, edzo wife, edzino parents, gepatroj father, patro mother, patrino son, jilo daughter, filino brother, frato sister, fratino uncle, onklo aunt, onklino nephew, nevo niece, nevino cousin, kuzo, kuzino grandfather, avo grandmother, avino grandson, nepo granddaughter, nepino father-in-law, bopatro mother-in-law, bopatrino son-in-law, bofilo daughter-in-law, bofilino

3. Speaking Activities.

word, vorto language, lingvo to speak, paroli to say, diri to tell, diri, rakonti to inform, informi to rail, voki to greet, saluti to name, nomi to cry, shout, krii to listen to, auskidti

4. Materials.

gold, oro silver, argento iron, fero

brother-in-law, bofrato

sister-in-law, bo fratino

man, viro; (generic) homo

woman, virino

child, infano

boy, knabo

girl, knabino

sir, Mr., gentleman, sinjoro

madam, Mrs., lady, sinjorino

Miss, young lady, fraiilino

friend, amiko, amikino

servant, servisto, servistino

to introduce, prexenti

to visit, viziti

love, amo

to love, ami

to fall in love w^ith,

to marry, edzigi,

sweetheart, amoto,

kiss, kiso

to kiss, kisi

dear, beioved, kara

to hear, audi

to understand, komprerd

to mean, vo/i rfiii

to ask for, peti

to ask (a question), demandi

to answer, respondi

to thank, <fa/i£i (I thanked him

for the book, mi dankis lin pro

la libro) to complain, plendi

steel, stalo copper, kupro tin, stano

l,SP$R.4.\TO

593

lead, plum bo oil, oleo

gasoline, petrolo coal, karbo wood, Kgno silk, silko cotton, kotono

wool, lano cloth, stofo to cut. tranci to dig, /osi to sew, Ainfri to mend, ripari

5. Animals.

animal, besto horse, cevalo dog, hundo cat, Axtfo bird, birdo donkey, azeno mule, mulo cow, bovino

ox, pig, porfco chicken, kokido hen, kokino

jooster. sheep, safo goat, kapro mouse, muso snake, serpento fly, mw,so bee, abelo mosquito, moskito spider, araneo louse, pediko flea, pulo bedbug, litcimo

6. Money, Buying and Selling.

money, mono

coin, monero

dollar, dolaro

ce.nt, cendo

bank, banko

check, ceko

money order, mandate,

mandate to earn, to gain, to win, gajni to lose, perdi to spend, ehpezi to lend, alprunii to borrow, deprunti to owe, suldi to pay, pagi to give back, redoni change, moneto, restajo to change, morterigi price, prezo

cost,

to cost, kosti

expensive, multekosta

cheap, malmultekosta

store, butiko

piece, pcco

slice, trancajo

pound, junto

package, pakajo

basket, korbo

box, skatolo

bag, sako

goods, komercajoj, (wares) varoj

to go shopping, iri por acetadi

to sell, vendi

to buy, aceti

to rent, to hire, lui

to be worth, valori

to rhoose. elekti

594

ESPERANTO

thief, robber, stelisto to steal, steli honest, honesta

7. Eating and Drinking.

to eat, mangi

breakfast, matenmango

to eat breakfast, matenmangi

lunch, tagmango, (small) mangeto

to eat lunch, tagmangi, mangeii

supper, vespermango

to eat supper, vespermangi

dinner, mango, cefmango

to dine, mangi

meal, mango

dining-room, mangocambro,

mangejo waiter, kelnero waitress, kelnerino restaurant, restoracio menu, mangokarto, menao bill, kalkulo

to pass (a dish), doni, transdoni tip, dankmono, trinkmono to drink, trinki water, akvo wine, vino beer, biero coffee, ka/o tea, teo milk, lakto bottle, botelo spoon, kulero teaspoon, kulero, tekulero knife, trancilo fork, forko glass, glaso cup, to50 napkin, bustuko salt, £a/0 pepper, pipro plate, dish, plado bread, pano

dishonest, malhonesta police, polico policeman, policano

roll, bulko

butter, butero

sugar, sukero

soup, supo

rice, rizo

potatoes, terpomo

vegetable, legomo

meat, viando

beef, bovajo

steak, viandtrancajo, bifsteko

chicken, kokido

chop, kodeto

veal, bovidajo

lamb, safidajo

pork, porkajo

sausage, kolbaso

ham, £m

bacon,

egg, ot;o

fish, /wo

fried, fritita

to cook, AwiVi

boiled, boligita

stewed, stufita

roast, rostajo

roast beef, rostbovajo

baked, 6aA:^a

broiled, kradrostita

sauce, salad, cheese, fromago fruit, frukto apple, porno pear, pi'ro peach, persiko grapes, vinberof strawberries, fragoj nuts, nuksoj

fSPKRANTO

595

orange, orango lemon, citrono juice, suko

8. Hygiene and Attire

bath, bano

to bathe, bani

shower, sprucfeono, duso

to wash, lavi

to shave, razi

barber, razisto

mirror, spegulo

soap, sapo

razor, razilo

safety razor, sendangera razilo

towel, tuko

comb, kombilo

brush, broso

scissors. tondUo

to wear, parti

to take off, demeti

to change, sangi

to put on, surmeti

clothes, vestajoj

hat, capelo

suit, kompleto, vesto

coat, yafco

vest, vesto

pants, pantalono

underwear, subvesto

undershirt, subcemizo

drawers, kalsono

9. Parts of the Body.

head, kapo forehead, frunto face, vizago mouth, buso hair, haroj eye, okulo ear, orelo tooth, dento lip, lipo

cherries, cerizoj dessert, deserto pastry, pastajo

glove, ganto

socks, strumpetoj

stockings, strumpoj

shirt, cemizo

collar, kolumo

tie, kravato

overcoat, palto

raincoat, pluvpalto, pluvmantelo

pocket, poso

handkerchief, naztuko* pofiluko

button, butono

shoe, suo

boot, boto

pocketbook, manposo, monujo

purse, monujo

pin, tie pin, pinglo, kravatopivglo

needle, kudrilo

umbrella, ombrelo

watch, poshorlogo

wristwatch, manumhorlogo

chain, ceno

ring, ringo

eyeglasses, okulvhroj

slippers, pantofloj

dressing-gown, cambrorobo,

tualet-robo bathrobe, banrobo

nose, nnzo tongue, lango chin, mentono cheek, vango mustache, lipharoj beard, barbo neck, kolo throat, gorge arm, brako

596

ESPERANTO

hand, mono elbow, kubuto wrist, man-radiko finger, fingro nail, ungo leg, kruro foot, piedo knee, genuo back, dorso

10. Medical.

doctor, kuracisto

drug-store, apoteko, drogejo

hospital, malsanulejo, hospitalo

medicine, medikamento, kuracilo

pill, pilolo

prescription, recepto

bandage, band a go

nurse, flegistino, flegisto

ill, malsana

illness, malsano

swollen, svelinta

11. Military.

war, milito

peace, pace

ally, kunligano

enemy, malamiko

army, armeo

danger, dangero

dangerous, dangera

to win, venki

to surround, cirkaui

to arrest, aresti, kapti

to kill, mortigi

to escape, liberigi, eviti

to run away, forkuri

to lead, konduki, antauiri

to follow,

to surrender,

to retreat, retirigi, returnemarsi

to bomb, shell, bombardi

fear, fimo

chest, brusto ankle, maleolo body, korpo bone, osto skin, /uzu^o heart, A;oro stomach, stomako blood, sango shoulder, sultro

wound, vundo wounded, vundita head-ache, kapdoloro looth-ache, dentdoloro cough, tuso to cough, tusi lame, lama burn, brulvundo pain, doloro poison, veneno

prison, mattiberejo

prisoner, mUitknptito

to take prisoner, kapti, ekkapti

to capture, kapti

help, helpo

comrade, buddy, kamarado,

kunulo

battle, batalo, barakto to fight, batati, barakti soldier, soldato

private, soldato, simpla soldato corporal, kaporalo sergeant, sergento lieutenant, kutenanto captain, kapitano major, majoro colonel, kolonelo general, generalo officer, oficiro

ESPERAfl/TO

597

company, roto battalion, bataliono regiment, regimento brigade, brigade division, divizio troops, soldataro, trupoj reenforcements, refortigantoj,

helptrupoj fortress, fortikajo sentinel, gardstaranto, gardsoldato to do sentry duty, garde stari to be on duty, dejori guard, gvardio sign-post, signa stango, vojmon*

trilo

navy, mttitsiparo, mititmaristaro sailor, militmaristo marine, marsoldato warship, militsipo cruiser, krozsipo destroyer, detruosipo convoy, sirmita kunsiparo, konvojo escort, kondukosipoj weapon, armilo, txtiatilo rifle, fusilo

machine-gun, masinpafilo cannon, kanono ammunition, munlcio supplies, provizo, provizado cartridge, kartoco bullet, kuglo belt, zono

12. Travel

passport, pasporto customs, dogano ship, sipo steamer, vaporsipo stateroom, kajuto berth, siplito to travel, vojagi trip, voyage, vojago to leave, depart, foriri

cartridge belt, kartocozono

knapsack, tornistro

tent, tendo

camp, tendaro

map, karto, geografia karto,

topografia karto rope, snuro flag, standardo hehnet, kasko bayonet, bajoneto uniform, uniformo airplane, aeroplane bombing plane, bombardoplano, bombard'Oeroplano

pursuit plane, casoplano, cos-

aeroplano shell, obuso bomb, bombo

truck, sargauto, sargautomobilo

lank, kirasveturilo

to load, sargi

to fire, to shoot, pafi

to shoot (military execution) ekzekuti per pafado, fusilek- zekuti

spy, spiono

fire! pafu!

attention! atentu!

forward! antauen!

halt! haltu!

air-raid shelter, rifugejo kontrau aeratako

to arrive, alveni

to ride, (a conveyance), rajdi,

veturi

railroad, fervojo station, stado track, relvojo train, vagonaro platform, perono ticket, bileto

598

ESPERANTO

compartment, kupeo all aboard!, envagonigu! dining-car, mangvagono sleeper, litvagono car, coach, vagono tiunk, kofro valise, valizo baggage, pakajoj

13. Reading and Writing.

to read, legi

newspaper, jurnalo

magazine, gazeto, revuo

book, libra

to write, skribi

to translate, traduki

pencil, krajono

chalk, kreto

blackboard, nigra tabulo

ink, inko

14. Amusements.

to smoke, fumi

cigar, dgaro

cigarette, cigaredo

tobacco, tobako

match, alumeto

give me a light, donu al mi

ekbruligon theatre, teatro

movies, moviganta filmo, kino dance, danco, bah to dance, danci to have a good time, amuzigi ticket, bileto

15. Town and Country.

place, spot, loko city, urbo street, strata sidewalk, trotuaro

porter, portisto bus, autobuso street-car, tramo automobile, automobile taxi, fiakro, taksfiakro driver, sofero, veturigisto to drive (car), veturigi, auto- mobili

pen, phono (fountain pen, jonfr

plutno)

envelope, koverto paper, paper o letter, letero post-office, postoficcjo stamp, postmarko letter-box, postkesto to mail, enpostigi address, adreso post-card, postkarto

pleasure, plezuro

to play, ludi (music or game)

to sing, kanti

song, kanto

game, ludo

ball, pilko

to take a walk, promenadi

beach, marbordo

to swim, nagi

sand, sablo

refreshment, refresigajo

saloon, trinkejo

picnic, pikniko, ekskurso

road, vojo

intersection, interkrucigo harbor, havcno block, kvadrato

ESPERANTO

599

school, lernejo church, pregejo cathedral, katedralo building, konstruo corner, angulo hotel, hatch office, oficejo river, rivero bridge, panto country, kamparo village, vtiago

mountain, monto grass, herbo yard, korto hill, monteto lake, logo forest, arbaro field, kampo flower, flora tree, arba rock, roko jungle, junglo

16. House.

door, pordo

roof, tegmento

to open, malfermi; to close, /ermi

key, slostto

to go in, eniri; to go out, eliri

house, Jorno (at home, hejme, to

go home, iri hejmen) cottage, dometo, kabano hut, kabano to live in, logi en staircase, stuparo to go up, supren iri to go down, malsupren iri room, cambro toilet, necesejo kitchen, kuirejo tabfe, tablo chair, sego to sit down, sidigi to stand, be standing, starigi, stari

wall, muro

lamp, foropo

candle, kandelo

closet, vestejo

window, fenestro

bed, Uto

bedroom, Utocambro

blanket, kovrtio, lankovrila

sheet, litotuko

mattress, matraco

alarm-clock, vekhorloga

pillow, kapkuseno

to rest, ripazi

to go to bed, enlitigi

to go to sleep, fall asleep, endor-

migi

to sleep, dormi to wake up, vekigi to dress, vesti $m to get up, levi sin

17. Miscellaneous Nouns.

people, popolo thing, ajo, afero name, nomo

luck, bonsanco (bad luck, bonsanco)

number, numero life, VHK> death, morfo work, laboro

600

ESPERANTO

18. Verbs — Coming and Going.

to come, veni

to go, iri

to go away, foriri

to stay, remain, resti

to return,

to run, kuri to walk, marsi to fall, fali to follow, sekvi

19. Fer6s — Looking and Seeing.

to see, vidi

to look at, rigardi (I am looking

at it, mi rigardas gin) to look for, serci to laugh, ridi

20. Verbs — Mental.

to make a mistake, erari

to hope, espcri

to wait (for) , atendi

to think, pe/wi

to believe, kredi

to like, soft*

to wish, to want, deziri

to know (a person), koni

to know (a fact), scii

to understand, kompreni

to remember, memori

to smile,

to look, seem, 507711 (it seems to

me, sajnas al mi) to recognize, rekoni to take for, supozi esti

to forget, forgesi

to permit, allow, permesi

to forbid, moLpermesi

to promise, promesi

to learn, /errci

to feel like, emi (I feel like sleep- ing, mi emas dormi, mi estas dormema)

to fear, be afraid, timi

to be right, pravi

to be wrong, malpravi

21. Verbs — Miscellaneous.

to live, vivi

to die, morti

to work, Zabori

to give, dojii

to take, preni

to show, montri

to begin, to start, komenci (transi- tive) ; komencigi (intransitive)

to finish, fini (tr.) ; f-'nigi (intr.)

to continue, dauri (intr.) ; daurigi (tr.)

to help, helpi

to hide, AXKI (tr.) ; kasigi, sinkasi (intr.)

to lose, perdi

to find, frovi

to leave, foriri (use /orkwi for leaving objects or people)

to try, peni

to meet, renkonti

to put, place, meti

to do, to make, fari

to have something done, igi (or use suffix -%•; I had a letter written, mi igis toeron skribinta or mi skribigis leteron; I had them sing, mi igis ilin kanti, or mi kantigis

ESPERANTO

601

can, to be able, povi

to carry, porti

to stop, Haiti (use ccsi for "to

stop doing") to bring, alporti, vcnigi to cover, .kovri to get, obtain, akiri to hold, teni to get, become, igi (he became

22. Adjectives.

small, malgranda, eta

large, great, granda -

big (bulky), ampleksa

tall, high, o&a

short, malalta

heavy, peza

light (weight), malpeza

long, /o/iga

wide, /arga

narrow, mallarga

clean, pura

dirty, malpura

cool, malvarmeta

cold, malvarma

warm, hot, varma

damp, malseketa

wet, malseka

empty, malplena

dry, se&a

full, plena

soft, mo/a

hard, malmola

quick, rapida

slow, malrapida

ordinary, ordinara

comfortable, komforta

uncomfortable, malkomforta

near, proksima

distant, malproksima

right, dekstra

left, maldekstra

poor, malrica

pale, /£ igi$ poZa, 2i po/igw) to break, rompi to hurry, rapidi to deliver, /tveri to send, jernfr to belong, aparteni to accept, akcepti to refuse, re/^zi to do again, /ari denove

rich, rica

beautiful,

pretty, beleta

ugly, malbela

sweet, Jo/ca

bitter, antara

sour, acwfa

salt, so/a

young, /u/ia

dark, malhela

light, bright,

clear,

fat,

thick,

thin, maldika

round, ronda

square, kvadrata

flat, p/o/a

deep, profunda

strong, forta

weak, malforta

tired,

alone,

same,

easy, facila

hard, malfacila

happy, /e/ica

merry, gaja

sad, malgaja, malgoja

free, /£feera

crazy, freneza

silly, makprita, malprudcnto

20

602

ESPERANTO

drunk, ebria

polite, gentila

rude, malgentila

pleasant, agrabla

unpleasant, malagrabla

lonesome, soleca

true, vera

false, malvera (spurious, falsa)

foreign, fremda

old, maljuna

new, nova

good, bona

better, pli bona (best, la plej

bona)

bad, malbona worse, pli malbona (worst, la plej

malbona) fine, bela, bona first, unua

23. Colors.

white, blanka black, mgra red, ruga green, verJa blue, blua

24. Nationalities.

last, friendly, ami&a hostile, malamika lucky, bonsanca unlucky, malbonsanca charming, car ma afraid, timema ready, preta hungry, malsata thirsty, soifa funny, komika, serca possible, ebla impossible, neebla brave, kuraga, brava cowardly, malkuraga quiet, kvieta, trankvila noisy, brua living, viva dead, morta

yellow, flava gray, griza brown, bruna rose, rozkolora, roza purple, purpura

Use no capital for the adjective or for the language, except in the case of Esperanto, which is capitalized because it originated as a pseudonym from the word esperanto, meaning "one who hopes".

Names of languages are used adverbially, or with the preposition: angle or en la angla Ungvo — both mean "in the English language*1.

The forms given are nouns, indicating a person of the nationality mentioned. To form the adjective, change the ending -o to -a (French wine, franca vino). '

U. S. A. citizen, usonano American, amerikano, nord- amerikano, sud-amcrikano English, anglo French, franco German, germano

Spanish, hispano Russian, ruso Italian, italo Japanese, japano Chinese, cino Dutch, nederlandano

ESPERANTO

603

Norwegian, norvego Swedish, svedo Finnish, jinlandano Belgian, belgo Polish, polo Danish, dano Swiss, sviso Portuguese, portugalo Yugoslav, jugostavo Bulgarian, bulgaro Czech, ceho Greek, greko Turkish, turko Roumanian, rumano Hungarian, hungaro Austrian, austro Malay, malajano Persian, perso Arabian, Arab, arabo Jewish, Hebrew, judo, hebreo Australian, australiano Canadian, kanadano

Mexican, meksikano Brazilian, brazilano Argentinian, argentinano Chilean, cilano Peruvian, peruano Cuban, kubano Puerto Rican, portorikano Colombian, kolombiano Venezuelan, venezuelano Bolivian, boliviano Uruguayan, urugvajano Paraguayan, paragvajano Ecuadorian, ekvadorano Costa Rican, kostarikano Honduran, hondurano Salvadorean, salvadorano Guatemalan, gvatemalano Dominican (of Santo Domingo)

dominikano

Panamanian, panamano Nicaraguan, nikaragvano

25. Adverbs and Adverbial Expressions.

today, hodiau

yesterday, hierau

tomorrow, morgau

c(ay before yesterday, antau hierau

day after tomorrow, post morgau

tonight, hodiau nokte

last night, hierau nokte

this morning, hodiau matene

in the morning, matene

in the afternoon, posttagmeze

in the evening, vespere

in the night, nokte

tomorrow morning, morgau mate- ne

tomorrow afternoon, morgau posttagmeze

tomorrow evening, morgau vespere

tomorrow night, morgau nokte

early, /rue

on time, akurate late, malfrue already, jam no longer, ne plu yet, still, ankorau not yet, ne ankorau now, nun

afterwards, then, poste never, neniam always, ciam forever, por ciam soon, baldau often, ofte seldom, malofte usually, kutime fast, rdpide slowly, malrapide here, ci tie there, tie

604

ESPERANTO

over there, tie

near by, apude

near here, proksime

far away, malprofoime

up, supre

down, malsupre

ahead, in front, antaue

behind, in back, malantaue

forward, antauen

back, malantauen

outside, ekstere

inside, interne

opposite, kontraue

here and there, tie kaj aUloke

everywhere, cie

where?, kie? (motion, kien?)

where, kie, (motion, kien}

also, ankau

yes, jes

no, not, ne

very, tre

much, multe (very much, tre multe)

well, bone

badly, malbone

better, pli bone

worse, pli malbone

more, pli (more than, pli ol; but use pli da before quantity con- notations)

less, malpli

as - as, del — kiel

as much - as, tiom — kiom

as many • as, tiom multe — kiom

how much?, kiom?

26. Conjunctions.

and, kaj but, sed if, se or, au

why?, JM? because, car

how many?, kiom?, kiom multe?

how?, kiel?

too much, tro multe

too many, tro multe, tro multaj

so much, tiom multe

so many, tiom multe, tiom multaj

as, like, kiel

so, tiel

besides, furthermore, plie, plue

finally, fine

only, sole

almost, preskau

gladly, goje, volonte

certainly, certe

at once, tuj

not at all, tute ne

unfortunately, bedaurinde

hardly, apenau

aloud, laute

suddenly, subite

about, cirkau

perhaps, maybe, eble

a little, iomete

again, denove

really, truly, vere

together, kune

at least, almenau

for lack of, pro manko de

a long time ago, longe antaue . ,

repeatedly, again and again,

multfoje

therefore, do, tial further away, pli malproksime of course, kompreneble occasionally, kelkfoje

why, tial, pro tio ke , before, antau when, kiam than, ol where, kie until, till, gis

ESPERANTO

605

although, kvankam

unless, krom se9 se • ne

while, dum

that, ke

for, since, de Jciam, car

after, post, post Idam

as soon as. tuj (post) loam as long as, dum provided that, kondice ke in order that, por ke so that, tiel ke without, sen, sen ke

27. Indefinite Pronouns and Adjectives. everything, cio

everyone, cm

all, cio, ciuj

each, every, cut

something, io

some, iuj, kelkaj

little (not much), malmulta

few, unuj, kelkaj

enough, sufica

enough!, sufice, ne pti!

such a, kia

28. Prepositions.

of, from, by, de out from, out of, el to, at, oZ with, kun in, en on, sur at, ce

over, above, super for, por without, $e/i until, up to, gis since, de post, depost toward, al (or final >n as accusat- ive of direction) between, among, inter near, proksima al far from, malproksima de

29. Special Expressions and Idioms.

good morning, bonan matenon

good day, good afternoon, bonan tagon

good evening, bonan vesperon

all kinds of, ciaj

someone, iu

nothing, nenio

no one, neniu

no., (adj.), neniu,.., nenia.

neither - nor, nek - nek

(an) other, alia

much (lots of), rnulta

many, midtaj,

several, kelkaj, diversaj

l>oth, ambau

before, antau

after, post

in front of, opposite, kontrau

in back of. behind, malantau

under (neath), sub

through, tra

across, trans

Against kontrau. apud

by means of, per

in spite of. spite de

about, around, cirkau

because of, oh account of, pro

during, dum

instead of. anstatau

beside, apud -

on the other side of. aliflanke de

ESPERANTO

good night, bonan nokton

good-by, adiau

see you later, gis revido

see you then, gis la revido

see you tomorrow, gis morgau

just now, jus nun

just a moment ago, jus antau memento

hello! saluton! (on the telephorie, saluton!)

how are you? kiel vi fartas?

how goes it? kiel gi iras

I'm well, tre bone, mi fartas bone

I'm (much) better, (muUe) pli bone

what time is it? kioma horo?

it's six o'clock, estas la sesa

at six o'clock, je la sesa

at about six, proksimume je la sesa

at half past six, je la sesa kaj duono

at a quarter past (to) six, je la sesa kaj kvaroho, kvarono post (antau)

la sesa at ten minutes past (to) six, je la sesa kaj dek minutoj, dek post

(antau) la sesa last year, pasintan jaron next year, venontan jaron every day, ciutage each day, ciun tagon the whole day, la tutan tagon please, will you? mi petas, bonvolu tell me, dim al mi (please tell me, bonvole diru al mi) will you give me? cu vi bonvole donos al mi? bring (to) me, portu al mi show (to) me, montru al mi thank you, dankon, mi dankas don't mention it, tute ne, estas nemo pardon me, pardonu, pardonu min it doesn't matter, never mind, ne graves, tute ne gravas I'm sorry, mi bedauras

I can't help, mi ne povas ne (I can't help saying, mi ne povas ne diri) it's nothing, estas nenio

what a pity!, it's too bad!, kia domago!t estas domage!f domage! I'm glad, mi gojas (to, the same plus infinitive) I have to, mi devas I'm agreeable, mi konsentas where are you going?, kien vi iras? here is (are) , yen estas, jen!

ESPERANTO 607

there is, there are, estas, (use tie estas, if pointing out]

which way?, kien?, kiun direkton?

where is?, kit estas?

this way (direction), ci lien (that way, tien)

this way (in this fashion), tie/, tiamaniere

to the right, dekstren

to the left, maldekstren

straight ahead, rekten, rckte antauen

come with me, venu kun mi

what can I do for you?, kid mi povas vin sertri?

what is happening?, kio okazas?

what is it?, what is the matter?, kio estas? t kio okazas?

what is the matter with you?, kio malestas al vi?9 kio okazas al vi?

what do you want?, kion vi deziras?

how much is it?, kiom?, kiom kostas?

anything else?, ion pli?, cu ion pti?

nothing else, nenion pli

do you speak Esperanto?, cu vi parolas esperanto?

a little, iomete

speak (more) slowly, parolu (pli) malrapide

do you understand?, cu vi komprenas?

I don't understand, mi ne komprenas

do you know?, cu vi sdas?

I don't know, mi ne scias

I can't, mi ne povas

what do you call this in Esperanto?, kiel oni nomas gin esperante?

how do you say — in Esperanto?, kiel vi diras — esperante?

what does that mean?, kion gi signifas?

what do you mean?, kion vi volas diri?

what are you talking about?, pri kio vi parolas?

I'm an American (citizen of U. S. A., Esperantist) , mi estas amerikano

(usonano, esperantisto) I'm hungry (thirsty, sleepy, warm, cold), mi estas malsata (soifa,

dormema, varma, malvarma) It's warm, (cold, windy, fine weather, bad weather), estas varme

(malvarme, vente, bona vetero, malbona vetero) It's forbidden, estas malpermesite (no smoking, ne fumu, malpermesite

fumi)

luckily, bonsance, {dice is it not so?, cu ne? (use this invariable phrase wherever English

repeats the verb: you went, didn't you?; he is here, isn't he?) not at all, tute ne

how old are you?, kian agon vi havas?, kiom da jaroj vi havas? I'm twenty years old, mi havas dudek jarojn

6Q8 ESPERANTO

how long have you been waiting? kiom longe vi atendis?

how long have you been here?, kiom longe vi estis ci tie?

as soon as possible, kiel eble pfe/ baldaii

come here!, venu!, venu ci tien!

come in!, eiwenu!

look!, rigardu!

careful!, atentu!, zorgu!

look out!, zorgu vin!t gardu vin!

for heaven's sake!, pro Dio!9 Dio mia!

heck!, darn it!, damnu!, kondamnu je infero!, diable!

as you please, kiel placas al vi

listen!, look here!, say!, atentu!

just a second!, momenton!

what kind of?, kia?, kia speco de?

gangway!, by your leave!, pasejon!, kun via permeso!

in any case, at any rate, ciaokaze

glad to meet you, kun plezuro9 mi gojas konatigi kun vi

you don't say so!, cu vere!, nekredeble!

notice!, aviso!

ENGLISH

APPENDIX B ENGLISH

SPEAKERS AND LOCATION1 (All population figures are approximate)

Western Hemisphere — U. S. A. — 132,000,000; Canada, Newfoundland and Labrador — 12,000,000j2 Alaska 70,000; Bermudas — 30,000; Bahamas — 30,000; Jamaica — 1,200,000; Leeward and Windward Islands — 400,000; British Guiana — 350,000. Official and second- ary tongue in British Honduras (60,000) ; Canal Zone (50,000); Puerto Rico ( 2,000,000 ); Virgin Islands (25,000). Widely spoken in Mexico, Greenland, Cuba, Haiti, Dominican Republic, and Spanish and Portuguese- speaking countries of Central and South America.

Europe — Great Britain and Northern Ireland — 47,000,000; Eire — 3,000,000. Official and secondary tongue of ' Gibraltar (21,000); Malta (270,000). Widely spoken in Iceland and on the European continent, particularly in Belgium, Denmark, France, the Netherlands, Norway, Sweden and Switzerland. Between four and five million continental Europeans speak English.

Asia — Language of colonization in Burma (16,000,000); Ceylon (6,000,000); Cyprus (400,000); Malaya and Straits Settlements (5,500,000) ; Hong Kong (1,500,000) ; British India (390,000,000); Palestine (1,500,000);

1. See English map, p. 62.

2. Including some 3,000,000 French Canadian speakers in Quebec and Ontario, most of whom speak English as well.

ENGLISH

Transjordan (500,000), etc. It is estimated that English is spoken by over 22,000,000 people in India and Ceylon, 1,200,000 in Burma and Malaya, 1,000,000 in Japan, 3,000,000 in China, 500,000 in the Near East.

Africa — Official, but not primary language of Liberia (2,000,000, of whom 200,000 speak English) and the Union of South Africa (10,700,000, of whom 2,150,000 speak English). Language of colonization in Anglo-Egyp- tian Sudan (6,500,000); Basutoland (600,000); Bed)- uanaland (300,000); Gambia (200,000); Gold Coast (4,000,000) ; Kenya (3,500,000) ; Nigeria (22,000,000). Nyasaland (1,600,000); Rhodesia (3,000,000); Sierra Leone (2,000,000); British Somaliland (350,000V. Southwest Africa (300,000); Swaziland (150,000); Tanganyika (5,300,000); Uganda (3,800,000). Widely spoken in Egypt. The total number of English speakers throughout the African continent is estimated at over 4,170,000.

Oceania — Official and primary language of Australia (7,000,000) and New Zealand (1,600,000). Language of colonization in insular possessions of U. S. and Great Britain having total populations of 2,600,000,3 exclusive of Hawaii (500,000) and the Philippines (16,000,000); in the former, most of the population speaks English, while in the latter over one-fourth (4,260,000) of the population speaks English.

3. Including the Bismarck Archipelago, British North Borneo, Brunei, the Cook, Fiji, Gilbert and Ellice Islands, Guam, Labuan, New Gui- nea, some of the New Caledonia and New Hebrides Islands. Papua, Samoa, Sarawak, the Solomon Islands, Tonga, etc.

ENGLISH

APPENDIX C MILITARY SLANG

Words and expressions coined by men in the armed ser- vices are picturesque, but extremely unstable, being frequently recast, dropped or added to. Some of these terms, however, may easily survive in the post-war period and become part and parcel of the spoken English of one or another section of the English-speaking world. A few such terms that have recently appeared in the press are:

U. S. FORCES (MOSTLY AIR FORCE AND MARINES)

to stew in one's own juice, to sweat out

to wait for food, to sweat out a chow line

stupid, knucklehead

object, thing, gizmo

a complete miss, M aggie' s drawers

to score a hit, to lay it in the black

field shoes, boon dockers

prisoner, brig rat

cigarette makings, blanket and freckles

0. K., ding hau

yes-man, ear banger

girl friend, Fifi

necktie, field scarf

hand, glom

candy, pogie bait

stop it!, knock it off!

Messerschmidt, tailpecker

double fighter-plane attack on

bomber, sister act

672

WCL1SH

BRITISH (MOSTLY R. A. F.)

plane,

bomb,

torpedo bomb,

depth-bomb,

macbine-gun bullets,

enemy planes at 10,000 feet,

non-flying airman,

canteen-loving flier,

girl friend,

two-turret tank,

commando knife,

target,

fed up with,

to crash,

here's to you!,

to be skeptical,

real truth,

wrong steer,

not to have something,

kite

egg

fish

ash-can

confetti

bandits at ten grand

penguin

canteen cowboy

target for tonight

Mae West

smatchet

rhubarb

browned off, brassed ofj

cheesed off to prang cheers!

to take a dim view pukka gen duff gen to have had it

AUSTRALIAN

wife,

children,

walk,

street,

tea,

to play piano,

trouble

godfers

whisper

field

rosie

to fancy fanny

ENGLISH

NEOLOGISMS

Definitely linked with the war, but of more widespread application by reason of civilian as well as military use, are terms like G. I. (originally "General Issue", applied to articles of military equipment, now used indifferently as a noun to apply to the soldier himself or as an adjective to describe any of his belongings or multifarious activities); jeep (said to be from G. P., "general purpose"; this word has recently given rise to such derivatives as feepable, unjeepable, jeepability, applied to roads and jungle trails); gremlin; blitz (noun, adjective and verb) ; paratroops and paratrooper; fifth column; Quisling (with a verb, to quisle); selectee; war of nerves; black market (with a derivative, blacketeer, in which the influence of racketeer is clearly perceptible); flak (an abbreviation for the German Flugzeugabwehrkannonen, anti- aircraft guns) and ak-ak. To liaise (from liaison; "to liaise between Washington and New York"), to do a Dunkirk (to retreat hurriedly), and to coventrize (from Coventry; to demolish completely) have also been reported. Pill-box, fox- hole, bazooka, bulldozer are well known.

The language of the underworld on the one hand, that of swing-crazy youthful generations on the other, are rich in neologisms the continued existence of most of which is extre- mely doubtful. Such innovations consist in part in the coining of new words, but to a much greater degree in changes in the meaning of existing words and combinations.

Three terms from the shady side of life which have recently come to the writer's attention are mooch, used not in its older slang acceptance of "to beg", but as a noun to replace sucker, the prospective victim of a swindle; pitch, the salestalk

()14 ENGLISH

of an aggressive salesman or confidence man; and to run someone (in the sense of '"to chase someone") with a knife.

From the youthful and swing-loving angle there is a choicer assortment: what gives? ("what's up?"; "how are you?"; the influence of German was gibt's? seems perceptible here); apple-polishing (currying favor) ; corny, or off the cob (silly or sentimental; to spout corn, or to slide one's jib, is to sentimentalize or to talk too much) ; to collapse (to sit down) ; to be cooking with gas (or on the front burner: to be doing well); to blitz the cold-storage plant (to raid the frigidaire) ; AWOL (no longer "absent without leave", but "a wolf on the loose"; wolf and wolverine are themselves new acceptances of •age-old terms to denote the more sexily inclined of the two sexes); burnt to a crisp (up-to-date); gruesome twosome (a pair keeping steady company) ; to ice up (to give the cold shoulder to) ; to woof (to kid or to tease) ; to nix (to get rid of) ; do you dig me? ("do you get me?"). Expressions of approval are legion: on the beam, in the groove, groovy, hard, murder , mellow, on fire, has his boots on, etc. etc. etc.

From the more professionally musical end of the swing movement come expressions such as jameroo or barrelhouse (swing session); 'gators and hepcats (fanciers of the new vogue in music) ; fave (favorite) ; jive or jam anthems (pieces of swing music); killer-diller (musical hit); black-stick or agony-pipe (clarinet); voodoo boilers (drums); woodpile (xylophone) ; and to lather the moth-box (to play the piano).

Terms like boondoggle and gobbledigook represent the recent contribution of politics to the language.

All that can be said of the above items is that they are illustrative of the growth and decay of language. The over- whelming majority of them are destined to an ephemeral life, being replaced almost as soon as they are born by new expres- sions that quickly gain and lose popularity. A few will find literary favor in the eyes of newspapers and magazines, become generalized throughout the English-speaking world by reason of the press, movietone and radio, and ultimately pass into the vocabulary of the standard English of the future.

GLOSSARY

615

A GLOSSARY OF GRAMMATICAL AND LINGUISTIC TERMS

(with partial index)

ablative — see case

absolute — see case

abstract — see noun

accent — voice-stress or voice-energy bearing upon a given part of the word; in a word like "absolute", the accent falls on the first syl- lable; in "European", on the next to the last; in "delay", on the last. Frequently a sentence-stress appears as well as a word-stress; in the sentence "I have done it, not you", the words "I" and "you" bear a special stress. Some languages have more stress than others; English, for instance, has a stronger stress than French. For the accentuation of various languages, see pp. 67, 89, 127, 173, 187, 229, 272, 315, 323, 330, 354, 361-2, 366, 368, 371-2, 374-5, 379-81, 384, 396, 423, 427, 432, 436, 438, 440, 444, 447, 451, 465, 487, 508, 533. Pitch, or pitch-accent, is simply a musical rise in the tone of the voice, as when an English- man says: "Did you really?" Pitch and stress are usually both present in any given tongue, but in different proportions. For the significant value of pitch in some languages, see pp. 92, 98, 102, 354, 372, 444. See also tone.

accent-mark — the written symbol used, in some languages, to indicate where the stress falls (as in Spanish accidn, Italian cittd), or to show that the vowel over which it appears is to be given a special sound (as in French parle", f£te, fiddle). The more usual accent marks are the acute {')» the grave (^) and the circumflex (A). For the dif- ferent values of accent marks in various tongues, see pp. 105, 173, 184, 187, 229, 272, 302, 315, 330, 361, 366, 368, 370-1, 423, 432, 436, 440, 444-5, 449, 494. See also diacritic.

accusative — see case

active — see voice

address, forms of — in English, it is customary to use the same form of address in the singular and in the plural, familiarly or politely (you have seen it); in many languages, however, a distinction is made between a singular and a plural "you" (French tu I'as vu; vous Vavez vu, or archaic English thou hast seen it; ye have seen it); a distinction

616

GLOSSARY

is also made in many languages between a person or persons whom one wants to address familiarly, and a person or persons whom one wants to address politely; often the polite singular form coincides with the familiar plural (French vous I'avez vu can serve as a familiar plural, as when a mother addresses two of her children; as a polite Singular, as when a tourist addresses a stranger; or as a polite plural, as when a tourist addresses two or more strangers) ; in other languages, special polite forms appear, generally with a form of the verb other than the second person (Spanish usted lo ha visto, for which the closest English literal equivalent would be "Your Honor, your Grace, has seen it"; or German Sie haben es gesehen, literally, "they have seen it"; or Italian Lei, or Ella I'ha visto, literally, "she has seen it"; the capitalization of Sie and Lei is merely a written-tongue con- vention). For the forms of polite address in various languages, see pp. 94, 100, 113, 133, 177, 192, 205, 234, 245, 248, 278, 391, 397, 538, 542-3. Certain languages, like Japanese, have, in addition to a familiar and a polite form of address, also an honorific one, reserved for cases where one wishes to be superlatively polite (see pp. 536, 538, 547). Compare with the various gradations of politeness implied in French ton pere, votre pere, monsieur votre pere; in Italian tuo padre, vostro padre, Suo padre, il Suo signor padre-, etc. The Japanese use of com- pletely different verbs to express familiarity, politeness or special honor might be remotely compared with such English expressions as: "Buddy, did you get a look at the enemy?"; "Lieutenant, did you see the enemy?"; "Did your Excellency discern the enemy?"

adjective — a word used with a noun to describe it (in which case it is calico? a descriptive adjective: "the large book") or to limit it (in which case it may be demonstrative: "this book"; possessive: "my book"; indefinite: "any book"; interrogative: "which book?"). In some languages, the possessive adjective is accompanied by the definite ar- ticle (Italian il mio libro, literally, "the my book"; see pp. 280, 322), Numerals ("two books") and articles ("a book", "the book") may also be said to fall under the heading of adjective insofar as they limit nouns. Participles are frequently used as adjectives ("the speaking man", "the spofcen word"). For the peculiarities of adjectives in certain language-groups, see pp. 24, 35, 42.

The descriptive variety of adjective may modify its noun directly (in which case it is called attributive: "the strong man"); or indirectly, through the verb "to be" (in which case it is called predicate: "the man is strong"; see pp. 112, 131, 188, 231, 235, 384, 394, 437, 468, 497, 548). Furthermore, it may appear in three degrees: positive (strong, beauti- ful); comparative (stronger, more beautiful); superlative (strongest, most beautiful); for the formation of the comparative and superlative

GLOSSARY (5/7

in various tongues, see pp. 175, 276, 318, 363, 385, 424, 433, 441, 452, 468, 477, 497-8, 512.

In English, the adjective, save for the degrees of comparison described above, is invariable; that is, it does not change its form to conform with the gender and number of the noun (compare English strong man, strong woman, strong men, strong women with French homme fort, femme forte, hommes forts, femmes fortes). In many languages, notably of the Indo-European and Semitic groups, agree- ment prevails (see agreement); in some languages, the adjective agrees in the attributive, but not in the predicate position (German guter Mann vs. der Mann ist gut), most Germanic languages have two dif- ferent forms for the attributive adjective, a "strong" and a "weak" form, according to what precedes the adjective (German ein guter Mann vs. der gute Mann; see pp. 93-4, 99, 106-7, 112, 131, 134).

For adjectives of nationality ("an English book"), see pp. 187, 218, 260, 305, 344, 412-3, 565.

In many languages, there is no clear-cut difference in form or use between certain adjectives and related nouns (English "put this letter in the mail"; "put this letter in the mail-box"); or even be- tween adjectives and related verbs (pp. 496, 548).

See also: agreement, case, classifier, declension, ending, gender, inflection, number.

adverb — a word that modifies a verb ("he walked slowly"), an adjective ("a very good book"), or another adverb ("he walked very slowly"); the adverb usually shows time (tomorrow), place (here) or manner (badly). In English, many adverbs are formed from ad- jectives by the addition of the adverbial suffix -ly (slow, slowly); in other languages, similar suffixes are added (French lent, lentement); while others make no distinction of form between the adjective and the adverb (German er ist langsam, "he is slow"; er geht langsam, "he goes slowly"; see pp. 131, 175, 385, 427, 497); this occurs occasionally in English ("shoot straight"; "go slow"). For the formation of adverbs in various languages, see pp. 35, 190, 231, 276, 318, 363, 424, 497.

adverbial expression — a group of words fulfilling the same function as a single adverb ("from time to time" = "occasionally": "over there" = "there"; "in a poor way" = "poorly").

affiliation — see classification

affirmative — see conjugation

affix — see prefix, suffix, and pp. 507-8

agglutination — the process of adding suffixes to roots to indicate various relations of gender, number, case, etc. In English, this pro- cess is carried on to a moderate degree (empr-ess-es, where -ess- in- dicates feminine gender and -es plural number; or sky-wards, where -wards indicates direction). In the languages properly described as

GLOSSARy

agglutinative, the process goes much further, with the added feature that the suffixes have greater independence, individuality and mobility (Hungarian Magyar-orszdg-ban, literally "Magyar-land-in", "in Hungary"), See pp. 24, 30, 32-3, 430, 437-8, 440-1.

agreement — the process whereby one part of speech, used in conjunction with another, changes its form to conform with the other; this applies especially to adjectives which, in many languages, "agree" in number and gender with the noun they modify (French le haut mur, la haute maison, les Hants murs, les hautes raatsons); and to verbs, which agree with the subject in number and person, occasionally in gender (Spanish yo hablo, ellos hablan; English I am, you are, he is). In English, the adjective does not agree, while the only form of the verb that normally shows a change of ending to indicate agreement is the third person singular of the present (he comes vs. I, you, we, they, come). In languages, like Chinese, which do not use endings, there is no agreement of any kind. For various forms of agreement, see pp. 132, 136, 190, 203, 326, 384, 424, 467-8; for non-agreement, see p. 441.

alphabet — a set of letters or symbols purporting to represent in writing the sounds of a language; an alphabet differs from a syllabary in that the symbols of the alphabet are supposed to represent single vowel and consonant sounds, while the symbols of a syllabary re- present complete syllables. The ideal, or phonetic alphabet is one in which each symbol has only one possible sound, and each separate sound is represented by a symbol; some alphabets, like the Spanish and Finnish, come close to this ideal state; others, like the English or French, are far removed from it, with individual symbols having several different sound-values (English a in bat, ball, fare, father), and single sounds represented by combination of symbols (English shoot, this). The alphabetic notation used by most western nations is called Roman. For various alphabetic notations, see pp. 19, 25, 27, 92, 98, 105, 110, 124-5, 172-3, 184-5, 227-8, 270-1, 313-4, 354-61, 368, 371, 378, 422, 426, 432, 436, 450-2, 461-2, 479, 528, 583. For individual alphabetic system, see: Arabic, 440, 461-2, 507, 513 Canarese, 461

Cyrillic, 354-60, 371-2, 374-5, 378 Devanagari, 19, 461-2, 485, 504 Gothic, 98, 124-5 Greek, 354, 422, 426 Hebrew, 25, 27, 4tJl-2 Irish, 448-9 Phoenician, 461, 489 Roman, 98. 354-5, 357, 366, 369, 371-2

GLOSSARY 619

Romanized, 461-2, 507, 513, 528

Tamil, 461, 485-6

Telugu, 461, 485

See also picture-writing, syllabary.

analysis — see simplification

animate — see noun

antecedent — see pronoun (relative), and pp. 243, 471, 543

aorist — see tense

apostrophe — a mark indicating, usually, the omission of a letter (English mother o' mine; French I'homme); see pp. 187, 315.

apposition — see noun

archaic (obsolete) — ancient or antiquated; no longer in use; as applied to a word or form, it means that the latter was once in current use, but has now dropped from the language (English loveth for loves', forms like 'sblood!, 'sdeath!). An obsolescent form is one which is not yet obsolete, but is falling into disuse (English graveyard, generally replaced by cemetery). See pp. 19, 287, 289, 353, 446.

article — a form used with a noun, to give it a definite or an in- definite value (the man, a man) ; in English, the is the definite, a or an the indefinite article. Most western languages have the equivalents of both, though the rules for their use are far from uniform (English, "liberty is precious"; French, "la libertS est precieuse"; English, "Span- ish is an easy language"; Spanish, "el espanol es una lengua facil"; English, "he is a doctor"; Italian, "e medico"). Some languages, like Russian, dispense with both; others, like Greek, have a definite, but no indefinite article (see pp. 361, 368, 381, 423, 440, 450, 496, 534). In several languages (Swedish, Roumanian, Bulgarian, etc.), the definite article, instead of coming before the noun, follows it and is attached or "suffixed" to it in writing (Roumanian cal-ul, literally "horse-the"; see pp. 89, 170, 174, 374-5, 427, 452, 467). In many languages, the article combines with certain preceding prepositions (French du livre. "of the book", with du representing a contraction of de le, "of the": see pp. 163, 188, 221, 272, 274, 317). In some languages, the article is used before the possessive adjective or pronoun (Italian il mio libro, lit "the my book"; voglio il mio, lit. "I want the mine"; see pp. 134, 280, 322).

aspect — in several languages, notably the Slavic, verbs are divided into two classes: perfective (indicating an action as completed) and imperfective (indicating an action as uncompleted). This may be somewhat remotely compared to English "I spoke to him yesterday" (where it is implied that the action of speaking was finished at the time mentioned) vs. "I was speaking to him when you came in" (where the action of speaking was left suspended). See pp. 353, 364, 390. 395, 437.

GLOSSARY

aspiration — the pronouncing of a consonant with a puff of breath immediately following it, as in English pin (p + hin) as against spin; see pp. 446, 449-51, 494.

assimilation — the change whereby -one sound becomes identical with another; especially in the case of a consonant preceding another, and changing so as to conform with the other, as happened when Latin septeni, octo became Italian sette, otto; see p. 467.

attributive — see adjective

auxiliary — a "helping" word, usually a verb, which helps another verb to show time, mood, etc. (English have in "I have spoken", will in "he will go", be in "to be heard"; see pp. 22, 139, 235, 517-8). Modal auxiliary is a term used especially in the grammar of the Germanic tongues to indicate all the verbs used to show the manner of the action shown by the main verb (English can, may, ought, must; German durfen, sollen, wollen, werden, etc.; see pp. 137, 142). For auxiliary numeral, see classifier.

back vowel — see vowel

bilingual — speaking two languages, as a French Canadian who speaks English in addition to his native French, or a Belgian speaking both French and Flemish, or a South African speaking both English and Afrikaans; see pp. 16, 47, 49, 77.

borrowed words — see loan-words

breathings — special marks used in ancient Greek to indicate the aspiration or non-aspiration of certain vowels and consonants, see p. 422.

capital — while capitals exist in all languages using the Roman. or similar alphabets (Cyrillic, Greek, Gothic, etc.), and are generally used at the beginning of the sentence, they are not always used identically in other connections; German, for instance, capitalizes all nouns, common as well as proper (der Hund, "the dog"); French does not capitalize adjectives of nationality (un livre jrancais, "a French book"). For the different use of capitals in various languages, see pp. 98, 124, 159, 187, 218, 248, 260, 305, 331, 344, 412-3.

cardinal — see numeral

case — broadly, the grammatical function of a noun or pronoun in the sentence, as when we say that in the sentence "the boy is here", "boy" is in the nominative or subjective case, while in "I see the boy", "boy" is in the accusative or objective case. But often the distinction is one of form as well as of function or use; a case-form is a specific variant of the noun, adjective or pronoun, specifically in- dicating by its appearance (usually by its ending) the function which it is supposed to have in a sentence (subject, direct object, indirect object, etc.). English has no separate case-forms for adjectives; only two forms for nouns that differ from the general form (the possessive,

GLOSSARY 62 1

or genitive, singular and plural: "the boy's book", "the boys' books", as against the general forms boy, boys); and as many as three for some pronouns (nominative or subjective, I, who', genitive or posses- sive, my, whose; accusative or objective, me, whom). Certain languages, particularly of the Indo-European group, have numerous case-forms for nouns and adjectives; where these exist, the following are the most common:

nominative (or subjective) — usually indicates that the noun or pronoun is the subject or a predicate nominative; Latin "puer est bonus", "Romulus est puer"; see pp. 23, 128, 388, 479-80. genitive (or possessive) — indicates, among other things, ownership; English "the boy's house"; Latin "domus pueri"

dative — generally indicates that the noun or pronoun is an in- direct object; English "I give the boy the book" (but note that in this sentence it is the position of "the boy", not its form, that tells us it is an indirect object); English often marks the dative by the pre- position to ("I give the book to the boy"); Latin "puero libi;um do". accusative (or objective) — indicates, usually, the direct object; in English "I see the boy", it is only the position of "the boy" that tells us it is a direct object, but in "I see him" we have the specific accusative form him, as well as the position; Latin "puerum video". vocative — the form used in direct address; Latin "quid agis, Petre?" ("what are you doing Peter?"); see pp. 362, 374. ablative, instrumental and locative indicate a variety of functions which English generally expresses by the use of prepositions; the ablative, originally, indicated removal /rom, or direction away from (UI took the book /rom the boy"); the instrumental, means by which (tkl write with a pencil"); the locative, place where ("he is in the city"). These functions are merged in many languages (Latin, where the ablative takes over both instrumental and locative functions). The use of case-endings originally permitted Indo-European speakers to dispense with prepositions, but in many languages today both case- endings and prepositions are used.

The prepositional case of the Slavic languages is another term for the locative, used because, while prepositions appear in connection with other cases, the locative is the only one which cannot be used without a preposition.

The absolute case of Japanese (see p. 535) isolates the noun gram- matically from the rest of the sentence (English "your brother, did he come today?").

The oblique case, in certain languages, represents a merger or falling together of the former cases outside of the nominative, which remains distinct in form (see pp. 479-80).

When the terms case and case -forms are applied to languages

$22 GLOSSARY

outside of the Indo-European group, they are generally loosely used to indicate something analogous or similar, but not quite identical (see pp. 432-3, 436, 535).

See also pp. 89, 128, 170, 173-4, 353, 362, 369, 374, 382, 388-90, 423-4, 427, 432, 436, 440, 443-4, 447, 449-51, 479-80, 497, 510. 527, 535; and declension, ending, inflection.

caste — a hereditary social class; for the influence of the caste- system on language, see pp. 33. 487.

causative — see conjugation

cedilla — a mark placed under the letter c (g) to indicate that it is to be given a special sound, usually that of s (pp. 187, 270), but occasionally another (p. 440). For the use of the cedilla under letters other than c, see pp. 173, 440. It is a curious fact that the cedilla was first used in Spanish, which later dropped it.

classification (or affiliation) of languages — the process of estab- lishing the family relationship of a language, the larger group to which it belongs; see pp. 18-39, 455.

classifier (or determinative) — in certain languages, notably Chinese, a word which accompanies other words for the purpose of clarifying their meaning and identifying them as belonging to certain groups, like English "head" in "fifty head of cattle"; see pp. 495, 499, 504, 550-1.

clause — a simple sentence which serves as part of another, longer sentence; in a sentence such as "I spoke to the man whom I met yesterday", "I spoke to the man" is the main or principal clause, "whom I met yesterday" the subordinate clause, while the sentence as a whole is described as complex. Occasionally the two clauses are not one subordinate to the other, but equally independent; they can be detached from each other and each used separately as a complete simple sentence, as in "I met the man yesterday and I spoke to him", In this case, the sentence is called compound and the two clauses are described as co-ordinate; see pp. 127, 203, 220, 240, 263, 286, 329, 347, 353, 540-1, 543.

collective — see numeral

colloquialism — see slang

colonizing language (or language of colonization) — the tongue of a colonizing nation, which implants itself in another country, and is spoken by a minority composed of officials, soldiers, traders, mis- sionaries, etc. Where the native population is sparse, and the colon- izing tide heavy, the colonizing language may become the tongue of the majority of the inhabitants, as is the case with English in the United States, Australia, New Zealand and Canada. Elsewhere, it may remain a minority language, as is the case with English in

GLOSSARY 623

British India. See pp. 25, 35-9, 40, 43, 49, 51, 53, 55-64, 81-7, 122-3, 167, 182-3, 226-7, 244-6, 268-9, 312-3, 351, 376-7, 455-6, 459, 524-6, 609, 610.

common — see gender, noun

comparative — see adjective

complex — see clause, sentence

compound forms — words like steam-boat, railroad, upgrade, etc., where two separate elements enter into the composition of the one word; see pp. 353, 487-8, 496, 532.

compound object pronoun — see pronoun

compound sentence — see clause, sentence

compound tense — see tense

concrete — see noun

conditional — see tense

conjugation — either an arrangement of the forms of a verb, or a set of verbs having the same inflections. English has only two conjugational types, the strong and the weak (see verb); in other lan- guages, notably the Romance, verbs are divided up among several distinct conjugational types (Spanish -ar, -er, -ir; see pp. 178, 196, 233, 281, 323, 425, 472, 507). In addition to conjugational types, we may speak of a verb as being conjugated, or presented, in many ways: affirmative (states) — I see, you see, he sees, etc.; see p. 487. negative (denies) — I do not see, you do not see, etc.; see pp. 434, 441, 545-6, 549.

interrogative (questions) — do I see?, do you see?, etc.; see pp. 428, 474, 501, 512, 535, 545.

progressive (indicates an action going on) — I am speaking, I was speaking, I shall be speaking, etc.; see pp. 137, 239, 282, 288, 323, 475, 518, 541.

reflexive (indicates that the subject acts on himself) — I see myself, etc.; see pp. 178, 201, 239, 285-6, 328, 335, 393, 441, 501. reciprocal (two or more subjects acting on each other, therefore can be used only in the plural) — we see each other, etc.; see p. 441. causative (indicates that the subject causes something to be done, or somebody to do something) — see p. 441.

conjunction — a word which connects other words or clauses, like English and, but, if, since, though; see p. 513.

consonant — a sound characterized by friction, squeezing, or stoppage of breath in some part of the mouth, or a letter representing such a sound; 21 of the 26 letters of the English alphabet (omitting a, e, i, o, u) are loosely described as consonants; see pp. 29, 37, 86, 126, 186, 228, 353, 361, 380, 461-2, 487-8. For aspirated consonants, see aspiration, and p. 494; for broad and slender consonants, in Irish, see pp. 446, 449; for emphatic consonants, in Arabic, see pp. 465-6; for palatal consonants, see pp. 353-4, 380, 446. For double consonants, see

GLOSSARY

pp. 172, 270, 315, 329, 432, 434, 436, 466, 487, 532 (note that in some lan- guages the written double consonant is pronounced single, as in English butter; in others, it is definitely given a double, or "long" pronunciation, as in Italian otto). For voiced and unvoiced consonants, see pp. 380, 494, 531 (the voiced consonant is pronounced with, the unvoiced with- out vibration of the vocal cords; there is no difference between t and d, p and b, k and g, save that the first member of each pair has no vibration of the vocal cords, while the second has).

coordinate — see clause, sentence

copulative — see verb

cultural language — see secondary language

cuneiform — wedge-shaped; the type of writing used by the Babylonians, Assyrians and ancient Persians, who pressed wedge- shaped writing instruments into wet clay; see p. 489.

dative — see case

declension — the various forms taken by a noun, adjective or pronoun to indicate case, number, gender, etc.; see pp. 88, 353, 362, 369, 382, 394, 423-4, 443-4, 507; see also case, ending, gender, inflection, number.

definite article — see article

demonstrative — a form that indicates or points out, like this, that; see adjective, pronoun.

derivative — a word that comes from another, as undo from do, machinist from machine, etc.; see p. 515.

descriptive — see adjective

desiderative — see voice

determinative — see classifier

diacritic mark — a mark accompanying a letter of the alphabet to indicate that it is to be given a special pronunciation. The accent marks (q. v.) are diacritics; so is the tilde of Spanish appearing over the n (n), the hook appearing under a and e in Polish to indicate nasalization (q, e), etc.; see pp. 366, 370, 440, 444, 531, 583.

diaeresis — two dots over a vowel to indicate that it is to be separated from the preceding or following vowel, and not to form a diphthong with it, as in French naif, Noel, Spanish averts/tie, English zoology, etc.; see p. 187.

dialect — a local form of speech, differing to a greater or lesser degree from the standard national or literary language; see pp. 33, 38, 51, 61, 64-7, 85-6, 168, 170, 172, 244-6, 268-70, 329-30, 427, 451-2, 455-8, 465, 488, 491-3, 507, 532. See also standardization,

diminutive — a derivative form indicating, usually by means of a special suffix, a small or dear variant of the object in question, as English lambkin (from lamb), eaglet (from eagle), kitten (from cat), or Spanish ciparrtllo (from ciparro). Some languages, like Dutch,

CLOSSARY (J25

•

Spanish and Italian, are more prone to use diminutives than others; within the same language, some sections are occasionally more prone to use diminutives (Mexico, for example, uses more than Spain). See pp. 128, 289.

diphthong — "two vowels pronounced as one", either for what concerns sound (as in French ai, which is equivalent in sound some- times to e, sometimes to e; but this is more exactly described as a digraph); or for what concerns the combination of the two vowel- sounds in the same impulse of the voice (as in Spanish hierro, where there are two separate sounds, but pronounced in one syllable). See pp. 184, 287, 493. See also syllable.

direct object — see object

dissyllabic — consisting of two syllables, like English pretty; see p. 507.

dual — see number

eclipsis — a phenomenon appearing especially in the Celtic tongues, whereby an initial consonant changes by reason of the original final sound of the preceding word, which is generally lost; see pp. 446, 449. See also lenition.

emigrant language (or language of emigration) — the tongue carried by emigrants from one country to another, and continuing to be spoken in communities made up of emigrants, like Italian in New York's Little Italy. See pp. 122-3, 312-3, 352, 377, 492, 526.

ending — that part of the word which does not belong to the root; but indicates gender, number, case, person, tense, mood, etc., like the -s in "he takes", the -d in "I loved", the -en in "oxen", French -e* in grandes] see pp. 18, 30, 32, 88, 131, 170, 381, 394, 426, 434, 451, 496. Case-endings appear in languages where a case-system is used, like Latin murus, muri, muro, murum, mure, muro; see pp. 22, 33, 89, 362, 382, 479-80, 535; see also case, conjugation, declension, gender, inflec- tion, number, possession, suffix, tense, voice.

familiar form 6f address — see address

feminine — see gender

fraction, fractional — see numeral

front vowel — see vowel

future, future anterior, future perfect — see tense

gender — the classification of nouns according to sex, real or fancied, or according to their denoting animate or inanimate objects, or according to other concepts, such as that of caste. English has a "natural" system of gender (male beings are masculine, female beings feminine, inanimate objects neuter, while the common gender is a rather vague entity including animate beings whose sex is unknown to the speaker). Some languages (Latin, German, Russian) havt "grammatical" gender, whereby, even though a masculine-feminine-

GLOSSARY

neuter classification exists, inanimate objects may be masculine or feminine as well as neuter (note a survival of this in English when a ship is referred to as "she"); other languages (Romance, Celtic, Semitic) have reduced their gender system to a masculine-feminine classification, with inanimate objects divided up between those two genders; others (Dutch, Scandinavian) make, in practice, only a division of animate (common) and inanimate (neuter), but with numerous animate objects in the "neuter" gender and inanimate ob- jects in the common gender; others (Hungarian, Japanese) make no distinction of gender whatsoever; while others (Dravidian) have a gender system based on social caste (pp. 33, 487). See pp. 24, 31-3, 37, 83, 128, 170-1, 173, 175, 188, 230, 274, 316, 353, 361-2, 381, 423-4, 427, 430, 432, 436, 440, 446, 452, 463, 466, 477, 480, 487, 496, 504-5, 510, 534.

genitive — see case

gerund — a form of the verb used as a noun. In English the gerund ends in -ing, and there is no distinction in form between the gerund (walking is good exercise, I like walking) and the present participle (he is walking, the walking man), though the functions are quite distinct (the gerund is used as a noun, the present participle as an adjective). Other languages use distinct forms (Italian parlando, starao usciti, "while speaking, we went out"; but r-uorao e un animate parlante, "man is a speaking animal"). The English gerund may be used alone, as subject or object (walking is good', I like walking) or ' after prepositions (without walking)', in many languages, notably of the Romance group, these functions are taken over by the infinitive (Spanish el hablar me gusta', sin hablar)', and the only function left for the gerund is to translate "by" or "while" doing something, as in the Italian example above. See pp. 239, 282, 321, 323, 353, 393, 444.

glottal stop — a "catch in the voice", or a complete shutting off of the breath-stream, usually before a vowel (German die Eier, der Arme). The glottal stop appears as a regular sound (phoneme) in Arabic and Malay (pp. 466, 508). It appears occasionally and acci- dentally in English (cooperate).

grammatical structure — the sum total of the features of a lan- guage (other than its sounds and its vocabulary), such as the way in which it forms and arranges its parts of speech, etc. See pp. 64, 67, 245, 353-4, 419, 429-30, 495.

hieroglyphic — the system of picture-writing of the ancient Egyptians. See pp. 29, 489, and picture-writing.

hiragana — one of the two Japanese syllabaries; see pp. 527-31, 539.

honorific — see address

identification of languages — the process of determining with what language, spoken or written, we are faced; see pp. 13, 15, 67, 72-3, 76,

GLOSSARY 627

102, 109, 116, 172, 178, 366, 369-70, 372, 375, 426, 434, 438, 442, 444, 451, 453.

ideograph — see picture-writing

idiom (or idiomatic expression) — a construction peculiar to one language, which cannot be directly or literally translated into another, and the meaning of which cannot be gathered from its component parts; e. g., English "look out" in the sense of "be careful"; literally translated into most other languages, it will convey only its primary meaning of "look outside".

imperative — see mood

imperfect — see tense

imperfective — see aspect

impersonal — see verb

inanimate — see noun

indeclinable — see invariable

indefinite — see article, adjective, pronoun

indicative — see mood

indirect object — see object

infinitive — the form of the verb which indicates the action with- out reference to a subject. In English, the infinitive consists of the verb-root preceded by to ("to go"; to is omitted after certain verbs, like can, may). Other languages use a specific ending (French aimer, finir, vendre); others do not have a specific infinitive, but make use of other forms of the verb when they want to indicate the action in general (pp. 472, 539). .For certain constructions with the infinitive, see pp. 233, 279, 321. Portuguese has a "personal" infinitive, with personal endings, corresponding roughly to such expressions as "for me to do", "for you to do", etc.; see pp. 284, 307. For the use, of the infinitive in many languages as the equivalent of the English gerund, see gerund.

inflection — the process of change of endings in those forms (nouns, adjectives, pronouns, verbs, adverbs) which are composed of a root and an ending. English, for instance, inflects a noun like boy by adding 's for the possessive, -s for the plural, -s' for the possessive plural; it inflects a pronoun like I by changing it to my or mine in the possessive, me in the objective, we in the subjective plural, our or ours in the possessive plural, us in the objective plural; it inflects an ad- jective like strong by adding -er for the comparative, -est for the superlative; it inflects a verb like love by adding -s in the third per- son singular present, -d in the past, -ing in the present participle. Some languages, like Latin or Russian, inflect the noun, adjective and pronoun to a far greater degree than does English; others, like Chinese, have no inflection at all, but indicate all relations by separate words; such languages are called isolating, since no two meanings are combined

GLOSSARY

in any single word, but each meaning is "isolated" in a separate word; compare the English isolating "I" "shall" "love" with the Spanish inflected amare. See pp. 23, 25, 89, 170, 353, 463, 487-8, 496, 504, 507, 526-7. For various types and forms of inflection, see also adjective, case, conjugation, declension, ending, gender, mood, noun, number, possession, pronoun, tense, verb. For the change from inflec- tion to isolation, see simplification.

instrumental — see case

interjection — a word isolated from the rest of the sentence, and used as an exclamation, like English "ah!", "oh!", "golly!", etc. See D. 514.

international language — either a language deliberately built for international use (like Esperanto, Volapuk, Interglossa, etc.) or a national language adapted for international use (like Basic English or Interlingua); see p. 580.

interrogative — see adjective, conjugation, pronoun. Interrogation or inquiry is indicated in English by an interrogative word ("who did it?"); by an inversion of verb and subject ("is it?"); by the use of do as an interrogative auxiliary ("do you see it?"); or simply by a note of the voice ("you went there yesterday?"). Many languages use the first two and the last of these devices (the use of do as an auxil- iary is typically English). For the written languages, note the Spanish use of an inverted question mark at the beginning of an interrogation (i,lo vid Ud.?), and its use of a written accent on many interrogative words dcudndo lo vid?). Some languages, like Chinese and Japanese, use special interrogative words and constructions (see pp. 501, 545).

intonation — see pronunciation

intransitive — see verb

invariable (or indeclinable) — unchanging in form. The adjective in English is invariable for what concerns gender and number (but not for what concerns degree), whereas in French it is variable, or inflected (haut, haute, Hants, hautes). In isolating languages, like Chinese, all words are invariable. See pp. 437, 441, 452, 504.

isolating — a type of language, like the Chinese, consisting ex- clusively of roots to which no suffixes or endings are added, so that each word is "isolated" and depends for its meaning on its position in the sentence.

kana — the Japanese system of writing, particularly the syllabaries (hiragana, katakana). Kana majiri is the full system of writing, combining Chinese ideographs and the syllabaries. See pp. 526-31.

katakana — one of the two Japanese syllabaries; see pp. 527-31 540.

lenition (or mutation) — changes undergone by consonants,

GLOSSARY

particularly in Celtic, by reason of position between vowels. See p. 446. See also eclipsis, For another meaning of mutation, see umlaut, liaison — see linking

lingua franca — in the Middle Ages, a term describing a language spoken in the Mediterranean basin, consisting of Italian, with additions from other sources (Arabic, French, Greek, etc.), and serving as a tongue of general intercourse for the peoples in that area, especially traders and soldiers. Today the term is applied to any language of general intercourse serving a wide multilingual area (Pidgin English, Malay, etc.). See p. 459 and trade language.

linguistic minorities — groups of speakers of one tongue, living in a political subdivision in which another tongue has more speakers. The tongue of the linguistic minority may, however, be co-official with the majority language, as is the case with Rumansh in Switzer- land, French in Canada, and Spanish in New Mexico; or it may be spoken in a section of the country, without official recognition, like Slovenian in northeastern Italy; see pp. 47-8, 122-3, 352, 376-7, 419.

linking (or liaison) — the carrying over of the final consonant of one word to the initial vowel-sound of the next, as in French tea amoUrs, or Italian con essi; the two words are thereby pronounced as a single word, with syllabic division accordingly (le za rnour; co nes si). Linking occurs most frequently in the Romance languages, with the added feature in French that it causes a final consonant to be pronounced that would otherwise be silent (see p. 186). In German, linking is normally prevented by the giottal stop (q. t>.); in English, incorrect linking is occasionally heard (Long Island, pronounced Long Gisiand).

literal translation — a word-for-word rendering of one language into another; often possible, in simple constructions and in related lan- guages; generally more difficult as the construction becomes longer and more involved, and as the languages diverge; see pp. 18, 172. literary language — see written language

liturgical — pertaining to religious service. Latin is used as a liturgical language in the Roman Catholic Church, regardless of the country's spoken tongue; classical Arabic is similarly used among Moslems; Sanskrit among Buddhists, even in Japan. See p. 29.

loan-word (or borrowed word) — a word which one language has taken from another. Some languages are relatively free of loan-words; others, like English, Persian, Albanian, Armenian, have borrowed over 50% of their total vocabulary. Depending on the time and circum- stances of the borrowing, the loan-word assumes a more or less native appearance in the borrowing tongue; English, borrowing Italian bolcone in the Renaissance, turned it into balcony, and the memory of the borrowing is popularly lost; spaghetti and broccoli, on the other hand,

630 GLOSSARY

are recent arrivals, and their foreign, unmodified form easily identifies them as loan-words; the same word is sometimes borrowed twice, at different periods, like macaroon and macaroni (Italian maccheroni) , or saloon and salon (French salon). See pp. 63, 77-9, 80-87, 90, 172, 378, 421, 426, 428, 440, 456, 462, 480-1, 507, 526, 542, 549-50.

locative — see case

main clause — see clause

masculine — see gender

middle vowel — see vowel

military influence — the coming into the language of words having their origin in warfare and soldiers' slang, like English G. I., jeep, bazooka, or French poilw; see pp. 225, 528, 611.

modal auxiliary — see auxiliary

monogenesis — the theory that all the world's languages go back to a single common ancestor; originally embodied in the Biblical account of the Tower of Babel, it was popularly held for a long time, with Hebrew as the supposed original language, and led to very strange etymologies and derivations of words and grammatical forms on the part of medieval and Renaissance linguistic scholars; discarded in the 19th century, it has recently reappeared in the writings of a few linguists, notably A. Trombetti, but has not met with much favor in linguistic circles. See p. 18.

monosyllabic — consisting of a single syllable, like English do, go, for, what. Some languages, like Chinese, in their present state, consist exclusively of monosyllabic roots (which may, however, be combined into two, three and even four-word compounds having a single mean- ing). See pp. 32, 129, 487-8, 504-5, 507.

mood (or mode) — distinction of form or meaning in a verb to express the manner in which the action denoted is thought of (see pp. 172, 425-6, 434, 437, 499, 538). In English, we speak of an indicative mood (representing the action as a definite fact: "I am", "he loves"); a subjunctive mood (representing the action as hypothetical or sub- ordinated to another action: "whether he be", "if I were"); and an imperative mood (expressing a command or an exhortation: "write to him", "let us go"). The subjunctive mood in English is to a large degree a grammatical name rather than an actuality, because outside of the verb to be, the overwhelming majority of subjunctive forms coincide with their indicative counterparts; this is not true of many other languages (see pp. 141, 203, 220, 240, 263, 286, 329, 347, 393). For the imperative, see pp. 127, 472, 542. Some languages boast of an optative mood, used primarily to express a wish ("would that he were here!" see p. 441). It may be added that in the case of languages having desiderative, causative and other similar forms, the assigning

GLOSSARY

of such forms to mood, voice or conjugation is not always easy (sec conjugation, voice).

mutation — see lenition, umlaut

nasal sounds — sounds appearing in practically all languages, in the production of which the connection between mouth and nose is wholly or partly shut off, with the soft palate lowered and the voice resounding in the nose; for some special nasal sounds of French, Portuguese, Polish, etc., see pp. 172, 184, 187, 270, 354, 361, 366, 444.

negation — denial; in simplest form, "no"; in connection with other words, represented in English by "not" and other devices (note the characteristic English use of do as a negative auxiliary for verbs: "I do not write"). Other languages use a variety of negative devices which do not always correspond to ours (e. g., the French double negative particle in je ne vois pas); see pp. 278, 289, 321, 327, 428, 474, 477, 487, 500-1, 518, 535). Some languages, like Finnish and Japanese, instead of using negative particles with affirmative verbs, use a negative conjugation, which differs in form from the affirmative (see conjugation) .

neuter — see gender

neuter article and pronoun — forms peculiar to some Romance languages, which have in other respects given up the neuter gender (Spanish lo hermoso, "that which is beautiful"; French je n'airae pas cela, V'I don't like that"); see pp. 170, 280.

neutral vowel — see vowel

nominative — see case

noun — the name of a person, place, thing or quality (John, France , bread, beauty). In English, nouns are divided into proper (the name of a specific person or locality; these are capitalized: Roosevelt, Rome), and common (names of things and qualities: iron, intelligence). Com- mon nouns may further be subdivided into concrete (denoting tangible, material things: bread, iron), and abstract (denoting intangible concepts and qualities: freedoih, beauty; see p. 128).

. From the standpoint of use in the sentence, a noun may be used as subject ("John is here"; direct object ("I see John"); indirect ob- ject ("I give John the book"); object of a preposition ("I went with John"); in apposition (describing another noun directly: "John the apostle'1); or as a predicate noun (describing the subject through the verb to be: "John is an apostle").

From the standpoint of structure, a noun has gender, number and case, which means that in languages with full declensional systems, like Sanskrit, 'Greek, Latin and Russian, we may get as many as 24 different forms for the same noun, each marked by a different ending (see pp. 32, 170). Note the distinction made in some languages (Slavic, pp. 362, 382-3) between animate nouns (denoting a living person or

632 GLOSSARY

animal) and • inanimate nouns (denoting lifeless things or abstract qualities) See also case, declension, ending, gender, inflection, number, object, possession, predicate, subject

number — the distinction in form or meaning of a noun, adjective, pronoun or verb to denote "one" or "more than one" of the objects named (see pp. 24, 32, 88, 188-9, 230-1, 247, 274, 463, 466-7, 496, 499, 506, 510, 533, 538). English has two numbers, singular (denoting one) and plural (denoting more than one). The more ancient Indo-European languages and the Semitic tongues also have a dual number (indicating two; Latin duo, am bo are survivals of the ancient Indo-European dual form; see pp. 463, 466-7). Certain Melanesian languages are said to have separate forms, especially for the pronouns, to indicate three and four of the objects in question ("we-three", "you-four"). Some tongues, like Chinese and Japanese, indicate the difference between singular and plural only when strictly necessary (see pp. 497, 510, 533-4). For the formation of the plural, regular and irregular, in various languages, see pp. 23-4, 33, 35, 88, 170, 189, 230-1, 247, 274, 449-50, 452, 477, 487, 497, 510, 533-4 (in English a "regular" plural would be one formed by the addition of -s, such as boys, girls', an "irregular" plural, one formed by other devices, such as oxen, children, men, women, sheep, deer, mice). For the "broken" plural forms of Arabic, see pp. 467-8.

numeral — a word indicating a number, like three, third, etc. The cardinal numeral is the primary number itself (one, two, three; it may be used as an adjective or as a noun). The ordinal numeral shows the order or numerical position of the noun it defines (first, second, third), and is used primarily as an adjective. A collective numeral indicates a round number, like dozen, score (see p. 514). A fractional numeral indicates a part of one, like half, third, quarter. See pp. 37, 132, 169-70, 175, 190, 232-3, 276-7, 319-20, 358-9, 385-6, 424-5, 427, 429-30, 433, 447, 452, 464, 468-9, 498-9, 504, 514, 549. For auxiliary numerals, see p. 550 and classifier.

object — the recipient of the action shown by the verb. In "I struck the man", "the man" directly receives the action of my striking, and is the direct object. In "I gave the man the book", there are two recipients involved, "the book" being primary or direct (what is given), "the man" being secondary or indirect (to whom is given). An easy way of distinguishing the indirect object from the direct is to determine before which of the two objects the preposition to may be correctly used ("I give the book to the man", "I give the book to him"). Different languages use different devices to mark the direct and the indirect object (position in the sentence, case-endings, prepositions, postpositions, etc.; see pp. 22, 23, 536).

GLOSSARY 63)

. object pronoun — see pronoun

objective — see case

oblique — see case

obsolete — see archaic

optative — see mood

ordinal — see numeral

orthography — see spelling

orthographical reform — a change in the system of spelling or writing of a language, usually aimed at obtaining a closer correspond- ence between symbol and sound. Turkish (see p. 440) and Russian (see pp. 355, 378, 462) have recently undergone official orthographic reforms which have made both languages far more accessible to foreign learn- ers and far easier to their own school-children. Similar reforms have been advocated for English (notably, in recent times, by G. B. Shaw in England and former Senator R. L. Owen in the U. S.), but without success thus far. For a similar attempt in Japanese, see p. 528.

parent language — the language from which other tongues are descended; Latin is, for example, the parent language of the Romance tongues. In the case of many groups, a parent language, though un- known because no direct record of it has come down to us, can be more or less hypothetically reconstructed from a comparison of the known members of the group; see pp. 19, 27.

participle — a form of the verb used as an adjective. English has a present active participle (ending in -ing) which coincides in form with the gerund (see gerund) and a passive (incorrectly called past) participle which in weak verbs has the ending -d (loved), in strong verbs a variety of forms (the ending --en often appears: written, spoken, broken, but bound, found, swum, sung, etc.). Many languages have similar forms; others have additional ones (Latin, future active parti- ciple, amaturus, "about to love"). See pp. 353, 393, 444, 473, 487, 516-7, 541.

particle — a subordinate word, not inflected (such as a preposition, conjunction or interjection). Interrogative, negative, emphatic and other particles appear in many languages: see pp. 487, 501, 527, 533, 535.

passive — see voice

past, past absolute, past definite, past indefinite, past perfect — see tense

perfect — see tense

perfective — see aspect

person — the distinction between speaker (first person: "I", "we"); person addressed (second person: "you"); and person or thing spoken of (third person: "he", "she", "it", "they"). In many languages, the distinction of person appears in the form of the verb (then called a personal verb), being conveyed by a special suffix (Spanish amo, amos,

21

GLOSSARY

amo); in others, it is primarily conveyed by a subject pronoun, as happens for the most part in English, where only the third singular present (loves) carries a personal suffix ("I love", "you love", "they love"). Some languages, like Japanese, generally leave the person to be inferred from the context (the Japanese verb is described as im- personal; see p. 538). Other languages, like the Dravidian, distinguish between inclusive and exclusive first person plural ("we" meaning "you and I", and "we" meaning "I and he, but not you"; see p. 487). See also pp. 23, 499, 515.

personal verb — see person, verb

personal infinitive — see infinitive

personal pronoun — see pronoun

phonetic writing — see orthographic reform, spelling

pictograph — see picture-writing

picture-writing — a writing system whereby objects have a pictorial representation, like a round disk for "sun", a crescent for "moon", etc. This seems to be the original form of all writing-systems (see p. 489). A pictograph is a symbol denoting a definite object, as described above; an ideograph is a conventional symbol representing something not so obvious, as when Chinese combines pictographs re- presenting "sun" and "tree" into an ideograph representing "east" ("the sun shining through trees"), or when we use the symbol $ to represent "dollars". See pp. 19, 33, 461-2, 488-92, 526-7.

pitch — see accent

pluperfect — see tense

plural — see number

polite address — see address

polylingual — speaking many tongues, like a Swiss speaking all four of the official languages of Switzerland (German, French, Italian, Rumansh); see pp. 16, 49.

polysyllabic — consisting of more than one syllable, such as the word in-tel-li-0ent; see pp. 496, 507.

polysynthetic — a type of language characterized by the fusion of many semi-independent elements into a single word; see pp. 36-7.

positive — see adjective

possessive — see case, adjective, pronoun

possession — ownership, or the denoting of ownership, as in "John's hat". For the denotation of possession in various languages, see pp. 23, 88, 467, 470-1, 477, 497-8, 504, 511, 518, 535-6.

postposition — a particle placed after a noun to indicate a case relation, like the Japanese wo denoting that the preceding noun is a direct object. See pp. 436, 440, 487, 497, 533, 535, 537. A postposition differs from a case-ending in that it is a completely separate and in- dependent word.

GLOSSARY

predicate — what is said about the subject, including the verb and any complements (such as objects). A noun, pronoun or adjective describing the subject through the verb to be (or another copulative verb: to seem, to become, etc.) is said to be a predicate noun, predicate pronoun, or predicate adjective ("he is a general"; "it is I"; "he is good"; see noun, adjective). The case of a noun in the predicate after a copulative verb is said to be the predicate nominative (see p. 424).

prefix — an element placed before the root of a word to modify its meaning, like in "in-", in "invoice", or the "re-" in "regain"; see pp. 35-6, 127, 142, 395, 477, 487, 505, 510-1, 515-7, 534, 589-90.

preposition — a particle showing the relation of a noun or pronoun to another element in the sentence, and indicating a relation of position, direction, time, means, etc., like in, of, to, from, by; see pp. 22, 24, 170, 288, 424, 471, 479, 497, 513; see also case.

prepositional — see case

present — see tense

present perfect — see tense

principal clause — see clause

progressive , — see conjugation

pronoun — a word used instead of a noun. The various classes of pronouns are:

personal (standing for the name of a person or thing, as I, you, it); possessive (indicating ownership, as mine, yours); demonstrative (pointing out, as these, those);

relative (referring to some person or thing previously mentioned, as who, which, that; the person or thing referred to is called the antecedent; in "I saw the man who came yesterday", "man" is the antecedent of "who";

interrogative (asking a question, as "who" in "who did it?"); indefinite (like someone, anyone);

reflexive (like myself, themselves in "I see myself", "they speak to themselves").

From the standpoint of use in the sentence, the pronoun has the same functions as the noun (q. v.); a personal pronoun especially may be used as subject ("I am here"); direct or indirect object ("he sees me"; "he gives me the book"); object of a preposition ("he comes with me"); predicate nominative ("it is I"), etc. While practically all lan- guages have subject personal pronouns, many often dispense with them, because the form of the verb makes it clear who the subject is (Spanish "quiero" vs. English "I love"; see pp. 22, 170, 177, 192, 234, 241, 278, 320, 391, 473, 538). With object personal pronouns, usage is still more varied; many languages customarily place the object pronoun before the verb (French "il me voit" vs. English "he sees me"; see pp.

6)6 GLOSSARY

177, 193, 200, 241, 278). At times the object pronoun is attached to the verb-form (Spanish "quiere verme", "he wants to see me"; see pp. 470, 473, 477). In some languages, notably Portuguese, two object pronouns (direct and indirect) are compounded, thereby appearing as a single form (see pp. 279, 288, 320-1). Other languages "in- corporate" the object pronoun in the verb (see pp. 437, 453). For the "inclusive" and "exclusive" pronouns of Dravidian, see p. 487.

Note that many pronouns, particularly demonstrative and inter- rogative, may also be used as adjectives ("I want these", "I want these books"; "tuhat do you want?", "what books do you want?"); in some languages this double use of a single form extends also to the posses- sives (Italian "voglio il mio", "I want mine"; "voglio il mio libro", "I want my book").

See also case, declension, ending, gender, inflection, number, ob- ject, possession, predicate, subject.

pronunciation (or enunciation) — articulate utterance, with the proper sound and accent. Intonation is pronunciation with reference to the pitch or modulation of the voice. See pp. 65-7, 72-3, 76, 83, 287, 329-30, 379, 421, 423, 446.

proper — see noun

punctuation — the use of periods, commas, etc. The rules ol punctuation are not identical in all languages using our own or a similar alphabet; for some outstanding differences, see pp. 229, 423.

punctuating words — particles used in some languages to express a break in the meaning; see pp. 513, 518.

race — the anthropological affiliation of human beings, as distinct from their linguistic affiliations. Despite certain politically inspired beliefs to the contrary, it is a universally recognized scientific fact that there is no connection between the two; see pp. 21, 36, 457.

reciprocal — see conjugation

reduplication — in certain Indo-European languages, a device for forming tenses by doubling the first consonant or syllable of the root of the verb; this occurs most frequently in the formation of the perfect tense (Latin cu-cwrri, perfect of curro; de-di, perfect of do). The term is also applied, however, to the doubling of any word (usually a noun) to indicate plural number or frequent occurrence see pp. 85, 510-1, 534.

reflexive — see conjugation, pronoun

relative — see pronoun ,

religion — the influence which religious oeliefs exert on language, particularly in its written form, is sometimes far-reaching; see pp. 19, 30, 53, 80, 354, 456, 461-2, 480, 507, 530.

root (or stem) — a primitive word-form, without prefix, suffix, or inflectional element, as go, wall, good. In inflected languages, the root

GLOSSARY 637

is frequently accompanied by an inflectional ending (as aim-s, aim-ing, aim-ed); isolating: languages, like the Chinese, permit no inflectional endings, and every word consists of a pure root (roots may, however, be combined into groups). The roots of Indo-European languages normally consist of both consonants and vowels, and the vowels are especially subject to modification (see pp. 88, 136, 143, 233, 430, 432, 436). Semitic languages have, generally, roots consisting of three consonants, with the vowels consigned to a secondary role (see pp. 29, 463, 472). See also pp. 23, 30, 33, 394, 477, 487, 539-40, 552.

secondary (or cultural) language — an acquired tongue, gained either through a cultural medium, such as a school, or through inter- course with the speakers; German, for example, is a widespread second- ary and cultural tongue in countries like Czechoslovakia (where it is spoken by nearly 40% of the population), the Netherlands (20%), Hungary (15%), Sweden and Denmark (over 10%), etc. See pp. 41, 43, 45, 47-9, 52, 62-3, 81-7, 122-3, 167, 182-3, 312-3, 352, 376-7, 420, 456, 507.

semantic — pertaining to meaning; a semantic change in a word is a change in its meaning, as when Latin mittcre, "to send", became French mettre, "to put". Words like English knave and German Knobc ("boy"), English knight and German Knecht ("serf"), English rent and French rente ("income") are illustrative of semantic differentiation of what was originally one and the same word in different languages; English dame (feminine of sir) and American slang dame illustrate semantic differentiation within the same language. See pp. 65, 67, 290.

sentence — a combination of words expressing a complete thought, as "I am here". For the various types of sentence, see clause.

simple sentence — see clause

simplification (or analysis) — the process whereby a language replaces inflectional endings with separate words conveying the mean- ings previously conveyed by the inflectional suffixes, as when Vulgar Latin replaces Classical genitive muri ("of the wall") with de illo muro, which later becomes Italian de lo muro, del muro. The opposite of analysis is synthesis (q. v.), whereby several concepts are gathered into a single word by the use of endings. The utmost in simplification is achieved by "isolating" languages, like Chinese, where every word is an unchanging, uninflected root. See pp. 22-3, 25, 421, 479-80.

singular — see number

slang — the jargon of a particular class, comprehensible only to members of that class; the use of new words and phrases, or of old words and phrases in a new and arbitrary, or figurative sense. Colloquialisms differ from slang only in degree, being more widely current and more acceptable to the more cultured speakers of a lan- guage, at least in spoken form. The dividing line between slang,

GLOSSARY

colloquialism, and literary language is invariably vague and shadowy, since the slang and colloquialisms of today often supply the material for the literary language of tomorrow. Slang appears in practically all languages that boast of a literary or even a written form, though to varying degrees. See pp. 19, 65-6, 72-87, 225, 246, 267, 611, 613.

spelling (or orthography) — the written form of a spoken word (see alphabet). The spelling of some languages, like English and French, is quite complicated, in the sense that there is only a partial correspondence of written symbol and spoken sound (note the different sounds that the symbol a has in father, all, bat, fare, or the symbol s in silly, rose, measure', the fact that often a single symbol represents a double sound, like the u in unite (yu-nite); and the fact that often a single sound is represented by a double symbol, as is the case with the th of this or the sh of shore). Other languages, like Spanish, have a more "simple" spelling; that is, there is a closer approach to symbol-for-sound correspondence. Several languages have deliberately gone about securing a closer correspondence of this type, though no language has completely achieved it (see orthographic reform). Most languages are said to have phonetic writing, that is, writing which to a greater or lesser degree represents sounds (for non-phonetic writing see pp. 491, 493, 526, and picture-writing), but true phonetic writing, with absolute symbol-for-sound correspondence, has so far been achieved only through the International Phonetic Alphabet, and even there with qualifications and room for discussion. See pp. 22, 67, 103, 229, 271, 314, 446, 583.

standardization of language — the process whereby local and dialectal varieties of a language are done away with, usually through conscious governmental effort, and a uniform language, at least in written form, is imposed upon the population of a given area; see pp. 65, 465, 491

stem — see root

strong — see adjective, verb

subject — the word, or group of words, about which something is said; in the sentence "I am here'*, "I" is the subject; in "to run fast is good exercise", "to run fast" is the subject. In languages having declensional forms, the noun or pronoun which is the subject goes into the nominative case (see case, declension); where declensional forms are wanting, position before the verb usually indicates the sub- ject; in "the boy sees the man", the only thing that indicates that "the boy" is the subject and "the man" the object of the action of seeing is their relative position before and after "sees"; but in Latin the words may be arranged in any order (virum videt puer), since puer definitely informs us by its form that it is the subject, and virum that it is the object. See pp. 22-3.

GLOSSARY

subject pronoun — see pronoun

subjective — sec case

subjunctive — see mood

subordinate — see clause

suffix — a letter or syllable added to the end of a word to modify its meaning; in "boys", s is a plural suffix; in "boy's", 's is a possessive suffix; in "warmly", ly is an adverbial suffix. See pp. 22-3, 30-1, 36, 85, 88, 128, 430, 432-3, 436-7, 440, 452, 470, 477, 487, 497, 510-1, 539, 549, 589-90. See also ending.

superlative — see adjective

supine — a verbal noun, or uninflected adjective, which does not exist in English. In the modern languages, like the Scandinavian, where the supine appears, it acts as a secondary past participle to form compound tenses in the active ("I have spoken"), while the past participle is used with a verb corresponding to to be to form the passive ("I am seen"); see pp. 96, 102.

syllable — a combination of sounds uttered with a single impulse of the voice, like each of the four voice-groups in in-tel-li-gent. In some languages, all words are monosyllabic (q. v.). In polysyllabic languages, syllabification, or syllabic division, is the dividing of words into syllables. This process, though unconscious in the spoken tongue, gives the language an individual flavor, marking it predominantly as a "vocalic" or "vowel" language, in which most syllables end in vowels (open syllables), or "consonantal", where most of the syllables end in consonants (closed syllables). English definitely belongs to the latter type, while Spanish and Italian just as definitely belong to the former. A good deal of the pronunciation difficulty which the English-speak- ing student encounters in connection with foreign languages is due to his instinctive incorrect syllabic division, which he carries over un- consciously from his native tongue; dividing the Spanish ge-ne-ral as we divide the English 0en-er-al, we are bound to get incorrect vowel- sounds. A useful exercise in this connection is to take long foreign words, divide them correctly into syllables according to the rules of syllabification of the language in question, pronounce the syllables separately, at first very slowly, with a distinct break between each syllable, then faster and faster till the breaks are eliminated, but the correct tonality of the vowels remains. See pp. 35, 127, 187, 229, 272, 315, 462, 489, 508, 526-32.

syllabary — a table of indivisible syllabic characters, such as appears in Japanese; see pp. 462, 489, 527-32; see also kana. In many western languages of a predominantly "open-syllable" nature (see above), children are taught to syllabify rather than to spell (a, e, i, o, u; ba, be, bi, bo, bu; da, de, di, do, du; etc.).

synonym — a word having the same meaning as another word;

640

GLOSSARY

shun, for example, is a synonym of avoid ("I avoid his company", *'I shun his company"). Languages whose vocabulary is made up from various sources (like English, which is composed of Anglo-Saxon, Norman -French, Latin, Greek, etc.), are particularly rich in synonyms (Spanish escorpidn, from the Latin; alacrdn, from the Arabic; both meaning "scorpion"). See p. 179.

syntax — the structure of the sentence, or the arranging of words in their proper relation; the placing of the subject before, and of the object after the verb, is a matter of syntax. See pp. 83-4, 172, 495-7, 527.

synthesis — combining, or putting together, numerous subsidiary meanings in one word; opposed to analysis or simplification (q. v.); see pp. 22, 25.

tense — the modification of verb-forms to express time. The fundamental divisions of time are present ("I do", "I am doing"); past ("I did"); and future ("I shall do"); and many languages, like Russian, go no farther; some even combine the future with the present ("I am going there tomorrow"); while others dispense with tenses altogether, save where a special word (yesterday, now, next year) conveys the time of the action. In the modern western languages, tense-forms are generally covered by the following scheme, with some tenses lacking in some tongues:

present (indicates what happens habitually, or what is happening now: "I go there every day"; "I am going there now"); imperfect (indicates what was happening, or used to happen: French "j'y allais quand vous etes entre"). There is no specific form for the imperfect in English, but the meaning is conveyed by the past progressive ("I was going"), or by a circumlocution like "I used to go"; past (indicates what happened: "I went there yesterday"). This tense goes by many different names in the grammars of various lan- guages. The German past corresponds in form to the English, but is often used as an imperfect; the French past is called "past definite", and is used for the most part in book narration, being replaced in ^conversation by the present perfect or "past indefinite" ("I have done"); the Spanish past, called "past absolute", and the Italian past ("passato remote") are similar to the English in use. Latin called this tense "perfect", and Greek "aorist" (see p. 425);

future (indicates what will take place: "I shall go there to- morrow"). In English and German, the future is formed by means of an auxiliary verb (shall, will, werden 4- infinitive); this makes it, in a broad sense, an analytical, or "compound" tense, since it consists of two combined, but independent elements; in the Romance languages, the future is a simple, or synthetic tense (je ferai, hare", fard); see pp. 23, 178, 245, 390-1, 472, 500, 540;

GLOSSARY 64 1

Compound Tenses (see pp. 178, 282) are generally formed by means of an auxiliary (to have, to be; see auxiliary) + the past participle (supine in some languages; see supine); in English they are: present perfect (indicating what has happened: "I have done it"). French calls this tense the "past indefinite", and both French and German use it colloquially to translate both the English present perfect and the English past; in Spanish and Italian its use is very similar to English;

past perfect (indicating what had happened prior to something else that took place: "I had seen him before he went out"). It is often called "pluperfect". The Romance languages have two past perfect tenses, one formed with the imperfect, the other with the past of the auxiliary (French pluperfect j'avais parl£; past anterior j'eus parle; both mean "I had spoken", but the second is used primarily in a sub- ordinate clause when there is a past in the main clause). future perfect (indicating what will have taken place: "I shall have finished the work by tomorrow"). Sometimes called "future anterior".

There is some dispute as to whether the conditional present ("he would go if I asked him") and the conditional past ("he would have gone if I had asked him") are to be considered as tenses of the in- dicative or as a • separate mood. They appear in most western lan- guages, being analytical forms in the Germanic, synthetic forms in the Romance tongues (see pp. 393, 425, 500, 540-1).

The tenses of the indicative, outlined above, are largely duplicated in the subjunctive, where the latter exists. German and Portuguese have six subjunctive tenses; French, Spanish and Italian have four (the future and future perfect subjunctive having disappeared from modern Spanish).

A tense distinction may also appear in the infinitive ("to do"; "to have done"; "to be about to do"); and in the participles ("doing"; "having done", "being about to do"; "done", "having been done", "being about to be done").

See pp. 23, 172, 353, 364, 375, 425-6, 499, 515, 538; see also conjuga- tion, mood, voice, verb.

tilde — the sign used in Spanish over n (n) to indicate its palatal pronunciation; the same symbol is used by other languages over various letters to indicate various modifications of sound; see pp. 228, 270.

tone — the intonation or pitch of the voice; in certain languages, notably Chinese, tone serves to distinguish meaning; see pp. 17, 32-3. 459-60, 487-8, 492, 495-505. See also accent.

trade language — a tongue used as a medium of common inter- course among speakers of various languages in multilingual areas, like German in Central Europe, Malay in the Dutch East Indies, Pidgin in

21*

GLOSSARY

the Melanesian Islands, Hausa and Swahili in sections of Africa, etc. See pp. 65, 83-7, 268-9, 454, 459; see also lingua franca.

transitive — see verb

umlaut — the change of a root vowel under the influence of the vowe* in the final syllable, which later often disappears; the term mutation is also used for this phenomenon, but lends itself to another meaning (see lenition). The phenomenon is particularly apparent in the languages of the Germanic group (English mouse, mice; foot, feet). The double dot over the umlauted vowel is often called the umlaut, particularly by students of German; it is, however, properly speaking, only an orthographical indication of the phenomenon itself. See pp. 88, 99, 130, 280-1, 292, 434, 438.

unvoiced — see consonant

verb — a word expressing an action (like see, hear, go), or a mode of being (like be, seem, become). In some languages, like Chinese, the verb is not particularly segregated from other parts of speech (this often happens in English, where the verb to mail, for example, is distinguished from the noun mail only by its use in the sentence). In other languages, the verb assumes an unequivocal form, with special- ized endings (Latin amare, French finir, German sprechen). Verbs may be classified as transitive (where the action can be carried over to a recipient, or object: "I see him"); intransitive (where the action cannot be carried over to an object: "we have succeeded"); and copulative (where the verb simply links the subject to a modifier: "he is (seems, becomes) a soldier"). Note that in English many verbs may be used transitively or intransitively ("he has just passed", intransitive; "he has just passed me", transitive; "the swallow flies", intransitive: "he flies a plane", transitive). In some languages (French, German, Italian) many intransitive and copulative verbs form their compound tenses with "to be" instead of "to have" (il est aUe, er ist gegangeh, e andato; see auxiliary; see also pp. 139, 199, 326).

Verbs, in English and most Indo-European languages, have person, number, tense, voice and mood (see each item); a form like "he goes", for instance, would be described as third person, singular number, present tense, indicative mood, active voice. But in many non-Indo- European tongues, all or some of these distinctions are missing; the Japanese verb, for instance, has tense, voice and mood, but no person or number (see pp. 24, 32, 536, 538); the Chinese "verb" is an un- inflected root having none of these distinctions, and can generally be used also as a noun, adjective, or other part of speech (see pp. 495-6, 499-501).

Many languages divide their verbs into classes according to forms and endings (see conjugation). The English (and, in general, the Germanic) division is into two classes, weak and strong; the weak

GLOSSARY

verbs are characterized by the addition of a suffix (-d, -ed) in the past and passive participle (love, loved, loved); the strong by a change in the root vowel in these two forms (write, wrote, written; speak, spoke, spoken); see pp. 90, 101, 108, 115, 136). The Semitic languages have a similar classification, though different in form (see pp. 472-3). It is interesting to note that in English all the separate verb-forms that need be learned are four in the case of weak verbs (love, loves, loving, loved), five in the case of strong verbs (speok, speaks, speak- ing, spoke, spoken), all other forms being obtained by combining these with a few unchanging auxiliaries (have, had, will, etc.). See pp. 22-3, 32, 353, 463, 538. For the polite, familiar, and honorific verbs of Japanese, see pp. 24, 536, 538, 542-4, 547-8; see also address. See also aspect, conjugation, ending, inflection, mood, tense, voice.

verbal noun — a form of the verb syntactically used as a noun; chat is, as subject ("to walk is good"; "walking is good"); direct object ("I like to walk"; "I like walking"); etc. See gerund, infinitive, supine; see also p. 473.

verbal adjective — a form of the verb syntactically used as an adjective, like "the singing man", "the written word"; see participle.

vernacular — the current spoken language of a given area, as opposed to its written or literary tongue. The vernacular is frequently characterized by colloquialisms and slang (q. v.).

vocabulary — the total stock of words in a language, or within the range of a given speaker. There is extreme variation in the vocabulary range of speakers of the same tongue. See pp. 24, 65-87, 172, 179-80, 246, 289-90, 354, 419, 421, 428-9, 456, 479, 487-8; see also loan-word.

vocative — see case

voice — a modification in the form of the verb to indicate whether the- subject does the action (active voice: "I strike"), or receives it (passive voice: "I am struck"). In some languages, this is indicated by an inflectional ending (Latin timeo, active, "I fear"; timeor, passive, "I am feared"); in other languages, like English or German, by the use of an auxiliary (to be, werden) combined with the past participle. Some languages, particularly the Romance, tend to avoid the use of the passive by replacing it with an active equivalent (French on le fera, "it will be done") or by using the reflexive (Spanish aqiu se habla espanol, "Spanish is spoken here"). In some languages the pas- sive is completely wanting. The middle voice, which appeared in some of the older Indo-European languages, notably Greek, represents the subject as acting on or for himself, a function which has generally been taken over by the reflexive. Certain forms of the verb appearing in some languages (like the desiderative; see p. 546) may be described as voices, or as conjugations. For the impersonal passive of Finnish,

644 GLOSSARY

see p. 434. See pp. 89, 141, 178, 202, 240, 286, 328,-353, 366, 393, 425-6, 434, 441, 516, 546-7. See also verb, voiced consonant — see consonant

vowel — a sound produced without friction or stoppage; or a letter purporting to represent such a sound. The written vowels of English are a, e, i, o, u; but the number of spoken vowels is much greater (a of father, bat, all, fare, etc.; e of let, her, even, etc.; t of it, machine, etc.; o of not, orb, etc.; u of cut, rude, etc.). Note also that many so-called vowel-sounds are diphthongs (q. u.: a of fate; i of tide; o of note; u of unity). Many vowel-sounds that appear in English do not appear in other tongues, and vice-versa (see pp. 29, 86, 184-5, 227, 314, 361, 461-3). For the middle (or front rounded) vowels of French, German, etc., see pp. 172, 185, 437. Vowels may be stressed or un- stressed (see pp. 268-9, 287, 314, 329-30, 354, 379), and modify their sound accordingly. They may be long or short (though some languages minimize this difference); see pp. 125, 354, 368, 371, 423, 436, 444, 450, 466, 531, 533. For the vowel-harmony of the Ural-Altaic tongues, whereby the vowel of the ending changes to harmonize with that of the root, see pp. 30-1, 430, 432, 436, 440; for the division of vowels in such languages into front, back and "neutral" (the last-named ap- pearing only occasionally and functionally), see pp. 30- X, 430, 432, 436, 440. For the influx of front and back vowels in other language-groups, see pp. 88, 353. For the Indo-European (particularly Germanic) umlaut change, whereby the vowel of the root is modified by the in- fluence of the vowel of the ending, see umlaut. For the vowel-points of the Semitic languages, see p. 461. weak — see adjective, verb

word-order — the arrangement of words in the sentence (see syntax). In some languages with scanty or non-existent flectional endings (English, Chinese) word-order is of paramount importance for intelligibility. Where flectional endings are more abundant, the im- portance of word-order is usually secondary. See pp. 18, 22, 25, 32, 141-3, 162, 170, 172, 193, 200, 278-9, 288, 320-1, 447, 467, 488, 495-501, 505.

written (or literary) language — the inscribed, legible form assumed by a tongue which has achieved a certain cultural level. Many languages of primitive groups are unwritten, and consequently highly fluctuating both in time and space, with numerous dialectal variations, a rapid rate of change, and an undetermined standard form. Where a written form, particularly of the semi-phonetic type, is achieved, the result is generally a greater stability in the spoken language, although the process of change never comes to a full stop. When the language becomes a vehicle for literature, the process of standardization, unification and stabilization goes even farther. The

GLOSSARY - 645

written tongue is, in due course of time, modified by spoken-language changes; on the other hand, the spoken tongue is often influenced by the written form. See picture-writing, spelling, and pp. 19, 29, 117, 127, 172, 180, 421, 424, 427, 444, 446, 456, 461-2, 465, 487-93; 504-7, 526-31.

646

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The list of those to whom the author is deeply indebted is long. The Japanese chapter is the personal offering of Professor Ralph Walker Scott, of Trinity College. The Malay section is the work of Dr. William Lowther. To both these sections the author's contribution was limited to details of revision and arrangement. In addition, it was deemed advisable to have most languages carefully checked by at least one cultivated native speaker, with general topics checked by scholars in the indi- vidual fields. (Many of these experts sat in as informants on the author's courses, and to them he is doubly grateful). Furthermore, the basic vocabularies of six out of the seven major languages treated were constructed, on a model prepared by the author, with the assistance of willing collaborators, who gave unstintingly of their time and labor to the success of this enterprise.

It is the author's desire, nevertheless, to assume personal responsibility for any errors or inaccuracies that may appear in the work; this owing to the fact that space limitations and the method that necessarily had to be followed made it impossible to accept many of the excellent suggestions offered by the experts, which would have contributed enormously to the completeness of the work, but would also have lengthened it beyond the bounds deemed practical.

Major Joseph B. Costanzo, M. I., U. S. A.; Professor Horatio Smith, of Columbia University; and Professor Harry Morgan Ayres, of Columbia, were of invaluable assistance to the author in the conception and planning of the entire work.

The first two chapters, dealing with linguistic families and the geography of language, were painstakingly examined and revised by Professor Louis H. Gray, of Columbia's Depart-

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

ment of Comparative Linguistics, and Mr. Duncan MacDougald, Jr., author of "The Languages and Press of Africa".

In Chapter HI, the general Germanic material was ex- amined by Professor Carl Bayerschmidt, of Columbia, and Professor Margaret Schlauch, of New York University. The English section was accurately gone over by Professor Harry Morgan Ayres, Professor William Cabell Greet, and Professor Elliott V. K. Dobbie, all of the English Department of Columbia, while much of the material on the English of New Zealand was supplied by Miss Henrietta R. Mason, of the Columbia Uni- versity Extension. Australian and Pidgin English sections were examined and revised by Mr. Edgar Sheappard Sayer, author of "Pidgin English", and the South African section by Professor C. W. de Kiewiet, of Cornell University. The Swedish material was checked by Mrs. Birgit Olson Wagner, formerly of the Swedish Consulate General, and Mr. Gunnar Hok; the Norwegian by Mr. Joseph Mendelsohn and Mr. Kurt Vainer; the Danish by Dr. Viggo C. Mengers; the Icelandic by Professor Margaret Schlauch, of New York University. The Dutch section was carefully examined and revised by Professor Adriaan Barnouw, of Columbia, and Mr. Martin Zwart. Mrs. Wagner, Mr. Mendelsohn and Mr. Zwart supplied most of the material appearing in the Swedish, Norwegian and Dutch word-lists, respectively. The Scandinavian material has been revised in accordance with suggestions offered in a review by Professor Einar Haugen, of the. University of Wisconsin.

The German chapter and vocabulary were examined by Professor Carl Bayerschmidt of Columbia, Dr. Frederick Rex of the Lincoln School, and Miss Rosa Hettwer of the Milwaukee High School system, with Professor Frederick Heuser, of Columbia, contributing the solution of several controversial points. The German vocabulary was constructed, on the author's model, by Private Robert L. Politzer, U. S. A., and Mr. Herbert S. Ruhe, of St. Louis, Mo.

The general Romance material in Chapter V was examined by Professor Henri F. Muller, of Columbia's Department of Romance Philology. The Roumanian section was checked and

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

revised by Professor Leon Feraru, of Long Island University and Columbia, and Mr. A. Manoil, of the Language Units of the War Department.

The French chapter and vocabulary were examined by Professor Henri F. Midler and Professor Jeanne Vidon-Varney, of Columbia, and Miss Dorothy Rothschild of Hunter College, while the French vocabulary was constructed, on the author's model, by Dr. Nicholas J. Milella, of Cornell University's Foreign Area and Language Study Curriculum.

The Spanish chapter and vocabulary were examined by Professor Angel del Rio, of Columbia, and Professor Jose Martel, of the College of the City of New York, while the Spanish vocabulary was constructed by Dr. Milella.

The Portuguese chapter and vocabulary were examined and extensively revised by Mr. Alexander da Rocha Prista, of Columbia, and. Dr. Afranio Coutinho, editor of the Portuguese version (Seleqoes) of the "Reader's Digest"; most of the ma- terial on the Brazilian varieties of Portuguese was supplied by Mr. Antonio Cuffari, of the Foreign Area and Language Study Curriculum of Clark University, while the Portuguese voca- bulary was constructed by Private Vincent Livelli, U. S. A.

The Italian chapter and vocabulary were examined by Mr. Gino Bigongiari, of Columbia, and Dr. Nicholas J. Milella, of Cornell.

The entire Slavic chapter was examined by Professor Clarence A. Manning and Dr. Arthur Coleman, both of Columbia, and Professor Roman Jakobson, of the University of Oslo and Columbia; the Polish section by Miss Christina Tolczynska, of the Bridgeport High Schools; the Czech section by Dr. Jaroslav Broz, of the Czechoslovak Consulate General; the Serbo-Croatian section by Mr. Alexander Trbovic and Mr. Vlaho Vlahovic, editor of "Slavonic Monthly"; and the Bulgar- ian section by Dr. Victor Sharenkoff, of the Research Depart- ment of the New York Public Library.

The Russian chapter and vocabulary were examined by Professor Clarence A. Manning of Columbia and Professor Paul Haensel of Northwestern University and Mary Washing-

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

ton College, as well as by Mrs. Elena Mogilat, of Columbia's Russian Department, and Mrs. Catherine Pastuhova, of the Foreign Area and Language Study Curriculum of Syracuse University. The Russian vocabulary was constructed, on the author's model, by Mrs. Pastuhova.

In Chapter XII, the Greek material was examined by Mr. Emanuel Athanas, of Columbia, and Mr. George Vanson; the Albanian by Mr. Nelo Drizari of Columbia; all of the Ural- Altaic, material in Chapter I, II and XII, as well as the Turkish, Finnish and Hungarian sections, were examined and revised by Dr. Karl Heinrich Menges of Columbia: the Finnish section by Dr. John B. Olli of the College of the City of New York and Columbia; the Hungarian section by Mr. Elmer Sixay Dorsay, formerly of C. C. N. Y. and Columbia, and Dr. Lewis L. Sell; the Turkish section by Mr. Assim Yegenoglu, of the Language Units of the War Department. The Lithuanian and Lettish sections were examined by Professor Alfred Senn, of the University of Pennsylvania; the Celtic and Basque sections by Professor John L. Gerig of Columbia; the Welsh material by the Rev. Cynolwyn Pugh; the Basque by Mr. Juan Manuel Bilbao.

In Chapter XIII, the Arabic section was constructed with the very able assistance of Dr. Ibrahim Mansoury, of Columbia, and checked and revised by Professor Arthur Jeffery, of 'Columbia's Department of Semitic Languages, who also ex- amined all the Semito-Hamitic material in Chapter I and II. Hebrew forms were checked by Professor Jeffery and Dr. Abraham Halkin, of Columbia, as well as by Rabbi Abraham Jacobson, of Temple Emanu-El, Haverhill, Mass., and Cantor Harold Greenblatt. The Persian and Indo-Aryan sections were examined by Mr. Anthony Paura, of Columbia's Department of Indo-Iranian. The Chinese section was examined and re- vised by Professor Luther Carrington Goodrich, of Columbia, who also supplied most of the Chinese phrase-list and examined the Sino-Tibetan material in Chapters I and II; and by Mr. Charles Wan, of the Chinese Ministry of Information in Chung King. Tibetan forms were checked by Dr. Theos Bernard. The

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Malay section, as previously stated, is the work of Dr. William Lowther, of the Methodist Episcopal Church of Norwich, Conn., who spent ten years as a missionary in British Malaya; it was edited by the author, and examined by Mrs. Claire Holt, of Columbia University's Foreign Area and Language Study Curriculum, who supplied Dutch East Indies variants for British Malayan forms wherever such variants appear.

The Japanese chapter is the work of Professor Ralph Walker Scott, of Trinity College, who spent ten years as Professor of Occidental Languages in Rikkyo University in Tokyo. It was edited by the author and examined and revised by Dr. Hachiro Yuasa, of the New York Japanese Methodist Church.

Appendix A (Esperanto) is the work of Mr. and Mrs. G. Alan Connor, respectively Director of the Esperanto Inter- language Institute in New York and Teacher of the Inter- national Cseh Institute of Esperanto of the Hague.

The Glossary was carefully examined by Professor Elliott V. K. Dobbie, of Columbia's English Department.

Lastly, the passages chosen for illustrative and comparative purposes throughout are official translations of John 3.16, appearing in the American Bible Society's splendid publication "The Book of a Thousand Tongues". To this choice, the objection may be offered that by reason of the subject-matter, the language is stereotyped and, in some cases, archaic. While this may be true in a few instances, it may be replied that no- where else was it possible to obtain, for an entire series of languages, so homogeneous and accurate a set of individual translations But of far greater importance is the fact that the Word of God, with its message of deathless hope to suffering humanity, seemed peculiarly fitted for a work of this kind, since it transcends national boundaries and finds an echo in the hearts of all men, irrespective of race, color, creed, speech or political belief. May this Word point to a solution of mankind's material, as well as spiritual, problems!

July 1, 1946. TUT • A D •

3 Mario A. Pei

INDEX

651

INDEX OF COUNTRIES, REGIONS, LOCALITIES, LANGUAGES, DIALECTS AND OTHER PROPER NAMES

Aaland Islands, 64

Abruzzese, 46, 168, 329

Aden, 52, 55, 62

Adriatic, 312-3, 351

Afghan, 27-8, 51, 53, 457 (see

Pushtu)

Afghanistan, 50-1, 53, 457 Africa, 25, 29-30, 35, 54-9, 624,

77-9, 81-82, 122-3, 182-3, 226-7,

268-9, 312-3, 455-6, 461, 582,

610 African Negro Languages, 15, 26,

35-7, 54-9, 287, 289, 454 (see

Bantu, Hottentot-Bushman, Sud-

anese-Guinean) Afrikaans, 29, 57-8, 64, 77-9, 117

(see Boers)

Ainu, 26, 36-7, 50, 52, 454-5 Akkadian, 29

Alaska, 26, 40. 63, 81, 609 Albania, 45-8, 312-3, 419, 420,

427 Albanian, 27-8, 38-9, 45-8, 352.

419, 427-8 Algeria, 29, 54-5, 57-8, 182-3, 456,

465

Algonquian, 36 Alsace-Lorraine, 122-3 Alsatian, 45-6 Altaic, 31, 429, 455, 462 (see

Ural-Altaic) Alto Adige (South Tyrol), 47,

122-3

Amboina, 59, 61 America (see Central America,

North America, South America)

American Indian Languages, 15.

21, 26, 35-7, 42-3, 65, 79, 246,

287, 289 Amharic, 29, 55, 454 (see Ethi

opia, Ethiopian) Amoy, 489, 524-5 Andalusian, 244 Andorra, 45-6, 168 Anglo-Egyptian Sudan (see Sud- an) Anglo-Indian ( Hobson-Jobson ) .

80-1 Anglo-Saxon, (Old English), 19,

20, 23

Angola, 54^5, 58-9, 268-9 Annamese, 37, 50, 53, 455, 458.

487-8 Antilles (West Indies), 40, 42,

167, 226-7 Arabia, 29, 30, 50, 52-3, 55, 456,

465 Arabic, 4, 19, 20, 29, 38-9, 46,

52-3, 55-7, 172, 440, 454, 456,

459-76, 480-1, 507 Arabic Alphabet, 440, 461-2, 507,

513

Aragonese, 244 Aramaic, 29 Arapahoe, 36 Araucanian, 36 Arawak, 36 Argentina, 43-4, 87, 122-3, 182-4,

226-7, 245-6, 312-3, 583 Arizona, 226-7 Armenian, 27-8, 38, 46, 48, 52-3,

376-7, 456

652

INDEX

Aryan, 21, 457 Ashkenazim, 25

Asia, 31, 37, 50-5, 62-3, 81-3, 182-3, 268-9, 312-3, 351, 376-7,

419, 429, 454-577, 582, 609 Asia Minor, 419

Asiago, 122-3

Assyrian, 29

Asturian, 244

Atchin, 59

Australia, 25, 37, 59, 61-3, 72-5, 82, 458, 582, 610, 612

Australian Languages, native, 15, 26, 37, 59, 61, 72

Austria, 47, 122-3, 582

Austro-Hungarian Empire, 48, 63

Avar, 37, 455

Azores, 48, 268-9

Aztec, 21, 36, 489

Babylonian, 29, 489

Bahamas, 40, 42, 62, 82, 609

Bahrein, 52, 55

Balearic Islands, 46, 168

Bali, 34, 59, 61, 524

Balinese, 59

Balkans, 456 (see Albania, Bul- garia, Greece, Roumania, Tur- key, Yugoslavia)

Balochi, 27-8, 462

Balochistan, 462

Baltic Languages, 27-8, 46, 420 443-5 (see Lettish, Lithuanian)

Balto-Slavic, 27, 420, 443 (see Baltic, Slavic)

Bantu, 26, 35, 54-7, 77-8 (see African Nogro Languages)

Bashkir, 455

Basic English (see English)

Basque, 26, 36-7, 45-6, 48, 244.

420, 452-3

Basutoland, 54-5, 57-8, 610 Batak, 59

Bautzen, 352

Bazaar (Pidgin) Malay, 83, 459

Beche la Mer, 85

Bechuanaland, 54-5, 57-8, 610

Behring Strait, 351

Beja, 55

Belgium, 16, 29, 45-9, 122-3, 167,

182-3, 609 (see Flemish, French,

Walloon) Bengal, 457 Bengali, 27, 51, 454, 457, 459-60,

462, 479-80 Berber, 55-7

Bermudas, 40, 62, 82, 609 Bessarabia, 46, 48, 352, 376-7 Bhil, 34

Bhutan, 50-2, 82 Bihari, 457 Bisaya, 34, 60 Bismarck Islands, 59, 61, 122-3

524-5, 610 Blackfoot; 36

Boers, 29, 77-8 (see Afrikaans) Bohemia, 352 (see Czechoslovak- ia)

Bolivia, 43-4, 226-7 Bombay, 457

Borneo, 16, 34, 59, 61, 507, 524-6 Boston, 65 Brabant, 117 Brahui, 34, 462 Brazil, 43-4, 122-3, 167, 268-71,

287-90, 292-3, 299, 312-3, 583 Breton, 27, 45-6, 420, 446-8 British Colonial Empire, 62-3 British Guiana (see Guiana) British Honduras (see Honduras) British North Borneo, 59, 61-2,

524-6, 610 British Somaliland (see SomaR-

land)

Brittany, 420, 446 Brooklyn, 65 Brunei, 59, 610 Brythonic, 27, 446 (see Breton,

Celtic, Cornish, Welsh)

IN If EX

653

Buddhism, 530 Bulgaria, 45-9, 352, 419 Bulgarian, 27, 38-9, 45-6, 49, 351-

60, 362, 366, 372, 374-5 Burma, 32, 50-1, 53, 62, 82, 456, • 524-6, 609, 610 Burmese, 33, 39, 51, 454, 459-60. .

462, 487-8, 504-6 Buryat, 31, 455 Byzantium, 354 Calabrian, 46, 158, 330 Calcutta, 457 California, 226-7, 268-9 Cambodian, 458 Cameroons, 54-5, 57-9, 122-3,

182-3

Campidanese (see Sardinian) Canaanite, 29

Canada, 36, 40-2, 62, 79-80, 167, 182-4, 583, 609

Canada, French, 16, 40-2, 79, 167, 182-4, 609

Canal Zone, 40, 42, 62, 81, 226-7, 609

Canarese, 34, 51, 458, 462, 485

Canarese Alphabet, 461

Canary Islands, 59, 226-7

Canton, 492, 524-5

Cantonese, 51, 83, 492

Cape of Good Hope, 57

Cape Verde Islands, 59, 83, 268-9

Carib, 36

Carioca, 287-8

Caroline Islands, 31, 35, 59, 61, 122-3, 524-5

Carpathians, 351

Carpatho-Russian (see Ruthenian)

Carso Plateau, 352

Carthaginian, 29

Castilian, 244-6 (see Spanish)

Catalan, 27, 45-6, 48, 168, 170, 244

Catalonia, 168

Caucasian Languages, 26, 37, 46,

48, 50, 54, 454-5 Caucasus, 46, 48, 351, 455 Celebes, 16, 34, 59, 61, 507, 524-5 Celtic, 27, 37-8, 46, 66, 419, 446- 51 (see Breton, Brythonic, Cornish, Gaelic, Goidefic, Irish, Welsh) Central America, 36, 40, 42, 167,

226-7, 244-6, 609 Ceylon,«27, 33, 50-1, 53, 62, 82, 268-9, 457, 609, 610 (see Singhalese) Cheremiss, 31, 429 Cherokee, 36 Cheyenne, 36 Chibcha, 36 Chile, 43-4. 122-3, 226-7, 246.

312-3, 583

China, 31, 33, 50-1, 53, 83-4, 182- 3, 268-9, 456, 492, 524-5, 582, 610

Chinese, 4, 17, 19, 31-3, 38-9, 51- 2, 60, 83-4, 454-5, 458-60, 462, 487-503, 525-8, 542, 549-50 Chinese-English Pidgin, 83-4.

499-500

Chinese Turkestan (Sinkiang), 32 Chungking, 582 Circassian, 37, 455 Cochim, 83, 268-9 Cockney, 66

Colombia, 43-4, 226-7, 246 Congo, Belgian, 54-5, 57-8, 64,

182-3

Cook Islands, 59, 610 Coptic, 29 Cornish, 446 Cornwall, 66, 446 Coromandel, 268-9 Corsica, 312-3 Co«ta Rica, 40, 42, 226-7 Cottbus, 352 Cree, 36

654

INDEX

Croatian, 355-9, 366, 370-2 (see

Serbo-Croatian. Yugoslavia) Cuba, 40, 42, 226-7, 246, 583, 609 Curasao, 83

Cyprus, 50-1, 53, 62, 82, 609 Cyrillic Alphabet, 19, 354-60, 371-

2, 374-5,378 Czech, 27, 38. 45-6, 49, 351-5..

357-9, 366, 368-70, 375 Czechoslovakia, 17, 40, 45-6, 63,

122-3, 351-2, 419, 582 Dahomey, 54-5, 58 Damau, 52, 55. 268-9 Danish, 25, 40-1. 45-7, 49, 63-4,

88-91, 98-104, 109 Danish West Indies, 83 Dano-Norwegian, 38 Danzig, 45-6, 122-3 Dayak, 59 Delaware, 36

Demotic, 421 (see Greek) Denmark, 45-6, 63. 122-3, 582,

609 Devanagari (Nagari) Alphabet.

19, 461-2, 485, 504 Diu, 52. 55. 83, 268-9 Dobrudja, 46, 48, 352, 419 Dodecanese, 167, 312-3, 419 Dominican Republic, 40, 42, 226-

7, 609 Dravidian, 16, 26, 33, 38, 50-1.

53, 454, 457, 459-60, 485-7 (see

Canarese, Malayalam, Tamil,

Telugu) Dutch, 4, 16, 20. 25, 28-9, 35.

38-9, 43-7, 49, 59-61, 63-4, 77-8,

83, 91, 110-21, 459 Dutch Colonial Empire. 64 Dutch Creole, 83 Dutch East Indies. 16, 28, 32, 34,

59, 83, 456, 459. 461, 493, 507,

524-6, 582

Dutch Guiana (see Guiana) Dutch Timor (see Timor)

Dutch West Indies, 83

East Prussia, 46-7

East Slavonic, 351 (see Slavonic)

Easter Island, 458

Ecuador, 43-4, 226-7

Egypt, 29, 30, 54-5, 58-9, 62, 82,

182-3, 312-3, 456, 464-5, 610 Egyptian (Ancient), 29, 489 Egyptian (Modern), (see Arabic) Eire, 46-7, 66, 419-20, 446, 609 Ellice Islands, 60, 610 Emilian, 46, 168, 329 Engadine, 46, 168, 170 England (see Great Britain) English, 4, 17-20, 22, 25, 28-9, 32,

34-9, 42-7, 49, 53, 55-87, 90-1,

112, 167, 170, 419-20, 446,

456, 459, 526, 580. 582, 611,

612 English, American, 244 (see U. S.

A.)

English, King's, 67 English, Old (see Anglo-Saxon) Eritrea, 29-30, 54-5, 57-8, 312-3 Erse (see Irish) Eskimo, 26, 36, 42, 79 Esperanto, 580-608 Estonia, 30, 45-6, 63, 122-3, 376-7,

419-20

Estonian, 31, 45-6, 419, 429-30 Ethiopia, 312-3 Ethiopian, 29, 35, 54-5, 57-8 Eupen, 122-3 Europe, 45-9, 83. 122-3, 182-3.

226-7, 268-9, 312-3, 351, 376-7,

419-53, 582, 609 Europe, Central, 63, 122-3, 351,

461 Europe, Eastern, 351, 376-7, 429.

461

Falkland Islands, 62 Fanti, 454 Faroe Islands, 64 Fiji Island?, 34, 60, 84, 610

INDEX.

655

Filipino (see Bisaya, Ilocano,

Moro, Philippines, Tagalog) Finland, 30, 45-6, 634, 122-3,

376-7, 419-20

Finnish, 20, 31, 38, 45-6, 49, 419, ' 429-37, 440 •Finno-Ugric, 31, 429 (see Ural-

Altic, Uralic) Flanders, 117 Flemish, 25, 29, 45-6, 49, 57-8,

64, 117 (see Belgium) Florence, 330 Fiores, 59, 507 Foochow, 524-5 Formosa (Taiwan), 31, 50, 52-3

458, 524-5 France, 36, 46, 49, 87, 122-3, 167-

8, 182-3. 244, 312-3, 420, 452-3,

582, 609

Franco-Provengal, 46 French, 4, 16-20, 25-9, 35-9, 40-6,

48-9, 53, 55-61, 79, 83, 86,

167-72, 182-225, 312-3, 420,

446, 452, 456, 493 French Canada (see Canada) French Colonial Empire, 16, 167,

182-4, 312-3 French Creole, 83 French Dialects, 168 French Equatorial Africa, 54-5.

57-8, 182-3

French Guiana (see Guiana) French Guinea (see Guinea) French Indo-China (see Indo-

China) French Oceania, 182-3 (see

Oceania) French, Old, 20 French Pidgin, 83 French, Provincial, 172 French Somaliland, (see Somali- land) French Sudan (see Sudan)

French West Africa, 54-5, 57-8,

83, 182-3 Friuli, 27, 168 Fukien, 51, 4S9 Fula, 461 Gaelic, Scottish, 27, 46-7, 420,

4463 Galicia, (in Spain), 168, 244,

268-9

Galicia (in Poland), 351 Galician (Gallego), 46, 48, 168,

244, 268-9 Galla, 29, 55 Gallo-Italian, 46, 168 Gambia, 54-5, 57-8, 62, 610 Geneva, 581 Georgetown, 83 Georgian, 37, 377, 455 German, 4, 17-20, 22-5, 28, 38-9,

43, 45-9, 56-61, 63, 83, 86-7,

88, 91, 111, 122-66, 183, 352,

420, 461, 611, 613 German East Africa, 122-3 (see

Tanganyika)

German, High and Low, 25, 46 Germanic, 21-2, 25, 08, 46, 62-

167, 172, 353-4, 419, 582 Germanic, West, 63-4 Germany, 46-47, 63, 122-3, 352,

582

Gheg, 427 (see Albanian) Gibraltar, 45-6, 62, 609 Gilbert Islands, 34, 60, 524-5, 610 Gloucestershire, 66 Goa, 52, 55, 268-9 Goidelic, 27, 446 (see Gaelic,

Irish)

Gold Coast, 54, 56-8, 62 Gond, 34 Gorizia, 352 Gothic, 25 Gothic (German, Black Letter)

Alphabet, 98, 124-5 Grasse, 170

656

INQEX

Great Britain. 46-7, 62-3, 66-72,

582, 609, 610

Greece, 46-7, 168, 312-3, 419-20 Greek, 16, 19. 20, 24, 27-8, 38-9,

45-7, 49, 51, 55, 378, 419, 421-

6, 428

Greek, Ancient, 421-3 Greek Alphabet, 354, 422, 426 Greenland, 40-2, 64, 609 Grisons, 46, 168 Guadaloupe, 40, 42, 182-4 Guam, 60, 82, 524-6, 610 Guatemala, 40, 42, 226-7 Guiana, British, 43-4, 62, 82, 167,

609

Guiana, Dutch, 43-4, 83, 167 Guiana, French, 43-4, 167, 182-4 Guinea, French, 54-5, 58, 182-3 Guinea, Portuguese, 54, 56, 58-9,

268-9 Guinea, Spanish, 54, 56, 58-9,

226-7

Guipuzcoa, 453 Gujarati, 27, 457 Gypsies, 27 Hainan, 51

Haiti, 40, 42, 82. 167. 182-4, 609 Ilakka, 492

Hamitir. 29, 53. 57 (see Semito- Hamitic) Hangchow, 524-5 Hankow. 524-5 Hausa, 35, 454, 461 Hawaii, 34. 60-2, 80-1, 84. 524-6,

610

Hawaiian. 34, 82 Hebrew, 19, 20, 25. 27. 29, 30,

38. 52-3, 454-6. 461, 463-4 Hebrew Alphabet, 25, 27, 461-2 Hejaz, 50. 52 Herero. 35

High German (see German) Hindi. 19. 27, 51. 457. 462, 479-

84 (see Hindustani')

Hindu Religion, 462

Hindustani, 19, 27, 60, 81, 454,

457. 459-60, 462, 482-4 (see

Hindi, Urdu) Hispanic, 27 (see Portuguese,

Spanish)

Hobson-Jobson (see Anglo-In- dian)

Holland (see Dutch, Netherlands) Honduras, 40, 42, 226-7, 609 Honduras, British, 40, 42, 62, 82 Hong Kong, 50-1, 53, 62, 82,

524-6, 609 Hottentot-Bushman, 26, 35, 53,

56-7 (see African Negro) Hungarian (Magyar), 20. 24,

30-1, 38-9, 45-9, 419, 429-31.

436-40 Hungary, 30, 46-7, 63, 122-3, 168,

352, 419-20, 582 Huron, 36 Hyperborean, 26, 36-7, 50, 52,

454-5

Iceland, 609 Icelandic. 21, 25, 38, 46-7, 634,

88-91, 105-9 Ifni, 54, 56, 58-9, 226-7 Illinois, 352 Ilocano, 60 India, 16. 20-1. 25-8. 33-4. 37-8,

50-1. 53. 55, 62, 80-2, 182-3,

268-9, 456-7, 479-487, 609-10 Indo-Aryan, 16, 21, 27-8. 38, 51-3,

457. 479-85 Indo-China, 32, 37. 50-1, 53, 55.

182-3, 456, 493, 507, 524-5 Indo-European, 20-2, 24-8, 33. 36,

38. 50. 53-4, 63, 167, 244, 353,

419-20. 430. 441, 447, 454. 456-

7. 459-60, 479-81, 495 Indo-Germanic, 21 Indo-Iranian, 457 Indonesian, 33. 51-3, 56. 59-61 Interglossa. 580

INDfX

657

Interlingua, 580

Iran, 50, 52-3, 182-3, 456-7, 462 Iranian, 27-8, 46 (see Persian) Iraq, 29, 50, 52-3, 456, 465 Ireland (see Eire, North Ireland) Irish (Erse), 27-8, 46-7, 419, 446-

9

Irish Alphabet, 448-9 Iroquois, 36 Islam, 456 Istria, 47, 352 Italian, 4, 18-20, 25, 27-8, 30,

38-9, 43, 45-9, 55-9, 85-7, 167-

72, 244, 312-50, 352, 420-1, 494,

611

Italian Colonial Empire, 312-3 Italian Dialects, 168, 329-30 Italian East Africa, 312-3 Italian Somaliland (see Somali- land) Italic, 27 (see Latin, Osco-Um«

brian) Italy, 46-7, 122-3, 167-8, 182-3,

312-3, 352, 419, 582 Ivory Coast, 54-5, 58 Jamaica, 40, 42, 82, 609 Japan, 31, 36, 50, 52, 182-3, 455,

524-5, 582, 610 Japanese, 4, 19, 24, 31-3, 35, 37-9,

51-3, 59-61, 454-5, 458, 460.

462, 524-79 Japanese Empire, 524-6 Japanese-Korean, 26, 31-2, 50,

454, 458-60, 524-77 Japanese Mandated Islands, 524-5 Java, 16, 34, 59, 61, 86, 507.

524-5

Javanese, 34, 59, 61, 461 Jews, 21, 25, 27, 456, 461 Judeo-Spanish, 27 Kabyle, 29 Kalmuk, 31, 46, 455 Kamchatka, 351, 455 Karafuto, 50, 52, 455. 524-5

Karelia, 30, 46, 48, 419

Karelian, 31, 46

Kashub, 351-2

Kenya, 54, 56-8, 62, 82, 610

Khmer, 459-60 (see Mon-Khmer)

Kirghiz, 31, 46, 52

Kiska, 524

Korea, 31, 50, 52-3, 458, 524-5

Korean, 32, 52, 60. 454, 458-60,

506

Kuban Valley, 351 Kuo-yii, 51, 458, 492-503 (see

Chinese, Mandarin) Kurdish, 27, 52-3 Kushitic, 29, 53, 55-7 Kuwait, 52, 55, 62 Kwang-cho-wan, 55, 182-3 Kwang-Tung (see Canton) Labourdin, 453 Labrador, 40, 609 Labuan, 60, 610 Ladin, 27, 168 (see Rhetian,

Rumansh)

Ladino, 27, 461 (see Judeo-Span- ish, Sephardic)

Landsmal, 88 (see Norwegian) Lapp, 31, 46-8. 429-30 Latin, 18, 20, 22, 27, 63, 167,

169-71, 175, 179, 421, 428, 582 Latin America, 36, 83, 182-4,

226-7, 244-6, 268-9, 286-90 Latvia, 46-7, 63, 122-3, 376-7, 420

(see Lettish) Laz, 455

Lebanon, 50, 52. 182-3 Leeward Islands, 40, 42, 82, 609 Lesghian, 37, 455 Lettish, 27-8, 46-7, 420, 443-5

(see Latvia)

Liberia, 54. 56-8, 62. 610 Libya, 29. 54, 56-8, 167, 312-3.

456, 465

Libyco-Berber, 29 Liechtenstein, 45-6

658

INDEX

Ligurian, 46, 168, 329 Lithuania, 46-7, 63, 122-3, 376-7,

420, 443-5 Lithuanian, 27-8, 38, 46-7, 352.

420, 443-5 Livonian, 429-31 Logudorese (see Sardinian) Lombard, 46, 168, 329 London, 66 Lorrain, 168

Low German (see German) Lusatian (see Wend) Luxembourg, 46-7, 122-3, 182-3 Macassar, 59 Macau, 52, 55, 268-9 Macedonia, 352 Madagascar, 29, 34, 54, 56-8,

182-3, 458 (see Malagasy) Madeira, 59, 268-9 Madras, 457 Madura, 59, 61 Madurese, 59 Magyar (see Hungarian) Malagasy, 56 (see Madagascar) Malay (Malayan), 16, 34, 38-9,

51, 53, 79, 82, 86, 454, 458-61,

504 507-22 Malaya, 32, 34, 50-1, 53, 62, 82-3,

268-9, 456, 458-9, 493, 507,

524-5, 609, 610 (see Straits

Settlements)

Malay-Portuguese Pidgin, 268-9 Malayalam, 34, 458, 462, 485 Malayo-Polynesian, 26, 34, 50, 54.

59-61, 76, 83, 454. 458-60 Malmedy, 122-3 Malta, 29, 62, 312-3, 609 Manchu, 31, 52, 455 Manchukuo (Manchuria), 30-2,

52-3, 455, 524-5 Mandarin, North, 487, 492 (see

Kuo-yii) Mandingo, 35 Mangalore, 83, 268-9

Manx (Isle of Man), 27, 446, 448 Maori, 34, 60, 76 (see New Zea- land)

Marathi, 27, 81, 457 Marianas, 60-1, 122-3, 524-5 Marshall Islands, 31, 35, 60-1,

122-3, 524-5

Martinique, 40, 42, 182-4 Masai, 35

Massachusetts, 268-9 Mauritius, 83, 182 Mayan, 36, 489 Mediterranean, 312-3, 582 Melanesian, 34, 59-61 Melanesian Pidgin, 84 Melinde, 268-9 " Mexico, 40-2, 167, 182-4, 226-7,

246, 583, 609 Miao, 492 Michigan, 352 Micronesian, 34, 60-1 Middle Western (U. S.), 65, 244 Midlands, 66 Min (Fukien),51, 489 Minanghabau, 59 Mingrelian, 455 Mixtec, 36 Moabite, 29 Mombasa, 268-9 Monaco, 45-6 Mongol 31, 52, 455 Mongolia, 30, 50-1, 53, 55, 455 Mon-Khmer, 26, 37, 50-2, 454-5,

459-60

Moravia, 352 (see Czechoslovakia) Mordvinian, 31, 429 Moro, 461 Morocco, 29, 54, 56-8, 182-3, 456,

465

Morocco, Spanish, 54, 56-9, 226-7 Mozambique, 54, 56, 58-9, 268-9 Muhammadanism. 19, 30, 53, 80,

456, 461-2, 480, 507 Munda, 16, 26, 37, 50-1, 53, 455

INDEX

659

Mustapha Kemal Ataturk, 462

Nagari (see Devanagari)

Nanking, 524-5

Natal, 57

Neapolitan, 46, 168, 329

Negro-English, 83

Nepal, 50-2, 82

Netherlands (Holland), 46-7, 63,

117, 123-4, 182-3, 582, 609

(see Dutch) Netherlands East Indies, West

Indies, etc. (see Dutch East I.) Netherlands New Guinea (see New

Guinea)

New Caledonia, 60-1, 182-3, 610 New England, 65, 182-3, 244 Newfoundland, 40, 81, 609 New Guinea, 15, 37, 60-2, 84-5,

122-3, 459, 524-5, 610 New Guinea, Netherlands, 59, 61 New Hebrides, 34, 60-1, 84, 182-3,

524-5

New Mexico, 226-7 New York, 65 New Zealand, 25. 34. 60-3, 76-7,

82, 458, 610 (see Maori) Nicaragua, 40. 42, 226-7 Nice, 312-3 Niger, 54-5, 58, 182 Nigeria, 54, 56, 58-9, 62, 82, 610 Ning-po, 492 Norman, 168, 526 North America, 40-3, 62-4, 81,

122-3, 168, 182-3, 226-7, 268-9,

312-3, 526 (see Western Hem- isphere) Northern Ireland, 46-7, 62, 66,

609 North Mandarin (see Kuo-yii,

Mandarin) Northwest Slavonic, 351 (see

Slavonic) Norway, 30. 46-7. 63-4. 88, 122-3,

609

Norwegian, 46-7, 49, 63-4, 88-91,

98-104, 109 (see Dano-Nor-

wegian) Novial, 580 Nubian, 35, 55 Nysaland, 54, 56-9. 610 Oceania, 59-61, 634, 82, 182-3,

268-9, 524-5, 582, 610 (see

Pacific Islands) Oceania, French, 60, 182-3 Ohio, 65, 352 Ojibwa, 36 Oman, 50, 52 Oneida, 36

Ontario, 40, 79, 182-3, 609 Orange Free State, 57 Oriya, 457 Orissa, 457 Osco-Umbrian, 27 Ostyak, 31, 46, 52 Pacific Islands, 15, 25, 34, 59-62,

82, 83-5, 122-3, 182-3, 458,

493, 507, 524-6, 610 (see

Oceania) Palau, 60, 122-3 Palestine, 29, 30, 50, 52-3, 62.

82, 456, 464, 609 Panama, 40, 42, 226-7 Panjab (Punjab), 457 Panjabi (Punjabi), 27, 51, 457.

462

Papiamento, 83 Papua, 60-1, 610 Papuan, 26, 37, 59-61 (see New

Guinea)

Paraguay, 43-4, 226-7 Paris, 172

Paulista, 287-8 (see Sao Paulo) Peiping, 492, 524-5 Pennsylvania, 352 Permian, 46, 429 Persia (see Iran) Persian, 27, 38-9, 51-3, 440, 454,

660

457, 459-60, 462, 477-8, 480

(see Iranian) Peru, 43-4, 226-7 Petit Negie, 83 Philippines 32-4, 60-2, 82, 83

226-7, 456 459, 461, 507, 524-6,

610

Phoenician, 29, 461, 489 Phoenician Alphabet, 461, 489 Picard, 168 Pidgin Languages, 65, 83-7, 268-9,

459, 499-500

Piedmontese, 46, 168, 329 Pinerolo, 46, 182-3 Poland, 46-7, 63, 122-3, 182-3,

352, 376-7, 582 Polish, 27, 38, 45-7, 49, 351-5.

357-9, 361-8, 370-1, 375, 420,

444

Polish Corridor, 47, 122-3 Polynesian, 34, 59-61, 76 (see

Malayo-Polynesian ) Pondichery, 55, 182-3 Portugal, 46, 48, 167, 182-3, 268-

71, 287-90, 292-3, 299, 582 Portuguese, 4, 18, 20, 25, 27-8,

35-6, 38-9, 43-4, 46, 48-9, 55-9,

60- i, 79, 81, 83-4, 167-72, 244,

268-311, 609 Portuguese Asia, 50, 52 Portuguese Colonial Empire, 167,

268-9

Portuguese Creole, 83, 269 Portuguese Guinea, (see Guinea) Portuguese Pidgin, 83, 269 Portuguese Timor (see Timor) Principe, 268-9 Provengal, 27, 46, 168, 170 Puerto Rico, 40, 42, 62, 81. 226-7,

246, 609 Punic, 29

Punjab, Punjabi (see Pan jab) Pushtu (see Afghan)

Pyrenees, 168, 420, 452-3

Quebec, 40, 79, 182-3, 609

Quechua, 36, 43

Rajasthani, 27, 457

Rajputana, 457r

Rhetian, 27, 168 (see Ladin, Rumansh)

Rhodesia, 54, 56-8, 62, 64, 610

Rio de Janeiro, 287-8

Rio de Oro, 54, 56, 58-9, 226-7

Rio Grande do Sul, 43, 122-3. 287-8, 312-3

Roman Alphabet, 98, 354-5, 357, 366, 369, 371-2

Romanization (Romanized Alpha- bet) , 461-2, 507, 513, 528

Romance Languages, 22-4, 27, 38, 46, 63, 167-350, 3o3-4, 419, 494 (see French, Italian, Por- tuguese, Roumanian, Spanish)

Rome, 330, 354

Roumania, 46, 48, 168, 419

Roumanian, 27, 38, 46-9, 167-80, 352

Ruanda, 35

Rumansh, 27, 46, 48, 168, 170 (see Ladin, Rhaetian)

Russia, ,30-1, 46, 122-3, 168, 182-3, 419, 455-6, 582 (see Soviet Union)

Russian, 4, 19, 20, 22, 24, 27-8, 37-9, 45-9, 52-3, 55, 172, 351-9, 366, 372, 375-418, 420, 443, 455-6 (see Ukrainian, White Russian)

Russian Turkestan, 352

Ruthenian, 351-2 (see Carpatho- Russian)

Sahara, 29, 35, 57, 182-3

Sakhalin (see Karafuto)

Salvador, 40, 42, 226-7

Samoa, 34, 60-1, 82, 85, 122-3, 610

Samoa, West, 60, 182-3

WQEX

661

Samoyed, 31, 52

Sandalwood English, 85

San Marino, 45-6

Sanskrit, 19, 28, 459-60, 462, 480-1, 507

Santo Domingo (see Dominican Republic)

Sao Paulo, 43, 122-3, 287-8, 312-3

Sao Tome, 83, 268-9

Saratov, 122-3

Sarawak, 60-1, 6lO

Sardinia, 27, 168

Sardinian (Campidanese, Logu- dorese), 27, 46, 168

Scandinavian, 4, 20, 25, 28, 38, 63-4, 88-109 (see Danish, Ice- landic, Norwegian, Swedish)

Schleswig, 45-6

Scotland, 66, 420, 446

Scottish Gaelic (see Gaelic)

Semitic, 21, 29, 38-9, 46, 54, 57, 454-6, 459-61, 463-76 (see Arabic, Hebrew)

Semito-Hamitic, 26, 29-30, 50, 57. 455

Senegal, 54-5, 58, 182-3

Senegambia, 83

Sephardic, 27, 461 (see Judeo- Spanish, Ladino)

Serbian, 355-7, 366, 371-2

Serbo-Croatian, 19, 27, 38-9, 45- 9, 351-60, 371-3, 375, 420, 428 (see Croatian, Serbian, Yugo- slavia)

Shanghai, 51, 492, 524-5

Shetland Islands, 66

Shilh, 29

Siam, Siamese (see Thailand, Thai)

Siberia, 36, 351, 376-7, 455 (see Soviet Union in Asia)

Sicilian, 46, 168, 330

Sicily, 419

Sierra Leone, 54, 56-8, 62, 610

Silesia, 46-7

Sinai Peninsula, 57

Singapore, 268-9

Singhalese, 27, 51, 457 (see Ceylon)

Sinkiang (Chinese Turkestan), 32

Sino- Tibetan, 26, 32-3, 50, 53, 454, 459-60, 487-506 (sec Burmese, Chinese, Thai, Tibet- an)

Slavic (Slavonic), 17, 23-4, 27-8, 38, 46, 63, 172, 179, 351-420, 428, 443 (see Bulgarian, Czech, Polish, Russian, Serbo-Croat- ian)

Slavonic, East, 351

Slavonic, Northwest, 351

Slavonic, South, 351

Slovak, 27, 45-7, 49, 351-4, 359, 366 (see Czechoslovakia)

Slovene (Slovenian), 27, 46-9, 351-2, 354, 359, 366 (see Yugoslavia)

Solomon Islands, 34, 60, 84, 122- 3, 524-6, 610

Somali, 29, 55

Somaliland, 29-30

Somaliland, British, 54, 56-8, 62, 610

Somaliland, French, 54, 56-8, 182-3

Somaliland, Italian, 54-5, 57-8, 312-3

Soochow, 492

South Africa, 25, 29, 62-4, 77-9, 582 (see Afrikaans, Boers, Union of So. Afr.)

South America, 36, 42-5, 64. 87, 122-3, 167-8, 182-3, 226-7, 244- 6, 268-9, 312-3, 526, 609 (see Western Hemisphere)

South Slavonic (see Slavonic)

South Tyrol (see Alto Adigc)

662

INDEX

Southern U. S. Dialect, 65, 85 Southwest Africa. 54, 57-9, 62,

122-3, 610

Soviet Union, 37, 376-7 Soviet Union in Asia, 30-1, 50, 53, 55, 351, 376-7, 455-6, 462 (see Siberia, Russian Turk- estan ) Soviet Union in Europe, 46, 48,

351, 376-7 (see Russia) Spain, 36, 46, 4£, 168, 182-3, 226-

7, 244-6, 268-9, 420, 452-3 Spanish, 4, 16, 18-20, 24-8, 36-9, 40, 42-4, 46, 48-9, 56-9, 61, 85, 167-72, 226-66, 269, 274, 420, 452, 459, 461, 493, 609 Spanish- American Phenomena,

244-6 Spanish Colonial Empire, 226-7.

244-6

Spanish Dialects, 244-6 Spanish Guinea (see Guinea) Spanish Morocco (see Morocco) Spanish Pidgin, 83 Straits Settlements, 50-1, 82, 507,

609 (see Malaya) Sudan, Anglo-Egyptian, 54-5, 57-

8, 62, 456, 610 Sudan, French, 54-5, 58, 182-3 Sudanese-Guinean, 26, 35, 50,

54-7

Sudeten, 45-6, 122-3 Sumatra, 16, 34, 59, 61, 507,

524-5

Sudanese, 59, 461 Swahiii, 35, 454, 461 Swatow, 492, 524-5 Swaziland, 54, 56-8, 610 Sweden, 30, 46, 48, 63-4, 122-3,

582, 609 Swedish, 25, 38, 46, 48-9, 64^

88-99, 102-4, 109, 420 Switzerland, 16, 27, 46, 4S-9, 63,

122-3, 167-8, 182-3, 312-3, 582, 609 Syria. 29. 50. 52-3. 55. 182-3, 456,

465

Tagalog, 34, 60 Tagalog-Spanish Pidgin, 83 Tahiti, 34. 61. 85, 182-3 Taiwan (see Formosa) Tamil, 34, 51, 454, 457, 459-60,

462, 485-6

Tamil Alphabet, 461, 485-6 Tanganyika, 54, 56-9. 62, 610 Tasmania, 25, 459 Tatar, 31 Telugu, 33, 51, 454, 457, 459-60,

462, 485, 487 Telugu Alphabet, 461, 485 Texas, 65, 226-7 Thai (Siamese), 33, 38, 51-3, 454,

459-60, 462, 487-8, 504-5 Thailand (Siam), 32, 50, 52-3,

493, 507, 524-5 Tibet, 32, 50-1 Tibetan, 33, 51-2, 458-60, 488,

504-6

Tientsin, 524-5 Tigre, 29, 55 Timor, 59-61, 507 Timor, Portuguese, 268-9, 524-6 Togo (Togoland), 54-5, 58-9, 122-

3, 182-3 Tokyo, 532 Tonga, 60, 610 Tosk. 427 (see Albanian) Transcaucasia, 352 Transjordan, 50, 52-3, 62, 465,

610

Transylvania, 46, 48 Transvaal, 57 Trentino, 46, 168 Tuareg, 29 Tungus, 31, 52, 455 Tunisia, 29, 54, 56-8, 182-3, 312- 3, 456, 465

INQEX

663

Tupi-Guarani, 36, 287, 289 Turkoman, 31, 46, 52, 45S Turkestan, Chinese (Sinkiang),

30, 50-1, 53

Turkestan, Russian, 352 Turkic, 462 (see Altaic, Ural-

Altaic) Turkish, 30-1, 38-9, 51-3, 46-8,

419, 421, 428-31, 436, 440-2,

455, 462 Turkey, 30, 46, 48, 50, 52, 182-3,

419, 456

Tyrol, 27 (see Alto Adige) Udine, 352

Uganda, 54, 56-8, 610 Ukraine, 122-3, 351 Ukrainian, 27, 45-8, 351-6, 359,

366, 376-7

Ulster (see Northern Ireland) Umbundu, 35 Union of South Africa, 54, 56-8,

64, 77-9, 82-3, 610 (see

Afrikaans, Boers, South Africa) United States of America, 36, 40,

62, 65-6, 79, 81, 122-3, 182-4,

226-7, 268-9, 312-3, 352, 492,

583, 609, 610, 611 Ural-Altaic, 26, 30-2, 38, 46, 48,

50-3, 351, 419, 429-42, 454 (see Finnish, Hungarian, Turkish) Uralic, 31 (see Ural-Altaic) Urdu, 19, 27, 51, 457, 461-2, 79-

84 (.see Hindustani) Uruguay, 43-4, 226-7, 583 Uto- Aztec (see Aztec) Uzbeg, 455 Val d'Aosta, 46, 182-3 Valencia, 46, 168 Vannes, 451 Venetia, 352 Venezuela, 43-4. 226-7 Virgin Islands, 40. 42, 64, 81,

600

Vladivostok, 351, 377

Volapiik, 580

Votiak, 31, 46

Wales, 66, 420, 446

Walloon, 168

Welsh, 27, 46-7, 420, .146-8, 450-1

Wenchow, 524-5

Wend (Lusatian), 351-2, 359

Wen-Ii, 491-2

West African Pidgin, 83

West Germanic (see Germanic)

West Indies (see Antilles)

West Samoa (see Samoa)

Western Hemisphere, 25, 35-6, 40-5, 64, 81-2, 122-3, 167, 182- 3, 226-7, 268-9, 312-3, 377, 493, 526, 583, 609 (see Central, North, South, America)

White Russian, 27, 46-8, 351-2, 359, 376-7

Windward Islands, 40, 42, 82, 609

Wu, 51, 492 (see Shanghai)

Wyandot, 36

Yakut, 455

Yang-tze, 492

Yemen, 50, 52

Yczo, 50, 52, 455, 524-5

Yiddish, 25, 27, 47, 352, 461

Yorkshire, 66

Yoruba, 35

Yueh. 492

Yugoslavia, 46, 48, 63, 122-3, 168, 312-3, 352-3, 419. 582 (see Croatian, Serbian, Serbo-Croat- ian, Slovene)

Yukagir, 52

Zanzibar, 29, 268-9

Zapoter, 36

Zara, 47

Zionism, 456

Zulu, 35, 78

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